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the first track " on the album .
On mixed review , Andy Gill of The Independent , while describing Mars ' " impassioned shame " on the lyrics called the track " enjoyable " . The lyrics have not gone undecided for PopMatters ' Matt Cibula who named them a " classic lament " and added " is as widescreen and wide @-@ open as things get these days " . The same could be said for Jason Lipshut who , while writing for Billboard , found Mars ' " recognizing sin while indulging in it " on the " sleek " lyrics and compostion . However , a " throwback vibe ( established from the backing vocals ) remain from Doo @-@ Wops " , while prospecting the earnest from " It Will Rain " . On the other hand , Paste 's Ryan Reed criticized Mars ' for playing safe on " Young Girls " , unlike most of the other tracks on the album . He explained that the singer " steps sideways " and the record " is a ' shout @-@ out @-@ to @-@ the @-@ honeys ' belter " for various reasons .
= = = Accolade = = =
In 2013 , " Young Girls " received an award at the MelOn Music Awards for the category " Best Pop " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Young Girls " was able to chart in the United States on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , which acts as an extension of the Billboard Hot 100 , at number 2 and entered at number 64 on the Canadian Hot 100 on November 24 , 2012 , two weeks after the song was released as a promotional single . Following the release of Unorthodox Jukebox , on December 12 , 2012 , the track re @-@ entered at number 63 on the latter chart , it debuted in France at number 123 , in the United Kingdom at number 141 and the song debuted at the top spot on the South Korea International Singles chart . As of 2016 , it has sold over 431 @,@ 878 copies . In Australia , when the record was scheduled to be the second single from the album , it debuted at number 62 and it made its first appearance at number 27 in the New Zealand charts , peaking at number 23 around the same time .
On November 26 , 2013 , it was released as an official single in Australia . On the following week , it was the most added track to radio stations . Despite that , the highest position the single was able to peak was at number 62 , when the song was set to be released as the second single . Nevertheless , the record was certified dold by the Australian Record Industry Association ( ARIA ) . " Young Girls " reached its highest mark at number 83 in the United Kingdom , after its official release . The track peaked at number 32 on the Hot 100 and stayed there for 14 weeks . In the Mainstream Top 40 the aforementioned song peaked inside the top 10 , at number 9 , something which the previous single was unable to do , thus ending the top 10 streak . It was certified gold on June 26 , 2014 , by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . In Canada , the song peaked at number 19 and Music Canada ( MC ) awarded a gold certification to it , and made the 2013 year end list of the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Live performances and covers = =
" Young Girls " made its debut during a performance on Saturday Night Live on October 2012 . On December 4 , 2012 Mars recorded performance on the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show , aired on CBS . His performance happened during the Calendar Girls . Sam Lansky of Idolator said the performance during the Calendar Girls was " impressive " , despite the singer not being " runway @-@ friendly as RiRi " . On December 7 , 2012 , Mars and his band sung the record on , the German show , " Sat 1 Frühstücksfernsehen " and on December 31 , 2012 at the New Year Alan Carr 's Specstacular . It was performed occasionally on the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) . The song was recorded by Mark Kozelek for his 2013 acoustic cover songs album Like Rats . It was also covered by Chris Jamison and Jonathan Wyndham during their Battle Round in the season 7 of The Voice and was made available for purchase on October 13 , 2014 .
= = Music Video = =
On December 12 , 2012 , it was reported for the first time that " Young Girls " would be the second single , a music video was already in production as of December 6 , 2012 and was set to be directed by Cameron Duddy . Mars addmited to be spending a lot of his time thinking about the processing of the video , saying " It ’ s going to be something I ’ ve never done before , I promise you that " . A day before the performance on Victoria 's Secret show an official audio video of the song was uploaded to YouTube . The official music video was never released .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unorthodox Jukebox
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release = =
= SMS Szent István =
SMS Szent István was a Tegetthoff @-@ class dreadnought of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the only one built in the Hungarian part of Austria @-@ Hungary . The Ganz & Company 's Danubius Yard in Hungarian @-@ owned Fiume ( current @-@ day Rijeka ) was awarded the contract to build the battleship in return for the Hungarian government agreeing to the 1910 and 1911 naval budgets . She was named after Hungary 's first Christian king , Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : Szent István ) . She and her sister ships were regarded as very compact and powerful ships and were the first dreadnoughts in service with triple main @-@ gun turrets .
Her completion was delayed by the start of World War I , but she was commissioned in December 1915 . She spent the bulk of the war at anchor in Pola ( Pula ) , leaving harbour generally only for gunnery training . Her final mission began on the evening of 9 June 1918 when she sailed to rendezvous with the other dreadnoughts for an attack on the Otranto Barrage , scheduled for the following day . Two Italian MAS , a type of motor torpedo boat employed by the Regia Marina , discovered Szent István and her half @-@ sister Tegetthoff early in the morning of 10 June 1918 while returning after a night patrol off the Dalmatian coast . They penetrated past her escorts and torpedoed her twice abreast her boiler rooms . They flooded , which knocked out power to the pumps , and Szent István capsized less than three hours after being torpedoed . All but 89 of her crew were rescued . She is the only battleship whose sinking was filmed during World War I.
Her wreck was discovered in the mid @-@ 1970s , upside down , off the Croatian island of Premuda . She has been declared a protected site by the Croatian Ministry of Culture and casual diving is forbidden .
= = Design = =
Szent István differed from her half @-@ sisters mainly in her machinery . She only had two shafts and two turbines , unlike the four shaft arrangement of the other ships of her class . External differences included a platform built around the fore funnel which extended from the bridge to the after funnel and on which several searchlights were installed . A further distinguishing feature was the modified ventilator trunk in front of the mainmast . She was the only ship of her class not to be fitted with torpedo nets .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Szent István had an overall length of 152 @.@ 18 metres ( 499 ft 3 in ) , a beam of 28 metres ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 6 metres ( 28 ft 3 in ) at deep load . She displaced 20 @,@ 008 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 692 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load . The skeg for each propeller shaft was a solid , blade @-@ like fitting , unlike the strut @-@ type skegs used in her half @-@ sisters , that had such a high transversal resistance that the rudder could only be laid at a maximum angle of 10 ° at full speed to avoid a heavy list . The hull was built with a double bottom 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 ft 0 in ) deep with a reinforced inner bottom that consisted of two layers of 25 @-@ millimetre ( 1 in ) plates .
She was fitted with two AEG @-@ Curtis steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers in two boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 388 kW ) , enough for her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
Szent István mounted twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Twelve 66 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivot mounts on the upper deck , above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried .
The waterline armour belt of the Tegetthoff @-@ class dreadnoughts measured 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) thick between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes and thinned to 150 millimetres further towards the bow and stern , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . It was continued to the bow by a small patch of 110 – 130 @-@ millimetre ( 4 – 5 in ) armour . The upper armour belt had a maximum thickness of 180 millimetres ( 7 in ) , but it thinned to 110 millimeters from the forward barbette all the way to the bow . The casemate armour was also 180 millimetres thick .
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community .
The Church of the Subgenius has held Devivals in multiple states within the continental United States , as well as different countries , including China , the Netherlands , and Germany . The Church has also held Devivals at non @-@ SubGenius events , such as Burning Man and the Starwood Festival .
The Church of the SubGenius has a relationship with the Association for Consciousness Exploration , which hosts the Starwood Festival in Pomeroy , Ohio . Subgenius members have access to discounted tickets for the ACE ’ s annual festival .
= = = X @-@ Day = = =
In early SubGenius literature , July 5 , 1998 , was introduced as a significant date , later becoming known as " X @-@ Day " . The Church held that Dobbs identified the date 's significance in the 1950s , claiming that the world was to experience a massive change on that date when Xists , beings from Planet X , would arrive on Earth . SubGenius leaders declared that their paying members were to be transported onto spaceships for union with goddesses as the world was destroyed , although a few posited that they would be sent to a joyful hell . In anticipation of the event , X @-@ Day " drills " were held in 1996 and 1997 .
In July 1998 , the Church held a large devival at a " clothing @-@ optional " campground in Sherman , New York , attended by about 400 members . The event was ostensibly intended to celebrate the coming of aliens . When their appearance was not detected using the technology available at that time , Stang speculated that they might arrive in 8661 , an inversion of 1998 ; this has been interpreted as a satire of the way that religious groups have revised prophecies after their failures . Some critics have dismissed the event as a prank or form of " performance art " . Steve Bevilacqua , the Church 's business manager , admitted that his group made strange predictions about aliens , but contended that their statements were as believable as the account of Jesus ' walk on water . Another theory is that The Conspiracy has lied about what year the present year actually is ( just as they have lied about everything else ) , so that the liberation date would seem to pass without fulfillment and cause followers to lose faith . As a precaution , SubGenius members continue to gather for X @-@ Day every July 5 after 1998 . At these events , the non @-@ appearance of the aliens is celebrated . Cusack casts the productions as carnivalesque or an echo of ancient Greek satyr plays .
= = Publishing = =
= = = Online = = =
The Church of the SubGenius established a website in May 1993 , and its members were very active on Usenet in the 1990s .
= = = Print = = =
Although it has gained a significant online presence , it was successful before the advent of Internet communities . The Church was a pioneer in the religious use of zines ; Cusack notes that its use of the medium can be seen as a rejection of the alienation of labor practices .
The SubGenius Foundation has published several official teachings , as well as non @-@ doctrinal works by Stang . The Book of the SubGenius , which discusses " Slack " at length , was published by Simon & Schuster and sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first five years in print . Kirby casts the book as a " call to arms for the forces of absurdity " . The juxtaposition , visual style , and content of the book mirror the group as a whole . It draws themes from fiction , as well as established and new religions , parodying a number of topics , including the Church of the SubGenius itself .
A number of SubGenius writers have authored stories to build their mythology , which have been compiled and published . Their core texts are disordered , presented in the style of a collage . Kirby notes that the group 's texts are a bricolage of cultural artifacts , which is then remixed into a new creation . In this process , Kirby argues , they interweave and juxtapose a variety of concepts , which she describes as a " web of references " .
= = = Video = = =
The group has also been promoted by a video Stang produced in 1992 .
= = = Radio = = =
The Church of the SubGenius hosts several radio shows throughout the world , including broadcasters in Atlanta , Ohio , Maryland , and California . The Hour of Slack , the Church ’ s most popular audio production , is broadcast by several radio stations in the United States and two in Canada .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
= = = Comparative religion = = =
The Church 's teachings are often perceived as satirizing Christianity and Scientology , earning them a reputation as a parody religion . Church leaders have stated that Dobbs met L. Ron Hubbard , and SubGenius narratives echo extraterrestrial themes found in Scientology . Cusack notes that descriptions of Jehovah 1 bear noticeable similarities to Xenu , a powerful alien found in some Scientologist writings . The Church 's rhetoric has also been seen as a satirical imitation of the televangelism of the 1980s . Cusack sees the Church 's faux commercialism as culture jamming targeting prosperity theology ; she describes this as " a strikingly original innovation in contemporary religion " . Religious scholar Thomas Alberts of the University of London views the Church as attempting to " subvert the idea of authenticity in religion " by mirroring other religions to create both a sense of similarity and alterity .
Cusack compares the Church of the SubGenius to the Ranters , a radical 17th @-@ century pantheist movement in England . She notes that they made statements that shocked many hearers , attacking traditional notions of religious orthodoxy and political authority . In her view , this demonstrates that the Church of the SubGenius has " legitimate pedigree in the history of Western religion " . The American journalist Michael Muhammad Knight likens the Church to the Moorish Orthodox Church of America , a 20th @-@ century American syncretic religious movement , citing their shared emphasis on freedom .
There are a number of similarities between the Church of the SubGenius and Discordianism . Eris , the goddess of chaos who is worshiped by adherents of the latter , is believed by members of the Church of the SubGenius to be the wife of Jehovah 1 and an ally to humans . Like Discordianism , the Church of the SubGenius rejects absolute truth and embraces contradictions and paradoxes . Religious scholar David Chidester of the University of Cape Town views the Church as a " Discordian offshoot " , and Kirby sees them as " a child of the Discordians " . Both groups were heavily influenced by the writings of Robert Anton Wilson , who is referred to by SubGenius members as " Pope Bob " . Kirby states that the two groups have elements of bricolage and absurdity in common , but the Church of the SubGenius more explicitly remixes pop culture .
= = = Categorization = = =
Scholars often have difficulty defining the Church . Most commentators have placed the Church in the category of " joke religions " , which is usually seen as a pejorative description . Kirby sees this categorization as partially accurate because irony is an essential aspect of their faith . Other terms used to describe the Church include " faux cult " , " [ post @-@ modern ] cult " , " satirical pseudoreligion " , " sophisticated joke religion " , " anti @-@ religion religion " , and " high parody of cultdom " . Members of the Church , however , have consistently maintained that they practice a religion . Stang has described the group as both " satire and a real stupid religion " , and he contends that it is more honest about its nature than are other religions .
Cusack states that the Church " must be accorded the status of a functional equivalent of religion , at the very least , if not ' authentic ' religion " . She sees it as " arguably a legitimate path to liberation " , citing its culture jamming and activism against commercialism . Kirby posits that the Church is a religion masquerading as a joke , rather than the reverse : in her view , it is a spiritual manifestation of a cultural shift toward irony . Alberts believes that there is broad agreement that the Church is fundamentally a different type of group than religions that date to antiquity ; he prefers to use the term " fake religion " to describe the group . He sees it , along with Discordianism , as part of a group of " popular movements that look and feel like religion , but whose apparent excess , irreverence and arbitrariness seem to mock religion " . Knight characterizes the Church as " at once a postmodern spoof of religion and a viable system in its own right " .
= = = Appraisal = = =
Kirby argues that the Church forms a counterpart to Jean Baudrillard 's concept of hyperreality , arguing " they create , rather than consume , popular culture in the practice of their spirituality " . She describes their remixing of popular culture sources as an " explicitly creative process " , maintaining that it prompts the reader to adopt some of the group 's views by forcing " the individual to reconsider normative methods of approaching the content " . She states that the group attempts to " strip references of their original meaning without necessarily losing their status as icons " .
In addition , Kirby sees the Church 's goal as deconstructing " normative modes of thought and behavior " in American culture ; she believes that it attempts to fight culturally ingrained thought patterns by shocking people . She argues that traditional approaches to religion cast seriousness as a measure of devotion , an approach which she believes has failed in contemporary society . She feels that irony is a common value that has been ignored by most religions . By embracing the quality , she maintains , the Church of the SubGenius offers a more accessible worldview than many groups .
Literature scholar Paul Mann of Pomona College is critical of the Church of the SubGenius . He notes that the Church purports to present the truth through absurdity and faults it for insufficiently examining the concept of truth itself . In addition , he believes that the group undermines its attempts to take a radical perspective by their " hysterical , literal , fantastic embrace " of criticism .
Anarchist writer Bob Black , a former member , has criticized the Church , alleging that the group has come to be characterized by conformism and submission to authority . He believes that although it initially served to satirize cults , it later took on some of their aspects . In 1992 , allegations of cult @-@ like behavior also appeared in the newspaper Bedfordshire on Sunday after a spate of SubGenius @-@ themed vandalism struck the English town of Bedford .
= = Publications = =
Books
SubGenius Foundation ( 1987 ) . Book of the SubGenius . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 63810 @-@ 8 .
Ivan Stang ( 1988 ) . High Weirdness by Mail . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 64260 @-@ 0 .
Ivan Stang ( 1990 ) . Three @-@ fisted tales of " Bob " : Short Stories in the SubGenius Mythos . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 67190 @-@ 7 .
Ivan Stang ; SubGenius Foundation ( 1994 ) . Revelation X : the " Bob " Apocryphon : Appointed to be Read in Churches . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 77006 @-@ 8 .
Ivan Stang ( 2006 ) . The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of Slack : The Bobliographon . Running Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56025 @-@ 939 @-@ 8 .
Videos
Stang , Ivan ; Holland , Cordt ; Robins , Hal ( 2006 ) [ 1991 ] . Arise ! : the SubGenius Video ( DVD @-@ R ) . SubGenius Moving Pictures . OCLC 388112825 .
= Epaminondas =
Epaminondas ( / ɪˌpæməˈnɒndəs / ; Greek : Ἐπαμεινώνδας , Epameinondas ; d . 362 BC ) , was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city @-@ state of Thebes , leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics . In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots , a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years , having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC . Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece , fragmented old alliances , created new ones , and supervised the construction of entire cities . He was militarily influential as well , inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics .
The Roman orator Cicero called him " the first man of Greece " , and Montaigne judged him one of the three " worthiest and most excellent men " that had ever lived , but Epaminondas has fallen into relative obscurity in modern times . The changes Epaminondas wrought on the Greek political order did not long outlive him , as the cycle of shifting hegemonies and alliances continued unabated . A mere twenty @-@ seven years after his death , a recalcitrant Thebes was obliterated by Alexander the Great . Thus Epaminondas — who had been praised in his time as an idealist and liberator — is today largely remembered for a decade ( 371 BC to 362 BC ) of campaigning that sapped the strength of the great land powers of Greece and paved the way for the Macedonian conquest .
= = Historical sources = =
The life of Epaminondas is very poorly attested in the ancient sources , especially compared to some of his near contemporaries ( e.g. Philip II of Macedon , Pelopidas ) . One principal reason for this is the loss of Plutarch 's biography of him . Epaminondas was one of approximately 50 ancient figures given an extensive biography by Plutarch in his Parallel Lives , in which he is paired with the Roman statesman Scipio Africanus ; however , both these " Lives " are now lost . Plutarch was writing over 400 years after Epaminondas 's death and is therefore very much a secondary source , but he often explicitly names his sources , which allows some degree of verification of his statements .
Some details of Epaminondas 's life can be found in Plutarch 's " Lives " of Pelopidas and Agesilaus II , who were contemporaries . There is also a surviving ( and possibly abridged ) biography of Epaminondas by the Roman author Cornelius Nepos from the first century BC , in the absence of Plutarch 's , that becomes a major source for Epaminondas 's life .
The period of Greek history from 411 – 362 BC is primarily attested by the historian Xenophon , who evidently saw his work as continuation of Thucydides 's History of the Peloponnesian War . Xenophon , who idolized Sparta and its king , Agesilaus , avoids mentioning Epaminondas wherever possible and does not even note his presence at the Battle of Leuctra . Epaminondas 's role in the conflicts of the 4th century is also described by Diodorus Siculus , in his Bibliotheca historica . Diodorus was writing in the 1st century BC , and is also very much a secondary source , though useful for corroborating details found elsewhere .
= = Early life = =
Epaminondas was born into the Theban aristocracy in the late 5th century BC ; estimates for the year of his birth vary widely . Cornelius Nepos claims that his father , Polymnis , had been left impoverished by his ancestors . He was educated in his childhood by Lysis of Tarentum , one of the last major Pythagorean philosophers . Epaminondas evidently excelled as a student , and was devoted to Lysis . Nepos also tells us that the young Epaminondas worked hard to increase his physical prowess , and specifically his agility , since " he thought that strength suited the purposes of wrestlers , but that agility conduced to excellence in war . " He also trained in running and wrestling , but most of all , he undertook " martial exercises " ( presumably training with weapons ) .
Epaminondas evidently began serving as a soldier after adolescence ; Plutarch refers to an incident involving Epaminondas that occurred during a battle at Mantinea . Though not explicitly stated , this was probably the Spartan attack on Mantinea in 385 BC , as described by Xenophon ; Plutarch tells us that Epaminondas was there as part of a Theban force aiding the Spartans , so this battle fits the description . Epaminondas was certainly not old enough to have served at the First Battle of Mantinea which was in 418 BC .
It was at this battle , regardless of exactly when and where this occurred , that a defining moment of Epaminondas 's early life would happen . Epaminondas saved the life of his fellow Theban Pelopidas ;
Pelopidas , after receiving seven wounds in front , sank down upon a great heap of friends and enemies who lay dead together ; but Epaminondas , although he thought him lifeless , stood forth to defend his body and his arms , and fought desperately , single @-@ handed against many , determined to die rather than leave Pelopidas lying there . And now he too was in a sorry plight , having been wounded in the breast with a spear and in the arm with a sword , when Agesipolis the Spartan king came to his aid from the other wing , and when all hope was lost , saved them both .
Plutarch says that this incident firmly cemented their friendship , and Pelopidas would be Epaminondas 's partner in politics for the next twenty years .
Epaminondas was considered the greatest warrior @-@ statesmen of ancient Thebes by many , including the Roman historian Diodorus Siculus . Diodorus does not have anything to say about the sexual orientation of Epaminondas or the Sacred Band , nor does he say anything about the following account , again from Plutarch ( Amatorius 17 ) . According to Plutarch 's dramatic dialogue , Epaminondas had two male lovers : Asopichus and Caphisodorus , the latter died with him at Mantineia in battle . They were buried together , something usually reserved for a husband and wife in Greek society .
= = Political and military career = =
= = = Background = = =
Epaminondas lived at a particularly turbulent point in Greek history . Following the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC , Sparta had embarked upon an aggressively unilateralist policy towards the rest of Greece and quickly alienated many of its former allies . Thebes , meanwhile , had greatly increased its own power during the war and sought to gain control of the other cities of Boeotia ( the region of ancient Greece northwest of Attica ) . This policy , along with other disputes , brought Thebes into conflict with Sparta . By 395 BC , Thebes , alongside Athens , Corinth , and Argos , found itself arrayed against Sparta ( a former ally ) in the Corinthian War . That war , which dragged on inconclusively for eight years , saw several bloody Theban defeats at Spartan hands . By the time of its conclusion , Thebes had been forced to check its expansionist ambitions and return to its old alliance with Sparta .
In 382 BC , however , the Spartan commander Phoebidas committed an act that would ultimately turn Thebes against Sparta for good and pave the way for Epaminondas 's rise to power . Passing through Boeotia on campaign , Phoebidas took advantage of civil strife within Thebes to secure entrance to the city for his troops . Once inside , he seized the Cadmeia ( the Theban acropolis ) , and forced the anti @-@ Spartan party to flee the city . Epaminondas , although associated with that faction , was allowed to remain ; since " his philosophy made him to be looked down upon as a recluse , and his poverty as impotent " . The Spartans installed a puppet government in Thebes , and garrisoned the Cadmeia to ensure the behaviour of the Thebans .
= = = Early career = = =
= = = = 378 BC – Theban coup = = = =
In the years following the Spartan takeover , the exiled Thebans regrouped in Athens and , at the instigation of Pelopidas , prepared to liberate their city . Meanwhile , in Thebes , Epaminondas began preparing the young men of the city to fight the Spartans . In the winter of 379 BC , a small group of the exiles , led by Pelopidas , infiltrated the city . They then assassinated the leaders of the pro @-@ Spartan government , and supported by Epaminondas and Gorgidas , who led a group of young men , and a force of Athenian hoplites , they surrounded the Spartans on the Cadmeia . The following day , Epaminondas and Gorgidas brought Pelopidas and his men before the Theban assembly and exhorted the Thebans to fight for their freedom ; the assembly responded by acclaiming Pelopidas and his men as liberators . The Cadmeia was surrounded , and the Spartans attacked ; Pelopidas realised that they must be expelled before an army came from Sparta to relieve them . The Spartan garrison eventually surrendered on the condition that they were allowed to march away unharmed . The narrow margin of the conspirators ' success is demonstrated by the fact that the Spartan garrison met a Spartan force on the way to rescue them as they marched back to Sparta . Plutarch portrays the Theban coup as an immensely significant event :
... the subsequent change in the political situation made this exploit the more glorious . For the war which broke down the pretensions of Sparta and put an end to her supremacy by land and sea , began from that night , in which people , not by surprising any fort or castle or citadel , but by coming into a private house with eleven others , loosed and broke in pieces , if the truth may be expressed in a metaphor , the fetters of the Lacedaemonian supremacy , which were thought indissoluble and not to be broken .
= = = = 378 – 371 BC – Aftermath = = = =
When news of the uprising at Thebes reached Sparta , an army under Cleombrotus I had been dispatched to subdue the city , but turned back without engaging the Thebans . Another army under Agesilaus II was then dispatched to attack the Thebans . However , the Thebans refused to meet the Spartan army in battle , instead building a trench and stockade outside Thebes , which they occupied , preventing the Spartans advancing on the city . The Spartans ravaged the countryside but eventually departed , leaving Thebes independent . This victory so heartened the Thebans that they undertook operations against other neighboring cities as well . In short order the Thebans were able to reconstitute their old Boeotian confederacy in a new , democratic form . The cities of Boeotia united as a federation with an executive body composed of seven generals , or Boeotarchs , elected from seven districts throughout Boeotia . This political fusion was so successful that henceforth the names Theban and Boeotian were used interchangeably in a nod to the newfound solidarity of the region .
Seeking to crush the Thebans , the Spartans would invade Boeotia three times over the next few years ( 378 , 377 , ? possibly Leuctra ) . At first the Thebans feared facing the Spartans head on , but the conflict gave them much practice and training , and they " had their spirits roused and their bodies thoroughly inured to hardships , and gained experience and courage from their constant struggles " . Although Sparta remained the dominant land power in Greece , the Boeotians had demonstrated that they , too , were a martial threat and a politically cohesive power . At the same time , Pelopidas , an advocate of an aggressive policy against Sparta , had established himself as a major political leader in Thebes .
Epaminondas 's role in the years to 371 BC is difficult to piece together . Certainly , he served with the Theban armies in the defence of Boeotia in the 370s , and , by 371 BC , he had become a Boeotarch . It seems safe to assume , given their close friendship , and their close collaboration after 371 BC , that Epaminondas and Pelopidas also collaborated closely on Theban policy in the period 378 – 371 BC .
= = = = Peace conference of 371 BC = = = =
The years following the Theban coup had seen desultory fighting between Sparta and Thebes , with Athens also drawn into the conflict . A feeble attempt at a common peace had been made in 375 BC , but desultory fighting between Athens and Sparta had resumed by 373 BC ( at the latest ) . By 371 BC , Athens and Sparta were again war @-@ weary , and in 371 BC a conference was held at Sparta to discuss another attempt at a common peace .
Epaminondas was serving as a Boeotarch for 371 BC , and led the Boeotian delegation to the peace conference . Peace terms were agreed at the outset of the conference , and the Thebans presumably signed the treaty in their own name alone . However , on the following day , Epaminondas caused a drastic break with Sparta when he insisted on signing not for the Thebans alone , but for all the Boeotians . Agesilaus refused to allow the change of the Theban envoys ' signature , insisting that the cities of Boeotia should be independent ; Epaminondas countered that if this were to be the case , the cities of Laconia should be as well . Irate , Agesilaus struck the Thebans from the document . The delegation returned to Thebes , and both sides mobilized for war .
= = = = Battle of Leuctra ( 371 BC ) = = = =
Immediately following the failure of the peace talks , orders were sent out from Sparta to the Spartan king Cleombrotus , who was at the head of an army in Phocis , commanding him to march directly to Boeotia . Skirting north to avoid mountain passes where the Boeotians were prepared to ambush him , Cleombrotus entered Boeotian territory from an unexpected direction and quickly seized a fort and captured 10 or 12 triremes . Then marching towards Thebes , he camped at Leuctra , in the territory of Thespiae . Here , the Boeotian army came to meet him . The Spartan army contained some 10 @,@ 000 hoplites , 700 of whom were the elite warriors known as Spartiates . The Boeotians opposite them numbered about 6 @,@ 000 , but were bolstered by a cavalry superior to that of the Peloponnesians .
Epaminondas was given charge of the Boeotian army , with the other six Boeotarchs in an advisory capacity . Pelopidas , meanwhile , was captain of the Sacred Band , the elite Theban troops . Before the battle , there was evidently much debate amongst the Boeotarchs about whether to fight or not . As a consistent advocate of an aggressive policy , Epaminondas wished to fight , and supported by Pelopidas , he managed to swing the vote in favour of battle . During the course of the battle , Epaminondas was to display a grasp of tactics hitherto unseen in Greek warfare .
The phalanx formation used by Greek armies had a distinct tendency to veer to the right during battle , " because fear makes each man do his best to shelter his unarmed side with the shield of the man next him on the right " . Traditionally , a phalanx therefore lined up for battle with the elite troops on the right flank to counter this tendency . Thus , in the Spartan phalanx at Leuctra , Cleombrotus and the elite ' Spartiates ' were on the right , while the less experienced Peloponnesian allies were on the left . However , needing to counter the Spartans ' numerical advantage , Epaminondas implemented two tactical innovations . Firstly , he took the best troops in the army , and arranged them 50 ranks deep ( as opposed to the normal 8 – 12 ranks ) on the left wing , opposite Cleombrotus and the Spartans , with Pelopidas and the Sacred Band on the extreme left flank . Secondly , recognizing , that he could not have matched the width of the Peloponnesian phalanx ( even before the deepening the left flank ) , he abandoned all attempts to do so . Instead , placing the weaker troops on the right flank , he " instructed them to avoid battle and withdraw gradually during the enemy 's attack " . The tactic of the deep phalanx had been anticipated by Pagondas , another Theban general , who used a 25 man deep formation at the Battle of Delium . However , the reversing of the position of the elite troops , and an oblique line of attack were innovations ; it seems that Epaminondas was therefore responsible for the military tactic of refusing one 's flank .
The fighting at Leuctra opened with a clash between the cavalry , in which the Thebans were victorious over the inferior Spartan cavalry , driving them back into the ranks of the infantry , and thereby disrupting the phalanx . The battle then became general , with the strengthened Theban left flank marching to attack at double speed , while the right flank retreated . After intense fighting , the Spartan right flank began to give way under the impetus of the mass of Thebans , and Cleombrotus was killed . Although the Spartans held on for long enough to rescue the body of the king , their line was soon broken by the sheer force of the Theban assault . The Peloponnesian allies on the left wing , seeing the Spartans put to flight , also broke and ran , and the entire army retreated in disarray . One thousand Peloponnesians were killed , while the Boeotians lost only 300 men . Most importantly , since it constituted a significant proportion of the entire Spartan manpower , 400 of the 700 Spartiates present were killed , a loss that posed a serious threat to Sparta 's future war @-@ making abilities . When , after the battle , the Spartans asked if they and the Peloponnesians could collect the dead , Epaminondas suspected that the Spartans would try to cover @-@ up the scale of their losses . He therefore allowed the Peloponnesians to remove their dead first , so that those remaining would be shown to be Spartiates , and emphasise the scale of the Theban victory .
The victory at Leuctra shook the foundations of the Spartan dominance of Greece to the core . Since the number of Spartiates was always relatively small , Sparta had relied on her allies in order to field substantial armies . However , with the defeat at Leuctra , the Peloponnesian allies were less inclined to bow to Spartan demands . Furthermore , with the loss of men at Leuctra and other battles , the Spartans were not in a strong position to reassert their dominance over their erstwhile allies .
= = = Theban hegemony = = =
In the immediate aftermath of Leuctra , the Thebans considered following up their victory by taking their vengeance on Sparta ; they also invited Athens to join them in doing so . However , their Thessalian allies under Jason of Pherae dissuaded them from shattering what remained of the Spartan army . Instead , Epaminondas occupied himself with consolidating the Boeotian confederacy , compelling the previously Spartan @-@ aligned polis of Orchomenus to join the league .
The following year the Thebans invaded the Peloponnesus , aiming to break Spartan power for good . It is not clear exactly when the Thebans started to think not just of ending the Spartan hegemony , but of replacing it with one of their own , but it is clear that eventually this became their aim . Hans Beck asserts that , unlike Sparta in the Peloponnesian League and Athens in the Delian League , Thebes made no effort either to create an empire or to bind its allies in any sort of permanent and stable organization . Indeed , after Leuctra Thebes devoted its attention to diplomatic efforts in Central Greece rather than schemes of domination further afield . By late 370 Thebes ' network of alliances in central Greece made her secure in the area — as she had not been before Leuctra — and offered scope for further expansion of Theban influence .
= = = = First Invasion of the Peloponnese ( 370 BC ) = = = =
When , in the immediate aftermath of Leuctra , the Thebans had sent a herald to Athens with news of their victory , the messenger was met with stony silence . The Athenians then decided to take advantage of the Spartan discomfiture , holding a conference in Athens , in which the peace terms proposed earlier in 371 BC were ratified by all cities ( except Elis ) ; and this time , the treaty explicitly made the Peloponnesian cities , formerly under Spartan dominance , independent . Taking advantage of this , the Mantineans decided to unify their settlements into a single city , and to fortify it ; a decision which greatly angered Agesilaus . Furthermore , Tegea , supported by Mantinea , instigated the formation of an Arcadian alliance . This led to the Spartans declaring war on Mantinea , whereupon the majority of Arcadian cities grouped together to oppose the Spartans ( thus forming the confederation that the Spartans were trying to prevent ) , and requested assistance from the Thebans . The Theban force arrived late in 370 BC , and it was led by Epaminondas and Pelopidas , both at this time Boeotarchs . As they journeyed into Arcadia , the Thebans were joined by armed contingents from many of Sparta 's former allies , swelling their forces to some 50 – 70 @,@ 000 men . In Arcadia Epaminondas encouraged the Arcadians to form their proposed league , and to build the new city of Megalopolis ( as a center of power opposed to Sparta ) .
Epaminondas , supported by Pelopidas and the Arcadians , then persuaded the other Boeotarchs to invade Laconia itself . Moving south , they crossed the Evrotas River , the frontier of Sparta , which no hostile army had breached in memory . The Spartans , unwilling to engage the massive army in battle , simply defended their city , which the Thebans did not attempt to capture . The Thebans and their allies ravaged Laconia , down to the port of Gythium , freeing some of the Lacedaemonian perioeci from their allegiance to Sparta . Epaminondas briefly returned to Arcadia , before marching south again , this time to Messenia , a region which the Spartans had conquered some 200 years before . Epaminondas freed the helots of Messenia , and rebuilt the ancient city of Messene on Mount Ithome , with fortifications that were among the strongest in Greece . He then issued a call to Messenian exiles all over Greece to return and rebuild their
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homeland . The loss of Messenia was particularly damaging to the Spartans , since the territory comprised one @-@ third of Sparta 's territory and contained half of their helot population . The helots ' labor allowed the Spartans to become a " full @-@ time " army .
Epaminondas ' campaign of 370 / 369 has been described as an example of " the grand strategy of indirect approach " , which was aimed at severing " the economic roots of her [ Sparta 's ] military supremacy . " In mere months , Epaminondas had created two new enemy states that opposed Sparta , shaken the foundations of Sparta 's economy , and all but devastated Sparta 's prestige . This accomplished , he led his army back home , victorious .
= = = = Trial = = = =
In order to accomplish all that he wished in the Peloponnesus , Epaminondas had persuaded his fellow Boeotarchs to remain in the field for several months after their term of office had expired . Upon his return home , Epaminondas was therefore greeted not with a hero 's welcome but with a trial arranged by his political enemies . According to Cornelius Nepos , in his defense Epaminondas merely requested that , if he be executed , the inscription regarding the verdict read :
Epaminondas was punished by the Thebans with death , because he obliged them to overthrow the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra , whom , before he was general , none of the Boeotians durst look upon in the field , and because he not only , by one battle , rescued Thebes from destruction , but also secured liberty for all Greece , and brought the power of both people to such a condition , that the Thebans attacked Sparta , and the Lacedaemonians were content if they could save their lives ; nor did he cease to prosecute the war , till , after settling Messene , he shut up Sparta with a close siege .
The jury broke into laughter , the charges were dropped , and Epaminondas was re @-@ elected as Boeotarch for the next year .
= = = = Second invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 369 BC ) = = = =
In 369 BC the Argives , Eleans and the Arcadians , eager to continue their war against Sparta , recalled the Thebans to their support . Epaminondas , at the height of his prestige , again commanded an allied invasion force . Arriving at the Isthmus of Corinth , the Thebans found it heavily guarded by the Spartans and Athenians ( along with the Corinthians , Megarans and Pellenians ) . Epaminondas decided to attack the weakest spot , guarded by the Lacedaemonians ; in a dawn attack he forced his way through the Spartan position , and joined his Peloponnesian allies . The Thebans thus won an easy victory and crossed the Isthmus . Diodorus stresses that this was " a feat no whit inferior to his former mighty deeds " .
However , the rest of the expedition achieved little : Sicyon and Pellene became allied to Thebes , and the countryside of Troezen and Epidaurus was ravaged , but the cities could not be taken . After an abortive attack on Corinth and the arrival of a task force sent by Dionysius of Syracuse to aid Sparta , the Thebans decided to march home .
= = = = Thessaly ( 368 BC ) = = = =
When Epaminondas returned to Thebes , he continued to be dogged by his political enemies who prosecuted him for the second time . They actually succeeded in excluding him from the office of Boeotarch for the year 368 BC . This was the only time from the Battle of Leuctra until his death that he did not serve as Boeotarch . In 368 , the Theban army marched into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas and Ismenias , who had been imprisoned by Alexander of Pherae while serving as ambassadors . The Theban force not only failed to overcome Alexander and his allies , but got into serious difficulties , when it tried to withdraw ; Epaminondas , serving as a private soldier , succeeded in extricating it . In early 367 , Epaminondas led a second Theban expedition to free Pelopidas , and Ismenias . He finally outmaneuvered the Thessalians , and secured the release of the two Theban ambassadors without a fight .
= = = = Third invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 367 BC ) = = = =
In the spring of 367 BC , Epaminondas again invaded the Peloponnesus . This time an Argive army captured part of the Isthmus on Epaminondas 's request , allowing the Theban army to enter the Peloponnesus unhindered . On this occasion , Epaminondas marched to Achaea , seeking to secure their allegiance to Thebes . No army dared to challenge him in the field , and the Achaean oligarchies therefore acquiesced to the request that they be allied to Thebes . Epaminondas ' acceptance of the Achaean oligarchies roused protests by both the Arcadians and his political rivals , and his settlement was thus shortly reversed : democracies were set up , and the oligarchs exiled . These democratic governments were short @-@ lived , since the pro @-@ Spartan aristocrats from all the cities banded together and attacked each city in turn , re @-@ establishing the oligarchies . According to G.L. Cawkwell , " the sequel perhaps showed the good sense of Epaminondas . When these exiles recovered the cities , they ' no longer took a middle course ' . " In the light of their treatment by Thebes , they abandoned their previously neutral stance , and thereafter " fought zealously in support of the Lacedaemonians " .
= = = = Resistance to Thebes = = = =
In 366 / 365 BC an attempt was made to make a common peace , with the Persian King Artaxerxes II as arbiter and guarantor . Thebes organized a conference to have the terms of the peace accepted , but their diplomatic initiative failed : the negotiations could not resolve the hostility between Thebes and other states that resented its influence ( such as the Arcadian leader Lycomedes who challenged the right of the Thebans to hold the congress in Thebes ) ; the peace was never fully accepted , and fighting soon resumed .
Throughout the decade after the Battle of Leuctra , numerous former allies of Thebes defected to the Spartan alliance or even to alliances with other hostile states . By the middle of the next decade , even some Arcadians ( whose league Epaminondas had helped establish in 369 BC ) had turned against them . At the same time , however , Epaminondas managed through a series of diplomatic efforts to dismantle the Peloponnesian league : the remaining members of the league finally abandoned Sparta ( in 365 Corinth , Epidaurus , and Phlius made peace with Thebes and Argos ) , and Messenia remained independent and firmly loyal to Thebes .
Boeotian armies campaigned across Greece as opponents rose up on all sides ; Epaminondas even led his state in a challenge to Athens at sea . The Theban demos voted him a fleet of a hundred triremes to win over the Rhodes , Chios , and Byzantium . The fleet finally sailed in 364 , but modern scholars believe that Epaminondas achieved no lasting gains for Thebes on this voyage . In that same year , Pelopidas was killed while campaigning against Alexander of Pherae in Thessaly . His loss deprived Epaminondas of his greatest Theban political ally .
= = = = Fourth invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 362 BC ) = = = =
In the face of this increasing opposition to Theban dominance , Epaminondas launched his final expedition into the Peloponnese in 362 BC . The immediate goal of the expedition was to subdue Mantinea , which had been opposing Theban influence in the region . Epaminondas brought an army drawn from Boeotia , Thessaly and Euboea . He was joined by Tegea , which was the center of local opposition to Mantinea , Argos , Messenia , and some of the Arcadians . Mantinea , on the other hand , had requested assistance from Sparta , Athens , Achaea and the rest of Arcadia , so that almost all of Greece was represented on one side or the other .
This time the mere presence of the Theban army was not enough to cow the opposition . Since time was passing and the Mantinean alliance showed no signs of capsizing , Epaminondas decided that he would have to break the stalemate . Hearing that a large Lacedaemonian force was marching to Mantinea , and that Sparta was practically undefended , he planned an audacious night @-@ time march on Sparta itself . However , the Spartan king Archidamus was alerted to this move by an informant , probably a Cretan runner , and Epaminondas arrived to find the city well @-@ defended . Although he did attack the city , he seems to have drawn off relatively quickly on discovering that he had not , after all , surprised the Spartans . Furthermore , the Lacedaemonian and Mantinean troops which had been stationed at Mantinea had marched to Sparta during the course of the day , and dissuaded Epaminondas from attacking again . Now hoping that his adversaries had left Mantinea defenseless in their haste to protect Sparta , Epaminondas counter marched his troops back to his base at Tegea , and then dispatched his cavalry to Mantinea . However , a clash outside the walls of Mantinea with Athenian cavalry foiled this strategy as well . Realising that the time allotted for the campaign was drawing to a close , and reasoning that if he departed without defeating the enemies of Tegea , Theban influence in the Peloponnesus would be destroyed , he decided to stake everything on a pitched battle .
What followed on the plain in front of Mantinea was the largest hoplite battle in Greek history . Epaminondas had the larger army , 30 @,@ 000 strong infantry and 3 @,@ 000 cavalry , whilst his opponents numbered 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry . Xenophon says that , having decided to fight , Epaminondas arranged the army into battle order , and then marched it in a column parallel to the Mantinean lines , so that it appeared that the army was marching elsewhere , and would not fight that day . Having reached a certain point in the march , he then had the army down arms , so it appeared they getting ready to camp . Xenophon suggests that " by so doing he caused among most of the enemy a relaxation of their mental readiness for fighting , and likewise a relaxation of their readiness as regards their array for battle " . The whole column , which had been marching right @-@ to @-@ left past the front of the Mantinean army then ' right @-@ faced ' , so that they were now in a battle line , facing the Mantineans . Epaminondas , who had been at the head of the column ( now the left wing ) , brought some companies of infantry from the extreme right wing , behind the battle line , to reinforce the left wing . By this , he recreated the strengthened left @-@ wing that the Thebes had fielded at Leuctra ( this time probably made up by all the Boeotians , and not just the Thebans as at Leuctra ) . On the wings he placed strong forces of cavalry strengthened by light @-@ infantry .
Epaminondas then gave the order to advance , catching the enemy off guard , and causing a furious scramble in the Mantinean camp to prepare for battle . The battle unfolded as Epaminondas had planned . The cavalry forces on the wings drove back the Athenian and Mantinean cavalry opposite them . Diodorus says that the Athenian cavalry on the Mantinean right wing , although not inferior in quality , could not withstand the missiles from the light @-@ troops that Epaminondas had placed among the Theban cavalry . Meanwhile , the Theban infantry advanced . Xenophon evocatively describes Epaminondas 's thinking : " [ he ] led forward his army prow on , like a trireme , believing that if he could strike and cut through anywhere , he would destroy the entire army of his adversaries . " As at Leuctra , the weakened right wing was ordered to hold back and avoid fighting . In the clash of infantry , the issue briefly hung in the balance , but then the Theban left @-@ wing broke through the Spartan line , and the entire enemy phalanx was put to flight . However , at the height of the battle , Epaminondas was mortally wounded by a Spartan , and died shortly thereafter . Following his death , the Thebes and allies made no effort to pursue the fleeing enemy ; a testament to Epaminondas 's centrality to the war effort .
Xenophon , who ends his history with the battle of Mantinea , says of the battle 's results :
When these things had taken place , the opposite of what all men believed would happen was brought to pass . For since well @-@ nigh all the people of Greece had come together and formed themselves in opposing lines , there was no one who did not suppose that if a battle were fought , those who proved victorious would be the rulers and those who were defeated would be their subjects ; but the deity so ordered it that both parties set up a trophy as though victorious and neither tried to hinder those who set them up , that both gave back the dead under a truce as though victorious , and both received back their dead under a truce as though defeated , and that while each party claimed to be victorious , neither was found to be any better off , as regards either additional territory , or city , or sway , than before the battle took place ; but there was even more confusion and disorder in Greece after the battle than before .
= = Death = =
While pressing forward with the troops at Mantinea , Epaminondas was hit in the chest by a spear ( or , in some accounts , a sword or large knife ) . Cornelius Nepos suggests the Spartans were deliberately aiming at Epaminondas in the hope of killing him , and thereby demoralizing the Thebans . The enemy who struck the killing blow was variously identified as Anticrates , Machaerion , or Gryllus , son of Xenophon .
The spear broke , leaving the iron point in his body , and Epaminondas collapsed . The Thebans around him fought desperately to stop the Spartans taking possession of his body . When he was carried back to camp still living , he asked which side was victorious . When he was told that the Boeotians had won , he said " It is time to die . " Diodorus suggests that one of his friends exclaimed " You die childless , Epaminondas " and then burst into tears . To this Epaminondas is supposed to have replied " No , by Zeus , on the contrary I leave behind two daughters , Leuctra and Mantinea , my victories . " Cornelius Nepos , whose story is otherwise similar has the last words of Epaminondas as " I have lived long enough ; for I die unconquered . " When the spear point was withdrawn , Epaminondas quickly expired . In accordance with Greek custom , he was buried on the battlefield .
= = Assessments = =
= = = Character = = =
In matters of character , Epaminondas was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians who recorded his deeds . Contemporaries praised him for disdaining material wealth , sharing what he had with his friends , and refusing bribes . One of the last heirs of the Pythagorean tradition , he appears to have lived a simple and ascetic lifestyle even when his leadership had raised him to a position at the head of all Greece . Cornelius Nepos notes his incorruptibility , describing his rejection of a Persian ambassador who came to him with a bribe . These aspects of his character contributed greatly to his renown after his death .
Epaminondas never married and as such was subject to criticism from countrymen who believed he was duty @-@ bound to provide the country with the benefit of sons as great as himself . In response , Epaminondas said that his victory at Leuctra was a daughter destined to live forever . He is known , however , to have had several young male lovers , a standard pedagogic practice in ancient Greece , and one that Thebes in particular was famous for ; Plutarch records that the Theban lawgivers instituted the practice " to temper the manners and characters of the youth . " An anecdote told by Cornelius Nepos indicates that Epaminondas was intimate with a young man by the name of Micythus . Plutarch also mentions two of his beloveds ( eromenoi ) : Asopichus , who fought together with him at the battle of Leuctra , where he greatly distinguished himself ; and Caphisodorus , who fell with Epaminondas at Mantineia and was buried by his side .
= = = Military record = = =
Extant biographies of Epaminondas universally describe him as one of the most talented generals ever produced by the Greek city @-@ states . Even Xenophon , who fails to note his presence at Leuctra , says of his Mantinean campaign : " Now I for my part could not say that his campaign proved fortunate ; yet of all possible deeds of forethought and daring the man seems to me to have left not one undone . " Diodorus is effusive in his praise for Epaminondas 's military record :
" For it seems to me that he surpassed his contemporaries ... in skill and experience in the art of war . For among the generation of Epaminondas were famous men : Pelopidas the Theban , Timotheus and Conon , also Chabrias and Iphicrates ... Agesilaus the Spartan , who belonged to a slightly older generation . Still earlier than these , in the times of the Medes and Persians , there were Solon , Themistocles , Miltiades , and Cimon , Myronides , and Pericles and certain others in Athens , and in Sicily Gelon , son of Deinomenes , and still others . All the same , if you should compare the qualities of these with the generalship and reputation of Epaminondas , you would find the qualities possessed by Epaminondas far superior " .
As a tactician , Epaminondas stands above every other general in Greek history ( unless the Macedonian kings Philip II and Alexander the Great are included ) , although modern historians have questioned his larger strategic vision . According to Richard A. Gabriel , his tactics " marked the beginning of the end of traditional Greek methods of war " . His innovative strategy at Leuctra allowed him to defeat the vaunted Spartan phalanx with a smaller force , and his decision to refuse his right flank was the first recorded instance of such a tactic . Many of the tactical innovations that Epaminondas implemented would also be used by Philip of Macedon , who in his youth spent time as a hostage in Thebes and may have learned directly from Epaminondas himself .
= = = Legacy = = =
In some ways Epaminondas dramatically altered the face of Greece during the 10 years in which he was the central figure of Greek politics . By the time of his death , Sparta had been humbled , Messenia freed , and the Peloponnese completely reorganized . In another respect , however , he left behind a Greece no different than that which he had found ; the bitter divides and animosities that had poisoned international relations in Greece for over a century remained as deep as or deeper than they had been before Leuctra . The brutal internecine warfare that had characterized the years from 432 BC onwards continued unabated until all the states involved were subjugated by Macedon .
At Mantinea , Thebes had faced down the combined forces of the greatest states of Greece , but the victory brought it no spoils . With Epaminondas removed from the scene , the Thebans returned to their more traditional defensive policy , and within a few years , Athens had replaced them at the pinnacle of the Greek political system . No Greek state ever again reduced Boeotia to the subjection it had known during the Spartan hegemony , but Theban influence faded quickly in the rest of Greece . Finally , at Chaeronea in 338 BC , the combined forces of Thebes and Athens , driven into each other 's arms for a desperate last stand against Philip of Macedon , were crushingly defeated , and Theban independence was put to an end . Three years later , heartened by a false rumor that Alexander the Great had been assassinated , the Thebans revolted ; Alexander squashed the revolt , then destroyed the city , slaughtering or enslaving all its citizens . A mere 27 years after the death of the man who had made it preeminent throughout Greece , Thebes was wiped from the face of the Earth , its 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year history ended in the space of a few days .
Epaminondas , therefore , is remembered both as a liberator and a destroyer . He was celebrated throughout the ancient Greek and Roman worlds as one of the greatest men of history . Cicero eulogized him as " the first man , in my judgement , of Greece , " and Pausanias records an honorary poem from his tomb :
By my counsels was Sparta shorn of her glory ,
And holy Messene received at last her children .
By the arms of Thebes was Megalopolis encircled with walls ,
And all Greece won independence and freedom .
Epaminondas 's actions were certainly welcomed by the Messenians and others whom he assisted in his campaigns against the Spartans . Those same Spartans , however , had been at the center of resistance to the Persian invasions of the 5th century BC , and their absence was sorely felt at Chaeronea ; the endless warfare in which Epaminondas played a central role weakened the cities of Greece until they could no longer hold their own against their neighbors to the north . As Epaminondas campaigned to secure freedom for the Boeotians and others throughout Greece , he brought closer the day when all of Greece would be subjugated by an invader . Victor Davis Hanson has
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suggested that Epaminondas may have planned for a united Greece composed of regional democratic federations , but even if this assertion is correct , no such plan was ever implemented . Simon Hornblower asserts that Thebes ' great legacy to fourth century and Hellenistic Greece was federalism , " a kind of alternative to imperialism , a way of achieving unity without force " , which " embodies a representative principle " .
For all his noble qualities , Epaminondas was unable to transcend the Greek city @-@ state system , with its endemic rivalry and warfare , and thus left Greece more war @-@ ravaged but no less divided than he found it . Hornblower asserts that " it is a sign of Epaminondas ' political failure , even before the battle of Mantinea , that his Peloponnesian allies fought to reject Sparta rather than because of the positive attractions of Thebes " . On the other hand , Cawkwell concludes that " Epaminondas must be judged not in relation to these inevitable limitations of Boeotian power . To have established the power of Boeotia and ended the Spartan domination of the Peloponnese was the most and the best that a Boeotian could have done . "
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern sources = = =
= José Juan Barea =
José Juan " J.J. " Barea Mora ( born June 26 , 1984 ) is a Puerto Rican professional basketball player for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He played college basketball for Northeastern University before joining the Mavericks in 2006 and becoming just the seventh Puerto Rican to play in the NBA . He went on to win an NBA championship with the Mavericks in 2011 before signing with the Minnesota Timberwolves where he played for the next three seasons . He has also played in the NBA Development League and the Baloncesto Superior Nacional .
Barea was a member of the Puerto Rican national team that won the gold medal in the 2006 and 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games . He was the starting point guard for Puerto Rico when they won the gold medal in the 2011 Pan American Games and the silver medal in the 2007 Pan American Games .
= = Early life = =
Barea was born in the Puerto Rican municipality of Mayagüez in 1984 to parents Marta ( née Mora ) and Jaime Barea . Growing up in Mayagüez , Barea was a member of Boy Scouts of America Troop 790 for seven years .
In 2001 , Barea starting playing basketball for Indios de Mayagüez of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional ( BSN ) . Later that year , he moved to the United States to attend high school at Miami Christian School in Miami , Florida . As a senior in 2001 – 02 , he averaged 20 points , 6 rebounds , 8 assists and 3 steals in helping his team to the state title and a 38 – 2 record . He made a name for himself nationally at the City of Palms event in December 2001 when he was the team 's leading scorer at the event and showcased an accurate shot from three @-@ point range . In April 2002 , he enrolled at Northeastern University .
After enrolling at Northeastern , Barea returned to Puerto Rico where he again joined Indios de Mayagüez for the 2002 BSN season where in 14 games , he averaged 2 @.@ 8 points per game .
= = College career = =
As a freshman at Northeastern in 2002 – 03 , Barea earned third @-@ team All @-@ AEC and AEC All @-@ Rookie team honors after averaging 17 @.@ 0 points , 3 @.@ 0 rebounds , 3 @.@ 9 assists and 1 @.@ 9 steals in 28 games . His 17 @.@ 0 ppg led the America East Conference in scoring and subsequently became the first Husky freshman to record 400 points and 100 assists in a season , and led NU with a team @-@ high 25 double @-@ figure scoring games .
As a sophomore in 2003 – 04 , Barea earned first @-@ team All @-@ AEC honors after he finished second in the conference in scoring ( 20 @.@ 7 ppg ) and assists ( 5 @.@ 8 apg ) , becoming the first Husky since Reggie Lewis in 1986 – 87 to average at least 20 points per game .
As a junior in 2004 – 05 , Barea ranked second in the America East and eighth in the country in scoring ( 22 @.@ 2 ppg ) . He also led the conference and was fifth in the nation in assists ( 7 @.@ 3 apg ) . He subsequently earned first @-@ team All @-@ AEC honors for the second straight year . In addition , he placed third in assists ( 218 ) , fourth in three @-@ pointers ( 68 ) and sixth in points ( 665 ) on Northeastern 's single @-@ season charts , and tied the school record with a career @-@ high 41 points against Stony Brook . He was also named a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award .
As a senior in 2005 – 06 , Barea was named Honorable Mention All @-@ America by The Associated Press , Player of the Year in the CAA , first @-@ team All @-@ CAA , first @-@ team NABC All @-@ District 1 , and Mid @-@ Major Player of the Year by CollegeInsider.com. He finished third in the country in assists ( 8 @.@ 4 apg ) and led Northeastern and finished 19th in the nation in scoring ( 21 @.@ 0 ppg ) . He was again named a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award . He finished his career as the school 's second all @-@ time leading scorer with 2 @,@ 209 points behind Reggie Lewis . He also leaves Northeastern as its second all @-@ time leader in assists with 721 and leader in three @-@ point field goals made ( 255 ) .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = = Post @-@ college = = =
In April 2006 , Barea had a productive participation at the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament in Virginia , finishing with averages of 14 @.@ 0 points , 13 @.@ 7 assists and 5 @.@ 7 rebounds per game in three contests . Barea broke the single @-@ game and single @-@ tournament assist records , dishing out 18 assists for Beach Barton Ford in a 118 – 100 victory over Norfolk Sports Club , giving him 41 assists in three games . For his efforts , Barea received the tournament 's first Allen Iverson A.I. award , given to the player deemed most important to his team .
Following the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament , Barea returned to Puerto Rico and joined Cangrejeros de Santurce for the 2006 BSN season where in 9 games , he averaged 10 @.@ 4 points , 2 @.@ 7 assists and 2 @.@ 8 rebounds per game .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Dallas Mavericks ( 2006 – 2011 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
After going undrafted in the 2006 NBA draft , Barea joined the Golden State Warriors for the 2006 Las Vegas Summer League where in five games , he averaged 6 @.@ 8 points , 1 @.@ 8 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 assists and 2 @.@ 0 steals in 21 @.@ 4 minutes per game . He then joined the Dallas Mavericks for the Rocky Mountain Revue where in three games , he averaged 12 @.@ 0 points , 1 @.@ 7 rebounds and 6 @.@ 7 assists in 25 @.@ 0 minutes per game .
On August 17 , 2006 , Barea signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Dallas Mavericks . On November 4 , 2006 , he made his regular season debut for the Mavericks , recording two points in two and a half minutes of action in a 76 – 107 loss to the Houston Rockets .
On January 17 , 2007 , Barea was assigned to the Fort Worth Flyers of the NBA Development League . On January 29 , he was named the D @-@ League Performer of the Week after he topped 40 points in two different games while leading the Flyers to a 3 @-@ 1 record . On February 1 , 2007 , he was recalled by the Mavericks after he averaged 27 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 0 rebounds , 7 @.@ 8 assists and 1 @.@ 3 steals in eight D @-@ League games .
On April 13 , 2007 , Barea recorded a season @-@ high 16 points in an 89 – 104 loss to the Utah Jazz . Four days later , he started his first career game for the Mavericks as he record 13 points , 10 rebounds and 3 assists in an 82 – 111 loss to the Golden State Warriors . He finished his rookie season with averages of 2 @.@ 4 points , 0 @.@ 5 rebounds , 0 @.@ 8 assists and 0 @.@ 7 steals in 33 regular season games . He also played two playoff games for the Mavericks , scoring 0 points in three and a half total minutes .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
In July 2007 , Barea re @-@ joined the Dallas Mavericks for the 2007 Las Vegas Summer League where in five games , he averaged 16 @.@ 0 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds and 7 @.@ 0 assists in 27 @.@ 6 minutes per game .
On November 3 , 2007 , he recorded a then career @-@ high 25 points in a 123 – 102 win over the Sacramento Kings . He went on to appear in 44 regular season games ( 9 starts ) for the Mavericks in 2007 – 08 while averaging 4 @.@ 3 points , 1 @.@ 1 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists in 10 @.@ 5 minutes per game . He also managed one playoff game where he scored eight points against the New Orleans Hornets .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
On July 9 , 2008 , Barea re @-@ signed with the Dallas Mavericks to a three @-@ year deal . In 2008 – 09 , Barea 's role on the team increased dramatically . Injuries to Jerry Stackhouse , Josh Howard and Jason Terry saw Barea 's minutes per game double as coach Rick Carlisle began regularly using a three @-@ guard lineup which included Jason Kidd , Jason Terry and Barea to spark an offensive streak in games . On February 20 , 2009 , Barea scored a then career high 26 points in an 86 – 93 loss to the Houston Rockets .
In the 2009 playoffs , Barea became a starter during the first round , replacing Antoine Wright in an effort to contain Tony Parker of the San
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affected wicket , Fingleton reached his maiden Test century in only 180 minutes before wickets began falling steadily .
Before the Fourth Test , Fingleton added 52 against Border and 110 in an innings win over Transvaal . His 108 in the Fourth Test was more than South Africa 's entire second innings of 98 , and scored at almost a run a minute . In the Fifth Test , the pair combined for another century stand . Each of the three matches resulted in an innings victory for Australia as the series was taken 4 – 0 . Fingleton ended the Test series with 478 runs at 79 @.@ 66 . Against Natal at Durban , he made his highest first class score of 167 , his second century against the provincial side for the season . He ended the tour with a total of 1192 runs at 74 @.@ 50 , including six centuries . Despite his rapid scoring in South Africa , Fingleton 's achievements went largely unheralded at home ; at the time , England and Australia were by far the strongest Test teams and media coverage of the tour was scant . There was little detail in the reports apart from the scores and Fingleton was still described as a slow scorer , something that angered him .
= = Under the captaincy of Bradman = =
The following 1936 – 37 season in Australia , saw more success for Fingleton , although with the return of Bradman as captain , team harmony became strained . Gubby Allen 's Englishmen toured Australia , and after failing to pass 10 in his first three innings for the season , Fingleton scored 39 , 42 and 56 in matches for New South Wales and an Australian XI against the tourists .
Fingleton became the first player to score centuries in four consecutive Test innings when he scored 100 in the first innings of the First Test at Brisbane , reaching the mileston on 7 December . He top @-@ scored as Australia replied to England 's 358 with 234 . Fingleton 's feats was later equalled by Alan Melville , ( whose four centuries were scored on either side of World War II ) and surpassed by the West Indian , Everton Weekes in 1948 – 49 . Fingleton 's run ended in the second innings , falling for a golden duck as Australia were skittled for 58 on a sticky wicket and crushed by 322 runs .
After scoring 12 in a total of 80 as Australia were caught on a sticky wicket , Fingleton then made 73 in the second innings of the Second Test in Sydney , one of few Australians to resist as the home side fell to an innings defeat after being forced to follow on . Australia were facing a dilemma in the Third Test in Melbourne . The home team scored 200 , Fingleton contributing 38 , before rain caused a sticky wicket and England declared at 9 / 76 . However , Australia still had to bat on the treacherous surface , captain Bradman reshuffled the batting lineup , putting the bowlers in first and Fingleton and himself in at Nos. 6 and 7 to save them for more favourable batting conditions . The bowlers managed to survive to the end of the day 's play and the wicket improved overnight . The pair came together with the score at 5 / 97 and made a Test record sixth @-@ wicket partnership of 346 , with Fingleton making 136 . It turned the Test and saw Australia ended at 564 . The hosts bowled England out for 323 to win the match by 365 runs and prevent England from taking an unassailable 3 – 0 lead . Fingleton did not pass 20 in his last three innings of the series , as Australia won the remaining two matches to win the series . Fingleton ended with 398 runs at 44 @.@ 22 in the Tests , and 631 runs at 33 @.@ 21 overall .
Fingleton followed up with 862 runs at 50 @.@ 70 in the 1937 – 38 domestic season , with two centuries and six fifties . This effort placed him third in the run @-@ scoring aggregates for the season . He saved his best for arch @-@ rivals Victoria , scoring 59 and 160 to salvage a draw after New South Wales had conceded a first innings lead of 231 . New south Wales went on to win the title . Fingleton finished his season with 66 , 1 , 47 and 109 in two warm @-@ up matches for the Australian team against Western Australia before they headed to England for the 1938 Ashes series .
In 1938 , Fingleton made what turned out to be his international farewell as Australia toured England , a series in which he found runs difficult to come by . He later attributed this to his inability to play the pull shot . However , Fingleton started the tour well . He passed 30 in each of his first seven innings on English soil , and converted three of these starts into centuries , scoring 124 against Oxford University , 111 against Cambridge University and 123 not out against Hampshire in the first month of cricket . Fingleton 's form tapered just at the wrong time , falling three times for single figures in the last two matches before the Tests . He carried this into the First Test at Trent Bridge , where he made only 9 and 40 in a high @-@ scoring draw in which every innings passed 400 .
An infamous incident occurred in Australia 's second innings . As Australia were 247 runs behind on the first innings and forced to follow on , they played for a draw and Brown and Fingleton batted slowly in the second innings . Sections of the crowd heckled his slow batting by using a slow hand clap . Bradman then sent Mervyn Waite out to deliver orders to the openers that they should back away from their positions and hold up proceedings until the barracking stopped . Fingleton said that he was not perturbed by the crowd but obeyed ; umpire Frank Chester and England captain Wally Hammond had no issues with this . At one point , Fingleton theatrically decided to take off his gloves , put down his bat and sit down on the pitch and refusing to resume before the gallery quietened , but this only caused a huge uproar . Wisden later criticised him , saying that he lost " all true sense of the situation ... an extraordinary action on the part of a cricket in a Test match . " They regarded the gesture as disrespectful as a majority of the spectators had not heckled him .
Fingleton rediscovered his form between the Tests , scoring 121 against the Gentlemen of England and 96 against Lancashire . Again however , Fingleton was unable to maintain the momentum in the Tests , making 31 and 4 against England in the Second Test at Lord 's , which ended in another draw .
Fingleton then aggregated only 36 in four innings in next three county fixtures , and after the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to persistent rain , he was concussed in the match against Warwickshire at Edgbaston . A long hop from Waite was pulled into his head at point @-@ blank range , and Fingleton managed to duck enough that it glanced his forehead and went into the air , to the cries of " catch it " from Bradman . The ball did not go to hand and Fingleton was hospitalised .
Fingleton made 30 and 9 in a low @-@ scoring Fourth Test at Headingley , which Australia won by five wickets to retain the Ashes . He remained unproductive in the lead @-@ up to the final Test , scoring 51 in three first @-@ class innings . His Test career ended disappointingly at The Oval in " Hutton 's Match " . In the course of England 's marathon innings of 7 / 903 he sustained a leg injury , which prevented him from batting in either Australian innings . With Bradman also unable to bat , Australia collapsed to the heaviest defeat in Test history , by an innings and 579 runs . It capped off a tour that ended poorly after a promising start . Fingleton made 123 runs in six innings at an average of 20 @.@ 50 . With the outbreak of World War II , Australia was not to play another Test until the 1945 – 46 season , ending Fingleton 's international career .
Fingleton returned to Australia and played in only three matches in the 1938 – 39 domestic season , scoring 81 runs at 16 @.@ 20 , before being sidelined at the end of December . His top @-@ score for the season was 45 as New South Wales lost by four wickets to Victoria . In 1939 – 40 , Fingleton had another quiet season with only 39 runs at 6 @.@ 50 in three matches . He passed single figures only once in six innings and ended with a duck and three as New South Wales lost to arch @-@ rivals Victoria by 82 runs . Fingleton retired at the end of the season .
= = World War II = =
After the start of World War II , he enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force in November 1941 in the artillery . He was sent to Warwick Farm , then on the western outskirts of Sydney , for training . A non @-@ conformist known for being forthright , Fingleton did not enjoy military discipline . In May 1942 , he went AWOL from his post at Double Bay on the shores of Sydney Harbour to visit his wife . As a result , he was missing when a Japanese midget submarine launched an attack in the harbour . Soon after , he was deployed to Townsville in northern Queensland in anticipation of a Japanese land invasion , which never materialised . He was then transferred to the Press Relations unit . There he did work in intelligence analysis and censorship .
The military then made him the press secretary for former Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes . From his appointment onwards , he lived and worked in Canberra . Hughes had changed political parties several times and was infamous for his erratic style and the government wanted Fingleton to moderate him . The leader of the United Australia Party , Hughes had particularly worried Prime Minister John Curtin by frequently and publicly excoriating US General Douglas Macarthur , who was commanding the Allied forces in the Pacific . Curtin needed someone to quieten Hughes , as Macarthur had threatened to leave if the denouncements continued . Fingleton spent three months working for the temperamental Hughes and was not successful in curbing his aggressive oratory . He then worked in censorship , deciding which portions of Curtin 's press briefings were reportable ; Fingleton tried to take a liberal line on press freedom . Fingleton also worked for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's Radio Australia while serving in the censorship department .
= = Post @-@ war writing and journalism career = =
After the end of the war , Fingleton divided his time between Canberra , where until his retirement in 1978 he was political correspondent for Radio Australia , and cricket journalism . He forged close relationships with several Prime Ministers . In particular , Sir Robert Menzies , Australia 's longest serving Prime Minister , provided him with a laudatory foreword in his book , Masters of Cricket . Fingleton 's Test coverage resulted in a number of books that placed him at the forefront of Australian cricket writers . The books included Cricket Crisis ( mainly an account of the 1932 – 33 Bodyline series ) , Brightly Fades the Don ( the 1948 Invincibles tour ) , Brown & Company : The Tour in Australia ( the English tour of Australia in 1950 – 51 ) , The Ashes Crown the Year ( the Australian tour of England in 1953 ) , Masters of Cricket , Four Chukkas to Australia ( the English tour of Australia in 1958 – 59 ) , The Greatest Test of All ( the Tied Test of 1960 ) , Fingleton on Cricket and The Immortal Victor Trumper . His final book , the autobiographical Batting From Memory , was to have its Australian launch during the week in which he died of a heart attack . His cricket writing , regarded as one of the most stylish by an Australian , often left a sour taste with observers because of the persistent anti @-@ Bradman jibes .
During his war years , Fingleton decided to take up book writing , in addition to newspaper journalism , and began compiling a book about the Bodyline series during his spare time in the army , a topic that was still deep in the Australian consciousness , using his inside knowledge as a participant in that Ashes campaign . As Fingleton had worked for the government 's censors , he was one of only a few who knew of the effect of the Bodyline controversy in politics , as he had been aware of the cables that had been sent by government officials . Fingleton received advice and encouragement from the eminent British cricket writer Neville Cardus , and suffered a setback when , after finishing half the book , he sent his manuscript to be reviewed . It was lost in the post , and he had forgotten to make a copy . Fingleton finished his book Cricket Crisis in 1946 but it was rejected by the publishers Collins , who had already published a book by Ray Robinson named Between Wickets on the same topic . They were also concerned about the marketability of a book that criticised Bradman — still the dominant player of the time and an idolised figure — strongly . Fingleton then published with Cassell , and the book was widely acclaimed and is still regarded as the best first @-@ hand account of the Bodyline controversy and of the classic cricket books at large . It was well known for its stylish writing and analytical value . Fingleton expressed his views forthrightly and interspersed the account with analyses and profiles of those involved in the Bodyline series , including Bradman , Jardine , Larwood , Warner and McCabe . He criticised Bradman 's unorthodox approach in backing away from the bowling and questioned his aloof attitude towards his teammates . This angered Bradman , who wrote in his 1949 book Farewell to Cricket in reply to Fingleton , claiming that as Fingleton was an inferior batsman , his record gave him " scarcely ... any authority to criticise my methods . " The debate continued on , with replies in subsequent publications citing statistics .
As parliament is usually in recess during the summer months , Fingleton 's political journalism did not often interfere with his cricket radio commentary for the ABC or his cricket writing , except during tours of England in the Australian winter . Fingleton mainly freelanced for overseas newspapers as he regarded Australian editors as being difficult to work with , and because the pay was lower . In 1946 – 47 , England toured Australia for the first full Test series since the war . Fingleton criticised Bradman for not walking after
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gives birth to the original Syaoran and they realize they are in their own past . They raise him until it is time for him to begin the events of the series , then they seal themselves in a glass tube in order to await the time when Fei @-@ Wang will attempt to shatter reality . After breaking free from the tube , Sakura and Syaoran reverse Fei @-@ Wang 's damage to the dimension using the magic they inherited from the sorcerer Clow Reed during their reincarnation . They disappear after Fei @-@ Wang is killed by Kurogane , leaving behind only a feather which the original Sakura and Syaoran absorb .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Besides the manga and anime series from Tsubasa , Sakura also appears in the animated film The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom in which she still travels with Syaoran , Fai , Kurogane and Mokona across dimensions . She is also a playable character in the two Nintendo DS video games from Tsubasa . In the drama CD series , The Matinée of the Palace , the group performs a play that reenacts the series ' story while searching for one of her feathers .
Outside Tsubasa , Sakura makes various appearances in Clamp 's manga xxxHolic , showing some of the events happening in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle . Sakura also appears in later volumes when her soul is separated from her body and sent to the Dream World . There , she meets Yūko 's assistant , a teenager named Kimihiro Watanuki , whom she finds similar to the original Syaoran . One of her feathers – that of her memories of Syaoran – appears in Watanuki 's world and gives the medium Kohane Tsuyuri the ability to exorcise spirits . After Kohane wishes for the removal of her ability , the feather stays with a black Mokona Modoki . Sakura does not appear in the animated adaptions of xxxHolic until the original video animations series xxxHolic Shunmuki , in which she appears in the Dream World talking with Watanuki .
The drama CD series Holitsuba Gakuen features Sakura as one of the students from the fictional school Holitsuba , which includes characters from both Tsubasa and xxxHolic .
= = Creation and conception = =
Similarly to the characters created by Osamu Tezuka and his Star System , Sakura was based on the protagonist of Clamp 's previous manga Cardcaptor Sakura , Sakura Kinomoto , and her relationship with Syaoran Li . Both Sakura and Syaoran 's counterparts from Cardcaptor Sakura had a happy ending ; Clamp said that the Tsubasa protagonists would have to overcome trials throughout the series to get their " own happy ending " . Sakura losing her memories of Syaoran and struggling to once again develop feelings for him is one of the main themes of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , showing the value of relationships throughout the series .
= = = Voice actresses = = =
Sakura is voiced by Yui Makino in the anime adaptation , and by Monica Rial in the English adaptation . Sakura 's character was Makino 's first work as a voice actress and she states she did not have to adjust her voice for that , finding the character similar to her . During the series ' original video animations ( OVAs ) , Makino mentioned that one of Sakura 's scenes was very sad , and worked to make it appealing .
= = Reception = =
Singer Maaya Sakamoto wrote the anime 's insert song " Spica " based on Sakura 's character , describing how she moves forward across the series but still shows weakness at times . Various types of merchandising have also been made based on her appearance , such as plushes and keychains .
Sakura 's character has been well received by publications for manga , anime and other media . While commenting on the series ' protagonists , Ed Sizemore from Comics Worth Reading stated that Sakura had " natural grace and charm " , indicating how she changes as the series continues . Comparing her with her Cardcaptor Sakura counterpart , Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network found Sakura a likeable female lead character based on her personality and how she cares for others . Animefringe writer Lesley Smith commented that Sakura was " becoming a much larger character " the more feathers she recovered , but even so " her relationship with Syaoran can never be the same . " Sakura 's change in the second half of the manga has also received many comments . Carlo Santos of Anime News Network called it a large improvement , as she starts manipulating events in order to obtain what she wants . On the other hand , Mania Entertainment 's Sakura Eries had mixed feelings about this , stating that while it is not surprising she volunteers to get involved in a dangerous task , the outcome was " unbelievable " due to how she ended facing the creatures from Tokyo . Megan Lavey from the same site found Sakura 's death in a later volume unexpected , and the revelation that Sakura was a clone like Syaoran made her feel " cheated " since the two of them were the series ' initial protagonists .
Sakura 's relationship with Syaoran and the way in which she begins caring for him again even without her memories has often been described as one of the series ' strongest points . Carlo Santos stated that the relationship even makes up for the issues in the anime , while Active Anime 's Christopher Seaman found such a romantic relationship one of the most mature developments of the series . IGN 's N.S. Davidson mentioned that the series would still be appealing to those who dislike romance , because of the " haunting " situation of these two characters . Megan Lavey called it a " pretty simple love story " , but liked their personalities though .
Sakura has been popular among readers readers from series , placing second among all the characters in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle in a popularity poll held by Weekly Shōnen Magazine in 2005 right behind the Syaoran clone . She took a lower spot in the following poll behind Fai and the Syaoran clone , but has maintained a high ranking in other related polls from the series . In the Animage 's Anime Grand Prix poll from 2006 , Sakura was voted as the fifth most popular female anime character , and the following year she was seventh . In the Animedia " 2006 Animedia Character Awards " , Sakura ranked highly in several of its categories . The most notable include second place in the categories " Most Beautiful / Loveliest Character Award " and " Most Heroic Character Award " .
= The Boat Race 1998 =
The 144th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1998 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge , with the heaviest crew in the history of the event , won by three lengths in a record time of 16 minutes 19 seconds .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie in a time which equalled the record , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1997 race by two lengths , and led overall with 74 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Oxford boat club president Andrew Lindsay acknowledged the weight difference : " We are quite happy , it presents a challenge . They have got the equivalent of another cox to carry along . " Cambridge 's president David Cassidy ( who would row for Goldie ) was blunt in his assessment : " A powerful car will beat a less powerful car . " Cambridge , coached by Robin Williams , suffered a setback : their number five , Toby Wallace , was ill in the run @-@ in to the race , and did not participate in the outings just prior to the main event . Despite that , The Times reported that the Light Blue boat looked " ominously powerful " .
The race was sponsored for the final time by Beefeater Gin who had invested £ 1 @.@ 4 million in the event over the previous three @-@ year contract period . They would be replaced by Aberdeen Asset Management for the 1999 race .
= = Crews = =
The official weigh @-@ in was held at The Hurlingham Club in London on 23 March . The Cambridge crew , the heaviest in the history of the Boat Race , weighed an average of 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents , the second @-@ largest disparity between the Universities since 1829 . Oxford saw five members of their 1997 crew return , while Cambridge welcomed back two in Brad Crombie and Alex Story . Two German world champions rowed for Cambridge : Stefan Forster and Marc Weber won gold in the men 's eight at the 1995 World Rowing Championships .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourite for the sixth consecutive year . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , only the eighth time such a decision has been made since 1945 . The river conditions were described as " smooth " . Despite holding a brief early lead , a series of blade clashes disrupted Oxford and Cambridge 's cox Potts called for a push which saw his
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, according to Peters . Alexander Woollcott , writing in The New York Times , thought that " John and Lionel Barrymore hold spellbound each breathless audience " , and he commented that Barrymore " contributes to that appeal by every step , every hand , every posture of a body grown unexpectedly eloquent in recent years " . In November , Barrymore began filming Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , playing the dual leading role , and the film was released in theaters the following year . Wid 's Daily thought that " it is the star 's picture from the very outset , and it is the star that makes it " , going on to say that Barrymore 's portrayal was " a thing of fine shadows and violent emotions " . The Washington Post was in agreement , and considered the performance to be " a masterpiece " , and " a remarkable piece of work " . The film was so successful that the US Navy used stills of Barrymore in its recruiting posters .
After planning for over a year – largely in secret – Barrymore played his first Shakespeare part , the title role in Richard III . Conscious of the criticism of his vocal range , he underwent training with Margaret Carrington , the voice and diction trainer , to ensure he sounded right for the part , and the pair worked together daily for up to six hours a day for six weeks . After the debut in March 1920 , the critics were effusive in their praise . The Washington Herald observed that the audience were " held by the sheer power of Barrymore 's performance " , which was " remarkable for ... [ the actor 's ] unexpected vocal richness " , while Woollcott , in The New York Times , thought the performance " marked a measurable advance in the gradual process of bringing [ Barrymore 's ] technical fluency abreast with his winged imagination and his real genius for the theatre " .
Although a commercial and critical success , the play closed after 31 performances when Barrymore collapsed , suffering a nervous breakdown . Since appearing in Redemption he had worked ceaselessly , appearing on stage in the evenings , while planning or rehearsing the next production during the day , and by the time he appeared as Richard , he was spending his daytimes filming Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde . He spent six weeks recuperating under the ministrations of his father 's friend , wrestler William Muldoon , who ran a sanitarium . During the summer of 1920 , Oelrichs became pregnant with Barrymore 's child , and a quick divorce was arranged with her husband , which left her and Barrymore free to marry in August that year ; a daughter , Diana Barrymore , followed in March 1921 . Soon after the birth , he began rehearsals for Clair de Lune , which his wife had adapted from Victor Hugo 's 1869 novel The Man Who Laughs . Barrymore persuaded Ethel to play the role of the Queen – it was the first time the two had appeared on stage together in over a decade . The play was a critical flop , although the presence of the siblings ensured that it ran for over 60 performances .
In 1921 , Barrymore portrayed a wealthy Frenchman in New York in the film The Lotus Eater , with Colleen Moore . In September , Barrymore and Oelrichs went to Europe on holiday ; cracks were appearing in their relationship , and she fell in love with a poet during their extended stay in Venice . In October , Oelrichs returned to New York and Barrymore traveled to London to film the exterior scenes for his latest movie , Sherlock Holmes , in which he played the title role . He then returned to New York to work on the film 's interior scenes in January 1922 . Barrymore became involved in the pre @-@ production work for the film and provided designs for Moriarty 's lair . The film was released later that year and was generally thought " a little dull and ponderous , with too many intertitles " , although James W. Dean of The Evening News of Harrisburg opined that " the personality of Barrymore is the film 's transcendent quality " .
Barrymore decided next to star in Hamlet on stage , with Arthur Hopkins directing . They spent six months preparing , cutting over 1 @,@ 250 lines from the text as they did so , and Barrymore opted to play Hamlet as " a man 's man " , according to Norden . Barrymore later described his Hamlet as a " normal , healthy , lusty young fellow who simply got into a mess that was too thick for him ... he was a great fencer , an athlete , a man who led an active , healthy life . How can you make a sickly half @-@ wit out of a man like that ? " Barrymore again used Carrington as a vocal coach ; rehearsals started in October , and the play opened on November 16 . The production was a box @-@ office success , and the critics were lavish in their praise . Woollcott , writing for the New York Herald , opined that it was " an evening that will be memorable in the history of the American theater " . while John Corbin , the drama critic for The New York Times , agreed , writing that " in all likelihood we have a new and a lasting Hamlet " . The reviewer for Brooklyn Life stated that Barrymore had " doubtless won the right to be called the greatest living American tragedian " . In 1963 , Orson Welles said that Barrymore was the best Hamlet he had seen , describing the character as " not so much princely – he was a man of genius who happened to be a prince , and he was tender , and virile , and witty , and dangerous " .
Barrymore and Hopkins decided to end the run at 101 performances , just breaking the record of one hundred by Edwin Booth , before the play closed in February 1923 . In November and December that year , a three @-@ week run of the play was staged at the Manhattan Opera House , followed by a brief tour that closed at the end of January 1924 .
= = = Films with the major studios : 1924 – 32 = = =
News of Barrymore 's success in Hamlet piqued the interest of Warner Bros. , which signed him as the lead in the 1924 film Beau Brummel . Unhappy in his marriage , Barrymore – aged 40 at the time – sought solace elsewhere and had an affair with his 17 @-@ year @-@ old co @-@ star Mary Astor during filming . Although the film was not an unqualified success , the cast , including Barrymore , was generally praised . Around this time , Barrymore acquired the nickname " the Great Profile " , as posters and photographs of him tended to favor the left @-@ hand side . He later said : " The right side of my face looks like a fried egg . The left side has features that are to be found in almost any normal anthropological specimen , and those are the apples I try to keep on top of the barrel . "
In February 1925 , Barrymore staged Hamlet in London at the Haymarket Theatre , which the Manchester Guardian later said had " the most memorable first night for years " . The reviews were positive , and " although none of the London critics found Barrymore superior to [ Henry ] Irving and [ Johnston ] Forbes @-@ Robertson , many were favorable in their comparisons " . Among the audience members was the 20 @-@ year @-@ old actor John Gielgud , who wrote in his program " Barrymore is romantic in appearance and naturally gifted with grace , looks and a capacity to wear period clothes , which makes his brilliantly intellectual performance classical without being unduly severe , and he has tenderness , remoteness , and neurosis all placed with great delicacy and used with immense effectiveness and admirable judgment " . Looking back in the 1970s , he said : " The handsome middle @-@ aged stars of the Edwardian theatre romanticised the part . Even John Barrymore , whose Hamlet I admired very much , cut the play outrageously so that he could , for instance , play the closet scene all out for sentiment with the emphasis on the ' Oedipus complex ' – sobbing on Gertrude 's bosom . Yet Barrymore ... had a wonderful edge and a demonic sense of humour . "
At the end of this run of Hamlet , Barrymore traveled to Paris , where Oelrichs had stayed during his residence in London , but the reunion was not a happy one and the couple argued frequently . When he returned to America , she remained in Paris , and the couple drew up a separation agreement that provided Oelrichs with $ 18 @,@ 000 a year and stated that neither could sue for divorce on the grounds of adultery . While he had been in London , Warner Bros and Barrymore entered into a contact for three further films at a salary of $ 76 @,@ 250 per picture . He later claimed that his motivation for moving from stage to films was the " lack of repetition — the continual playing of a part , which is so ruinous to an actor , is entirely eliminated " .
Barrymore 's first film under the contract was The Sea Beast ( 1926 ) , loosely based on the 1851 novel Moby @-@ Dick , in which he played Captain Ahab Ceeley . This was one of the biggest money @-@ makers of the year for Warner Bros. Although Barrymore wanted Astor to play the female lead , she was unavailable , and Dolores Costello was cast in her place . He later said that " I fell in love with her instantly . This time I knew I was right " , and the couple began an affair . Costello 's father was angered by the relationship , but his complaints were ignored by both Costello and her mother : Costello 's parents separated and were divorced as a result . The film was well received by critics , and Mordaunt Hall , the film critic of The New York Times , praised the " energy , earnestness and virility " Barrymore displayed in the role of Ceeley .
As filming finished on The Sea Beast , work began on Don Juan , the first feature @-@ length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and a musical soundtrack . Although Barrymore wanted to play opposite Costello again , Jack L. Warner , the film 's producer , signed Astor . After completing his Warner Bros. contract with When a Man Loves , with Costello , Barrymore joined United Artists ( UA ) under a three @-@ film deal . For the next three years , according to Morrison , he " enjoyed unprecedented prosperity and spent lavishly " . Nevertheless , he received some harsh reviews . Critic and essayist Stark Young wrote in The New Republic that Barrymore 's films were " rotten , vulgar , empty , in bad taste , dishonest , noisome with a silly and unwholesome exhibitionism , and odious with a kind of stale and degenerate studio adolescence . Their appeal is cheap , cynical and specious " .
In 1927 , Barrymore planned to revive Hamlet at the Hollywood Bowl , but in August he canceled the production , without explanation , and began filming the third of the UA pictures , Eternal Love , for which he was paid $ 150 @,@ 000 . In February 1928 , Barrymore obtained a quiet divorce from Oelrichs ; she eagerly agreed to the separation , as she was in a relationship with a lawyer , Harrison Tweed , whom she later married . Barrymore and Costello married in November that year ; their daughter , Dolores , was born in April 1930 and a son , John Drew Barrymore , followed in June 1932 . Barrymore purchased and converted an estate in the Hollywood Hills into 16 different buildings with 55 rooms , gardens , skeet ranges , swimming pools , fountains and a totem pole .
By the late 1920s , sound films had become common , following the 1927 sensation , The Jazz Singer . Actors with trained voices were in demand by the studios , and Barrymore was offered a five @-@ film deal with Warner Bros. at $ 150 @,@ 000 per picture , and a share of the profits . Before he began this contract , he played his first speaking role on film : a one @-@ off section in The Show of Shows ( 1929 ) , playing Richard , Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI , Part 3 . His first two films under contract were General Crack and The Man from Blankley 's , each of which were modestly successful . As he had been frustrated at the inability of making The Sea Beast as a sound film , Barrymore returned to Moby Dick as the source for a 1930 film of the same name . Peters thinks little of the film , describing it as " a seesaw between the cosmic and the comic , a travesty of Melville as well as a silly film all on its own " .
The following year , Barrymore played the title role of a manipulative voice coach in Svengali , opposite Marian Marsh . Martin Dickstein , the critic for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle , wrote that Barrymore " registers a personal triumph in the role " , calling his performance " brilliant ... one of the best of his movie career " . Later in 1931 , he played a crippled puppeteer , who tries to fulfill his frustrated ambitions by manipulating the life of a young male ballet dancer and the dancer 's lover ( also Marsh ) in The Mad Genius ; the film was a commercial failure . With disappointing box office returns from their five @-@ film deal , Warner Bros. decided not to offer Barrymore a contract renewal . Instead , Barrymore signed a non @-@ exclusive contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) and took a $ 25 @,@ 000 salary cut per film .
= = = Years of transition : 1932 – 36 = = =
Barrymore 's first film for MGM was the 1933 mystery Arsène Lupin , in which he co @-@ starred with his brother Lionel . In The New York Times , Hall called Barrymore 's performance " admirable " and wrote that " it is a pleasure to see [ him ] again in something in a lighter vein . " The same year , Barrymore starred as jewel thief Baron Felix von Geigern together with Greta Garbo in the 1932 film Grand Hotel , in which Lionel also appeared . Critical opinion of Barrymore 's acting was divided ; John Gilbert 's biographer Eve Golden refers to Barrymore as seeming " more like ... [ Garbo 's ] affectionate father than her lover " , while George Blaisdell of International Photographer praised the dialogue and wrote that a viewer would be " deeply impressed with the rarity in screen drama on which he is looking . " Grand Hotel won the Academy Award for Best Picture and was one of the highest @-@ grossing films of the year . It was later added to the National Film Registry .
In 1932 , Barrymore appeared in three films . For RKO Pictures he played a borderline @-@ alcoholic lawyer in State 's Attorney , before he returned to MGM to play an escaped lunatic in A Bill of Divorcement , opposite Katharine Hepburn in her screen debut . Film scholar Daniel Bernardi later noted the humanism demonstrated between Barrymore 's character and his family , particularly the " close bond " between father and daughter . In his final film of the year , Rasputin and the Empress , Barrymore , Ethel and Lionel co @-@ starred . Physically , Barrymore had deteriorated since filming Svengali , and he had gained weight because of his drinking . Peters notes the " dissipation of the once ascetic face , a dissipation only underlined by the studio 's attempt to reconstruct with lights , filters and make @-@ up a spiritual beauty that had been corrupted . " The film was a critical and commercial failure , and MGM lost significant amounts of money . The New Yorker thought the three Barrymores had produced their worst work .
The year 1933 was a busy one for Barrymore , and his decline began to be evident . He appeared in five films during the year , including as a meek schoolteacher @-@ turned @-@ businessman in Topaze , opposite Myrna Loy , and Dinner at Eight , with Lionel . Peters opines that Barrymore 's portrayal of a washed @-@ up alcoholic actor " could well have fixed ... in the public 's and MGM 's mind that John Barrymore was a drunken has @-@ been . " After the run of films with MGM , the company ended its contact with Barrymore amid its financial woes caused by the Great Depression . He then signed with Universal Studios to portray a troubled Jewish lawyer in Counsellor at Law . During filming he struggled to remember his lines for even small scenes . Filming was stopped on one occasion after more than 25 takes when he struggled to recall the right lines ; it was a problem with which he began to suffer regularly . Despite the problems , Norden believes that this was " one of his best film performances " .
In December 1933 , Barrymore agreed with RKO to film Hamlet . He underwent screen tests and hired Carrington to act as vocal coach again , but during one session , his memory failed him again , and the project was eventually scrapped . Barrymore starred in two films released in 1934 , the drama Long Lost Father and the screwball comedy Twentieth Century . In the latter film , Barrymore played madcap Broadway impresario Oscar Jaffe , a role in which he demonstrated a " rare genius as a comedian " . Morrison writes that the portrayal was one " that many consider to be his finest contribution to film " . In 2011 , the picture was added to the National Film Registry , where it was described as Barrymore 's " last great film role " .
In May 1934 , Barrymore was filming Hat , Coat and Glove for RKO when , during the filming of one scene , he again forgot his lines and even the name of his character . Filming was postponed until the following day , but the result was the same . After he took a break for a few days , he returned to the set , but he still could not remember any of the script , and RKO replaced him with Ricardo Cortez . Soon afterwards , he suffered a mental and physical breakdown and was hospitalized . Costello confirmed that his drinking over the previous two years had worsened , and she described him as a " hopeless alcoholic " . Barrymore 's relationship with Costello was deeply troubled and , believing she was going to declare him mentally incompetent , he left their home in Los Angeles and traveled first to London and then to India . He returned to the US in early 1935 and settled in New York , leaving his wife in Los Angeles . Shortly after his return , he was hospitalized
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Ruth Rundle of Marriages has toured with Buzz Osbourne of the Melvins . Other acts that have been labelled as grunge or are heavily influenced by the music of the grunge era , include Courtney Barnett , Wolf Alice , Yuck , Speedy Ortiz , 2 : 54 , Dilly Dally , Kagoule , and Torres . Ireland 's Turfboy are also associated with the genre .
= = Prominent grunge artists = =
Bands prominently labelled as grunge include :
Seattle area
= Edward Teller =
Edward Teller ( Hungarian : Teller Ede ; January 15 , 1908 – September 9 , 2003 ) was a Hungarian @-@ American theoretical physicist who was born in Hungary , and is known colloquially as " the father of the hydrogen bomb " , although he claimed he did not care for the title . He made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics , spectroscopy ( in particular , the Jahn – Teller and Renner – Teller effects ) and surface physics . His extension of Enrico Fermi 's theory of beta decay , in the form of Gamow – Teller transitions , provided an important stepping stone in its application , while the Jahn – Teller effect and the Brunauer – Emmett – Teller ( BET ) theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry . Teller also made contributions to Thomas – Fermi theory , the precursor of density functional theory , a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules . In 1953 , along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth , Teller co @-@ authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics .
Teller emigrated to the United States in the 1930s , and was an early member of the Manhattan Project , charged with developing the first atomic bomb . During this time he made a serious push to develop the first fusion @-@ based weapons as well , but these were deferred until after World War II . After his controversial testimony in the security clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos Laboratory superior J. Robert Oppenheimer , Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community . He continued to find support from the U.S. government and military research establishment , particularly for his advocacy for nuclear energy development , a strong nuclear arsenal , and a vigorous nuclear testing program . He was a co @-@ founder of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) , and was both its director and associate director for many years .
In his later years , Teller became especially known for his advocacy of controversial technological solutions to both military and civilian problems , including a plan to excavate an artificial harbor in Alaska using thermonuclear explosive in what was called Project Chariot . He was a vigorous advocate of Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative . Throughout his life , Teller was known both for his scientific ability and his difficult interpersonal relations and volatile personality , and is considered one of the inspirations for the character Dr. Strangelove in the 1964 movie of the same name .
= = Early life and work = =
Ede Teller was born on January 15 , 1908 , in Budapest , Hungary ( then part of Austria @-@ Hungary ) , into a Jewish family . His parents were Ilona ( born Deutsch ) , a pianist , and Max Teller , an attorney . Despite being raised in a Jewish family , he later on became an agnostic . " Religion was not an issue in my family " , he later wrote , " indeed , it was never discussed . My only religious training came because the Minta required that all students take classes in their respective religions . My family celebrated one holiday , the Day of Atonement , when we all fasted . Yet my father said prayers for his parents on Saturdays and on all the Jewish holidays . The idea of God that I absorbed was that it would be wonderful if He existed : We needed Him desperately but had not seen Him in many thousands of years . " Like Einstein and Feynman , Teller was a late talker . He developed the ability to speak later than most children but became very interested in numbers , and would calculate large numbers in his head for fun .
Teller left Hungary in 1926 , partly due to the discriminatory numerus clausus rule under Miklós Horthy 's regime . The political climate and revolutions in Hungary during his youth instilled a lingering animosity for both Communism and Fascism in Teller . When he was a young student , his right foot was severed in a streetcar accident in Munich , requiring him to wear a prosthetic foot , and leaving him with a lifelong limp . Werner Heisenberg said that it was the hardiness of Teller 's spirit , rather than stoicism , that allowed him to cope so well with the accident .
Teller graduated in chemical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe , and received his Ph.D. in physics under Werner Heisenberg at the University of Leipzig . Teller 's dissertation dealt with one of the first accurate quantum mechanical treatments of the hydrogen molecular ion . In 1930 he befriended Russian physicists George Gamow and Lev Landau . Teller 's lifelong friendship with a Czech physicist , George Placzek , was also very important for his scientific and philosophical development . It was Placzek who arranged a summer stay in Rome with Enrico Fermi in 1932 , thus orienting Teller 's scientific career in nuclear physics .
In 1930 , Teller moved to the University of Göttingen , then one of the world 's great centers of physics due to the presence of Max Born and James Franck , but after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 , Germany became unsafe for Jewish people , and he left through the aid of the International Rescue Committee . He went briefly to England , and moved for a year to Copenhagen , where he worked under Niels Bohr . In February 1934 , he married his long @-@ time girlfriend Augusta Maria " Mici " ( pronounced " Mitzi " ) Harkanyi , the sister of a friend . He returned to England in September 1934 .
Mici had been a student in Pittsburgh , and wanted to return to the United States . Her chance came in 1935 , when , thanks to George Gamow , Teller was invited to the United States to become a Professor of Physics at George Washington University , where he worked with Gamow until 1941 . At George Washington University in 1937 , Teller predicted the Jahn – Teller effect , which distorts molecules in certain situations ; this affects the chemical reactions of metals , and in particular the coloration of certain metallic dyes . Teller and Hermann Arthur Jahn analyzed it as a piece of purely mathematical physics . In collaboration with Brunauer and Emmet , Teller also made an important contribution to surface physics and chemistry : the so @-@ called Brunauer – Emmett – Teller ( BET ) isotherm . Teller and Mici became naturalized citizens of the United States on March 6 , 1941 .
When World War II began , Teller wanted to contribute to the war effort . On the advice of the well @-@ known Caltech aerodynamicist and fellow Hungarian émigré Theodore von Kármán , Teller collaborated with his friend Hans Bethe in developing a theory of shock @-@ wave propagation . In later years , their explanation of the behavior of the gas behind such a wave proved valuable to scientists who were studying missile re @-@ entry .
= = Manhattan Project = =
= = = Los Alamos Laboratory = = =
In 1942 , Teller was invited to be part of Robert Oppenheimer 's summer planning seminar , at the University of California , Berkeley for the origins of the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to develop the first nuclear weapons . A few weeks earlier , Teller had been meeting with his friend and colleague Enrico Fermi about the prospects of atomic warfare , and Fermi had nonchalantly suggested that perhaps a weapon based on nuclear fission could be used to set off an even larger nuclear fusion reaction . Even though he initially explained to Fermi why he thought the idea would not work , Teller was fascinated by the possibility and was quickly bored with the idea of " just " an atomic bomb even though this was not yet anywhere near completion . At the Berkeley session , Teller diverted discussion from the fission weapon to the possibility of a fusion weapon — what he called the " Super " , an early concept of what was later to be known as a hydrogen bomb .
Arthur Compton , the chairman of the University of Chicago physics department , coordinated the uranium research of Columbia University , Princeton University , the University of Chicago , and the University of California , Berkeley . To remove disagreement and duplication , Compton transferred the scientists to the Metallurgical Laboratory at Chicago . Teller was left behind at first , because while he and Mici were now American citizens , they still had relatives in enemy countries . In early 1943 , the Los Alamos laboratory was established in Los Alamos , New Mexico to design an atomic bomb , with Oppenheimer as its director . Teller moved there in March 1943 . Apparently , Teller managed to annoy his neighbors there by playing the piano late in the night .
Teller became part of the Theoretical ( T ) Division . He was given a secret identity of Ed Tilden . He was irked at being passed over as its head ; the job was instead given to Hans Bethe . Oppenheimer had him investigate unusual approaches to building fission weapons , such as autocatalysis , in which the efficiency of the bomb would increase as the nuclear chain reaction progressed , but proved to be impractical . He also investigated using uranium hydride instead of uranium metal , but its efficiency turned out to be " negligible or less " . He continued to push his ideas for a fusion weapon even though it had been put on a low priority during the war ( as the creation of a fission weapon proved to be difficult enough ) . On a visit to New York , he asked Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer to carry out calculations on the Super for him . She confirmed Teller 's own results : the Super was not going to work .
A special group was established under Teller in March 1944 to investigate the mathematics of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . It too ran into difficulties . Because of his interest in the Super , Teller did not work as hard on the implosion calculations as Bethe wanted . These too were originally low @-@ priority tasks , but the discovery of spontaneous fission in plutonium by Emilio Segrè 's gave it increased importance . In June 1944 , at Bethe 's request , Oppenheimer moved Teller out of T Division , and placed him in charge of a special group responsible for the Super , reporting directly to Oppenheimer . He was replaced by Rudolf Peierls from the British Mission , who in turn brought in Klaus Fuchs , who was later revealed to be a Soviet spy . Teller 's Super group became part of Fermi 's F Division when he joined the Los Alamos Laboratory in September 1944 . It included Stanislaw Ulam , Jane Roberg , Geoffrey Chew , Harold and Mary Argo , and Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer .
Teller made valuable contributions to bomb research , especially in the elucidation of the implosion mechanism . He was the first to propose the solid pit design that was eventually successful . This design became known as a " Christy pit " , after the physicist Robert F. Christy who made the pit a reality . Teller was one of the few scientists to actually watch ( with eye protection ) the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 , rather than follow orders to lie on the ground with backs turned . He later said that the atomic flash " was as if I had pulled open the curtain in a dark room and broad daylight streamed in . "
= = = Decision to drop the bombs = = =
In the days , before and after the first demonstration of a nuclear weapon , the Trinity test in July 1945 , his fellow Hungarian Leo Szilard circulated the Szilard petition , which argued that a demonstration to the Japanese of the new weapon should occur prior to actual use on Japan , and with that hopefully the weapons would never be used on people . In response to Szilard 's petition , Teller consulted his friend Robert J. Oppenheimer . Teller believed that Oppenheimer was a natural leader and could help him with such a formidable political problem . Oppenheimer reassured Teller that the nation 's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington . Bolstered by Oppenheimer 's influence , he decided to not sign the petition .
Teller therefore penned a letter in response to Szilard that read :
... I am not really convinced of your objections . I
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do not feel that there is any chance to outlaw any one weapon . If we have a slim chance of survival , it lies in the possibility to get rid of wars . The more decisive a weapon is the more surely it will be used in any real conflict and no agreements will help .
Our only hope is in getting the facts of our results before the people . This might help to convince everybody that the next war would be fatal . For this purpose actual combat @-@ use might even be the best thing .
On reflection on this letter years later when he was writing his memoirs , Teller wrote :
First , Szilard was right . As scientists who worked on producing the bomb , we bore a special responsibility . Second , Oppenheimer was right . We did not know enough about the political situation to have a valid opinion . Third , what we should have done but failed to do was to work out the technical changes required for demonstrating the bomb [ very high ] over Tokyo and submit that information to President Truman .
Unknown to Teller at the time , four of his colleagues were solicited by the then secret May to June 1945 Interim Committee . It is this organization which ultimately decided on how the new weapons should initially be used . The committee 's four @-@ member Scientific Panel was led by Oppenheimer , and concluded immediate military use on Japan was the best option :
The opinions of our scientific colleagues on the initial use of these weapons are not unanimous : they range from the proposal of a purely technical demonstration to that of the military application best designed to induce surrender ... Others emphasize the opportunity of saving American lives by immediate military use ... We find ourselves closer to these latter views ; we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use .
Teller later learned of Oppenheimer 's solicitation and his role in the Interim Committee 's decision to drop the bombs , having secretly endorsed an immediate military use of the new weapons . This was contrary to the impression that Teller had received when he had personally asked Oppenheimer about the Szilard petition : that the nation 's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington . Following Teller 's discovery of this , his relationship with his advisor began to deteriorate .
In 1990 , the historian Barton Bernstein argued that it is an " unconvincing claim " by Teller that he was a " covert dissenter " to the use of the weapon . In his 2001 Memoirs , Teller claims that he did lobby Oppenheimer , but that Oppenheimer had convinced him that he should take no action and that the scientists should leave military questions in the hands of the military ; Teller claims he was not aware that Oppenheimer and other scientists were being consulted as to the actual use of the weapon and implies that Oppenheimer was being hypocritical .
= = Hydrogen bomb = =
Despite an offer from Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as the director of Los Alamos in November 1945 , to become the head of the Theoretical ( T ) Division , Teller left Los Alamos on February 1 , 1946 , to return to the University of Chicago as a professor and close associate of Fermi and Goeppert @-@ Mayer . Mayer 's work on the internal structure of the elements would earn her the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 .
On April 18 – 20 , 1946 , Teller participated in a conference at Los Alamos to review the wartime work on the Super . The properties of thermonuclear fuels such as deuterium and the possible design of a hydrogen bomb were discussed . It was concluded that Teller 's assessment of a hydrogen bomb had been too favourable , and that both the quantity of deuterium needed , as well as the radiation losses during deuterium burning , would shed doubt on its workability . Addition of expensive tritium to the thermonuclear mixture would likely lower its ignition temperature , but even so , nobody knew at that time how much tritium would be needed , and whether even tritium addition would encourage heat propagation .
At the end of the conference , in spite of opposition by some members such as Robert Serber , Teller submitted an optimistic report in which he said that a hydrogen bomb was feasible , and that further work should be encouraged on its development . Fuchs also participated in this conference , and transmitted this information to Moscow . With John von Neumann , he contributed an idea of using implosion to ignite the Super . The model of Teller 's " classical Super " was so uncertain that Oppenheimer would later say that he wished the Russians were building their own hydrogen bomb based on that design , so that it would almost certainly retard their progress on it .
By 1949 , Soviet @-@ backed governments had already begun seizing control throughout Eastern Europe , forming such puppet states as the Hungarian People 's Republic in Teller 's homeland of Hungary , where much of his family still lived , on August 20 , 1949 . Following the Soviet Union 's first test detonation of an atomic bomb on August 29 , 1949 , President Harry Truman announced a crash development program for a hydrogen bomb .
Teller returned to Los Alamos in 1950 to work on the project . He insisted on involving more theorists. but many of Teller 's prominent colleagues , like Fermi and Oppenheimer , were sure that the project of the H @-@ bomb was technically infeasible and politically undesirable . None of the available designs were yet workable . However Soviet scientists who had worked on their own hydrogen bomb have claimed that they developed it independently .
In 1950 , calculations by the Polish mathematician Stanislaw Ulam and his collaborator Cornelius Everett , along with confirmations by Fermi , had shown that not only was Teller 's earlier estimate of the quantity of tritium needed for the H @-@ bomb a low one , but that even with higher amounts of tritium , the energy loss in the fusion process would be too great to enable the fusion reaction to propagate . However , in 1951 Teller and Ulam made a breakthrough , and invented a new design , proposed in a classified March 1951 paper , On Heterocatalytic Detonations I : Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors , for a practical megaton @-@ range H @-@ bomb . The exact contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the Teller – Ulam design is not definitively known in the public domain , and the exact contributions of each and how the final idea was arrived upon has been a point of dispute in both public and classified discussions since the early 1950s .
In an interview with Scientific American from 1999 , Teller told the reporter :
I contributed ; Ulam did not . I 'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way . Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach . He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and had difficulty getting people to listen to . He was willing to sign a paper . When it then came to defending that paper and really putting work into it , he refused . He said , " I don 't believe in it . "
The issue is controversial . Bethe considered Teller 's contribution to the invention of the H @-@ bomb a true innovation as early as 1952 , and referred to his work as a " stroke of genius " in 1954 . In both cases , however , Bethe emphasized Teller 's role as a way of stressing that the development of the H @-@ bomb could not have been hastened by additional support or funding , and Teller greatly disagreed with Bethe 's assessment . Other scientists ( antagonistic to Teller , such as J. Carson Mark ) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the assistance of Ulam and others . Ulam himself claimed that Teller only produced a " more generalized " version of Ulam 's original design .
The breakthrough — the details of which are still classified — was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons , and to use the X @-@ rays produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel ( by process known as " radiation implosion " ) before igniting it . Ulam 's idea seems to have been to use mechanical shock from the primary to encourage fusion in the secondary , while Teller quickly realized that X @-@ rays from the primary would do the job much more symmetrically . Some members of the laboratory ( J. Carson Mark in particular ) later expressed the opinion that the idea to use the x @-@ rays would have eventually occurred to anyone working on the physical processes involved , and that the obvious reason why Teller thought of it right away was because he was already working on the " Greenhouse " tests for the spring of 1951 , in which the effect of x @-@ rays from a fission bomb on a mixture of deuterium and tritium was going to be investigated .
Whatever the actual components of the so @-@ called Teller – Ulam design and the respective contributions of those who worked on it , after it was proposed it was immediately seen by the scientists working on the project as the answer which had been so long sought . Those who previously had doubted whether a fission @-@ fusion bomb would be feasible at all were converted into believing that it was only a matter of time before both the USA and the USSR had developed multi @-@ megaton weapons . Even Oppenheimer , who was originally opposed to the project , called the idea " technically sweet . "
Though he had helped to come up with the design and had been a long @-@ time proponent of the concept , Teller was not chosen to head the development project ( his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this ) . In 1952 he left Los Alamos and joined the newly established Livermore branch of the University of California Radiation Laboratory , which had been created largely through his urging . After the detonation of Ivy Mike , the first thermonuclear weapon to utilize the Teller – Ulam configuration , on November 1 , 1952 , Teller became known in the press as the " father of the hydrogen bomb . " Teller himself refrained from attending the test — he claimed not to feel welcome at the Pacific Proving Grounds — and instead saw its results on a seismograph in the basement of a hall in Berkeley .
There was an opinion that by analyzing the fallout from this test , the Soviets ( led in their H @-@ bomb work by Andrei Sakharov ) could have deciphered the new American design . However , this was later denied by the Soviet bomb researchers . Because of official secrecy , little information about the bomb 's development was released by the government , and press reports often attributed the entire weapon 's design and development to Teller and his new Livermore Laboratory ( when it was actually developed by Los Alamos ) .
Many of Teller 's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in , and in response , with encouragement from Enrico Fermi , Teller authored an article titled " The Work of Many People , " which appeared in Science magazine in February 1955 , emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon 's development . He would later write in his memoirs that he had told a " white lie " in the 1955 article in order to " soothe ruffled feelings " , and claimed full credit for the invention .
Teller was known for getting engrossed in projects which were theoretically interesting but practically unfeasible ( the classic " Super " was one such project . ) About his work on the hydrogen bomb , Bethe said :
Nobody will blame Teller because the calculations of 1946 were wrong , especially because adequate computing machines were not available at Los Alamos . But he was blamed at Los Alamos for leading the laboratory , and indeed the whole country , into an adventurous programme on the basis of calculations , which he himself must have known to have been very incomplete .
During the Manhattan Project , Teller advocated the development of a bomb using uranium hydride , which many of his fellow theorists said would be unlikely to work . At Livermore , Teller continued work on the hydride bomb , and the result was a dud . Ulam once wrote to a colleague about an idea he had shared with Teller : " Edward is full of enthusiasm about these possibilities ; this is perhaps an indication they will not work . " Fermi once said that Teller was the only monomaniac he knew who had several manias .
Carey Sublette of Nuclear Weapon Archive argues that Ulam came up with the radiation implosion compression design of thermonuclear weapons , but that on the other hand Teller has gotten little credit for being the first to propose fusion boosting in 1945 , which is essential for miniaturization and reliability and is used in all of today 's nuclear weapons .
= = Oppenheimer controversy = =
Teller became controversial in 1954 when he testified against Oppenheimer at Oppenheimer 's security clearance hearing . Teller had clashed with Oppenheimer many times at Los Alamos over issues relating both to fission and fusion research , and during Oppenheimer 's trial he was the only member of the scientific community to state that Oppenheimer should not be granted security clearance . Asked at the hearing by Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) attorney Roger Robb whether he was planning " to suggest that Dr. Oppenheimer is disloyal to the United States " , Teller replied that :
" I do not want to suggest anything of the kind . I know Oppenheimer as an intellectually most alert and a very complicated person , and I think it would be presumptuous and wrong on my part if I would try in any way to analyze his motives . But I have always assumed , and I now assume that he is loyal to the United States . I believe this , and I shall believe it until I see very conclusive proof to the opposite . "
He was immediately asked whether he believed that Oppenheimer was a " security risk " , to which he testified :
In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act — I understood that Dr. Oppenheimer acted — in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand . I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated . To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better , and therefore trust more . In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands .
Teller also testified that Oppenheimer 's opinion about the thermonuclear program seemed to be based more on the scientific feasibility of the weapon than anything else . He additionally testified that Oppenheimer 's direction of Los Alamos was " a very outstanding achievement " both as a scientist and an administrator , lauding his " very quick mind " and that he made " just a most wonderful and excellent director . "
After this , however , he detailed ways in which he felt that Oppenheimer had hindered his efforts towards an active thermonuclear development program , and at length criticized Oppenheimer 's decisions not to invest more work onto the question at different points in his career , saying :
If it is a question of wisdom and judgment , as demonstrated by actions since 1945 , then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance .
By recasting a difference of judgment over the merits of the early work on the hydrogen bomb project into a matter of a security risk , Teller effectively damned Oppenheimer in a field where security was necessarily of paramount concern . Teller 's testimony thereby rendered Oppenheimer vulnerable to charges by a Congressional aide that he was a Soviet spy , which resulted in the destruction of Oppenheimer 's career .
Oppenheimer 's security clearance was revoked after the hearings . Most of Teller 's former colleagues disapproved of his testimony and he was ostracized by much of the scientific community . After the fact , Teller consistently denied that he was intending to damn Oppenheimer , and even claimed that he was attempting to exonerate him . Documentary evidence has suggested that this was likely not the case , however . Six days before the testimony , Teller met with an AEC liaison officer and suggested " deepening the charges " in his testimony .
Teller always insisted that his testimony had not significantly harmed Oppenheimer . In 2002 , Teller contended that Oppenheimer was " not destroyed " by the security hearing but " no longer asked to assist in policy matters . " He claimed his words were an overreaction , because he had only just learned of Oppenheimer 's failure to immediately report an approach by Haakon Chevalier , who had approached Oppenheimer to help the Russians . Teller said that , in hindsight , he would have responded differently .
Historian Richard Rhodes said that in his opinion it was already a foregone conclusion that Oppenheimer would have his security clearance revoked by then AEC chairman Lewis Strauss , regardless of Teller 's testimony . However , as Teller 's testimony was the most damning , he was singled out and blamed for the hearing 's ruling , losing friends due to it , such as Robert Christy , who refused to shake his hand in one infamous incident . This was emblematic of his later treatment which resulted in his being forced into the role of an outcast of the physics community , thus leaving him little choice but to align himself with industrialists .
= = US Government work and political advocacy = =
After the Oppenheimer controversy , Teller became ostracized by much of the scientific community , but was still quite welcome in the government and military science circles . Along with his traditional advocacy for nuclear energy development , a strong nuclear arsenal , and a vigorous nuclear testing program , he had helped to develop nuclear reactor safety standards as the chair of the Reactor Safeguard Committee of the AEC in the late 1940s , and in the late 1950s headed an effort at General Atomics which designed research reactors in which a nuclear meltdown would be impossible . The TRIGA ( Training , Research , Isotopes , General Atomic ) has been built and used in hundreds of hospitals and universities worldwide for medical isotope production and research .
Teller promoted increased defense spending to counter the perceived Soviet missile threat . He was a signatory to the 1958 report by the military sub @-@ panel of the Rockefeller Brothers funded Special Studies Project , which called for a $ 3 billion annual increase in America 's military budget .
In 1956 he attended the Project Nobska anti @-@ submarine warfare conference , where discussion ranged from oceanography to nuclear weapons . In the course of discussing a small nuclear warhead for the Mark 45 torpedo , he started a discussion on the possibility of developing a physically small one @-@ megaton nuclear warhead for the Polaris missile . His counterpart in the discussion , J. Carson Mark from the Los Alamos National Laboratory , at first insisted it could not be done . However , Dr. Mark eventually stated that a half @-@ megaton warhead of small enough size could be developed . This yield , roughly thirty times that of the Hiroshima bomb , was enough for Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke , who was present in person , and Navy strategic missile development shifted from Jupiter to Polaris by the end of the year .
He was Director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , which he helped to found with Ernest O. Lawrence , from 1958 to 1960 , and after that he continued as an Associate Director . He chaired the committee that founded the Space Sciences Laboratory at Berkeley . He also served concurrently as a Professor of Physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He was a tireless advocate of a strong nuclear program and argued for continued testing and development — in fact , he stepped down from the directorship of Livermore so that he could better lobby against the proposed test ban . He testified against the test ban both before Congress as well as on television .
Teller established the Department of Applied Science at the University of California , Davis and LLNL in 1963 , which holds
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56 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added . Two more were added in 1891 .
Friedland had a complete 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) wrought iron waterline belt . The sides and the transverse bulkheads of the battery itself were armoured with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbettes were unarmoured .
= = Service = =
Friedland was laid down at Lorient in January 1865 and launched on 15 October 1873 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , the budget for the French Navy was cut after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and the French dockyards had not been reformed with working practices more suitable for the industrial age . The ship began her sea trials on 1 May 1875 , but was not completed until 20 June 1877 . Friedland joined the Mediterranean Squadron in 1878 and the ship bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax from 6 – 16 July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . She was reduced to reserve in 1887 and decommissioned in 1893 . Friedland returned to active duty in 1893 , but was paid off in 1898 and condemned in 1902 .
= Samuel Aba =
Samuel Aba ( Hungarian : Aba Sámuel ; before 990 or c . 1009 – 5 July 1044 ) was the third King of Hungary between 1041 and 1044 . He was born to a prominent family with extensive domains in the region of the Mátra Hills . Based on reports in the Gesta Hungarorum and other Hungarian chronicles about the non @-@ Hungarian origin of the Aba family , modern historians write that the Abas headed the Kabar tribes that seceded from the Khazar Khaganate and joined the Hungarians in the 9th century .
Around 1009 , Samuel or his father married a sister of Stephen I , the first King of Hungary . Thereafter the originally pagan or Jewish Aba family converted to Christianity . King Stephen appointed Samuel to head the royal court as his palatine . However , the king died in 1038 , and the new monarch , Peter the Venetian , removed Samuel from his post .
The Hungarian lords dethroned Peter in 1041 and elected Samuel king . According to the unanimous narration of the Hungarian chronicles , Samuel preferred commoners to noblemen , causing discontent among his former partisans . His execution of many opponents brought him into conflict with Bishop Gerard of Csanád . In 1044 , Peter the Venetian returned with the assistance of the German monarch , Henry III , who defeated Samuel 's larger army at the battle of Ménfő near Győr . Samuel fled from the battlefield but was captured and killed .
= = Origins and early life = =
According to the anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum , Samuel 's family descended from two " Cuman " chieftains , Ed and Edemen , who received " a great land in the forest of Mátra " from Árpád , Grand Prince of the Hungarians around 900 . In contrast , the Illuminated Chronicle and other 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles describe Ed and Edemen as the sons of Csaba – himself a son of Attila the Hun – by a lady from Khwarezm . Since all Hungarian chronicles emphasize the Oriental – either " Cuman " or " Khwarezmian " – origin of Ed and Edemen , Gyula Kristó , László Szegfű and other historians propose that the Aba clan descending from them ruled the Kabars , a people of Khazar origin who joined the Hungarians in the middle of the 9th century , before the Hungarians ' arrival in the Carpathian Basin around 895 . Kristó argues that both Samuel 's Khazar origin and his first name suggest that he was born to a family that adhered to Judaism .
Despite the uncertainty over the clan 's origins , Samuel undoubtedly descended from a distinguished family , since an unnamed sister of Stephen I , who had in 1000 or 1001 been crowned the first King of Hungary , was given in marriage to a member of the Aba clan around 1009 . However , historians still debate whether Samuel himself or Samuel 's father married the royal princess . If Samuel was her husband , he must have been born before 990 and converted – either from Judaism or paganism – to Christianity when he married Stephen I 's sister . His Christian credentials are further evidenced by Samuel 's establishment of an abbey at Abasár which was recorded by Hungarian chronicles . According to Gyula Kristó and other historians , Samuel 's conversion coincided with the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Eger encompassing his domains .
Samuel held important offices during the reign of King Stephen . Pál Engel proposes that Abaújvár ( " Aba 's new castle " ) was named after him , implying that he was also the first ispán , or head , of that fortress and the county surrounding it . Samuel was a member of the royal council and became the first palatine of Hungary . The death of King Stephen on 15 August 1038 led to his nephew , Peter Orseolo of Venice , ascending to the throne . The new monarch preferred his German and Italian courtiers and set aside the native lords , including Samuel . In 1041 , discontented Hungarian noblemen expelled King Peter in a coup d 'état and elected Samuel king .
= = King of Hungary = =
... King Aba became insolent and began to rage cruelly against the Hungarians . For he held that all things should be in common between lords and servants ; but to have violated his oath he considered a mere trifle . Despising the nobles of the kingdom , he consorted with peasants and commoners . The Hungarian nobles were unwilling to endure this from him , and chafing under this insulting behaviour they conspired and plotted that they would kill him . But one of them informed the King of the conspiracy against his life , whereupon the King imprisoned as many of them as he could and had them put to death without examination or trial , which did great damage to his cause .
Samuel abolished all laws introduced by Peter the Venetian and had many of his predecessor 's supporters killed or tortured . The contemporaneous Hermann of Reichenau even called him " the tyrant of Hungary " in his Chronicon . Hungarian chronicles sharply criticized Samuel for socializing with the peasants instead of the nobles . Samuel even abolished some levies payable by the commoners .
Following his ousting , Peter the Venetian took refuge in Germany . In response , Samuel stormed Austria in 1042 , provoking a retaliatory invasion by the German monarch , Henry III in 1043 . It forced Samuel to renounce all Hungarian territories to the west of the rivers Leitha and Morava as well as agree to the payment of a tribute . The funding of the tribute payment was through new taxes on the Christian prelates and seizure of Church estates . This policy caused discontent even among the members of Samuel 's own council . He had a number of his councillors executed during Lent . In order to punish the king , Bishop Gerard of Csanád ( modern @-@ day Cenad , Romania ) refused to perform the annual ceremony of putting the royal crown Gerard upon the monarch 's head at Easter .
King Henry III again invaded Hungary in 1044 to restore Peter the Venetian . The decisive battle was fought at Ménfő near Győr , where Samuel 's army was routed . Samuel 's fate following the battle is still uncertain . According to nearly contemporaneous German sources , he was captured in short order and executed on Peter the Venetian 's command . However , 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles narrate that he fled up the river Tisza where he was seized and murdered by the locals . The latter sources further state that Samuel was first buried in a nearby church , but was later transferred to his family 's monastery at Abasár .
When King Aba had broken his oath and his treaty , King Henry invaded Hungary with a very small force . Aba , who had equipped a very large army , held him in such contempt that he allowed him to enter the province , as though it would be easy to kill or to capture him . Henry , however , trusting in divine help , rapidly crossed the River Raab with part of his force and began the battle , while all the knights rushed hither and thither . In the first attack he defeated and put to flight the innumerable army of the Hungarians , losing very few of his own men . He himself fought very bravely and he won a most glorious victory on 5 July . King Aba narrowly escaped by fleeing , while all the Hungarians rushed in crowds to surrender to King Henry and promised subjection and service . ... Not long afterwards Aba was taken prisoner by King Peter and paid the penalty of his crimes with his head .
= = Family = =
No report on the fate of Samuel 's widow and children has been preserved . Even so , historians – including Gyula Kristó and László Szegfű – suppose that the powerful Aba family descended from him .
= HMS Duchess ( H64 ) =
HMS Duchess was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her duty station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Duchess was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before the Second World War began in September 1939 . Whilst escorting the battleship HMS Barham back to the British Isles , she was accidentally rammed by the battleship in thick fog and sank with heavy loss of life on 12 December 1939 .
= = Description = =
Duchess displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Duchess carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Duchess had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun and two quadruple Mk I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Duchess was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates and was laid down at the yards of the Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow on 12 June 1931 . She was launched on 19 July 1932 and commissioned on 24 January 1933 , at a total cost of £ 229 @,@ 367 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . Upon her return , her superheaters were repaired at Malta between 18 December and 6 January 1934 . She was given a refit at Chatham Dockyard from 3 September to 23 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station .
Duchess arrived in Hong Kong in January 1935 where she joined the 8th Destroyer Flotilla . The ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from September to November during the Abyssinian Crisis . She made a number of good @-@ will visits during her time on the station as well as conducted anti @-@ piracy patrols . During a typhoon at Hong Kong on 2 September 1937 , a merchant ship crushed Duchess 's stern when it dragged its anchors . Her repairs were not completed until 14 October .
The ship remained on the station until late August 1939 , when the imminent start of the Second World War caused the Admiralty to order her to take up her war station with the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta . Duchess arrived there on 12 October and remained in the Mediterranean for the next two months . In December the ship , along with her sisters HMS Delight , HMS Duncan and HMS Dainty , was assigned to escort the battleship HMS Barham back to the UK , and they departed Gibraltar on 6 December . During the morning of 12 December , Barham collided with Duchess off the Mull of Kintyre in heavy fog . The destroyer capsized and her depth charges exploded , killing 124 of her crew including her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Robin White , who was stuck in his sea cabin when the sliding door jammed .
= Analysis of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 satellite communications =
The analysis of communications between Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and Inmarsat 's satellite telecommunication network provide the only source of information about Flight 370 's location and possible in @-@ flight events after it disappeared from radar coverage at 2 : 22 Malaysia Standard Time ( MYT ) on 8 March 2014 ( 17 : 22 UTC , 7 March ) , one hour after communication with air traffic control ended and the aircraft departed from its planned flight path while over the South China Sea . Flight 370 was a scheduled commercial flight with 227 passengers and 12 crew which departed Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia at 0 : 41 and was scheduled to land in Beijing , China at 6 : 30 China Standard Time ( 6 : 30 MYT ; 22 : 30 UTC , 7 March ) . Malaysia has worked in conjunction with the Australian Transport Safety Bureau to co @-@ ordinate the analysis , which has also involved the UK 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch , Inmarsat , and US National Transportation Safety Board , among others . Others have also made efforts to analyse the satellite communications , albeit challenged by a lack of publicly available information for several months after the disappearance . On 29 July 2015 , debris was discovered on Réunion Island which was later confirmed to come from Flight 370 ; it is the first physical evidence that Flight 370 ended in the Indian Ocean .
During flight , the aircraft maintains a datalink with a satellite communication network for data and telephone calls . The datalink connects the aircraft and a ground station via satellite , which translates ( changes ) the signal 's frequency and amplifies the signal ; the ground station is connected to telecommunication networks which allows messages to be sent to and received from other locations , such as the airline 's operations centre . Normal communications from Flight 370 were last made at 1 : 07 MYT and the datalink between the aircraft and satellite telecommunication network was lost at some point between 1 : 07 and 2 : 03 , when the aircraft did not acknowledge a message sent from the ground station . Three minutes after the aircraft left the range of radar coverage — at 2 : 25 — the aircraft 's satellite data unit ( SDU ) transmitted a log @-@ on message , which investigators believe occurred as the SDU started after a power interruption . Between the 2 : 25 message and 8 : 19 , the SDU acknowledged two ground @-@ to @-@ aircraft telephone calls , which were not answered , and responded to automated , hourly requests from the ground station that were made to determine whether the SDU was still active . None of the communications from 2 : 25 – 8 : 19 contain explicit information about the aircraft 's location . The aircraft 's final transmission at 8 : 19 was a log @-@ on message ; the aircraft did not respond to a message from the ground station at 9 : 15 . Investigators believe the 8 : 19 log @-@ on message was made when the SDU was restarting after the aircraft ran out of fuel and the aircraft 's auxiliary power unit was started .
The search for Flight 370 was launched in Southeast Asia near the location of the last verbal and radar contact with air traffic control . The day after the accident , staff at Inmarsat reviewed the log of communications between their network and Flight 370 and discovered that Flight 370 continued for several hours after contact with air traffic control was lost . On 11 March , they provided a preliminary analysis to investigators based on recorded burst timing offset ( BTO ) values . Relatively simple calculations can be made from BTO values to determine the distance between the aircraft and satellite at each transmission . When these distances are plotted on Earth , they result in rings which are further reduced to arcs , due to the limited range of the aircraft . Another value — burst frequency offset ( BFO ) — was analysed to determine the movement of the aircraft relative to the satellite , based on the Doppler shift of the signals , which provides the location of the aircraft along the BTO @-@ derived arcs . Initial analysis of the BFO values showed a strong correlation with a track south into the southern Indian Ocean , west of Australia . On 24 March , Malaysia 's Prime Minister cited this analysis to conclude that Flight 370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean with no survivors . After the initial analysis , the BFO calculations were later adjusted to account for a wobble in the satellite 's orbit and thermal changes in the satellite which affected the recorded BFO values . Further analysis considered the BTO and BFO calculations with flight dynamics , such as possible and probable aircraft speeds , altitudes , and autopilot modes . Two statistical analyses were made and combined with calculations of Flight 370 's maximum range to determine the most probable location of Flight 370 at the time of the 8 : 19 transmission , which is along the 8 : 19 BTO arc from approximately 38 @.@ 3 ° S 88 ° E / -38.3 ; 88 ( Southwest corner of the area of interest along the 8 : 19 BTO arc , ATSB Flight Path Analysis Update ( October 2014 ) ) to 33 @.@ 5 ° S 95 ° E / -33.5 ; 95 ( Southwest corner of the area of interest along the 8 : 19 BTO arc , ATSB Flight Path Analysis Update ( October 2014 ) ) .
= = Background = =
= = = Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 = = =
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 departed Kuala Lumpur International Airport at 00 : 41 Malaysia Standard Time ( MYT ) on 8 March
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2014 ( 16 : 41 UTC , 7 March ) , bound for Beijing Capital International Airport . At 1 : 19 , Malaysian air traffic control ( ATC ) initiated a hand @-@ off to Ho Chi Minh area ATC . The captain responded " Good night Malaysian Three Seven Zero " , after which no further communications were made with the pilots . At 1 : 21 , the aircraft disappeared from the radar of air traffic control after passing navigational waypoint IGARI ( 6 ° 56 ′ 12 ″ N 103 ° 35 ′ 6 ″ E ) in the South China Sea between Malaysia and Vietnam . The aircraft continued to be tracked by Malaysian military radar , which recorded that Flight 370 deviated from its planned flight path , turning around and crossing the Malay Peninsula . Flight 370 left the range of Malaysian military radar at 2 : 22 and was last located 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) northwest of Penang . Flight 370 was expected to arrive in Beijing at 6 : 30 China Standard Time ( CST ) on 8 March ( 06 : 30 MYT ; 22 : 30 UTC , 7 March ) . At 7 : 24 MYT / CST , Malaysia Airlines issued a media statement that Flight 370 was missing .
= = = Satellite datalink = = =
The datalink for Malaysia Airline 's avionics communications at the time of the incident was supplied by SITA , which contracted with Inmarsat to provide a satellite communication link using Inmarsat 's Classic Aero service . Aeronautical satellite communication ( SATCOM ) systems are used to transmit messages from the aircraft cockpit as well as automated messages from on @-@ board systems using the ACARS communications protocol , but may also be used to transmit FANS and ATN messages and provide voice , fax , and data links using other protocols . An appropriate comparison of ACARS ' relationship to the SATCOM system is that of a messaging application to a smartphone ; the smartphone functions and will remain registered on a mobile phone network even if the messaging application is closed .
The data / messages from the aircraft are transmitted by the aircraft 's Satellite Data Unit ( SDU ) and relayed via satellite to a ground station , where they are routed to other communication networks to reach their destination . Messages may also be sent to the aircraft , in reverse order . When passing through the satellite , the signals are amplified and translated in frequency — mixed with the signal from an oscillator in the satellite , leaving the satellite at the combined frequency . Transmissions from the aircraft are made on one of several channels ( frequencies ) near 1 @.@ 6 GHz , combined with frequency of the satellite 's oscillator , and transmitted to the GES at the combined frequency ( one of several channels near 3 @.@ 6 GHz ) . The ground station then translates the received signal before it reaches equipment to be processed . The ground station keeps a log of transmissions and some data about them .
When the SDU tries to connect with the Inmarsat network , it will transmit a log @-@ on request , which the ground station acknowledges . This is , in part , to determine that the SDU belongs to an active service subscriber and also used to determine how to route messages to the SDU . After connecting , if a ground station hasn 't received any contact from a terminal for one hour , the ground station will transmit a " Log @-@ on Interrogation " ( LOI ) message — informally referred to as a " ping " ; an active terminal automatically responds . The entire process of interrogating the terminal is referred to as a ' handshake ' .
Equipment at Inmarsat 's Perth ground station had been upgraded in 2013 with additional storage capacity and new software to record an expanded data set for transmissions , including the addition of Burst Frequency Offset ( BFO ) and Burst Timing Offset ( BTO ) values . Without the addition of the BFO and BTO values , it would not have been possible to determine the aircraft 's distance from the satellite at each handshake and hence significantly narrow the search region . The expanded data values were prompted by Inmarsat 's involvement in the search for Air France Flight 447 , which disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean in 2009 . The company felt the additional data values could be useful in future incidents . According to Inmarsat 's vice @-@ president of satellite operations , Mark Dickinson , the company " did not know precisely how [ these additional data values ] might be useful but [ they ] had a hunch and decided to [ invest in upgrades to ground station equipment to record these values ] . "
= = = Emergency locator transmitters = = =
The aircraft was equipped with four emergency locator transmitters ( ELTs ) :
a fixed ELT on the aft fuselage which is activated by sudden deceleration ,
a portable ELT in a cabinet located in the front of the aircraft which must be activated by moving a switch , and
two ELTs attached to slide rafts which are armed when the rafts are inflated and activated by water immersion
Once activated , the ELTs emit a radio signal which can be detected by the satellites of the International Cospas @-@ Sarsat Programme . The ELTs are designed to work at or near the water 's surface . Damage during a crash , shielding by aircraft wreckage or terrain , and submersion in deep water are all factors which may prevent the signal 's detection . In a review of accident records maintained by the ICAO over the past 30 years , there were 173 accidents involving aircraft over 5 @,@ 701 kilograms ( 12 @,@ 569 lb ) equipped with ELTs ; of these , an effective ELT detection was made in only 39 accidents . No signals from ELTs aboard Flight 370 were detected .
= = Communications from Flight 370 = =
The SDU on 9M @-@ MRO ( the aircraft used for Flight 370 ) logged onto the Inmarsat network at midnight MYT . In the 30 minutes prior to take @-@ off , seventeen messages were exchanged between the SDU and the Inmarsat network . An additional three messages were exchanged between take @-@ off and the time Flight 370 disappeared from secondary radar . The final message to use the ACARS protocol was sent at 01 : 07 ; ACARS reports expected at 01 : 37 and 02 : 07 were not received . At 02 : 03 and 2 : 05 , messages from the ground station went unanswered , indicating that the link was lost at some point between 1 : 07 and 2 : 03 .
After last contact by primary radar west of Malaysia , the following records were recorded in the log of Inmarsat 's ground station at Perth , Western Australia ( HH : MM : SS ; UTC times 7 – 8 March ) :
= = Analysis by the Joint Investigation Team = =
The analysis of the satellite communication relies on a limited number of data points that were analysed using innovative techniques that were only developed after the incident . The analysis has worked to determine useful information about in @-@ flight events and the location of Flight 370 at the 08 : 19 MYT signal — believed to have occurred near the time of fuel exhaustion and thus is close to the final location of Flight 370 .
= = = Joint Investigation Team = = =
Malaysian investigators set up an international working group — the Joint Investigation Team ( JIT ) — consisting of various agencies with experience in aircraft performance and satellite communications , to further analyse the signals between Flight 370 and the ground station , especially the signal at 08 : 19 . These included representatives from the UK 's Inmarsat , Air Accidents Investigation Branch , and Rolls @-@ Royce ; China 's Civil Aviation Administration and Aircraft Accident Investigation Department ; the US National Transportation Safety Board and Federal Aviation Administration ; and Malaysian authorities .
After initial analysis determined that Flight 370 's last location was within Australia 's Search and Rescue region in the southern Indian Ocean , Australia has played a major role in co @-@ ordinating the analysis in conjunction with Malaysia . The Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) is responsible for the search for Flight 370 and has brought together a team of experts to determine the location of Flight 370 at the 08 : 19 communication . The team brought together by the ATSB includes the UK 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch , Boeing , the Defence Science and Technology Organisation ( Australia ) , Malaysia 's Department of Civil Aviation , Inmarsat , the National Transportation Safety Board ( US ) , and Thales .
= = = Concepts = = =
The analysis of communications from Flight 370 focuses on two key parameters associated with the messages :
Burst timing offset ( BTO ) — The time difference between when a signal is sent from the ground station and when the response is received . This measure is twice the distance from the ground station to satellite to the aircraft and includes the time that the SDU takes between receiving and responding to the message and time between reception and processing at the ground station ( the latter two times are constant and can be calculated and removed ) . This measure can be analysed to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft and results in a ring on the Earth 's surface that is equidistant from the satellite at the calculated distance .
Burst frequency offset ( BFO ) – The difference between the expected and received frequency of transmissions . The difference is caused by doppler shift as the signals travelled from the aircraft to the satellite to the ground station ; the frequency translations made in the satellite and at the ground station ; a small , constant error ( bias ) in the SDU that results from drift and ageing ; and compensation applied by the SDU to counter the Doppler shift on the uplink . This measure can be analysed to determine where along the BTO rings the aircraft was located .
= = = Deductions = = =
A few deductions can also be made from the satellite communications . The first deduction that can be made from the satellite communications is that the aircraft remained operational until at least 08 : 19 — seven hours after final contact was made with air traffic control over the South China Sea . The varying BFO values indicate the aircraft was moving at speed . The aircraft 's SDU needs location and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite , so it can also be deduced that the aircraft 's navigation system was operational .
Since the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09 : 15 , it can be concluded that at some point between 08 : 19 and 09 : 15 , the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station . Malaysia 's Department of Civil Aviation noted this time was " consistent with the maximum endurance of the aircraft " and this time is believed to have been the result of the aircraft entering the ocean after fuel starvation . The ATSB is " confident the seventh handshake represents the area where the aircraft ran out of fuel before entering the ocean . "
The log @-@ on message sent from the aircraft at 08 : 19 : 29 was not immediately well understood . The 02 : 25 handshake was also initiated by the aircraft . Only a few reasons that the SDU would transmit a log @-@ on message exist , such as a power interruption , software failure , loss of critical systems providing input to the SDU , or a loss of the link due to aircraft attitude . Investigators consider the most likely reason to be that they were sent during power @-@ up after an electrical outage . At 08 : 19 , the aircraft had been airborne for 7 h 38 min ; the typical Kuala Lumpur @-@ Beijing flight is 51 ⁄ 2 hours and fuel exhaustion was likely . In the event of fuel exhaustion and engine flame @-@ out , the aircraft 's ram air turbine would deploy , providing power to various instruments and flight controls , including the SDU . Approximately 90 seconds after the 02 : 25 handshake , communications from the aircraft 's inflight entertainment system were recorded in the ground station log . Similar messages would be expected following the 08 : 19 handshake but none were received , supporting the fuel starvation scenario .
= = = Burst timing offset = = =
For system efficacy and reliability , aircraft transmissions made in response to a signal from a satellite are sent in timed slots referenced to the time the signal from the satellite arrived , using the slotted ALOHA protocol . The time that the signal is sent from the ground station begins the time slot . The burst timing offset ( BTO ) is the time difference between the start of the time slot and the start of the transmission received from the aircraft ; it equals twice the distance ( for the ground station 's signal then aircraft 's response ) from the ground station to the satellite to the aircraft plus the time the aircraft 's SDU takes between receiving the signal and responding ( the SDU bias ) and the delay between the time the signal arrives at the ground station and the time it is processed ( when the BTO value is logged ; the ground station bias ) . The satellite 's location is known , thus the distance from the satellite to the ground station can be calculated , while the combined bias of the SDU and ground station is relatively constant and can be calculated from signals exchanged earlier in the flight while it was on the ground at KLIA , thus leaving the distance between the aircraft and satellite as the only variable .
The combined SDU and ground station bias was calculated from 17 signals exchanged between the ground station and the aircraft during a 30 @-@ minute period before take @-@ off , when the aircraft 's location was known ( at Kuala Lumpur International Airport ) . To establish the accuracy of their calculations , the bias value was used to calculate the distance from the aircraft to the satellite during the time it was on the ground at KLIA , with errors of < 1 km @-@ 8 @.@ 85 km ( < 1 mi @-@ 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . The distance from the satellite to the aircraft was also calculated while the aircraft was in @-@ flight and at a known location shortly after take @-@ off , showing similar accuracy . The distance between the satellite and aircraft could thus calculated for signals exchanged between 02 : 25 – 08 : 19 , after Flight 370 disappeared from radar . However , this could only produce a ring on Earth 's surface that is equidistant from the satellite at the calculated value , adjusted to account for the aircraft flying at 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . The ring could also be reduced to an arc by taking into consideration the maximum range of the aircraft if it flew at its maximum speed .
The BTO value was added to the ground station 's data set to assist in geo @-@ locating an aircraft following the Air France Flight 447 accident in 2009 and the initial BFO analysis — relating the BFO value to the elevation angle between the aircraft and satellite — was based on methods developed during the Flight 447 investigation . The first and seventh handshakes gave anomalous results and were excluded from the initial analysis , but the issue was later resolved . The initial analysis , accurate to approximately 1 ° , determined that elevation angle between the aircraft and satellite at the 08 : 11 handshake was 40 ° . When this was publicly disclosed by Malaysian officials , the arc was broken into two arcs — dubbed the " northern corridor " and " southern corridor . " The first and seventh handshakes were later determined to be part of a log @-@ on sequence , as opposed to the other handshakes that were log @-@ on interrogation messages . The bias value during the logon sequence is different and was calculated using historical data for the aircraft 's SDU . This allowed the distance between the satellite and aircraft to be determined at these times .
= = = Burst frequency offset = = =
While the BTO is able to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft at the time of each handshake , it was still necessary to determine where along the BTO arcs the aircraft was . To accomplish this , an analysis was performed on another attribute of received signals that was recorded by the ground station : the burst frequency offset ( BFO ) — the difference between the expected and actual frequencies of the signal received from the aircraft . The BFO is primarily caused by the Doppler shift — a shift in frequency caused by the relative movement of the aircraft , satellite , and ground station — along with several other factors which can be calculated and removed , allowing the Doppler shift between the aircraft and satellite to be isolated . The Doppler shift between the aircraft and satellite indicates the relative motion of the aircraft relative to the satellite , although multiple combinations of aircraft speed and heading exist that match a given Doppler shift value .
When the aircraft 's SDU responds to messages sent from the ground station , it uses the aircraft 's navigation system to determine the aircraft 's position , track , and ground speed and adjusts the transmit frequency to compensate for the Doppler shift on the uplink signal , based on the satellite being located in its nominal position in geostationary orbit ( 35786 km above the equator ) at 64 @.@ 5 ° E. The initial analysis was calculated with the satellite at its nominal location in geostationary orbit , 35 @,@ 786 km ( 22 @,@ 236 mi ) above the equator at 64 @.@ 5 ° E longitude . However , the Inmarsat @-@ 3F1 satellite was launched in 1996 with an expected life span of 13 years and to extend its lifespan by conserving remaining fuel , it was allowed to drift from its nominal location into a slightly inclined orbit . A map of the sub @-@ satellite points — the location on Earth 's surface directly beneath the satellite — shows that the satellite moves counterclockwise in an oval shape between 1 @.@ 6 ° S – 1 @.@ 6 ° N and 64 @.@ 45 – 64 @.@ 58 ° E. As a result , the adjustments made by the SDU only partially compensate for the Doppler shift on the uplink . This error is " immaterial " to the performance of the satellite network , but was crucial to eliminate the northern corridor during the initial analysis .
As the signal passes through the satellite , it is translated by — added to — a signal generated by an oscillator in the satellite . Although the oscillator is housed in a temperature @-@ controlled enclosure , it is subjected to thermal variation throughout the day that results in minor changes in the frequency of the translation signal . The thermal variation results from the rotation of the satellite relative to the sun over a given 24 @-@ hour period , including the time the satellite passes through the Earth 's shadow ( which affected the 3 : 40 and 4 : 26 handshakes ) , and is complicated by the use of heaters that run when the oscillator temperature exits pre @-@ determined limits . The variation in the translation frequency was calculated over several days , including the day of Flight 370 's disappearance , and could be factored into the BFO measurement .
Additional factors that affect the BFO are a translation made at the ground station between the reception and processing of the signal ( which is monitored and can be factored in ) and a fixed bias in the aircraft and satellite oscillators due to drift and ageing ( which can be calibrated by measures recorded when the aircraft 's location and speed were known ) . At 2 : 40 and 6 : 14 , ground @-@ to @-@ aircraft phone calls were made that were unanswered by the cockpit but acknowledged by the SDU . The signals associated with these calls could not be analysed to generate a BTO value , but BFO values of these signals can be considered in the analysis with the other BTO and BFO data .
The technique used to analyse the BFO values was validated against 87 aircraft with the same SATCOM equipment operating in the region around the time of Flight 370 's disappearance and against 9 previous flights operated by the same aircraft ( 9M @-@ MRO ) . The sensitivity to error was calculated during the early phase of Flight 370 when the aircraft 's location , track , and ground speed were known . This resulted in an uncertainty of ± 28 ° heading and ± 9 ° of latitude .
= = = Combined analysis with flight dynamics = = =
The BTO analysis was able to determine the distance between the satellite and aircraft with a relatively high degree of accuracy , while the BFO analysis was able to estimate the heading and speed of the aircraft , but is sensitive to small changes in input data . To determine the final location of Flight 370 , the BTO and BFO analyses were considered in combination with aircraft performance limitations , such as altitude , airspeed , and wind . The BFO analysis was able to isolate the Doppler shift between the aircraft and determine the relative motion of the aircraft to the satellite , which is reduced by the limited range of speeds at which the aircraft can fly and thus a limited set of speed / direction combinations exist that correlate with the calculated Doppler shifts .
The aircraft has three autopilot modes . The standard mode for en @-@ route navigation is LNAV , which navigates along a great circle route between waypoints , adjusting the aircraft 's heading to allow for wind . Other modes will maintain the aircraft 's heading — direction the nose is pointed ( flight path with be affected by winds ) — or the aircraft 's track — direction the aircraft travels ( flight path in a straight direction ) . The latter two modes are further affected by whether the aircraft used magnetic ( normal reference ) or true north ( typically only used at high latitudes ) as the reference for the autopilot . Since Flight 370 flew near waypoints VAMPI , MEKAR , NILAM , and possibly IGOGU — all along air route N571 — while traversing the Malacca Strait , investigators considered whether Flight 370 followed any air routes or intersected any waypoints in the Southern Indian Ocean . Waypoints MUTMI and RUNUT were considered possible points that Flight 370 may have traversed , but tracks through these waypoints did not correlate well with paths generated from the BTO and BFO analysis .
Two analysis techniques were used to combine the BTO and BFO results with flight parameters :
Data error optimisation – Candidate paths varied speed and heading at each handshake to minimise the error between the calculated BFO of that path versus the actual BFO recorded from Flight 370 . These paths were not constrained by the behaviour of the aircraft 's autopilot .
Constrained autopilot dynamics – The aircraft is assumed to be flying under the control of one of the autopilot modes . Candidate paths were generated using each mode . BTO and BFO values of each path were calculated and compared against the recorded values from Flight 370 .
The top 100 constrained autopilot dynamics candidate paths were selected on the basis of their match with the satellite data from Flight 370 and their consistency with autopilot behaviour . The distribution of these paths at the intersection with the 6th handshake was then generated , with some paths outside ( south ) of the maximum range of the aircraft and which can therefore be eliminated . The candidate paths generated by the data error optimisation method were weighed according to the root mean square of the BFO values at each handshake . The distribution of results from these two methods were charted together , indicating that the total probability areas overlap on the 08 : 11 arc between approximately 35 – 39 ° S. These paths have then been extrapolated to the seventh handshake at 08 : 19 and constrained by the maximum range , intersecting the seventh arc between approximately 33 @.@ 5 – 38 @.@ 3 ° S. This is the most likely location of Flight 370 at the time of the seventh handshake .
= = = Determining the final location of Flight 370 and search area = = =
Knowing the location at the seventh handshake , investigators then needed to determine an appropriate width of the search area from the seventh arc . The seventh handshake was a ' log @-@ on request ' initiated by the aircraft and is believed to be the result of the SDU starting after power failure , resulting from fuel exhaustion and following the deployment of the ram air turbine and restart of the auxiliary power unit . The log @-@ on request would have occurred 3 minutes and 40 seconds after fuel exhaustion — commonly known as flameout in aviation — of the second engine ( flameout of both engines would not have occurred simultaneously ) , at which point the autopilot would have disengaged . The BFO value of this handshake indicates the aircraft may have been descending and the aircraft was travelling northeast to southwest . The ATSB has determined that an unresponsive crew / hypoxia event " appeared to best fit the available evidence " for the period of flight that Flight 370 tracked south over the Indian Ocean .
An analysis of aircraft systems , particularly the electrical system and autopilot , are ongoing . Boeing and Malaysia Airlines have conducted numerous end @-@ of @-@ flight scenarios in their Boeing 777 simulators . The scenarios involve flameout in one engine before the other without any input from the cockpit . This scenario results in the aircraft entering a spiraling low @-@ bank turn with the aircraft entering the water a relatively short distance from the last engine flameout . If control inputs were made ( i.e. the plane was under the control of a pilot ) and depending on the initial altitude , it is possible that the aircraft could glide over 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) . However , investigators believe Flight 370 was most likely uncontrolled at this point . The ATSB cites a previous study conducted for the BEA , which determined that in cases of an upset followed by loss of control all impact points were within 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) of the start of the emergency , and in most cases within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) . Based on this , the ATSB chose a 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) width — 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) to the west and 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) to the east of the arc — for the underwater search in June 2014 . While keeping the 50 nmi width for the priority search area , the ATSB determined that the aircraft most likely entered the ocean close to the seventh arc and the underwater search would be conducted from the seventh arc and progress outwards .
= = Other analyses = =
In the weeks after Flight 370 's disappearance , discussions concerning the analysis of satellite data began on the website of space scientist Duncan Steel . The informal group of people , most with scientific backgrounds , soon became known as the Independent Group ( IG ) and has worked to analyse possible flight paths to determine the most likely final location of Flight 370 . For the first few months , their efforts were hindered by a lack of data publicly released and they were critical of the official analysis by Inmarsat ; the IG also pressured officials to release data related to Flight 370 's satellite communications . The IG did not believe there was sufficient evidence , using publicly available information , to exclude the possibility of Flight 370 following a northern track prior to the release of the communication logs on 27 May . Some of the IG members have worked on analysing specific elements of Flight 370 's flight path , such as the mid @-@ flight speed of Flight 370 and precise location of the Inmarsat @-@ 3F1 satellite .
On 17 June , before 26 June release of a report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) detailing the analysis of the satellite communications , the IG released a statement that they believed the final location of Flight 370 is 36 @.@ 02 ° S 88 @.@ 57 ° E / -36.02 ; 88 @.@ 57 ( Final location determined by Independent Group , June 2014 ) at the time of the 6th handshake , which was used because the seventh handshake was not well understood at the time . Their most recent evaluation , published in July 2015 , of the final location of Flight 370 is 37 @.@ 105 ° S 89 @.@ 871 ° E / -37.105 ; 89 @.@ 871 ( Final location determined by Independent Group , Flight Path model v15.1 ( July 2015 ) ) .
Another analysis was made by Simon Hardy , a Boeing 777 captain , and published in March 2015 . Hardy 's analysis is a mathematical model to determine the track of Flight 370 from the 4th to 6th handshakes , assuming that the aircraft 's track and speed would be constant during this period of the flight . He calculated that the aircraft was likely flying on a 188 ° magnetic track , which the aircraft would compensate for winds to continue in a straight line , and that the final location of Flight 370 is near 38 @.@ 082 ° S 87 @.@ 400 ° E / -38.082 ; 87 @.@ 400 ( Final location determined by Simon Hardy , June 2014 ) .
= = Timeline = =
On 8 March , Inmarsat provided basic flight data relating to Flight 370 to SITA , which relayed information to Malaysia Airlines and investigators . On 9 – 10 March , Inmarsat engineers noted that the ground station log recorded pings from the aircraft for several hours after contact was lost with air traffic control . Malaysian investigators set up an international working group , consisting of various agencies with experience in aircraft performance and satellite communications , to further analyse the signals between Flight 370 and the ground station , especially the signal at 08 : 19 . These included representatives from the UK 's Inmarsat , AAIB , and Rolls @-@ Royce ; China 's Civil Aviation Administration and Aircraft Accident Investigation Department ; the US NTSB and FAA ; and Malaysian authorities .
An analysis of the time difference between the transmission of the ping and the aircraft 's response allowed Inmarsat to determine the aircraft 's distance from the satellite . This resulted in two arcs — referred to as the " northern corridor " and " southern corridor " — where the aircraft may have been located at the time of its last complete handshake at 08 : 11 . Using an " innovative technique " that has " never before [ been ] used in an investigation of this sort " , the team determined it could also use the burst frequency offset to determine the aircraft 's speed and position along the identified arcs . Inmarsat
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cross @-@ checked its methodology to known flight data from six Boeing 777 aircraft flying in various directions on the same day , and found a good match . Applying the technique to the handshake signals from Flight 370 gave results that correlated strongly with the expected and actual measurements of a southern trajectory over the Indian Ocean , but poorly with a northern trajectory . Further revised calculations to account for movements of the satellite relative to the earth allowed the northern corridor to be ruled out completely . This analysis was passed on to Malaysian authorities on 23 March .
At 22 : 00 local time the next day , 24 March , Prime Minister Najib cited this development concluding at a press conference that Flight 370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean .
Using a type of analysis never before used in an investigation of this sort ... Inmarsat and the AAIB have concluded that [ Flight 370 ] flew along the southern corridor , and that its last position was in the middle of the Indian Ocean , west of Perth . This is a remote location , far from any possible landing sites . It is therefore with deep sadness and regret that I must inform you that , according to this new data , [ Flight 370 ] ended in the southern Indian Ocean .
In an article published on 8 May several satellite experts questioned the analysis of satellite pings made by Inmarsat staff because the Doppler frequency shifts measured were apparently not properly corrected against the satellite 's own drift ( a periodic North @-@ South oscillation of 3 ° every 24 hours ) . Without any additional data being released , the implication of this new analysis was that the northern portion of the Inmarsat satellite pings arc could not be ruled out . The Malaysian government released the satellite data three weeks later .
Details of the methodology used to analyse the satellite communications were provided in the Australian Transport Safety Bureau 's report MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas , published in June , and a supplement released in October .
A peer @-@ reviewed paper by Inmarsat scientists published in the Journal of Navigation in October 2014 provides an account of the analysis applied to the satellite communications from Flight 370 . Their analysis concluded that Flight 370 was near 34 @.@ 7 ° S 93 @.@ 0 ° E / -34.7 ; 93 @.@ 0 ( Location at last contact provided by Inmarsat scientists in the Journal of Navigation paper , October 2014 ) when the final transmission from the aircraft was made , but in their conclusion they " [ stress ] that the sensitivity of the reconstructed flight path to frequency errors is such that there remains significant uncertainty in the final location . " Their analysis used a simplified model of the aircraft 's flight dynamics " to illustrate how the measurements may be transformed into a reasonable flight path " and note that other investigators used more sophisticated models to determine the underwater search area . Although access to the journal requires a subscription , its publishers " [ felt ] this paper and subject are too important , and that it should be shared with the world " and the paper was released as an Open Access article with a Creative Commons Attribution license .
Since the October reports , analysis of the satellite data has continued to be refined . In March 2015 , ATSB Chief Commissioner Mark Dolan remarked that he is " slightly more optimistic than six months ago , because we have more confidence in the data " .
On 29 July 2015 , a flaperon from Flight 370 was discovered on Reunion Island . The ATSB reviewed their drift calculations for debris from the aircraft and , according to the JACC , they are " satisfied that the discovery of the flaperon at La Réunion ... is consistent with the current underwater search area in the southern Indian Ocean . " Reverse drift modelling of the debris , to determine its origin after 16 months , also supports the current underwater search area , although reverse drift modelling is very imprecise over long periods of time .
= New York State Route 45 =
New York State Route 45 ( NY 45 ) is a north – south state highway in central Rockland County , New York , in the United States . It spans 8 @.@ 60 miles ( 13 @.@ 84 km ) from the village of Chestnut Ridge at the New Jersey – New York border , where it becomes County Route 73 ( CR 73 ) in Bergen County , New Jersey , to U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in the town of Haverstraw . Though an interchange does exist between NY 45 and the Palisades Interstate Parkway , the route has no access to the New York State Thruway .
NY 45 was originally designated as New York State Route 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was renumbered to New York State Route 94 in the early 1940s before becoming NY 45 on January 1 , 1949 .
= = Route description = =
NY 45 begins at the New Jersey – New York border in Chestnut Ridge . Although the first NY 45 reassurance shield is a quarter @-@ mile north of the state line , the reference marker below the " Welcome to New York " sign at the crossing indicates the beginning of NY 45 .
NY 45 runs parallel to the small portion of the Garden State Parkway ( GSP ) that enters New York . Officially this portion is considered an extension of the New York State Thruway . While NY 45 never intersects the GSP , it provides a link to the parkway . South of the New Jersey border in Bergen County , CR 73 intersects the GSP , and in New York , NY 45 intersects CR 41 , which intersects the parkway . Through Chestnut Ridge ( where it is known as Chestnut Ridge Road , just as CR 73 , its southern extension , is in New Jersey ) , it crosses the New York State Thruway .
Once it enters Spring Valley ( where it is known locally first as South Main Street , then as North Main Street after it crosses its very busy intersection with NY 59 ) , NY 45 continues northward through the downtown business district . Traffic here tends to pile up many times a day . After NY 45 's intersection at Hillcrest with CR 74 ( the location of several small shopping centers ) , traffic tends to ease up . North of there , NY 45 provides a link to the Hassidic Jewish community of New Square , although it never enters the village limits . At CR 80 , NY 45 enters New Hempstead . Again the road becomes relatively quiet , but it begins to parallel the Palisades Interstate Parkway , until its intersection at exit 12 in Pomona . NY 45 quickly leaves Pomona and enters Mount Ivy . This is where NY 45 comes to its northern terminus at US 202 . This area of US 202 is in downtown Mount Ivy , and exit 13 of the Palisades is just 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) west of NY 45 's northern terminus .
= = History = =
What is now NY 45 was originally designated NY 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the same time , the portion of modern NY 305 north of Portville in Cattaraugus and Allegany counties was assigned NY 94 , while the current NY 94 in Orange County was designated NY 45 . The NY 305 and NY 94 designations were swapped in the early 1940s , placing NY 305 on its current alignment and NY 94 on what is now NY 45 . NY 94 was then swapped again , this time for NY 45 , on January 1 , 1949 , placing both routes on their modern routings .
In 1958 , Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley . This led Wallace to propose a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) bypass of the village , starting at NY 59 in Monsey and ending at NY 45 in Hillcrest . Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later , and the plans were forwarded to the New York State Department of Transportation . In 1966 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission released its long @-@ term highway report for the area . The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway , a north – south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor . No action was taken on this proposal .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Rockland County .
= One Hot Minute =
One Hot Minute is the sixth studio album by the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 12 , 1995 , on Warner Bros. Records . The worldwide success of the band 's previous album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik ( 1991 ) , caused guitarist John Frusciante to become uncomfortable with their status , eventually quitting mid @-@ tour in 1992 .
One Hot Minute was the only album that guitarist Dave Navarro recorded with the band . His presence altered the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' sound considerably . It contains fewer sexual themes than previous records and explores darker subject matters , such as drug use , depression , anguish , and grief . It also re @-@ integrated use of heavy metal guitar riffs . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis , who had resumed addictions to cocaine and heroin in 1994 after being sober for more than five years , approached his lyricism with a reflective outlook on drugs and their harsh effects .
One Hot Minute was a commercial disappointment despite producing three hit singles and reaching number four on the Billboard 200 chart . It sold fewer than half as many copies as Blood Sugar Sex Magik and received much less critical acclaim . Navarro was ultimately fired from the band in 1998 due to creative differences .
= = Background = =
The Red Hot Chili Peppers had released Blood Sugar Sex Magik in 1991 . The album was an instant hit , selling over seven million copies in the United States , and turned the band into an international sensation . Guitarist John Frusciante was having difficulty coping with the band 's newfound fame and started to dislike it . Frusciante often argued with his bandmates , and sabotaged performances . He began taking heroin and steadily increased his usage of the drug over time . Frusciante quit the band in 1992 , during its Japanese leg of the tour . He returned to his home in California and became a recluse .
Stunned , the remaining Chili Peppers , who had no suitable replacement for Frusciante , hired Arik Marshall to play the remaining dates after being forced to reschedule . Upon returning to Hollywood , the band placed an ad in the L.A. Weekly for open guitar auditions , which Kiedis considered to be a waste of time . After several months of unsuccessfully looking for a suitable guitarist , drummer Chad Smith suggested Dave Navarro . He had always been the band 's first choice , but had been too busy following the 1991 breakup of Jane 's Addiction . Navarro eventually accepted the position after productive jam sessions .
= = Recording and production = =
Kiedis knew that the band 's sound would inevitably change when Navarro joined . In July 1994 , the band entered The Sound Factory , a recording studio in Los Angeles , to record the album . The band completed a few basic tracks , when Kiedis began having difficulty singing . He had been through a dental procedure in which an addictive sedative , Valium , was used ; this caused him to relapse , and he once again became dependent on drugs . Kiedis had slipped from five years of sobriety and began reusing narcotics he 'd sworn never to use again . The band took a short break from recording to perform at Woodstock ' 94 , which was the first show Navarro played with the Red Hot Chili Peppers .
After resuming production , Navarro questioned the methods of the Chili Peppers ' recording procedures . He wondered why such a considerable amount of jamming was involved with the album 's conception . Various qualms followed , and the process soon became uncomfortable for the band . Months went by , and only small amounts of material were written . Kiedis made a trip to Grand Rapids , Michigan in December , where his family realized he 'd resumed an active addiction once again . He returned to Hollywood in late January 1995 , when he finally finished recording his vocals . The rest of the recording was completed within the next month .
= = Writing and composition = =
Considering Kiedis had resumed heavy drug use and Frusciante was no longer present for collaboration , songs were written at a far slower rate . Working with Frusciante had been something Kiedis took for granted : " John Frusciante had been a true anomaly when it came to song writing . He made it even easier than Hillel Slovak to create music , even though I 'd known Hillel for years . I just figured that was how all guitar players were , that you showed them your lyrics and sang a little bit and the next thing you knew you had a song . That didn 't happen right off the bat with Dave . " Drummer Chad Smith suggested it was writer 's block that was holding Kiedis back from coming up with lyrics , however Kiedis strongly denied this . With the writing process taking too much time and Kiedis returning to his drug habit , Flea for the first time on any of the band 's albums , besides contributing music as usual , took over and wrote some of the song 's lyrics , including " Transcending " , his tribute to River Phoenix along with the intro and outro to " Deep Kick " , a song that told the story of his and Kiedis 's youth . Also for the first time on any album , Flea contributed lead vocals which he performed on his solo track titled " Pea " .
Stylistically , One Hot Minute diverged from the Chili Peppers ' previous records — especially Blood Sugar Sex Magik . The album was characterized by prominent use of heavy metal guitar riffs and hints of psychedelic rock . Navarro , unlike Flea and Kiedis , was not influenced by funk music . He told Guitar World in 1996 , " It doesn 't really speak to me . But then again , when I 'm playing with three other guys who I love and feel camaraderie with , it 's enjoyable to play funk . " Navarro 's own style was influenced mainly by classic rock guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix and Jimmy Page , as well as gothic rock guitarists Robert Smith and Daniel Ash . Continuing a trend that started on Blood Sugar Sex Magik , Kiedis diverged even further away from his signature rapping , only doing so on a few tracks . One Hot Minute took almost two years to write , and its recording and production was not a smooth process . Navarro felt as though he was an outsider to the other members . His writing in Jane 's Addiction was independent from other contributors , whereas the Red Hot Chili Peppers was a far more collaborative group . Navarro himself noted that the band 's dynamic was more balanced than that of Jane 's Addiction , which was often dominated by frontman Perry Farrell .
Overall , One Hot Minute lyrically confronted the dark , melancholy and remorseful feelings Kiedis kept to himself . Many of the songs were written at a time when he was hiding his resumed addiction .
" Warped " directly faced Kiedis 's distraught moods as a hysterical cry for help : " My tendency for dependency is offending me / It 's upending me / I 'm pretending to be strong and free from my dependency / It 's warping me . " He also felt disappointed that " no one had suspected that I 'd slipped from my more than five years of sobriety . " The track itself was composed of heavy guitar riffs and echoing vocals which attempted to convey a distressed state .
" Aerop
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" ( Young People 's Socialist League ) , with Tom Kahn as provocateur @-@ at @-@ large .
On the conservative side , foreign policy used to be anti @-@ communist , but not very pro @-@ democracy . And foreign policy liberal @-@ style might be piously pro @-@ democracy , but nervous about being anti @-@ communist . Tom theorized that to be either , you had to be both .
It was tough for labor @-@ liberal intellectuals to be " anti @-@ communist " in the 1970s . It meant being taunted as " Cold Warriors " who saw " Commies under every bed " and being labeled as — the unkindest cut — " right @-@ wingers " .
Kahn worked as a senior assistant and speechwriter for Senator Henry " Scoop " Jackson , AFL – CIO Presidents George Meany and Lane Kirkland , and other leaders of the Democratic Party , labor unions , and civil rights organizations . He was an effective speechwriter because he was able to express ideas to an American audience , according to Wattenberg .
= = = Estrangement with Harrington = = =
Another protégé of Shachtman 's , Michael Harrington , called for an immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam in 1972 . His proposal was rejected by the majority , who criticized the war 's conduct and called for a negotiated peace treaty , the position associated with Shachtman and Kahn . Harrington resigned his honorary chairmanship of the Socialist Party and organized a caucus for like @-@ minded socialists . The conflict between Kahn and Harrington became " pretty bad " , according to Irving Howe .
Harrington handed former SDS activist and New York City journalist Jack Newfield a speech by AFL – CIO President George Meany . Addressing the September 1972 Convention of the United Steelworkers of America , Meany ridiculed the Democratic Party Convention , which had been held in Miami :
We heard from the gay @-@ lib [ gay @-@ liberation ] people who want to legalize marriage between boys and boys , and between girls and girls ... We heard from the people who looked like Jacks , acted like Jills , and had the odor of Johns [ customers of prostitutes ] about them .
This gay @-@ baiting taunt was attributed to Kahn by Harrington , and repeated by Newfield in his autobiography . Maurice Isserman 's biography of Harrington also described this speech as Kahn 's self hatred , as " Kahn 's resort to gay bashing " .
The blaming of Kahn for Meany 's speech and Isserman 's scholarship have been criticized by Rachelle Horowitz , Kahn 's friend , and by Joshua Muravchik , then an officer of the Young People 's Socialist League ( 1907 ) . According to Horowitz , Meany had many speechwriters — two specialists besides Kahn and even more writers from the AFL – CIO 's Committee on Political Education ( COPE ) Department . Horowitz stated , " It is in fact inconceivable that Kahn wrote those words . " She quoted a concurring assessment from Arch Puddington : [ Isserman ] " assumes that because Kahn was not publicly gay he had to be a gay basher . He never was . " According to Muravchik , " there is no reason to believe that Kahn wrote those lines , and Isserman presents none . "
Harrington failed to support an anti @-@ discrimination ( gay rights ) plank in the 1978 platform of the Democratic Party Convention , but noted his personal support after being criticized in The Nation . Along with others in the AFL – CIO and SDUSA , Kahn was accused of criticizing Harrington 's application for his Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee to join the Socialist International and to organize a 1983 conference on European socialism ; Harrington complained for six pages in his autobiography The Long Distance Runner , and " brooded " about Kahn 's opposition , exaggerating the importance of the Socialist International to America , according to Isserman 's biography . In 1991 , even after Harrington 's 1989 death , Howe warned Harrington 's biographer , Maurice Isserman , that Kahn 's description of Harrington " may well be a little nasty " and " hard line " .
= = = AFL – CIO support for free trade @-@ unions = = =
After becoming an assistant to the President of the AFL – CIO in 1972 , a position he held until 1986 , Kahn developed an expertise in international affairs . In 1980 AFL – CIO officer Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support for the Polish labor @-@ union Solidarity , which was maintained and indeed increased even after protests by the USSR and Carter administration .
= = = = Support of Solidarity , the Polish union = = = =
Kahn was heavily involved in supporting the Polish labor @-@ movement . The trade union Solidarity ( Solidarność ) began in 1980 . The Soviet @-@ backed Communist regime headed by General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law in December 1981 .
In 1980 AFL – CIO President Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support of Solidarity . The AFL – CIO sought approval in advance from Solidarity 's leadership , to avoid jeopardizing their position with unwanted or surprising American help . Politically , the AFL – CIO supported the twenty @-@ one demands of the Gdansk workers , by lobbying to stop further U.S. loans to Poland unless those demands were met . Materially , the AFL – CIO established the Polish Workers Aid Fund . By 1981 it had raised almost $ 300 @,@ 000 , which was used to purchase printing presses and office supplies . The AFL – CIO donated typewriters , duplicating machines , a minibus , an offset press , and other supplies requested by Solidarity .
It is up to Solidarity ... to define the aid they need . Solidarity made its needs known , with courage , with clarity , and publicly . As you know , the AFL – CIO responded by establishing a fund for the purchase of equipment requested by Solidarity and we have raised about a quarter of a million dollars for that fund .
This effort has elicited from the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia , East Germany , and Bulgaria the most massive and vicious propaganda assault ... in many , many years . The ominous tone of the most recent attacks leaves no doubt that if the Soviet Union invades , it shall cite the aid of the AFL – CIO as evidence of outside anti @-@ Socialist intervention .
All this is by way of introducing the AFL – CIO ’ s position on economic aid to Poland . In formulating this position , our first concern was to consult our friends in Solidarity ... and their views are reflected in the statement unanimously adopted by the AFL – CIO Executive Council :
The AFL – CIO will support additional aid to Poland only if it is conditioned on the adherence of the Polish government to the 21 points of the Gdansk Agreement . Only then could we be assured that the Polish workers will be in a position to defend their gains and to struggle for a fair share of the benefits of Western aid .
In testimony to the Joint Congressional Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe , Kahn suggested policies to support the Polish people , in particular by supporting Solidarity 's demand that the Communist regime finally establish legality , by respecting the twenty @-@ one rights guaranteed by the Polish constitution .
The AFL – CIO 's support enraged the Communist regimes of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union , and worried the Carter Administration , whose Secretary of State Edmund Muskie told Kirkland that the AFL – CIO 's continued support of Solidarity could trigger a Soviet invasion of Poland . After Kirkland refused to withdraw support to Solidarity , Muskie met with the USSR 's Ambassador , Anatoly Dobyrnin , to clarify that the AFL – CIO 's aid did not have the support of the U.S. government . Aid to Solidarity was also initially opposed by neo @-@ conservatives Norman Podhoretz and Jeane Kirkpatrick , who before 1982 argued that communism could not be overthrown and that Solidarity was doomed .
The AFL – CIO 's autonomous support of Solidarity was so successful that by 1984 both Democrats and Republicans agreed that it deserved public support . The AFL – CIO 's example of open support was deemed to be appropriate for a democracy , and much more suitable than the clandestine funding through the CIA that had occurred before 1970 . Both parties and President Ronald Reagan supported a non @-@ governmental organization , National Endowment for Democracy ( NED ) , through which Congress would openly fund Solidarity through an allocation in the State Department 's budget , beginning in 1984 . The NED was designed with four core institutions , associated with the two major parties and with the AFL @-@ CIO and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce ( representing business ) . The NED 's first president was Carl Gershman , a former Director of Social Democrats , USA and former U.S. Representative to the United Nations committee on human rights . From 1984 until 1990 , the NED and the AFL – CIO channeled equipment and support worth $ 4 million to Solidarity .
= = = = Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs = = = =
In 1986 Kahn became the Director of the AFL – CIO Department of International Affairs , where he implemented Kirkland 's program of having a consensus foreign policy . Working with leaders from member unions , Kahn helped to draft resolutions that represented consensus decisions for nearly all issues .
Kahn acted as Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs in 1986 , after Irving Brown suffered a stroke and resigned that same year ; after Brown 's death in 1989 , Kahn was officially named the Director .
= = = Living with AIDS = = =
Earlier in 1986 , Kahn had learned that he was infected with human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) , " which was then a death sentence " . Kahn longed to spend his remaining years with his " new and most beloved partner " , who was " the love of his life " . However , he accepted the office of Director out of a feeling of duty , knowing that he was taking " a job that would most surely work him to death " . He warned his co @-@ workers that his terminal condition would bring intellectual degeneration , and asked that they monitor him for signs of debilitation . An upgrade of the International Department 's computer systems was to have allowed Kahn to work from home .
Kahn died from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) in Silver Spring , Maryland on March 27 , 1992 , at the age of 53 , after having been cared for by his partner and supported by his friends and colleagues . He was survived by his partner and also his sister and his niece . Kahn planned most of his own memorial service , which was held in the AFL – CIO headquarters .
= = Works = =
" The Power of the March — And After , " Dissent , vol . 10 , no . 4 ( Autumn 1963 ) , pp. 316 – 320 .
" Problems of the Negro Movement , " Dissent , vol . 11 , no . 1 ( Winter 1964 ) , pp. 108 – 138 .
The Economics of Equality . Foreword by A. Philip Randolph and Michael Harrington . New York : League for Industrial Democracy , 1964 .
Bayard Rustin , From Protest to Politics : The Future of the Civil Rights Movement . New York : League for Industrial Democracy , Feb. 1965 . — Ghost written by Kahn , according to Horowitz ( 2007 ) , pp. 223 – 224 .
" Direct Action and Democratic Values , " Dissent , vol . 13 , no . 1 , whole no . 50 ( Jan.-Feb. 1966 ) , pp. 22 – 30 .
" The Riots and the Radicals , " Dissent , vol . 14 , no . 5 , whole no . 60 ( Sept.-Oct. 1967 ) , pp. 517 – 526 .
" The Problem of the New Left , " Commentary , vol . 42 ( July 1966 ) , pp. 30 – 38 .
" Max Shachtman : His Ideas and His Movement , " New America , Nov. 15 , 1972 .
" Farewell to a Decade of Illusions , " New America , vol . 11 ( Dec. 1980 ) , pp. 6 – 9
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boron is consumed has changed in recent years . The use of ores like colemanite has declined following concerns over arsenic content . Consumers have moved toward the use of refined borates and boric acid that have a lower pollutant content .
Increasing demand for boric acid has led a number of producers to invest in additional capacity . Turkey 's state @-@ owned Eti Mine Works opened a new boric acid plant with the production capacity of 100 @,@ 000 tonnes per year at Emet in 2003 . Rio Tinto Group increased the capacity of its boron plant from 260 @,@ 000 tonnes per year in 2003 to 310 @,@ 000 tonnes per year by May 2005 , with plans to grow this to 366 @,@ 000 tonnes per year in 2006 . Chinese boron producers have been unable to meet rapidly growing demand for high quality borates . This has led to imports of sodium tetraborate ( borax ) growing by a hundredfold between 2000 and 2005 and boric acid imports increasing by 28 % per year over the same period .
The rise in global demand has been driven by high growth rates in glass fiber , fiberglass and borosilicate glassware production . A rapid increase in the manufacture of reinforcement @-@ grade boron @-@ containing fiberglass in Asia , has offset the development of boron @-@ free reinforcement @-@ grade fiberglass in Europe and the USA . The recent rises in energy prices may lead to greater use of insulation @-@ grade fiberglass , with consequent growth in the boron consumption . Roskill Consulting Group forecasts that world demand for boron will grow by 3 @.@ 4 % per year to reach 21 million tonnes by 2010 . The highest growth in demand is expected to be in Asia where demand could rise by an average 5 @.@ 7 % per year .
= = Applications = =
Nearly all boron ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into boric acid and sodium tetraborate pentahydrate . In the United States , 70 % of the boron is used for the production of glass and ceramics . The major global industrial @-@ scale use of boron compounds ( about 46 % of end @-@ use ) is in production of glass fiber for boron @-@ containing insulating and structural fiberglasses , especially in Asia . Boron is added to the glass as borax pentahydrate or boron oxide , to influence the strength or fluxing qualities of the glass fibers . Another 10 % of global boron production is for borosilicate glass as used in high strength glassware . About 15 % of global boron is used in boron ceramics , including super @-@ hard materials discussed below . Agriculture consumes 11 % of global boron production , and bleaches and detergents about 6 % .
= = = Elemental boron fiber = = =
Boron fibers ( boron filaments ) are high @-@ strength , lightweight materials that are used chiefly for advanced aerospace structures as a component of composite materials , as well as limited production consumer and sporting goods such as golf clubs and fishing rods . The fibers can be produced by chemical vapor deposition of boron on a tungsten filament .
Boron fibers and sub @-@ millimeter sized crystalline boron springs are produced by laser @-@ assisted chemical vapor deposition . Translation of the focused laser beam allows to produce even complex helical structures . Such structures show good mechanical properties ( elastic modulus 450 GPa , fracture strain 3 @.@ 7 % , fracture stress 17 GPa ) and can be applied as reinforcement of ceramics or in micromechanical systems .
= = = Boronated fiberglass = = =
Fiberglass is a fiber reinforced polymer made of plastic reinforced by glass fibers , commonly woven into a mat . The glass fibers used in the material are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use . These glasses all contain silica or silicate , with varying amounts of oxides of calcium , magnesium , and sometimes boron . The boron is present as borosilicate , borax , or boron oxide , and is added to increase the strength of the glass , or as a fluxing agent to decrease the melting temperature of silica , which is too high to be easily worked in its pure form to make glass fibers .
The highly boronated glasses used in fiberglass are E @-@ glass ( named for " Electrical " use , but now the most common fiberglass for general use ) . E @-@ glass is alumino @-@ borosilicate glass with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , mainly used for glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Other common high @-@ boron glasses include C @-@ glass , an alkali @-@ lime glass with high boron oxide content , used for glass staple fibers and insulation , and D @-@ glass , a borosilicate glass , named for its low Dielectric constant ) .
Not all fiberglasses contain boron , but on a global scale , most of the fiberglass used does contain it . Because the ubiquitous use of fiberglass in construction and insulation , boron @-@ containing fiberglasses consume half the global production of boron , and are the single largest commercial boron market .
= = = Borosilicate glass = = =
Borosilicate glass , which is typically 12 – 15 % B2O3 , 80 % SiO2 , and 2 % Al2O3 , has a low coefficient of thermal expansion giving it a good resistance to thermal shock . Schott AG 's " Duran " and Owens @-@ Corning 's trademarked Pyrex are two major brand names for this glass , used both in laboratory glassware and in consumer cookware and bakeware , chiefly for this resistance .
= = = Boron carbide ceramic = = =
Several boron compounds are known for their extreme hardness and toughness . Boron carbide is a ceramic material which is obtained by decomposing B2O3 with carbon in the electric furnace :
2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO
Boron carbide 's structure is only approximately B4C , and it shows a clear depletion of carbon from this suggested stoichiometric ratio . This is due to its very complex structure . The substance can be seen with empirical formula B12C3 ( i.e. , with B12 dodecahedra being a motif ) , but with less carbon , as the suggested C3 units are replaced with C @-@ B @-@ C chains , and some smaller ( B6 ) octahedra are present as well ( see the boron carbide article for structural analysis ) . The repeating polymer plus semi @-@ crystalline structure of boron carbide gives it great structural strength per weight . It is used in tank armor , bulletproof vests , and numerous other structural applications .
Boron carbide 's ability to absorb neutrons without forming long @-@ lived radionuclides ( especially when doped with extra boron @-@ 10 ) makes the material attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear power plants . Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding , control rods and shut @-@ down pellets . Within control rods , boron carbide is often powdered , to increase its surface area .
= = = High @-@ hardness and abrasive compounds = = =
Boron carbide and cubic boron nitride powders are widely used as abrasives . Boron nitride is a material isoelectronic to carbon . Similar to carbon , it has both hexagonal ( soft graphite @-@ like h @-@ BN ) and cubic ( hard , diamond @-@ like c @-@ BN ) forms. h @-@ BN is used as a high temperature component and lubricant. c @-@ BN , also known under commercial name borazon , is a superior abrasive . Its hardness is only slightly smaller than , but its chemical stability is superior , to that of diamond . Heterodiamond ( also called BCN ) is another diamond @-@ like boron compound .
= = = Boron metal coatings = = =
Metal borides are used for coating tools through chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition . Implantation of boron ions into metals and alloys , through ion implantation or ion beam deposition , results in a spectacular increase in surface resistance and microhardness . Laser alloying has also been successfully used for the same purpose . These borides are an alternative to diamond coated tools , and their ( treated ) surfaces have similar properties to those of the bulk boride .
For example , rhenium diboride can be produced at ambient pressures , but is rather expensive because of rhenium . The hardness of ReB2 exhibits considerable anisotropy because of its hexagonal layered structure . Its value is comparable to that of tungsten carbide , silicon carbide , titanium diboride or zirconium diboride . Similarly , AlMgB14 + TiB2 composites possess high hardness and wear resistance and are used in either bulk form or as coatings for components exposed to high temperatures and wear loads .
= = = Detergent formulations and bleaching agents = = =
Borax is used in various household laundry and cleaning products , including the " 20 Mule Team Borax " laundry booster and " Boraxo " powdered hand soap . It is also present in some tooth bleaching formulas .
Sodium perborate serves as a source of active oxygen in many detergents , laundry detergents , cleaning products , and laundry bleaches . However , despite its name , " Borateem " laundry bleach no longer contains any boron compounds , using sodium percarbonate instead as a bleaching agent .
= = = Insecticides = = =
Boric acid is used as an insecticide , notably against ants , fleas , and cockroaches .
= = = Semiconductors = = =
Boron is a useful dopant for such semiconductors as silicon , germanium , and silicon carbide . Having one fewer valence electron than the host atom , it donates a hole resulting in p @-@ type conductivity . Traditional method of introducing boron into semiconductors is via its atomic diffusion at high temperatures . This process uses either solid ( B2O3 ) , liquid ( BBr3 ) , or gaseous boron sources ( B2H6 or BF3 ) . However , after the 1970s , it was mostly replaced by ion implantation , which relies mostly on BF3 as a boron source . Boron trichloride gas is also an important chemical in semiconductor industry , however not for doping but rather for plasma etching of metals and their oxides . Triethylborane is also injected into vapor deposition reactors as a boron source . Examples are the plasma deposition of boron @-@ containing hard carbon films , silicon nitride @-@ boron nitride films , and for doping of diamond film with boron .
= = = Magnets = = =
Boron is a component of neodymium magnets ( Nd2Fe14B ) , which are among the strongest type of permanent magnet . These magnets are found in a variety of electromechanical and electronic devices , such as magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) medical imaging systems , in compact and relatively small motors and actuators . As examples , computer HDDs ( hard disk drives ) , CD ( compact disk ) and DVD ( digital versatile disk ) players rely on neodymium magnet motors to deliver intense rotary power in a remarkably compact package . In mobile phones ' Neo ' magnets provide the magnetic field which allows tiny speakers to deliver appreciable audio power .
= = = Shielding and neutron absorber in nuclear reactors = = =
Boron shielding is used as a control for nuclear reactors , taking advantage of its high cross @-@ section for neutron capture .
In pressurized water reactors a variable concentration of boronic acid in the cooling water is used to compensate the variable reactivity of the fuel : when new rods are inserted the concentration of boronic acid is maximal , and then reduced during the lifetime .
= = = Other nonmedical uses = = =
Because of its distinctive green flame , amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares .
Starch and casein @-@ based adhesives contain sodium tetraborate decahydrate ( Na2B4O7 · 10 H2O )
Some anti @-@ corrosion systems contain borax .
Sodium borates are used as a flux for soldering silver and gold and with ammonium chloride for welding ferrous metals . They are also fire retarding additives to plastics and rubber articles .
Boric acid ( also known as orthoboric acid ) H3BO3 is used in the production of textile fiberglass and flat panel displays and in many PVAc- and PVOH @-@ based adhesives .
Triethylborane is a substance which ignites the JP @-@ 7 fuel of the Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet / ramjet engines powering the Lockheed SR @-@ 71 Blackbird . It was also used to ignite the F @-@ 1 Engines on the Saturn V Rocket utilized by NASA 's Apollo and Skylab programs from 1967 until 1973 . Triethylborane is suitable for this because of its pyrophoric properties , especially the fact that it burns with a very high temperature . Triethylborane is an industrial initiator in radical reactions , where it is effective even at low temperatures .
Borates are used as environmentally benign wood preservatives .
= = = Pharmaceutical and biological applications = = =
Boric acid has antiseptic , antifungal , and antiviral properties and for these reasons is applied as a water clarifier in swimming pool water treatment . Mild solutions of boric acid have been used as eye antiseptics .
Bortezomib ( marketed as Velcade and Cytomib ) . Boron appears as an active element in its first @-@ approved organic pharmaceutical in the pharmaceutical bortezomib , a new class of drug called the proteasome inhibitors , which are active in myeloma and one form of lymphoma ( it is in currently in experimental trials against other types of lymphoma ) . The boron atom in bortezomib binds the catalytic site of the 26S proteasome with high affinity and specificity .
A number of potential boronated pharmaceuticals using boron @-@ 10 , have been prepared for use in boron neutron capture therapy ( BNCT ) .
Some boron compounds show promise in treating arthritis , though none have as yet been generally approved for the purpose .
Tavaborole ( marketed as Kerydin ) is a Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase inhibitor which is used to treat toenail fungus . It gained FDA approval in July 2014 .
= = = Research areas = = =
Magnesium diboride is an important superconducting material with the transition temperature of 39 K. MgB2 wires are produced with the powder @-@ in @-@ tube process and applied in superconducting magnets .
Amorphous boron is used as a melting point depressant in nickel @-@ chromium braze alloys .
Hexagonal boron nitride forms atomically thin layers , which have been used to enhance the electron mobility in graphene devices . It also forms nanotubular structures ( BNNTs ) , which have with high strength , high chemical stability , and high thermal conductivity , among its list of desirable properties .
= = Biological role = =
Boron is needed by life . In 2013 , a hypothesis suggested it was possible that boron and molybdenum catalyzed the production of RNA on Mars with life being transported to Earth via a meteorite around 3 billion years ago .
There exists one known boron @-@ containing natural antibiotic , boromycin , isolated from streptomyces .
Boron is an essential plant nutrient , required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls . However , high soil concentrations of greater than 1 @.@ 0 ppm lead to marginal and tip necrosis in leaves as well as poor overall growth performance . Levels as low as 0 @.@ 8 ppm produce these same symptoms in plants that are particularly sensitive to boron in the soil . Nearly all plants , even those somewhat tolerant of soil boron , will show at least some symptoms of boron toxicity when soil boron content is greater than 1 @.@ 8 ppm . When this content exceeds 2 @.@ 0 ppm , few plants will perform well and some may not survive . When boron levels in plant tissue exceed 200 ppm , symptoms of boron toxicity are likely to appear .
As an ultratrace element , boron is necessary for the optimal health of rats . Boron deficiency in rats is not easy to produce , since boron is needed by rats in such small amounts that ultrapurified foods and dust filtration of air are required . Boron deficiency manifests in rats as poor coat or hair quality . Presumably boron is necessary to other mammals . No deficiency syndrome in humans has been described . Small amounts of boron occur widely in the diet , and the amounts needed in the diet would , by extension from rodent studies , be very small . The exact physiological role of boron in the animal kingdom is poorly understood .
Boron occurs in all foods produced from plants . Since 1989 its nutritional value has been argued . It is thought that boron plays several biochemical roles in animals , including humans . The United States Department of Agriculture conducted an experiment in which postmenopausal women took 3 mg of boron a day . The results showed that supplemental boron reduced excretion of calcium by 44 % , and activated estrogen and vitamin D , suggesting a possible role in the suppression of osteoporosis . However , whether these effects were conventionally nutritional , or medicinal , could not be determined . The U.S. National Institutes of Health states that " Total daily boron intake in normal human diets ranges from 2 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 mg boron / day . "
Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 2 , a rare form of corneal dystrophy , is linked to mutations in SLC4A11 gene that encodes a transporter reportedly regulating the intracellular concentration of boron .
= = = Analytical quantification = = =
For determination of boron content in food or materials the colorimetric curcumin method is used . Boron is converted to boric acid or borates and on reaction with curcumin in acidic solution , a red colored boron @-@ chelate complex , rosocyanine , is formed .
= = = Health issues and toxicity = = =
Elemental boron , boron oxide , boric acid , borates , and many organoboron compounds are nontoxic to humans and animals ( with toxicity similar to that of table salt ) . The LD50 ( dose at which there is 50 % mortality ) for animals is about 6 g per kg of body weight . Substances with LD50 above 2 g are considered nontoxic . The minimum lethal dose for humans has not been established . An intake of 4 g / day of boric acid was reported without incident , but more than this is considered toxic in more than a few doses . Intakes of more than 0 @.@ 5 grams per day for 50 days cause minor digestive and other problems suggestive of toxicity .
Single medical doses of 20 g of boric acid for neutron capture therapy have been used without undue toxicity . Fish have survived for 30 min in a saturated boric acid solution and can survive longer in strong borax solutions . Boric acid is more toxic to insects than to mammals , and is routinely used as an insecticide .
The boranes ( boron hydrogen compounds ) and similar gaseous compounds are quite poisonous . As usual , it is not an element that is intrinsically poisonous , but their toxicity depends on structure .
The boranes are toxic as well as highly flammable and require special care when handling . Sodium borohydride presents a fire hazard owing to its reducing nature and the liberation of hydrogen on contact with acid . Boron halides are corrosive .
= Antoinism =
Antoinism is a healer and Christian @-@ oriented new religious movement founded in 1910 by the Walloon Louis @-@ Joseph Antoine ( 1846 – 1912 ) in Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse , Seraing . With a total of 64 temples , over forty reading rooms across the world and thousands of members , it remains the only religion established in Belgium whose notoriety and success went outside the country . Mainly active in France , the religious movement is characterized by a decentralized structure , simple rites , discretion and tolerance towards other faiths .
Raised a Catholic , Antoine worked as a coal miner in his youth , then as a steelworker , before performing his military service in 1866 . After marrying Catherine in 1873 , he moved several times for professional reasons . Deeply impressed by Allan Kardec 's writings , he organized a spiritualist group in the 1890s . In 1893 , the death of his son marked the definitive loss of his faith in Catholicism . In 1896 , he explained his Spiritist views in a book , then discovered the gifts of healing . Quickly known as a healer , he gathered many followers , mainly among workers disappointed by Catholicism or medicine . In 1906 , he broke with Spiritism and started a religion , then published three books outlining his doctrine and consecrated the first Antoinist temple . After his death in 1912 , Catherine ensured the continuity of the religion , promoting a centralized worship around the person of her husband and providing additional rules in the organization . When she died in 1940 , some differences happened between the French and the Belgian temples .
Antoinist beliefs combine some elements of Catholicism , reincarnation , and healing . In the Antoinist views , the man must reach consciousness by getting rid of the illusion of matter produced by his intelligence — the source of evil and suffering . The purpose of the life is to release oneself from the cycle of reincarnation through a moral progression aided by " fluids " — all human actions , acquired by silent prayer and the harm caused by diseases and enemies . As freedom of conscience and free will are considered very important in Antoinist creed , the religion does not practice proselytism and is not exclusive . It does not provide any prescription on social issues . Although focused on healing , Antoinism does not interfere with the medical field , and does not discourage the resort to traditional medicine .
Simple and brief , services are performed in the temples , generally twice per day , and are composed of two forms of worship : " The General Operation " , which consists of the transmission of the fluid to the churchgoers , and " The Reading " of Antoine 's writings . Members who performed the services wear an entirely black dress , as sign of an intense involvement in the religion ; they are not paid . Temples are also the place of consultations of a healer by people who wish to obtain a request , frequently related to health . Antoinist celebrations include Christian holidays and other three days that commemorate the founding couple and the dedication of the first temple . Registered as organism of public utility in Belgium and as religious association in France , the religion is directed by a college composed of the most active members called desservants . It is financed by anonymous donations and do not ask for money from its followers . In France , the cult classification of Antoinism in the 1995 Parliamentary Report was criticized by the sociologists who studied the religious group , and many people involved in the anti @-@ cults fight did not report cultic deviances .
= = History = =
= = = 1846 – 1912 : Founder Louis Antoine = = =
= = = = Childhood and professional activities = = = =
Louis @-@ Joseph Antoine was born on 7 June 1846 in Mons @-@ Crotteux , at a place called " In the Chapel " , the youngest of a large family , which belonged to the Roman Catholic Church . His mother was Catherine Castille , born in 1797 . He was raised in the Priesse street and attended primary school in Mons . From the age of twelve , Louis was employed as a coal miner , following in the footsteps of his father . One day , while working at the mine , his lamp went out without apparent reason , which he interpreted as a divine sign that he should abandon this work . He worked for two years in the mine , then was a steelworker in the Cockerill factory in Seraing . He was enrolled in the militia of Belgium in 1866 , and filled his military obligations in Bruges . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War , he accidentally killed a comrade ; although there was no legal action , this event led him to question the meaning of life . After marrying Jeanne Catherine Collon on 15 April 1873 , while he was a hammerer , he became the father of a son , Louis Martin Joseph , born in Hamborn , Prussia on 23 September 1873 , and baptized five days later in the Catholic Church of St. John . Then the family went to Belgium in August 1876 , where Antoine bought a horse and became a vegetable vendor . In 1878 , he began to suffer from recurring stomach aches . In February 1879 , he returned to Poland where he was hired as hammerer chief by Mr. Pastor in the Pragua steelworks ; there his wife ran a school canteen . Five years later , the family moved to Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse ( Belgium ) , where he built twenty houses for workers . On 5 February 1886 , Antoine was sentenced to a fine of two francs on the grounds of physical violence on Denis Collon on 10 October 1885 . Until 1900 , he was a portier and a collector of Lexhy factory .
= = = = Influence by Spiritism = = = =
Though young , Antoine showed great piety , which the historian Pierre Debouxhtay described as a " devotion of a rather scrupulous formalism " . Despite his strong faith , Antoine was unsatisfied with his religion . He began to be influenced by the writings of Allan Kardec and , through his friend Gustave Gon , was initiated in 18
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ub Sobieski , who was inspired by Roman authors , emphasized learning foreign languages and physical exercises . He wanted to prepare his sons to be politics and diplomats .
After completing their studies in 1646 , the brothers started to travel around Europe under the tutelage of Sebastian Gawrecki . They departed Żółkiew on 21 February or 25 March 1646 . They visited Berlin , Wittenberg , Leipzig , Halle , Amsterdam and Paris , where they arrived on 9 June 1646 . They spent the next 16 months in France . In October 1647 Marek and Jan Sobieski went to England and subsequently studied mathematics in the Netherlands . The brothers had planned to go to Turkey , but after hearing of the Khmelnytsky Uprising they decided to return to Poland . Marek and John Sobieski left Brussels on 24 July 1648 .
= = Adulthood = =
After returning to Poland Sobieski and his brother came to Zamość , which at the time was being besieged by Cossacks . In 1648 , 1649 and 1650 Sobieski was elected a member of the parliament ( sejm walny ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1649 he was among the electors who voted for Jan II Kazimierz as King of Poland . Then , as a head of a chorągiew husarska ( military unit formed by Hussars ) of 100 horse , the young starosta joined the army of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki .
Sobieski was a member of the Polish defense crew besieged by Cossacks at Zbaraż from 10 July to 22 August 1649 . In 1650 he fought against the Cossacks at Kamieniec Podolski . Marek Sobieski also took part in the Battle of Beresteczko on 28 – 30 June 1651 . After the Polish victory , due his bravery , he received a saber of Tugay Bey , who had been killed during the battle . In September 1651 he fought at the Battle of Biała Cerkiew . When the Poles , Cossacks and Tatars began negotiations , Marek Sobieski was sent to the Cossack camp as a guarantor of safety for the Cossack leader , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , who was in the Polish camp .
In 1652 Sobieski fought against the Cossacks near Bracław and during Biała Cerkiew campaign . Marching with Jan Odrzywolski , but without his own hussar banner , Sobieski and his retinue came to the field hetman Kalinowski 's camp at Batoh on May 31 . Marek Sobieski and Odrzywolski were assigned to command cavalry banners during the subsequent battle , and in that capacity they fought on June 1 and 2 . On June 2 , during the second day of the Battle of Batoh after the defeat of Polish cavalry in the field before the Polish camp , Sobieski commanded a cavalry group , perhaps containing wounded filed hetman Kalinowski , that withdrew to the eastern redoubt in Polish camp , where Cossacks destroyed them after bringing artillery . Following Polish soldier Wespazjan Kochowski 's writings Sobieski might have been the last Polish commander defending the Polish camp against the Cossack @-@ Tatar army . Young commander was taken prisoner or surrendered , to be ransomed in a future as it was practice of the day , by the Tatars or Cossacks . After the battle , the Cossacks paid the Tatars for possession of the prisoners , and killed the Polish captives in retaliation for Chmielnicki ’ s defeat at Berestechko . Among the 8 @,@ 000 massacred Polish soldiers was Marek Sobieski. or the number could have been much higher , up to 15 @,@ 000 killed in action and massacred .
Sobieski 's mother returned his body to his home , and to commemorate him she founded the Church of the Assumption of Mary in Żółkiew , which was built between 1653 and 1655 . Sobieski was buried there in 1655 on the day the church was consecrated . His brother , King Jan III Sobieski , commissioned a gravestone by Andreas Schlüter made from black marble , which was destroyed after 1945 . In 1946 Sobieski 's body was taken to the Dominican 's Church in Kraków .
= = Legacy = =
Sobieski was portrayed by Henryk Sienkiewicz in With Fire and Sword ( 1884 ) , Antoni Euzebiusz Balicki in Z żaka król ( 1936 ) and Jacek Komuda in novel Bohun ( 2006 ) .
= Gangtok =
Gangtok ( / ˈɡæŋtɒk / ) is a municipality , the capital and the largest town of the Indian state of Sikkim . It also is the headquarters of the East Sikkim district . Gangtok is located in the eastern Himalayan range , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 650 m ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . The town 's population of 100 @,@ 000 belongs to different ethnicities such as Nepali , Lepchas and Bhutia . Nestled within higher peaks of the Himalaya and enjoying a year @-@ round mild temperate climate , Gangtok is at the centre of Sikkim 's tourism industry .
Gangtok rose to prominence as a popular Buddhist pilgrimage site after the construction of the Enchey Monastery in 1840 . In 1894 , the ruling Sikkimese Chogyal , Thutob Namgyal , transferred the capital to Gangtok . In the early 20th century , Gangtok became a major stopover on the trade route between Lhasa in Tibet and cities such as Kolkata ( then Calcutta ) in British India . After India won its independence from Britain in 1947 , Sikkim chose to remain an independent monarchy , with Gangtok as its capital . In 1975 , after the integration with the union of India , Gangtok was made India 's 22nd state capital .
The precise meaning of the name " Gangtok " is unclear , though the most popular meaning is " hill top " . Today , Gangtok is a centre of Tibetan Buddhist culture and learning , with the presence of several monasteries , religious educational institutions , and centres for Tibetology .
= = History = =
Like the rest of Sikkim , not much is known about the early history of Gangtok . The earliest records date from the construction of the hermitic Gangtok monastery in 1716 . Gangtok remained a small hamlet until the construction of the Enchey Monastery in 1840 made it a pilgrimage center . It became the capital of what was left of Sikkim after an English conquest in the mid @-@ 19th century in response to a hostage crisis . After the defeat of the Tibetans by the British , Gangtok became a major stopover in the trade between Tibet and British India at the end of the 19th century . Most of the roads and the telegraph in the area were built during this time .
In 1894 , Thutob Namgyal , the Sikkimese monarch under British rule , shifted the capital from Tumlong to Gangtok , increasing the city 's importance . A new grand palace along with other state buildings was built in the new capital . Following India 's independence in 1947 , Sikkim became a nation @-@ state with Gangtok as its capital . Sikkim came under the suzerainty of India , with the condition that it would retain its independence , by the treaty signed between the Chogyal and the then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . This pact gave the Indians control of external affairs on behalf of Sikkimese . Trade between India and Tibet continued to flourish through the Nathula and Jelepla passes , offshoots of the ancient Silk Road near Gangtok . These border passes were sealed after the Sino @-@ Indian War in 1962 , which deprived Gangtok of its trading business . The Nathula pass was finally opened for limited trade in 2006 , fuelling hopes of economic boom .
In 1975 , after years of political uncertainty and struggle , including riots , the monarchy was abrogated and Sikkim became India 's twenty @-@ second state , with Gangtok as its capital after a referendum . Gangtok has witnessed annual landslides , resulting in loss of life and damage to property . The largest disaster occurred in June 1997 , when 38 were killed and hundreds of buildings were destroyed .
= = Geography = =
Gangtok is located at 27 @.@ 3325 ° N 88 @.@ 6140 ° E / 27 @.@ 3325 ; 88 @.@ 6140 ( coordinates of Gangtok head post office ) . It is situated in the lower Himalayas at an elevation of 1 @,@ 650 m ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . The town lies on one side of a hill , with " The Ridge " , a promenade housing the Raj Bhawan , the governor 's residence , at one end and the palace , situated at an altitude of about 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) , at the other . The city is flanked on east and west by two streams , namely Roro Chu and Ranikhola , respectively . These two rivers divide the natural drainage into two parts , the eastern and western parts . Both the streams meet the Ranipul and flow south as the main Ranikhola before it joins the Teesta at Singtam . Most of the roads are steep , with the buildings built on compacted ground alongside them .
Most of Sikkim , including Gangtok , is underlain by Precambrian rocks which contains foliated phyllites and schists ; slopes are therefore prone to frequent landslides . Surface runoff of water by natural streams ( jhora ) and man @-@ made drains has contributed to the risk of landslides . According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , the town falls under seismic zone @-@ IV ( on a scale of I to V , in order of increasing seismic activity ) , near the convergent boundary of the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates and is subject to frequent earthquakes . The hills are nestled within higher peaks and the snow @-@ clad Himalayan ranges tower over the town from the distance . Mount Kanchenjunga ( 8 @,@ 598 m or 28 @,@ 208 ft ) — the world 's third @-@ highest peak — is visible to the west of the city . The existence of steep slopes , vulnerability to landslides , large forest cover and inadequate access to most areas have been a major impediment to the natural and balanced growth of the city .
There are densely forested regions around Gangtok , consisting of temperate , deciduous forests of poplar , birch , oak , and elm , as well as evergreen , coniferous trees of the wet alpine zone . Orchids are common , and rare varieties of orchids are featured in flower shows in the city . Bamboos are also abundant . In the lower reaches of the town , the vegetation gradually changes from alpine to temperate deciduous and subtropical . Flowers such as sunflower , marigold , poinsettia , and others bloom , especially in November and December .
= = = Climate = = =
Gangtok features a monsoon @-@ influenced subtropical highland climate ( Köppen : Cwb ) . Because of its elevation and sheltered environment , Gangtok enjoys a mild , temperate climate all year round . Like most Himalayan towns , Gangtok has five seasons : summer , monsoons , autumn , winter and spring . Temperatures range from an average maximum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) in summer to an average minimum of 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) in winter . Summers ( lasting from late April to June ) are mild , with maximum temperatures rarely crossing 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The monsoon season from June to September is characterised by intense torrential rains often causing landslides that block Gangtok 's land access to the rest of the country . Rainfall starts to rise from pre @-@ monsoon in May , and peaks during the monsoon , with July recording the highest monthly average of 649 @.@ 6 mm ( 25 @.@ 6 in ) . In winter temperature averages between 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) . Snowfall is rare , and in recent times Gangtok has received snow only in 1990 , 2004 , 2005 and January 2011 . Temperatures below freezing are also rare . During this season the weather can be unstable , and change abruptly from bright sunshine and clear skies to heavy rain within a couple of hours . During spring and autumn the weather is generally sunny and mild . Owing to its elevation , Gangtok is often enveloped in fog during the monsoon and winter months .
= = Economy = =
The hospitality industry is the largest industry in Gangtok as the city is the main base for Sikkim tourism . Summer and spring seasons are the most popular tourist seasons . Many of Gangtok 's residents are employed directly and indirectly in the tourism industry , with many residents owning and working in hotels and restaurants .
Ecotourism has emerged as an important economic activity in the region which includes trekking , mountaineering , river rafting and other nature oriented activities . An estimated 351 @,@ 000 tourists visited Sikkim in 2007 , generating revenue of about Rs 50 crores ( Rs 500 millions ) .
The Nathula Pass , located about 50 km ( 31 mi ) from Gangtok , used to be the primary route of the wool , fur and spice trade with Tibet and spurred economic growth for Gangtok till the mid @-@ 20th century . In 1962 , after the border was closed during the Sino @-@ Indian War , Gangtok fell into recession . The pass was reopened in 2006 and trade through the pass is expected to boost the economy of Gangtok . The Sikkim government is keen to open a Lhasa – Gangtok bus service via Nathula pass . Sikkim 's mountainous terrain results in the lack of train or air links , limiting the area 's potential for rapid industrial development . The government is the largest employer in the city , both directly and as contractors . Gangtok 's economy does not have a large manufacturing base , but has a thriving Cottage industry in watch @-@ making , country @-@ made alcohol and handicrafts . Among the handicrafts are the handmade paper industry made from various vegetable fibres or cotton rags . The main market in Gangtok provides many of the state 's rural residents a place to offer their produce during the harvest seasons . The majority of the private business community is made up of Marwaris and Biharis . As part of Sikkim , Gangtok enjoys the status of being an income @-@ tax free region as per the state 's 1948 Income tax law . As Sikkim is a frontier state , the Indian army maintains a large presence in the vicinity of Gangtok . This leads to a population of semi @-@ permanent residents who bring money into the local economy . The Sikkim government started India 's first online lottery Playwin to boost government income , but this was later closed by a ruling from the Sikkim High Court .
In 2013 premier Indian publishing company Thomson Digital opened its production unit in Gangtok . Thus becoming first MNC to venture there and paving path for future private companies to explore potential of young workforce of Gangtok .
= = Civic administration = =
Gangtok is administered by Gangtok Municipal Corporation along with the various departments of Government of Sikkim , particularly the Urban Development and Housing Department ( UDHD ) and Public Health Engineering Department ( PHED ) . These departments looked after the civic functions such as garbage disposal , water supply , tax collection , license allotments , and civic infrastructure . An administrator appointed by the state government headed the UDHD .
As the headquarters of East Sikkim district , Gangtok houses the offices of the district collector , an administrator appointed by the Union Government of India . Gangtok is also the seat of the Sikkim High Court , which is India 's smallest High Court in terms of area and population of jurisdiction . Gangtok does not have its own police commissionerate like other major cities in India . Instead , it comes under the jurisdiction of the state police , which is headed by a Director General of Police , although an Inspector General of Police oversees the town . Sikkim is known for its very low crime rate . Rongyek jail in Gangtok is Sikkim 's only central jail .
Gangtok is within the Sikkim Lok Sabha constituency that elects a member to the Lok Sabha ( Lower House ) of the Indian Parliament . The city elects one member in the Sikkim state legislative assembly , the Vidhan Sabha . The Sikkim Democratic Front ( SDF ) won both the parliamentary election in 2009 and the state assembly seat in the 2009 state assembly polls .
= = Utility services = =
Electricity is supplied by the power department of the Government of Sikkim . Gangtok has a nearly uninterrupted electricity supply due to Sikkim 's numerous hydroelectric power stations . The rural roads around Gangtok are maintained by the Border Roads Organisation , a division of the Indian army . Several roads in Gangtok are reported to be in a poor condition , whereas building construction activities continue almost unrestrained in this city lacking proper land infrastructure . Most households are supplied by the central water system maintained and operated by the PHED . The main source of PHED water supply is the Rateychu River , located about 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from the city , at an altitude of 2 @,@ 621 m ( 8 @,@ 599 ft ) . Its water treatment plant is located at Selep . The river Rateychu is snow @-@ fed and has perennial streams . Since there is no habitation in the catchment area except for a small army settlement , there is little environmental degradation and the water is of very good quality . 40 seasonal local springs are used by the Rural Management and Development Department of Sikkim Government to supply water to outlying rural areas .
Around 40 % of the population has access to sewers . However , only the toilet waste is connected to the sewer while sullage is discharged into the drains . Without a proper sanitation system , the practice of disposing sewage through septic tanks and directly discharging into Jhoras and open drains is prevalent . The entire city drains into the two rivers , Ranikhola and Roro Chu , through numerous small streams and Jhoras . Ranikhola and Roro Chu rivers confluence with Teesta River , the major source of drinking water to the population downstream . The densely populated urban area of Gangtok does not have a combined drainage system to drain out the storm water and waste water from the buildings . The estimated solid waste generated in Gangtok city is approximately 45 tonnes . Only around 40 % of this is collected by UDHD , while the remainder is indiscriminately thrown into Jhora , streets and valleys . The collected waste is disposed in a dump located about 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the city . There is no waste collection from inaccessible areas where vehicles cannot reach , nor does any system of collection of waste exist in the adjoining rural areas . The city is under a statewide ban on the use of polythene bags .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
Taxis are the most widely available public transport within Gangtok . Most of the residents stay within a few kilometres of the town centre and many have their own vehicles such as two @-@ wheelers and cars . The share of personal vehicles and taxis combined is 98 % of Gangtok 's total vehicles , a high percentage when compared to other Indian cities . City buses comprise less than one percent of vehicles . Those travelling longer distances generally make use of share @-@ jeeps , a kind of public taxis . Four wheel drives are used to easily navigate the steep slopes of the roads . The 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) long cable car with three stops connects lower Gangtok suburbs with Sikkim Legislative assembly in central Gangtok and the upper suburbs .
Gangtok is connected to the rest of India by an all @-@ weather metalled highway , National Highway 10 ， earlier known as National Highway 31A , which links Gangtok to Siliguri , located 114 km ( 71 mi ) away in the neighbouring state of West Bengal . The highway also provides a link to the neighbouring hill station towns of Darjeeling and Kalimpong , which are the nearest urban areas . Regular jeep , van , and bus services link these towns to Gangtok . Gangtok is a linear city that has developed along the arterial roads , especially National Highway 31A . Most of the road length in Gangtok , is of two lane undivided carriageway with footpath on one side of the road and drain on the other . The steep gradient of the different road stretches coupled with a spiral road configuration constrain the smooth flow of vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic .
= = = Rail = = =
The nearest railhead connected to the rest of India is the station of New Jalpaiguri in Siliguri , situated 124 km ( 77 mi ) away from Gangtok . Work has commenced for a broad gauge railway link from Sevoke in West Bengal to Rangpo in Sikkim that is planned for extension to Gangtok .
= = = Air = = =
The closest airport is Bagdogra Airport , ( IATA airport code IXB ) in Siliguri , 16 km ( 10 mi ) from Siliguri Town . Gangtok is linked to Bagdogra airport by a daily helicopter service that operates only once a day and carries four passengers . Pakyong Airport , a greenfield airport , southeast of Gangtok .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Provisional Population Totals 2011 census of India , the population of Gangtok Municipal Corporation has been estimated to be 98 @,@ 658 . Males constituted 53 % of the population and females 47 % . The Gangtok subdivision of the East Sikkim district had a population of 281 @,@ 293 , Gangtok has an average literacy rate of 82 @.@ 17 % , higher than the national average of 74 % : male literacy is 85 @.@ 33 % , and female literacy is 78 @.@ 68 . About 8 % of Gangtok 's population live in the nine notified slums and squatter settlements , all on Government land . More people live in areas that depict slum @-@ like characteristics but have not been notified as slums yet because they have developed on private land . Of the total urban population of Sikkim , Gangtok Municipal Corporation has a share of 55 @.@ 5 % . Including Gangtok , East District has a share of 88 % of the total urban population . The quality of life , the pace of development and availability of basic infrastructure and employment prospects has been the major cause for rapid migration to the city . With this migration , the urban services are under pressure , intensified by the lack of availability of suitable land for infrastructure development .
Ethnic Nepalis , who settled in the region during British rule , comprise the majority of Gangtok 's residents . Lepchas , native to the land , and Bhutias also constitute a sizeable portion of the populace . Additionally , a large number of Tibetans have immigrated to the town . Immigrant resident communities not native to the region include the Marwaris , who own most of the shops ; the Biharis , who are employed in mostly blue collar jobs and the Bengalis .
Hinduism and Buddhism are the most significant religions in Gangtok . Gangtok also has a sizeable Christian population and a small Muslim minority . The North East Presbyterian Church , Roman Catholic Church and Anjuman Mosque in Gangtok are places of worship for the religious minorities . The town has not been communist , having never witnessed any sort of inter @-@ religious strife in its history . Nepali is the most widely spoken language in Sikkim as well as Gangtok . English and Hindi being the official language of Sikkim and India respectively , are also widely spoken and understood in most of Sikkim , particularly in Gangtok . Other languages spoken in Gangtok include Bhutia ( Sikkimese ) , Tibetan and Lepcha .
= = Culture = =
Apart from the major religious festivals of Dashain , Tihar , Christmas , Holi etc . , the diverse ethnic populace of the town celebrates several local festivals . The Lepchas and Bhutias celebrate new year in January , while Tibetans celebrate the new year ( Losar ) with " Devil Dance " in January – February . The Maghe sankranti , Ram Navami are some of the important Nepalese festivals . Chotrul Duchen , Buddha Jayanti , the birthday of the Dalai Lama , Loosong , Bhumchu , Saga Dawa , Lhabab Duechen and Drupka Teshi are some other festivals , some distinct to local culture and others shared with the rest of India , Nepal , Bhutan and Tibet .
A popular food in Gangtok is the momo , a steamed dumpling containing pork , beef and vegetables cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with watery soup . Wai @-@ Wai is a packaged snack consisting of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form . A form of noodle called thukpa , served in soup form is also popular in Gangtok . Other noodle @-@ based foods such as the chowmein , thenthuk , fakthu , gyathuk and wonton are available . Other traditional Sikkimese cuisine include shah @-@ phaley ( Sikkimese patties with spiced minced meat in a crisp samosa @-@ like case ) and Gack @-@ ko soup . Restaurants offer a wide variety of traditional Indian , continental and Chinese cuisines to cater to the tourists . Churpee , a kind of hard cheese made from cow 's or yak 's milk is sometimes chewed . Chhang is a local frothy millet beer traditionally served in bamboo tankards and drunk through bamboo or cane straws . Alcohol is cheap due to low excise duty in Sikkim . Beer , whiskey , rum
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later operations , they were disproportionately heavy given the modest territorial and strategic gains and were further compounded by the disappearance of the submarine AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September , with all 35 men aboard . After their defeat , the remaining German forces and the civil administration withdrew 19 miles ( 31 km ) inland to Toma , believing they would have time to regroup before the Australians arrived .
The German governor — Eduard Haber — continued to hold out for several days , hoping that the German East Asiatic Squadron would arrive to relieve them . Unknown to the Germans , however , an Australian advanced party consisting of a half @-@ battalion of 200 men and a 12 @-@ pounder naval field @-@ gun had followed them , moving along the Toma road . The Australians surrounded the town and proceeded to bombard it ; meanwhile HMAS Encounter arrived on station and fired several shells at a ridge nearby . This show of firepower scattered the Melanesian police and was sufficient to start negotiations , with Toma subsequently occupied . Haber visited Holmes in Herbertshöhe on 15 September , signing terms two days later . All military resistance subsequently ceased and the remaining 40 German soldiers and 110 Melanesians surrendered on 21 September , leaving no effective opposition to the Australian occupation of the territory .
= = = Capture of German New Guinea = = =
The German colony at Madang on Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland ( the New Guinea mainland ) was occupied on 24 September , although the German armed merchant raider SMS Cormoran — which was lurking nearby — escaped undetected . Over the next two months the remaining outposts were also occupied . Meanwhile , the German East Asiatic Squadron steamed across the Pacific before surprising and sinking a British force off Coronel on 1 November . After rounding Cape Horn into the Atlantic and attempting a raid on the Stanley naval station , the squadron was itself destroyed by a more powerful British force during the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 8 December 1914 . Later it was alleged that widespread looting and destruction of civilian property by Australian troops occurred during this period . Indeed , ill @-@ discipline among the Australian force appears to have been an issue — perhaps due to the haste with which the AN & MEF had been raised and the poor character of some of those that were enlisted . Claims in the Australian media of criminal behaviour caused considerable controversy at the time , and later led to a parliamentary enquiry . In the end a number of soldiers were court martialled and imprisoned for looting and theft , although more serious allegations , including rape , also arose .
Following the capture of the remaining German possessions in the region , the AN & MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . Holmes subsequently established a military government which continued until 1921 , after which Australia received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern the territory . The Australian military administration continued the exploitative economic policies of the previous German colonial administration , and official policy was to continue the status quo , including the use of indentured Melanesian labour on plantations , the levy of the " native head tax " and official floggings , or corporal punishment . Equally , despite previously being protected by the German colonial administration in 1914 , the hunting of the native bird @-@ of @-@ paradise , crowned pigeon and white heron for the lucrative trade in their feathers and skin , was officially condoned and a custom tax levied on their export . Under the terms of the German surrender , Haber was allowed to return to Germany , while German civilians could remain as long as they swore an oath of neutrality . Those who refused were later transported to Australia , where they could freely travel back to Germany .
On 9 January 1915 , Holmes handed over command of the AN & MEF to Brigadier General Sir Samuel Pethebridge , the former Secretary of the Department of Defence . Holmes returned to Australia and re @-@ enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , AN & MEF which was known as the " Tropical Force " because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics . Pethebridge established the administrative structures that remained through the period of military occupation . Although required by international law to follow the German forms of government , the territory gradually acquired the appearance of a British colony . As a result of the peace settlement under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 , Germany lost all of its colonial possessions , including German New Guinea . The colony became the Territory of New Guinea , a League of Nations Mandate Territory under Australian administration in 1921 . It remained as such until 1949 , when it was merged with the Australian territory of Papua to become the Territory of Papua and New Guinea , which eventually became modern Papua New Guinea . Although interrupted by Japanese occupation during the New Guinea campaign ( 1942 – 45 ) in the Second World War , Australian administration over the territory lasted until 1975 , when Papua New Guinea gained its independence .
= = = Assessment = = =
Ultimately the Australian operation on New Britain achieved its objectives , with the AN & MEF destroying the wireless station before seizing the colony , reducing a strategic German possession in the Pacific and thereby denying its use to support their naval forces in the region . Yet although successful , it had not been well @-@ managed , and the Australians had been effectively delayed by a few reserve officers and a half @-@ trained Melanesian police force . They finally prevailed because of their unexpected ability to fight in close terrain , while their outflanking of the German positions had unnerved their opponents . The Battle of Bita Paka was Australia 's first major military engagement of the war , yet it soon became little more than a sideshow in a conflict which grew to assume much greater proportions . Later , many men of the AN & MEF volunteered for the AIF and served in Egypt , Gallipoli , Sinai and Palestine and on the Western Front . A large number became casualties , including Holmes , who was killed in action in 1917 .
Apart from the very real human suffering of the Melanesian troops killed or wounded at Bita Paka , the reduction in German prestige due to the capture of German New Guinea , and the economic and property losses experienced by some German colonists during the occupation , the battle ultimately held little significance for Germany either . The fighting yielded few tactical lessons given the very different nature of the fighting there to that of the mass industrialised warfare which both the Germans and Australians experienced in Europe . Meanwhile , just as many Australians felt that " the real war was in Europe " , so would have most Germans as the campaign became subsumed by the global conflict of the First World War . It is largely forgotten today as a result .
= Clock Tower 3 =
Clock Tower 3 is a survival horror video game co @-@ developed by Capcom and Sunsoft for the PlayStation 2 . Released in 2002 , it is the fourth installment in the Clock Tower series , and the first and only video game directed by Japanese film director Kinji Fukasaku . The plot and characters have very little relation with the previous Clock Tower games . The story follows 14 @-@ year @-@ old Alyssa Hamilton who is part of a family lineage of female warriors who travel through time to defeat evil spirits . Alyssa travels from her time in 2003 London to the 1940s and 1960s in order to defeat these " Entities " and bring peace to troubled souls .
As opposed to the point @-@ and @-@ click gameplay used in the previous games , Clock Tower 3 is the first game in the series to incorporate direct control over the protagonist . Alyssa is given no weapon for the majority of the game , and must evade and hide from her pursuers . These enemies , known as " Subordinates " , are fought at the end of each level , during which Alyssa is armed with a longbow . The game received mixed reviews and was a commercial failure , selling considerably less than anticipated . The presentation , writing , and graphics were positively received , with many critics praising the cutscenes and Fukasaku 's direction . However , the gameplay was criticized for its repetitive mechanics , and the game itself was felt to be too short .
= = Gameplay = =
Clock Tower 3 is a survival horror game played from a fixed third @-@ person camera perspective in which players control 14 @-@ year @-@ old school girl Alyssa Hamilton . Clock Tower 3 is the first game in the series to incorporate direct control over the protagonist , as opposed to the point @-@ and @-@ click gameplay used in the previous games . To progress through the game , the player must find items to unlock new areas , solve puzzles , and flee and hide from enemies ( " Subordinates " ) . Eventually , each Subordinate must be defeated in battle . Throughout each level , the player also encounters the spirits of innocent people slain by the Subordinates . These spirits will attack Alyssa if she approaches them . In order to pacify them , an item of sentimental value must be found and returned to the spirit 's corpse .
Alyssa is given no weaponry during the majority of the game , other than a limited supply of holy water , which can be used to temporarily stun pursuing Subordinates . Within each level , the Subordinate can appear in any location after a set period of time , but also randomly or if Alyssa makes noise . They also appear in certain set locations . When one appears , it immediately begins to chase Alyssa , attempting to kill her . The player must either hide from or evade it . Evasion can only be accomplished in certain places , and each evasion point can only be used once . Using an evasion point does not kill the Subordinate , but instead renders them unconscious for a set time . The primary means of eluding one , however , is by hiding . There are multiple hiding points throughout each level , and each one can be used multiple times . However , hiding places are ineffective if the Subordinate sees Alyssa enter them .
Throughout most of the game , Alyssa has a " Panic Meter " visible on screen . If she is scared by a Subordinate , attacked by a spirit or simply frightened by her surroundings , the meter will begin to rise . If it fills , she enters " Panic mode " . In this state , the screen starts flashing and Alyssa becomes difficult to control and begins stumbling and falling over . She is also unable to use holy water and cannot enter hiding spots . After a few seconds , she will momentarily freeze , covering her ears . Panic mode only lasts for a certain amount of time , and its duration can be reduced by using " Lavender water " . However , if she is hit by a Subordinate while in Panic Mode , she will die instantly .
After the majority of each level has played out , Alyssa must confront the Subordinate who has been chasing her . At this point , her holy water bottle transforms into a longbow , allowing her to fight back . Each battle is confined to a single area , and both Alyssa and the Subordinate have onscreen life bars . During the fight , Alyssa must dodge attacks while firing arrows . In order to inflict any real damage , she must power @-@ up her attacks . However , while powering @-@ up , Alyssa cannot move or re @-@ adjust her aim . This leaves her vulnerable to attacks , and makes it possible for her enemy to move out of her line of sight . A fully powered @-@ up shot will tether the Subordinate to the ground . If it is transfixed with multiple powered @-@ up shots , Alyssa can perform a highly damaging " Super attack " , killing or severely wounding it .
= = Plot = =
The story of Clock Tower 3 is set in London in 2003 . Alyssa Hamilton is a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl who has been living at a boarding school for three years . Her mother , Nancy , sent her there after her grandfather , Dick , disappeared . The game begins with Alyssa receiving a letter from her mother telling her to go into hiding until after her fifteenth birthday . Alarmed , Alyssa decides to go against her mother 's wishes and return home . However , when she arrives at the boarding house in which they live , her mother is absent , and the only person there is a man called " The Dark Gentleman " . Determined to find her mother , Alyssa explores her mother 's room . Suddenly , Frédéric Chopin 's Fantaisie @-@ Impromptu begins to play with no apparent source , and Alyssa is transported back in time to the streets of London during World War II .
She enters a tailor shop where she witnesses the murder of a young girl by a man wielding a sledgehammer . Eventually , Alyssa is able to piece together what happened : May Norton was killed on Christmas Eve 1942 by Sledgehammer , a stonecutter who went on a killing spree before being caught and executed . Alyssa comes to realise that she must free May 's spirit , which is trapped on Earth , by giving her her father 's pocket watch . On her way to do so , she is confronted by Sledgehammer , whom she destroys . She then gives the watch to May 's spirit , reuniting her with her father . At that moment , Alyssa faints and wakes up back in the boarding house . She explores the house further with her friend , Dennis Owen , and learns more about her past : the girls in her family are known as " Rooders " , young women with supernatural powers . Rooders are the sworn enemies of " Entities " , beings which can infect innocent humans and drive them to acts of murder , at which point the human becomes a " Subordinate " . Rooder powers peak at the age of fifteen , and wane afterward , disappearing completely by the age of twenty .
Alyssa then travels to the 1960s , where she enters the house of Dorothy Rand , a blind elderly woman and her son , Albert , and sees them murdered by a man known as Corroder , who throws them into a vat of acid . Alyssa destroys Corroder , and returns a lost shawl to Dorothy 's spirit , freeing both herself and Albert . She then returns to the present , where The Dark Gentleman congratulates her on killing two Subordinates . He sends her to the top of a massive clock tower where he tells her that when her fifteenth birthday arrives they will be united for eternity . He also tells her that her mother is dead . When she refuses to believe him , he flings her from the tower . Regaining consciousness in a sewer system , she is forced to confront another Subordinate , Chopper . She defeats him , but fails to kill him and is sent to a graveyard . She then learns of the " Ritual of Engagement " ; if a human wishes to become an Entity , they must remove the heart of a Rooder to whom they are related on her fifteenth birthday and drink her blood . Eventually , Alyssa fights Chopper again and is able to destroy him .
Dennis arrives , and he and Alyssa find their way to an abandoned hospital where they encounter Scissorman and Scissorwoman , who kidnap Dennis . Alyssa is then transported to a castle , where she sees Dick reciting a strange incantation . She learns Dick knew of the Ritual of Engagement , and had discovered that Lord Burroughs , the owner of the castle and from whom he is descended , also knew of the ritual . She then sees an incident from the past of Dick asking for Burroughs ' help to become an Entity , inviting Burroughs to enter his body and for them to complete the Ritual together . Burroughs ' spirit takes possession of Dick , turning into The Dark Gentleman . Meanwhile , Alyssa is able to rescue Dennis from the twins , killing them in the process . The Dark Gentleman then tells Alyssa if she wants to save Nancy 's soul , she must come to the top of the tower . There , The Dark Gentlemen turns into Lord Burroughs and begins the Ritual . However , Dennis distracts Burroughs , allowing Alyssa to fight back . Nancy 's spirit transfers what is left of her own Rooder power into Alyssa , giving her the strength to destroy Burroughs . After she defeats him , she reunites with her mother 's spirit . The tower then collapses . Alyssa awakens in a field , where she sees Dennis . She runs to him and hugs him as she says " Mum ... we did it . We did it , Mum . "
= = Development = =
Clock Tower 3 was officially announced on April 11 , 2001 , with Capcom revealing they had taken over the Clock Tower series from Human Entertainment , and would be co @-@ developing the new game with Sunsoft . They also revealed that acclaimed Japanese film director Kinji Fukasaku would be directing the cutscenes , Keita Amemiya was in charge of character design , Noboru Sugimura was writing the scenario , and Kouji ' Cozy ' Kubo was composing the music . At the time of the announcement , the game was still in the casting phase ; over two hundred actresses had auditioned for the motion capture of Alyssa . The game was first shown at E3 in May 2002 , where a non @-@ playable demo was on show at the Capcom booth . In November , Capcom announced the game would be released in Japan on December 12 .
= = Reception = =
Clock Tower 3 received " mixed or average reviews , " with an aggregate score of 69 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on 28 reviews . Commercially , the game was a failure . Capcom had projected sales of at least 450 @,@ 000 , but the game fell considerably short of that number . By the end of 2002 , it had sold 78 @,@ 961 units , making it the 151st highest selling game in Japan across all systems . In 2003 , it sold a further 43 @,@ 061 units , bringing its total to only 122 @,@ 022 units sold .
The game 's presentation was strongly praised , with many pointing out the excellent cinematic style brought together by a strong script and well @-@ directed cutscenes . GameSpy 's Alan Pavlacka felt the script was the game 's strongest point , and wrote that the " excellent cinema scenes " and " distinct visual style " also contributed to the high quality presentation . The graphics and atmosphere were also well received . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham noted that " Clock Tower 3 successfully captur [ es ] the dirty , musty look of England 's serial killer underworld ... [ it ] is straight out of a Mary Shelley novel . " The cutscene direction from Kinji Fukasaku was positively noted , with Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed calling the cutscenes " exceptionally well @-@ realised . " The camerawork and scariness of the game were both lauded and criticized .
While the presentation was received positively , the gameplay received criticism from multiple reviews . More specifically , the boss fights and repetitive hiding and chasing gameplay mechanics were cited as weak . GameSpot 's Brad Shoemaker argued the cinematic portions were underpinned by the gameplay , believing that players would more likely want to finish the game for its storyline than the fun they 'll have playing it . Game Revolution 's AA White stated " Clock Tower 3 is ultimately one of those games whose cinemas are more interesting than the actual gameplay and from a gamer 's standpoint , that 's never a good thing . " Critics also agreed that the game felt too short .
= German – Yugoslav Partisan negotiations =
The German – Yugoslav Partisan negotiations were held between German commanders in the Independent State of Croatia and the Supreme Headquarters of the Yugoslav Partisans in March 1943 during World War II . The negotiations – focused on obtaining a ceasefire and establishing a prisoner exchange – were conducted during the Axis Case White offensive . They were used by the Partisans to delay the Axis forces while the Partisans crossed the Neretva river , and to allow the Partisans to focus on attacking their Chetnik rivals led by Draža Mihailović . The negotiations were accompanied by an informal ceasefire that lasted about six weeks before being called off on orders from Adolf Hitler . The short @-@ term advantage gained by the Partisans through the negotiations was lost when the Axis Case Black offensive was launched in mid @-@ May 1943 . Prisoner exchanges , which had been occurring between the Germans and Partisans for some months prior , re @-@ commenced in late 1943 and continued until the end of the war .
Details of the negotiations were little known by historians until the 1970s , despite being mentioned by several authors from 1949 on . The key Partisan negotiator , Milovan Đilas , was first named in Walter Roberts ' Tito , Mihailović , and the Allies , 1941 – 1945 in 1973 . Roberts ' book was met with protests from the Yugoslav government of Josip Broz Tito . The objections centred on claims that Roberts was effectively equating the German – Partisan negotiations with the collaboration agreements concluded by various Chetnik leaders with the Italians and Germans during the war . Roberts denied this , but added that the book did not accept the mythology of the Partisans as a " liberation movement " or the Chetniks as " traitorous collaborators " . Subsequently , accounts of the negotiations were published by Yugoslav historians and the main Yugoslav protagonists .
= = Background = =
In August 1942 , during the Partisan Long March west through the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslav Partisans captured a group of eight Germans from the civil and military engineering group Organisation Todt near Livno . The leader of the captured group was a mining engineer , Hans Ott , who was also an officer of the Abwehr , the Wehrmacht 's intelligence organisation . The captured group had been identifying new sources of metal and timber for the Germans , but Ott had also been tasked by the Abwehr with making contact with the Partisans . Following their capture , Ott told his captors that he had an important message to deliver to Partisan headquarters , and after he had been taken there he suggested to the Partisans that his group be exchanged for Partisans held by the Germans in jails in Zagreb . On that basis , Ott was sent to Zagreb on parole , where he met with the German Plenipotentiary General in Croatia , General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . He advised Glaise @-@ Horstenau that Tito was willing to exchange the eight Germans for ten Partisans that were held by the Germans , Italians and NDH authorities . Glaise @-@ Horstenau contacted the commander of the Italian 2nd Army , Generale designato d ’ Armata ( acting General ) Mario Roatta , who had most of the identified Partisan prisoners in his custody . On 14 August , the German ambassador to the NDH , SA @-@ Obergruppenführer ( Lieutenant General ) Siegfried Kasche sent a telegram to the Reich Foreign Ministry advising of the proposed exchange and asked the Ministry to intercede with the Italians . In his book Tito , Mihailović , and the Allies , 1941 – 1945 , published in 1973 , the former US diplomat Walter Roberts argued that the Abwehr considered some sort of modus vivendi with the Partisans might be possible , and were thinking of more than prisoner exchanges when they gave Ott the task of making contact with the Partisans . The number of Germans in Partisan custody had been increasing , and this made some sort
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comedy with a world tour . In 2011 , she starred in an unscripted TV show , Roseanne 's Nuts , that lasted from July to September of that year , about her life on a Hawaiian farm .
In early 2012 , Barr announced her candidacy for the presidential nomination of the Green Party . Barr lost the nomination to Jill Stein . She then sought the presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party , which she won on August 4 , 2012 . Barr received 61 @,@ 971 votes in the general election , placing sixth overall .
= = Early life = =
Barr was born in Salt Lake City , to a working @-@ class Jewish family . She is the oldest of four children born to Helen ( née Davis ) , a bookkeeper and cashier , and Jerome Hershel " Jerry " Barr , who worked as a salesman . Her father 's family were Jewish immigrants from Russia , and her maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Austria @-@ Hungary and Lithuania , respectively . Her paternal grandfather changed his surname from " Borisofsky " to " Barr " upon entering the United States .
Her Jewish upbringing was influenced by her devoutly Orthodox Jewish maternal grandmother . Barr 's parents kept their Jewish heritage secret from their neighbors and were partially involved in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Barr has stated , " Friday , Saturday , and Sunday morning I was a Jew ; Sunday afternoon , Tuesday afternoon , and Wednesday afternoon we were Mormons " . When Barr was three years old , she got Bell 's palsy on the left side of her face . Barr said , " [ so ] my mother called in a rabbi to pray for me , but nothing happened . Then my mother got a Mormon preacher , he prayed , and I was miraculously cured " . Years later Barr learned that Bell 's palsy was usually temporary and that the Mormon preacher came " exactly at the right time " . At six years old , Barr discovered her first public stage by lecturing at LDS churches around Utah and even was elected president of a Mormon youth group .
At 16 , Barr was hit by a car that left her with a traumatic brain injury . Her behavior changed so radically that she was institutionalized for eight months at Utah State Hospital . In 1970 , when Barr was 18 years old , she moved out by informing her parents she was going to visit a friend in Colorado for two weeks , but never returned .
= = Career = =
= = = Stand @-@ up comedian : 1980 – 1986 = = =
While in Colorado , Barr did stand @-@ up gigs in clubs in Denver and other Colorado towns . She later tried out at The Comedy Store in Los Angeles and went on to appear on The Tonight Show in 1985 . In 1986 , she performed on Late Night with David Letterman and the following year had her own HBO special called The Roseanne Barr Show , which earned her an American Comedy Award for the funniest female performer in a television special . Barr was offered the role of Peg Bundy in Married ... with Children but turned it down . In her routine she popularized the phrase , " domestic goddess , " to refer to a homemaker or housewife . The success of her act led to her own series on ABC , called Roseanne .
= = = Roseanne sitcom , film , books , and talk show : 1987 – 2004 = = =
In 1987 , The Cosby Show executive producers Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner wanted to bring a " no @-@ perks family comedy " to television . They hired Cosby writer Matt Williams to write a script about factory workers and signed Barr to play Roseanne Conner . The show premiered on October 18 , 1988 and was watched by 21 @.@ 4 million households , making it the highest @-@ rated debut of that season .
Barr became outraged when she watched the first episode of Roseanne and noticed that in the credits , Williams was listed as creator . She told Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly , " We built the show around my actual life and my kids . The ' domestic goddess ' , the whole thing " . In the same interview , Werner said , " I don 't think Roseanne , to this day , understands that this is something legislated by the Writers Guild , and it 's part of what every show has to deal with . They 're the final arbiters . " During the first season , Barr sought more creative control over the show , opposing Williams ' authority . Barr refused to say certain lines and eventually walked off set . She threatened to quit the show if Williams did not leave . ABC let Williams go after the thirteenth episode .
Roseanne ran for nine seasons from 1988 to 1997 . Barr won an Emmy , a Golden Globe , a Kids Choice Award , and three American Comedy Awards for her part in the show . For the final two seasons , Barr earned $ 40 million , making her the second @-@ highest @-@ paid woman in show business at the time , after Oprah Winfrey .
Barbara Ehrenreich called Barr a working @-@ class spokesperson representing " the hopeless underclass of the female sex : polyester @-@ clad , overweight occupants of the slow track ; fast @-@ food waitresses , factory workers , housewives , members of the invisible pink @-@ collar army ; the despised , the jilted , the underpaid , " but a master of " the kind of class @-@ militant populism that the Democrats , most of them anyway , never seem to get right . " Barr refuses to use the term " blue collar " because it masks the issue of class .
During Roseanne 's final season , Barr was in negotiations between Carsey @-@ Werner Productions and ABC executives to continue playing Roseanne Conner in a spin @-@ off . However , after failed discussions with ABC , and later CBS and Fox , Carsey @-@ Werner and Barr agreed not to go on with the negotiations .
Barr gave Amy Sherman @-@ Palladino and Joss Whedon their first writing jobs on Roseanne . She released her autobiography in 1989 , titled Roseanne — My Life As a Woman . That same year , she made her film debut in She @-@ Devil , playing Ruth . Film critic Roger Ebert gave her a positive review saying , " Barr could have made an easy , predictable and dumb comedy at any point in the last couple of years . Instead , she took her chances with an ambitious project – a real movie . It pays off , in that Barr demonstrates that there is a core of reality inside her TV persona , a core of identifiable human feelings like jealousy and pride , and they provide a sound foundation for her comic acting " .
In 1991 , she voiced the baby , Julie , in Look Who 's Talking Too . She was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress . She appeared three times on Saturday Night Live from 1991 to 1994 , co @-@ hosting with then @-@ husband Tom Arnold in 1992 . In 1994 , she released a second book , My Lives . That same year , Barr became the first female comedian to host the MTV Video Music Awards on her own . She remained the only to have done so until comedian Chelsea Handler hosted in 2010 . In 1997 , she made guest appearances on 3rd Rock from the Sun and The Nanny .
In 1998 , she portrayed the Wicked Witch of the West in a production of The Wizard of Oz at Madison Square Garden . That same year , Barr hosted her own talk show , The Roseanne Show , which ran for two years before it was canceled in 2000 . In the summer of 2003 , she took on the dual role of hosting a cooking show called Domestic Goddess and starring in a reality show called The Real Roseanne Show about hosting a cooking show . Although 13 episodes were in production , a hysterectomy brought a premature end to both projects . In 2004 , she voiced Maggie , one of the main characters in the animated film Home on the Range .
= = = Return to stand @-@ up , television guest appearances , and radio : 2005 – 2010 = = =
In 2005 , she returned to stand @-@ up comedy with a world tour . In February 2006 , Barr performed her first @-@ ever live dates in Europe as part of the Leicester Comedy Festival in Leicester , England . The shows took place at De Montfort Hall . She released her first children 's DVD , Rockin ' with Roseanne : Calling All Kids , that month . Roseanne 's return to the stage culminated in an HBO Comedy Special Roseanne Barr : Blonde N Bitchin ' , which aired November 4 , 2006 , on HBO . Two nights earlier , Roseanne had returned to primetime network TV with a guest spot on NBC 's My Name Is Earl , playing a crazy trailer park manager . In April 2007 , Barr hosted season three of The Search for the Funniest Mom in America on Nick at Nite .
In March 2008 , she headlined an act at the Sahara Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip . From 2009 to 2010 , she hosted a politically themed radio show on KPFK . Since 2008 , she and partner Johnny Argent have hosted a weekly radio show on Sundays , on KCAA in the Los Angeles area , called " The Roseanne and Johnny Show " . On March 23 , 2009 it was announced that Barr would be returning to primetime with a new sitcom , wherein she would once again play the matriarch . Jim Vallely of Arrested Development had been tapped to pen the series . She later stated on her website that the project had been canceled .
On April 15 , 2009 , Barr made an appearance on Bravo 's 2nd Annual A @-@ List Awards in the opening scenes . She played Kathy Griffin 's fairy godmother , granting her wish to be on the A @-@ List for one night only . Barr headlined the inaugural Traverse City Comedy Arts Festival in February 2010 , a project of the Traverse City Film Festival , founded by filmmaker Michael Moore . Moore developed the comedy fest with comedian Jeff Garlin . In 2010 , Barr appeared in Jordan Brady 's documentary about stand @-@ up comedy , I Am Comic .
= = = Reality television , third book , sitcom pilot , politics and Comedy Central Roast : 2011 – present = = =
Barr released her third book , Roseannearchy : Dispatches from the Nut Farm , in January 2011 . She appeared in 2011 on a Super Bowl XLV commercial for Snickers along with comedian Richard Lewis . It was the most popular ad based on the number of TiVo users rewinding and watching it over . Roseanne 's Nuts , a reality show featuring Barr , boyfriend Johnny Argent , and son Jake as they run a macadamia nut and livestock farm in Big Island , Hawaii was broadcast by Lifetime Television in July 2011 , and cancelled in September of that year .
In August 2011 , it was reported that Barr was working on a new sitcom with 20th Century Fox Television tentatively titled Downwardly Mobile . Steven Greener , who also executive produced her reality show Roseanne 's Nuts , will also executive produce the sitcom . Eric Gilliland is attached as co @-@ creator , writer and executive producer ; Gilliland was also a writer on Barr 's previous sitcom Roseanne . The show will be set in a mobile home community and use a multiple @-@ camera setup . In October 2011 , NBC picked up the show . A pilot was filmed but initially ended up being shelved by the network . Barr blames her " Progressive politics " as being the sole reason behind the pilot 's rejection . Barr states that she was notified that the show would not be picked up due to its being labeled " too polarizing " by network executives . In an interview with Politicker , Barr revealed that the show had been axed only to announce three hours later that she had just received a phone call saying that NBC had not given up on the project completely . The show could end up as an NBC midseason replacement . Barr hopes she 's given the opportunity to retool the show .
Barr was " roasted " by Comedy Central in August 2012 . Barr 's former spouse , Tom Arnold , had claimed that he would not be appearing , but he ended up doing so .
In the summer of 2014 Barr joined Keenen Ivory Wayans and Russell Peters as a judge on Last Comic Standing on NBC .
On November 28 , 2014 , Barr 's series , Momsters : When Moms Go Bad debuted on the Investigation Discovery cable network , a network that she says she 's a ' little obsessed with . ' Barr hosts the show as herself .
= = Controversy = =
= = = National Anthem = = =
On July 25 , 1990 , Barr performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before a baseball game between the San Diego Padres and Cincinnati Reds at Jack Murphy Stadium . As she later claimed , she was initially having trouble hearing herself over the public @-@ address system , so she was singing as loudly as possible , and her rendition of the song sounded " screechy " . Following her rendition , she mimicked the often @-@ seen actions of players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup . Barr claimed she had been encouraged by baseball officials to " bring humor to the song " . The song and the closing routine received heavy media attention and offended many , including President George H. W. Bush , who called her rendition " disgraceful . " Barr would revisit this incident during her Comedy Central Roast in 2012 , wherein she once again belted out the last few bars of the national anthem , without screeching .
= = = Zimmerman tweet = = =
In 2014 , the parents of George Zimmerman , a neighborhood watch coordinator who is known for fatally shooting Trayvon Martin but was later acquitted of second degree murder and manslaughter , filed a lawsuit against Barr for tweeting their home address and phone number on March 29 , 2012 . Barr allegedly tweeted " At first I thought it was good to let ppl know that no one can hide anymore ... If Zimmerman isn 't arrested I 'll rt his address again- maybe go 2 his house myself . " Zimmerman 's parents allege that Barr sought to " cause a lynch mob to descend " on their home . The Seminole County Circuit Court complaint sought more than $ 15 @,@ 000 for emotional distress and invasion of privacy . In August 2015 , summary judgment was granted in favor of Barr .
= = 2012 Presidential campaign = =
On August 5 , 2011 , Barr appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and announced her candidacy for president in the 2012 presidential election , running on the " Green Tea Party " ticket . Her candidacy mixed attention to economics , personal health and meditation . She also said that she is running for Prime Minister of Israel . In an interview with The Jewish Daily Forward she invoked tikkun olam in her support of bringing women into politics and religion . On September 19 , 2011 , she appeared at the Occupy Wall Street protests and spoke in support of the protestors . She further stated that any " guilty " Wall Street bankers should be forced to give up any income over $ 100 million , be sent to re @-@ education camps , or be executed by beheading if they resisted . Barr filed with the Federal Election Commission as a Green Party presidential candidate in January 2012 . She formally announced her candidacy for the party 's 2012 presidential nomination on February 2 , 2012 .
On July 14 , 2012 , Barr came in second , losing the nomination to Jill Stein . Stein chose Cheri Honkala as her running @-@ mate despite suggestions that she could choose Barr . Barr was given a prime speaking role at the Green Party National Convention in Baltimore , Maryland , but decided to instead send a surrogate ( Farheen Hakeem ) to speak on her behalf . Barr 's surrogate reportedly chided the Party for not respecting Barr 's candidacy . A shouting match in a hallway reportedly ensued . Barr repeatedly criticized Jill Stein after losing the Green Party nomination , and caused controversy by using alleged transphobic words in statements about Stein on Twitter .
Shortly after losing the Green Party nomination , Barr announced she would run on the Peace and Freedom Party ticket with activist Cindy Sheehan as a running mate . On August 4 , 2012 , Barr won the 2012 presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party . Barr 's running mate , Cindy Sheehan , immediately had disagreements with Barr , from Barr 's views on policy , to Barr 's desire to only campaign online , and Barr 's treatment of Green Party nominee Jill Stein , leading Sheehan to request her name taken off the Peace and Freedom Party ticket . Sheehan was told it was too late to have her name removed , so she instead announced that she was simply leaving the campaign .
Barr finished her campaign with nearly 50 @,@ 000 votes nationwide , placing sixth overall with considerably less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote ; Stein placed far ahead of her in fourth place with roughly 0 @.@ 3 % of the popular vote and 469 @,@ 501 votes . Barr was followed by a film crew throughout her entire campaign , with documentarian Eric Weinrib directing , leading to questions about the sincerity of her campaign . Over 300 hours were filmed and were released as a film called Roseanne for President ! . Despite questions of her sincerity regarding her campaign , Barr and her family have insisted her desire to run for President was " very real . "
= = = Endorsements = = =
Green Party Black Caucus
National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
Cynthia McKinney , 2008 Green Party nominee
= = Personal life = =
In 1970 , when she was 17 , Barr had a child whom she placed for adoption ; they were later reunited . On February 4 , 1974 , Barr married Bill Pentland , a motel clerk she met while in Colorado . They had three children : Jessica , Jennifer , and Jake . Pentland and Barr divorced on January 16 , 1990 . Four days later , on January 20 , 1990 , Barr married fellow comedian Tom Arnold and became known as Roseanne Arnold during the marriage . Barr had met Arnold in 1983 in Minneapolis , where he opened for her stand @-@ up comedy act . In 1988 , Barr brought Arnold onto her sitcom , Roseanne , as a writer .
Barr has a lesbian sister , Geraldine Barr , and a gay brother , Ben Barr , both of whom inspired her to introduce gay characters into her sitcom . Barr has stated that she supports gay marriage . Geraldine was also Barr 's manager while performing in comedy clubs and at the start of her sitcom . Geraldine claimed that Arnold tried to dominate Barr " for his own reasons " . After being fired by Roseanne , Geraldine filed a $ 70 @.@ 3 million breach of contract lawsuit in Superior Court of Los Angeles County on December 18 , 1991 . She said Barr promised her half the earnings from the Roseanne show for helping invent the " domestic goddess " character in 1981 , serving as " writer , organizer , accountant , bookkeeper and confidante " . Since it was six months past the statute of limitations , the suit was thrown out .
In a 1991 interview with People , Barr described herself as an " incest survivor " , accusing both of her parents of physical and sexual abuse , claims which they and Geraldine publicly denied . Melvin Belli , her parents ' lawyer , said that they had passed a lie detector test " with flying colors " . Barr was even part of an incest recovery group , something she said her parents knew about but for which they were " in denial " . On February 14 , 2011 , Barr and Geraldine appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show where Barr admitted that the word " incest " could have been the wrong word to use and should have waited until her therapy was over before revealing the " darkest time " in her life . She told Oprah , " I was in a very unhappy relationship and I was prescribed numerous psychiatric drugs ... to deal with the fact that I had some mental illness ... I totally lost touch with reality ... ( and ) I didn ’ t know what the truth was ... I just wanted to drop a bomb on my family " . She added that not everything was " made up " , saying , " Nobody accuses their parents of abusing them without justification " . Geraldine said they did not speak for 12 years , but had recently reconciled .
Barr filed for divorce from Tom Arnold on April 18 , 1994 in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County , citing irreconcilable differences . Their efforts to have children were unsuccessful . On February 14 , 1995 , Barr married Ben Thomas , her one @-@ time personal security guard , at Caesars Tahoe with a reception at Planet Hollywood . In November 1994 , she became pregnant through in @-@ vitro fertilization and they had a son named Buck . The couple stayed together until 2002 .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Barr had multiple cosmetic surgeries performed , such as a breast reduction , tummy tuck , and a nose job . During the late 1990s she had gastric bypass surgery .
In 2002 , Barr met Johnny Argent online after running a writing competition on her blog and began dating him in 2003 , after a year of phone conversations . They live on a 46 @-@ acre macadamia nut farm located on the Big Island of Hawaii . Barr purchased the property in 2007 for $ 1 @.@ 78 million . Barr has studied Kabbalah at the Kabbalah Centre and frequently comments on the discipline .
In 2015 , Barr revealed she has been diagnosed with both macular degeneration and glaucoma , and thus is gradually losing her eyesight and expects to eventually go blind ; she is consuming medical marijuana to fight the raised intraocular pressure that is a feature of these diseases .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television ( Acting ) = = =
= = = Television ( Hosting / Reality ) = = =
= = Awards = =
Roseanne Barr has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on the north side of the 6700 block of Hollywood Blvd .
= River Arun =
The Arun ( / ˈærən / ) is a river in the English county of West Sussex . Its source is a series of small streams in the St Leonard 's Forest area , to the east of Horsham . After flowing through Horsham to the west , it is joined by the North River at Nowhurst . Turning to the south , it is joined by its main tributary , the western River Rother , and continues through Arundel and past Arundel Castle , to join the English Channel at Littlehampton . The Arun local government district in West Sussex is named after it . It is one of the faster flowing rivers in England , and is tidal as far inland as Pallingham Quay , 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) upstream from the sea at Littlehampton .
The first major improvements to the river were made between the 1540s and the 1570s , when Arundel became a port , and navigation up to Pallingham was improved , but barges had difficulty negotiating the flash locks that were installed . The work was carried out by Henry FitzAlan , 19th Earl of Arundel , who made the upper section toll @-@ free . Harbour commissioners managed the lower river from Arundel to the sea from 1732 , and major improvements to keep the estuary free from silt were sanctioned by an Act of Parliament obtained in 1793 . With the coming of the railways and changes in coastal shipping , Littlehampton superseded Arundel as the port of the Arun , and the Littlehampton harbour commissioners are still responsible for the river up to Arundel , collecting tolls for its use .
The river above Arundel was improved after 1785 . As the main channel was toll @-@ free , the proprietors of the scheme built two major cuts . One , which included three locks and passed through Hardham Tunnel , was built to avoid a large bend near Pulborough . The other was near the upper terminus , where a cut with three locks crossed the original channel by an aqueduct to reach wharves at Newbridge . Further improvements were made when the Wey and Arun Canal opened in 1816 , joining the Arun at Newbridge , and after the completion of the Portsmouth and Arundel Canal , which opened soon afterwards . These two canals were an attempt to provide an inland route between London and Portsmouth , but were not as successful as the proprietors hoped . Traffic declined rapidly when the railways offered competition , and the navigation ceased to be maintained from 1888 , though some traffic continued on the lower sections . The Wey and Arun Canal is currently being restored , and restoration will eventually include the cut and locks below Newbridge .
= = History = =
When Ptolemy wrote his Geography around 150 AD , the Arun was called the Trisantonis , with later accounts using the same name . Trisantonis is thought to be a Brythonic word for ' the trespasser ' , indicating the river 's tendency to flood land near to the river . Trisanto translates directly as ' one who goes across ' . There is also a theory that the Arun may have been known as the Trisantonis in its lower reaches close to the sea , but known as the Arnus ( from the Brythonic ' Arno ' meaning run , go , or flow ) in its upper reaches . It is possible that the town of Arundel may mean Arno @-@ dell , or dell of the flowing river . By the Middle Ages the river was known as the river of Arundel , the Arundel river , or the high stream of Arundel . An alternative name , the Tarrant ( derived from Trisantona ) , is , however , attested in 725 and 1270 , and is reflected in the road name Tarrant Street , one of the main roads running through the town roughly parallel to the river . The first use of the modern name was recorded in 1577 , but the alternative names of Arundel river or great river continued to be used for many years .
The mouth of the river has not always been at Littlehampton . Until the later fifteenth century it joined the River Adur at Lancing some ten miles to the east before entering the sea . This estuary became blocked with shingle by the eastward drift of the tides , pushing the Adur towards Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea , while the Arun broke out at Worthing , Goring and Ferring at various times , until it formed its present estuary at Littlehampton between 1500 and 1530 .
= = = Improvements = = =
The lower portion of the river , from the sea to Ford , was navigable in the eleventh century at the time of the Norman conquest . In the sixteenth century , Henry FitzAlan , 19th Earl of Arundel built wharves at Ford , and improved the river channel below there , so that the town became a port . Over the 30 years from 1544 , he also improved the river as far upstream as Pallingham Quay . Although the work involved a number of flash locks , which were not very successful , no tolls were charged for its use , and vessels of around 15 tons were used to carry timber . Attempts to make the river navigable up to Newbridge in the early sixteenth century were not successful .
An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1732 , the main emphasis of which was the improvement of " the harbour of Littlehampton , called Arundel Port " , but improvements to the first 5 @.@ 75 miles ( 9 @.@ 25 km ) of the river , from the sea to Arundel , were also authorised . Commissioners were appointed , with powers to erect piers and to cut a new channel to the sea through a sand bar . The Act allowed them to charge tolls for use of the facilities , and once the initial costs had been repaid , one half of the tolls were to be used to maintain the harbour and the river channel up to Arundel . Although most ships were of 30 or 40 tons , ships of up to 100 tons could reach Arundel as a result of the work , and trade improved .
The next Act to affect the river was obtained by a group of local men in 1785 . Under the Act , the proprietors were empowered to make the river navigable for 30 @-@ ton barges up to Newbridge . They had no jurisdiction over the river from Arundel to Houghton bridge , and could not charge tolls for use of the river up to Pallingham . There were 31 members of the proprietors , who could raise £ 10 @,@ 000 by issuing 100 shares worth £ 100 each . Day @-@ to @-@ day oversight of the affairs of the navigation were managed by three proprietors , with a half @-@ yearly meeting of the larger group . The purpose of the navigation was to carry coal , chalk and lime upstream , and agricultural produce in the other direction . Rather than improve the river channel , the navigation upstream of Pallingham consisted of a separate channel , containing three locks , and an aqueduct which carried the navigation over the river at Orfold . The journey below Pallingham was made 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) shorter by cutting a new channel between Coldwaltham and Hardham . This involved the construction of three more locks and a 375 @-@ yard ( 343 m ) tunnel . The Pallingham to Newbridge section opened on 1 August 1787 , while the Hardham cut was completed in mid @-@ 1790 . The cost of the work was around £ 16 @,@ 000 .
There were two proposals to extend the navigation at this time . The first was for a canal to North Chapel , to the north of Petworth , in 1791 , and the second was for a canal to Horsham in the following year . The route was surveyed by John Rennie , who estimated that it would cost £ 18 @,@ 133 to build , but negotiations with the existing proprietors failed , and the scheme was dropped in 1794 . Meanwhile , a second Act of Parliament was obtained by the harbour commissioners in 1793 , as there was serious silting of the estuary . Groynes were constructed and the existing piers were made longer . In addition , a towpath was built from the mouth of the river up to Arundel . The Act stated that the capital borrowed to finance the harbour under the previous act had been repaid , and that tolls would all be used for maintenance of the harbour and river up to Arundel , once further borrowings had been repaid . Because the inhabitants of Arundel had spent £ 28 @,@ 300 on the harbour , boats which belonged to the port of Arundel did not have to pay any tolls . As a result of the works , the port of Arundel enjoyed its most prosperous period for the next thirty years , with ships of 200 and 300 tons able to reach the town on spring tides . Facilities improved , and there were four docks by 1840 .
= = = Operation = = =
Payment of dividends to shareholders began in 1792 , and over the next five years , tolls raised an average of £ 893 per year and the dividend was 3 @.@ 1 per cent . At this time , George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont was buying shares and having obtained one third of them , he became chairman of the company . He then stopped the payment of dividends so that the borrowed capital could be paid off more quickly . Apart from an interim payment in 1821 , dividends were not reinstated until 1830 . In the 1790s Wyndham was responsible for the canalisation of the River Rother which joins the Arun at Stopham , and he also promoted the Wey and Arun Canal , which was seen as part of a larger scheme to
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s telling that story . " Spielberg stated that he just thought it would be fun to make a " really scary film with really scary aliens " , something which he had never done before . Spielberg was intent on telling a contemporary story , with Kennedy stating the story was created as a fantasy , but depicted in a hyper @-@ realistic way .
J. J. Abrams was asked by Spielberg and Cruise to write the script but had to turn down the film as he was working on the pilot for his television series Lost . Josh Friedman delivered a screenplay , which was then rewritten by David Koepp . After re @-@ reading the novel , Koepp decided to do the script following a single narrator , " a very limited point of view , from someone on the very periphery of events rather than someone involved in events " , and created a list of elements he would not use due to being " cliché " , such as the destruction of landmark buildings . Some aspects of the book were heavily adapted and condensed : Tim Robbins ' character was an amalgalm of two characters in the book , with the name borrowed from a third . While changing the setting from 19th century to present day , Koepp also tried to " take the modern world back to the 1800s " , with the characters being devoid of electricity and modern techniques of communication .
Spielberg accepted the script after finding it had several similarities to his personal life , including the divorce of his parents ( Ray and Mary Ann 's divorce ) , and because the plight of the fictional survivors reflects his own uncertainty after the devastation of the September 11 attacks . For Spielberg , the characters ' stories of survival needed to be the main focus , as they featured the American mindset of never giving up . Spielberg described War of the Worlds as " a polar opposite " to Close Encounters , with that movie featuring a man leaving family to travel with aliens , while War of the Worlds focused on keeping the family together . At the same time , the aliens and their motivations would not be much explored , as " we just experience the results of these nefarious plans to replace us with themselves " .
Although accepting the script , Spielberg asked for several changes . Spielberg had been against the idea of the aliens arriving in spaceships , since every alien invasion movie used such a vehicle . The original Martian cylinders were discarded , where Spielberg replaced the origins of the Tripods with stating they were buried underground in the Earth long ago .
Lawrence Brown wrote : " Spielberg 's decision to present the invaders ' fighting machines as having been there all along , buried deep under the Earth , raises questions which did not exist in the original Wells book . In Spielberg 's version , these invaders had been here before , long ago , in prehistoric times . They had set up their machines deep underground , and departed . Why ? Why not take over the Earth right there and then ? Spielberg does not provide an answer , and the characters are too busy surviving to wonder about this . An answer suggests itself - a very chilling answer . The invaders were interested in humans as food animals . When they came here before , humans were very scarce . The aliens left their hidden machines and departed , patiently observing the Earth until humans would multiply to the requisite numbers - and then they came back , to take over . Under this interpretation , all of us - all humans over the whole of history - have been livestock living in an alien food farm , destined to be ' harvested ' " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place in Virginia , Connecticut , New Jersey , California , and New York . The film shooting lasted an estimated 72 days . Spielberg originally intended to shoot War of the Worlds after Munich , but Tom Cruise liked David Koepp 's script so much that he suggested Spielberg postpone the former while he would do the same with Mission : Impossible III . Most of Munich 's crew was brought in to work on War of the Worlds as well . In 2004 , the production crews quickly were set up on both coasts to prepare for the start date , scouting locations up and down the Eastern Seaboard and preparing stages and sets which would be used when the company returned to Los Angeles after the winter holiday . Pre @-@ production took place in only three months , essentially half the amount of time normally allotted for a film of similar size and scope . Spielberg notes , however , " This wasn 't a cram course for War of the Worlds . This was my longest schedule in about 12 years . We took our time . " Spielberg collaborated with crews at the beginning of pre @-@ production with the use of previsualization , considering the tight schedule .
The scene depicting the first appearance of the Tripods was filmed at the intersection of Ferry Street , Merchart Street , and Wilson Avenue , in Newark , New Jersey . Later , Spielberg filmed several scenes in Virginia . The continuous scene was filmed in California .
The ferry scene was filmed in the New York town of Athens , and Mary Ann 's parents house was located in Brooklyn ( but was featured in the film in Boston ) . For the neighborhood plane crash scene , the production crew bought a retired Boeing 747 , with transportation costs of $ 2 million , destroyed it into pieces , and built houses around them . The destroyed plane was kept for the Universal Studios back @-@ lot tour . Ray 's house was filmed in Bayonne , New Jersey ( with a soundstage doubling the interior ) ; meanwhile , the valley war sequence was filmed in Lexington , Virginia and Mystery Mesa in California . The scene where the tripod is shot down and crashes through a factory was filmed in Naugatuck , Connecticut . The scene of the bodies floating down the river was filmed on the Farmington River in Windsor , Connecticut by a second unit using a stand in for Dakota Fanning ( the back of her character ) with the portion showing the faces of the credited actors cut in later . Some filming was shot on the Korean War Veterans Parkway in Staten Island , NY . The film used six sound stages , spread over three studio lots .
= = = Design and visual effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic was the main special effects company for the movie . While Spielberg had used computers to help visualize sequences in pre @-@ production before , Spielberg said , " This is the first film I really tackled using the computer to animate all the storyboards . " He decided to employ the technique extensively after a visit to his friend George Lucas . In order to keep the realism , the usage of computer @-@ generated imagery shots and bluescreen was limited , with most of the digital effects being blended with miniature and live @-@ action footage .
The design of the Tripods was described by Spielberg as " graceful , " with artist Doug Chiang replicating aquatic life forms . At the same time , the director wanted a design that would be iconic while still providing a tribute to the original Tripods , as well as intimidating so the audience would not be more interested about the aliens inside than on the vehicle itself . The visual effects crew tried to blend organic and mechanical elements in the Tripods depiction , and made extensive studies for the movements of the vehicle to be believable , considering the " contradiction " of having a large tank @-@ like head being carried by thin and flexible legs . Animator Randal M. Dutra considered the movements themselves to have a " terrestrial buoyance " , in that they were walking on land but had an aquatic flow , and Spielberg described the Tripods as moving like " scary ballet dancers " . Most of the alien elements revolved around the number three – the Tripod had three eyes , and both the vehicle and the aliens had three main limbs with three fingers each . Visual effects supervisor Pablo Helman considered depicting the scale of the Tripod as challenging , considering " Steven wanted to make sure that these creatures were 150 feet tall " , as it was the height described by Wells in the novel . The aliens themselves had designs based on jellyfish , with movements inspired by red @-@ eyed tree frogs , and an amphibian quality particularly on the wet skin . A styrofoam alien was used as a stand @-@ in to guide the actors in the basement scene . Spielberg did not want any blood or gore during the Heat @-@ Ray deaths ; in the words of Helman , " this was going to be a horror movie for kids " . So the effects crew came up with the vaporization of the bodies , and considering it could not be fully digital due to both the complexity of the effect and the schedule , live @-@ action dust was used alongside the CGI ray assimilation and particles . Digital birds followed the Tripods in most scenes to symbolize the presence of death , which Chiang compared to vultures and added that " you don 't know if these birds are going to the danger or away from it , if you should follow them or run away . "
During the scene where Ray 's minivan is attacked by a mob , Janusz Kaminski and Spielberg wanted a lot of interactive lights , so they added different kinds of lights , including Coleman lamps , oil lanterns , flashlights and Maglights . The IL & M crew admitted that the destruction of the Bayonne Bridge was the toughest scene to be made with heavy usage mix of CGI effects and live action elements , and a four @-@ week deadline so the shot could be used in a Super Bowl trailer . The scene originally had only a gas station exploding , but then Spielberg suggested blowing up the bridge as well . The scene involved Tripods shooting a Heat @-@ Ray towards the minivan and minivan escapes from it involved a lot of CGI layers to work out . Over 500 CGI effects were used in the film .
Costume designer Joanna Johnston created 60 different versions of Ray 's leather jacket , to illustrate the degrees to which he is weathered from the beginning of the journey to the end . " He begins with the jacket , a hoodie , and two t @-@ shirts , " explains Johnston . One piece of Dakota Fanning 's costume that takes on a special importance is her lavender horse purse : " I wanted her to have something that made her feel safe , some little thing that she could sleep with and put over her face , " Johnston notes . " That was the lavender horse purse . We tied it up on a ribbon and Dakota hung it on her body , so it was with her at all times . " Johnston dressed Robbie for an unconscious emulation of his father , " They 're more alike than they realize , with great tension on the surface , " Johnston says .
= = = Music = = =
Longtime Spielberg collaborator John Williams composed the music score of War of the Worlds . It was the first time Williams had to compose with an incomplete Spielberg film , as only the first six reels , totalling sixty minutes , were ready for him to use as reference . He considered the score " a very serious piece , " which had to combine " necessary frightening atmosphere " with " propulsively rhythmic drive for the action scenes " – the music would be symbolically " pulling forward " vehicles in chase scenes such as Ray driving out of Bayonne or the Tripod attacking the Hudson ferry . Williams added small nods to classic monster movie scores by having orchestras doing a " grand gesture " in scenes overlooking Tripods . To increase the scariness , Williams added a female chorus with a crescendo resembling a shriek – which would " humanize " the track representing " victims that go out without saying an ' ouch ' – they 're gone before they can say that " – for the Tripod attacks , and a nearly inaudible male choir – which Williams compared to " Tibetan monks , the lowest known pitch our bodies can make " – for the aliens exploring the basement . The only deviation from orchestras were electronic sounds for the opening and closing narrations .
A soundtrack album was released by Decca Records , that featured the film 's music and Morgan Freeman 's opening and closing narration . The songs " Little Deuce Coupe " and " Hushabye Mountain " are also featured in the movie , the former sung by Tom Cruise , and the latter by Dakota Fanning .
= = = Themes = = =
The film was described as an anti @-@ war film , as civilians run and only try to save themselves and their family instead of fighting back against the alien Tripods . Debra J. Saunders of San Francisco Chronicle described the film as " If aliens invade , don 't fight back . Run . " Saunders compared the film to Independence Day , where the civilians do run , but they support the military efforts . Many reviewers considered the film tried to recreate the atmosphere of the September 11 attacks , with bystanders struggling to survive and the usage of missing @-@ persons displays . Spielberg declared to Reader 's Digest that beside the work being a fantasy , the threat represented was real : " They are a wake @-@ up call to face our fears as we confront a force intent on destroying our way of life . " Screenwriter David Koepp stated that he tried not to put explicit references to September 11 or the Iraq War , but said that the inspiration for the scene where Robbie joins the army was teenagers fighting in the Gaza Strip – " I was thinking of teenagers in Gaza throwing bottles and rocks at tanks , and I think that when you 're that age you don 't fully consider the ramifications of what you 're doing and you 're very much caught up in the moment and passion , whether that 's a good idea or not . " Retained from the novel is the aliens being defeated , not by men 's weapons , but the planet 's smallest creatures , bacteria , which Koepp described as " nature , in a way , knowing a whole lot more than we do " .
= = Release = =
War of the Worlds premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre on June 23 , 2005 . There , Tom Cruise revealed his relationship with Katie Holmes . Six days later , on June 29 , the film was released in approximately 3 @,@ 908 theaters across America . The home video was subsequently released on November 22 , 2005 .
= = = Secrecy = = =
Spielberg kept most of the parts secret in the filmmaking , as the cast and crew were left confused about how the aliens looked . When asked about the secrecy of the screenplay , David Koepp answered , " [ Spielberg ] wouldn 't give [ the screenplay ] to anybody " . Koepp explained he would e @-@ mail it to him , and he would give a section of the script that was relating to whatever somebody was doing . Miranda Otto thought of not even discussing the story with her family and friends . Otto said , " I know some people who always say , ' Oh , everything 's so secret . ' I think it 's good . In the old days people didn 't get to know much about movies before they came out and nowadays there 's just so much information . I think a bit of mystery is always really good . You don 't want to blow all of your cards beforehand . "
Spielberg admitted after keeping things secret for so long , there is in the end the temptation to reveal too much to the detriment of the story at the press conference of War of the Worlds . So , Spielberg only revealed the hill scene , where Ray tries to stop his son from leaving , stating " to say more would reveal too much . " The secrecy caused The Sun to claim the film would surpass Titanic 's US $ 200 million budget , which at the time held the record for the most expensive film ever made . The actual budget of the film was $ 132 million .
According to Vanity Fair , Spielberg 's relations with Cruise were " poor " during the film 's release because Spielberg believed Cruise 's " antics " at the time ( such as an erratic appearance on the Oprah Winfrey show ) had " hurt " the film .
= = = Marketing and home media releases = = =
Paramount Pictures Interactive Marketing debuted a human survival online game on its official website , waroftheworlds.com , on April 14 to promote the film . Hitachi collaborated with Paramount Pictures for a worldwide promotional campaign , under the title of “ The Ultimate Visual Experience ” . The agreement was announced by Kazuhiro Tachibana , general manager of Hitachi ’ s Consumer Business Group . Kazuhiro stated , " Our ‘ The Ultimate Visual Experience ’ campaign is a perfect match between Spielberg and Cruise ’ s pursuit of the world ’ s best in film entertainment and Hitachi ’ s commitment to the highest picture quality through its digital consumer electronic products . "
The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 22 , 2005 , with both a single @-@ disc edition and a two @-@ disc special edition featured production featurettes , documentaries and
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on the cruise ship .
In addition to reggae , the soundtrack features a techno remix of the film score by Tetsuya " TK " Komuro and an R & B song by Tamia ( which is sung by her character in the film ) . Many of the songs were first released on the soundtrack , and five were released as singles . The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics , although it was praised for featuring reggae music .
= = Music performed in the film = =
Speed 2 : Cruise Control , the action thriller sequel to 1994 's Speed starring Sandra Bullock , Jason Patric and Willem Dafoe , was released in 1997 . The film is set on a cruise ship in the Caribbean ; to complement its setting , the soundtrack primarily features reggae music . Speed 2 director @-@ producer Jan de Bont wanted musicians to appear in the film as the ship 's live entertainment . Four songs heard in Speed 2 were performed by the musicians appearing in the film , three of which were featured on the soundtrack album .
British reggae band UB40 perform " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and " Tell Me Is It True " . The former is a cover of an Elvis Presley song recorded by UB40 for the soundtrack to Sliver ( 1993 ) and released on their album , Promises and Lies ( 1993 ) . " Tell Me Is It True " was first released on the Speed 2 soundtrack album and was later featured on UB40 's studio album , Guns in the Ghetto ( released ten days after the soundtrack album ) . The band was featured in the film after the filmmakers heard a demo of " Tell Me Is It True " , and wrote a cameo appearance for them into the script .
Brazilian singer Carlinhos Brown was also featured in the film , performing " A Namorada " ( from his 1997 album , Alfagamabetizado ) . De Bont chose Brown because he wanted music that was " lively " , and thought Brown 's music was " very physical " and " full of energy " .
While UB40 and Brown appeared in the film as themselves , De Bont also wanted to feature a musician as one of the characters who gets trapped on the ship . He selected Canadian rhythm and blues ( R & B ) singer Tamia because he wanted someone who could sing and act . Tamia did not plan on acting in a film so early in her career , but said the part was " too perfect for [ her ] to resist " . She worked with de Bont and Quincy Jones to choose a song for the film ; they decided on " Make Tonight Beautiful " , written by Diane Warren .
= = Additional music = =
Jamaican musician Shaggy wanted to include his cover of the Erma Franklin song " Piece of My Heart " , but was unable because it was to be used in the soundtrack for an upcoming biographical film about Janis Joplin . He instead used his original song , " My Dream " ; both tracks were later featured on Shaggy 's next album Midnite Lover , released in August 1997 .
American reggae band Common Sense featured their song , " Never Give Up " , from their debut album Psychedelic Surf Groove ( 1996 ) . When they appeared on the soundtrack , they did not have a recording contract with a major record label ; lead singer Jai Vatuk said in June 1997 that the band had begun negotiations with the soundtrack 's label , Virgin Records . ; Virgin re @-@ released Psychedelic Surf Groove later that year , and signed a contract with the band in 1998 .
Jamaican reggae musician Jimmy Cliff contributed to the soundtrack with a re @-@ recording of " You Can Get It If You Really Want " from The Harder They Come ( 1972 ) ; Barbadian reggae singer Rayvon featured his song , " Some People " , before its release on his album Hear Me Cry , released in June 1997 .
British reggae singer Maxi Priest was featured on the soundtrack after recording " It Starts in the Heart " for the soundtrack to Jungle 2 Jungle ( 1997 ) . For the Speed 2 soundtrack he was asked cover a song in his characteristic style , and recorded a cover of " The Tide Is High " . Priest said his work for Jungle 2 Jungle was " more satisfying " than for Speed 2 because " It Starts in the Heart " was an original song .
The soundtrack also includes a reggae cover of The Police 's " Every Breath You Take " by Betty Wright , which was later released on the Police reggae @-@ tribute album Reggatta Mondatta in July 1997 . According to the San Jose Mercury News , Jamaican singer Diana King was scheduled to have a song on the soundtrack but her music was " judged too plodding " for the film .
In addition to " Make Tonight Beautiful " , other non @-@ reggae songs include a modern rock cover of Carole King 's " I Feel the Earth Move " by Leah Andreone and the R & B song " Crazy " by British singer Mark Morrison . The version of " Crazy " selected for the soundtrack was a remix by the song 's producer , Phil Chill , taken from the 12 @-@ inch single released in 1995 .
Composer Mark Mancina , who scored Speed 2 , wrote a techno instrumental based on the score . The track was entitled " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " , and was performed by Japanese musician Tetsuya " TK " Komuro with non @-@ lexical vocals by Lynn Mabry . The instrumental was TK 's debut in the United States , and was originally entitled " Speed 2 Theme " . " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " played during the film 's ending credits , but Mancina hoped it would be featured in the film .
= = Release = =
The Speed 2 : Cruise Control soundtrack , produced by Budd Carr , was released on May 20 , 1997 ( nearly a month before the film 's June 13 release ) by Virgin Records . The TK Party Mix of " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " was included on the Japanese release as a bonus track . Virgin Music Group executive vice president Nancy Berry said that when compiling the album , a decision was made not only to match the music in the film but to " create an album of summer music " and " a reggae compilation that would stand on its own " . Two songs from the film are not featured on the album : " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and " O mio babbino caro " by Victoria de los Ángeles . The album charted in Austria in August 1997 , peaking at number 40 .
To promote the soundtrack album , clips of each song were streamed on the film 's official website and five tracks were sent to radio stations . The first single , " Tell Me Is It True " , was released in late April 1997 and was commercially available on June 3 ; it was also the first single from Guns in the Ghetto . " My Dream " was the second single , followed by " Make Tonight Beautiful " in May and " Never Give Up " and " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " in July . De Bont agreed with Virgin that Mancina 's score could not be released until six months after the soundtrack 's release , to avoid competition . The score was not released as an album until 13 years later , when it was released in a June 2010 limited edition by La @-@ La Land Records .
= = Reception = =
Response to the soundtrack was mixed . J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun said the film 's Caribbean setting was a " perfect excuse " for the reggae tracks , and the album 's " most surprising moments come with its cover versions " . Jonathan Takiff of the Philadelphia Daily News awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of five stars for its reggae theme , which he described as a " rare [ ... ] display of soundtrack consistency " . Chuck Campbell from the Scripps @-@ Howard News Service gave the album three out of five stars , commending the " continuity " of the reggae tracks but saying that it should have featured artists more popular than UB40 and it lacked the " commercial appeal " of other soundtracks released at the time . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said that although none of the soundtrack 's songs are " standouts " , it is a " fairly enjoyable collection of pop @-@ reggae Latin @-@ dance " music .
Mansha Daswani of the South China Morning Post was more critical of the soundtrack , calling it " surprisingly bland " and saying that " tracks that should be catchy [ ... ] are surprisingly weak " ; however , she praised TK 's remix and Maxi Priest 's cover of " The Tide Is High " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly graded the album " D " , criticizing the " waterlogged " selection of artists and TK 's remix but saying the reggae collection was a " [ g ] ood idea " given the film 's setting . CMJ New Music Monthly said the soundtrack 's cover versions were unnecessary , contributing to " one of the scariest trends in soundtracks over the last few years " . At the 18th Golden Raspberry Awards in 1998 , " My Dream " was nominated for Worst Song but lost to " the entire song score " from The Postman ( 1997 ) . " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " became popular in Japan ; it was used as entrance music for wrestler Kazushi Sakuraba , and was re @-@ released as a single in 2001 by popular demand .
= = Track listing = =
= Diocletianic Persecution =
The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire . In 303 , the Emperors Diocletian , Maximian , Galerius , and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding the legal rights of Christians and demanding that they comply with traditional Roman religious practices . Later edicts targeted the clergy and ordered all inhabitants to sacrifice to the Roman gods ( a policy known as universal sacrifice ) . The persecution varied in intensity across the empire — weakest in Gaul and Britain , where only the first edict was applied , and strongest in the Eastern provinces . Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors at different times , but Constantine and Licinius 's Edict of Milan ( 313 ) has traditionally marked the end of the persecution .
Christians had always been subject to local discrimination in the empire , but early emperors were either too reluctant to issue general laws against them or , at least in the 3rd century ( see Crisis of the Third Century ) , too caught up with more immediate issues to do so . It was not until the 250s , under the reigns of Decius and Valerian , that such laws were passed . Under this legislation , Christians were compelled to sacrifice to Roman gods or face imprisonment and execution . When Gallienus acceded in 260 , he issued the first imperial edict regarding tolerance toward Christians , leading to nearly 40 years of peaceful coexistence . Diocletian 's accession in 284 did not mark an immediate reversal of disregard to Christianity , but it did herald a gradual shift in official attitudes toward religious minorities . In the first 15 years of his rule , Diocletian purged the army of Christians , condemned Manicheans to death , and surrounded himself with public opponents of Christianity . Diocletian 's preference for autocratic government , combined with his self @-@ image as a restorer of past Roman glory , presaged the most pervasive persecution in Roman history . In the winter of 302 , Galerius urged Diocletian to begin a general persecution of the Christians . Diocletian was wary , and asked the oracle of Apollo for guidance . The oracle 's reply was read as an endorsement of Galerius 's position , and a general persecution was called on February 24 , 303 .
Persecutory policies varied in intensity across the empire . Where Galerius and Diocletian were avid persecutors , Constantius was unenthusiastic . Later persecutory edicts , including the calls for universal sacrifice , were not applied in his domain . His son , Constantine , on taking the imperial office in 306 , restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution . In Italy in 306 , the usurper Maxentius ousted Maximian 's successor Severus , promising full religious toleration . Galerius ended the persecution in the East in 311 , but it was resumed in Egypt , Palestine , and Asia Minor by his successor , Maximinus . Constantine and Licinius , Severus 's successor , signed the Edict of Milan in 313 , which offered a more comprehensive acceptance of Christianity than Galerius 's edict had provided . Licinius ousted Maximinus in 313 , bringing an end to persecution in the East .
The persecution failed to check the rise of the church . By 324 , Constantine was sole ruler of the empire , and Christianity had become his favored religion . Although the persecution resulted in death , torture , imprisonment , or dislocation for many Christians , the majority of the empire 's Christians avoided punishment . The persecution did , however , cause many churches to split between those who had complied with imperial authority ( the traditores ) , and those who had remained " pure " . Certain schisms , like those of the Donatists in North Africa and the Meletians in Egypt , persisted long after the persecutions . The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Church until after 411 . In the centuries that followed , some historians consider that Christians created a " cult of the martyrs " , and exaggerated the barbarity of the persecutory era . These accounts were criticized during the Enlightenment and afterwards , most notably by Edward Gibbon . Modern historians , such as G. E. M. de Ste . Croix , have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution .
= = Background = =
= = = Prior persecutions = = =
From its first appearance to its legalization under Constantine , for the first two centuries of its existence , Christianity and its practitioners were unpopular with the people at large . Christians were always suspect , members of a " secret society " whose members communicated with a private code and who shied away from the public sphere . It was popular hostility — the anger of the crowd — which drove the earliest persecutions , not official action . In Lyon in 177 , it was only the intervention of civil authorities that stopped a pagan mob from dragging Christians from their houses and beating them to death . The governor of Bithynia – Pontus , Pliny , was sent long lists of denunciations by anonymous citizens , which Emperor Trajan advised him to ignore .
To the followers of the traditional cults , Christians were odd creatures : not quite Roman , but not quite barbarian either . Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional mores . Christians rejected public festivals , refused to take part in the imperial cult , avoided public office , and publicly criticized ancient traditions . Conversions tore families apart : Justin Martyr tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife , and Tertullian tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians . Traditional Roman religion was inextricably interwoven into the fabric of Roman society and state , but Christians refused to observe its practices . In the words of Tacitus , Christians showed " hatred of the human race " ( odium generis humani ) . Among the more credulous , Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims , and to practice incest and cannibalism .
Nonetheless , for the first two centuries of the Christian era , no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church . These persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials . At Bithynia – Pontus in 111 , it was the imperial governor , Pliny ; at Smyrna ( İzmir ) in 156 and Scilli near Carthage in 180 , it was the proconsul ; at Lyon in 177 , it was the provincial governor . When Emperor Nero executed Christians for their alleged involvement in the fire of 64 , it was a purely local affair ; it did not spread beyond the city limits of Rome . These early persecutions were certainly violent , but they were sporadic , brief and limited in extent . They were of limited threat to Christianity as a whole . The very capriciousness of official action , however , made the threat of state coercion loom large in the Christian imagination .
In the 3rd century , the pattern changed . Emperors became more active and government officials began to actively pursue Christians , rather than merely to respond to the will of the crowd . Christianity , too , changed . No longer were its practitioners merely " the lower orders fomenting discontent " ; some Christians were now rich , or from the upper classes . Origen , writing at about 248 , tells of " the multitude of people coming in to the faith , even rich men and persons in positions of honour , and ladies of high refinement and birth . " Official reaction grew firmer . In 202 , according to the Historia Augusta , a 4th @-@ century history of dubious reliability , Septimius Severus ( r . 193 – 211 ) issued a general rescript forbidding conversion to either Judaism or Christianity . Maximin ( r . 235 – 38 ) targeted Christian leaders . Decius ( r . 249 – 51 ) , demanding a show of support for the faith , proclaimed that all inhabitants of the empire must sacrifice to the gods , eat sacrificial meat , and testify to these acts . Christians were obstinate in their non @-@ compliance . Church leaders , like Fabian , bishop of Rome , and Babylas , bishop of Antioch , were arrested , tried and executed , as were certain members of the Christian laity , like Pionius of Smyrna . The Christian theologian Origen was tortured during the persecution and died about a year after from the resulting injuries .
The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church . At Carthage , there was mass apostasy ( renunciation of the faith ) . At Smyrna , the bishop , Euctemon , sacrificed and encouraged others to do the same . Because the Church was largely urban , it should have been easy to identify , isolate and destroy the Church hierarchy . This did not happen . In June 251 , Decius died in battle , leaving his persecution incomplete . His persecutions were not followed up for another six years , allowing some Church functions to resume . Valerian , Decius 's friend , took up the imperial mantle in 253 . Though he was at first thought of as " exceptionally friendly " towards the Christians , his actions soon showed otherwise . In July 257 , he issued a new persecutory edict . As punishment for following the Christian faith , Christians were to face exile or condemnation to the mines . In August 258 , he issued a second edict , making the punishment death . This persecution also stalled in June 260 , when Valerian was captured in battle . His son , Gallienus ( r . 260 – 68 ) , ended the persecution and inaugurated nearly 40 years of freedom from official sanctions , praised by Eusebius as the " little peace of the Church " . The peace would be undisturbed , save for occasional , isolated persecutions , until Diocletian became emperor .
= = = Persecution and Tetrarchic ideology = = =
Diocletian , acclaimed emperor on November 20 , 284 , was a religious conservative , faithful to the traditional Roman cult . Unlike Aurelian ( r . 270 – 75 ) , Diocletian did not foster any new cult of his own . He preferred older gods , Olympian gods . Nonetheless , Diocletian did wish to inspire a general religious revival . As the panegyrist to Maximian declared : " You have heaped the gods with altars and statues , temples and offerings , which you dedicated with your own name and your own image , whose sanctity is increased by the example you set , of veneration for the gods . Surely , men will now understand what power resides in the gods , when you worship them so fervently . " As part of his plans for revival , Diocletian invested in religious construction . One quarter of all inscriptions referring to temple repairs in North Africa between 276 and 295 date to Diocletian 's reign . Diocletian associated himself with the head of the Roman pantheon , Jupiter ; his co @-@ emperor , Maximian , associated himself with Hercules . This connection between god and emperor helped to legitimize the emperors ' claims to power and tied imperial government closer to the traditional cult .
Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship of Jupiter and Hercules , which would have been a drastic change in the pagan tradition . For example , Elagabalus had tried fostering his own god and no others , and had failed dramatically . Diocletian built temples for Isis and Sarapis at Rome and a temple to Sol in Italy . He did , however favor gods who provided for the safety of the whole empire , instead of the local deities of the provinces . In Africa , Diocletian 's revival focused on Jupiter , Hercules , Mercury , Apollo and the Imperial Cult . The cult of Saturn , the Romanized Baal @-@ hamon , was neglected . In imperial iconography , too , Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive . The same pattern of favoritism affected Egypt as well . Native Egyptian deities saw no revival , nor was the sacred hieroglyphic script used . Unity in worship was central to Diocletian 's religious policies .
Diocletian , like Augustus and Trajan before him , styled himself a " restorer " . He urged the public to see his reign and his governing system , the Tetrarchy ( rule by four emperors ) , as a renewal of traditional Roman values and , after the anarchic third century , a return to the " Golden Age of Rome " . As such , he reinforced the long @-@ standing Roman preference for ancient customs and Imperial opposition to independent societies . The Diocletianic regime 's activist stance , however , and Diocletian 's belief in the power of central government to effect major change in morals and society made him unusual . Most earlier emperors tended to be quite cautious in their administrative policies , preferring to work within existing structures rather than overhauling them . Diocletian , by contrast , was willing to reform every aspect of public life to satisfy his goals . Under his rule , coinage , taxation , architecture , law and history were all radically reconstructed to reflect his authoritarian and traditionalist ideology . The reformation of the empire 's " moral fabric " — and the elimination of religious minorities — was simply one step in that process .
The unique position of the Christians and Jews of the empire became increasingly apparent . The Jews had earned imperial toleration on account of the great antiquity of their faith . They had been exempted from Decius 's persecution and continued to enjoy freedom from persecution under Tetrarchic government . Because their faith was new and unfamiliar and not typically identified with Judaism by this time , Christians had no such excuse . Moreover , Christians had been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage for their entire history .
Persecution was not the only outlet of the Tetrarchy 's moral fervor . In 295 , either Diocletian or his Caesar ( subordinate emperor ) , Galerius , issued an edict from Damascus proscribing incestuous marriages and affirming the supremacy of Roman law over local law . Its preamble insists that it is every emperor 's duty to enforce the sacred precepts of Roman law , for " the immortal gods themselves will favour and be at peace with the Roman name ... if we have seen to it that all subject to our rule entirely lead a pious , religious , peaceable and chaste life in every respect " . These principles , if given their full extension , would logically require Roman emperors to enforce conformity in religion .
= = = Public support = = =
Christian communities grew quickly in many parts of the empire ( and especially in the East ) after 260 , when Gallienus brought peace to the Church . The data to calculate the figures are nearly non @-@ existent , but the historian and sociologist Keith Hopkins has given crude and tentative estimates for Christian population in the 3rd century . Hopkins estimates that the Christian community grew from a population of 1 @.@ 1 million in 250 to a population of 6 million by 300 , about 10 % of the empire 's total population . Christians even expanded into the countryside , where they had never been numerous before . Churches in the later 3rd century were no longer as inconspicuous as they had been in the first and second . Large churches were prominent in certain major cities throughout the empire . The church in Nicomedia even sat on a hill overlooking the imperial palace . These new churches probably represented not only absolute growth in Christian population , but also the increasing affluence of the Christian community . In some areas where Christians were influential , such as North Africa and Egypt , traditional deities were losing credibility .
It is unknown how much support there was for persecution within the aristocracy . After Gallienus 's peace , Christians reached high ranks in Roman government . Diocletian appointed several Christians to those positions himself , and his wife and daughter may have been sympathetic to the church . There were many individuals willing to be martyrs , and many provincials willing to ignore any persecutory edicts from the emperors as well . Even Constantius was known to have disapproved of persecutory policies . The lower classes demonstrated little of the enthusiasm they had shown for earlier persecutions . They no longer believed the slanderous accusations that were popular in the 1st and 2nd centuries . Perhaps , as the historian Timothy Barnes has suggested , the long @-@ established Church had become another accepted part of their lives .
Within the highest ranks of the imperial administration , however , there were men who were ideologically opposed to the toleration of Christians , like the philosopher Porphyry of Tyre , and Sossianus Hierocles , governor of Bithynia . To E.R. Dodds , the works of these men demonstrated " the alliance of pagan intellectuals with the Establishment " . Hierocles thought Christian beliefs absurd . If Christians applied their principles consistently , he argued , they would pray to Apollonius of Tyana instead of Jesus . Hierocles considered that Apollonius 's miracles had been far more impressive and Apollonius never had the temerity to call himself " God " . He saw the scriptures were full of " lies and contradictions " and Peter and Paul had peddled falsehoods . In the early 4th century , an unidentified philosopher published a pamphlet attacking the Christians . This philosopher , who might have been a pupil of the Neoplatonist Iamblichus , dined repeatedly at the imperial court . Diocletian himself was surrounded by an anti @-@ Christian clique .
Porphyry was somewhat restrained in his criticism of Christianity , at least in his early works , On the Return of the Soul and Philosophy from Oracles . He had few complaints about Jesus , whom he praised as a saintly individual , a " humble " man . Christ 's followers , however , he damned as " arrogant " . Around 290 , Porphyry wrote a fifteen @-@ volume work entitled Against the Christians . In the work , Porphyry expressed his shock at the rapid expansion of Christianity . He also revised his earlier opinions of Jesus , questioning Jesus ' exclusion of the rich from the Kingdom of Heaven , and his permissiveness in regards to the demons residing in pigs ' bodies . Like Hierocles , he unfavorably compared Jesus to Apollonius of Tyana . Porphyry held that Christians blasphemed by worshiping a human being rather than the Supreme God , and behaved treasonably in forsaking the traditional Roman cult . " To what sort of penalties might we not justly subject people , " Porphyry asked , " who are fugitives from their fathers ' customs ? "
Pagan priests , too , were interested in suppressing any threat to traditional religion . The Christian Arnobius , writing during Diocletian 's reign , attributes financial concerns to provisioners of pagan services :
The augurs , the dream interpreters , the soothsayers , the prophets , and the priestlings , ever vain ... fearing that their own arts be brought to nought , and that they may extort but scanty contributions from the devotees , now few and infrequent , cry aloud , ' The gods are neglected , and in the temples there is now a very thin attendance . Former ceremonies are exposed to derision , and the time @-@ honoured rites of institutions once sacred have sunk before the superstitions of new religions.'
They believed their ceremonies were hindered by the presence of Christians , who were thought to cloud the sight of oracles and stall the gods ' recognition of their sacrifices .
= = Early persecutions = =
= = = Christians in the army = = =
At the conclusion of the Persian wars in 299 , co @-@ emperors Diocletian and Galerius traveled from Persia to Syrian Antioch ( Antakya ) . The Christian rhetor Lactantius records that , at Antioch some time in 299 , the emperors were engaged in sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future . The haruspices , diviners of omens from sacrificed animals , were unable to read the sacrificed animals and failed to do so after repeated trials . The master haruspex eventually declared that this failure was the result of interruptions in the process caused by profane men . Certain Christians in the imperial household had been observed making the sign of the cross during the ceremonies and were alleged to have disrupted the haruspices ' divination . Diocletian , enraged by this turn of events , declared that all members of the court must make a sacrifice themselves . Diocletian and Galerius also sent letters to the military command , demanding that the entire army perform the sacrifices or else face discharge . Since there are no reports of bloodshed in Lactantius 's narrative , Christians in the imperial household must have survived the event .
Eusebius of Caesarea , a contemporary ecclesiastical historian , tells a similar story : commanders were told to give their troops the choice of sacrifice or loss of rank . These terms were strong — a soldier would lose his career in the military , his state pension and his personal savings — but not fatal . According to Eusebius , the purge was broadly successful , but Eusebius is confused about the technicalities of the event and his characterization of the overall size of the apostasy is ambiguous . Eusebius also attributes the initiative for the purge to Galerius , rather than Diocletian .
Modern scholar Peter Davies surmises that Eusebius is referring to the same event as Lactantius , but that he heard of the event through public rumors and knew nothing of the privileged discussion at the emperor 's private religion ceremony that Lactantius had access to . Since it was Galerius 's army that would have been purged — Diocletian had left his in Egypt to quell continuing unrest — Antiochenes would understandably have believed Galerius to be its instigator . The historian David Woods argues instead that Eusebius and Lactantius are referring to completely different events . Eusebius , according to Woods , describes the beginnings of the army purge in Palestine , while Lactantius describes events at court . Woods asserts that the relevant passage in Eusebius 's Chronicon was corrupted in the translation to Latin and that Eusebius 's text originally located the beginnings of the army persecution at a fort in Betthorus ( El @-@ Lejjun , Jordan ) .
Eusebius , Lactantius , and Constantine each allege that Galerius was the prime impetus for the military purge , and its prime beneficiary . Diocletian , for all his religious conservatism , still had tendencies
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17 @,@ 000 martyrs within a single thirty @-@ day period . In the 4th century , Christians created a " cult of martyrs " in homage to the fallen . Hagiographers portrayed a persecution far more extensive than the real one had been , and the Christians responsible for this cult were loose with the facts . Their " heroic age " of martyrs , or " Era of Martyrs " , was held to begin with Diocletian 's accession to the emperorship in 284 , rather than 303 , when persecutions actually began ; they fabricated a large number of martyrs ' tales ( indeed , most surviving martyrs ' tales are forgeries ) , exaggerated the facts in others , and embroidered true accounts with miraculous details . Of the surviving martyrs ' acts , only those of Agnes , Sebastian , Felix and Adauctus , and Marcellinus and Peter are even remotely historical . These traditional accounts were first questioned in the Enlightenment , when Henry Dodwell , Voltaire , and , most famously , Edward Gibbon questioned traditional accounts of the Christian martyrs .
In the final chapter of the first volume of his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ( 1776 ) , Gibbon claims that Christians had greatly exaggerated the scale of the persecutions they suffered :
After the church had triumphed over all her enemies , the interest as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to magnify the merit of their respective suffering . A convenient distance of time and place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction ; and the frequent instances which might be alleged of holy martyrs , whose wounds had been instantly healed , whose strength had been renewed , and whose lost members had miraculously been restored , were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every difficulty , and of silencing every objection . The most extravagant legends , as they conduced to the honour of the church , were applauded by the incredulous multitude , countenanced by the power of the clergy , and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history .
Throughout his history , Gibbon implies that the early Church undermined traditional Roman virtues , and thereby impaired the health of civil society . When Gibbon sought to reduce the numbers of the martyrs in his History , he was perceived as intending to diminish the Church and deny sacred history . He was attacked for his suspected irreligion in print . The contemporary classical scholar Richard Porson mocked Gibbon , writing that his humanity never slept , " unless when women are ravished , or the Christians persecuted " .
Later historians , however , took Gibbon 's emphases even further . As Marxist historian G.E.M. de Ste . Croix put it in 1954 , " The so @-@ called Great Persecution has been exaggerated in the Christian tradition to an extent which even Gibbon did not fully appreciate . " In 1972 , the ecclesiastical Protestant historian Hermann Dörries was embarrassed to admit to his colleagues that his sympathies lay with the Christians rather than their persecutors . W.H.C. Frend guesses that 3 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 500 Christians were killed in the persecution . Although the number of verifiably true martyrs ' tales has fallen , and estimates of the total casualty rate have been reduced , some modern writers are less skeptical than Gibbon of the severity of the persecution . As the author Stephen Williams wrote in 1985 , " even allowing a margin for invention , what remains is terrible enough . Unlike Gibbon , we live in an age which has experienced similar things , and knows how unsound is that civilised smile of incredulity at such reports . Things can be , have been , every bit as bad as our worst imaginings . "
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern sources = = =
= Advance Wars : Dual Strike =
Advance Wars : Dual Strike , known in Japan as Famicom Wars DS ( ファミコンウォーズDS , Famikon Wōzu Dī Esu ) , is a turn @-@ based tactics video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the third installment in the Advance Wars series ( first on DS media ) and was released in Japan on June 23 , 2005 , in North America on August 22 , 2005 , in Europe on September 30 , 2005 , and in Australia on March 22 , 2006 . It was released on the European Wii U Virtual Console on March 3 , 2016 . The game is preceded by Advance Wars 2 : Black Hole Rising and Advance Wars and succeeded by Advance Wars : Days of Ruin . Advance Wars is the international title of the Wars video game series , which dates back to the Family Computer game Famicom Wars in 1988 .
The storyline is a continuation of the previous series and is set in the new location of Omega Land . Black Hole has returned under the leadership of a new commander who seeks to give himself eternal life by draining the energy of Omega Land . The Allied Nations struggle to overcome this threat and are eventually joined by several former Black Hole commanding officers in an effort to save the land .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was well @-@ received , receiving an aggregate score of 90 % and at both Game Rankings and Metacritic . It also won several awards , including " Best Strategy Game for the DS " from IGN in 2005 . It sold more than 35 @,@ 000 copies in its first ten weeks in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
The player 's objective in Dual Strike is to defeat the enemy army with their own army . Except in some campaign missions with special objectives , there are two ways to defeat an opponent : destroy all of the enemy 's units or capture their headquarters . The battle system is turn @-@ based tactics . Two to four armies , each headed by one or two commanding officers ( COs ) , take turns building and commanding units on grid @-@ based maps . Every turn , units , which consist of ground , sea and air units , can move across the different types of terrain and attack enemy units or perform other actions , such as submerging a submarine or resupplying friendly units . Many factors can affect the battle , such as fog of war , a phenomenon that prevents players from seeing enemy units other than those in the visual range of their units ; various weather conditions which change the terrain effects of the entire map ; and CO powers .
= = = COs and CO powers = = =
All of the COs from the previous two games in the series , aside from Sturm , return in Dual Strike . In addition , nine new COs make an appearance ; two for Orange Star , one each for Blue Moon , Yellow Comet , and Green Earth , and four for Black Hole , resulting in a total of 27 COs .
The namesake of Dual Strike is the ability to use two COs in a battle to command a single army . By using two COs , the weaknesses of each CO can effectively be covered by switching COs mid @-@ battle . In addition , when using two COs , a new CO power named " Tag Power , " or " Dual Strike , " can be used . It allows players to use both COs ' Super CO powers consecutively in the same turn , and effectively allows the player to have two turns .
Finally , COs in Dual Strike gain experience and can be promoted after each victorious battle in the War Room or Campaign . Higher ranked COs have access to different skills to tune and enhance their fighting styles . Abilities vary in type and benefit ; some improve attack or defense , others increase the benefits of certain units or terrain types , while others affect the player 's money flow . The star ranked skills must be unlocked by completing the Campaign modes . Each CO can use a maximum of four skills at once . Abilities can be changed around as many times as needed , but cannot be changed during a mission .
= = = Dual Front = = =
The DS 's two screens provide new ways of presenting a round of battle in Dual Strike . The bottom screen is where the main battle takes place , while the top screen is used to display the terrain and unit intelligence . However , in some missions , the top screen shows a second front . The second front is a second battle that is waged simultaneously with the battle on the lower screen , which is integral to some missions . The player can change the top screen back to the intel screen and vice versa , and units in the first front can be sent to the second . Units sent to the second front cannot , however , be sent back to the first front .
When battling on two fronts , one CO on each team takes control of one front . The CO on the second front can either be controlled by a computer or by the player . If the battle on the second front ends before the battle on the first front , the winning CO will join their teammate on the first front or other advantages will be given to the victor . Any remaining units on the second front are then added to the victor 's CO power meter .
= = = New units and properties = = =
There are seven new units . Three units operate on land : the Megatank , a Green Earth @-@ developed tank that is the most powerful direct attack unit but has severely limited ammunition for its main cannon and a small movement range ; the Piperunner , an indirect @-@ fire vehicle which can only travel on pipelines or bases , but has a large movement and firing range ; and the Oozium , a gelatinous blob which can only move one space per turn , but it can destroy any enemy it comes into contact with instantly .
There are two new naval units : the " Black Boat " , which can repair and resupply any allied unit next to it , while capable of transporting two infantry / mech units ; and the aircraft carrier , which can house two air units and is armed with surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In addition , the cruiser 's missiles are now able to damage all naval units , making it more versatile .
A new air unit , the stealth fighter , has the ability to use stealth and turn invisible to all but adjacent enemy units . Similar to the submarine , the stealth bomber uses more fuel when stealth is activated ; however , it can only be attacked by certain units . The other new air unit is the Black Bomb , which can self @-@ destruct , damaging units around it .
Other new features include the Com Tower , a new property that , when captured , increases the firepower of all allied units . However , it provides no funds and cannot perform repairs . Black Crystals heal Black Hole units surrounding them . The Black Obelisk , which has the approximate look of a Black Cannon , also functions like a Black Crystal . The Rain weather effect now triggers Fog of War . Lastly , a new weather effect called the Sandstorm decreases both visibility and the attack range of all indirect fire units .
= = = Campaign = = =
The 28 missions ( including an integrated tutorial and several secret lab missions unlocked by capturing a certain property in another mission ) in Campaign mode that make up the game 's storyline are objective @-@ based , with most requiring the player to capture an enemy property . Some missions in Dual Strike 's campaign make use of the Dual Fronts system .
Upon completing a mission , the player is awarded a rank , from C ( lowest ) to S ( highest ) . The ranks are based on three categories : Power , Technique , and Speed . Power is determined by the number of enemy units destroyed in one turn , Technique by how many of the player 's units are destroyed , and Speed by how fast the mission is completed . All three categories are rated on a scale from 0 – 100 , and added together to form a numerical ranking from 0 – 300 , in addition to the letter ranking . These are converted to points and are added to the player 's overall points , which can be used to purchase War Room and Versus maps and COs . Bonus points can also be earned by destroying certain items , such as Oozium or Black Obelisks in certain missions .
Hard Campaign can be unlocked , which is a more difficult version of the standard campaign . All unlocked COs can be used in Hard Campaign , including those unavailable in Normal Campaign . Three save slots are available for Campaign Mode .
= = = New modes = = =
Several new modes were added to the modes from Black Hole Rising and the original Advance Wars in Dual Strike . In addition to the old War Room , Versus , and Link modes , two new modes , named Survival and Combat , have been added .
The new Survival mode is a nonstop war of attrition . Depending on the mode , players are either given limited money , turns , or time to complete a series of maps . However , victory often can be achieved by reaching preset requirements instead of satisfying the normal victory conditions . The ranking received depends on the amount of the given resource remaining at the end of the maps .
Combat , the other new mode , is an entirely new real @-@ time rendition of the game . While the victory conditions for Combat are identical to any other battle , where the goal is to capture the opponent 's HQ or defeat all enemies , players do not take turns . Instead , players fight in real time , controlling one of four different types of units , Mech , Recon , Tank , and Artillery , at a time with the touchpad . Each has strengths and weaknesses when graded in the four categories of firepower , rate of fire , movement speed , and capture speed , and their respective strengths and weaknesses resemble those of the units in the main game . Players must fight through six levels , each on a different map against a different CO . Units are bought before the first game of each set and must last through all six levels , as extra units cannot be purchased and can only be gained when a factory is captured . Multiplayer for this mode is supported , unlike Survival . Up to eight players on up to four teams can battle . Computer @-@ controlled units , which take on a gray color , may also be added into a match . A demo of Dual Strike , containing the Combat mode , can be sent wirelessly to other DS units .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Dual Strike fields extensive multiplayer modes that come in two forms : Versus mode and Link mode . In Versus mode , only one DS system is used , and the single DS is passed from player to player . These matches can be set up with any combination of human players and computer @-@ controlled armies . Link mode is the same game as Versus mode gameplay @-@ wise , but each player have a separate console and a copy of Dual Strike . Two to eight people can participate in wireless multiplayer games . Maps created by players by the Map Editor can also be traded wirelessly to other players .
= = Plot = =
Dual Strike stars two new characters : Jake , and Rachel , Jake 's advisor . These are the primary protagonists of Dual Strike and members of the Orange Star Army , and are accompanied by several other new protagonists , including Sasha , Grimm , and Javier , members of the Blue Moon , Yellow Comet , and Green Earth Armies respectively .
The Black Hole Army has returned under a new commander , Von Bolt . He is accompanied by his Bolt Guard : Jugger , Koal , and Kindle , along with Hawke and Lash from the original Black Hole Army . Using Lash 's new Black Obelisks , Von Bolt is draining Omega Land of its energy to give him eternal life , and is also starting to use this power to produce a bio @-@ weapon named Oozium 238 , a strange slime @-@ based monster that devours anything in its path . However , Hawke notices the energy draining ( which also is turning Omega Land into a desert ) and questions its use . After uncovering Von Bolt 's plot , Hawke is betrayed and Von Bolt attempts to swarm Hawke and Lash with Oozium 238 . After the Allied Nations ’ COs save Hawke and Lash , the COs , along with Hawke and Lash , begin to turn the tide against the Black Hole Army . Both Hawke and Lash provide valuable intelligence of the Black Hole weaponry and its plans for Omega Land .
With this information , the Allied Nations slowly corner the Black Hole Army , leading to a battle in the middle of the Crimson Sea . After destroying the last Black Obelisk , the Allied Nations proceed to the final battle where they fight Von Bolt and a giant oozium known as the Grand Bolt . After destroying the Grand Bolt , Hawke ( or Jake , based on the player 's decision ) destroys Von Bolt 's life support chair , supposedly causing both Hawke and Von Bolt to die in the aftermath . With the Black Obelisks gone , Omega Land begins returning to normal . However , Hawke is revealed to have stolen Von Bolt 's chair and escaped , leaving Von Bolt either dead or barely alive . With the power in Von Bolt 's chair Hawke revives all the land .
= = Development = =
On October 7 , 2004 , Dual Strike was first announced under the title Advance Wars : DS as a first @-@ party DS release in a Nintendo press release and it was to be released in the year following the DS 's release . In March , the Japanese release date was revealed to be June 23 , 2005 , under the title Famicom Wars DS . The American release date was also set to October 9 , 2005 . In May , the game was showcased at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo , when the official title was also announced . The final American release date for Dual Strike was set to August 22 , 2005 and the European release date was set for September 30 , 2005 .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo . The executive producer was Satoru Iwata , the CEO of Nintendo . The producer was Tohru Nariho and the game was directed by Makoto Shimojo .
Wireless play was originally planned for the game . However , wireless was not part of the Electronic Entertainment Expo build and Nintendo was therefore unable to demonstrate its capabilities . By the final release build of the game , local wireless , but not Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi , was implemented and supported two to four players in Normal Battle mode , two players in DS Battle , and up to 8 players in Combat mode .
= = Reception = =
Advance Wars : Dual Strike received critical acclaim , gaining an aggregate score of 90 % and at both Game Rankings and Metacritic . 1UP.com commented that the game " is a much greater step forward in the series than its predecessor , Advance Wars : Black Hole Rising " and that the game was greatly enhanced by the addition of a second screen . While the game had drawbacks , including the dialogue , the lack of depth in the Combat mode , and the unbalanced COs , it was also cited as " the standard against which other strategy games , handheld or otherwise , should be judged . "
IGN praised the game for being " a fantastic single player game ... enhanced further with multiplayer focus for single and multiple cart users . " Though IGN thought the game " doesn 't offer anything entirely new or unique , " the game contains " some of the most engrossing turn @-@ based action on the Nintendo DS system . "
In general , the game was generally found to be extremely similar to previous games , which had both drawbacks and benefits . GameSpot commented that the visuals were all felt " recycled " but the game had great depth and addictive regardless . Game Informer considered the game " the first must @-@ have title for the system " while the innovations improved an already solid core gameplay . Similarly , EuroGamer commented that the game correctly ported the game to DS without losing the essence of the GBA game . The " variety and depth " did not cause a loss of the " unique and enjoyable " aspects of the game .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was the 301st best @-@ selling game of 2005 in Japan , selling around 35 @,@ 000 copies in its first ten weeks .
The game was awarded the Editor 's Choice Award by both IGN and GameSpot . GameSpy also awarded the game " Game of the Month " in August 2005 . It also won Best Strategy Game for the DS and was a runner @-@ up for the Best Strategy Game on any platform in 2005 .
= Delaware Route 36 =
Delaware Route 36 ( DE 36 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . It runs in a generally northeast – southwest direction from DE 404 in Scotts Corner to Slaughter Beach , a town along the Delaware Bay . The road runs through the northern portion of Sussex County , passing through rural areas along Greenwood and Milford . The route intersects DE 16 and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Greenwood and US 113 , DE 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) , and DE 1 in Milford . DE 36 was built as a state highway in stages during the 1920s and 1930s . The road was designated by 1938 from DE 16 east of Greenwood to Fort Saulsbury ( present @-@ day Slaughter Beach ) and was extended west to DE 404 by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
DE 36 begins at an intersection with DE 404 in Scotts Corner , heading the northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Scotts Store Road . The road runs through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes , coming to an intersection with DE 16 . At this point , DE 16 turns east to become concurrent with DE 36 on Hickman Road . The road enters Greenwood and becomes Market Street , passing several homes along with a few businesses . The highway crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line before it intersects US 13 on the eastern edge of Greenwood . Past this intersection , DE 16 / DE 36 leaves Greenwood and becomes Beach Highway , crossing the Nanticoke River .
In Saint Johnstown , DE 36 splits from DE 16 by turning to the northeast onto Shawnee Road . The road heads through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . Farther northeast , the road reaches the city of Milford . Upon reaching Milford , the route runs through residential areas and intersects US 113 . Past this intersection , DE 36 becomes Lakeview Avenue and passes to the west of Bayhealth Milford Memorial hospital . The road forms the eastern border of Silver Lake , a lake along the Mispillion River , and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . After this , DE 36 continues to the east on Causey Avenue past homes and businesses . In the downtown area of Milford , the route turns north onto Walnut Street briefly before it heads east on Southeast Front Street . The route passes through the residential eastern part of Milford where it intersects DE 1 Bus .
DE 36 leaves Milford and heads to the northeast on Cedar Beach Road , entering a mix of farmland , woodland , and homes . The road turns to the east , running a short distance to the south of the Mispillion River as it comes to a diamond interchange with the DE 1 bypass of Milford . Past this interchange , the route continues to the northeast . DE 36 winds east through a mix of farmland and marshland and comes to a drawbridge over the Cedar Creek in Slaughter Beach . The DE 36 designation ends here , but the road continues past the drawbridge into Slaughter Beach where it becomes Bay Avenue and turns south to run along the Delaware Bay .
DE 36 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 9 @,@ 886 vehicles at the eastern edge of Greenwood to a low of 871 vehicles at the eastern terminus . None of DE 36 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , a section of present @-@ day DE 36 southwest of Milford was completed as a state highway while a portion leading further northeast into Milford was under contract as one ; the remainder of the route existed as an unimproved county road . The portion leading into Milford was completed four years later , in addition to the segment of the road through Greenwood . A year later , the state highway was under proposal between Greenwood and southwest of Milford . The state highway between Greenwood and Milford was finished in 1929 . All of current DE 36 was completed by 1931 except for the easternmost part of the road . DE 36 was designated to follow its current alignment between DE 16 east of Greenwood and Fort Saulsbury ( now Slaughter Beach ) by 1938 , with the entire route paved except for the part near Fort Saulsbury . The unpaved portion was paved a year later . DE 36 was extended westward to its current terminus at DE 404 by 1994 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= Carsten Borchgrevink =
Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink ( 1 December 1864 – 21 April 1934 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norwegian polar explorer and a pioneer of modern Antarctic travel . He was the precursor of Robert Falcon Scott , Ernest Shackleton , Roald Amundsen and other more famous names associated with the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . In 1898 – 1900 he led the British @-@ financed Southern Cross Expedition , which established a new Farthest South record at 78 ° 50'S .
Borchgrevink began his exploring career in 1894 by joining a Norwegian whaling expedition , during which he became one of the first persons to set foot on the Antarctic mainland . This achievement helped him to obtain backing for his Southern Cross Expedition , which became the first to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland , and the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier since the expedition of Sir James Ross nearly sixty years previously . However , the expedition 's successes , including the Farthest South , were received with only moderate interest by the public and by the British geographical establishment , whose attention was by then focused on Scott 's upcoming National Antarctic Expedition . Some of Borchgrevink 's colleagues were critical of his leadership , and his own accounts of the expedition were regarded as journalistic and unreliable .
After the Southern Cross Expedition , Borchgrevink was one of three scientists sent to the Caribbean in 1902 by the National Geographic Society , to report on the aftermath of the Mount Pelée disaster . Thereafter he settled in Oslo , leading a life mainly away from public attention . His pioneering work was subsequently recognised and honoured by several countries , and in 1912 he received a handsome tribute from Roald Amundsen , conqueror of the South Pole . In 1930 , Britain 's Royal Geographical Society finally acknowledged Borchgrevink 's contribution to polar exploration and awarded him its Patron 's Medal . The Society acknowledged in its citation that justice had not previously been done to the work of the Southern Cross Expedition .
= = Early life = =
Carsten Borchgrevink was born in Oslo , the son of a Norwegian lawyer , Henrik Christian Borchgrevink , and an English mother Annie , née Ridley . The family lived in the Uranienborg neighbourhood , where Roald Amundsen , an occasional childhood playmate , also grew up . Borchgrevink was educated at Gjertsen College , Oslo , and later ( 1885 – 88 ) at the Royal Saxon Academy of Forestry at Tharandt , Saxony , in Germany .
According to the historian Roland Huntford , Borchgrevink was of a restless nature , with a passion for adventure which took him , after his forestry training , to Australia . For four years he worked with government surveying teams in Queensland and New South Wales before settling in the small town of Bowenfels , where he became a teacher in languages and natural sciences at Cooerwull Academy . His initial interest in polar exploration developed from reading press reports about the work of local scientists on the first Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee . This organisation , founded in 1886 , was investigating the possibility of establishing permanent scientific research stations in the Antarctic regions . These plans were not realised ; it was a revival of interest in commercial whaling in the early 1890s that gave Borchgrevink the opportunity , in 1894 , to sign up for a Norwegian expedition to Antarctica .
= = Whaling voyage = =
The expedition that Borchgrevink joined was organised by Henryk Bull , a Norwegian businessman and entrepreneur who , like Borchgrevink , had settled in Australia in the late 1880s . Bull planned to make a sealing and whaling voyage into Antarctic waters ; after failing to interest Melbourne 's learned societies in a cost @-@ sharing venture of a commercial – scientific nature , he returned to Norway to organise his expedition there . He met Svend Foyn , the 84 @-@ year @-@ old " father of modern whaling " and inventor of the harpoon gun . With Foyn 's help he acquired the whaler Kap Nor ( " North Cape " ) , which he renamed Antarctic . Bull hired an experienced whaling captain , Leonard Kristensen , and with a crew and a small scientific team left Norway in September 1893 . When Borchgrevink learned that Antarctic was due to visit Melbourne in September 1894 , he hurried there hoping to find a vacancy . He was fortunate ; William Speirs Bruce , later an Antarctic expedition leader in his own right , had intended to join Bull 's expedition as a natural scientist but could not reach the ship before it left Norway . This created an opening for Borchgrevink , who met Bull in Melbourne
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and persuaded him to take him on as a deck @-@ hand and part @-@ time scientist .
During the following months , Antarctic 's sealing activities around the sub @-@ Antarctic islands were successful , but whales proved difficult to find . Bull and Kristensen decided to take the ship further south , to areas where the presence of whales had been reported by earlier expeditions . The ship penetrated a belt of pack ice and sailed into the Ross Sea , but whales were still elusive . On 17 January 1895 a landing was made at Possession Island , where Sir James Clark Ross had planted the British flag in 1841 . Bull and Borchgrevink left a message in a canister there , to prove their presence there . On the island Borchgrevink found a lichen , the first plant life discovered south of the Antarctic Circle . On 24 January the ship reached the vicinity of Cape Adare , at the northern extremity of the Victoria Land coastline of the Antarctic mainland . Ross 's 1841 expedition been unable to land here , but as Antarctic neared the cape , conditions were calm enough for a boat to be lowered . A party including Bull , Kristensen , Borchgrevink and others then headed for a shingled foreshore below the cape . Exactly who went ashore first became a matter of dispute , with both Kristensen and Borchgrevink contending for the honour along with a 17 @-@ year @-@ old New Zealand seaman , Alexander von Tunzelmann , who said that he had " leapt out to hold the boat steady " . The party claimed this as the first landing on the Antarctic mainland , although they may have been preceded by the Anglo @-@ American sealing captain John Davis , on the Antarctic Peninsula on 7 February 1821 , or by other whaling expeditions .
While ashore at Cape Adare , Borchgrevink collected further specimens of rocks and lichens , the latter of which would prove of great interest to the scientific community , which had doubted the ability of vegetation to survive so far south . He also made a careful study of the foreshore , assessing its potential as a site where a future expedition might land and establish winter quarters . When Antarctic reached Melbourne , Bull and Borchgrevink left the ship . Each hoped to raise funds for a further Antarctic expedition , but their efforts were unsuccessful . An animosity developed between them , possibly because of their differing accounts of the voyage on the Antarctic ; each emphasised his own role without fully acknowledging that of the other .
= = Making plans = =
= = = International Geographical Congress 1895 = = =
To promote his developing ideas for an expedition that would overwinter on the Antarctic continent at Cape Adare , Borchgrevink hurried to London , where the Royal Geographical Society was hosting the Sixth International Geographical Congress . On 1 August 1895 he addressed the conference , giving an account of the Cape Adare foreshore as a location where a scientific expedition might establish itself for the Antarctic winter . He described the site as " a safe situation for houses , tents and provisions " , and said there were indications that in this place " the unbound forces of the Antarctic Circle do not display the full severity of their powers " . He also suggested that the interior of the continent might be accessible from the foreshore by an easy route — a " gentle slope " . He ended his speech by declaring his willingness to lead an expedition there himself . Hugh Robert Mill , the Royal Geographical Society 's librarian , who was present at the Congress , reported reactions to the speech : " His blunt manner and abrupt speech stirred the academic discussions with a fresh breeze of realism . Nobody liked Borchgrevink very much at that time , but he had a dynamic quality and a set purpose to get out again to the unknown South that struck some of us as boding well for exploration " . The Congress did not , however , endorse Borchgrevink 's ideas . Instead , it passed a general resolution in support of Antarctic exploration , to the effect that " the various scientific societies throughout the world should urge , in whatever way seems to them most effective , that this work be undertaken before the close of the century " .
= = = Seeking support = = =
For the next two years Borchgrevink travelled in Europe and in Australia , seeking support and backing for his expedition ideas without success . One of those with whom he sought to join forces was William Speirs Bruce , who was planning his own Antarctic expedition . Their joint plans foundered when Borchgrevink , who had severed relations with Henryk Bull , learned that Bruce was in discussions with him ; " I regret therefore that we cannot collaborate " , wrote Borchgrevink to Bruce . He also discovered that the Royal Geographical Society had been harbouring its own plans for an Antarctic expedition since 1893 . Under the influence of its president , Sir Clements Markham , this RGS project was envisaged not only as a scientific endeavour , but as an attempt to relive the former glories of Royal Naval polar exploration . This vision would eventually develop into the National Antarctic Expedition with the Discovery , under Captain Scott , and it was this that attracted the interest of the learned societies rather than Borchgrevink 's more modest proposals . Markham was fiercely opposed to private ventures that might divert financial support from his project , and Borchgrevink found himself starved of practical help : " It was up a steep hill " , he wrote , " that I had to roll my Antarctic boulder . "
= = = Sir George Newnes = = =
During his search for backers , Borchgrevink met Sir George Newnes , a leading British magazine publisher and cinema pioneer whose portfolio included the Westminster Gazette , Tit @-@ Bits , Country Life and the Strand Magazine . It was not unusual for publishers to support exploration — Newnes 's great rival Alfred Harmsworth ( later Lord Northcliffe ) had recently financed Frederick Jackson 's expedition to Franz Josef Land , and had pledged financial backing to the National Antarctic Expedition . Newnes was sufficiently impressed by Borchgrevink to offer the full costs of his proposed expedition — around £ 40 @,@ 000 , ( at least £ 3 million in 2008 values ) . This generosity infuriated Sir Clements Markham and the geographical establishment , who saw Borchgrevink as a penniless Norwegian nobody who had secured British money which they believed ought to have been theirs . Markham maintained an attitude of hostility and contempt towards Borchgrevink , and chastised Mill for attending the launch of his expedition .
Newnes stipulated that the expedition should sail under a British flag , and should be styled the " British Antarctic Expedition " . In the event , of the total party of 29 , only two were British , with one Australian and the rest Norwegian . Despite this , Borchgrevink took steps to emphasise the expedition 's British character , flying the personal flag of the Duke of York and taking 500 bamboo poles with miniature Union Jacks for , as he put it , " purpose of survey and extension of the British Empire " .
= = Southern Cross Expedition = =
= = = Winter in Antarctica = = =
With funding assured , Borchgrevink purchased the whaling ship Pollux , renamed her Southern Cross , and had her fitted out for Antarctic service . Southern Cross sailed from London on 22 August 1898 , and after a three @-@ week pause in Hobart , Tasmania , reached Cape Adare on 17 February 1899 . Here , on the site which Borchgrevink had described to the Congress , the expedition set up the first ever shore base on the Antarctic continent — in the midst of a penguin colony . It was named " Camp Ridley " in honour of Borchgrevink 's mother . On 2 March the ship departed for New Zealand to winter there , leaving a shore party of 10 with their provisions , equipment and 70 dogs . These were the first dogs brought to the Antarctic ; likewise , the expedition pioneered the use there of the Primus stove , invented in Sweden six years earlier .
Louis Bernacchi , the party 's Australian physicist , was later to write : " In many respects , Borchgrevink was not a good leader " . Borchgrevink was evidently no autocrat but , Bernacchi said , without the framework of an accepted hierarchy a state of " democratic anarchy " prevailed , with " dirt , disorder and inactivity the order of the day " . Furthermore , as winter developed , Borchgrevink 's hopes that Cape Adare would escape the worst Antarctic weather proved false ; in fact he had chosen a site which was particularly exposed to the freezing winds blown northwards from the inland ice . As time progressed , tempers wore thin ; the party became irritable and boredom set in . There were accidents : a candle left burning caused extensive fire damage , and on another occasion several members of the party were almost asphyxiated by fumes from the stove . Borchgrevink did attempt to establish a routine , and scientific work was carried on throughout , but as he wrote himself , referring to the general lack of fellowship : " The silence roars in one 's ears " . Further lowering the group 's spirits , their zoologist , Nicolai Hanson , fell ill , failed to respond to treatment and died on 14 October 1899 .
When the southern winter ended and sledging activity became possible , Borchgrevink 's assumptions about an easy route to the interior were shattered ; the glaciated mountain ranges adjoining Cape Adare precluded any travel inland , restricting exploration to the immediate area around the cape . However , Borchgrevink 's basic expedition plan — to overwinter on the Antarctic continent and carry out scientific observations there — had been achieved . When Southern Cross returned at the end of January 1900 , Borchgrevink decided to abandon the camp , although there were sufficient fuel and provisions left to last another year . Instead of returning home directly , Southern Cross sailed south until it reached the Great Ice Barrier , discovered by Sir James Clark Ross during his 1839 – 43 voyage and later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf in his honour . No one had visited the Barrier since then , and Ross had been unable to effect a landing . Borchgrevink discovered an inlet in the Barrier edge ; in later years this would be named the " Bay of Whales " by Shackleton . Here , on 16 February 1900 , Borchgrevink , William Colbeck and the Sami dog @-@ handler Per Savio made the first landing on the Barrier and , with dogs and sledges , travelled 10 miles ( 16 km ) south to set a new Farthest South record at 78 ° 50'S . Southern Cross visited other Ross Sea islands before turning for home , reaching New Zealand on 1 April 1900 . Borchgrevink then took a steamer to England , arriving early in June .
= = = Return and reception = = =
The reception afforded to the expedition on its return to England was lukewarm . Public interest and attention was fixed on the forthcoming national expedition of which Robert Falcon
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with which he changes his own humour and manner according to the nature of the play he comes upon ; like a spectator in a theatre , who accompanies the turns of the actor 's face with his own . " John Hamilton Reynolds , reviewing it in The Champion , went so far as to claim that " This is the only work ever written on Shakespeare that can be deemed worthy of Shakespeare " .
The first edition sold out in six weeks . It was only some months afterward that the voice of Francis Jeffrey , the highly respected editor of The Edinburgh Review , was heard . Jeffrey began by expressing reservations : this is not a book of great learning and less a book of criticism than of appreciation . And yet , Jeffrey concedes , the " appreciation " is of the highest kind , and he is " not [ ... ] much inclined to disagree with " Hazlitt " after reading his eloquent exposition " of the points he makes about Shakespeare . " The book [ ... ] is written less to tell the reader what Mr. H. knows about Shakespeare or his writings , than to explain to them what he feels about them — and why he feels so — and thinks that all who profess to love poetry should feel so likewise . " While Characters does not " show extraordinary knowledge of [ Shakespeare 's ] production " it nevertheless shows " very considerable originality and genius . "
On 30 May 1818 , a second edition appeared , this time published by Taylor and Hessey . At first this sold well . At that time , however , literary criticism was subject to exceptionally strong political influences . In particular , the most unscrupulous of the Tory periodicals did not hesitate to indulge in barefaced lies to discredit adherents of what they considered unacceptable political views . Hazlitt , never reticent about criticising kings or government ministers , soon became a target . Only a little more than a week had passed when the Quarterly Review " delivered a diabolical notice of Characters of Shakespeare 's Plays — possibly by its editor , William Gifford . " ( It could have actually been by a certain John Russell , writing anonymously ; but Hazlitt laid the blame on Gifford , who was responsible for the journal 's contents and may have encouraged Russell . ) Gifford , or Russell , sliding from literary criticism into character assassination , wrote :
We should not have condescended to notice the senseless and wicked sophistry of this writer [ ... ] had we not considered him as one of the representatives of a class of men by whom literature is more than at any former period disgraced [ ... ] it might not be unprofitable to show how small a portion of talent and literature was necessary for carrying on the trade of sedition . [ Hazlitt had dared to criticise the character of King Henry VIII . ] The few specimens which we have selected of his ethics and his criticism are more than sufficient to prove that Mr. Hazlitt 's knowledge of Shakespeare and the English language is exactly on a par with the purity of his morals and the depth of his understanding .
Sales completely dried up . Hazlitt got the chronology a bit wrong but was otherwise not exaggerating when he wrote in 1821 :
Taylor and Hessey told me that they had sold nearly two editions of the Characters of Shakespear 's Plays in about three months , but that after the Quarterly Review of them came out , they never sold another copy .
The attacks in the Tory periodicals , soon extended to other works by Hazlitt , killed not merely the sales of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays but , as far as much of the general public was concerned , his reputation as a literary critic .
= = = 1830 – 1900 : Under a cloud = = =
Though the influence of Hazlitt 's only full @-@ length treatment of Shakespeare somewhat receded , it did not completely die out . Hazlitt 's son and grandson brought out editions of Hazlitt 's works later in the century . His miscellaneous and familiar essays were read , and Hazlitt was commended as a stylist by a discerning few . As a critic , though he had passed out of the public eye , an even more select few understood how high a place he deserved in the ranking of literary critics . William Makepeace Thackeray , for example , praised Hazlitt in 1844 as " one of the keenest and brightest critics that ever lived . " Another rare exception was the Scottish journalist Alexander Ireland , who in a brief memoir of Hazlitt in 1889 wrote that Hazlitt 's book on Shakespeare , " although it professes to be dramatic criticism , is in reality a discourse on the philosophy of life and human nature , more suggestive than many approved treatises expressly devoted to that subject . "
For the most part , although Hazlitt continued to be read and his influence was to a degree felt , he was throughout most of the remainder of the nineteenth century infrequently cited as a critic .
= = = 1900 – 1950 : Reemergence = = =
Around the turn of the twentieth century , the influence of Characters began to be exerted more explicitly , notably in the studies of critic A.C. Bradley , who approvingly adopted Hazlitt 's explanation of the character of Iago . At about this time , George Saintsbury , who wrote a comprehensive history of English criticism ( finished in 1904 ) , recorded his extreme distaste for Hazlitt 's character , and , as noted by critic Elisabeth Schneider , found his writings " filled with vast ignorance , errors , prejudice , and an unpleasantness of temper amounting almost to insanity " . Yet he also ranked Hazlitt high as a critic , among the greatest in the language . Characters he placed lower than some of Hazlitt 's other critical works ; yet he allowed that , aside from such " outbursts " as his railing against the historical King Henry V , and his over @-@ reliance on quotation from Schlegel , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is filled with much that is admirable , notably Hazlitt 's comparison of Chaucer 's and Shakespeare 's characterisation and his observation that Shakespeare " has no prejudices for or against his characters " . Saintsbury found Hazlitt 's critical judgements sound as a rule , and he thought that the characterisations of Falstaff and Shylock were " masterpieces " .
Even as the " character " critics began to fall out of favour , and Hazlitt , who was lumped together with them , was also pushed aside , some influence remained . Hazlitt 's general approach to Shakespeare 's plays , in conveying the prevailing mood , the character of the play itself , had its influence on later twentieth @-@ century critics , like G. Wilson Knight . Other major Shakespeareans , like John Dover Wilson , would occasionally refer approvingly to one of Hazlitt 's insights or notable passages , such as the characterisation of Falstaff .
= = = 1950 – 1970 : Revaluation = = =
Hazlitt 's Shakespearean criticism continued to find some acceptance from then on , yet a stigma still hung about his character , and his criticism was often judged to be overly emotional and " impressionistic " . This attitude changed only gradually . In 1955 , René Wellek , in his history of literary criticism in all Western culture for the previous two centuries , largely supported these earlier views . Characters , to him , centres excessively on Shakespeare 's characters and , worse , Hazlitt " confuses fiction and reality " and discusses fictional characters as though they were real people . Yet he also notes , a half @-@ century after Saintsbury , and following Schneider 's lead , that for all of Hazlitt 's impressionism , " there is more theory in Hazlitt than is generally realised . " He also thought that Hazlitt shows considerable " psychological acumen " in explaining certain types of characters , such as Iago , and that Hazlitt 's " character sketch of Iago is superior to Coleridge 's " . He also praises Hazlitt 's freedom , in Characters and elsewhere , from " the defects which infected his nearest critical rivals , Johnson and Coleridge : chauvinism , prudery , and unctuous sermonising . [ ... ] He is free of the prudery which in his day pervaded English culture . "
Contemporaneously , Walter Jackson Bate , a critic specialising in the English Romantic period , voiced his approval of Hazlitt 's Shakespearean criticism , seen in the context of that of other Romantics . " Like Coleridge [ ... ] or [ ... ] Keats " , wrote Bate , " Hazlitt had the characteristic romantic delight in Shakespeare 's ability to unveil character in a single passage or even a single line — in ' flashes of passion ' that offer a ' revelation as it were of the whole context of our being . ' "
More attention soon came to Hazlitt 's book . Lionel Trilling was the first critic to recognise the importance of Hazlitt 's radically new idea about poetry as expressed in his essay on Coriolanus . Herschel Baker in 1962 noted that the best parts of Hazlitt 's book , such as the " stirring essays on Othello and Macbeth " , place " Hazlitt near the top of those who have written greatly on the greatest of all writers . "
In 1968 , Arthur M. Eastman published a retrospective study of 350 years of Shakespearean criticism . At that time , it still seemed necessary to apologise for including Hazlitt among the major Shakespearean critics of his age . But in A Short History of Shakespearean Criticism , Eastman finally concludes that , although much of what Hazlitt says about Shakespeare is not original , it " is well enough said to find a place in the story . "
Before Eastman finishes , however , he enumerates several things that Hazlitt did formulate in an original manner . Besides such memorable expressions as " It is we who are Hamlet " , Hazlitt , like no critic before him , was supremely attentive to " the whole interrelationship of one person with another , one mind with other minds — presences both physical and psychological upon a stage . " With this focus on what Hazlitt had to say about Shakespeare 's stagecraft and the way his plays were acted , Eastman thus rescued him from the opprobrium of being associated , in the most superficial way , with the " character " critics . Differing from his contemporaries Lamb and Coleridge , " Hazlitt [ ... ] brings to Shakespeare both a drama critic 's sense of the plays as theatre and a closet critic 's sense that the theatre of the mind so far surpasses that of the stage that certain of the plays can only be acted there . "
Eastman also points to Hazlitt 's focus on the underlying unity of the plays . Hazlitt may not have done this as well as Coleridge ( who , Eastman thought , was better at suggesting avenues of approach for others to find unity in Shakespeare 's plays ) , " Yet the demonstrations of unity in Cymbeline and Othello and King Lear make us see what otherwise we might not . " Eastman also rescues Hazlitt 's political commentary , which , however abrasive it might be , " opens such questions " for general discussion , " so that the politics of the plays enters into the arena of interpretation in a new and dignified way . "
Overall , Eastman concludes , despite the book 's many shortcomings , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was the " best handbook " of its century for the study of Shakespeare 's plays .
= = = 1970 – 2000 : Revival = = =
It remained for John Kinnaird in his 1978 full @-@ length study of Hazlitt as thinker and critic to reconcile Hazlitt as " character " critic with Hazlitt as drama critic . Hazlitt was a character critic to an extent ; but he was also a dramatic critic who paid attention to staging and dramatic form . And even his character criticism transcended the focus on individual characters to create " a larger study of the ways of dramatic imagination " . In the course of his study of Shakespeare , Hazlitt , as Kinnaird points out , also shows how it is Shakespeare 's " art " that enables him to represent " nature " , dismissing the older critical view that Shakespeare was a " child of nature " but deficient in " art " .
Kinnaird further delves into the ideas in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , especially that of " power " as involved in Shakespeare 's plays and as investigated by Hazlitt , not only the power in physical force but the power of imagination in sympathising with physical force , which at times can overcome our will to the good . He explores Hazlitt 's accounts of Shakespeare 's tragedies — Macbeth , Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and especially Coriolanus — where he shows that Hazlitt reveals that our love of power in sympathising with what can involve evil can overcome the human desire for the good . This , Kinnaird points out , has serious implications in considering the meaning and purpose of tragic literature in general .
Along the way , Kinnaird notes the influence of Characters on later Shakespearean criticism , including that of A.C. Bradley , G. Wilson Knight , and C.L. Barber .
Hazlitt , concludes , Kinnaird , was too often misunderstood and dismissed as no more than a " character " critic . But his contribution to Shakespeare studies was much broader and deeper than that , and , despite problems with some of Hazlitt 's own theories , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was a " seminal " work .
By this time , a revival of interest in Hazlitt was well under way . Only a few years later , in 1983 , in his study of Hazlitt as critic , David Bromwich considers at length some issues involving Characters of Shakespear 's Plays . Against some allegations to the contrary in earlier studies of Hazlitt , Bromwich concludes that Hazlitt borrowed little from Coleridge , and he presents several contrasts in their critical views , particularly about Shakespeare , as evidence . In extended discussions of Hazlitt 's critical treatment of the character of Iago in Othello , of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice , of Caliban in The Tempest , of Hamlet , and , at great length , of Coriolanus , he uses the contrast between Coleridge 's criticism and Hazlitt 's to highlight the essential originality of Hazlitt 's critical stance , and he observes that Hazlitt 's views frequently provide a bracing alternative to Coleridge 's . He also delves into the issue of Hazlitt 's influence on Keats partly by means of Characters , particularly the chapter on King Lear , and he finds in Hazlitt 's comments on Lear interesting contrasts and similarities with the critical views of Wordsworth and Shelley . Building upon the arguments advanced by Kinnaird , Bromwich further challenges the " reductive " notion that Characters was simply a work of " character " criticism .
= = = 2000 and afterward = = =
Sustained by the accelerated revival of interest in Hazlitt toward the close of the twentieth century , the legacy of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays has been valued increasingly as well . In 1994 Harold Bloom , in voicing his appreciation of Hazlitt 's accounts of Coriolanus and of Edmund in King Lear , ranked Hazlitt second only to Dr. Johnson as an English @-@ language literary critic . He echoed and reinforced that assessment in his 2008 edition of Othello . Other new editions of Shakespeare also look back to Hazlitt 's interpretations of his plays . In 2000 , Jonathan Arac in The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism placed Hazlitt with Schlegel and Coleridge as distinguished Shakespeare
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an critics of their age and noted his study of Shakespeare as one of the " landmarks that still serve as points of departure for fresh thinking nearly two centuries later . " In 2006 , with Hazlitt 's full reinstatement as a major Shakespearean critic , philosopher Colin McGinn based an entire book about Shakespeare 's plays on Hazlitt 's idea that Shakespeare was a " philosophical " poet .
= The Museum of Curiosity =
The Museum of Curiosity , formerly titled The Professor of Curiosity , is a comedy panel game on BBC Radio 4 that was first broadcast on 20 February 2008 . It is hosted by John Lloyd ( Professor of Ignorance at the University of Buckingham , and later at Southampton Solent University ) . He acts as the head of the ( fictional ) titular museum , while a panel of three guests – typically a comedian , an author and an academic – each donate to the museum an ‘ object ’ that fascinates them . The radio medium ensures that the suggested exhibits can be absolutely anything , limited only by the guests ’ imaginations .
Bill Bailey acted as co @-@ host of the programme in the first series , under the title of curator of the museum . Bailey left the show after he initially decided to " retire " from panel games , and was replaced by Sean Lock in the second series . Each subsequent series has seen a different comedian take over as the sidekick / curator , with Jon Richardson , Dave Gorman , Jimmy Carr , Humphrey Ker , Phill Jupitus , Sarah Millican and Noel Fielding assuming the role in the third , fourth , fifth , sixth , seventh , eighth and ninth series respectively . Gorman also stood in for Richardson for one episode of the third series , after Richardson was stranded due to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull . Ker also functioned as a stand @-@ in , this time for Jimmy Carr , when Carr was unable to attend one episode in series 5 .
The programme has often been compared to the television panel game QI . Both were co @-@ created by Lloyd , several of the Museum 's ' curators ' and comic guests have appeared regularly on QI , and the QI Elves ( QI 's research team , who provide host Stephen Fry with live information as required during the programme ) provide the research . As a result , some critics consider the radio show to be a spin @-@ off of the TV programme , and some have further ventured that The Museum of Curiosity is not as good as its forerunner . Most reviews of The Museum of Curiosity , however , are positive .
= = Format = =
In series one , the programme began with Bailey introducing the show and playing its theme tune , which he performed in a slightly different way in each episode . In subsequent series , the theme tune was , instead , performed by House Of Strange Studios of East London . The host / professor and the curator / sidekick introduce themselves . They then give a short guide to the museum , followed by the introduction of the " advisory committee " , a guest panel made up of celebrities and academic experts , during which Lloyd reads their CVs aloud .
Afterward , each member of the " committee " donates something to the museum . The donation can be anything , regardless of its size , cost , tangibility , or even existence . Examples of donations include a yeti , the Battle of Waterloo , and absolutely nothing . Lloyd and the curator then decide what form the exhibit could take and where in the museum it could be displayed . In series one , the programme ended either with Lloyd and Bailey reading audience suggestions for additional exhibits or asking the audience curious questions . Bailey ended the show by giving a humorous comment on a Bertrand Russell quote . Both of these ideas were dropped in series two .
From series two onward , the show has maintained a standard format . It is presented in two halves ; in the first half , Lloyd and the curator introduce the three guests , provide an explanation of who they are , and the five engage in a general discussion . In the second half , the curator declares the Museum open for donations , and each guest explains what they wish to " donate " to the museum ( again , as the museum is fictional , nothing is actually exchanged ) . Questioning of all three guests ensures that everyone says something about each donation .
= = Production = =
The programme 's pilot episode was recorded on 16 April 2007 and was the entitled The Professor of Curiosity . The guests for this episode were Alastair Fothergill , Victoria Finlay and Simon Munnery . This pilot , recorded at the Rutherford Room at the institute of Physics , has not been broadcast . The first series was recorded at the Pleasance Theatre in Islington and , since then , the show has been recorded at the BBC Radio Theatre , with occasional recordings at other venues , such as the Shaw Theatre and RADA Studios ( formerly The Drill Hall ) , all in London . The series was created by Lloyd , Richard Turner and Dan Schreiber . Turner and Schreiber also produce the show . The show 's researchers are James Harkin , Xander Cansell ( for series one ) , Molly Oldfield ( from series two onward ) and Stevyn Colgan ( Series 5 onward ) .
A live version of the show was staged at the Natural History Museum , London on 9 November 2012 for charity . The guests for this edition were Terry Pratchett , Dave Gorman , Alan West , Baron West of Spithead , Helen Keen , Richard Fortey and Erica McAlister . The show was hosted by John Lloyd , with Producer Dan Schreiber taking the role of curator .
Further live shows were staged at the 2014 Edinburgh Fringe featuring a number of top comedians and other guests .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= = = Series 3 = = =
= = = Series 4 = = =
= = = Series 5 = = =
= = = Series 6 = = =
= = = Series 7 = = =
= = = Coding Special = = =
= = = Series 8 = = =
= = Reception = =
Reaction to the series was mixed . Phil Daoust in The Guardian described the show as being " unusual " and " eclectic " . Chris Campling , who wrote a preview of the first episode , highlighted it in his " Radio Choice " column for The Times . Gillian Reynolds highlighted the programme as one of her radio choices in the Daily Telegraph . Rosanna Chianta in Scotland on Sunday compared the show positively to QI , also created by Lloyd , while Frances Lass from the Radio Times said it was better , claiming it was , " QI with even more jokes . Made me bark with laughter " , that , " Lord Reith would be so proud " and the programme was , " Pornography for the brain ! "
Miranda Sawyer of The Observer criticised the show , saying that , " it 's no QI , because the joy of that programme rests almost entirely in the host , Stephen Fry , and his subversion of the prissy , clever character we 're familiar with ( in QI , Fry is clever , but relaxed ) . The Museum of Curiosity is presented partly by Bill Bailey and mostly by John Lloyd , producer of QI ( are you getting a theme ? ) . Lloyd may well be a nice chap , but we haven 't a clue who he is , and , on the evidence of this , he isn 't a big or witty enough character for us to feel desperate to get to know him . "
Nicholas Lezard in The Independent on Sunday was lukewarm about the show , saying that the combination of comedian and scientist guests " more or less worked " , but he felt the show may not have been greenlit without Lloyd and Bailey 's involvement .
Kate Chisholm in The Spectator found the show a welcome change from the " smutty jokes and banal innuendo " usually associated with the timeslot , and compared the series to Paul Merton 's Room 101 , " but without the ego " .
Elisabeth Mahoney in The Guardian was critical of the second series . While praising the discussion between the guests as , " funny and flowing , and quite endearingly quirky " , she found that the programme " fizzled away when it reached what ought to have been its crux : the donation of kooky items to the imaginary museum . Instead , we had a reminder of what they were , and then a sudden ending that was both limp and abrupt . "
After appearing on the show in series 6 , Richard Herring wrote on his blog : " What a delightful and fascinating programme this is ( and one that I think might benefit from an extended podcast release - two hours of material is recorded for the 27 minute show and it 's pretty much all gold ! ) . At times I was so enjoying listening to the others talking that I almost forgot that I was meant to be taking part . It was a wide @-@ ranging discussion taking in ants on stilts , pianists with crippling , mechanical little fingers , the changing meridian and okapi sex ( can you guess what I contributed ? ) . The show has a dedicated team of nerds behind it who have dug out amazing facts and I love the way it has a panel comprising comedians , scientists and experts and attempts to link each contribution to similar areas of the different disciplines . While most TV panel shows ( including to some extent even QI ) gravitate to putting in the same well @-@ known comedy faces , you get a lot more interesting stuff by mixing it up a bit . The zoologist , Dr Christofer Clemente , came up with the funniest lines of the show . But would they book him on Mock The Week ? It 's intelligent and stimulating programming that is increasingly being edged out of TV and even radio , leaving a gaping open goal for independent internet productions to score in . I discussed this with one of the razor @-@ minded team after the show . The TV companies insist on getting big names into all shows , which takes up all the budget and seems to ignore the fact that the pool of possible contributors gets smaller and more boring . But glad that a few shows designed to expand the mind rather than crush the spirit still exist . "
= Cheshire , Connecticut , home invasion murders =
The Cheshire , Connecticut , home invasion murders occurred on July 23 , 2007 . Jennifer Hawke @-@ Petit and her two daughters were raped and murdered , while her husband , Dr. William Petit , was injured during a home invasion in Cheshire , Connecticut . The Hartford Courant referred to the case as " possibly the most widely publicized crime in the state 's history " . In 2010 Steven Hayes was convicted of the murders and sentenced to death . His accomplice , Joshua Komisarjevsky , was found guilty on October 13 , 2011 , and sentenced to death on January 27 , 2012 . In August 2015 , the state of Connecticut abolished the death penalty , and both Hayes and Komisar
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Kanter , the cast is completed by Lizabeth Scott , Wendell Corey , and Dolores Hart in her movie debut .
The storyline , about a delivery man who is discovered by a music publicist and a country – western musician who want to promote the talented newcomer , was scripted by Herbert Baker and Hal Kanter , based on the short story " A Call from Mitch Miller . " Kanter expanded the script after being inspired by Presley 's last appearance on the Louisiana Hayride , and his manager Colonel Tom Parker 's antics .
A box office success , Loving You opened nationwide on July 9 , 1957 . Paramount Pictures chose to ignore the first @-@ run theater system , opting instead to release the film in sub @-@ run neighborhood theaters , a system later dubbed the " Presley Pattern . " Composed by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller , Presley 's single " ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear " backed with " Loving You " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Plot = =
Walter " Tex " Warner ( Wendell Corey ) , a seasoned country and western bandleader past his prime , and his manager and love interest , Glenda Markle ( Lizabeth Scott ) , work for the campaign of Texas gubernatorial candidate Jim Tallman . During a campaign stop in the town of Delville , Deke Rivers ( Elvis Presley ) and a workmate deliver an order of beer . While they are unloading , the workmate talks to Glenda about Deke 's singing ability , which Glenda jumps on to revive the sagging interest in the event by using local talent . She convinces Deke to sing a song with the backing of Tex 's Rough Ridin ' Ramblers .
Seeing the positive reception by the female audience , Glenda tries to convince Deke to join the Tex Warner Show . Driving in Deke 's hotrod , she tells him about his potential . Not willing to leave his first steady job in a year , he rejects the offer , but Glenda asks him to think about it . Upon returning to town , Glenda calls the Highway Beverage Company , after which she and Tex quit the Tallman campaign to return to their own roadshow . Later that night , Deke is provoked at a restaurant by the boyfriend of one of his fans , who wants to hear him sing a song . After singing to a tune from the jukebox , he starts a fight with him . He is later exonerated by the police .
The following morning , as the group is leaving town , Deke accepts Glenda 's offer , after being fired because of a complaint by a customer regarding a late delivery . Glenda just happens to have prepared a contract , which grants her half of his income . With Tex headlining , they start touring throughout Texas , along two other acts : Susan " Susie " Jessup ( Dolores Hart ) and a singing trio . As Deke 's popularity grows , Glenda devises publicity stunts to leverage it . At one show , she pays two aged woman to criticize him . When they start to argue with young fans , Glenda has a press photographer document the incident . As the tour progresses , Deke and Susan become interested in one another . After playing small venues , the group is hired to play in a large Amarillo theater on a four @-@ day run . Convinced that it is his ticket to regain fame , Tex accepts Glenda 's suggestion to share the bill with Deke , after which she calls reporters of The Dallas Chronicle to write a story on Deke .
After the end of the four day engagement , Deke 's management is offered a one @-@ man show in Freegate , Texas , outside of Dallas . Due to the terms of the contract , Tex fires Susan and the singing trio , leaving only Deke in the show . Before he has to begin his new tour , Deke drives Susan to her family 's farm . Meanwhile , in another publicity move , Glenda convinces Tex to buy a Cadillac against his life insurance for Deke , inventing a story to tell Deke that it was a gift from the widow of an oil magnate . Back on the farm , Deke and Susan talk , where she tells him about being fired , after which they are about to kiss , when they are interrupted by her parents , who ask him to sing the song he promised . After Deke sings " Loving You " , a surprised Susan remarks that she never heard him sing that way ; Deke admits that he never felt that way before .
Glenda arrives at the farm with the Cadillac , and urges him to leave with her for Freegate to do the show . On their way back , Deke confesses to Glenda that his real surname is Tompkins . Deciding to disclose his past , they drive to Allen City , to the Woodbine cemetery , where he shows her the Tomb of Deke Rivers . He explains that when the orphanage he lived in burned down eleven years earlier , he decided to bury his past , and took Rivers ' name .
Meanwhile , in Freegate , the concert is cancelled by the Mayor 's office , after they received complaints from parents about Deke 's music . Glenda arranges a studio telecast of a concert from Freegate in order to gain publicity ; this enables her to convince the town board to allow him to perform . Deke , unhappy , is considering leaving the entertainment business . When Glenda finds out , she talks him into performing , after which they kiss .
On the day of the telecast , Deke is shocked after learning that Tex was married and later divorced to Glenda . Disillusioned , he drives off before the show . When Glenda finds out about it from Tex , she goes after Deke , finding him after he was run off the road by crossing cattle . Glenda confesses everything to him : getting him fired and lying about the Cadillac , after which she tears up their contract , before convincing him to return for the broadcast .
While the concert is delayed , fans are filmed by local newscasters defending Deke 's music . Eventually , an upset Susan arrives to reveal that Deke will not appear on the show . However , Deke does appear shortly after , declaring that he had " something very important to say to somebody " , and starts the show by singing " Loving You " . As the song ends , Susan goes onstage with him , after which they meet Tex and Glenda backstage . Deke offers to let them both manage him , as he is offered a recording contract . Tex and Glenda reconcile ; meanwhile , Deke and Susan kiss .
= = Cast = =
= = Cast notes = =
Elvis Presley ( 1935 – 1977 ) plays Deke Rivers ( whose real name is Jimmy Tompkins ) , a deliveryman who is discovered by the manager of a band . The film is Presley 's second motion picture following his debut in the 1956 film Love Me Tender and his first starring role . It also marked the beginning of his seven @-@ film streak for Paramount produced by Hal Wallis . For the role , Presley dyed his hair black following his favorite actors : Tony Curtis and Rudolph Valentino . As the second of his 1956 three @-@ movie deal with Paramount Pictures , Presley was paid US $ 150 @,@ 000 .
Lizabeth Scott ( 1922 – 2015 ) plays Glenda Markle , manager and love interest of bandleader " Tex " Warner . Known for her roles in the 1940s and early 1950s , Scott returned from retirement to star in the movie .
Wendell Corey ( 1914 – 1968 ) plays Walter " Tex " Warner , bandleader of the Rough Ridin ' Cowboys and the roadshow that Deke joins and revitalizes . Corey was known for his appearances in Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window and Joseph Anthony 's The Rainmaker . A decade earlier , he co @-@ starred with Lizabeth Scott in 1947 's Desert Fury and I Walk Alone .
Dolores Hart ( born 1938 ) plays Susan Jessup , a young singer who tours with Tex Warner 's band and Deke 's love interest . Cast in her first movie role , Hart was discovered by Wallis after he saw her in a production of Joan of Lorraine at Loyola University . He screen @-@ tested Hart on January 16 , 1957 , and later signed her for US $ 250 a week . Then named Dolores Hicks , Wallis requested her to change her name to favor her acting career . She adopted Hart , after the maiden surname of a friend . The actress changed it legally to " Dolores Hart " . A year after Loving You , Hart was cast as Presley 's love interest in his 1958 black @-@ and @-@ white musical drama , King Creole .
Ken Becker ( 1931 – 2000 ) , also occasionally billed as Kenny Becker or Kenneth Becker , plays Deke 's rival , Wayne , who loses a fistfight with Deke . Becker played similar roles in three later Presley films , G.I. Blues ( 1960 ) , Girls ! Girls ! Girls ! ( 1962 ) and Roustabout ( 1964 ) .
Jana Lund ( 1933 – 1991 ) plays Daisy Bricker , the object of Wayne 's jealousy , who kisses Deke ( Presley 's first on @-@ screen kiss ) . A year earlier , she appeared in another rock and roll film , 1956 's Don 't Knock the Rock . Following Loving You , she had roles in three other titles in the psychotronic film genre , 1958 's High School Hellcats , Hot Car Girl and Frankenstein 1970 .
= = Production = =
The film was based on the short story " A Call from Mitch Miller " , written by Mary Agnes Thompson and published in the June 1956 issue of Good Housekeeping . In that year , producer Hal Wallis bought the rights for the story to turn it into a vehicle for Presley 's first starring role for Paramount Pictures . Six months before the start of the production , Wallis loaned Presley to 20th Century Fox , where he appeared in his movie debut , the 1956 film Love Me Tender .
The producer then selected Hal Kanter to direct the film and to co @-@ write the script with Herbert Baker . To write a script adjusted to Presley , Kanter traveled to Memphis , Tennessee , to meet him in person . Along with Presley 's entourage , he went to Shreveport to see the last performance of the singer on the country television show , Louisiana Hayride . Kanter witnessed the reaction from fans , as well as Presley 's manager Colonel Tom Parker 's handling of the spectacle , both of which he used as an inspiration for the script . The working titles of the movie were " Lonesome Cowboy " , " Running Wild " , " Stranger in Town " , and " Something for the Girls " . Due to the appeal of Presley 's previous film being titled after a song sung by Presley , Wallis selected the final name for the film , using the Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller ballad penned for the movie , " Loving You " .
Shot in Technicolor and VistaVision , the production started on January 21 , 1957 , ending on March 8 . The film was shot at the Paramount studios , except the Jessup farm scenes , which were shot in the Hollywood Hills . The film features appearances by Presley 's guitarist Scotty Moore , bassist Bill Black , drummer D.J. Fontana , and The Jordanaires . Presley 's parents , Gladys and Vernon , who visited the set of the film , were included in the final scene of the film as part of the audience of the telecast .
Loving You premiered in Memphis on July 10 , 1957 at the Strand Theater . Presley did not go to that showing , instead opting to take girlfriend Anita Wood , as well as his parents to a private midnight screening . The film opened nationally on July 30 , 1957 and peaked at # 7 on the Variety National Box Office Survey , staying on the chart for four weeks .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack of the film was recorded from January 15 – 18 , 1957 , at the Paramount Pictures Scoring Stage , and in two additional sessions at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on January 12 , 13 , and 19 , and February 23 – 24 , 1957 . It contains seven songs , composed expressly for the movie by writers contracted to Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music , the publishing companies owned by Presley and his manager , Colonel Tom Parker . The title tune , " Loving You " , was composed by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller . The single " ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear " backed with " Loving you " sold over a million copies , and was later certified platinum on March 27 , 1992 by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Performed by Presley :
" Mean Woman Blues "
" ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear "
" Loving You "
" Got a Lot o ' Livin ' to Do "
" Lonesome Cowboy "
" Hot Dog "
" Party "
= = Release and reception = =
The film premiered on July 9 , 1957 , at the Strand Theater in Memphis , opening nationally on July 30 . Due to Presley 's massive appeal , for the first time , the studio decided to bypass the established first @-@ run theater system . Paramount opted instead for a wide release , sending it to neighborhood theaters in New York , Chicago , and Detroit . This new system was dubbed the " Presley Pattern " , which consisted of delivering the product to its direct market by cutting the expenses of premieres in downtown theaters , choosing instead local venues for a wider and more profitable release .
Upon its release , it appeared on Variety 's National Box Office Survey for four weeks , peaking at number seven . The film grossed a total of US $ 3 @.@ 7 million in 1957 . While Presley was in the army , the movie was re @-@ released in the summer of 1959 . The box office results were not impressive , the film grossing US $ 74 @,@ 000 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Variety wrote a favorable review , noting that Presley " shows improvement as an actor ... being surrounded by a capable crew of performers " . The New York Times criticized his acting : the review opened " For Paramount 's ' Loving You ' , starring America 's favorite hound @-@ dog hollerer ... does just about everything , and little else , to prove that it ain 't — isn 't " . The Los Angeles Times declared it " A furtive step on Presley 's part in a screen career " . The Michigan Christian Advocate delivered a negative review and called the film " an apologia for Elvis Presley " and considered it " part of the passing American scene " that would " undoubtedly bore many and interest an equal number " .
On its review , Monthly Film Bulletin qualified Presley 's career as " one of the most puzzling and less agreeable aspects of modern popular music " . the review declared : " Presley adopts a slurred and husky style of delivery and a series of grotesque body gestures to impose on his otherwise innocuous material a suggestive meaning . ... in ' Loving You ' he is allowed more scope and is at times both the cause and sum total of the film 's somewhat doubtful entertainment value . " Down Beat opened its review mentioning the negative reception of Presley by the press , indicating that while other publications " hotly despised " him , Down Beat was " prepared to dismiss him with a decimating round of punfire " . The reviewer , however noted that after watching Loving You , it was " amiss to speak unkindly of [ Presley ] " , and that the film was " a rather entertaining pic " . It remarked the " resourcefulness " of Lizabeth Scott , the " positive acting ability augmented by a fresh prettiness " of Dolores Hart , and the " witty lines and range of expressions " delivered by Wendell Corey . The review favored Presley , describing his performance as " an overpowering , if touchingly naive , celluloid sexuality . " It concluded : " For all his high @-@ voltage on @-@ stage erotica ... he plays the sullen country boy convincingly ... evincing all the emotion of a well bred head of livestock . "
= = = Later reviews and evaluation in film guides = = =
While it rated the film with two stars out of five , Allmovie defined it as " one of Elvis Presley 's liveliest and most interesting early films ... one of the best in ( his ) output " . MSN Movies called it " a streamlined and
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name from an Aulay MacAulay of that Ilk , who lived during the reign of James III ( reigned 1440 – 1488 ) .
According to George Fraser Black , the territorial designation Ardincaple did not become an ordinary surname until the 15th century . Several men with the surname Ardincaple or styled of Ardincaple are recorded in the Mediaeval Scottish records . Johannes de Ardenagappill was a charter witness in Lennox in about 1364 . Arthur de Ardincapel witnessed a charter by Donnchadh , Earl of Lennox in about 1390 . In 1489 , a remission was granted to Robert Arnegapill for his part in the holding of Dumbarton Castle against the king of Scots . Later in 1513 , Aulay Arngapill of that Ilk is mentioned in records . Later in 1529 , an escheat of goods of Awlane Ardincapill of that Ilk is recorded . According to the 19th @-@ century historian Joseph Irving , an early laird of Ardincaple was Alexander de Ardincaple , who in 1473 , served on the inquest of the Earl of Menteith . Another laird , Aulay de Ardincaple , was invested on a precept from John Stewart , 3rd Earl of Lennox , in the lands of Faslane adjoining Ardincaple in 1518 . Aulay and his wife , Katherine Cunningham , had sasine of the lands of Ardincaple in 1525 . Several historians have stated that the first Laird of Ardincaple to take the surname MacAulay was Alexander de Ardincaple , son of this Aulay de Ardincaple . Alexander lived during the reign of James V ( reigned 1513 – 1542 ) . There is record in 1536 of an Awla McAwla of Ardencapill ; another Awla McAwla was clerk of the watch of Queen Mary 's guard in 1566 .
= = History = =
During the 15th and 15th centuries in west Dumbartonshire , the clans MacFarlane , MacAulay , and Colquhoun raided and plundered each other 's lands and combined to sweep the lowlands of its flocks and herds . Other clans — among them the MacGregors , Campbells , Camerons and Buchanans — invaded the district later . In July 1567 , after Mary , Queen of Scots , was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her infant son , James , Walter MacAulay of Ardincaple was one of the signators of the bond to protect the young prince . " The Laird of M 'Cawla of Ardincaple " appears in the General Band of 1587 as a principal vassal of the Duke of Lennox . In 1594 , the " M 'Cawlis " appear in the Roll of Broken Clans .
= = = Feud with clans Buchanan and Galbraith = = =
During the 16th century members of Clan MacAulay were in conflict with members of clans Buchanan and Galbraith . On 1 August 1590 , Walter MacAulay , son of Allan MacAulay of Durling , was killed on the " Highway and street of Dunbarton " in a clash against a contingent of Buchanans , who were led by Thomas Buchanan , Sheriff Depute of Dunbarton . Also wounded in the encounter was Walter 's brother , Duncan MacAulay , who was wounded through the " harn pan " ( brain ) ; John dhu MacGregor , who was wounded behind his shoulder blade so that " his lights and entrails might be seen " ( lungs ) ; James Colquhoun , who was wounded in the " wamb " ( stomach ) ; and others including a MacAulay , Miller , and MacGibbon . When a complaint was registered on 29 September , the defenders failed to appear and were " put to the horn " ( denounced as rebels ) . On 6 October 1590 , Thomas Buchanan of Blairlusk , John Buchanan , his son John Buchanan Burgess of Dunbarton , and others were formally charged in Edinburgh with the murder of Walter MacAulay . The accused were ordered to appear before the Justice at Edinburgh on 21 December 1590 . The case was then deferred to March and again the accused failed to appear . The following May saw the Bond of Manrent between MacAulay of Ardincaple and MacGregor of Glenstrae , in which both chiefs swore to assist each other , their " kin and friends in all their honest actions against whatsoever person or persons the Kings Majesty being only excepted " .
In spring of 1593 , Robert Galbraith , Laird of Culcreuch , purchased a Commission of Justiciary ( or a " Letter of Fire and Sword " used to legally attack and destroy another clan ) to pursue Clan Gregor and " their ressetters and assisters " . The MacAulays and Colquhouns were suspicious of Galbraith 's real intentions and on 3 May 1593 , the chiefs of the two clans complained to the Privy Council that Galbraith of Culcreuch had only purchased the commission under counsel from George Buchanan , and that Galbraith had no intentions of actually harassing the MacGregors . It seemed more likely that the Galbraiths , allied with the Buchanans , would direct their vengeance against the MacAulays and Colquhouns under the guise of hunting and clearing Clan Gregor from the Lennox . To complicate matters , the Laird of Ardincaple had married the Laird of Culcreuch 's widowed mother against his consent and Galbraith had " gevin vp kindnes , and denunceit his euill @-@ will to him with solempne vowis of revenge " ( given up kindness , and denounced his evil will to MacAulay with solemn vows of revenge ) . Due to the influence of the Duke of Lennox , the Letter of Fire and Sword were taken from the Galbraiths and Buchanans . Ardincaple had however been sparing of the entire truth . No mention was made of the bond of manrent between him and the MacGregor chief . According to Ronald Williams , it is unlikely the Privy Council was aware of this bond between . Even so , the Privy Council required securities of Ardincaple not to assist Clan Gregor .
= = = Siol Alpin : MacGregors and MacAulays = = =
Around the end of the 16th century Clan Gregor were in constant disputes and were at times outlawed . In order to strengthen its position the clan proceeded to enter in alliances with clans who were reputed to share a common ancestry . One such alliance was concluded on 6 July 1571 between James Macgregor of that Ilk and Luchlin Mackinnon of Strathardill . Another such alliance was formalised twenty years later while the MacGregors were outlawed , on 27 May 1591 with Clan MacAulay . This formal agreement , known as a Bond of Manrent , was between Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple and Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae . In the bond , Ardincaple acknowledged Glenstrae as his chief , and of being a cadet of the House of MacGregor , and therefore promised to pay the MacGregor chief his calp . The giving of calp , a tribute of cattle or the best eighth of a part of goods to a superior lord or chief , was a significant custom in Gaelic society . The contract between Ardincaple and Glenstrae gave the MacGregors some temporary relief from the Buchanans and Galbraiths . Prior to this contract , Ardincaple does not appear to have been involved with Clan Gregor in any way . According to Irving , even though the Ardincaple was at feud with the Buchanans it is unclear how such an alliance would benefit his own clan . Irving wrote that Ardincaple must have known that any connection with Clan Gregor " would end ( as it actually did ) in a manner most disastrous to all connected with the turbulent Macgregors " .
According to the 19th @-@ century historian William Forbes Skene , the contract is evidence of an ancestral connection between clans Gregor and MacAulay . Within the bond , both Ardincaple and Glenstrae stated that they were offshoots of the same family : " Alexander M 'Gregor of Glenstray on the ane part and Awly M 'Cawley of Ardingapill on the other part understanding ourselfs and our name to be M 'Calppins of auld and to be our just and trew surname " . Skene was of the opinion that the MacAulays did not descend from the Mediaeval earls of Lennox , and further concluded that Clan MacAulay was a member of Siol Alpin – a group of clans which could claim descent from Kenneth MacAlpin ( Cináed mac Ailpín ) whom Scots considered to be their first king . Later historians have shown that such bonds were used by the MacGregors to secure allegiances with weaker clans , and that such a bond was may have been forced upon the MacAulays by the more powerful MacGregors .
Following the Battle of Glen Fruin , between Clan Gregor and Clan Colquhoun in February 1603 , there was much public outcry against the rebellious MacGregors . By an Act of the Privy Council , on 3 April 1603 , it was made an offence to bear the name MacGregor , or to give and shelter to a MacGregor . The Earl of Argyll , who was responsible to the Privy Council for the actions of the MacGregors , was entrusted to bring the force of the law against this lawless clan . Being deeply suspicious of Ardincaple 's dealings with Glenstrae , one of Argyll 's first moves was to bring acts against Ardincaple . On 17 March 1603 , Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple and his sureties were ordered to appear and answer for aiding , supplying , and intercommuning with Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae and other MacGregors . He was also to answer for not " rising ye fray " and pursuing the outlawed clan Gregor in the Lennox . Ardincaple was accused of bringing the MacGregor " thevis and rebells " to the Colquhoun lands of Luss and for their part in stealing from the Colquhouns of Luss . Again the influence of the Duke of Lennox saved Ardincaple and his clan from the same fate as Glenstrae and his . On 7 April 1603 , James VI wrote from Berwick to the Justice General and his deputies , declaring Ardincaple to be innocent of the alleged crimes and that he was to accompany the king to England with the Duke of Lennox . By the time the King 's letter was received , Ardincaple had already left the Lennox district as part of the Duke of Lennox 's train , which accompanied James VI on his way to England to be declared King James I of England . The outlawed Glenstrae was finally apprehended by Argyll on 18 January 1604 after almost a year in hiding. and brought to Edinburgh to stand trial . The illiterate Glenstrae consented to give a preliminary statement which was titled a ' confession ' and convicted him out of his own mouth . Within his ' confession ' , Glenstrae accused Argyll of trying to persuade him to kill the chief of the MacAulays : " I Confess , before God , that he did all his craftie diligence to intyse me to slay and destroy the Laird Ardinkaippill , Mckallay , for ony ganes kyndness or freindschip that he mycht do or gif me . The quhilk I did refuis , in respect of my faithfull promeis maid to Mckallay of befor " .
= = = Argyll 's feud with Ardincaple = = =
Archibald Campbell , 7th Earl of Argyll pursued a violent feud with Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple during the late 16th and early 17th century . Argyll 's lieutenants in the area were Duncan Campbell , Captain of Carrick and Neil Campbell of Lochgoilhead , who led raids into Ardincaple 's lands attempting to slay the MacAulay chief . The Campbells of Carrick were seated at Carrick Castle on the shores of Loch Goil ( about 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) northwest of Ardincaple ) . In 1598 , Duncan Campbell the Captain of Carrick , registered a bond of 300 merks for each of his men in Rosneath to keep from harming Ardincaple . At the same time , Robert Sempill of Foulwood registered a bond of 2 @,@ 000 merks for Campbell of Carrick to not harm Ardincaple and his followers . The following year , Lennox legally evicted Donald Campbell of Drongie and several of his followers from the lands of Mamoir , Mambeg , and Forlancarry along the banks of the Gare Loch . The Campbells of Drongie were close supporters of the Campbells of Carrick , and in retaliation a combined force of Campbells of Carrick and Drongie assembled at Rosneath ( on opposite shore of the Gare Loch from Ardincaple ) and laid waste to the duke 's new acquisitions . When the case was presented to the Privy Council on 17 May 1600 , both Campbell of Carrick and Campbell of Drongie were denounced as rebels .
On 25 November 1600 , evidence was brought forth to the Privy Council of an attempt on Ardincaple 's life on 24 September 1600 . The evidence pointed to the Captain of Carrick 's men coming at night to Ardincaple and attacking followers of the laird and killing one , Malcolm Galbraith . A second attempt Ardincaple 's life was carried out at night as he was staying at Nether Greenock . Ardincaple , Patrick Dennestoun ( one of Ardincaple 's servants ) , and Archibald Connel were all shot in the encounter . Again the Privy Council denounced the Captain of Carrick and his men as rebels . At the end of November 1600 , the Captain of Carrick and 100 followers invaded the lands of Ardincaple armed with " hagbuts , pistolets , bows , darlochs and habershons " . The force hid in the woods of Ardincaple for one night , taking several prisoners before fleeing . In the morning , a rider making towards the house of Ardincaple was presumed to be Ardincaple himself and nearly killed , before he was identified as a Campbell and servitor to the Earl of Argyll . Carrick 's force , for fear of being pursed from men of the district , left the area after destroying houses , hamstringing animals , and making off with livestock belonging to other tenants of the duke . In the process the Carrick men " spuilyeit the houssis of John Dow McAula in Garelocheid and Patrik McCaula in Aldonit " . For their actions , the participating Campbells were again denounced as rebels .
As stated before , Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae claimed in his confession that Argyll had attempted to convince him to slay Ardincaple .
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fires that started after her arrival . The ship reached Mobile Bay on 20 July , again towed by Bienville , where it joined the West Gulf Blockading Squadron .
Shortly after Tecumseh 's arrival on 4 August , Rear Admiral David G. Farragut , the squadron commander , briefed his captains on his plan for the next day 's battle . Manhattan and Tecumseh were to keep the ironclad ram Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing the fort and then sink her . The river monitors Winnebago and Chickasaw were to engage Fort Morgan until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Tecumseh in the lead , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were then known , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
About 07 : 40 , Tecumseh attempted to close with the Tennessee by passing through the minefield , but struck a " torpedo " and capsized within 90 seconds . Manhattan continued to engage the fort until all but the last pair of wooden ships had cleared the obstacles . She closed to a range of about 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the Confederate ironclad and began firing with her one operable gun ; a flake of iron had fallen into the vent hole of one of her guns and was jammed in place . One of her shots hit the Tennessee and broke the armor and its wooden backing so that daylight was visible through the side of the casemate . The shot failed to penetrate , and netting laid on the inside of the backing caught all of the splinters so that no one was injured . During the battle Manhattan fired a total of 11 shots , six at Tennessee and five at Fort Morgan . Nicholson claimed four hits , including the shot that broke the Tennessee 's steering chains and another that jammed her stern gun port shutter in the closed position . The monitor was hit nine times during the battle , but sustained no significant damage or casualties .
Manhattan had closed to about 50 yards ( 46 m ) distance when Nicholson spotted a white flag of surrender hanging from a boat hook on top of the Tennessee 's casemate and ordered his gunners to cease fire . Nicholson confirmed the Confederate ship 's surrender verbally and ran the monitor alongside so that one of his officers could seize the ironclad 's colors , which was lying in her scuppers . Unbeknownst to Nicholson , Commander James D. Johnston , captain of the Tennessee , intended to surrender to the wooden gunboat Ossipee and ignored Manhattan and her captain .
The ship subsequently participated in the bombardment of Fort Morgan , which surrendered 23 August . In November , Manhattan sailed to New Orleans , Louisiana and later to the mouth of the Red River , where she remained until the end of the war . Manhattan then steamed to New Orleans where she was laid up in ordinary in August 1865 . On 15 June 1869 , the ship was renamed Neptune , although she resumed her original name on 10 August .
= = Post @-@ war service = =
In 1870 Manhattan was transferred to Key West , Florida and then sailed to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania where she was refitted in 1872 – 73 . Recommissioned on 19 November 1873 , the ship returned to Key West for fleet maneuvers and then proceeded to Pensacola , Florida . Manhattan departed the west coast of Florida and sailed to Port Royal , South Carolina on 25 April 1876 . The ship patrolled off the Carolinas until June 1877 , when she sailed to Norfolk , Virginia . The following year she was towed up the James River and moored at Brandon , Virginia . Manhattan was transferred to City Point , Virginia in 1881 and then to Richmond , Virginia . The ship was taken to Philadelphia and laid up at League Island in 1888 , where she remained for the rest of her career . Manhattan was struck from the Navy List on 14 December 1901 and sold on 24 March 1902 for breaking up .
= Italian ironclad Re Umberto =
Re Umberto ( " King Humbert " ) was a Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad battleship built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s , the lead ship of her class . She was laid down in July 1884 and launched in October 1888 ; work proceeded so slowly that she was not finished until February 1893 . She was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and had a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) , though this high speed came at the cost of armor protection .
Re Umberto carried out various duties during her service career , including large @-@ scale fleet maneuvers and diplomatic missions in Europe . She saw limited action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , escorting convoys and bombarding Ottoman troops in North Africa . By the end of the year she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service . Decommissioned before World War I , she was used during the war as a depot ship and then as a floating battery . In 1918 her armament was exchanged for a number of 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns and trench mortars as part of her role as the lead ship in the planned Italian assault on the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola . The war ended before the Italians could carry out the attack and she was stricken again in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Re Umberto was 127 @.@ 6 meters ( 419 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 9 @.@ 29 m ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 673 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 457 long tons ; 15 @,@ 072 short tons ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 454 t ( 15 @,@ 210 long tons ; 17 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) at 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) . Specific figures for her cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 733 officers and men .
Re Umberto was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . She carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck , eight on each broadside . These were supported by sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The ship was lightly armored for her size . She was protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick , and her conning tower was armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate . The turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel .
= = Service history = =
Re Umberto was named after the Italian King Umberto I of Italy . Re Umberto was built by the Castellammare Naval Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia , Naples . Her keel was laid down on 10 July 1884 . After over four years of construction , she was launched on 17 October 1888 . Following sea trials , the battleship was formally commissioned into the Regina Marina on 16 February 1893 .
At the time the Re Umberto was commissioned into the Regina Marina , the navy maintained two battleship squadrons ; the Active Squadron and the Reserve Squadron . The ships alternated between the two in February of each year ; in 1895 , Re Umberto was assigned to the Reserve Squadron , along with the older battleships Ruggiero di Lauria , Italia , and Lepanto . In June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Germany was completed ; to celebrate , dozens of warships from 14 different countries gathered in Kiel for a celebration hosted by Kaiser Wilhelm II . Re Umberto was one of four battleships in the flotilla that represented Italy . All three ships of the class participated in the 1896 Naval Maneuvers in the Tyrrhenian Sea .
For 1903 , the Active Squadron was on active service for seven months , with the rest of the year spent with reduced crews . In 1904 – 05 , Re Umberto and her sisters were in service with the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for nine months of the year , with three months in reduced commission . The following year , the ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with the three Ruggiero di Laurias and the ironclad Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . Re Umberto was still in the Reserve Squadron in 1908 , along with her two sisters and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . By this time , the Reserve Squadron was kept in service for seven months of the year .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Re Umberto and her two sisters were assigned to the Training Division , along with the old armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , under the command of Rear Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci D 'Olmo . On 3 – 4 October , Re Umberto and her sisters were tasked with bombarding Fort Sultanje , which was protecting the western approach to Tripoli . The ships used their 6 @-@ inch guns to attack the fort to preserve their stock of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells . By the morning of the 4th , the ships ' gunfire had silenced the guns in the fort , allowing landing forces to go ashore and capture the city . The ships of the Training Division thereafter alternated between Tripoli and Khoms to support the Italian garrisons in the two cities . In November , Re Umberto , Sicilia , the torpedo cruiser Partenope , the destroyer Fulmine , and the torpedo boat Cassiopea bombarded the oasis at Taguira , though no Turkish forces were present . The Italians then sent a garrison to protect the oasis .
By December , the three ships were stationed in Tripoli , where they were replaced by the old ironclads Italia and Lepanto . Re Umberto and her sisters arrived back in La Spezia , where they had their ammunition and supplies replenished . In May 1912 , the Training Division patrolled the coast , but saw no action . The following month , Re Umberto and her sisters , along with six torpedo boats , escorted a convoy carrying an infantry brigade to Buscheifa , one of the last ports in Libya still under Ottoman control . The Italian force arrived off the town on 14 June and made a landing ; after taking the city , the Italian forces then moved on to Misrata . Re Umberto and the rest of the ships continued supporting the advance until the Italians had secured the city on 20 July . The Training Division then returned to Italy , where they joined the escort for another convoy on 3 August , this time to Zuara , the last port in Ottoman hands . The ships covered the landing two miles east of Zuara two days later , which was joined by supporting attacks from the west and south . With the capture of the city , Italy now controlled the entire Libyan coast . On 14 October the Ottomans agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .
= = = Later career = = =
She was laid up in Genoa in 1912 and became a depot ship . Towed to La Spezia in June 1915 , after having been stricken from the Navy List on 10 May 1914 , she became a depot ship for the dreadnought Andrea Doria . She was reinstated on 9 December 1915 and became a floating battery at Brindisi and , later , Valona , Albania . In 1918 Re Umberto was tasked to lead the planned assault on the primary Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola and modified for the role by the removal of her armament and the addition of eight 3 @-@ inch guns with gun shields as well as a number of trench mortars . A special saw and cutters were also installed to deal with the harbor boom and net defenses . The war ended before the Italians could carry out the attack and she was again stricken on 4 July 1920 .
= Cyclone Hellen =
Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hellen of March 2014 was one of the most powerful tropical cyclones in the Mozambique Channel on record , as well as the second most intense of the 2013 – 14 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . It formed on March 27 in the northern portion of the channel , and in its formative stages brought rainfall to coastal Mozambique . While moving southeastward , it developed an organized area of convection over the center . Warm waters allowed Hellen to rapidly intensify while passing south of the Comoros , with a well @-@ defined eye forming in the middle of the thunderstorms . The cyclone attained peak intensity March 30 , with maximum sustained winds estimated 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) according to the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , Météo @-@ France in La Réunion . Subsequently , Hellen weakened quickly due to dry air and interaction with Madagascar , and the eye dissipated . On March 31 , the storm made landfall in northwestern Madagascar as a weakened cyclone , despite previous forecasts for the center to remain over water . By April 1 , Hellen was no longer a tropical cyclone after most of the convection dissipated . The remnants turned to the west , moving over Mozambique without redeveloping .
Early in its duration , Hellen 's rainfall in Mozambique destroyed hundreds of houses and a bridge . Flooding killed four people in the country , three of whom due to a home collapsing . Later , the cyclone passed south of the Comoros islands , causing flooding due to high storm surge and waves that killed one person . The storm forced 8 @,@ 956 people to evacuate their homes due to the threat for landslides , while 901 houses were damaged or destroyed . On nearby Mayotte , high rainfall flooded rivers , sweeping one car away . In northwestern Madagascar , Hellen damaged or destroyed 611 houses , leaving 1 @,@ 736 people homeless . The storm killed three people after capsizing a boat .
= = Meteorological history = =
On March 25 , 2014 , a weak area of low pressure accompanied by broad , flaring convection became increasingly organized over Mozambique . Owing to favorable environmental conditions , featuring low wind shear , vorticity became more enhanced and symmetrical . A compact system , the low steadily organized as it emerged over the Mozambique Channel on March 26 . Though continued land interaction initially hindered development , enhanced outflow supported convective development as it straddled the Mozambique – Tanzania border . With high sea surface temperatures in the storm 's track , the JTWC anticipated further organization and issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 2000 UTC on March 26 . Once further offshore on March 27 , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Météo @-@ France in La Réunion classified the system as Disturbance 14 . Drifting slowly east , a prominent feeder band developed along the system 's eastern side ; however , this band disrupted low @-@ level inflow of warm , moist air and suppressed convection over the circulation center .
Though convection later began to consolidate into a small central dense overcast ( CDO ) feature by March 28 , continued disruption of the low @-@ level inflow prevented much development . Météo @-@ France noted that despite forecasting the storm to peak as a moderate tropical storm , with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , there was potential for rapid intensification due to the storm 's small size . Conversely , the JTWC noted that proximity to land and dry mid @-@ level air , represented by surface outflow boundaries , could hamper significant development . Once further over the Mozambique Channel , the system became increasingly organized and the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 21S . Météo @-@ France followed suit at 0000 UTC on March 29 and classified the cyclone as a moderate tropical storm , with the tropical cyclone warning center in Madagascar assigning the name Hellen . Hellen soon assumed an east @-@ southeast track toward Madagascar as a ridge established itself to the northeast . Throughout March 29 , the storm became increasingly organized with an eye apparent on microwave satellite imagery .
Rapid to explosive intensification ensued during the later half of March 29 into March 30 at a rate Météo @-@ France later referred to as " astounding " . Deep convective banding wrapped around a ragged eye , which soon contracted to " pinhole " size . This prompted Météo @-@ France to upgrade Hellen to a tropical cyclone with winds estimated at 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) at 0000 UTC on March 30 . Six hours later , they further upgraded the storm to an intense tropical cyclone with winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Hellen attained its peak intensity between 1100 and 1500 UTC as a very intense tropical cyclone , with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . This ranked it as one of the most powerful storms over the Mozambique Channel on record . The storm featured a 20 km ( 12 mi ) wide eye embedded within a symmetrical and intense CDO , spanning 240 km ( 150 mi ) across . The JTWC estimated Hellen to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , although this was lowered to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) in reanalysis .
After peak intensity , the cyclone 's eye soon began to fill and cool as weakening ensued . Defying previous forecasts , Hellen continued on a southeasterly track toward Madagascar and the likelihood of it making landfall became apparent . By the end of March 30 , Hellen 's eye had collapsed and disappeared from satellite imagery , as the combination of dry air and land interaction took their toll on the storm . At about 0800 UTC on March 31 , Hellen made landfall on northwestern Madagascar , and the previously unfavorable conditions coupled with land interaction to induce rapid weakening . The ridge to the east turned Hellen to a southwest drift over land . By early on April 1 , the convection largely dissipated as the center became difficult to locate , with peak winds dropping to 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . As a result , Météo @-@ France discontinued advisories that day , as did the JTWC . The remnants moved back over open waters , but were not expected to reorganize due to the poor nature of the convection . As the low continued to the west , the convection increased on April 4 while approaching the coastline of Mozambique , although the system failed to redevelop before moving onshore .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During its formative stages , Hellen meandered around northern Mozambique and produced prolonged heavy rains over the region . The city of Pemba in Cabo Delgado Province was the hardest hit area , with the Messalo River over @-@ topping its banks . Tagir Carimo , mayor of Pemba , described the rains as the heaviest he had seen in 20 years . More than 100 poorly constructed homes collapsed in the floods while severe erosion exposed and destroyed water pipes . A major bridge connecting Pemba to surrounding areas was washed away by the Messalo river . This isolated the northern portion of Cabo Delgado Province from the rest of the country , forcing ferries to transport cars . Three people died in the district of Cariaco when their home collapsed while a fourth drowned in Chiuba . Distributing assistance following the storm was disrupted by damaged roads .
= = = Comoro Islands = = =
Heavy rains and storm surge caused significant damage on all three islands of the Comoros , with the worst occurring on Anjouan . There , 901 houses were damaged , of which about 20 % were destroyed . Flooding displaced 389 people in Salamani where 33 mud @-@ built homes were destroyed . Landslides isolated the villages of Chiconi , Hamaba , Koni @-@ Djodjo , Miringoni , and Nioumachioi , and damaged a road between Ngandzalé and Domoni . On the island , 7 @,@ 879 people had to evacuate their houses due to the risk of further landslides , some of whom went to schools set up as shelters while others stayed with family or friends . Storm surge on Mohéli flooded parts of Tsamia , Walla , and Zirindani , resulting in one fatality . Several houses were damaged on the island , and Djandro lost power due to a damaged power line . The Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport in Moroni on Grande Comore was closed for about 24 hours due to the storm . Also on the island , a road was damaged , and one house was flooded . Shortly after the storm , workers began repairing roads and distributing aid .
Though the center of Cyclone Hellen remained south of Mayotte , it prompted an " orange alert " on March 30 for the area due to the potential for hurricane @-@ force gusts . The storm 's rapid intensification caught most residents on the island off @-@ guard , with widespread disruptions to traffic and electricity taking place . Wind gusts up to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) downed trees and power lines , blocking off roads while heavy rains caused significant flooding . A peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall of 239 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) was measured in Mtsamboro between March 29 and 30 . In M 'Tsangamouji , cars were swept away by a swollen river . Along the coast , waves up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) damaged marinas in Dzaoudzi , Hagnoundrou , and Mamoudzou where skiffs were smashed against rocks or stranded .
= = = Madagascar = = =
On March 31 , a boat capsized off the coast of northwest Madagascar , killing three and leaving nine others missing . High seas washed away 20 canoes along the coast . Initial assessments of damage across Madagascar were initially hampered by poor weather and inaccessibility . The storm flooded 7 @,@ 795 ha ( 19 @,@ 260 acres ) of rice fields across the country , as well as 114 ha ( 280 acres ) of other crops , threatening harvests after a locust outbreak had occurred in the months prior to the storm . The storm also killed 23 zebu and damaged two dams . Cyclone Hellen destroyed 437 houses and damaged or flooded 174 others , leaving 1 @,@ 736 people homeless during its passage . The storm also damaged two health facilities and five schools . Overall impact from Hellen was less than expected due to its weakening , with most telephone lines still intact .
Due to the storm affecting water access in northwestern Madagascar , there was concern for a disease outbreak , with a flu outbreak noted in Mahajanga . The national Red Cross utilized 54 volunteers to assist in the storm 's aftermath , such as distributing kitchen kits and agriculture units . Residents donated 2 million ariary ( $ 800 USD ) to the Red Cross , which were used to purchase medicines , while the government provided 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) of rice for affected residents .
= Gruban v Booth =
Gruban v Booth was a 1917 fraud case in England that generated significant publicity because the defendant , Frederick Handel Booth , was a Member of Parliament . Gruban was a German @-@ born businessman who ran several factories that made tools for manufacturing munitions for the First World War . In an effort to find money to expand his business he contacted a businessman and Member of Parliament named Frederick Handel Booth , who agreed to provide the necessary money . After stealing money Booth tricked Gruban into handing over the company and then had him interned under war @-@ time regulations to prevent the story coming out .
Gruban successfully appealed against his internment , and as soon as he was freed brought Booth to court . The case was so popular that the involved barristers found it physically difficult to get into the court each day due to the size of the crowds gathered outside . Although the barristers on both sides were noted for their skill the case went almost entirely one way , with the jury taking only ten minutes to find Booth guilty . This was one of the first noted cases of Patrick Hastings , and his victory in it led to him applying to become a King 's Counsel .
= = Background = =
John Gruban was a German @-@ born businessman , originally named Johann Wilhelm Gruban , who had come to England in 1893 to work for an engineering company , Haigh and Company . By 1913 he had turned the business from an almost bankrupt company to a successful manufacturer of machine tools , and at the outbreak of the First World War it was one of the first companies to produce machine tools used to make munitions . This made Gruban a major player in a now @-@ large market , and he attempted to raise £ 5 @,@ 000 to expand his business . On independent advice he contacted Frederick Handel Booth , a noted Liberal Member of Parliament who was chairman of the Yorkshire Iron and Coal Company and had led the government inquiry into the Marconi scandal . When Gruban contacted Booth , Booth told him that he could do " more for [ your ] company than any man in England " , claiming that David Lloyd George ( at the time Minister of Munitions ) and many other important government officials were close friends . With £ 3 @,@ 500 borrowed from his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Booth immediately invested in Gruban 's company .
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915 created a wave of anti @-@ German sentiment , and Gruban worried that he would find it difficult to find government work because of his nationality and thick German accent . He again contacted Booth , who again claimed to be friends with David Lloyd George and his secretary , Christopher Addison , and said that if Gruban put Booth on the Board of Directors he could " do with the Ministry of Munitions what I like " . Gruban immediately made Booth the chairman of his company , and over 3 months took £ 400 on expenses . He then claimed that this was not enough money for the work he did , and he should get a secret payment of 10 % of the value of a contract known as the " Birmingham Contract " . The contract was worth £ 6 @,@ 000 , and Booth wrote a memo saying that he should have £ 580 or £ 600 . Gruban refused , and Booth threw the note in the wastepaper basket . From that point onwards Booth worked as hard as he could to undermine Gruban 's position , while outwardly appearing to be his friend .
Over the next few months a series of complaints came from the Ministry of Munitions about Gruban 's work and his German origins , ending in a written statement by David Lloyd George 's private secretary that it was " undesirable that any person of recent German nationality or association should at the present time be connected in an important capacity with any company or firm engaged in the production of munitions of war " . Booth showed this to Gruban and told him that the only way to save the company and prevent Gruban being interned was for him to transfer the ownership of the company to Booth . Gruban did this , and Booth immediately " came out in his true colours " , treating Gruban with contempt and refusing to help support his wife and family now that Gruban had no income . Eventually Booth wrote to the Ministry of Munitions saying that Gruban had " taken leave of his senses " , and the Ministry had Gruban interned .
Gruban appealed against the internment order , and was called before a court consisting of Mr Justice Younger and Mr Justice Sankey . After reviewing the facts of the case and the stories of Gruban and Booth the judges ordered the immediate release of Gruban , and recommended that he seek legal advice to see if he could regain control of his company . After he was released Gruban found a solicitor , W.J. Synott , who gave the case to Patrick Hastings .
= = Trial = =
Hastings felt that their best chances lay in interviewing Christopher Addison about his contact with Booth ; as Addison was a government minister he could be relied on to tell the truth . The case of Gruban v Booth opened on 7 May 1917 at the King 's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice in front of Mr Justice Coleridge . Patrick Hastings and Hubert Wallington represented Gruban , while Booth was represented by Rigby Swift KC and Douglas Hogg . The trial attracted such public interest that on the final day the barristers found it
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physically difficult to get through the crowds surrounding the Law Courts .
As counsel for the prosecution , Hastings was the first barrister to speak . In his opening speech to the jury he criticised Booth for loving money rather than his country , saying that one of the things which the English prided themselves on was fair play , and " no matter how loudly the defendant raises the cry of patriotism , I feel sure that your sense of fair play , gentlemen , will ensure a verdict that the defendant is unfit to sit in the House of Commons , as he has been guilty of fraud " . Hastings then called Gruban to the witness stand , and asked him to tell the jury what had happened . Gruban described how Booth had claimed to have influence over David Lloyd George . Gruban was then cross @-@ examined by Rigby Swift .
Booth was then called to the witness stand , and initially claimed that Gruban had claimed to be " a very powerful man " and that it had been a case of Gruban using his power to help Booth , not the other way around . He was still in the witness box when the court day ended , and the next morning it was announced that Christopher Addison had come to the court . The judge allowed Addison to give his testimony before they continued with Booth , and during a cross @-@ examination by Hastings Addison stated that he had not been advising Booth in any way , and that " to say that Gruban 's only chance of escape from internment was to hand over his shares to Mr Booth was a lie " .
The final witness was Handel Booth himself . Booth stated that he would never have asked for a ten @-@ percent commission on the Birmingham contract , and that he had never claimed he could influence government ministers . Hastings showed the jury that both of these statements were lies , first by showing the piece of paper Booth had scribbled the " Birmingham contract " memo on and then by showing a telegram from Booth to Gruban in which Booth claimed that he " [ had ] already spoken to a Cabinet Minister and high official " .
In his summing up Mr Justice Coleridge was " on the whole unfavourable to Booth " . He also pointed out that the German nationality of Gruban might prejudice the jury , and asked them to " be sure that you permit no prejudice on their hand to disturb the balance of the scales of justice " . The jury decided the case in only ten minutes , finding Booth guilty and awarding Gruban £ 4 @,@ 750 .
= Dan Cocoziello =
Daniel F. " Dan " Cocoziello ( born August 8 , 1985 ) is a lacrosse defenseman who plays professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 2005 through 2008 where he started every game . He is the only defenseman to have earned the Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year . He was a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( once first team and twice second team ) and three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( twice first team and once second team ) . During his college career , Princeton earned an Ivy League championship and two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitations . In high school , he won three state lacrosse championships .
= = Background = =
Born in Oldwick , New Jersey , Cocoziello was a baseball and soccer player in his youth . He attended elementary school at Gil St. Bernards in New Jersey . He met his middle school , high school and college teammate Alex Hewit taking an entrance exam for New Jersey 's Delbarton School in sixth grade . Even in seventh grade at Delbarton , Cocoziello was still a baseball player who was introduced to lacrosse during lunch and free periods with his classmates . He eventually got a lacrosse stick and started practicing as much as he could . In eighth grade , he joined the school team and made a New Jersey state eighth @-@ grade all @-@ star team along with Hewit that competed against all @-@ stars from other states . He eventually joined the varsity team and helped lead the team to a cumulative 63 – 4 record and three high school lacrosse state championships . He was regarded as the best high school lacrosse recruit in the nation in the 2003 , according to Inside Lacrosse . He played linebacker in high school football and was offered a scholarship to play for Hofstra University , but opted to play lacrosse at Princeton .
= = College career = =
He started every game of his career at Princeton , where he earned the 2005 Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year , the only defensemen to every to garner the award . That year he was an honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League selection . He was also the first defenseman to win the Ivy League Rookie of the Year award . He was a first team All @-@ Ivy League choice in 2006 & 2008 and second team choice in 2007 He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2008 and second team selection in 2006 and 2007 . He served as co @-@ captain of the 2008 team along with longtime teammate Alex Hewit and Bob Schneider . The 2006 team was Ivy League co @-@ champion with Cornell . Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship in 2006 & 2007 . During Cocoziello 's junior year , while playing in a scrimmage against Towson University , broke his vehicular bone in his left foot . Originally diagnosed as a sprain , Cocoziello played his entire junior and senior season on the broken foot . Upon graduation in 2008 , he was correctly diagnosed and underwent reconstructive surgery following his 2008 MLL Season with the Denver Outlaws . The surgery was unsuccessful causing Cocoziello to discontinue playing lacrosse .
= = Professional career = =
Cocoziello began his MLL career with the Denver Outlaws during the 2008 MLL season . On February 20 , 2009 , he was reassigned to the Toronto Nationals . In 2010 , he was a member of the Boston Cannons .
He has appeared in no National Lacrosse League games . However , his National Lacrosse League rights were acquired by the Philadelphia Wings in the 2010 Orlando Titans dispersal draft .
= = = MLL statistics = = =
The following are his MLL career stats :
= = Life after the MLL = =
Cocoziello currently lives in New York City where he works in real estate for New York @-@ based StructureTone , Inc . He is also pursuing a Master 's in Real Estate from New York University .
= 2010 Singapore Grand Prix =
The 2010 Singapore Grand Prix ( formally the 2010 Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 September 2010 at the Marina Bay Street Circuit , Marina Bay , Singapore . It was the fifteenth race of the 2010 Formula One season , and the third Singapore Grand Prix held as part of the Formula One World Championship . The 61 @-@ lap race was won by Ferrari driver Fernando Alonso who started in pole position . Sebastian Vettel finished second for Red Bull , his teammate Mark Webber was third .
Alonso held off Vettel to maintain his start line advantage on the first lap . Lewis Hamilton , who started third , fought off teammate Jenson Button to retain his start position . The top two remained the same through the first and only round of pit stops . Webber 's team , Red Bull , opted to pit him early allowing him to move ahead of Hamilton . The race was neutralised by the deployment of the safety car after Kamui Kobayashi and Bruno Senna crashed on lap 31 . Hamilton retired after a collision with Webber shortly after the race restarted on lap 36 . Alonso maintained his lead throughout the remainder of the race despite pressure from Vettel .
The race was Alonso 's second consecutive victory and his fourth of the 2010 season ; he had started from pole position to win the Italian Grand Prix two weeks earlier . The win meant Alonso moved into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , eleven points behind leader Webber . Hamilton 's retirement meant he slipped to third , while Vettel 's second @-@ place finish moved him into fourth ahead of Jenson Button . In the Constructors ' Championship Red Bull extended its lead to twenty @-@ four points ahead of McLaren . Ferrari was a further forty points behind , with four races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The 2010 Singapore Grand Prix was the fifteenth round of the 2010 Formula One season after taking a two @-@ week break from the previous race in Italy . The event was held at the Marina Bay Street Circuit in Marina Bay , Singapore on 26 September 2010 . The Grand Prix was contested by twelve teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were : McLaren , Mercedes , Red Bull , Ferrari , Williams , Renault , Force India , Toro Rosso , Lotus , Hispania , Sauber and Virgin . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four different tyre types to the race : two dry compounds ( super soft " options " and medium " primes " ) and two wet @-@ weather compounds ( intermediate and full wets ) . The soft compounds were denoted by a green stripe on their side @-@ walls ; the wet compound tyres were identified by a green line at the bottom of their central groove . The rules of 2010 Grand Prix races stipulated that all cars should use both types of tyre during a race unless the driver used any one of two wet @-@ weather compounds . Each driver was limited to eleven sets of dry tyres for the weekend .
Before the race , Red Bull driver Mark Webber led the Drivers ' Championship with 187 points . He was ahead of Lewis Hamilton in second with 182 points and Fernando Alonso in third on 166 points . Hamilton 's teammate Jenson Button was fourth with 165 points , and Sebastian Vettel was fifth on 163 points . Red Bull was leading the Constructors ' Championship with 350 points ; McLaren and Ferrari were second and third with 347 and 290 points respectively , while Mercedes on 158 and Renault with 127 points contended for fourth position . Red Bull , McLaren , and Ferrari had won the previous fourteen races of the season ( with victories being taken by Alonso , Button , Vettel , Hamilton and Webber ) . Felipe Massa ( twice ) , Robert Kubica had finished in second place , and Nico Rosberg ( three times ) , Massa ( twice ) and Kubica ( once ) had all finished in third .
Singapore was a critical race in the championship as all five drivers had a chance to take the lead with a victory . The situation was made difficult for Alonso as he had used his allocation of eight engines following the Italian Grand Prix , and to replace one would incur a ten @-@ place grid penalty . His rivals each had at least one untouched engine in reserve ; Webber had two . Nevertheless , Alonso set himself the target to score points in Singapore . He also acknowledged that his car was not the fastest in the field and felt he needed five podiums in the season 's five remaining races . Webber stated that he was expecting Singapore to be a tough weekend for him after he had retired from the event in 2008 and 2009 , but felt there was still some time before a driver clinched the championship . After crashing out of the first lap of the Italian Grand Prix , Hamilton said he would push hard to stay in the running for the championship : " I 'll take each race as it comes , but I 'll also be making sure I get to the finish of the next five races , that 's more important than anything . I go to Singapore to win . " Hamilton felt Alonso was the favourite to win the Singapore Grand Prix and viewed the Spanish driver as his main rival for the Drivers ' Championship which was shared by Red Bull team principal Christian Horner . Button himself believed Alonso would have an extra advantage as the Spaniard 's teammate Massa was out of contention for the title .
The Marina Bay Street Circuit was resurfaced between turns three and seven , along with turns thirteen to seventeen , after drivers complained about its bumpiness following the 2009 Singapore Grand Prix . The Singapore Sling chicane was adjusted to allow for a more gradual curve to exist which enabled a safer exit for drivers . The outside wall at turn 21 was brought closer towards the race track to cover up half of a drain which was previously exposed to cars , and the pit lane was resurfaced to allow for a smoother exit for drivers rejoining the circuit . Hamilton , a vocal critic of the circuit 's condition , described it as " dangerous " because it had remained uneven , and said the Singapore Sling chicane was " the worst corner I have ever driven in Formula One " despite the safety modifications made to it . The organisers of the Singapore Grand Prix introduced a new machine to clean the surface of the track after drivers had problems with a dusty and slippery track surface in the previous year 's race . Two days before the first practice session , drivers expressed concerns over low visibility caused by rain showers combined with the glare from the circuit lighting .
There were two driver changes heading into the Grand Prix . Hispania Racing announced that Sakon Yamamoto , one of the team 's drivers since the tenth race of the season , was to be replaced for the weekend by the team 's reserve driver Christian Klien because he was suffering from food poisoning . Several journalists noticed a seemingly healthy Yamamoto in the paddock , suggesting that he had been dropped for sponsorship reasons instead . Team principal Colin Kolles confirmed that the arrangement would be for one race and Yamamoto would return to the cockpit at Suzuka . Pedro de la Rosa was summarily dropped by Sauber and replaced by Pirelli test driver Nick Heidfeld , who last drove for the Sauber team in 2009 . The change was made because of de la Rosa 's poor performance relative to that of teammate Kamui Kobayashi , and Heidfeld 's knowledge of the Marina Bay Street Circuit and the Yas Marina Circuit .
Several teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . McLaren , Red Bull , and Williams all revised their front wings . McLaren 's revision was designed to separate airflow into two separate channels , with both directing airflow around the outside of the car 's front tyres . Red Bull 's design , used in the Friday practice sessions , had two vertical slots to the rear of its endplate along with another to avoid creating a vortex when it operated with the planes and endplate . A previous design , debuted at the British Grand Prix , was used both in qualifying and in the race . In addition , the team used a revised diffuser to allow for better management of airflow to the top of the diffuser 's side section . Williams ' design debuted for the first time and was designed to make the tyre act like a diffuser which took air in to improve its efficiency .
= = = Practice and qualifying sessions = = =
Three practice sessions — two on Friday and a third on Saturday — were held before the main Sunday race . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted ninety minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The first practice session was initially held on a wet track with a clear sky after rainstorms earlier in the day left standing water on parts of the circuit , and high humidity slowed the drying process . These conditions meant drivers used intermediate tyres first before dry tyres were utilised in the session 's closing minutes . Webber set the fastest time of the first session with a late lap of 1 : 54 @.@ 589 , one @-@ tenth of a second faster than Michael Schumacher in second who was briefly quickest before Webber set his lap . Adrian Sutil , with a lap of 1 : 58 @.@ 827 , was third fastest , ahead of Vettel and Jaime Alguersuari . Button , Vitantonio Liuzzi , Sébastien Buemi , Kubica , and Vitaly Petrov rounded out the session 's top ten fastest drivers .
In the second practice session , when the track was still damp in some sections , Vettel set the fastest time of the night , a lap of 1 : 46 @.@ 660 on super @-@ soft tyres ; Webber finished with the second fastest lap . Button drove aggressively and battled Vettel for the fastest time throughout before he ended with the third quickest lap , half a second off Vettel 's pace . Alonso , who was fourth fastest , ran wide at turn 17 while on a quick lap and slid down the access road at the next corner ; he stalled while attempting to rejoin the track and abandoned his car requiring marshals to push his Ferrari away from the track . Hamilton was fifth , with Barrichello and Massa in sixth and seventh places . The two Mercedes drivers were eighth and tenth ; with Nico Rosberg ahead of Schumacher , separated by Kubica . Sutil 's Force India was launched into the air when he hit a kerb at the Singapore Sling chicane and his front @-@ left suspension was broken upon landing requiring him to miss half the session , and Alguersuari 's left @-@ rear tyre made contact with a barrier but he avoided major damage to his car . Sutil was fined US $ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 6 @,@ 300 ) by the stewards because he attempted to drive back to the pit lane in his damaged car and did not stop at a safe position on the circuit .
Rain hit the circuit on Saturday afternoon , ending three hours before the session started , resulting in several damp patches on the circuit though the air temperature remained hot . Different sections of the circuit dried out at different rates making it difficult for drivers to tell precisely how wet or dry certain corners were . The teams ran intermediate tyres before switching to the super @-@ soft tyre as the session progressed . Some drivers ran deep into turn five . Vettel was the fastest driver of the session with a time of 1 : 48 @.@ 028 set in the last twenty minutes of the one @-@ hour period . The time was four @-@ tenths faster than championship rival Alonso . Hamilton was third fastest , two @-@ thousandths of a second in front of Massa . Rosberg was fifth , ahead of Webber and Nico Hülkenberg . Kubica , Sutil and Buemi completed the top ten ahead of qualifying . Hispania Racing driver Bruno Senna 's right @-@ rear tyre got onto a white line at the Singapore Sling chicane and spun . Senna later brushed a wall entering the Esplanade Bridge in the final minute and stopped his car , causing the yellow @-@ flags to be shown ; drivers were unable to improve on their lap times because of the limited time available .
The qualifying session held on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for twenty minutes and eliminated the cars that finished the session eighteenth or lower from qualifying . The second part of qualifying lasted fifteen minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions eleven to seventeen . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth and decided pole position . Cars which competed in the final qualifying session were not allowed to change tyres before the race ; these started the race fitted with the tyres with which they set their quickest lap times . It was held in dry weather conditions . Alonso was fastest in the first and third sessions , and clinched his second consecutive pole position with a lap time of 1 : 45 @.@ 390 which he set on his first run of the third session . He was restricted to one timed lap in the second session because of an engine mapping problem , which meant Ferrari immediately re @-@ programmed Alonso 's engine upon discovering the issue . Alonso was joined on the front row of the grid by Vettel , who recorded a lap 0 @.@ 067 seconds off Alonso 's pace , and felt he could have taken pole position as he misjudged a gap while following Schumacher and brushed the wall exiting the Singapore Sling chicane . Hamilton qualified third and was happy with his starting position despite losing downforce on the track 's final sector while running in teammate Button 's tow . Button secured fourth and pushed hard in the final session which meant he had slight damage to his rear tyres on his first run , and could not get the optimum tyre temperature in the first section on his second run . Webber managed fifth and admitted that he was struggling to find a good rhythm when driving the circuit . Barrichello qualified in sixth . The two Mercedes drivers took seventh and ninth ; Rosberg ahead of Schumacher . Rosberg believed that he should have performed better in qualifying than in the practice session , as he felt the soft tyres lacked grip ; Schumacher was satisfied with his qualifying performance . The Mercedes drivers were separated by Kubica , in the faster Renault , who was happy with his lap time despite his car sliding from a lack of grip . Kobayashi rounded out the top ten qualifiers .
Alguersuari , who qualified eleventh , was the fastest driver not advancing to the final session . His best time of 1 : 47 @.@ 666 was 1 @.@ 8 seconds slower than Vettel 's pace in the second session . Alguersuari 's time was followed by Hülkenberg , who was backed up by Sutil on his first run in the second session , and described his car 's balance like " night and day " . However , Hülkenberg was demoted five positions on the grid after the Williams team changed his gearbox after the race at Monza . As a consequence , Petrov inherited 12th position having pushed hard on a set of option tyres . He had lost control of his car after he went deep , under braking , heading for turn five ( a corner that was damp from the earlier rain shower ) , with his right @-@ rear wheel hitting the wall . Petrov 's crash meant he took no further part in qualifying . He was ahead of Buemi , in the slower of the two Torro Rossos , who lost a large amount of grip and got stuck in traffic . Heidfeld took 14th ahead of his fellow countryman Sutil in 15th . Liuzzi had a problem with his front brakes on the first run of the second session and managed 16th . Timo Glock , Heikki Kovalainen and Lucas di Grassi were the quickest drivers unable to advance beyond the first part of qualifying . The eleventh row of the grid was filled by Jarno Trulli and Klien . Senna took 23rd . Massa was unable to set a timed lap as his gearbox seized without warning forcing him to stop on the circuit ; Ferrari chose to replace his engine and gearbox as a precaution . Massa 's engine change was his ninth of the season which incurred a ten @-@ place grid penalty , but since he started from 24th position , the penalty was nullified .
= = = Race = = =
The race began at 20 : 00 SST ( UTC + 8 ) . The conditions on the grid were dry and cloudy before the race ; the air temperature ranged between 29 – 32 ° C ( 84 – 90 ° F ) and the track temperature was 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) ; no rain was predicted during the race . Most drivers started on the super @-@ soft compound tyre . Alguersuari started from the pit lane as his team discovered a coolant leak in his car . As the five red lights went out to signal the start of the race , Alonso maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first corner and withstood Vettel 's attempt to pass him . Button got an early advantage over teammate Hamilton , but Hamilton fought him to retain third place . Barrichello fell from sixth to eighth place . Kubica passed Rosberg at the start but the German regained the sixth position in the same lap . Further down the field , the early momentum was broken when Heidfeld , attempting to overtake both Force India cars at turn seven , hit Sutil 's rear , damaging his front wing . Liuzzi subsequently went into Heidfeld 's rear @-@ end after the latter squeezed him towards the wall , causing front wing damage to his car . Heidfeld made a pit stop for a replacement front wing at the end of lap one , while Massa made his only pit stop of the race for the medium compound tyres .
Liuzzi pulled over to the inside of the circuit on the third lap , at turn ten , with left @-@ rear suspension damage resulting from contact with the wall . His retirement triggered the deployment of the safety car as marshals were required to push his car away from the track . Webber was the only top running driver to pit for the medium compound tyres during the safety car period on lap four . Red Bull had told Webber to enter the pit lane , assuring him that it was the right decision , though he questioned the move . Several drivers towards the rear also chose to pit . Racing resumed at the end of lap five when the safety car pulled into the pit lane . Webber immediately pushed hard and passed Glock for tenth position and a line of cars began to form behind Glock . Alonso began to pull away from Vettel as he set consecutive fastest laps . Webber passed Kobayashi at turn five to move into ninth on lap seven , and withstood an attempt to Kobayashi to reclaim ninth heading into turn seven . Hülkenberg and Petrov 's wheels made contact and both drivers went off the circuit on the same lap ; Hülkenberg managed to move ahead of Petrov with Massa taking advantage to pass the Renault driver . Webber caught Schumacher on lap 11 and passed the Mercedes driver on the same lap at turn five after Schumacher ran wide . Vettel was told by his team to cool his brakes on the same lap as Alonso continued to extend his lead . Sutil got ahead of Glock for eleventh place three laps later and started to pull away from the queue behind Glock . Hülkenberg ran wide at turn seven on the same lap but did not lose any positions . Hülkenberg passed Glock in the first sector of the track for twelfth on lap 16 .
Vettel and Alonso traded fastest laps as they pushed hard in their efforts to build up a sufficient lead over Webber to maintain first and second positions after their pit stops . Massa , Petrov , Buemi and Alguersuari all passed Glock on lap 17 thus eliminating the queue of cars . By lap 20 , Alonso was leading Vettel by 3 @.@ 2 seconds ; he in turn was a further 11 seconds in front of Hamilton . Button was in fourth , 20 seconds behind Alonso , with Rosberg 3 @.@ 3 seconds behind the World Champion in fifth . Webber changed his engine settings to give him a higher top speed in an attempt to get past Barrichello and decrease the time gap to Hamilton on lap 22 . He avoided colliding with an Armco barrier at the entry of turn eighteen one lap later . Hamilton was told to increase his pace on the 24th lap to try to stay ahead of Webber after the pit stop phase . But his car had a large amount of oversteer , as his rear , super @-@ soft , compound tyres began to deteriorate , causing his lap times to drop off the leader 's pace . Trulli drove to the pit lane and was pushed by his mechanics into the Lotus garage to retire with an hydraulic issue on lap 28 . Hamilton made the first scheduled stop for tyres on lap 29 and re @-@ emerged in eighth position behind Webber . Alonso and Vettel made simultaneous pit stops on the following lap ; Alonso retained his lead despite Vettel 's pit crew completing their pit stop first ; Vettel avoided stalling and drove away in second gear . With newer tyres which provided more grip , Vettel recorded faster lap times than Alonso to close the time gap as the two came across slower cars .
Kobayashi attempted to pass around the outside of Schumacher on lap 31 but the two made contact with Schumacher subsequently hitting a barrier . Kobayashi damaged his Sauber , losing control of his rear @-@ end , and crashed at the exit of turn 18 after his front wing was knocked off entering the corner . Senna was slow to react and buried his Hispania nose @-@ first into the barrier alongside Kobayashi . These incidents called for the race 's second safety car period to allow removal of both cars from the circuit which were on the racing line . Klien was pushed into his garage to retire with an hydraulic problem on lap 34 . The safety car pulled into the pit lane at the end of lap 35 and the race resumed with Alonso leading . Hamilton got a run on Webber who was caught behind di Grassi and lined up an overtaking manoeuvre on the Red Bull driver , and overtook him on the Raffles Boulevard straight . Webber 's front @-@ right tyre hit Hamilton 's left @-@ rear tyre at turn seven . He escaped without significant damage , while Hamilton had a punctured tyre and pulled off the circuit to retire for the second consecutive race . However , Webber did feel vibrations on the front @-@ end of his Red Bull . His tyre , which made contact with Hamilton 's , had been pushed 5 millimetres off its normal mounting on the rim , and Button drew closer to Webber who managed to maintain a good pace . On lap 37 , Schumacher went into Heidfeld 's rear @-@ end and limped back to the pit lane to replace his damaged front wing creating sparks as it was dragged along the surface of the track , while Heidfeld retired after hitting a barrier . Button was urged by his McLaren mechanics on lap 42 to push Webber whose tyres were older , while Vettel gradually closed the gap with Alonso . Hülkenberg , in ninth , made a mistake on lap 44 which allowed Massa to momentarily take advantage , but he fought back and retained ninth position . Kubica sustained a right @-@ rear puncture on lap 46 and made a pit stop on the same lap , rejoining in 13th .
Upfront , Vettel had reduced the gap between himself and Alonso to one second by lap 50 as the pair continued to trade the fastest lap time . Glock started to slow on the circuit and drove to the pit lane to retire . It was later confirmed that his retirement was the result of an issue with his car 's hydraulic system . With the advantage of having newer tyres which gave him more grip , Kubica was able to make short work of Alguersuari , Buemi , his teammate Petrov , Massa , Hülkenberg , and Sutil ( who was holding up a queue of five cars ) in the space of nine laps . Vettel continued to pressure race @-@ leader Alonso in the closing laps as the pair began to encounter slower cars . Kovalainen and Buemi made contact in the final sector of the lap , with the Lotus driver spinning around in front of the Toro Rosso , who was quick to avoid a head @-@ on collision . Kovalainen 's car suffered a cracked fuel tank pressure release valve and he limped back to the pit lane , the rear of his Lotus catching fire during the final few turns . Kovalainen aborted the pit entry , but did not make it much further as his car was consumed by the fire . Kovalainen stopped on the main straight and got out of his car to extinguish the fire himself after members of the Williams team handed him a fire extinguisher . As Kovalainen was off the racing line , yellow flags were waved in the final corners instead of a safety car deployment .
Vettel drew to within two @-@ tenths of a second behind Alonso as the final lap started , and came across Sutil , Hülkenberg , Petrov and Massa ; both drivers managed to get past Petrov , and Alonso maintained the first position heading into the final sector of the track . The yellow flag for Kovalainen 's car meant that Vettel 's final chance of an overtake , into the final corner , was denied , and Alonso took the checkered flag on lap 61 to win the race , 0 @.@ 293 seconds ahead of Vettel . Alonso secured the first , and , as of 2015 , the only Grand Chelem ( leading the entire race from pole position with fastest lap ) of his career as well as the first since Schumacher achieved the feat at the 2004 Hungarian Grand Prix . Webber was third , 1 @.@ 2 seconds ahead of Button in fourth . Rosberg , Barrichello and Kubica took the next three positions . Sutil held off Hülkenberg in the final sector of the track for eighth and ninth on the line with Massa in tenth . Petrov , Alguersuari , Schumacher and Buemi finished one lap behind Alonso , with di Grassi and Kovalainen ( despite his retirement ) the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and , in a later press conference , Alonso said that his victory " meant a lot " for him to remain in contention for the Drivers ' Championship and thanked his team for their efforts during the weekend . Alonso added that Ferrari would give " 100 per cent " in the season 's four remaining races and said the battle remained " very tight " despite scoring the most points out of all the drivers in the previous five races . Vettel said that he was hoping that Alonso would make a mistake but acknowledged that it was difficult to overtake on the circuit . He also said that attempting to overtake Alonso in the final stages of the race was " the only chance " that he had of winning the race and hoped that the remaining tracks would suit his Red Bull car . Webber stated that he was " very happy " with his third @-@ place finish and said the entire race weekend was the toughest of the year on him . He also said that he did not feel comfortable throughout the weekend and that he was staying composed through certain sections of the race .
Alonso 's win his been regarded as one of the best of his Formula One career . Former Formula One driver Martin Brundle described it as : " one of those races in which two drivers elevate themselves on to a separate plane from their rivals . " It reminded him of the 2000 Japanese Grand Prix where Schumacher won that year 's world championship from his main rival Mika Häkkinen . Will Saunders of crash.net said in 2014 that Alonso : " had little right to wrestle a performance of such magnitude out of either himself or the Ferrari , yet he found another level that day . " After the eventual conclusion of the championship in Vettel 's favour by four points , Saunders said : " Alonso 's performance in Singapore showed he would have been an equally deserving championship victor . " ESPN listed it as one of Alonso 's top ten races while driving for Ferrari .
The stewards immediately investigated the accident between Webber and Hamilton on lap 37 and took no further action . Hamilton later reviewed the incident on video and was adamant that he was not at fault saying that he was " unlucky " for the second consecutive Grand Prix . Webber stated the contact nearly forced him to retire and compared the accident to Hamilton 's collision with Massa at the Italian Grand Prix . Brundle felt Hamilton should have given Webber more space and agreed with the stewards ' decision . Bridgestone director of motorsport tyre development Hirohide Hamashima stated Webber was " very lucky " to make the finish and that if left hand high @-@ speed corners were installed on the track , the tyre would have moved more frequently and lost its pressure . Horner had also admitted that Webber had been lucky with his tyre lasting for a long distance .
Schumacher and Heidfeld 's accident on lap 37 was investigated by the stewards who took no further action after deciding it was a " racing incident " . Heidfeld felt Schumacher had braked too late and hoped that he would have had a better finishing position . Schumacher himself said that he was not happy with his first race in Singapore but enjoyed the second half of the race . BBC pundit , and former team principal , Eddie Jordan was highly critical of Schumacher arguing that the German driver should have been sacked by Mercedes to prevent him from being " slaughtered " in the event he was unable to win another race . Mercedes team principal Ross Brawn came to Schumacher 's defense and said his team was " happy " with his contribution . Motorsport pundits criticised Kovalainen 's decision to stop his car on the pit straight after it had caught fire
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Upon arriving at his destination , the kidnapper , Michael Foster ( Michael Eklund ) , removes Casey from the trunk and finds the phone in her pocket , with 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 listening on the line . Through the phone , Jordan informs him that his identity is uncovered and advises him to turn himself in and not hurt the girl . Before smashing the phone , Michael responds , " It 's already done " and Jordan realizes that Michael is the same culprit who killed Leah six months prior . Meanwhile , Phillips , accompanied by Officer Jake Devans ( David Otunga ) and others in law enforcement , raid Michael 's home , but find only his wife and children . Finding a photo of Michael and his sister , Melinda , they realize that Casey resembles the latter . Additionally , the house seen in the photo is eventually revealed by Michael 's wife to have burned down , although a nearby cottage still remains . The police raid it , but find nobody there and leave . Michael begins to wash and cut Casey 's hair . Determined to rescue Casey , Jordan drives to the secondary home where she finds a number of photos of Michael with his leukemia @-@ stricken sister . Stepping outside , she recognizes sounds from an outdoor flagpole , reminiscent of sounds heard in the background in the final moments of the 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call . She also finds a trap door amid dirt and scrub located where the primary house once stood . After she accidentally drops her cellphone down the cellar , she climbs down in without calling the police .
Navigating the cellar , Jordan hides from an emerging Michael . The cellar itself pieces together Michael 's backstory . Michael had incestuous feelings towards his sister and was distraught when she fell ill , lost all of her hair and died of leukemia . Foster has a prop head that he keeps in the cellar that he treats like his sister . He has also been scalping and killing young girls who have similar blond hair , trying to find scalps that match his sister 's hair . Jordan soon finds Casey strapped down to a dentist chair and attacks Michael , as he begins to lacerate Casey 's scalp . She frees Casey and both manage to gradually escape the cellar , and Casey stabs Michael in the back with a pair of scissors . Michael pursues them and they are able to injure and kick him back down into the cellar , rendering him unconscious . While he is knocked out , they tie him to a chair . When he regains consciousness , they inform him that they plan to leave him to die and claim that Casey had escaped , was found by Jordan in the woods , and that Michael disappeared . Pleading with them that they cannot just leave him there , Jordan replies to Foster using his own words , " It 's already done , " and as he shouts insults at them locks the door , avenges Leah 's death and leaves .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Screenwriter Richard D 'Ovidio was inspired to script the story after his wife heard an NPR segment with a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator discussing her job . He began to research the subject and visited the Los Angeles Metropolitan Communications Dispatch Center ( MCDC ) . Finding the center , which has backup generators , bulletproof windows , and a moat surrounding the building , to be " pretty amazing , " he decided to shed light on what he viewed as a previously overlooked occupation . The story was originally conceptualized as a television series entitled The Hive ( a reference to the constant calls and conversations sounding like bees buzzing ) , but D 'Ovidio decided to redraft it as a film on realizing that " the operators couldn 't be the ones kicking in doors and going out into the field " all the time . As a result , what was planned to be the pilot episode was expanded and revised as a movie .
For most of the film , Berry 's character , Turner , the 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , does stay inside " the hive " before becoming actively involved in the search for Breslin 's character , Welson , the kidnapped caller . D 'Ovidio chose two female leads , explaining , " I wanted strong women ... I think it was appropriate here , since most 911 call operators are women . " Berry remarked , " I love the idea of being a part of a movie that was so empowering for women . We don 't often get to play roles like this , where ordinary people become heroic and do something extraordinary . " D 'Ovidio chose to tell the story from the perspective of two characters — the operator and the caller — believing that it would become repetitive if it focused on only one . As a result , he switched perspectives every ten pages when writing the screenplay . As well as collaborating on the story with his wife , Nicole and Jon Bokenkamp , he accepted suggestions from Berry , Breslin and Eklund : " Halle came in with some great notes and Abigail and Michael and it started to flesh things out . I 'm not one to say ' no ' to a great suggested line of dialogue . It just makes me look better as a writer ! I feel it 's a very collaborative process , and some of the happiest accidents happen when you just listen to people . When someone comes up to you and says , ' Why don 't we do it this way ? ' I think that it 's important to listen . "
Chestnut , who plays Phillips , a police officer and Turner 's boyfriend , prepared by riding along with Los Angeles police officers to observe what it is like to be an officer in a squad car and Berry prepared for the role by visiting a call center and observing the operators at work . She told a Miami Herald interviewer , " You get a different perspective by doing research ... You can 't know what it 's like to be a cop even though you 've seen it in the movies . But nobody ever saw a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 center . I thought they lived in the ground somewhere ! It was interesting to see who they were and how they deal and how stressful it can be . I was a wreck watching them . They would just be as cool as can be doing their thing . I thought , ' I could never do this job . ' "
= = = Filming = = =
Producers scheduled for The Call to be filmed in Canada in June 2011 after they failed to make the cut for a California tax credit . With a low budget of $ 13 million , they settled on Ottawa , Ontario , where director Anderson had just finished another project . However , the California Film Commission ( CFC ) called back nine months later and informed them that the waiting list had been largely cleared and that they now qualified for $ 1 @.@ 9 million in tax deduction . According to Producer Michael Helfant , they were " literally days from starting to put down a deposit . " Berry was reportedly pleased with the news , having wanted to stay in Los Angeles and the CFC helped secure film locations for the project .
With a crew of roughly 120 persons , filming took a total of 25 days , spanning from July to August 2012 . Car chase scenes were shot at Long Beach and a Westlake Village office building was modeled as the emergency dispatch center . The latter was also used for the scenes in which Welson is locked in the trunk of a car . Other filming locations include the Burbank Town Center on Magnolia Boulevard in Burbank , California , Santa Clarita , California and the 170 Highway . At one point , Berry was rushed to Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center after falling headfirst on concrete while shooting a fight sequence . A spokesperson for Berry confirmed that she suffered a minor head injury and was taken to the hospital as a precaution , but she checked out healthy and was released .
Berry told interviewer Kimberly Grant , " The hard part for me was to try to stay connected to Phillips and Welson . " This was because , Grant writes , " she had to spend an entire day reading 21 pages of dialogue , rattling off in quick succession 911 @-@ operator jargon , that would be cut and edited to fit the film ... In film terms , that means Berry performed for 21 minutes straight with no breaks , not an easy feat for any actor . " Though she enjoyed working with Chestnut , Berry told Grant that it was difficult being unable to see her co @-@ stars for most of the film : " That was my constant challenge ; to stay on such an emotional level [ as Jordan ] , so that I would be on the same level as they [ i.e. , Casey and Officer Phillips ] were . I used that feeling of frustration and of being stuck to fuel my character . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Spanning 94 minutes upon completion , the movie received an R rating for violence , disturbing content and some language . Berry and Chestnut promoted the film at the ShowPlace ICON movie theater at the red @-@ carpet premiere in Chicago on February 28 . Berry also traveled to Rio to promote The Call in anticipation of its April 12 release in Brazil .
The Women 's International Film Festival hosted a screening of The Call at the Regal South Beach theater on February 26 , 2013 . Chestnut told the audience that he would sign on for a sequel , saying about Berry , " I didn 't get to kiss this woman enough ! " Berry added , " I 'm in the movie and even I was scared . " The film was released in theatres on March 15 and on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 25 of that same year . DVD extras included a featurette entitled " Emergency Procedure : Making the Film " and commentary from Abigail Breslin , Halle Berry , and other filmmakers . The Blu @-@ ray version came with more features , including deleted scenes , an alternate ending , Michael Eklund 's audition tape , featurettes entitled " A Set Tour of The Hive and The Lair " and " Inside the Stunts " , as well as all of the original DVD content .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
According to Boxoffice , The Call was expected to earn about $ 11 – 12 million on its opening weekend in 2 @,@ 507 theaters across the United States but surpassed this by a significant margin and grossed $ 17 million in its first three days . This indicated good profits , as the film cost about $ 13 million to produce and TriStar Pictures paid a much smaller amount to acquire U.S. distribution rights . With box office takings of over $ 68 million , The Call is WWE Studios ' most commercially successful film to date , the previous top @-@ grossing productions being See No Evil , which stars professional wrestler Kane ( Glenn Jacobs ) ( $ 19 million ) and 12 Rounds , which stars professional wrestler John Cena ( $ 17 million ) .
Critics were surprised by the movie 's success because " Berry hadn 't had a hit in a number of years " and because the R rating narrowed down the audience . WWE Studios head Michael Luisi commented that The Call " [ exceeded ] our most optimistic forecasts . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The Call has received mostly mixed reviews from critics , having a 44 % overall film rating review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 124 reviews with the consensus : " The Call builds plenty of suspense before taking a problematic turn in the third act . " Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B rating , saying that the tale " is surprisingly good and surprisingly gruesome fun . Eklund makes the most of the maniac role and Breslin is a sympathetic victim . " Similarly , Metacritic , another film review aggregator , gave the movie a 51 out of 100 based on 23 reviews . Reviewer Dwight Brown wrote , " The script gives Berry a blue @-@ collar character she can make accessible , vulnerable and gutsy ... Chestnut is not suitably gallant and stalwart as her caring lover and a cop on a mission ... This film is a whole lot scarier than you think it 's going to be . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote , " An effectively creepy thriller about a 911 operator and a young miss in peril , The Call is a model of low @-@ budget filmmaking . " She praised its " clean , clever premise " and said that Berry 's Jordan is " an old @-@ fashioned hero in many respects , so it 's fitting that Mr. Anderson uses old @-@ fashioned filmmaking techniques , like crosscutting , to build tension and old @-@ school exploitation tricks like evil to justify taking the story dark and then dark and bonkers . "
A reviewer for The Hutchinson News , Jake Coyle , commented , " Director Brad Anderson ... working from the simple , high @-@ concept screenplay by Richard D 'Ovidio , ably cuts between Berry 's increasingly emotionally @-@ attached Jordan Turner and Breslin 's panicking Casey Welson , contrasting the fraught strategizing of Turner with the frantic police pursuit of the kidnapper . " Coyle stated that " The Call dials up a shallow thrill ride , but one efficiently peppered with your typical ' don 't go in there ! ' moments , " but concluded , " The Call is a rudimentary , almost old @-@ fashioned 90 @-@ minute escape that manages to achieve its low ambitions . " Rating the film 2 stars out of 4 , Coyle writes that once the film " manages to build some suspense from the trunk of the car-- the clever attempts to elicit help , the dwindling cell phone battery-- its deficiencies become less forgivable once the action turns off the road . "
Roger Moore of The Seattle Times showed mixed feelings in his review : " Rare is the thriller that goes as completely and utterly wrong as The Call does at almost precisely the one @-@ hour mark . Which is a crying shame , because for an hour this is a riveting , by @-@ the @-@ book kidnapping . " Moore explained what he saw as the highs and lows : " Brad Anderson turns this ... serial @-@ killer hunt ... into a real edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat thriller . Given ... a half @-@ decent tale of horror , guilt , problem @-@ solving and redemption , Anderson couldn 't go far wrong , " but , Moore states , " It 's only when our Oscar @-@ winning heroine puts down the phone and sets out to do some sleuthing of her own that The Call disconnects , turning into something far more generic and far less exciting . " The Los Angeles Times turned in a similar review : " The semi @-@ fresh thriller , set mainly in an emergency call center and on the freeways of Los Angeles , puts a tech slant on a damsel @-@ in @-@ distress setup . It buzzes along for a while , the promising plot innovations inviting suspension of disbelief , before by @-@ the @-@ numbers implausibility , over @-@ the @-@ top valor and unsavory contrivances take over and the line goes dead . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Berry was nominated for two awards for her role as Turner in The Call in 2013 . She was nominated for Best Actress for the BET Awards , which were created by the Black Entertainment Television network to celebrate African Americans and other minorities in music , acting , sports and other fields of entertainment over the past year , Berry lost to Kerry Washington for the role in Django Unchained . She was also nominated for Choice Movie Actress in a Drama at the Teen Choice Awards , but lost to Emma Watson for The Perks of Being a Wallflower .
The film was also nominated for Best Thriller Film at the 40th Saturn Awards and Berry was nominated for Saturn Award for Best Actress , but lost to World War Z and Sandra Bullock
= = Possible sequel = =
WWE Studios head Michael Luisi confirmed the possibility of a sequel , though no new information has been released since the announcement in 2013 .
= Kannada =
Kannada / ˈkɑːnədə , ˈkæ- / ( ಕನ ್ ನಡ kannaḍa ; IPA : [ ˈkʌnːəɖɑː ] ) , also known as Canarese or Kanarese / kænəˈriːz / , is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Kannada people in South India , mainly in the state of Karnataka , and by linguistic minorities in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , Tamil Nadu , Maharashtra , Kerala , and Goa . The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas ( Kannaḍigaru ) , and a total of 50 @.@ 8 million speakers according to a 2001 census . It is one of the scheduled languages of India and the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka .
The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script , which evolved from the 5th @-@ century Kadamba script . Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennium , and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th @-@ century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th @-@ century Rashtrakuta Dynasty . Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years .
Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts , appointed by the ministry of culture , the government of India designated Kannada a classical language of India . In July 2011 , a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language .
= = Development = =
Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language , and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B. Steever , its history can be conventionally divided into three periods ; Old Kannada ( Halegannada ) from 450 – 1200 A.D. , Middle Kannada ( Nadugannada ) from 1200 – 1700 A.D. , and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present . Kannada is influenced to an appreciable extent by Sanskrit . Influences of other languages such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in Kannada language . The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich oral tradition earlier than 3rd century B.C. , and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit and Tamil inscriptions of that period , Kannada must have been spoken by a widespread and stable population . The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language with lesser influence from other languages .. Kannada is seems to be oldest living language in the world ( Citation needed ) .
= = Influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit = =
The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three @-@ fold ; Pāṇini 's grammar , non @-@ Paninian schools of Sanskrit grammar , particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools , and Prakrit grammar . Literary Prakrit seemed to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times . The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come in contact with the Kannada speakers , thus influencing their language , even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes . Kannada phonetics , morphology , vocabulary , grammar and syntax show significant influence of these languages .
Some examples of naturalised ( tadbhava ) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are : baṇṇa ( color ) derived from vaṇṇa , hunnime ( new moon ) from puṇṇivā . Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are : varṇa ( color ) , arasu ( king ) from rajan , paurṇimā , and rāya from rāja ( king ) . Kannada has numerous borrowed ( tatsama ) words such as dina ( day ) , kopa ( anger ) , surya ( sun ) , mukha ( face ) , nimiṣa ( minute ) and anna ( rice ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early traces = = =
Pre @-@ old Kannada ( or Purava HaleGannada ) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era , the Satavahana , Chutu Satakarni ( Naga ) and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years . The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri ( dated to 230 BC ) has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada .
Aristophanes and Euripides ( 5th @-@ 4th century BCE ) : The great Greek dramatists of the 5th @-@ 4th century BCE , particularly Euripides and Aristophanes , appear to have been familiar with the Kannada country and the Kannada language , and had actually used Kannada phrases and expressions in the dialogues of their characters along with Persian and Punic in their skits and dramas . This shows a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere .
Alexandria ( Egypt ) ( 4th century BCE ) : Doddarange Gowda stumbled upon a piece of evidence in the Egyptian city of Alexandria that proves the existence of Kannada in 4th century BCE . He saw the Kannada word ' Ooralli ' ( lit in a village ) written on a huge wall constructed in Alexandria by ancient Greek ruler Alexander the Great in 4th century BCE . The Kannada word ‘ Ooralli ’ is part of the remnants of 36 @,@ 000 palm manuscripts that had been burnt in an accidental fire during Alexander ’ s time . When the accidental fire destroyed much of the palm manuscripts , Alexander ordered his commanders to erect a huge wall so that the remnants can be magnified and reproduced on it . The palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek , Latin and Hebrew , but also Sanskrit and Kannada .
In some 3rd – 1st century BCE Tamil inscriptions , words of Kannada influence such as ' nalliyooraa ' , ' kavuDi ' and ' posil ' have been introduced . The use of the vowel ' a ' as an adjective is not prevalent in Tamil but its usage is available in Kannada . Kannada words such as ' gouDi @-@ gavuDi ' transform into Tamil ’ s ' kavuDi ' for lack of the usage of Ghosha svana in Tamil . Hence the Kannada word ' gavuDi ' becomes ' kavuDi ' in Tamil . ' Posil ' ( ' hosilu ' ) was introduced into Tamil from Kannada and colloquial Tamil uses this word as ' Vaayil ' . In a 1st century CE Tamil inscription , there is a personal reference to ' ayjayya ' , a word of Kannada origin . In a 3rd century CE Tamil inscription there is usage of ' oppanappa vIran ' . Here the honorific ' appa ' to a person ’ s name is an influence from Kannada . Another word of Kannada origin is ' taayviru ' and is found in a 4th @-@ century CE Tamil inscription . These are some examples that are proof of the influence of Kannada on Tamil before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era .
Pliny ( 23CE @-@ 79CE ) : Pliny , who was the naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire , writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias ( Netravati River ) . He also mentions Barace ( Barcelore ) . Nitrias of Pliny and Nitran of Ptolemy refer to the Netravati River as also the modern port city of Mangaluru , upon its mouth . Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century CE .
Ptolemy ( 150 AD ) : The Greek Geographer Ptolemy mentions in his writing places such as Badiamaioi ( Badami ) , Inde ( Indi ) , Kalligeris ( Kalkeri ) , Modogoulla ( Mudagal ) , Petrigala ( Pattadakal ) , Hippokoura ( Huvina Hipparagi ) , Nagarouris ( Nagur ) , Tabaso ( Tavasi ) , Tiripangalida ( Gadahinglai ) , Soubouttou or Sabatha ( Savadi ) , Banaouase ( Banavasi ) , Thogorum ( Tagara ) , Biathana ( Paithan ) , Sirimalaga ( Malkhed ) , Aloe ( Ellapur ) and Pasage ( Palasige ) indicating prosperous trade between Egypt , Europe and Karnataka . He also mentions Pounnata ( Punnata ) and refers to beryls , i.e. , the Vaidhurya gems of that country . He mentions Malippala ( Malpe ) a coastal town of Karnataka . In this work Larika and Kandaloi are identified as Rastrika and Kuntala . Ptolemy writes in the midst of the false mouth and the Barios , there is a city called Maganur ( Mangalore ) . He mentions of inland centres of pirates called Oloikhora ( Alavakheda ) . He mentions Ariake Sadinon meaning Aryaka Satakarni and Baithana as capital of Siro ( e ) P ( t ) olmaios , i.e. , Sri Pulimayi clearly indicating his knowledge of the Satavahana kings . The word Pulimayi means One with body of Tiger in Kannada , which bears testimony to the possible Kannada origin of Satavahana kings .
A possibly more definite reference to Kannada is found in the ' Charition Mime ' ascribed to the late 1st to early 2nd century CE . The farce , written by an unknown author was discovered in the early 20th century at Oxyrynchus in Egypt . The play is concerned with a Greek lady named Charition who has been stranded on the coast of a country bordering the Indian Ocean . The king of this region , and his countrymen , sometimes use their own language , and the sentences they spoke include Koncha madhu patrakke haki ( lit having poured a little wine into the cup separately ) and paanam beretti katti madhuvam ber ettuvenu ( lit having taken up the cup separately and having covered it , I shall take wine separately ) . The language employed in the papyrus indicates that the play is set in one of the numerous small ports on the western coast of India , between Karwar and Kanhangad .
= = = Epigraphy = = =
The written tradition of Kannada begins in the early centuries of common era . The earliest examples of a full @-@ length Kannada language stone inscription ( shilaashaasana ) containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto @-@ Kannada in Hale Kann
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royal emblem . The oldest well @-@ preserved palm leaf manuscript in Old Kannada is that of Dhavala . It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar , Mudbidri , Dakshina Kannada district . The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink .
= = = Coins = = =
Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara collectorate . A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha 's name called bhagi ( c . AD 390 – 420 ) in old Kannada exists . A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi , Uttara Kannada district . Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty , the Badami Chalukyas , the Alupas , the Western Chalukyas , the Rashtrakutas , the Hoysalas , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi , the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom , the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery . The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king 's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate , a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available .
= = Literature = =
= = = Old Kannada = = =
The oldest existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of AD 700 . Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I ( AD 850 ) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada . It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries . The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti , the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD . Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles , it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier . An early extant prose work , the Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya of AD 900 provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola .
Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced . Some ancient texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are Prabhrita ( AD 650 ) by Syamakundacharya , Chudamani ( Crest Jewel — AD 650 ) by Srivaradhadeva , also known as Tumbuluracharya , which is a work of 96 @,@ 000 verse @-@ measures and a commentary on logic ( Tatwartha @-@ mahashastra ) . Other sources date Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier . The Karnateshwara Katha , a eulogy for King Pulakesi II , is said to have belonged to the 7th century ; the Gajastaka , a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II , belonged to the 8th century , and the Chandraprabha @-@ purana by Sri Vijaya , a court poet of King Amoghavarsha I , is ascribed to the early 9th century . Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD ( in the commentary on Nemrinatham , a Tamil grammatical work ) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the AD 4th century .
Around the beginning of the 9th century , Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari . The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled .
The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature , with new forms of composition coming into use , including Ragale ( a form of blank verse ) and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi . The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles . Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka , trailblazers in their own right . Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi ( six @-@ lined stanza ) meter . A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna , who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works .
The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature , and the sum of contributions by all sections of society . Vachanas were pithy poems on that period 's social , religious and economic conditions . More importantly , they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution , which caused a radical re @-@ examination of the ideas of caste , creed and religion . Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna , Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi .
Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 CE recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi ( formal or written form of language ) and Desi ( folk or spoken form of language ) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada . In 1112 CE , Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda , Dharwad district , in his Champu work Dharmamrita , a book on morals , warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil . He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada . In 1235 CE , Jain poet Andayya , wrote Kabbigara Kava ( Poet 's Defender ) , also called Sobagina Suggi ( Harvest of Beauty ) or Madana @-@ Vijaya and Kavana @-@ Gella ( Cupid 's Conquest ) , a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous ( desya ) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – tadbhavas , without the admixture of Sanskrit words . He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words . Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates . Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature ( like Tamil ) , but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary ( like Telugu , Malayalam , Tulu , etc . ) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages .
= = = Middle Kannada = = =
During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries , Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada ( Nadugannada ) language and literature . Kumara Vyasa , who wrote the Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari , was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period . His work , entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi ( hexa @-@ meter ) , is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata . During this period , the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract , religious , scientific and rhetorical terms . During this period , several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada , chiefly relating to feudalism and militia .
Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa , Purandaradasa , Naraharitirtha , Vyasatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vadirajatirtha , Vijaya Dasa , Jagannatha Dasa , Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period . Kanakadasa 's Ramadhanya Charite is a rare work , concerning with the issue of class struggle . This period saw the advent of Haridasa Sahitya ( lit Dasa literature ) which made rich contributions to Bhakti literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music . Purandara Dasa is widely considered the Father of Carnatic music .
= = = Modern Kannada = = =
The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannada or Modern Kannada . Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the " Dawn of Modern Kannada " , though generally , linguists treat Indira Bai or Saddharma Vijayavu by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada . The first modern movable type printing of " Canarese " appears to be the Canarese Grammar of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 , and the " Bible in Canarese " of John Hands in 1820 . The first novel printed was John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress , along with other texts including Canarese Proverbs , The History of Little Henry and his Bearer by Mary Martha Sherwood , Christian Gottlob Barth 's Bible Stories and " a Canarese hymn book . "
Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements , notably Navodaya , Navya , Navyottara , Dalita and Bandaya . Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society . Further , Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu , Bendre , and V K Gokak . Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards , the highest number awarded to any Indian language .
= = Areas of influence = =
Besides being the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka , Kannada language is present in other areas :
Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu 's 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1 @.@ 23 million which is 2 @.@ 2 % of Tamil Nadu 's total population .
Kannadigas account for 3 % of Mumbai 's population of 12 million as of 1991 , which is 360 @,@ 000 .
As of 2001 , there were 1 @.@ 26 million Kannada speakers in Maharashtra , 1 @.@ 3 % of its population .
Kannada is the third @-@ most spoken language in Hyderabad and is spoken by 677 @,@ 245 people in Andhra Pradesh , some 0 @.@ 8 % of its total population .
Kannada speakers in Kerala numbered 325 @,@ 571 which is 1 @.@ 2 % of its population as of 2001 .
Goa has 7 % Kannada speakers which accounts for 94 @,@ 360 Kannadigas .
There are 43 Kannadigas on the Lakshadweep islands . Amindivi islands were formerly a part of undivided Dakshina Kannada district . The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has a fret deal of Kannada words .
New Delhi has approximately 11 @,@ 027 Kannada speakers or less than 100 @,@ 000 according to a different source .
As on 2001 , Gujarat had 15 @,@ 202 Kannada speakers ; Madhya Pradesh had 6 @,@ 039 ; Rajasthan had 5 @,@ 651 ; Punjab had 4 @,@ 872 ; Jammu & Kashmir had 4 @,@ 058 ; Assam had 2 @,@ 666 ; Haryana had 2 @,@ 115 ; Chhattisgarh had 2 @,@ 084 ; Pondicherry had 1 @,@ 177 ; Uttarakhand had 849 ; Dadra & Nagar Haveli had 728 ; Tripura had 640 ; Himachal Pradesh had 608 ; Arunachal Pradesh had 549 ; Chandigarh had 451 ; Nagaland had 398 ; Daman & Diu had 396 ; Andaman & Nicobar Islands had 321 ; Manipur had 239 ; Meghalaya had 232 ; Mizoram had 178 and Sikkim had 162 . The states of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , West Bengal , Jharkhand and Odisha had not properly enumerated Kannada speakers in the census .
There are about 150 @,@ 000 Kannadigas in North America ( USA and Canada ) .
Singapore , Gulf countries of Middle @-@ East , Mauritius , US , UK , European countries , Japan , China , Australia and New Zealand have significant numbers of Kannada speakers .
= = Dialects = =
There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language . Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region . The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka . The Ethnologue reports " about 20 dialects " of Kannada . Among them are Kundagannada ( spoken exclusively in Kundapura ) , Nadavar @-@ Kannada ( spoken by Nadavaru ) , Havigannada ( spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins ) , Are Bhashe ( spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada ) , Malenadu Kannada ( Sakaleshpur , Coorg , Shimoga , Chikmagalur ) , Sholaga , Gulbarga Kannada , Dharawad Kannada etc . All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background . The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada , known as Halegannada . They are settled in each and every village spread across Goa state , throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district , Karnataka . The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada , Shimoga and Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada . Their population estimate is about 75 @,@ 000 .
Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada , which are , besides Kannada proper , Badaga , Holiya , Kurumba and Urali .
Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called ' Hatkar Kaanadi ' people who speak a Kannada ( Kaanadi ) dialect with lot of old Kannada words . Per Chidananda Murthy , they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times which shows that North Maharashtra 's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago . Kannada speakers formed 0 @.@ 12 % of Nasik district 's population as per 1961 census .
R. Narasimhacharya considers Tulu , Kodava , Toda , Kota , Badaga and Irula as Kannada dialects due to their closeness to Kannada .
= = Status = =
The Director of the Central Institute of Indian Languages , Udaya Narayana Singh , submitted a report in 2006 to the Indian government arguing for Kannada to be made a classical language of India . In 2008 the Indian government announced that Kannada was to be designated as one of the classical languages of India .
= = Writing system = =
The language uses forty @-@ nine phonemic letters , divided into three groups : swaragalu ( vowels – thirteen letters ) ; vyanjanagalu ( consonants – thirty @-@ four letters ) ; and yogavaahakagalu ( neither vowel nor consonant – two letters : anusvara ಂ and visarga ಃ ) . The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages . The Kannada script is almost perfectly phonetic , but for the sound of a " half n " ( which becomes a half m ) . The number of written symbols , however , is far more than the forty @-@ nine characters in the alphabet , because different characters can be combined to form compound characters ( ottakshara ) . Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable , as opposed to one phoneme in languages like English . The Kannada script is syllabic .
= = = Obsolete Kannada letters = = =
Kannada literary works employed the letters ಱ ( transliterated ' ṟ ' or ' rh ' ) and ೞ ( transliterated ' ḻ ' , ' lh ' or ' zh ' ) , whose manner of articulation most plausibly could be akin to those in present @-@ day Malayalam and Tamil . The letters dropped out of use in the 12th and 18th centuries , respectively . Later Kannada works replaced ' rh ' and ' lh ' with ರ ( ra ) and ಳ ( la ) respectively .
Another letter ( or unclassified vyanjana ( consonant ) ) that has become extinct is ' nh ' or ' inn ' . Likewise , this has its equivalent in Telugu , where it is called Nakaara pollu . The usage of this consonant was observed until the 1980s in Kannada works from the mostly coastal areas of Karnataka ( especially the Dakshina Kannada district ) . Now , hardly any mainstream works use this consonant . This letter has been replaced by ನ ್ ( consonant n ) .
= = = Kannada script evolution = = =
The image below shows the evolution of Kannada script from prehistoric times to the modern period . The Kannada script evolved in stages :
Proto @-@ Kannada → Pre – Old Kannada → Old Kannada → Modern Kannada .
The Proto @-@ Kannada script has its root in ancient Brahmi and appeared around the 3rd century BC . The Pre @-@ Old @-@ Kannada script appeared around the 4th century AD . Old @-@ Kannada script can be traced to around the 10th century AD , whereas Modern @-@ Kannada script appeared around the 17th century AD .
= = = Dictionary = = =
Kannada – Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar . The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet ' Ranna ' called ' Ranna Kanda ' in 996 ACE . Other dictionaries are ' Abhidhana Vastukosha ' by Nagavarma ( 1045 ACE ) , ' Amarakoshada Teeku ' by Vittala ( 1300 ) , ' Abhinavaabhidaana ' by Abhinava Mangaraja ( 1398 ACE ) and many more . A Kannada – English dictionary consisting of more than 70 @,@ 000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel .
G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada – Kannada dictionary , a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ page , 8 @-@ volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat . He also wrote a Kannada – English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōśa , a dictionary of difficult words .
= = = Kannada script in computing = = =
= = = = Transliteration = = = =
Several transliteration schemes / tools are used to type Kannada characters using a standard keyboard . These include Baraha ( based on ITRANS ) , Pada Software and several internet tools like Google transliteration , Quillpad ( predictive transliterator ) . Nudi , the Government of Karnataka 's standard for Kannada Input , is a phonetic layout loosely based on transliteration .
= = = = Unicode = = = =
= = Grammar = =
The canonical word order of Kannada is SOV ( subject – object – verb ) as is the case with Dravidian languages . Kannada is a highly inflected language with three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter or common ) and two numbers ( singular and plural ) . It is inflected for gender , number and tense , among other things . The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is Shabdhamanidarpana by Keshiraja . The first available Kannada book , a treatise on poetics , rhetoric and basic grammar is the Kavirajamarga from 850 C.E.
The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja 's Shabdamanidarpana ( c . AD 1260 ) . The earlier grammatical works include portions of Kavirajamarga ( a treatise on alańkāra ) of the 9th century , and Kavyavalokana and Karnatakabhashabhushana ( both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century ) .
= = = Compound bases = = =
Compound bases , called samāsa in Kannada , are a set of two or more words compounded together . There are several types of compound bases , based on the rules followed for compounding . Examples : taṅgāḷi , hemmara , immadi .
= = = Pronouns = = =
In many ways the third @-@ person pronoun is more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns . They are pluralized like nouns , whereas the first- and second @-@ person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number .
= Texas =
Texas ( / ˈtɛksəs / , locally / ˈtɛksɨz / ; Spanish : Texas or Tejas [ ˈtexas ] ) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population . Geographically located in the south central part of the country , Texas shares borders with the other US states of Louisiana to the east , Arkansas to the northeast , Oklahoma to the north , New Mexico to the west , and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the southwest , while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast .
Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the US , while San Antonio is the second most populous in the state and seventh largest in the US . Dallas – Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country , respectively . Other major cities include Austin , the second most populous state capital in the US , and El Paso . Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic , and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico . The " Lone Star " can be found on the Texan state flag and on the Texan state seal . The origin of the state name , Texas , is from the word , " Tejas " , which means ' friends ' in the Caddo language .
Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the US southern and southwestern regions . Although Texas is popularly associated with the US southwestern deserts , less than 10 percent of Texas ' land area is desert . Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests , and the coastline . Traveling from east to west , one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills , and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend .
The term " six flags over Texas " refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory . Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas . France held a short @-@ lived colony . Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence , becoming an independent Republic . In 1845 , Texas joined the United States as the 28th state . The state 's annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican – American War in 1846 . A slave state before the American Civil War , Texas declared its secession from the US in early 1861 , and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year . After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government , Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation .
One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle . Due to its long history as a center of the industry , Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy . The state 's economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century , when oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state . With strong investments in universities , Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid @-@ 20th century . As of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57 . With a growing base of industry , the state leads in many industries , including agriculture , petrochemicals , energy , computers and electronics , aerospace , and biomedical sciences . Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second @-@ highest gross state product .
= = Etymology = =
The name Texas , based on the Caddo word tejas meaning " friends " or " allies " , was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas .
During Spanish colonial rule , the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas : La Provincia de Texas .
= = Geography = =
Texas is the second largest U.S. state , behind Alaska , with an area of 268 @,@ 820 square miles ( 696 @,@ 200 km2 ) . Though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan , it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size . If it were an independent country , Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia .
Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America . Three of its borders are defined by rivers . The Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south . The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north . The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east . The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100 ° W , a northern border with Oklahoma at 36 ° 30 ' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103 ° W. El Paso lies on the state 's western tip at 32 ° N and the Rio Grande .
With 10 climatic regions , 14 soil regions and 11 distinct ecological regions , regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils , topography , geology , rainfall , and plant and animal communities . One classification system divides Texas , in order from southeast to west , into the following : Gulf Coastal Plains , Interior Lowlands , Great Plains , and Basin and Range Province .
The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state . Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods . The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine @-@ hardwood forest .
The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state 's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state 's hill country near Austin . This region is dominated by prairie and steppe . " Far West Texas " or the " Trans @-@ Pecos " region is the state 's Basin and Range Province . The most varied of the regions , this area includes Sand Hills , the Stockton Plateau , desert valleys , wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands .
Texas has 3 @,@ 700 named streams and 15 major rivers , with the Rio Grande as the largest . Other major rivers include the Pecos , the Brazos , Colorado , and Red River . While Texas has few natural lakes , Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs .
The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable ; it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state , or both . The vast geographic , economic , and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States . Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South , to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest .
= = = Geology = = =
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains , which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico . The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico . The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1 @,@ 600 million years old .
These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state , and are exposed in three places : Llano uplift , Van Horn , and the Franklin Mountains , near El Paso . Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks . The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin , or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time .
This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea . This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains – Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision . This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas – Waco — Austin – San Antonio trend .
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico . Pangea began to break up in the Triassic , but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic . The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form . Today 9 to 12 miles ( 14 to 19 km ) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here . At the start of its formation , the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age . These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs , and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast .
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite . The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north ; Permian sediments in the west ; and Cretaceous sediments in the east , along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil . Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area . A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer . Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary , Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes .
= = = Wildlife = = =
See also : List of mammals of Texas , List of birds of Texas , List of reptiles of Texas , List of amphibians of Texas
A wide range of animals and insects live in Texas . It is the home to 65 species of mammals , 213 species of reptiles and amphibians , and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States — 590 native species in all . At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas .
Texas plays host to several species of wasps . Texas is one of the regions that has the highest abundance of Polistes exclamans . Additionally , Texas has provided an important ground for the study of Polistes annularis .
During the spring Texas wildflowers such as the state flower , the blue
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s center .
Where the pressure is 33 ± 5 millibars , the atmosphere is clear ( probably hydrogen ) and its Rayleigh effect is detectable . At that pressure the temperature is 2200 ± 260 K.
Observations by the orbiting Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope initially limited the planet 's albedo ( or reflectivity ) below 0 @.@ 3 , making it a surprisingly dark object . ( The geometric albedo has since been measured to be 0 @.@ 038 ± 0 @.@ 045 . ) In comparison , Jupiter has a much higher albedo of 0 @.@ 52 . This would suggest that HD 209458 b 's upper cloud deck is either made of less reflective material than is Jupiter 's , or else has no clouds and Rayleigh @-@ scatters incoming radiation like Earth 's dark ocean . Models since then have shown that between the top of its atmosphere and the hot , high pressure gas surrounding the mantle , there exists a stratosphere of cooler gas . This implies an outer shell of dark , opaque , hot cloud ; usually thought to consist of vanadium and titanium oxides like red dwarfs ( " pM planets " ) , but other compounds like tholins cannot be ruled out yet . The Rayleigh @-@ scattering heated hydrogen rests at the top of the stratosphere ; the absorptive portion of the cloud deck floats above it at 25 millibars .
= = = Exosphere = = =
Surrounding that level , on November 27 , 2001 the Hubble Space Telescope detected sodium , the first planetary atmosphere outside the Solar System to be measured . This detection was predicted by Sara Seager in late 2001 . The core of the sodium line runs from pressures of 50 millibar to a microbar . This turns out to be about a third the amount of sodium at HD 189733 b .
In 2003 – 4 , astronomers used the Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph to discover an enormous ellipsoidal envelope of hydrogen , carbon and oxygen around the planet that reaches 10 @,@ 000 K. The hydrogen exosphere extends to a distance RH = 3 @.@ 1 RJ , much larger than the planetary radius of 1 @.@ 32 RJ . At this temperature and distance , the Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution of particle velocities gives rise to a significant ' tail ' of atoms moving at speeds greater than the escape velocity . The planet is estimated to be losing about 100 – 500 million ( 1 – 5 × 108 ) kg of hydrogen per second . Analysis of the starlight passing through the envelope shows that the heavier carbon and oxygen atoms are being blown from the planet by the extreme " hydrodynamic drag " created by its evaporating hydrogen atmosphere . The hydrogen tail streaming from the planet is approximately 200 @,@ 000 kilometres long , which is roughly equivalent to its diameter .
It is thought that this type of atmosphere loss may be common to all planets orbiting Sun @-@ like stars closer than around 0 @.@ 1 AU . HD 209458 b will not evaporate entirely , although it may have lost up to about 7 % of its mass over its estimated lifetime of 5 billion years . It may be possible that the planet 's magnetic field may prevent this loss , because the exosphere would become ionized by the star , and the magnetic field would contain the ions from loss .
= = = Presumed atmospheric water vapor = = =
On April 10 , 2007 , Travis Barman of the Lowell Observatory announced evidence that the atmosphere of HD 209458 b contained water vapor . Using a combination of previously published Hubble Space Telescope measurements and new theoretical models , Barman found strong evidence for water absorption in the planet 's atmosphere . His method modeled light passing directly through the atmosphere from the planet 's star as the planet passed in front of it . However , this hypothesis is still being investigated for confirmation .
Barman drew on data and measurements taken by Heather Knutson , a student at Harvard University , from the Hubble Space Telescope , and applied new theoretical models to demonstrate the likelihood of water absorption in the atmosphere of the planet . The planet orbits its parent star every three and a half days , and each time it passes in front of its parent star , the atmospheric contents can be analyzed by examining how the atmosphere absorbs light passing from the star directly through the atmosphere in the direction of Earth .
According to a summary of the research , atmospheric water absorption in such an exoplanet renders it larger in appearance across one part of the infrared spectrum , compared to wavelengths in the visible spectrum . Barman took Knutson 's Hubble data on HD 209458 b , applied to his theoretical model , and allegedly identified water absorption in the planet 's atmosphere .
On April 24 , the astronomer David Charbonneau , who led the team that made the Hubble observations , cautioned that the telescope itself may have introduced variations that caused the theoretical model to suggest the presence of water . He hoped that further observations would clear the matter up in the following months . As of April 2007 , further investigation is being conducted .
On October 20 , 2009 , researchers at JPL announced the discovery of water vapor , carbon dioxide , and methane in the atmosphere .
= = Magnetic field = =
In 2014 , a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet . It is the first ( indirect ) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet . The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter 's .
= Budapest Gambit =
The Budapest Gambit ( or Budapest Defence ) is a chess opening that begins with the moves :
1 @.@ d4 Nf6
2 @.@ c4 e5
Despite an early debut in 1896 , the Budapest Gambit received attention from leading players only after a win as Black by Grandmaster Milan Vidmar over Akiba Rubinstein in 1918 . [ 1 ] It enjoyed a rise in popularity in the early 1920s , but nowadays is rarely played at the top level . It experiences a lower percentage of draws than other main lines , but also a lower overall performance for Black .
After 3.dxe5 Black can try the Fajarowicz variation 3 ... Ne4 which concentrates on the rapid development of the pieces , but the most common move is 3 ... Ng4 with three main possibilities for White . The Adler variation 4.Nf3 sees White seeking a spatial advantage in the centre with his pieces , notably the important d5 @-@ square . The Alekhine variation 4.e4 gives White an important spatial advantage and a strong pawn centre . The Rubinstein variation 4.Bf4 leads to an important choice for White , after 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + , between 6.Nbd2 and 6.Nc3. The reply 6.Nbd2 brings a positional game in which White enjoys the bishop pair and tries to break through on the queenside , while 6.Nc3 keeps the material advantage of a pawn at the cost of a weakening of the white pawn structure . Black usually looks to have an aggressive game ( many lines of which can shock opponents that do not know the theory ) or cripple white 's pawn structure .
The Budapest Gambit contains several specific strategic themes . After 3.dxe5 Ng4 , there is a battle over White 's extra pawn on e5 , which Black typically attacks with ... Nc6 and ( after ... Bc5 or ... Bb4 + ) ... Qe7 , while White often defends it with Bf4 , Nf3 , and sometimes Qd5 . In the 4.Nf3 variation the game can evolve either with Black attacking White 's kingside with manoeuvres of rook lifts , or with White attacking Black 's kingside with the push f2 – f4 , in which case Black reacts in the centre against the e3 @-@ pawn . In numerous variations the move c4 – c5 allows White to gain space and to open prospects for his light @-@ square bishop . For Black , the check Bf8 – b4 + often allows rapid development .
= = History = =
In a Chess Notes feature article , Edward Winter showed that the origins of this opening are not yet entirely elucidated . The first known game with the Budapest Gambit is Adler – Maróczy ( played in Budapest in 1896 ) . This game already featured some key aspects of the gambit , such as active play for the black pieces , and White making the typical mistake of moving the queen too early . As the player of the white pieces was not a strong player , the new opening went unnoticed apart from the local experts who had witnessed the game . The Hungarians István Abonyi , Zsigmond Barász and Gyula Breyer further developed the opening . Abonyi played it in 1916 against the Dutch surgeon Johannes Esser in a small tournament in Budapest . The Austrian player Josef Emil Krejcik played it against Helmer in Vienna in 1917 . Carl Schlechter published an optimistic analysis of the gambit in the Deutsche Schachzeitung .
The first use of the opening against a world @-@ class player was at Berlin in April 1918 , a double round @-@ robin tournament with four players : Akiba Rubinstein , Carl Schlechter , Jacques Mieses and Milan Vidmar . Vidmar had to play Black in the first round against Rubinstein , then ranked the fourth best player in the world with a very positional style . At a loss for what to play , he sought advice from his friend Abonyi , who showed him the Budapest Gambit and the main ideas the Hungarian players had found . Vidmar followed Abonyi 's advice and beat Rubinstein convincingly in just 24 moves . This victory so heartened Vidmar that he went on to win the tournament , while Rubinstein was so demoralised by this defeat that he lost another game against Mieses and drew a third one against Schlechter in the same opening .
After this tournament , the gambit finally began to be taken seriously . Top players like Savielly Tartakower and Siegbert Tarrasch started to play it . Schlechter published in 1918 the monograph Die budapester Verteidigung des Damengambits , which can be considered the first book on this opening . The gambit reached its peak of popularity ( around five Budapest Gambits for every thousand games played ) around 1920 , so much so that many White players adopted the move @-@ order 1.d4 Nf6 2.Nf3 to avoid it .
The leading exponents of 1.d4 started to look for reliable antidotes . Alexander Alekhine showed how White could get a strong attack with 4.e4 in his games against Ilya Rabinovich ( Baden @-@ Baden 1925 ) and Adolf Seitz ( Hastings 1925 – 26 ) . But a few weeks later a theme tournament on the Budapest Gambit was held , in Budapest , and the result was 14 ½ – 21 ½ in Black 's favor . Another tournament in Semmering the same year saw Alekhine losing to Karl Gilg in his pet line with White against the gambit , so that the e4 @-@ line had a mixed reputation . Meanwhile , more positional plans were also developed for White . Rubinstein showed how White could get a small positional advantage with 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 , an assessment still valid today . The possibility 6.Nc3 was also considered attractive , as structural weaknesses were not valued as much as a material advantage of one pawn in those days . By the end of the 1920s , despite the invention of the highly original Fajarowicz variation 3 ... Ne4 in 1928 , the Budapest Gambit was considered theoretically dubious .
This assessment was left unchanged for decades , as few players at the highest level used the Budapest Gambit and information about games from lesser players could not easily be found . During that time , various responses were developed against the 4.Bf4 line ; these included 4 ... g5 , invented by István Abonyi , further developed by the masters Bakonyi and Drimer . The master Kaposztas showed that even when White succeeded in his positional plan , it only meant for Black a worse endgame with drawish tendencies . Two pawn sacrifices were also introduced in the variation with 6.Nbd2 ( still in the 4.Bf4 line ) , based on pawn pushes d7 – d6 or f7 – f6 and a quick attack against b2 .
The Budapest Gambit saw a short @-@ lived revival in 1984 – 85 when Chess Informant included three games ( as many as in the previous fifteen years ) , all played at a high level of competition , and all won by Black . But
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Hippocrates theorizes about this latent idea at the end of the 5th century BC . According to him , the temperate climate of Anatolia produced a placid and submissive people . This explanation is reprised by Plato , then Aristotle in Politics , where he develops the concept of " natural slavery " : " for he that can foresee with his mind is naturally ruler and naturally master , and he that can do these things with his body is subject and naturally a slave . " As opposed to an animal , a slave can comprehend reason but " … has not got the deliberative part at all . "
Alcidamas , at the same time as Aristotle , took the view : " nature has made nobody a slave " .
In parallel , the concept that all men , whether Greek or barbarian , belonged to the same race was being developed by the Sophists and thus that certain men were slaves although they had the soul of a freeman and vice versa . Aristotle himself recognized this possibility and argued that slavery could not be imposed unless the master was better than the slave , in keeping with his theory of " natural " slavery . The Sophists concluded that true servitude was not a matter of status but a matter of spirit ; thus , as Menander stated , " be free in the mind , although you are slave : and thus you will no longer be a slave " . This idea , repeated by the Stoics and the Epicurians , was not so much an opposition to slavery as a trivialisation of it .
The Greeks could not comprehend an absence of slaves . Slaves exist even in the " Cloudcuckooland " of Aristophanes ' The Birds as well as in the ideal cities of Plato 's Laws or Republic . The utopian cities of Phaleas of Chalcedon and Hippodamus of Miletus are based on the equal distribution of property , but public slaves are used respectively as craftsmen and land workers . The " reversed cities " placed women in power or even saw the end of private property , as in Lysistrata or Assemblywomen , but could not picture slaves in charge of masters . The only societies without slaves were those of the Golden Age , where all needs were met without anyone having to work . In this type of society , as explained by Plato , one reaped generously without sowing . In Telekleides ' Amphictyons barley loaves fight with wheat loaves for the honour of being eaten by men . Moreover , objects move themselves — dough kneads itself , and the jug pours itself . Similarly , Aristotle said that slaves would not be necessary " if every instrument could accomplish its own work ... the shuttle would weave and the plectrum touch the lyre without a hand to guide them " , like the legendary constructs of Daedalus and Hephaestus . Society without slaves is thus relegated to a different time and space . In a " normal " society , one needs slaves .
= = = Modern views = = =
Slavery in Greek antiquity has long been an object of apologetic discourse among Christians , who are typically awarded the merit of its collapse . From the 16th century the discourse became moralizing in nature . The existence of colonial slavery had significant impact on the debate , with some authors lending it civilizing merits and others denouncing its misdeeds . Thus Henri @-@ Alexandre Wallon in 1847 published a History of Slavery in Antiquity among his works for the abolition of slavery in the French colonies .
In the 19th century , a politico @-@ economic discourse emerged . It concerned itself with distinguishing the phases in the organisation of human societies and correctly identifying the place of Greek slavery . The influence of Marx is decisive ; for him the ancient society was characterized by development of private ownership and the dominant ( and not secondary as in other pre @-@ capitalist societies ) character of slavery as a mode of production . The Positivists represented by the historian Eduard Meyer ( Slavery in Antiquity , 1898 ) were soon to oppose the Marxist theory . According to him slavery was the foundation of Greek democracy . It was thus a legal and social phenomenon , and not economic .
Current historiography developed in the 20th century ; led by authors such as Joseph Vogt , it saw in slavery the conditions for the development of elites . Conversely , the theory also demonstrates an opportunity for slaves to join the elite . Finally , Vogt estimates that modern society , founded on humanist values , has surpassed this level of development .
In 2011 , Greek slavery remains the subject of historiographical debate , on two questions in particular : can it be said that ancient Greece was a " slave society " , and did Greek slaves comprise a social class ?
= María del Luján Telpuk =
Lorena Telpuk , formerly María del Luján Telpuk , ( sometimes María de Luján Telpuk ) or the Suitcase Girl ( c . 1981 ) is a former airport police officer at Aeroparque Jorge Newbery in Buenos Aires , Argentina , who noticed a suitcase with US $ 800 @,@ 000 as it went through an X @-@ ray machine in August 2007 . In December 2007 , the money became a very public part of an international election suitcase scandal , known as Maletinazo . When the suitcase scandal became public , she became an international celebrity and appeared on the cover of several magazines , including those of the February 2008 issue of the Argentine edition of Playboy magazine and the March 2008 issue of the Venezuelan edition of Playboy magazine .
In 2008 , according to foreign language sources , she changed her name from María del Luján Telpuk to Lorena Telpuk ; she posed for additional adult modeling photographs ; and continued her pursuit of stardom . She also testified in court regarding her involvement in the case .
= = Personal = =
Telpuk is a former nursery school teacher . She was raised in a small town in the Santa Fe Province where she taught nursery school , but she moved to Buenos Aires after passing an entrance exam for the Airport Security Police about three years prior to the Maletinazo incident . In the short time since Telpuk has transformed from night shift policewoman to pinup girl almost overnight . She has left the police force , joined a charter airline , begun taking English classes and begun to prepare for a role on Skating for a Dream , an Argentine variety show .
Telpuk 's mother Yolanda lives in a middle @-@ class suburb of Buenos Aires . She is widowed and used to work for a pasta factory .
= = Maletinazo = =
On August 4 , 2007 , at 2 : 45 a.m. , she discovered the money that became part of a political scandal in the electoral campaign of President of Argentina Cristina Fernández de Kirchner . It was in the possession of a Key Biscayne , Florida , associate of President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez . The carrier , Guido Antonini Wilson ( who is referred to in the press by both Antonini and Wilson and who is sometimes referred to by the nicknames " El Gordo " or " The Fat Man " ) , is an interpreter and was part of a delegation of executives that traveled to Argentina in advance of Chávez ' energy deal signing . He opened the bag at the insistence of Telpuk , who noticed the six dense and perfectly rectangular blocks in the luggage scans . At first , Wilson had explained the items as books and papers . When forced to open it , he began to stammer and show signs of nervousness , and he said the suitcase only contained about $ 60 @,@ 000 . The blocks turned out to be US $ 790 @,@ 550 . The delegation , which arrived on a Cessna Citation jet from Caracas , Venezuela , chartered by Energía Argentina , SA , carried five Venezuelans and three Argentines who represented their respective governments ' energy companies . In a country known for its corruption , Telpuk did not have an interest in a bribe although she felt Wilson may have expected her to be willing to take one . Instead of pursuing a bribe , she reported the finding .
Although the local media of both Argentina and Venezuela gave the story immediate front page coverage , the case faded away until after Kirchner was elected . The United States prosecutors believe that the money represented a contribution from Venezuelan President Chávez to the presidential campaign of Argentina 's leftist leader , Kirchner . Two days after the December 10 , 2007 inauguration , several arrests were announced by prosecutors working for the United States Attorney General . The arrests were for activities related to having offered Wilson $ 2 million to keep quiet about the contributions from Venezuela to support Kirchner 's campaign . In addition to Maletinazo , the case is known in Latin America as " Valijagate " or " Suitcasegate " , and Telpuk is known as the Suitcase Girl in her homeland , Argentina .
For her part , Telpuk felt she was caught in the " middle of a rivalry of nations " . She has been vilified as a mercenary fortune @-@ seeker and CIA lackey . She has received a variety of threats by telephone and email , and had police protection starting when the incident became a public scandal in December . She has even received a bouquet with an ominous note .
= = Media appearances = =
Her first magazine cover appearance was on the December issue of an irreverent political magazine , Veintitrés where Telpuk appeared under the headline " The Bombshell Behind the Suitcase " standing behind a suitcase . She wore little other than a police cap , and another headline on the cover read , " Is She the Key Piece of a Plot Designed by Washington ? " She then appeared on the February issue of the Argentine edition of Playboy magazine next to the headline " Corrupción Al Desnudo " ( translated as " Corruption Laid Bare " ) . Subsequently , she appeared on the March 2008 issue of the Venezuelan edition of Playboy magazine . She posed with a red suitcase decorated with both the Argentine and Venezuelan flags while wearing a scarf , black leather gloves and black @-@ and @-@ white boots for her Playboy cover appearance . Within the magazine in her pictorial , she posed with fewer clothes and with various props : the ubiquitous suitcase , dollar bills , including the propeller blades of a single @-@ engine airplane . She decided to pursue an appearance on the Argentine variety show " Bailando por un sueño " , after Marcelo Tinelli visited her at the airport to congratulate her .
Telpuk has appeared on various talk shows since the scandal . In 2008 , according to foreign language sources , she changed her name from María del Luján Telpuk to Lorena Telpuk ; she was mysteriously dismissed from Skating for a Dream ; and she posed for additional adult modeling photographs in Premium , an Argentine magazine . Telpuk had breast augmentation surgery prior to her late 2008 court appearances .
= = Courtroom = =
Telpuk testified in court in October 2008 on various days spanning the weekend of October 5 , 2008 , regarding her knowledge in the famous suitcase scandal . Her October 3 testimony , wherein she contradicted the testimony of Antonini , in which he had stated that he was carrying the suitcase as a courtesy to his companions , was considered a highlight of the trial . On that day , her presence prompted a media frenzy . For her part , Telpuk took the stand to testify that she had been offered political asylum by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as well as employment in the United States in exchange for modifying her witness statement that Mr. Antonini Wilson was the owner of the suitcase that contained the $ 800 @,@ 000 . On November 3 , 2008 , part of the case was decided in a Miami courtroom when Franklin Durán , a wealthy businessman who allegedly conspired to cover up both the origin and the destination of the suitcase , was convicted of acting as an " unregistered agent " of Venezuela on American soil . On March 17 , 2009 Franklin Durán , who was facing up to 15 years in prison , was sentenced to 4 .
= Super Mario Galaxy 2 =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 ( Japanese : スーパーマリオギャラクシー2 , Hepburn : Sūpā Mario Gyarakushī Tsū ) is a platforming video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Wii . It was first announced at E3 2009 and is the sequel to Super Mario Galaxy . It was released in North America on May 23 , 2010 ; in Japan on May 27 , 2010 ; in Europe on June 11 , 2010 ; and in Australia on July 1 , 2010 . It is the fourth original 3D platformer in the Super Mario series , after Super Mario 64 , Super Mario Sunshine , and Super Mario Galaxy .
The story follows Mario as he pursues the Koopa King , Bowser , into outer space , where he has imprisoned Princess Peach and taken control of the universe using Power Stars . Mario must travel across various galaxies to recover the Power Stars in order to travel to the center of the universe and rescue the princess . The game was originally planned as an updated version of Super Mario Galaxy with some modifications and a projected development time of a year ; this version would have been called Super Mario Galaxy More . It was later decided that the game was to be developed as a fleshed @-@ out sequel when the development staff continued to build upon the game with dozens of new ideas , and so development time expanded to two and a half years . Among the additions are dynamic environments , new power @-@ ups , and , most notably , the ability to ride Yoshi .
Upon its release , Super Mario Galaxy 2 was met with as much widespread critical acclaim as its predecessor , and is regarded by many to be one of the greatest video games of all time , as well as one of the highest rated video games on the aggregation sites Metacritic and GameRankings . It is one of the best @-@ selling games on the Wii with 6 @.@ 72 million copies sold worldwide . In 2015 , it became the first disc @-@ based Wii game to get a re @-@ release on the Wii U eShop .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Super Mario Galaxy 2 is similar to Super Mario Galaxy , with a focus on platforming based on and around 3D planets ( referred to collectively as galaxies ) with varying themes , sizes , landscapes , and climates . The player controls Mario ( or later in the game , his brother Luigi , though using him is optional ) , who has special abilities such as the " Spin " attack , long jump , wall jumps , and a variety of somersaults . As in the original , the objective of the game is to travel to the various galaxies and collect Power Stars , which are awarded by completing levels and accomplishing tasks and are used to gain access to later levels . The game retains some gameplay mechanics introduced in the original , such as the blue Star Pointer that allows the player to pick up Star Bits and shoot them at enemies , levels that restrict movement to a 2D plane , balance ball levels , and gravity @-@ reversing background arrows .
= = = Setting and level design = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 provides the player access to the game 's galaxies through means of a map system similar to that in previous Mario games such as Super Mario World and New Super Mario Bros. Wii . This is navigated via a mobile planet called Starship Mario ( named as such because it is shaped exactly like Mario 's head ) that serves as a hub world , which can be visited anytime and is expanded when new abilities or levels are unlocked . The game contains forty @-@ nine galaxies allotted among seven different regions in the universe ( called " worlds " ) , the general difficulty progressively increasing in each world . The first six worlds end with a boss level in which the object is to conquer Bowser or Bowser Jr . ( the former being in even @-@ numbered worlds , and the latter being in odd @-@ numbered worlds ) , which then allows the player to access the next world . When the player collects all 120 Power Stars , 120 Green Star levels are unlocked . These levels , containing Green Stars that are hidden or are placed in hard @-@ to @-@ reach areas , require intense exploration and precision and may cause instant death if the player fails . Acquiring all 120 Green Stars awards the player with the final , forty @-@ ninth galaxy with two new challenges that are considered exceptionally difficult . Super Mario Galaxy 2 contains 242 unique Power Stars to collect overall .
Most of the levels in Super Mario Galaxy 2 offer a unique task based around its theme , and many focus on dynamic environments that change or alternate between various states . For example , some environments change to the beat of the background music , such as sudden shifts in the
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direction of gravity or the appearance or disappearance of platforms ; and others feature a special switch that temporarily slows down time . Prankster Comets , which were featured in the original game and cause variation and tougher challenges in levels , no longer appear randomly in visited galaxies but instead require the collection of a Comet Medal in that galaxy in order for it to appear . In addition , Prankster Comets have become more general and offer any number of variations : while Super Mario Galaxy offered only five mutually exclusive variations , the Prankster Comets in Super Mario Galaxy 2 range to any number of challenges that often mix or overlap . These include : destroying all the enemies , collecting 100 Purple Coins , and completing the level within a time limit , with Mario 's maximum health reduced to one unit , or while avoiding Cosmic Clones ( doppelgängers of Mario that pursue and imitate all the player 's actions ) . As a result , both the dynamic environments and the Prankster Comets often create challenges with puzzle elements , requiring precision and strategy in order to overcome them .
= = = Power @-@ ups = = =
All the original transformations in Super Mario Galaxy return except for Ice Mario and Flying Mario , along with some new power @-@ ups and items . These include the Spin Drill , which allows the player to burrow through some planets and emerge out the other side ; Rock Mario , which allows the player to smash through obstacles , such as boulders and enemies ; and Cloud Mario , which allows the player to create temporary platforms in midair .
Mario is able to ride the dinosaur Yoshi , who is available in certain levels . When riding Yoshi , the player 's blue Star Pointer is replaced by a red dot , which allows the player to point at various objects and manipulate them with Yoshi 's tongue . Yoshi can also use his tongue to swing across gaps , pull levers , and swallow enemies ( with the option to spit them back out as projectiles ) . In addition , Yoshi allows the player to double jump . There are also three different power @-@ up fruits available for Yoshi to eat that grant him temporary abilities . These are the Dash Pepper , the Blimp Fruit and the Bulb Berry . The Dash Pepper allows Yoshi to run quickly , giving him the ability to run up walls and run on water ; the Blimp Fruit allows Yoshi to float into the air ; and the Bulb Berry allows Yoshi to reveal secret pathways . If the player takes damage while riding Yoshi , the player will fall off and Yoshi will run away until the player gets back on him . If the player does not get back on , Yoshi will retreat into his egg .
= = = Guides and multiplayer = = =
Because of the game 's increased difficulty over the original , Super Mario Galaxy 2 offers some features that assist inexperienced or frustrated players . The most notable is the Cosmic Guide , similar to New Super Mario Bros. Wii 's " Super Guide " feature , who takes the form of Rosalina . The Cosmic Guide appears if the player has failed during a particular level a certain number of times , and allows the player to give computer control over Mario in order to complete the level if necessary . The drawback is that the player is awarded a Bronze Star , requiring the player to complete the level without using the Cosmic Guide in order to earn a Golden Power Star . There are also monitors called " Hint TVs " that will demonstrate how to perform a specific move or optimal ways of using a power @-@ up .
Multiplayer gameplay has also been expanded upon over the original . In Super Mario Galaxy , another player could use a second Wii Remote to control a second Star Pointer and assist Mario by grabbing onto enemies or collecting and shooting Star Bits . In Super Mario Galaxy 2 , the second player now controls an orange Luma who retains all the original abilities , but can also physically attack enemies and collect items , power @-@ ups and 1 @-@ ups , making the player 's involvement more useful .
= = Story = =
Princess Peach invites Mario to share some cake at the Star Festival , a time when Star Bits rain down from the skies over the Mushroom Kingdom . On his way , Mario finds a Luma , who immediately befriends him and grants him the ability to spin . Shortly thereafter , Mario 's nemesis Bowser , who has grown to an immense size ( after swallowing Grand Stars , unbeknownst to Mario at this point ) , appears and attacks Princess Peach 's Castle . Kidnapping the princess , Bowser escapes into outer space to recreate his empire at the center of the universe . After launching into outer space , Mario is given control of Starship Mario , a mobile planetoid in the shape of his head , made by a crafty Luma mechanic called Lubba , powered by Power Stars , and piloted by other Lumas ; his mission is to fly across the universe in pursuit of Bowser and the Princess and to help Lubba find the lost Lumas that were part of Bowser 's plot . Along the way Mario meets new Lumas and joins up with his companion Yoshi , the Toad Brigade from the original Super Mario Galaxy , and his brother Luigi .
Upon collecting enough Power Stars , fighting Bowser twice and blowing up Bowser Jr . ' s machine sending him flying into space along the way , Mario reaches Bowser 's main fortification , draining energy from what appears to be a comet . Mario infiltrates the castle and defeats Bowser , retrieving the last Grand Star . Rosalina and her Comet Observatory from the first Super Mario Galaxy appear before Mario and Peach . Rosalina thanks Mario for watching over the Luma that he had found , and the Luma returns to the Comet Observatory , taking Mario 's hat with him . Mario and his friends return to the Mushroom Kingdom and celebrate their victory . The game ends with Starship Mario sitting above Princess Peach 's Castle , with the Comet Observatory streaking across the sky .
= = Development = =
After Nintendo finished making the first Super Mario Galaxy , Shigeru Miyamoto approached the development team and suggested that a follow @-@ up be produced . The game was originally planned to just do variations on the original game 's planets and call the game " Super Mario Galaxy More , " ( it was dubbed " Super Mario Galaxy 1 @.@ 5 " during early development ) , with a projected development time of approximately a year . The first elements that were implemented were anything that was scrapped from the original game , either to ensure game balance or simply because of time constraints , such as Yoshi and the concept of a planet shaped like Mario 's head . Over time , more and more new elements and ideas were brought into the game , and it was decided that the game would be a fleshed @-@ out sequel rather than a slightly modified follow @-@ up . Thus , development took two and a half years . Takeshi Hayakawa , the lead programmer for Super Mario Galaxy 2 , created a development tool that allowed different staff members , including visual and sound designers , to easily design and create stages without waiting for programmers , many of which were incorporated into the final game .
In order to help distinguish Super Mario Galaxy 2 from its predecessor , the staff originally wanted the whole game to revolve around the concept of " switching , " in which the game 's environments would dramatically change under certain conditions . This concept ended up being particularly difficult to implement full @-@ scale , so was relegated to only certain levels . Another idea that came up early on were cameo inclusions by other Nintendo characters ( specifically Donkey Kong and Pikmin ) . The idea however was nixed by Miyamoto who stated that Pikmin characters wouldn 't work within the Mario universe , and that there was no reason for other such cameos . Game tutorials were confined to an optional system called the " Tip Network " in order to benefit players already familiar with the original game . Miyamoto compared Super Mario Galaxy 2 to The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask , in that both games use the same engines as their predecessors , yet build upon their foundations .
The game was revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 on June 2 . In Miyamoto 's private conference , it was stated that the game was very far along in development , but its release was held back to mid @-@ 2010 because of New Super Mario Bros. Wii 's release in late 2009 . Miyamoto also stated that the game has 95 – 99 % new features , with the rest being previous features introduced in Super Mario Galaxy . With regard to the original game , Nintendo of America President and CEO Reggie Fils @-@ Aime stated in an interview that the sequel would be more challenging , and Miyamoto said in a Wired interview that the game would have less focus on plot . Miyamoto initially hinted that the game might utilize the " Super Guide " feature , introduced in New Super Mario Bros. Wii , into the game , and this was confirmed by Nintendo 's Senior Manager of Product Managing , Bill Trinen , who claimed that the feature was implemented differently compared to what New Super Mario Bros. Wii offered . The feature is called Cosmic Guide , where the Cosmic Spirit ( Rosalina ) takes control of Mario .
The game made its playable debut at the Nintendo Media Summit 2010 on February 24 , 2010 , when a second trailer for the game was released , and its North American release date on May 23 , 2010 was finally announced . The Japanese , European and Australian versions of the game came packaged with an instructional DVD manual , explaining the basic controls , as well as showing advanced play . The voice actors from Super Mario Galaxy reprise their roles for its sequel including additional voices by Dex Manley who played Lubba .
= = = Music = = =
As with the original Super Mario Galaxy , Super Mario Galaxy 2 features a musical score written for and performed by a symphony orchestra ( known as the Mario Galaxy Orchestra in the credits ) . Early in the development process , when the concept of " Super Mario Galaxy 1 @.@ 5 " was being considered , there were no plans to use different music from the first Super Mario Galaxy . However , as the game evolved , the sound team , headed by Mahito Yokota , realized they needed new music that fit with the new gameplay mechanics that were being added . Although they were hesitant to use a symphony orchestra again because of recording difficulties , general producer Shigeru Miyamoto gave permission immediately – according to Yokota , Miyamoto felt that players would be expecting an orchestral soundtrack . Miyamoto also apparently suggested that players would want to hear arrangements from Super Mario Galaxy , which is why the soundtrack is a mixture of brand new pieces and arrangements of themes from the original Galaxy as well as many past installments in the Mario series , such as Super Mario World and Super Mario 64 . Ryo Nagamatsu , who worked previously on Mario Kart Wii , Wii Sports Resort , and New Super Mario Bros. Wii , contributed nine pieces to the soundtrack .
Koji Kondo recruited sixty musicians for the orchestra , ten more than the number of musicians used for the original game 's score , with an additional ten musicians providing a big band style of music with trumpets , trombones , saxophones and drums for a grand total of seventy players . The orchestral performances were conducted by Taizo Takemoto , renowned for his work with the Super Smash Bros. Concert in 2002 , while Kondo served as a supervisor , while also contributing five pieces to the soundtrack . The soundtrack was available as a 2 @-@ disc set to Japanese Club Nintendo members .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 received critical acclaim from major video game critics with numerous reviews praising the game for its creativity and technical improvements over the original . It has an average critic score of 97 % at GameRankings and 97 / 100 at Metacritic , making it one of the highest rated games on the sites .
Tom McShea from GameSpot called it a " new standard for platformers , " giving it a perfect 10 @.@ 0 , making it the seventh game in the site 's history to earn that score . Other perfect scores came from Edge , stating " this isn 't a game that redefines the genre : this is one that rolls it up and locks it away , " and IGN 's Craig Harris , who felt that the game " perfectly captures that classic videogame charm , the reason why most of us got into gaming from the start . " IGN later placed Super Mario Galaxy 2 4th on their " Top Modern Games " list . IGN also listed Super Mario Galaxy 2 as the greatest Wii game of all time . The Escapist editor Susan Arendt echoed this view by stating it " doesn 't tinker with the established formula very much , but we didn 't really want it to , " while GameTrailers commented that " there 's something tremendous for just about everyone and games that we can truly recommend to almost everyone are rare . " Ryan Scott at GameSpy regards it a much better game than the first Super Mario Galaxy , stating " for a series that 's explored every conceivable angle of its genre , the Mario games keep coming up with ways to challenge our notions of what a platformer can and should do . "
Giant Bomb 's Ryan Davis particularly praised the improved level designs , commenting that the designers were " bolder " and " more willing to take some weird risks with the planetoids and abstract platforming that set the tone in the original Galaxy , " while Chris Kohler from Wired commented that the level concepts alone " could be made into full games on their own . " Additionally 1UP.com 's Justin Haywald noted the expanded soundtrack as " sweeping . " GamesRadar praised the graphics , saying that despite the Wii 's technical limitations , Galaxy 2 " understands how to get the most out of aging technology that nearly all graphical flaws are smoothed over or covered up , leaving you with Wii 's best @-@ looking title to date . " X @-@ Play editor Andrew Pfister awarded Super Mario Galaxy 2 a 5 / 5 , calling it " the culmination of 20 years of Mario gaming into one fantastically @-@ designed and creative platformer . "
Despite this praise , some critics raised complaints over increased difficulty and the game 's similarity to the original Super Mario Galaxy . Chris Scullion from Official Nintendo Magazine called it the " new best game on Wii , " but said it lacked the original 's impact ( though they admitted the extreme difficulty of this , due to the quality of the original ) . Game Informer editor Matt Helgeson was concerned with some of the challenges being potentially " frustrating , " particularly towards the end of the game ; similarly , Ben PerLee from GamePro remarked that the " increased difficulty and high proficiency requirement may turn new fans off . " However , Worthplaying editor Chris DeAngelus praised the game 's difficulty , stating " perhaps most positively of all , there are very few sequences where death will feel like a result of bad design instead of player error , which helps keep the frustration down . "
= = = Sales = = =
In Japan , Super Mario Galaxy 2 sold 143 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release and 340 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , about 90 @,@ 000 more than the first Super Mario Galaxy sold in the same amount of time . In North America , the game sold 650 @,@ 000 copies during the month of May 2010 . In the United Kingdom , Super Mario Galaxy 2 was the third best @-@ selling game among multiplatform releases and the best @-@ selling single platform release for the week ending June 26 , 2010 . As of July 16 , 2010 , the game has sold 1 million copies within the USA . As of April 2011 , Super Mario Galaxy 2 has sold 6 @.@ 36 million copies worldwide .
= = = Awards = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 received Game of the Year 2010 awards from Nintendo Power , GamesMaster , Official Nintendo Magazine , Edge , GamesTM , Destructoid and Metacritic . It was named best " Wii Game of the Year " by IGN , GameTrailers , GameSpot , 1UP.com , and many other media outlets . As of December 2010 , IGN awarded Super Mario Galaxy 2 the number 1 Wii game , overtaking its predecessor . In 2012 , Official Nintendo Magazine had named Super Mario Galaxy 2 the ' Greatest Nintendo Game Ever Made ' ranking at # 1 .
= Cyclone John =
Severe Tropical Cyclone John was an intense tropical cyclone that rapidly deepened offshore before devastating areas of Western Australia . The system was the second cyclone and first severe tropical cyclone of the active 1999 – 00 Australian region cyclone season . Cyclone John developed from a monsoon trough positioned northwest of Australia on 9 December 1999 . As it moved to the west and later south as the result of a subtropical ridge under favourable conditions , the cyclone was able to rapidly intensify . John reached peak intensity on 14 December as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale , the highest rating possible . Cyclone John later began interacting with a mid – latitude trough , which slightly weakened the cyclone prior to making landfall near Whim Creek early on 15 December . Increasingly unfavourable conditions further inland resulted in the cyclone 's rapid weakening , before it dissipated during the next day .
Cyclone John extensively affected areas of Western Australia , but damage was not as bad as expected . Widespread power outages across the Pilbara region were caused by John . Strong winds caused minor damage to infrastructure across the coast , as well as tree damage . 140 windmills were destroyed by the cyclone on the coast . Further inland , rainfall associated with the cyclone and its remnants brought flooding , which flooded 25 houses and caused rivers to overflow . The system was responsible for no deaths and a limited amount of damage . After the season , the name John was retired from the Australian tropical cyclone naming list .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early December , a monsoon trough north of Australia intensified due to a strong northwest cross – equatorial surge in the South China Sea . This resulted in the formation of a tropical low southwest of Timor on 9 December . At 0600 UTC on 10 December , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to monitor the system , designating it as 02S . As it moved towards the west and subsequently southwards , improving upper – air divergence allowed the system to intensify , reaching tropical cyclone intensity on the evening of 11 December and thus attaining the name John . At the time , a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) pass of the system revealed a compact system , with a convective rainband tightly surrounding a central cloud – filled eye . A developed anticyclone positioned over the system provided favorable conditions for development . Due to the presence of a subtropical ridge to the east over Australia , Cyclone John was forecast to generally move in a south @-@ southwestward direction .
Steadily intensifying , the cyclone attained Category 3 cyclone intensity on the Australian cyclone scale at 1600 UTC on 12 December . TRMM imagery indicated that the cyclone had developed a banding eye feature , and had good outflow and a symmetric structure . Cyclone John continued to intensify under favorable atmospheric conditions , before reaching its peak intensity as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale at 0800 UTC on 14 December , while located 170 km ( 105 mi ) northwest of Port Hedland , Western Australia . At peak intensity , the storm had maximum 10 – minute sustained wind speeds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 915 mbar ( 27 @.@ 0 inHg ) .
However , after peak intensity , dry air began to become wrapped into the northwestern quadrant of the system . Moving towards the Australian coastline , radar imagery from Dampier , Western Australia showed a strong eyewall associated with John . Cyclone John began to become elongated along a northwest – southeast axis as it neared the coast . The cyclone also began interacting with a mid – latitude trough the southwest . This generated some vertical wind shear , which weakened John slightly and caused it to curve towards the southeast . Cyclone John made landfall near Whim Creek , Western Australia as a Category 5 cyclone at 0000 UTC on 15 December with a minimum central pressure between 930 – 940 mbar ( 27 @.@ 46 – 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) , with maximum 10 – minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , gusting to 285 km / h ( 175 mph ) . The entirety of the cyclone 's eye crossed the coast by 0200 UTC as the storm moved further inland into an area of wind shear and dry air , which caused it to rapidly weaken . The cyclone was last noted by TCWC Perth and the JTWC on 16 December as it dissipated overland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to Cyclone John 's landfall , hundreds of people were evacuated from homes , primarily in Karratha , where two shelters were set up . In Point Samson ,
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were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Mechanics of Oscar Pistorius ' running blades =
The mechanics of the running blades used by Oscar Pistorius depend on special carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer prosthetics . Pistorius has double below @-@ the @-@ knee amputations and competes in both able @-@ bodied and T44 amputee athletics events . Pistorius ' eligibility to run in international able @-@ bodied events is sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) .
Pistorius began running in 2004 after a rugby knee injury led to rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria 's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw . His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois Vanderwatt . Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria , Vanderwatt ordered some to be made by a local engineer at Hanger Orthopedic Group . These quickly broke , and Vanderwatt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for carbon @-@ fibre blades by Icelandic company Össur .
Pistorius ' participation in able @-@ bodied international sprinting competitions in 2007 raised questions about his use of running blades , and the IAAF amended their rules to ban the use of " any technical device that incorporates springs , wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device . " After initial studies , Pistorius was ruled ineligible for competitions under these IAAF rules . After further research was presented , the Court of Arbitration ( CAS ) ruled that his running prostheses were not shown to provide a net competitive advantage over biological legs . In 2012 Pistorius qualified for and competed in both the 2012 Olympic Games and the 2012 Paralympic Games using his running blades , becoming the first amputee sprinter to run in the Olympic Games .
= = Pistorius ' athletics prostheses = =
The blades are transtibial prostheses , meaning they replace legs and feet that are amputated below the knee ( BK ) . They were developed by medical engineer Van Phillips who incorporated Flex @-@ Foot , Inc . , in 1984 , and in 2000 sold the company to Össur which now ( in 2012 ) manufactures the blades . They are designed to store kinetic energy like a spring , allowing the wearer to jump and run effectively .
Carbon fibre is actually a carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer , and is a strong , light @-@ weight material used in a number of applications , including sporting goods like baseball bats , car parts , helmets , sailboats , bicycles and other equipment where rigidity and high strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratio is important . The polymer used for this equipment is normally epoxy , but other polymers are also used , depending on the application , and other reinforcing fibres may also be included . In the blade manufacturing process , sheets of impregnated material are cut into square sheets and pressed onto a form to produce the final shape . From 30 to 90 sheets may be layered , depending on the expected weight of the athlete , and the mold is then autoclaved to fuse the sheets into a solid plate . This method reduces air bubbles that can cause breaks . Once the result is cooled , it is cut into the shape of the blades . The finished blade is bolted to a carbon fibre socket that is an intimate fit to each of Pistorius ' legs . These are custom made and make up the bulk of the total cost , along with the assessment and setting up of the finished prostheses . Each limb costs between $ 15 – 18 @,@ 000 USD .
Pistorius has been using the same Össur blades since 2004 . He was born without fibulae and with malformed feet , and his legs were amputated about halfway between knee and ankle so he could wear prosthetic legs . He wears socks and pads which are visible above the sockets to reduce chafing and to prevent blisters , and the sockets have straps in the front that can be tightened to make the prosthesis fit more snugly .
Pistorius uses custom @-@ made spike pads on the blades . Before development of the pads , his spikes were changed by roughing up the surface and applying over @-@ the @-@ counter spikes by hand , but the results using this method were inconsistent . Research was conducted in Össur ’ s Iceland lab using a pressure @-@ sensitive treadmill and film at 500 fps to measure the blade strike , and produced a spike pad which includes a midsole of two machine @-@ molded pieces of foam of different densities to cushion impact , with a carbon fibre plate on the bottom . The developers attached the pad with contact cement , which can be quickly removed with the application of heat when the spike pad needs to be changed .
Because of the curved design , the blades have to be slightly longer than a runner 's biological leg and foot would be . The blades replace the hinge of an ankle with elastic compression that bends and releases the blade with every stride , so the uncompressed blade leaves the user standing on tiptoe . They are designed to move forward , so have no heel support in the back . According to Josh McHugh of Wired Magazine , " The Cheetahs seem to bounce of their own accord . It ’ s impossible to stand still on them , and difficult to move slowly . Once they get going , Cheetahs are extremely hard to control . "
= = How the blades work = =
In 2007 Pistorius applied to run in able @-@ bodied track meets . He was at first accepted , but questions quickly arose about whether the blades give him an unfair advantage . After initial research showed the blades did provide an advantage , the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) changed their rules to ban the use of technical devices that provide an advantage and ruled him ineligible to compete . Pistorius challenged the ruling with additional research and was reinstated by the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) in 2008 , meaning that he can continue to run in able @-@ bodied meets as long as he uses the equipment that was studied in the research .
Pistorius ' performance in the early able @-@ bodied races raised questions because of two major concerns : his pattern of running the races and his leg @-@ swing times . Most sprinters spring out of the blocks with their fastest time and slow down as the race progresses , but Pistorius ran a " negative split , " starting slowly and building up speed in the last half of the race ( though he no longer uses this pattern ) . His average time was also less in the 400m race when compared to other runners than in the 200m . Controversy about the use of the blades persists , but the research provided considerable information on how they work in application , and other research is expected to follow .
Able @-@ bodied sprinters have calves and ankles that return and amplify the energy supplied by their hips and knees , while Pistorius compensates with additional work because he does not have calves and ankles with their associated tendons and muscles . An analysis published by Engineering & Technology magazine estimates that in using the blades , Pistorius must generate twice the power from his gluteal and quadriceps muscles that a normal sprinter would . Other sources also credit core abdominal muscles and a faster arm swing . His trainer estimates that about 85 percent of his power comes from his hips and the rest from his knees . This results in a gait that waddles slightly , as Pistorius swings his upper body to balance the springing action of the blades . The blades compress under his weight , then release as he moves forward , providing forward thrust from the tips as they return to their molded shape . As they spring off , he swings them slightly out to the side and throws them forward for the next stride .
Pistorius is always slow in starting a race because the flexible blades do not provide thrust out of the blocks . Pistorius must begin from an awkward position , swing his leg to the outside and pop straight up from the blocks to begin running , when the preferred method is to push off with horizontal force . For the first 30 meters of a race , he keeps his head down and takes short , quick strides . As he establishes a rhythm , he can raise his head and increase his speed . While some runners jog up and down , losing energy , Pistorius directs energy forward , looking somewhat like he is rolling on wheels . He also compensates for the adjustments ankles make on the turns , breaking the curves into short , straight lines . According to his coach Ampie Louw , Pistorius may be able to use the inward lean to generate force and come out of a turn going faster .
= = Research = =
= = = Brüggemann study = = =
To resolve questions about the blades , Pistorius was asked to take part in a series of scientific tests in November 2007 at the German Sport University Cologne with Professor of Biomechanics Peter Brüggemann and IAAF technical expert Elio Locatelli . After two days of tests , Brüggemann reported that Pistorius used about 25 percent less energy expenditure than able @-@ bodied athletes once he achieved a given speed . The study also found that he showed major differences in sprint mechanics , with significantly different maximum vertical ground return forces , and that the positive work or returned energy was close to three times higher than that of a human ankle . The energy loss in the blade during stance phase when the foot was on the ground was measured as 9 @.@ 3 percent , while that of normal ankle joint was measured at 42 @.@ 4 percent , showing a difference of more than 30 percent . Brüggemann 's analysis stated that the blades allowed lower energy consumption at the same speed , and that the energy loss in the blade is significantly less than in a human ankle at maximum speed . In December of that year , Brüggemann stated to Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius " has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us . It was more than just a few percentage points . I did not expect it to be so clear . " The study was published in 2008 in Sports Technology , but later researchers stated that the analysis " did not take enough variables into consideration " . Commentators have also argued that the IAAF study did not accurately determine whether Cheetahs confer a net advantage because measuring the net advantage or disadvantage conferred on an athlete using Cheetahs is not possible given current scientific knowledge . Second , the IAAF study may not have measured Pistorius ’ s performance against appropriate controls . IAAF used five able @-@ bodied athletes , who run 400 @-@ meter races in similar times to Pistorius , as controls . However , because Pistorius was relatively new to the sport of running , he may not have trained enough to maximize his physical potential and reach his peak performance when the IAAF study was conducted . In March 2007 , approximately 9 months before the IAAF study was conducted , Pistorius ’ s coach commented that Pistorius had not trained enough to achieve an upper body commensurate with the upper bodies of most elite sprinters . To obtain the most accurate understanding of how the prostheses affect Pistorius ’ s performance , he should be compared to athletes with similar physical potential . Consequently , the IAAF study may have been flawed because it compared Pistorius , who might have the physical potential to run faster than his current times , against athletes at their peak .
= = = Weyand , et al. study = = =
In 2008 a team of seven researchers conducted tests at Rice University , including Peter Weyand , Hugh Herr , Rodger Kram , Matthew Bundle and Alena Grabowski . The team collected metabolic and mechanical data by indirect calorimetry and ground reaction force measurements on Pistorius ' performance during constant @-@ speed , level treadmill running , and found that the energy usage was 3 @.@ 8 percent lower than average values for elite able @-@ bodied distance runners , 6 @.@ 7 percent lower than for average distance runners and 17 percent lower than for able @-@ bodied 400m sprint runners . At sprinting speeds of 8 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 and 10 @.@ 0 m / s , Pistorius produced longer foot to ground contact times , shorter leg swing times , and lower average vertical forces than able bodied sprinters . The team concluded that running on the blades appears to be physiologically similar but mechanically different from running with biological legs . The study was published several months later in the Journal of Applied Physiology . The inconsistencies between the finding of this study and the Brüggemann study were attributed to differences in study methodology .
In the study , the blades were found to have an elastic energy return of about 92 percent , whereas biological legs provide between a 93 and 95 percent return . Grabowski also stated that the prostheses reduce the amount of force Pistorius can apply to the ground when he runs , reducing his ability to propel himself forward . The shape of the blade foot is a longer lever than the human foot , providing a contact point further away from the axis of rotation than a real foot . This would allow greater torque generation when an identical amount of force is applied , but because of the springy quality of the blades , Pistorius is unable to exert the same force as an able @-@ bodied runner during push off from the ground . Kram also stated that Pistorius ' " rate of energy consumption was lower than an average person but comparable to other high @-@ caliber athletes . "
The lightness and rigidity of the blade compared to muscle and bone may allow blade runners to swing their legs faster than able @-@ bodied runners . In comments on the article , Peter Weyand and biomechanist Matthew Bundle noted that the study found that Pistorius re @-@ positioned his legs 15 @.@ 7 percent faster than most world record sprinters , allowing for a 15 to 30 percent increase in sprint speed .
= = = Grabowski , et al. study = = =
In 2008 a research team including Alena Grabowski , Rodger Kram and Hugh Herr conducted a follow @-@ up study of single amputees with running blades which was published in Biology Letters . Each of six amputees ' affected leg performance was compared against that of their biological leg . The team measured leg swing times and force applied to the running surface on a high @-@ speed treadmill at the Biomechanics Laboratory of the Orthopedic Specialty Hospital , and also studied video of sprint runners from the Olympics and Paralympics . They found no difference in leg swing times at different speeds , and recorded leg swing times similar to that of able @-@ bodied sprinters . They also found that single running blades reduced the foot to ground force production of the tested runners by an average of 9 percent . Because force production is generally considered the most significant factor in running speed , the researchers concluded that this reduction in force limited the sprinters ' top speed . Grabowski also found that amputees typically increased their leg swing times to compensate for the lack of force .
= = = Other discussion = = =
Discussion continues about the relative advantage or disadvantage of using the blades . Researchers and analysts also point out that the research studies are done on level , stationary treadmills , and do not measure performance from starting blocks or on actual curved tracks . They also do not take into account differences in physiology between amputees and non @-@ amputees , who have such factors as musculature , blade height and weight and differences in blood circulation patterns due to the history of their limb loss .
= = 2012 Paralympics = =
A controversy over the effects of running blade length arose at the 2012 Paralympic Games , as Brazilian runner Alan Oliveira and USA runner Blake Leeper changed to longer running blades within a few months before the 2012 Paralympic Games . This led to marked improvement in their running times . Pistorius complained after the 200m race that the blades provided artificially lengthened running strides , which would be an infringement of the IPC rules , regardless of that the blades were within the allowable height limits for the athletes concerned . His complaint was supported by single @-@ leg runners including Jerome Singleton and Jack Swift , who called for the T43 double blade and T44 single blade classes to be separated in future events , as single blade runners were unable to adjust the height of the prostheses , and must always match the length of their biological leg with a running blade .
The improvement in running time and the wide broadcast of the race results provided a public demonstration of how the blade length affects performance . Pistorius ' stride length was actually 9 percent longer ( 2.2m vs 2.0m ) , but Oliveira took more strides ( 99 vs 92 ) . The combination of stride length and stride rate led to a clearly unusual performance with the longer blades . Pistorius ' management issued
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470 m / s ) .
The Peresvet class had five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three of which were above water , one in the bow and one pair of broadside tubes , and two broadside underwater tubes . The ships carried a total of 12 torpedoes . They also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect their anchorage in remote areas .
The ships were fitted with Liuzhol stadiametric rangefinders that used the angle between two vertical points on an enemy ship , usually the waterline and the crow 's nest , to estimate the range . The gunnery officer consulted his references to get the range and calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target . He transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro @-@ mechanical fire @-@ control transmission system to each gun or turret . Oslyabya and the rest of the Second Pacific Squadron were also fitted with Perepelkin telescopic sights for their guns , but their crews were not trained in how to use them .
= = = Protection = = =
The first two ships used Harvey armor for most of their armored vertical surfaces except for the gun turrets and their support tubes , which were made from Krupp armor . Pobeda , however , used Krupp armor for all of her heavy vertical armor . Over the machinery spaces , the maximum thickness of their waterline armor belt was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to 7 inches ( 178 mm ) abreast the magazines . The belt tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) over the machinery spaces and 4 inches ( 102 mm ) over the magazines . The belt covered 312 feet ( 95 @.@ 1 m ) of the ships ' length and was 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , of which the upper 36 inches ( 914 @.@ 4 mm ) was intended to be above the waterline , but the ships were significantly overweight . So much of the belt was submerged that Peresvet only had 14 inches ( 356 mm ) of armor exposed at normal load ; at full load the effect was even greater and the belt was completely submerged . Oslyabya was even more overweight and only had 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of her belt armor showing at normal load . The belt in both ships terminated in 7 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads , leaving the ends of the ships unprotected . The transverse bulkheads of the waterline belt in Pobeda were eliminated as the belt was extended to the ends of the ship with 4 @-@ inch armor plates . Above the waterline belt in all three ships was a shorter strake of armor that protected the middle of the ships . It was 188 feet ( 57 @.@ 3 m ) long and 4 inches thick . The ends of the upper belt were closed off by 4 @-@ inch angled transverse bulkheads .
The sides of the gun turrets were 9 inches thick and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) of armor protected their roofs ; their supporting tubes were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . The face of the casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns was five inches thick and their rears were protected by 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) armor plates . The casemates at each end of the ships were protected by 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads . Bulkheads 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick separated the 75 @-@ millimeter gun positions . Peresvet had two conning towers , each with sides 6 inches thick , but the other two ships only had a forward conning tower with 9 @-@ inch sides . A communications tube 3 inches thick connected each conning tower to the armored deck in all three ships . The flat part of the deck in the central armored citadel consisted of a 1 @.@ 46 @-@ inch ( 37 mm ) plate over the normal 0 @.@ 75 @-@ inch structural steel deck plate ; the sloped portion connected to the lower edge of the waterline belt and was 2 @.@ 5 inches thick . Outside the citadel the armored deck consisted of 2 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 57 mm ) plates laid over the 1 inch ( 25 mm ) deck plating . On the first two ships the deck armor consisted of mild steel ; in Pobeda it was a chrome @-@ nickel steel alloy .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Peresvet , named after Alexander Peresvet , a Russian monk who fought at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 , and Pobeda ( Victory ) were sent to the Far East almost immediately after entering service in 1901 and 1903 respectively . Peresvet became flagship of the squadron 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky , upon her arrival . During the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war , Peresvet was not hit , but Pobeda was hit once amidships , sustaining little damage but losing two men killed and four wounded . The latter struck a mine during the squadron 's sortie on 13 April and she was under repair for almost two months . Both ships had some of their anti @-@ torpedo boat guns and secondary armament removed during the summer to bolster the defenses of the port . They participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August ; Pobeda was only lightly damaged by 11 large @-@ caliber hits , but Peresvet was hit 39 times and suffered a considerable amount of flooding . More guns were landed after the squadron 's return to Port Arthur , but the Imperial Japanese Army captured the hills overlooking the harbor in November and they allowed the Army 's 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege guns to fire directly at the Russian ships . Pobeda and Peresvet were hit many times and Pobeda sank on 7 December 1904 from the accumulated damage . Peresvet was scuttled in shallow water on that same day .
Construction of Oslyabya , named after Radion Oslyabya , another monk who fought at the Battle of Kulikovo , was greatly delayed , and the ship was en route to the Far East when the Russo @-@ Japanese War began in February 1904 . She was ordered home and assigned to the Second Pacific Squadron that was intended to relieve the forces in Port Arthur . The ship served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Baron Dmitry von Fölkersam , second @-@ in @-@ command of the squadron , but he died two days before the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 . Oslyabya led the Second Division of the squadron during the battle and was the target of numerous Japanese ships during the early part of the battle . Many of the hits on the ship were along the waterline and caused extensive flooding . Efforts to counteract the resulting list destroyed her remaining stability and she sank just over an hour after the Japanese opened fire , the first modern battleship to be sunk solely by gunfire . Sources differ on the exact number of casualties , but the lowest figure given is 471 .
= = = In Japanese service = = =
Peresvet and Pobeda were raised , repaired , and rearmed by the Japanese . They were incorporated into the Imperial Japanese Navy as Sagami and Suwo , respectively , and reclassified as first @-@ class coastal defense ships . After the beginning of World War I , Sagami was sold to Russia in March 1916 and arrived in Vladivostok on 3 April 1916 , where she resumed her former name of Peresvet . The ship was intended to serve with the Russian Arctic flotilla and was en route to the Arctic when she struck two mines off Port Said , Egypt on 4 January 1917 . The mines had been laid by the German submarine SM U @-@ 73 and Peresvet sank with the loss of 167 lives after catching fire .
During World War I , Suwo served as the flagship for the Japanese squadron during the Battle of Tsingtao from 27 August to 7 November 1914 . The ship served as flagship of the Second Squadron of the Second Fleet in 1915 – 16 before becoming a gunnery training ship for the rest of the war . In April 1922 , in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty , Suwo was disarmed at the Kure Naval Arsenal . While her armor was being removed , the ship capsized on 13 July . She was probably scrapped in 1922 – 23 , but at least one source suggests she was refloated and hulked , serving until being broken up at Kure in 1946 .
= Colin Hannah =
Air Marshal Sir Colin Thomas Hannah , KCMG , KCVO , KBE , CB ( 22 December 1914 – 22 May 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a Governor of Queensland . Born in Western Australia , he was a member of the Militia before joining the RAAF in 1935 . After graduating as a pilot , Hannah served in Nos. 22 and 23 Squadrons from 1936 to 1939 . During the early years of World War II , he was the RAAF 's Deputy Director of Armament . He then saw action in the South West Pacific as commander of No. 6 Squadron and , later , No. 71 Wing , operating Bristol Beaufort bombers . By 1944 , he had risen to the rank of group captain , and at the end of the war was in charge of Western Area Command in Perth .
Hannah commanded RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , in 1949 – 50 , and saw service during the Malayan Emergency as senior air staff officer at RAF Far East Air Force Headquarters , Singapore , from 1956 to 1959 . His other post @-@ war appointments included Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1961 to 1965 , Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command from 1965 to 1967 , and AOC Support Command from 1968 to 1969 . In January 1970 , he was promoted to air marshal and became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's senior position . Knighted in 1971 , Hannah concluded his three @-@ year appointment as CAS a year early , in March 1972 , to become Governor of Queensland . He attracted controversy in this role after making comments critical of the Federal government of the day , and the British government refused to agree to his term being extended . Hannah retired in March 1977 , and died the following year .
= = Early career = =
Born on 22 December 1914 in Menzies , Western Australia , Hannah was the son of Thomas Howard Hannah , a public servant who later became a magistrate in Perth , and his wife Johanna . Hannah attended the Hale School , leaving with a Junior Certificate in 1930 . He served with an Australian Militia unit , the 8th Field Artillery Brigade , from February 1933 , and became a clerk in the Crown Law Department of the State Public Service later that year .
Hannah joined the Royal Australian Air Force on 15 January 1935 as an air cadet at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria . After graduating from No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , he obtained his commission as a pilot officer in July 1936 . His first posting was to No. 22 Squadron at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . Promoted to flying officer , he was appointed adjutant with the newly formed No. 23 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in May 1937 . Hannah accompanied the squadron , which operated Hawker Demons and Avro Ansons , to its new location at the recently opened RAAF Station Pearce , Western Australia , in March 1938 . On 5 January 1939 , he married Patricia Gordon at Claremont ; the couple had a daughter . Having specialised as an instructor , he then served on the staff of No. 1 FTS , Point Cook .
= = World War II = =
Promoted to flight lieutenant , Hannah was posted to Britain in July 1939 to undertake a Royal Air Force armaments training course , which he had barely begun when war was declared on 3 September . He completed the course , and returned to Australia in March 1940 . After brief postings to No. 1 Armament School , Point Cook , and Station Headquarters Laverton , he was assigned to Air Force Headquarters , Melbourne , in May . He was made an acting squadron leader in September 1940 and became Deputy Director of Armament the next year . In April 1942 , Hannah was promoted to temporary wing commander . He undertook a general reconnaissance course the following May .
In November 1943 , Hannah was appointed commanding officer of No. 6 Squadron at Milne Bay , Papua , flying Bristol Beaufort light bombers . During a familiarisation flight he came under friendly fire from anti @-@ aircraft guns on Kiriwina Island , but avoided serious injury . He was raised to temporary group captain in December , and assumed command of No. 71 Wing the following month . The Beauforts of No. 6 Squadron and No. 71 Wing took part in a series of major attacks on Rabaul , bombing and strafing airfields , infrastructure and shipping ; this continued until February 1944 , when the Japanese withdrew their aircraft from Rabaul . The same month , Hannah fell ill and had to be repatriated to Australia . After six weeks recuperation at Laverton , he returned to No. 6 Squadron , based on Goodenough Island . From March to August , the squadron was mainly involved in convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . In September 1944 , Hannah was appointed senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Headquarters Western Area Command , Perth . He took over control of the formation from Air Commodore Raymond Brownell in July 1945 , following Brownell 's departure to command No. 11 Group in the Dutch East Indies .
= = Post @-@ war RAAF career = =
= = = Rise to Chief of the Air Staff = = =
Hannah handed over command of Western Area in October 1946 , and was posted to Britain . Over the next two years , he undertook study at RAF Staff College , Andover , and served as SASO at RAAF Overseas Headquarters in London . Returning to Australia , in May 1949 he assumed command of RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland . From August 1950 , he also held temporary command of the base 's Avro Lincoln heavy bomber formation , No. 82 Wing . Promoted to substantive group captain in October 1950 , Hannah was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1951 New Year Honours , in particular for his " exceptional ability " as SASO at RAAF Overseas Headquarters . In September that year , he was made Director of Personnel Services ; his position became Director @-@ General of Personnel in July 1952 . As aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II , Hannah was heavily involved in planning the RAAF 's part in the 1954 Royal Tour of Australia . He was raised to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the Queen 's Birthday Honours that June .
In 1955 , Hannah attended the Imperial Defence College in London , and was promoted to air commodore . He was posted to Singapore as SASO , RAF Far East Air Force Headquarters , in January 1956 , handling counter @-@ insurgency operations during the Malayan Emergency . Hannah 's " distinguished service " during the conflict was recognised with his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in June 1959 . As Director @-@ General of Plans and Policy from March 1959 , he was responsible for commencing the Department of Air 's relocation from Melbourne to Canberra . In December 1961 , Hannah was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , receiving promotion to acting air vice marshal in May 1962 ; the rank was made substantive in January 1963 . He was later described by his staff officer in this role as " brusque " and " impersonal " though not unsympathetic , his " uncommunicative " manner stemming from a preference to " do his own research , think out the substance of his project submissions , dictate to his stenographer , then amend to his own satisfaction " , rather than delegate . Hannah served as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command ( now Air Command ) from February 1965 to December 1967 , during which time the RAAF 's fighter squadrons completed their conversion from the CAC Sabre to the supersonic Dassault Mirage III . His tenure also saw the deployment of the first Australian helicopters to Vietnam , eight UH @-@ 1 Iroquois of No. 9 Squadron that departed Sydney in May 1966 . Hannah 's next appointment was as AOC Support Command , responsible for training and maintenance in the Air Force . Throughout his career to this point he was noted for his energy and drive .
= = = Chief of the Air Staff = = =
Hannah was promoted to air marshal on 1 January 1970 , and succeeded Air Marshal Sir Alister Murdoch as Chief of the Air Staff . Murdoch had earlier recommended Hannah , known to be a strong advocate for Australian participation in the Vietnam War , for the position of Commander Australian Forces Vietnam when it came up for rotation at the end of 1969 ; the post went to an Army officer , and the Federal government ordered the withdrawal of the RAAF presence in Vietnam during Hannah 's tour as CAS . In March 1970 , the Minister for Defence , Malcolm Fraser , commissioned a review of naval air power . Hannah fundamentally disagreed with any suggestion that the Royal Australian Navy should operate land @-@ based aircraft , claiming that he was arguing not from a partisan perspective but to ensure that Australia 's limited defence resources were not spread across three services . Confidential RAAF papers from the time declared that its goal was always to " avoid giving the Navy the opportunity to establish a land @-@ based air force " . Two years later , Hannah responded favourably to a recommendation from the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee , Admiral Sir Victor Smith , to use the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ delivered F @-@ 111 bomber for maritime support , among other roles .
In the 1971 New Year Honours , Hannah was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) . His tour as CAS coincided with the RAAF 's Golden Jubilee , celebrated in March and April that year . He personally organised a fly @-@ past of two US Air Force F @-@ 111s at air shows marking the occasion , generating favourable coverage to counteract the poor publicity surrounding the type 's long @-@ delayed entry into Australian service . He was also involved in two controversial decisions the same year . Firstly , he was a member of the committee to choose an Air Force memorial to be located on ANZAC Parade , Canberra . The selected design was an abstract sculpture that , according to official RAAF historian Alan Stephens , reflected " the selection panel 's comprehensive failure to understand the nature of air force service " . Secondly , Hannah commissioned a replacement for the Air Force 's winter uniform , traditionally a shade " somewhere between royal and navy blue " that had been personally chosen by the RAAF 's first CAS , Wing Commander ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Richard Williams , to distinguish it from the lighter Royal Air Force colour . Hannah publicly debuted the uniform that he approved , an all @-@ purpose middle @-@ blue suit , at a Point Cook graduation parade on 8 December 1971 . It was the object of much adverse comment in the ensuing years ; personnel complained of being mistaken for bus , train and postal employees . One of Hannah 's successors as CAS , Air Marshal Errol McCormack , ordered that the uniform revert to Williams ' original colour and style commencing in 2000 .
= = Governor = =
Hannah 's planned three @-@ year term as Chief of the Air Staff was cut short by some ten months when he accepted an offer to serve as Governor of Queensland , becoming the first officer in the RAAF to receive a vice @-@ regal appointment . The announcement was made in January 1972 , and he took office on 21 March . He succeeded Sir Alan Mansfield . Hannah did not have a strong connection with Queensland at the time of his appointment , and had only lived in the state during his period as commander of RAAF Station Amberley between 1949 and 1951 . He claimed not to have actively sought the governorship , and was criticised for failing to consult with senior colleagues before making his decision to retire early from his position as head of the Air Force . He was replaced as CAS by his deputy , Air Vice Marshal ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Charles Read .
Described when he took office as " a man with the flexibility of mind and ability to mix with people , so necessary for a Governor " , Hannah was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) and a Knight and Deputy Prior of the Venerable Order of Saint John in September 1972 . His term as Governor was relatively uneventful until 1975 . In October that year , he created controversy at a Brisbane Chamber of Commerce luncheon by criticising the " fumbling ineptitude " of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam 's Federal Labor government for placing Australia in " its present economic state " . Vice @-@ regal appointees in Australia were expected to remain above politics , but Hannah declared that he would be " guilty of sheltering behind convention , of denying my heritage and failing in my regard for the people of Queensland " if he did not speak his mind . The incident occurred in the midst of a constitutional crisis and , according to military historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark , was " widely seen as a blatant intervention in the national political arena " . The Federal government responded by advising the Queen to revoke Hannah 's dormant commission to serve in place of the Governor @-@ General if required ; at the time Hannah was the second in line to serve as Governor @-@ General , after the Governor of New South Wales . Following his succession in November 1975 , Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser attempted to have the dormant commission reinstated , but the British government refused to recommend this to the Queen , citing lack of impartiality on Hannah 's part . Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke @-@ Petersen made it known that he planned to extend the Governor 's term , but the British government also refused to agree to this . Bjelke @-@ Petersen was prepared to pursue the matter , but Hannah declined to let his name be put forward again .
On 9 October 1976 , Hannah dedicated a memorial at Cairns to commemorate the crews of RAAF Catalina flying boats who lost their lives in the South West Pacific during World War II . His vice @-@ regal appointment lapsed on 20 March 1977 , and he was succeeded the next month by Commodore Sir James Ramsay .
= = Retirement and death = =
Hannah retired following completion of his term as Governor of Queensland . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( KCVO ) in August 1977 ( backdated to March ) as part of Queen Elizabeth II 's Silver Jubilee visit to Australia . Hannah died of a heart attack on 22 May 1978 at his home in Surfers Paradise , Queensland . He was given a state funeral and cremated ; his wife and daughter survived him . Hannah Community Park , straddling the suburbs of Fadden and Gowrie in Canberra , was established in his honour in 2002 .
= Belgrade =
Belgrade ( / ˈbɛlɡreɪd / ; Serbian : Beograd / Београд ; Serbian pronunciation :
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both purposes , while the color board was deactivated and covered with advertising signage . The Greer Stadium scoreboard has never had the ability to display video or any kind of high @-@ resolution images . Between the two boards are an analog clock and a current temperature display . As of 2014 , the temperature display is no longer active . Around the boards are four large spaces for advertising ; the two on top are static , and the two on bottom rotate between three images each ( the rotating spaces have been covered with static signage since 2009 ) . High @-@ tension nets cover the electronic sections to protect them from home run balls . Above the board is a circular advertising space . This space originally displayed the team 's guitar @-@ swinger logo , and at times has displayed other Sounds logos . Originally , when a home run was hit , the guitar @-@ swinger logo would light up and perimeter lights around the entire scoreboard would begin flashing ; it was also capable of shooting fireworks after each Sounds home run . By the mid @-@ 2000s , the scoreboard had fallen into a state of disrepair and obsolescence , and was only marginally functional . Many of the lights were no longer able to be lit , and replacement parts were becoming hard to find . When MFP Baseball purchased the team in late 2008 , the organization made minor renovations to the scoreboard , rendering it once again fully functional , although not to its original specifications . It was also repainted black , red , yellow , and white over its original red , white , and blue color scheme to reflect the team 's present colors .
The entire scoreboard measures 115 @.@ 6 feet ( 35 @.@ 2 m ) across , 53 feet ( 16 m ) high , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) deep . Individual components of the guitar are as follows : 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) body , 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) neck , and 19 @.@ 6 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) tuning key section . It is installed approximately 80 feet ( 24 m ) above the ground . It takes 243 @,@ 155 watts to power its 8 @,@ 179 total lamps , which are connected to 64 @,@ 169 feet ( 19 @,@ 559 m ) of wire . The entire display weighs 35 @,@ 825 pounds ( 16 @,@ 250 kg ) .
As of 2013 , due to leaks in its exterior , the scoreboard 's functionality can be crippled for a period of time following a rainstorm , rendering many of its electronic features dark .
Greer Stadium 's guitar scoreboard was not moved to First Tennessee Park , and remains standing . The Sounds organization installed a modern version at the new venue , capable of displaying high @-@ definition video . The first design renderings of First Tennessee Park did not feature a guitar scoreboard . On April 22 , 2014 , at the announcement of First Tennessee 's naming rights agreement , Sounds owner Frank Ward told The Tennessean : " The guitar scoreboard at Greer is staying at Greer . At some point in time we will share what our new scoreboard will look like , but it 's too early in the process . We 're trying to figure it out as we speak . " Two months later , on June 20 , 2014 , Ward announced that a new guitar scoreboard would indeed be constructed , citing overwhelming demand from the community .
Greer Stadium 's original scoreboard was a black , non @-@ descript , rectangular unit with a two line reader panel . In 1985 , it was moved to beside the left field foul pole to make room for a new rectangular 4 @-@ line scoreboard 10 feet ( 3 m ) high with a fully animated reader panel . The original unit was then used as an out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard , displaying the scores of other baseball games . When the guitar display was installed in 1993 , the original scoreboard was removed and replaced by the second scoreboard , which became the new out @-@ of @-@ town board . From 2008 to 2014 , the out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard was not used to display scores ; instead it was used only as a support for additional advertising signage .
= = Facilities = =
Seating at the ballpark includes fixed stadium seats , general admission bleachers , some with contoured seats , and eighteen skyboxes located on the third floor . As of 2014 , total seating capacity is 10 @,@ 300 . Games can be watched from one of four picnic areas — one behind home plate , one on the third base line , one in the third base stands , and one beyond the right field wall . A rentable hot tub deck is located in the right field corner . There is a concert stage and family fun zone located on The Plaza inside the concourse entrance .
Several concession stands and cart vendors are located on the concourse . The stadium was home to a full @-@ service restaurant called Sluggers Sports Bar and Grill , which was located on the fourth floor and closed when the Sounds vacated Greer . The restaurant and bar was open during all Sounds home dates , and games could be viewed from the restaurant via windows overlooking the field .
= = Ground rules = =
The following ground rules apply to baseball games played at Greer Stadium :
Any thrown ball hitting any portion of the fence or screen behind home plate is in play .
Any thrown ball hitting the dugout railing , netting , or foundation and rebounding onto the field is in play .
Any fairly batted or thrown ball that goes into the dugout or dugout camera well or strikes equipment on the dugout steps is out of play .
Any fairly batted or thrown ball stuck in the pads behind home plate or in foul territory is in play .
Both bullpens are in play . Pitchers in the bullpen must allow opposing players to attempt to make a catch or play when the ball is in or near the bullpen .
Players may lean on the tarp by the third base line , but may not use it as a source of elevation .
Any batted ball hitting a foul pole above the fence line is a home run .
Any ball striking the upper section ( above the yellow line ) of the two @-@ tiered outfield wall on the fly is a home run , regardless of whether or not the ball re @-@ enters the playing field .
Any bouncing ball striking the upper section of the wall is a ground rule double , regardless of whether or not the ball re @-@ enters the playing field
Any ball hitting the center field batter 's eye at any height remains in play .
= Cannon =
A cannon ( plural : cannon or cannons ) is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive @-@ based propellants to launch a projectile . Cannon vary in calibre , range , mobility , rate of fire , angle of fire , and firepower ; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees , depending on their intended use on the battlefield . The word cannon is derived from several languages , in which the original definition can usually be translated as tube , cane , or reed . In the modern era , the term cannon has fallen into decline , replaced by " guns " or " artillery " if not a more specific term such as " mortar " or " howitzer " , except for in the field of aerial warfare , where it is often used as shorthand for autocannon .
First invented in China , cannon were among the earliest forms of gunpowder artillery , and over time replaced siege engines — among other forms of ageing weaponry — on the battlefield . In the Middle East , the first use of the hand cannon is argued to be during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Mamluks and Mongols . The first cannon in Europe were in use in Iberia by the mid @-@ 13th century . It was during this period , the Middle Ages , that cannon became standardized , and more effective in both the anti @-@ infantry and siege roles . After the Middle Ages most large cannon were abandoned in favour of greater numbers of lighter , more maneuverable pieces . In addition , new technologies and tactics were developed , making most defences obsolete ; this led to the construction of star forts , specifically designed to withstand artillery bombardment though these too ( along with the Martello Tower ) would find themselves rendered obsolete when explosive and armour piercing rounds made even these types of fortifications vulnerable .
Cannon also transformed naval warfare in the early modern period , as European navies took advantage of their firepower . As rifling became commonplace , the accuracy and destructive power of cannon was significantly increased , and they became deadlier than ever , both to infantry who belatedly had to adopt different tactics , and to ships , which had to be armoured . In World War I , the majority of combat fatalities were caused by artillery ; they were also used widely in World War II . Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War , although the importance of the larger calibre weapons has declined with the development of missiles .
Cannon was widely known as the earliest form of a gun and artillery , before early firearms were invented .
= = Etymology and terminology = =
Cannon is derived from the Old Italian word cannone , meaning " large tube " , which came from Latin canna , in turn originating from the Greek κάννα ( kanna ) , " reed " , and then generalized to mean any hollow tube @-@ like object ; cognate with Akkadian term qanu and Hebrew qāneh , meaning " tube " or " reed " . The word has been used to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy , and 1418 in England . Both Cannons and Cannon are correct and in common usage , with one or the other having preference in different parts of the English @-@ speaking world . Cannons is more common in North America and Australia , while cannon as plural is more common in the United Kingdom .
= = Cannon materials , parts , and terms = =
Cannon in general have the form of a truncated cone with an internal cylindrical bore for holding an explosive charge and a projectile . The thickest , strongest , and closed part of the cone is located near the explosive charge . As any explosive charge will dissipate in all directions equally , the thickest portion of the cannon is useful for containing and directing this force . The backward motion of the cannon as its projectile leaves the bore is termed its recoil and the effectiveness of the cannon can be measured in terms of how much this response can be diminished , though obviously diminishing recoil through increasing the overall mass of the cannon means decreased mobility .
Field artillery cannon in Europe and the Americas were initially made most often of bronze , though later forms were constructed of cast iron and eventually steel . Bronze has several characteristics that made it preferable as a construction material : although it is relatively expensive , does not always alloy well , and can result in a final product that is " spongy about the bore " , bronze is more flexible than iron and therefore less prone to bursting when exposed to high pressure ; cast iron cannon are less expensive and more durable generally than bronze and withstand being fired more times without deteriorating . However , cast iron cannon have a tendency to burst without having shown any previous weakness or wear , and this makes them more dangerous to operate .
The older and more @-@ stable forms of cannon were muzzle @-@ loading as opposed to breech @-@ loading — in order to be used they had to have their ordnance packed down the bore through the muzzle rather than inserted through the breech .
The following terms refer to the components or aspects of a classical western cannon ( c . 1850 ) as illustrated here . In what follows , the words near , close , and behind will refer to those parts towards the thick , closed end of the piece , and far , front , in front of , and before to the thinner , open end .
= = = Negative spaces = = =
Bore : The hollow cylinder bored down the centre of the cannon , including the base of the bore or bottom of the bore , the nearest end of the bore into which the ordnance ( wadding , shot , etc . ) gets packed . The diameter of the bore represents the cannon 's calibre .
Chamber : The cylindrical , conical , or spherical recess at the nearest end of the bottom of the bore into which the gunpowder is packed .
Vent : A thin tube on the near end of the cannon connecting the explosive charge inside with an ignition source outside and often filled with a length of fuse ; always located near the breech . Sometimes called the fuse hole or the touch hole . On the top of the vent on the outside of the cannon is a flat circular space called the vent field where the charge is lit . If the cannon is bronze , it will often have a vent piece made of copper screwed into the length of the vent .
= = = Solid spaces = = =
The main body of a cannon consists of three basic extensions : the foremost and the longest is called the chase , the middle portion is the reinforce , and the closest and briefest portion is the cascabel or cascable .
The chase : Simply the entire conical part of the cannon in front of the reinforce . It is the longest portion of the cannon , and includes the following elements :
The neck : the narrowest part of the chase , always located near the foremost end of the piece .
The muzzle : the portion of the chase forward of the neck . It includes the following :
The swell of the muzzle refers to the slight swell in the diameter of the piece at the very end of the chase . It is often chamfered on the inside to make loading the cannon easier . In some guns , this element is replaced with a wide ring and is called a muzzle band .
The face is the flat vertical plane at the foremost edge of the muzzle ( and of the entire piece ) .
The muzzle mouldings are the tiered rings which connect the face with the rest of the muzzle , the first of which is called the lip and the second the fillet
The muzzle astragal and fillets are a series of three narrow rings running around the outside of the chase just behind the neck . Sometimes also collectively called the chase ring .
The chase astragal and fillets : these are a second series of such rings located at the near end of the chase .
The chase girdle : this is the brief length of the chase between the chase astragal and fillets and the reinforce .
The reinforce : This portion of the piece is frequently divided into a first reinforce and a second reinforce , but in any case is marked as separate from the chase by the presence of a narrow circular reinforce ring or band at its foremost end . The span of the reinforce also includes the following :
The trunnions are located at the foremost end of the reinforce just behind the reinforce ring . They consist of two cylinders perpendicular to the bore and below it which are used to mount the cannon on its carriage .
The rimbases are short broad rings located at the union of the trunnions and the cannon which provide support to the carriage attachment .
The reinforce band is only present if the cannon has two reinforces , and it divides the first reinforce from the second .
The breech refers to the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore extending to the base of the breech and including the base ring ; it also generally refers to the end of the cannon opposite the muzzle , i.e. , the location where the explosion of the gunpowder begins as opposed to the opening through which the pressurized gas escapes .
The base ring forms a ring at the widest part of the entire cannon at the nearest end of the reinforce just before the cascabel .
The cascabel : This is that portion of the cannon behind the reinforce ( s ) and behind the base ring . It includes the following :
The knob which is the small spherical terminus of the piece ;
The neck , a short , narrow piece of metal holding out the knob ; and
The fillet , the tiered disk connecting the neck of the cascabel to the base of the breech .
The base of the breech is the metal disk that forms the most forward part of the cascabel and rests against the breech itself , right next to the base ring .
To pack a muzzle @-@ loading cannon , first gunpowder is poured down the bore . This is followed by a layer of wadding ( often nothing more than paper ) , and then the cannonball itself . A certain amount of windage allows the ball to fit down the bore , though the greater the windage the less efficient the propulsion of the ball when the gunpowder is ignited . To fire the cannon , the fuse located in the vent is lit , quickly burning down to the gunpowder , which then explodes violently , propelling wadding and ball down the bore and out of the muzzle . A small portion of exploding gas also escapes through the vent , but this does not dramatically affect the total force exerted on the ball .
Any large , smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading gun — used before the advent of breech @-@ loading , rifled guns — may be referred to as a cannon , though once standardized names were assigned to different @-@ sized cannon , the term specifically referred to a gun designed to fire a 42 @-@ pound ( 19 kg ) shot , as distinct from a demi @-@ cannon – 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) , culverin – 18 pounds ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) , or demi @-@ culverin – 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) . Gun specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high speeds , and usually at relatively low angles ; they have been used in warships , and as field artillery . The term cannon is also used for autocannon , a modern repeating weapon firing explosive projectiles . Cannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft since World War II , and in place of machine guns on land vehicles .
= = History = =
= = = Development in China = = =
The invention of the cannon , driven by gunpowder , was first developed in China and later spread to the Islamic world and Europe . Like small arms , cannon are a descendant of the fire lance , a gunpowder @-@ filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower in China . Shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel , so that it would fly out along with the flames . The first documented battlefield use of fire lances took place in 1132 when Chen Gui used them to defend De 'an from attack by the Jurchen Jin . Eventually , the paper and bamboo of which fire lance barrels were originally constructed came to be replaced by metal . It has been disputed at which point flame @-@ projecting cannon were abandoned in favour of missile @-@ projecting ones , as words meaning either incendiary or explosive are commonly translated as gunpowder . The earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan , dating to the 12th century that portrays a figure carrying a vase @-@ shaped bombard , firing flames and a ball . The oldest surviving gun , known as the Heilongjiang hand cannon and dated to no later than 1290 , is 34 cm long with a muzzle bore diameter of 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) . The second oldest , dated to 1332 is 35 @.@ 3 cm long , a muzzle bore diameter of 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 in ) and weighs 6 @.@ 94 kg ; both are made of bronze .
The earliest known illustration of a cannon is dated to 1326 . In his 1341 poem , The Iron Cannon Affair , one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China , Xian Zhang wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could " pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse , and can even transfix several persons at once . "
Joseph Needham suggests that the proto @-@ shells described in the Huolongjing may be among the first of their kind . The weapon was later taken up by both the Mongol conquerors and the Koreans . Chinese soldiers fighting under the Mongols appear to have used hand cannon in Manchurian battles during 1288 , a date deduced from archaeological findings at battle sites . The Ming Chinese also mounted over 3 @,@ 000 cast bronze and iron cannon on the Great Wall of China , to defend against the Mongols .
Cannon were used by Ming dynasty forces at the Battle of Lake Poyang . Ming dynasty era ships had bronze cannon . One shipwreck in Shandong had a cannon dated to 1377 and an anchor dated to 1372 . From the 13th to 15th centuries cannon armed Chinese ships also travelled throughout Southeast Asia .
In the 1593 Siege of Pyongyang , 40 @,@ 000 Ming troops deployed a variety of cannon to bombard an equally large Japanese army . Despite both forces having similar numbers , the Japanese were easily defeated due to the Ming cannon . Throughout the Seven Year War in Korea , the Chinese @-@ Korean coalition used artillery widely , in both land and naval battles , including on the Turtle Ships of Yi Sun @-@ sin .
= = = Islamic world = = =
Arabic manuscripts dated from the 14th century document the use of the hand cannon , a forerunner of the handgun , in the Arabic world . Ahmad Y. al @-@ Hassan argues that these manuscripts are copies of earlier manuscripts and reported on hand @-@ held cannon being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 . Al @-@ Hassan also interprets Ibn Khaldun as reporting cannon being used as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274 . Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204 – 1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder , naft , that they used for an earlier incendiary naphtha . The Mamluks had certainly acquired siege cannon by the 1360s , and possibly as early as 1320 .
Sixty @-@ eight super @-@ sized bombards referred to as Great Turkish Bombards were used by Mehmed II to capture Constantinople in 1453 . Orban , a Hungarian cannon engineer , is credited with introducing the cannon from Central Europe to the Ottomans . These cannon could fire heavy stone balls a mile , and the sound of their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of 10 miles ( 16 km ) . Shkodran historian Marin Barleti discusses Turkish bombards at length in his book De obsidione Scodrensi ( 1504 ) , describing the 1478 – 79 siege of Shkodra in which eleven bombards and two mortars were employed .
The similar Dardanelles Guns ( for the location ) were created by Munir Ali in 1464 and were still in use during the Anglo @-@ Turkish War ( 1807 – 1809 ) . These were
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by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls . " Similar cannon were also used at the Siege of Calais , in the same year , although it was not until the 1380s that the " ribaudekin " clearly became mounted on wheels .
A small bronze cannon unearthed in Loshult , Scania in southern Sweden is considered to be one of the earliest surviving European guns . It dates from the early @-@ mid 14th century , and is currently in the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm . They were used in Russia around 1380 , though they were used only in sieges , often by the defenders . Large cannon known as bombards ranged from three to five feet in length and were used by Dubrovnik and Kotor in defence in the later 14th century . The first bombards were made of iron , but bronze was quickly recognized as being stronger and capable of propelling stones weighing as much as a hundred pounds ( 45 kg ) . Byzantine strategists did not have the money to invest in this technology . Around the same period , the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat , starting with medium @-@ sized cannon 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long and of 10 in calibre . The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople , in 1396 , forcing the Ottomans to withdraw . They acquired their own cannon , and laid siege to the Byzantine capital again , in 1422 , using " falcons " , which were short but wide cannon . By 1453 , the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian @-@ made cannon for the 55 @-@ day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople , " hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby . " The largest of their cannon was the Great Turkish Bombard , which required an operating crew of 200 men and 70 oxen , and 10 @,@ 000 men to transport it . Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete , and with the final fall of Constantinople — which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe — on 29 May 1453 , " it was the end of an era in more ways than one . "
= = = Early modern period = = =
By the 16th century , cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters , but the general rule was that the longer the barrel , the longer the range . Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in length , and could weigh up to 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) . Consequently , large amounts of gunpowder were needed , to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards . By mid @-@ century , European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion . Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon , but others settled for more ; the Spanish used twelve sizes , and the English sixteen . Better powder had been developed by this time as well . Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards , powder was replaced by a " corned " variety of coarse grains . This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains , allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly .
The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger , more powerful cannon , as well their spread throughout the world . As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon , siege engines — such as siege towers and trebuchets — became less widely used . However , wooden " battery @-@ towers " took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age — such as that used at siege of Kazan in 1552 , which could hold ten large @-@ calibre cannon , in addition to 50 lighter pieces . Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications . Niccolò Machiavelli wrote , " There is no wall , whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days . " Although castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon , their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined . Instead of majestic towers and merlons , the walls of new fortresses were thick , angled , and sloped , while towers became low and stout ; increasing use was also made of earth and brick in breastworks and redoubts . These new defences became known as " star forts " , after their characteristic shape which attempted to force any advance toward it directly into the firing line of the guns . A few of these featured cannon batteries , such as the Tudors ' Device Forts , in England . Star forts soon replaced castles in Europe , and , eventually , those in the Americas , as well .
By the end of the 15th century , several technological advancements made cannon more mobile . Wheeled gun carriages and trunnions became common , and the invention of the limber further facilitated transportation . As a result , field artillery became more viable , and began to see more widespread use , often alongside the larger cannon intended for sieges . Better gunpowder , cast @-@ iron projectiles ( replacing stone ) , and the standardization of calibres meant that even relatively light cannon could be deadly . In The Art of War , Niccolò Machiavelli observed that " It is true that the arquebuses and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery . " This was the case at Flodden , in 1513 : the English field guns outfired the Scottish siege artillery , firing two or three times as many rounds . Despite the increased maneuverability , however , cannon were still the slowest component of the army : a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport , while a culverin needed nine . Even with this many animals pulling , they still moved at a walking pace . Due to their relatively slow speed , and lack of organization , and undeveloped tactics , the combination of pike and shot still dominated the battlefields of Europe .
Innovations continued , notably the German invention of the mortar , a thick @-@ walled , short @-@ barrelled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle . Mortars were useful for sieges , as they could hit targets behind walls or other defences . This cannon found more use with the Dutch , who learned to shoot bombs filled with powder from them . Setting the bomb fuse was a problem . " Single firing " was first used to ignite the fuse , where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the cannon 's propellant . This often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb , causing it to blow up as it left the mortar . Because of this , " double firing " was tried where the gunner lit the fuse and then the touch hole . This , however , required considerable skill and timing , and was especially dangerous if the gun misfired , leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel . Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double @-@ lighting was superfluous as the heat of firing would light the fuse .
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden emphasized the use of light cannon and mobility in his army , and created new formations and tactics that revolutionized artillery . He discontinued using all 12 pounder — or heavier — cannon as field artillery , preferring , instead , to use cannon that could be manned by only a few men . One obsolete type of gun , the " leatheren " was replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi @-@ culverins . These could be operated by three men , and pulled by only two horses . Adolphus 's army was also the first to use a cartridge that contained both powder and shot which sped up reloading , increasing the rate of fire . Finally , against infantry he pioneered the use of canister shot - essentially a tin can filled with musket balls . Until then there was no more than one cannon for every thousand infantrymen on the battlefield but Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannon sixfold . Each regiment was assigned two pieces , though he often arranged then into batteries instead of distributing them piecemeal . He used these batteries to break his opponent 's infantry line , while his cavalry would outflank their heavy guns .
At the Battle of Breitenfeld , in 1631 , Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army , by defeating Johann Tserclaes , Count of Tilly . Although severely outnumbered , the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery , and their infantry 's linear formations helped ensure they didn 't lose any ground . Battered by cannon fire , and low on morale , Tilly 's men broke ranks and fled .
In England cannon were being used to besiege various fortified buildings during the English Civil War . Nathaniel Nye is recorded as testing a Birmingham cannon in 1643 and experimenting with a saker in 1645 . From 1645 he was the master gunner to the Parliamentarian garrison at Evesham and in 1646 he successfully directed the artillery at the Siege of Worcester , detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book The Art of Gunnery . Believing that war was as much a science as an art , his explanations focused on triangulation , arithmetic , theoretical mathematics , and cartography as well as practical considerations such as the ideal specification for gunpowder or slow matches . His book acknowledged mathematicians such as Robert Recorde and Marcus Jordanus as well as earlier military writers on artillery such as Niccolò Tartaglia and Thomas Malthus .
Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target . Gunners controlled the range of their cannon by measuring the angle of elevation , using a " gunner 's quadrant . " Cannon did not have sights , therefore , even with measuring tools , aiming was still largely guesswork .
In the latter half of the 17th century , the French engineer Vauban introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses , in a time when many field commanders " were notorious dunces in siegecraft . " Careful sapping forward , supported by enfilading ricochet fire , was a key feature of this system , and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take . He was also a prolific builder of star forts , and did much to popularize the idea of " depth in defence " in the face of cannon . These principles were followed into the mid @-@ 19th century , when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defence than Vauban had provided for . It was only in the years prior to World War I that new works began to break radically away from his designs .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
The lower tier of 17th @-@ century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi @-@ cannon , guns that fired a 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) solid shot , and could weigh up to 3 @,@ 400 pounds ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) . Demi @-@ cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force that they could penetrate more than a metre of solid oak , from a distance of 90 m ( 300 ft ) , and could dismast even the largest ships at close range . Full cannon fired a 42 lb ( 19 kg ) shot , but were discontinued by the 18th century , as they were too unwieldy . By the end of the 18th century , principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy 's cannon , as well as the acceptable defects , and their severity . The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them , firing them two or three times — termed " proof by powder " — and using pressurized water to detect leaks .
The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779 ; the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel , as they were believed to be more deadly than the ball by itself . The carronade was much shorter , and weighed between a third to a quarter of the equivalent long gun ; for example , a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton , compared with a 32 pounder long gun , which weighed over 3 tons . The guns were , therefore , easier to handle , and also required less than half as much gunpowder , allowing fewer men to crew them . Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibres , but were not counted in a ship of the line 's rated number of guns . As a result , the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be misleading , as they often carried more cannon than were listed .
In the 1810s and 1820s , greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long @-@ range gunfire , and less on the weight of a broadside . The carronade , although initially very successful and widely adopted , disappeared from the Royal Navy in the 1850s after the development of wrought @-@ iron @-@ jacketed steel cannon by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth . Nevertheless , carronades were used in the American Civil War .
Western cannon during the 19th century became larger , more destructive , more accurate , and could fire at longer range . One example is the American 3 in ( 76 mm ) wrought @-@ iron , muzzle @-@ loading rifle , or Griffen gun ( usually called the 3 @-@ inch Ordnance Rifle ) , used during the American Civil War , which had an effective range of over 1 @.@ 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) . Another is the smoothbore 12 pounder Napoleon , which originated in France in 1853 and was widely used by both sides in the American Civil War . This cannon was renowned for its sturdiness , reliability , firepower , flexibility , relatively light weight , and range of 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) .
Cannon were crucial in Napoleon Bonaparte 's rise to power , and continued to play an important role in his army in later years . During the French Revolution , the unpopularity of the Directory led to riots and rebellions . When over 25 @,@ 000 royalists led by General Danican assaulted Paris , Paul François Jean Nicolas , vicomte de Barras was appointed to defend the capital ; outnumbered five to one and disorganized , the Republicans were desperate . When Napoleon arrived , he reorganized the defences but realized that without cannon the city could not be held . He ordered Joachim Murat to bring the guns from the Sablons artillery park ; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured cannon , and brought them back to Napoleon . When Danican 's poorly trained men attacked , on 13 Vendémiaire , 1795 — 5 October 1795 , in the calendar used in France at the time — Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire grapeshot into the mob , an act that became known as the " whiff of grapeshot " . The slaughter effectively ended the threat to the new government , while , at the same time , made Bonaparte a famous — and popular — public figure . Among the first generals to recognize that artillery was not being used to its full potential , Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries and introduced several changes into the French artillery , improving it significantly and making it among the finest in Europe . Such tactics were successfully used by the French , for example , at the Battle of Friedland , when sixty @-@ six guns fired a total of 3 @,@ 000 roundshot and 500 rounds of grapeshot , inflicting severe casualties to the Russian forces , whose losses numbered over 20 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , in total . At the Battle of Waterloo — Napoleon 's final battle — the French army had many more artillery pieces than either the British or Prussians . As the battlefield was muddy , recoil caused cannons to bury themselves into the ground after firing , resulting in slow rates of fire , as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate firing position ; also , roundshot did not ricochet with as much force from the wet earth . Despite the drawbacks , sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement , especially during the French cavalry attack . The British infantry , having formed infantry squares , took heavy losses from the French guns , while their own cannon fired at the cuirassiers and lancers , when they fell back to regroup . Eventually , the French ceased their assault , after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and musket fire .
The practice of rifling — casting spiralling lines inside the cannon 's barrel — was applied to artillery more frequently by 1855 , as it gave cannon projectiles gyroscopic stability , which improved their accuracy . One of the earliest rifled cannon was the breech @-@ loading Armstrong Gun — also invented by William George Armstrong — which boasted significantly improved range , accuracy , and power than earlier weapons . The projectile fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship 's side , and explode inside the enemy vessel , causing increased damage , and casualties . The British military adopted the Armstrong gun , and was impressed ; the Duke of Cambridge even declared that it " could do everything but speak . " Despite being significantly more advanced than its predecessors , the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its integration , in favour of the muzzle @-@ loading pieces that had been in use before . While both types of gun were effective against wooden ships , neither had the capability to pierce the armour of ironclads ; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the Armstrong gun , and their higher cost , the older muzzle @-@ loaders were selected to remain in service instead . Realizing that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech @-@ loaded cannon , Armstrong designed rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , which proved successful ; The Times reported : " even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery , at such ranges , their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships . "
The superior cannon of the Western world brought them tremendous advantages in warfare . For example , in the Opium War in China , during the 19th century , British battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar , safe from the reach of the Chinese cannon . Similarly , the shortest war in recorded history , the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 1896 , was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British cruisers . The cynical attitude toward recruited infantry in the face of ever more powerful field artillery is the source of the term cannon fodder , first used by François @-@ René de Chateaubriand , in 1814 ; however , the concept of regarding soldiers as nothing more than " food for powder " was mentioned by William Shakespeare as early as 1598 , in Henry IV , Part 1 .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub @-@ categories and given separate names . Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are howitzers , mortars , guns , and autocannon , although a few superguns — extremely large , custom @-@ designed cannon — have also been constructed . Nuclear artillery was experimented with , but was abandoned as impractical . Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles , depending on its type . According to NATO , the general role of artillery is to provide fire support , which is defined as " the application of fire , coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy , neutralize , or suppress the enemy . "
When referring to cannon , the term gun is often used incorrectly . In military usage , a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and a flat trajectory , useful for hitting the sides of targets such as walls , as opposed to howitzers or mortars , which have lower muzzle velocities , and fire indirectly , lobbing shells up and over obstacles to hit the target from above .
By the early 20th century , infantry weapons had become more powerful , forcing most artillery away from the front lines . Despite the change to indirect fire , cannon proved highly effective during World War I , directly or indirectly causing over 75 % of casualties . The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers , as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches . Furthermore , their shells carried more explosives than those of guns , and caused considerably less barrel wear . The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French . World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun , the longest @-@ ranged gun ever fired . This 200 mm ( 8 in ) calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than 122 km ( 76 mi ) away .
The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology . Among them were sabot rounds , hollow @-@ charge projectiles , and proximity fuses , all of which increased the effectiveness of cannon against specific target . The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944 . Used to great effect in anti @-@ aircraft projectiles , proximity fuses were fielded in both the European and Pacific Theatres of Operations ; they were particularly useful against V @-@ 1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes . Although widely used in naval warfare , and in anti @-@ air guns , both the British and Americans feared unexploded proximity fuses would be reverse engineered leading to them limiting its use in continental battles . During the Battle of the Bulge , however , the fuses became known as the American artillery 's " Christmas present " for the German army because of their effectiveness against German personnel in the open , when they frequently dispersed attacks . Anti @-@ tank guns were also tremendously improved during the war : in 1939 , the British used primarily 2 pounder and 6 pounder guns . By the end of the war , 17 pounders had proven much more effective against German tanks , and 32 pounders had entered development . Meanwhile , German tanks were continuously upgraded with better main guns , in addition to other improvements . For example , the Panzer III was originally designed with a 37 mm gun , but was mass @-@ produced with a 50 mm cannon . To counter the threat of the Russian T @-@ 34s , another , more powerful 50 mm gun was introduced , only to give way to a larger 75 mm cannon , which was in a fixed mount as the StuG III , the most @-@ produced German World War II armoured fighting vehicle of any type . Despite the improved guns , production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943 , as the tank still could not match the T @-@ 34 , and was replaced by the Panzer IV and Panther tanks . In 1944 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 and many variations , entered service with the Wehrmacht , and was used as both a tank main gun , and as the PaK 43 anti @-@ tank gun . One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II , it was capable of destroying any Allied tank at very long ranges .
Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent , howitzers can be fired directly , as was done by the 11th Marine Regiment at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir , during the Korean War . Two field batteries fired directly upon a battalion of Chinese infantry ; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers , as they had no time to dig them in . The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties , and were forced to retreat .
The tendency to create larger calibre cannon during the World Wars has reversed since . The United States Army , for example , sought a lighter , more versatile howitzer , to replace their ageing pieces . As it could be towed , the M198 was selected to be
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-@ clockwise in the northern hemisphere , and clockwise in the southern . The opposite to these two cases occurs in the case of a high . These results derive from the Coriolis effect ; that article explains in detail the physics , and provides an animation of a model to aid understanding .
= = Formation = =
High @-@ pressure systems form due to downward motion through the troposphere , the atmospheric layer where weather occurs . Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs .
On weather maps , these areas show converging winds ( isotachs ) , also known as confluence , or converging height lines near or above the level of non @-@ divergence , which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere , and about half the atmospheric pressure at the surface .
High @-@ pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones . On English @-@ language weather maps , high @-@ pressure centers are identified by the letter H in English , within the isobar with the highest pressure value . On constant pressure upper level charts , it is located within the highest height line contour .
= = Typical conditions = =
Highs are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence through the lower portion of the troposphere . In general , subsidence will dry out an air mass by adiabatic , or compressional , heating . Thus , high pressure typically brings clear skies . During the day , since no clouds are present to reflect sunlight , there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise . At night , the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation ( i.e. heat energy from the surface ) is not absorbed , giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . When surface winds become light , the subsidence produced directly under a high @-@ pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge , leading to widespread haze . If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight , fog can form .
Strong , vertically shallow high @-@ pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses . Once arctic air moves over an unfrozen ocean , the air mass modifies greatly over the warmer water and takes on the character of a maritime air mass , which reduces the strength of the high @-@ pressure system . When extremely cold air moves over relatively warm oceans , polar lows can develop . However , warm and moist ( or maritime tropical ) air masses that move poleward from tropical sources are slower to modify than arctic air masses .
= = In climatology = =
In terms of climatology , high pressure forms at the horse latitudes , or torrid zone , between the latitudes of 20 and 40 degrees from the equator , as a result of air that has been uplifted at the equator . As the hot air rises it cools , losing moisture ; it is then transported poleward where it descends , creating the high @-@ pressure area . This is part of the Hadley cell circulation and is known as the subtropical ridge or subtropical high , and is strongest in the summer . The subtropical ridge is a warm core high @-@ pressure system , meaning it strengthens with height . Many of the world 's deserts are caused by these climatological high @-@ pressure systems .
Some climatological high @-@ pressure areas acquire regionally based names . The land @-@ based Siberian High often remains quasi @-@ stationary for more than a month during the most frigid time of the year , making it unique in that regard . It is also a bit larger and more persistent than its counterpart in North America . Surface winds accelerating down valleys down the western Pacific ocean coastline , causing the winter monsoon . Arctic high @-@ pressure systems such as the Siberian High are cold core , meaning that they weaken with height . The influence of the Azores High , also known as the Bermuda High , brings fair weather over much of the North Atlantic Ocean and mid to late summer heat waves in western Europe . Along its southerly periphery , the clockwise circulation often impels easterly waves , and tropical cyclones that develop from them , across the ocean towards landmasses in the western portion of ocean basins during the hurricane season . The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was 1 @,@ 085 @.@ 7 hectopascals ( 32 @.@ 06 inHg ) measured in Tonsontsengel , Mongolia on 19 December 2001 .
= = Connection to wind = =
Wind flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure . This is due to density differences between the two air masses . Since stronger high @-@ pressure systems contain cooler or drier air , the air mass is more dense and flows towards areas that are warm or moist , which are in the vicinity of low pressure areas in advance of their associated cold fronts . The stronger the pressure difference , or pressure gradient , between a high @-@ pressure system and a low @-@ pressure system , the stronger the wind . The coriolis force caused by the Earth 's rotation is what gives winds within high @-@ pressure systems their clockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere ( as the wind moves outward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure ) and counterclockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere ( as the wind moves outward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure ) . Friction with land slows down the wind flowing out of high @-@ pressure systems and causes wind to flow more outward than would be the case in the absence of friction . This is known as a geostrophic wind .
= The Angels Take Manhattan =
" The Angels Take Manhattan " is the fifth episode of the seventh series of the revived British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast on BBC One on 29 September 2012 . It is the last in the first block of episodes in the seventh series , followed by the 2012 Christmas special " The Snowmen " . The episode was written by head writer Steven Moffat and directed by Nick Hurran .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) takes his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and her husband Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) to Central Park in New York City . There , recurring monsters the Weeping Angels send Rory back to the 1930s , where he is reunited with River Song ( Alex Kingston ) , Amy and Rory 's daughter . Amy and the Doctor attempt to rescue Rory , but the Doctor realises along the way that this adventure will be his last with Amy and Rory . Actors Gillan and Darvill both departed the series with this episode .
Amy 's departure from the series was a compromise between Gillan and Moffat . Moffat wrote several endings and situations for the couple , eventually deciding to incorporate the Weeping Angels . Despite being Amy and Rory 's last episode , it was not the last episode Gillan and Darvill filmed . Production took place in April 2012 , with location filming in Wales and a small crew filming in the United States in Central Park . " The Angels Take Manhattan " was watched by 7 @.@ 82 million viewers in the UK and received mostly positive reviews , though critics noted some plot holes and other logical issues .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor , Amy , and Rory enjoy a picnic in New York 's Central Park in 2012 , with the Doctor reading from a pulp novel about a 1930s detective named Melody Malone . Despite Amy 's insistence , the Doctor refuses to read ahead to reveal spoilers and tears out the last page of the book . Meanwhile , Rory goes to get coffee and is sent back to the 1930s by a cherub Weeping Angel . There , he meets River Song , who is playing the part of Melody Malone . In the present , the Doctor and Amy are shocked to find Rory written into the book . Amy insists on reading ahead , but the Doctor warns her that anything she reads will be destined to happen . Instead , they attempt to take the TARDIS back to the 1930s , finding the time machine struggling to make the journey .
Rory and River are captured by Mr. Grayle , who has a weakened Weeping Angel in his possession . Mr. Grayle orders Rory locked in the cellar with a number of the cherub angels , while he has the Angel grab River by the wrist while he interrogates her . River is able to use her vortex manipulator to set a beacon for the TARDIS , allowing the Doctor and Amy to arrive . Amy , aware of River having written the book to help guide them , uses the table of contents of the book to look for Rory . The Doctor is dismayed when he reads about River 's wrist being broken and the title of the last chapter , " Amelia 's Last Farewell " . He refuses to help River escape , hoping that the future can be changed . However , River breaks her own wrist to free herself , and the Doctor uses his regeneration energy to heal her . Amy finds the cellar empty and the Doctor is able to use River 's vortex manipulator to locate Rory at the nearby Winter Quay apartment building .
Inside , Rory finds himself drawn to an apartment with his name on it . Just as the Doctor and the others arrive , Rory finds an elderly version of himself in the bedroom . The Doctor warns that Rory 's fate is now sealed — he will die in that room , without having seen Amy for a very long time beforehand . He deduces that the Angels have been using the Quay as a battery farm , sending the victims to their past while feeding off their time energy . Rory and Amy refuse to accept their fate , and as the Angels converge , they flee to the roof , where the Statue of Liberty , revealed to be a Weeping Angel , waits for them . Rory surmises that if he kills himself by jumping off the roof , he 'll create a paradox that will destroy the building and the Angels , resetting the future . Refusing to allow him to die alone , Amy joins him and the two jump off the roof .
The Doctor , River , Amy , and Rory suddenly find themselves near the TARDIS in a New York graveyard back in 2012 , Rory 's plan having worked . As the four prepare to depart , Rory catches sight of a tombstone with his name on it . He is then touched by a surviving , albeit weakened , Angel and sent into the past . The Doctor is unable to take the TARDIS back to get him , due to the paradox Rory and Amy created . Amy refuses to be parted from Rory and willingly allows herself to be touched by the same Angel in the hopes of being sent back to the same time as he was . Her name then appears along with Rory 's on the tombstone . The Doctor is distraught , but River reminds him that while their fates are now sealed , Amy likely published the Melody Malone book in the past and may
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have left him a message . The Doctor races back to where they had their picnic and recovers the final page , finding the afterword written by Amy to him . Amy explains that she and Rory lived out a good and happy life for themselves , and asks the Doctor to visit her childhood self to assure her that he will come back for her to take her on amazing journeys . The episode ends with a young Amelia Pond sitting in her back garden , then looking up and smiling as the TARDIS engines are heard .
= = = Continuity = = =
Images from " The Eleventh Hour " of a young Amelia Pond going to the garden and awaiting the Doctor are shown at the episode 's conclusion . Amy 's afterword contains several references to her adventures with the Doctor : fighting pirates ( " The Curse of the Black Spot " ) ; falling in love with " a man who will wait two thousand years to keep her safe " ( " The Big Bang " ) ; giving hope to " the greatest painter who ever lived " ( " Vincent and the Doctor " ) ; and saving " a whale in outer space . " ( " The Beast Below " )
= = Production = =
In December 2011 , Doctor Who showrunner Steven Moffat announced that Amy and Rory would leave in the seventh series in " heartbreaking " circumstances . Amy 's exit was a mutual decision between Moffat and Gillan . Gillan stated that she wanted to go " on a high when the character was at her prime " and to " go with everything that she wants " . She wanted her character to have a final ending , and ruled out returning to the show in the future as she felt it would take away from the impact of her final scene . Moffat stated he felt " tremendous pressure " writing Amy and Rory 's ending . He later revealed that he " completely changed " the ending as he was writing it , feeling the emphasis was wrong . During rewrites Moffat went back and forth deciding whether or not Amy and Rory should live or die . He eventually decided that death would complement the storyline involving the " old , sentimental " and " dangerous " characterisation of the Doctor . At one point he considered making the story that involved the Daleks , but felt the Weeping Angels were a " better fit " . Moffat was also interested in coming up with a new form for the Angels , and so he introduced the cherubs . He also said that since the Angels had debuted in " Blink " , fans had suggested that the Statue of Liberty could be a Weeping Angel .
Gillan refused to read the script for a few weeks after she received it because she " didn 't want to make it real " . She said in an interview , " I literally couldn 't read it without crying . It was the most highly @-@ charged read @-@ through I 've ever experienced . But I couldn 't have asked for a better exit . I don 't think it 'll be what people expect . " A scene written by Chris Chibnall showing how Rory 's father Brian ( Mark Williams ) became aware of Amy and Rory 's fate did not make it into production . However , on 12 October 2012 , the BBC released an animated storyboard entitled " P.S. " that depicted the scene with narration by Darvill . It takes place one week later in Brian 's timeline after " The Power of Three " when a man named Anthony delivers him a letter from Rory , telling him that they will never return and that Anthony is their son they adopted in 1946 . The scene was written to be a DVD extra , and was not filmed due to time constraints .
The read @-@ through for " The Angels Take Manhattan " took place in the Upper Boat Studios on 23 March 2012 , alongside that for the episode " Asylum of the Daleks " . The final episode Gillan and Darvill actually shot as Amy and Rory was actually the previous episode , " The Power of Three " . Nevertheless , Gillan and Smith got very emotional filming the final graveyard scene . Amy and Rory 's scene on the rooftop was filmed in a car park in Cardiff , Wales , with a greenscreen standing in for the New York skyline . To create the effect of the two plunging down , Gillan and Darvill were suspended upside @-@ down by wires and raised and lowered . Much of the episode was filmed in Central Park in New York City in April 2012 . The filming was attended by thousands of American fans , which surprised the cast and crew . Other scenes were shot at night in the city , as well as by the East River in front of the Brooklyn Bridge and in the Tudor City apartment complex . Moffat was in New York City when he came up with the story , and thought it was appropriate for the Weeping Angels . He described the city as " a different backdrop " to shoot a Doctor Who story in , and made use of its architecture . Fellow executive producer Caroline Skinner felt that the location " has such scale and romance " which " [ gave ] the episode a real atmosphere and a very different tone for Doctor Who " . The week spent filming in the city was done by a " small unit by American standards " according to producer Marcus Wilson . They did not take any props of Angels or the TARDIS , which were instead added in post @-@ production . Filming for the episode also occurred at a cemetery in Llanelli . During post @-@ production , the New York skyline was inserted into the cemetery scenes . Gillan insisted on reading Amy 's afterword to Smith when his reaction was filmed . They were not expecting it to be in front of a crowd in Central Park , and Smith said he had to " treat this like a play " . Because the content was so secret , Gillan had to read very quietly and Smith could not hold the real page because a spectator might take a picture of it . Gillan found that she only had one page of the script , and had to improvise the rest .
The Doctor Who logo in the title sequence featured a texture showing the Statue of Liberty 's crown , in keeping with the varied " blockbuster " themes for each of the opening five episodes of the series . The beginning of the episode features the song " Englishman in New York " by Sting . On 4 October 2012 , BBC Books released the ebook The Angel 's Kiss : A Melody Malone Mystery , a prequel to the story that the Doctor was reading in the episode .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Angels Take Manhattan " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 29 September 2012 on BBC One , and on the same date in the United States on BBC America . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million viewers live , an increase of 400 @,@ 000 from the previous week . The final consolidated rating rose to 7 @.@ 82 million viewers , making it the thirteenth most @-@ watched programme of the week on British television . The episode also received 0 @.@ 92 million requests on BBC 's online iPlayer , placing it seventh for the month on the site despite only being available for a few days . It also received an Appreciation Index of 88 , the second highest of the series behind " Asylum of the Daleks " ( 89 ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian gave a positive review , writing , " This was a fitting end to a golden era , and bravo to Steven Moffat for telling such an involving , emotional story with such style " . He also praised the concept of the cherubs and the Angels in New York . However , he noted that he was " flummoxed " as to where in River 's timeline the episode took place . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller gave it five out of five stars , concluding " ' The Angels Take Manhattan ' brought this mini @-@ run of the series to a close with easily the best episode of the five : a powerful , taut , compelling , filmic , emotionally punchy affair which re @-@ established the Angels as one of the standout monsters of the series and gave Amy Pond a fine send off " . While he praised the four actors he felt Gillan was the star , and noted that Rory did not " get any sort of send @-@ off " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " The Angels Take Manhattan " a grade of A , attributing its success to " the way it does double duty as a twist adventure and a highly emotional story of farewells " .
Sam Wollaston , also writing for The Guardian , wrote positively of the scare factor in the episode , as well as the sadness . Neela Debnath of The Independent described it as a " wonderful swansong to the duo " and particularly praised the " stylish " cinematography and sense of danger . However , she considered the " only flaw " to be " the rule that time cannot be changed if one knows what is going to happen ... though it is probably best not to question the timey wimey side of things and just accept it and enjoy the adventure " . IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode 9 out of 10 , writing that it " stood strong as a heartfelt , emotional end for the TARDIS ' longest serving companions ( since the show 's noughties ' return at least ) , and the best episode of the season thus far " . Risley also praised the three leads , though he did admit the episode " left a few nitpicky questions " .
Digital Spy reviewer Morgan Jeffery gave " The Angels Take Manhattan " five out of five stars , despite noting " plotholes ... and slightly @-@ too @-@ convenient plot contrivances " and that Rory did not get a heroic exit . Jeffery particularly praised the build @-@ up to Amy and Rory 's departure as well as the " superb production design " . Dave Golder of SFX awarded the episode four out of five stars , believing that the " bittersweet exit " of the Ponds distracted the viewer from various narrative problems , such as the Statue of Liberty . He felt that Gillan and Darvill " were on top form " as well as Smith 's " brilliant performance " and a " less over @-@ the @-@ top River " , and also wrote positively about the noir theme and the Angels using the Winter Quay as a battery farm . The Huffington Post writer Maureen Ryan was more critical of the episode , worrying that the BBC 's international promotion of the show was to the detriment of the quality of the writing . She felt that Amy deserved a better exit and " was crowded out by the distracting presence of River Song and by the fact that Rory was the one to make the essential choices first " . She also personally disliked the " timey @-@ wimey " devices , and commented that the " big and operatic tone the director was clearly going for clashed with the mood of film noir " and that the Angels " felt less menacing " and the " pace was a little too frantic " .
The episode was nominated for the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , alongside " Asylum of the Daleks " and " The Snowmen " .
= Zersenay Tadese =
Zersenay Tadese ( Tigrinya : ዘርኢሰናይ ታደሰ ; born 8 February 1982 ) is an Eritrean long @-@ distance track , and road running athlete . He currently holds the men 's half marathon world record . His bronze medal in the 10 @,@ 000 metres at the 2004 Athens Olympics made him the first ever Eritrean Olympic medallist , and his 20 km title at the 2006 IAAF World Road Running Championships also made him the country 's first athlete to win at a world championship event . He does not use a sprint finish to win races : his strategy relies upon a combination of efficient running and fast pace setting .
Zersenay ( ' Tadese ' is his father 's name ) has found most of his success over the half marathon distance , with four consecutive victories in the World Half Marathon Championships from 2006 to 2009 , a fifth title in 2012 , and a world record at the Lisbon Half Marathon in 2010 . He has also excelled in cross country running , winning a gold , one silver , and two bronze medals in the long distance race over five IAAF
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I 've Sung My Last Hillbilly Song " . He recorded the tracks on used tapes , and sent the demos to the local label SARG Records . SARG rejected the recordings .
Nelson then had stints working for KDNT in Denton , Texas , KCUL and KCNC in Fort Worth , Texas , where he hosted The Western Express , taught Sunday school and he played in nightclubs . He then decided to move to San Diego . He was unable to find a job , and decided to go to Portland , Oregon , where his mother lived . Nelson tried to hitchhike , but after nobody picked him up , he slept in a ditch . He then found a nearby railroad yard and boarded a freight train that left him in Eugene . A truck driver then drove Nelson to a bus station and loaned him US $ 10 for a ticket to reach Portland .
= = Music career = =
= = = Beginnings ( 1956 – 1971 ) = = =
Nelson was hired by KVAN in Vancouver , Washington and appeared frequently on a television show . He made his first record in 1956 , " No Place For Me " , that included Leon Payne 's " Lumberjack " on the B @-@ side . The recording failed . Nelson continued working as a radio announcer and singing in Vancouver clubs . He made several appearances in a Colorado nightclub , later moving to Springfield , Missouri . After failing to land a spot on the Ozark Jubilee , he started to work as a dishwasher . Unhappy with his job , he moved back to Texas . After a short time in Waco , he settled in Fort Worth , and quit the music business for a year . He sold bibles and vacuum cleaners door @-@ to @-@ door , and eventually became a sales manager for the Encyclopedia Americana .
After his son Billy was born in 1958 , the family moved to Houston , Texas . On the way , Nelson stopped by the Esquire Ballroom to sell his original songs to house band singer Larry Butler . Butler refused to purchase the song " Mr. Record Man " for US $ 10 , instead giving Nelson a US $ 50 loan to rent an apartment and a six @-@ night job singing in the club . Nelson rented the apartment near Houston in Pasadena , Texas , where he also worked at the radio station as the sign @-@ on disc jockey . During this time , he recorded two singles for Pappy Daily on D Records " Man With the Blues " / " The Storm Has Just Begun " and " What a Way to Live " / " Misery Mansion " . Nelson then was hired by guitar instructor Paul Buskirk to work as an instructor in his school . He sold " Family Bible " to Buskirk for US $ 50 and " Night Life " for US $ 150 . " Family Bible " turned into a hit for Claude Gray in 1960 .
Nelson moved to Nashville , Tennessee in 1960 , but was unable to find a label to sign him . During this period he often spent time at Tootsie 's Orchid Lounge , a bar near the Grand Ole Opry frequented by the show 's stars and other singers and songwriters . There Nelson met Hank Cochran , a songwriter who worked for the publishing company Pamper Music , owned by Ray Price and Hal Smith . Cochran heard Nelson during a jam session with Buddy Emmons and Jimmy Day . Cochran had just earned a raise of US $ 50 a week , but convinced Smith to pay Nelson the money instead to sign him to Pamper Music . On hearing Nelson sing " Hello Walls " at Tootsie 's , Faron Young decided to record it . After Ray Price recorded Nelson 's " Night Life " , and his previous bassist Johnny Paycheck quit , Nelson joined Price 's touring band as a bass player . While playing with Price and the Cherokee Cowboys , his songs became hits for other artists , including " Funny How Time Slips Away " ( Billy Walker ) , " Pretty Paper " ( Roy Orbison ) , and , most famously , " Crazy " by Patsy Cline . Nelson and Cochran also met Cline 's husband , Charlie Dick at Tootsie 's . Dick liked a song of Nelson 's he heard on the bar 's jukebox . Nelson played him a demo tape of " Crazy . " Later that night Dick played the tape for Cline , who decided to record it . " Crazy " became the biggest jukebox hit of all time .
Nelson signed with Liberty Records and was recording by August 1961 at Quonset Hut Studio . His first two successful singles as an artist were released by the next year , including " Willingly " ( a duet with his soon @-@ to @-@ be second wife , Shirley Collie , which became his first charting single and first Top Ten at No. 10 ) and " Touch Me " ( his second Top Ten , stalling at No. 7 ) . Nelson 's tenure at Liberty yielded his first album entitled ... And Then I Wrote , released in September 1962 . In 1963 Collie and Nelson were married in Las Vegas . He then worked on the west coast offices of Pamper Records , in Pico Rivera , California . Since the job did not allow him the time to play music of his own , he left it and bought a ranch in Ridgetop , Tennessee , outside of Nashville . Fred Foster of Monument Records signed Nelson in early 1964 , but only one single was released : " I Never Cared For You " .
By the fall of 1964 , Nelson had moved to RCA Victor at the behest of Chet Atkins , signing a contract for US $ 10 @,@ 000 per year . Country Willie – His Own Songs became Nelson 's first RCA Victor album , recorded in April 1965 . That same year he joined the Grand Ole Opry , and he met and became friends with Waylon Jennings after watching one of his shows in Phoenix , Arizona . In 1967 , he formed his backing band " The Record Men " , featuring Johnny Bush , Jimmy Day , Paul English and David Zettner . During his first few years on RCA Victor , Nelson had no significant hits , but from November 1966 through March 1969 , his singles reached the Top 25 in a consistent manner . " One in a Row " ( # 19 , 1966 ) , " The Party 's Over " ( # 24 during a 16 @-@ week chart run in 1967 ) , and his cover of Morecambe & Wise 's " Bring Me Sunshine " ( # 13 , March 1969 ) were Nelson 's best @-@ selling records during his time with RCA .
By 1970 , most of his songwriting royalties were invested in tours that did not produce significant profits . In addition to the problems in his career , Nelson divorced Shirley Collie in 1970 . In December , his ranch in Ridgetop , Tennessee burned down . He interpreted the incident as a signal for a change . He moved to a ranch near Bandera , Texas , and married Connie Koepke . In early 1971 his single " I 'm a Memory " reached the top 30 . After recording his final RCA single – " Mountain Dew " ( backed with " Phases , Stages , Circles , Cycles and Scenes " ) in late April 1972 , RCA requested that Nelson renew his contract ahead of schedule , with the implication that RCA would not release his latest recordings if he did not . Due to the failure of his albums , and particularly frustrated by the reception of Yesterday 's Wine , although his contract was not over , Nelson decided to retire from music .
= = = Outlaw country and success ( 1972 – 1989 ) = = =
Nelson moved to Austin , Texas , where the burgeoning hippie music scene ( see Armadillo World Headquarters ) rejuvenated the singer . His popularity in Austin soared as he played his own brand of country music marked by country , folk and jazz influences . In March , he performed on the final day of the Dripping Springs Reunion , a three @-@ day country music festival aimed by its producers to be an annual event . Despite the failure to reach the expected attendance , the concept of the festival inspired Nelson to create the Fourth of July Picnic , his own annual event , starting the following year .
Nelson decided to return to the recording business , he signed Neil Reshen as his manager to negotiate with RCA , who got the label to agree to end his contract upon repayment of US $ 14 @,@ 000 . Reshen eventually signed Nelson to Atlantic Records for US $ 25 @,@ 000 per year , where he became the label 's first country artist . He formed his backing band , The Family , and by February 1973 , he was recording his acclaimed Shotgun Willie at Atlantic Studios in New York City .
Shotgun Willie , released in May 1973 , earned excellent reviews but did not sell well . The album led Nelson to a new style , later stating that Shotgun Willie had " cleared his throat " . His next release , Phases and Stages , released in 1974 , was a concept album about a couple 's divorce , inspired by his own experience . Side one of the record is from the viewpoint of the woman , and side two is from the viewpoint of the man . The album included the hit single " Bloody Mary Morning . " The same year , he produced and starred in the pilot episode of PBS ' Austin City Limits .
Nelson then moved to Columbia Records , where he signed a contract that gave him complete creative control , made possible by the critical and commercial success of his previous albums . The result was the critically acclaimed , and massively popular 1975 concept album Red Headed Stranger . Although Columbia was reluctant to release an album with primarily a guitar and piano for accompaniment , Nelson and Waylon Jennings insisted . The album included a cover of Fred Rose 's 1945 song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , that had been released as a single previous to the album , and became Nelson 's first number one hit as a singer . Throughout his 1975 tour , Nelson raised funds for PBS @-@ affiliated stations across the south promoting Austin City Limits . The pilot was aired first on those stations , later being released nationwide . The positive reception of the show prompted PBS to order ten episodes for 1976 , formally launching the show .
As Jennings was also achieving success in country music in the early 1970s , the pair were combined into a genre called outlaw country , since it did not conform to Nashville standards . The album Wanted ! The Outlaws in 1976 with Jessi Colter and Tompall Glaser cemented the pair 's outlaw image and became country music 's first platinum album . Later that year Nelson released The Sound in Your Mind ( certified gold in 1978 and platinum in 2001 ) and his first gospel album Troublemaker ( certified gold in 1986 ) .
In the summer of 1977 , Nelson discovered that Reshen had been filing tax extensions and not paying the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) since he took over as his manager . In June , a package containing cocaine was sent from Reshen 's office in New York to Jennings in Nashville . The package was followed by the DEA , and Jennings was arrested . The charges were later dropped , since Reshen 's assistant , Mark Rothbaum stepped in and took the charges . Rothbaum was senteced to serve time in jail . Impressed by his attitude , Nelson fired Reshen and hired Rothbaum as his manager . In 1978 , Nelson released two more platinum albums . One , Waylon & Willie , was a collaboration with Jennings that included " Mammas Don 't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys " , a hit single written and performed by Ed Bruce . Though observers predicted that Stardust would ruin his career , it went platinum the same year . Nelson continued to top the charts with hit songs during the late 1970s , including " Good Hearted Woman " , " Remember Me " , " If You 've Got the Money I 've Got the Time " , and " Uncloudy Day " .
During the 1980s , Nelson recorded a series of hit singles including " Midnight Rider " , a 1980 cover of the Allman Brothers song which Nelson recorded for The Electric Horseman , the soundtrack " On the Road Again " from the movie Honeysuckle Rose , and a duet with Julio Iglesias titled " To All the Girls I 've Loved Before " .
In 1982 , Pancho & Lefty , a duet album with Merle Haggard produced by Chips Moman was released . During the recording sessions of Pancho and Lefty , session guitarist Johnny Christopher and co @-@ writer of " Always on My Mind " , tried to pitch the song to an uninterested Haggard . Nelson , who was unaware of Elvis Presley 's version of the song asked him to record it . Produced by Moman , the single of the song was released , as well as the album of the same name . The single topped Billboard 's Hot Country Singles , while it reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100 . The release won three awards during the 25th Annual Grammy Awards : Song of the Year , Best Country Song and Best Male Country Vocal Performance . The single was certified platinum ; while the album was certified quadruple @-@ platinum , and later inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008 .
Meanwhile , two collaborations with Waylon Jennings were released ; WWII in 1982 , and Take it to the Limit , another collaboration with Waylon Jennings was released in 1983 . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Nelson , Jennings , Kristofferson , and Johnny Cash formed The Highwaymen , who achieved platinum record sales and toured the world . Meanwhile , he became more involved with charity work , such as singing on We are the World in 1984 . In 1985 , Nelson had another success with Half Nelson , a compilation album of duets with a range of artists such as Ray Charles and Neil Young . In 1980 , Nelson performed on the south lawn of the White House . The concert of September 13 featured First Lady Rosalynn Carter and Nelson in a duet of Ray Wylie Hubbard 's " Up Against the Wall Redneck Mother " . Nelson frequently visited the White House , where according to the biography by Joe Nick Patoski , Willie Nelson : An Epic Life , he smoked marijuana on the White House roof .
= = = IRS and later career ( 1990 – present ) = = =
In 1990 , the IRS seized most of Nelson 's assets , claiming that he owed US $ 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . In addition to the unpaid taxes , Nelson 's situation was worsened by the weak investments he had made during the early 1980s . In 1978 , after he fired Reshen , Nelson was introduced by Dallas lawyer Terry Bray to the accounting firm Price Waterhouse . To repay the debt Reshen had created with the IRS , Nelson was recommended to invest in tax shelters that ultimately flopped . While the IRS disallowed his deductions for 1980 , 1981 and 1982 ( at a time that Nelson 's income multiplied ) , due to penalties and interests , the debt increased by the end of the decade .
His lawyer , Jay Goldberg , negotiated the sum to be lowered to US $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Later , Nelson 's attorney renegotiated a settlement with the IRS in which he paid US $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , although Nelson did not comply with the agreement . Nelson released The IRS Tapes : Who 'll Buy My Memories ? as a double album , with all profits destined for the IRS . Many of his assets were auctioned and purchased by friends , who donated or rented his possessions to him for a nominal fee . He sued Price Waterhouse , contending that they put his money in illegal tax shelters . The lawsuit was settled for an undisclosed amount and Nelson cleared his debts by 1993 .
During the
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and freeholders had become important , and burgh commissioners joined them to form the Three Estates . It acquired significant powers over particular issues , including consent for taxation , but it also had a strong influence over justice , foreign policy , war , and other legislation , whether political , ecclesiastical , social or economic . Much of the legislative business of the Scottish parliament was carried out by a parliamentary committee known as the Lords of the Articles , chosen by the three estates to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed . Like many continental assemblies the Scottish Parliament was being called less frequently by the early sixteenth century and might have been dispensed with by the crown had it not been for the series of minorities and regencies that dominated from 1513 . The crown was also able to call a Convention of Estates , which was quicker to assemble and could issue laws like parliament , making them invaluable in a crisis , but they could only deal with a specific issue and were more resistant to the giving of taxation rights to the crown .
Parliament played a major part in the Reformation crisis of the mid @-@ sixteenth century . It had been used by James V to uphold Catholic orthodoxy and asserted its right to determine the nature of religion in the country , disregarding royal authority in 1560 . The 1560 parliament included 100 lairds , who were predominantly Protestant , and who claimed a right to sit in the Parliament under the provision of a failed shire election act of 1428 . Their position in the parliament remained uncertain and their presence fluctuated until the 1428 act was revived in 1587 and provision made for the annual election of two commissioners from each shire ( except Kinross and Clackmannan , which had one each ) . The property qualification for voters was for freeholders who held land from the crown of the value of 40s of auld extent . This excluded the growing class of feuars , who would not gain these rights until 1661 . The clerical estate was marginalised in Parliament by the Reformation , with the laymen who had acquired the monasteries sitting as ' abbots ' and ' priors ' . Catholic clergy were excluded after 1567 , but a small number of Protestant bishops continued as the clerical estate . James VI attempted to revive the role of the bishops from about 1600 . They were abolished by the Covenanters in 1638 , when Parliament became an entirely lay assembly . A further group appeared in the Parliament from the minority of James IV in the 1560s , with members of the Privy Council representing the king 's interests , until they were excluded in 1641 . James VI continued to manage parliament though the Lords of the Articles , who deliberated legislation before it reached the full parliament . He controlled the committee by filling it with royal officers as non @-@ elected members , but was forced to limit this to eight from 1617 .
Having been officially suspended at the end of the Cromwellian regime , parliament returned after the Restoration of Charles II in 1661 . This parliament , known disparagingly as the ' Drunken Parliament ' , revoked most of the Presbyterian gains of the last thirty years . Subsequently Charles ' absence from Scotland and use of commissioners to rule his northern kingdom undermined the authority of the body . James VII 's parliament supported him against rivals and attempted rebellions , but after his escape to exile in 1689 William 's first parliament was dominated by his supporters and , in contrast to the situation in England , effectively deposed James under the Claim of Right , which offered the crown to William and Mary , placing important limitations on royal power , including the abolition of the Lords of the Articles . Rosalind Mitchison argues that the parliament became a focus of national political life , but it never reached the position of a true centre of national identity attained by its English counterpart . The new Williamite parliament would subsequently bring about its own demise by the Act of Union in 1707 . The English and Scottish parliaments were replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain , but it sat in Westminster and largely continued English traditions without interruption . Forty @-@ five Scots were added to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords .
= = Taxation and revenue = =
For the early part of the era , the authority of the crown was limited by the large number of minorities it had seen since the early fifteenth century , with every monarch coming to the throne as a minor between 1406 and 1625 . This tended to decrease the level of royal revenues , as regents , lacking the royal authority to create support , often alienated land and revenues , with Margaret Tudor reducing royal income from about £ 30 @,@ 000 Scots to £ 13 @,@ 000 in the minority of James V. James V was able to extract the heaviest taxation every levied on the Scottish church in exchange for his continued loyalty to the papacy , taking £ 72 @,@ 000 in four years . Regular taxation was adopted from 1581 and afterwards was called on with increasing frequency and scale until a demand of £ 240 @,@ 000 in 1612 resulted in serious opposition . A new tax on annual rents amounting to five per cent on all interest on loans , mainly directed at the merchants of the burghs was introduced in 1621 , but the 1621 levy was still being collected over a decade later . Under Charles I the annual income from all sources in Scotland was under £ 16 @,@ 000 sterling and inadequate for the normal costs of government , with the court in London now being financed out of English revenues . The sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 a month from the county assessment was demanded by the Cromwellian regime , which Scotland failed to fully supply , but it did contribute £ 35 @,@ 000 in excise a year . Although Parliament made a formal grant of £ 40 @,@ 000 a year to Charles II , the rising costs of civilian government and war meant that this was inadequate to support Scottish government . Under William I and after the Union , engagement in continental and colonial wars led to heavier existing taxes and new taxes , including the Poll and Hearth Taxes .
= = Local government = =
From the sixteenth century , the central government became increasingly involved in local affairs . The feud was limited and regulated , local taxation became much more intrusive and from 1607 regular , local commissions of Justices of the Peace on the English model were established to deal with petty crimes and infractions . Greater control was exerted over the lawless Borders through a joint commission with the English , set up in 1587 . James VI was much more hostile to the culture and particularism of the Highlands than his predecessors . He sent colonists from Fife to parts of the region and forced the Highland chiefs to accept Lowland language and culture through the Statues of Iona of 1609 . From the seventeenth century the responsibilities of shires expanded from judicial functions into wider local administration . In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were appointed in each sheriffdom or shire to collect the cess land tax .
The parish also became an important unit of local government after three major pieces of legislation , in 1574 , 1579 and 1592 , established what would become known as " the Old Poor Law " . Pressured by Justices , the parish became responsible for taking care of the destitute in periods of famine , to prevent the impoverished from taking to the roads and causing general disorder . By the mid @-@ seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands , but was limited in the Highlands . It was able to cope with the general level of poverty and minor crises , helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost , but was overwhelmed in major subsistence crisis like that of the " seven ill years " of the 1690s . Behaviour could be regulated through kirk sessions , composed of local church elders , which replaced the church courts of the Middle Ages , and which dealt with moral and religious conduct . The local court baron remained important in regulating minor interpersonal and property offences . They were held at the behest of the local baron when there was a backlog of cases and could appoint birleymen , usually senior tenants , who would resolve disputes and issues . The combination of kirk sessions and courts baron gave considerable power to local lairds to control the behaviour of the populations of their communities .
= = Law = =
In the late Middle Ages , justice in Scotland was a mixture of the royal and local , which was often unsystematic with overlapping jurisdictions , undertaken by clerical lawyers , laymen , amateurs and local leaders . Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised , with a royal Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases . In 1514 the office of justice @-@ general was created for the earl of Argyll ( and held by his family until 1628 ) . The study of law was popular in Scotland from the Middle Ages and many students travelled to Continental Europe to study canon law and civil law . In 1532 the Royal College of Justice was founded , leading to the training and professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers . The Court of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from influence , including from the king , and superior jurisdiction over local justice . Its judges were increasingly able to control entry to their own ranks . In 1605 the professionalisation of the bench led to entry requirements in Latin , law and a property qualification of £ 2 @,@ 000 , designed to limit the danger of bribery , helping to create an exclusive , wealthy , powerful and professional caste , who also now dominated government posts in a way that the clergy had done in the Middle Ages . In 1672 the High Court of Justiciary was founded from the College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal . The Act of Union in 1707 largely persevered the distinct Scottish legal system and its courts , separate from English jurisdiction . The major reform to Scottish law came as a result of the Heritable Jurisdictions Act 1747 , which was part of the government reaction to the Jacobite rising of 1745 and which limited the powers of burgh courts , abolished hereditary offices and made the barony and regality courts obsolete , strengthening the reach of the central judicial courts .
This period also saw widespread attempts to codify and comment on the Scottish legal system . The first substantive account of Scottish law was the Practicks of Bishop John Sinclair ( d . 1566 ) , senator of the College of Justice . This was followed by James Balfour 's ( c . 1525 – 83 ) Practicks , who with Sir John Skene of Curriehill ( c . 1543 – 1617 ) , was a major figure in the move to codification . Skene produced an edition of the Acts of Parliament and a legal dictionary , De Verborum Significatione and edited Regiam Maisestatem , a history of the Scottish law , which attributed much of its creation to David I. Thomas Craig of Riccarton ( c . 1538 – 1608 ) produced two large works , Jus Feudale , which examined feudal law , and De Unione Regnorum Britanniae , which explored the possibilities of unifying the English and Scottish legal systems . Often seen as the beginning of modern Scottish legal study is James Dalrymple , 1st Viscount of Stair 's ( 1619 – 95 ) The Institutions of the Law of Scotland ( 1681 ) .
= Superman : Krypton Coaster =
Superman : Krypton Coaster is a Bolliger & Mabillard Floorless Coaster at the Six Flags Fiesta Texas amusement park in San Antonio , Texas , USA . Opened in 2000 , Superman : Krypton Coaster was one of the first floorless roller coasters in the world . The well @-@ received ride held the title for the world 's tallest vertical loop ( 145 feet ) from its opening until 2013 . It is also known as for being the world 's tallest and fastest floorless coaster at 168 ft ( 51 m ) high and a top speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Six Flags describes the coaster Thrill Level at MAXIMUM . Six Flags has announced plans to add Virtual Reality to Superman : Krypton Coaster to enchance the experience .
= = History = =
In 1999 , Six Flags Great Adventure spent $ 42 million on new attractions including a prototype Floorless Coaster by Bolliger & Mabillard , Medusa ( later Bizarro ) . The immediate popularity of the ride , led to Six Flags Fiesta Texas and three other amusement parks to announce plans to install Floorless Coasters in 2000 ; aside from the announcement of Superman : Krypton Coaster on November 1 , 1999 , Six Flags Discovery Kingdom announced Medusa , Geauga Lake announced Dominator , and SeaWorld Orlando announced Kraken . The $ 20 million Superman : Krypton Coaster was announced as part of a wider multimillion @-@ dollar expansion of Six Flags Fiesta Texas .
At the time of the ride 's announcement , construction had already begun on unused land bordered by quarry walls and an irrigation pond . The initial plans for the ride specified it would have seven inversions including a 114 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 35 m ) vertical loop and a 96 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 29 m ) dive loop . Following the ride 's announcement , the design was altered to remove the dive loop and increase the size of the vertical loop to 145 feet ( 44 m ) . This saw Superman : Krypton Coaster obtain the record for the world 's tallest vertical loop when it officially opened to the public on March 11 , 2000 .
On March 6 , 2010 , Six Flags Fiesta Texas offered exclusive ride time on Superman : Krypton Coaster to help celebrate the ride 's 10th anniversary . On June 22 , 2013 , Superman : Krypton Coaster lost the title of having the world 's tallest vertical loop since Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia , California opened Full Throttle which features a 160 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 49 m ) vertical loop , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) taller than the loop on Superman : Krypton Coaster .
On March 3 , 2016 , Six Flags announced that the ride would be one of several rides at various Six Flags parks to feature a VR system . Riders have the option of wearing a Samsung Gear VR headset , powered by Oculus to create a 360 @-@ degree , 3D experience while riding . It is themed to Superman saving a city from Lex Luthor 's Lex Bots who are causing chaos with an anti @-@ gravity ray . This theming will also come to the Superman : The Ride at Six Flags New England and Superman - Ride of Steel at Six Flags America .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Statistics = = =
The 4 @,@ 025 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 227 m ) Superman : Krypton Coaster stands 168 feet ( 51 m ) tall . With a top speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) , the ride will tie with Iron Rattler as the fastest roller coaster at Six Flags Fiesta Texas . The ride features six inversions including a 145 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 44 m ) vertical loop , a zero @-@ g roll , a 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) cobra roll and two corkscrews .
= = = Trains = = =
Superman : Krypton Coaster operates with three floorless trains . Each train seats 32 riders in eight rows of four . This gives the ride a theoretical hourly capacity of 1600 riders per hour . The open @-@ air trains feature seats which leave riders ' legs dangling above the track . Riders are restrainted with over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints ( OTSRs ) . As the trains are floorless , the station has a retractable floor for safe boarding .
= = Ride experience = =
After riders have boarded and the station floor is retracted , Superman : Krypton Coaster departs with a left turn out of the station . This leads directly to the 168 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 51 m ) chain lift hill . At the top , the train crests the lift hill and follows a fairly level 180 degree turn to the right above the quarry wall . This leads into a 168 @-@ foot ( 51 m ) drop off the quarry wall directly into the 145 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 44 m ) vertical loop . With the quarry wall on the track 's right , the train inclines to the top of the wall where it performs a helix to the right . After dropping from the quarry wall again , the train enters the zero @-@ g roll where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . This is followed by the 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) cobra roll and a mid @-@ course brake run . The exit from the mid @-@ course brake run banks down to the right into the two interlocking corkscrews . This leads to a final turn before the final brake run and return to the station .
= = Reception = =
Prior to launch , General Manager of Six Flags Fiesta Texas John Odum stated Superman : Krypton Coaster was " the big @-@ league ride we have really needed " . He stated the design of the ride , which interacts with the quarry wall , would make a thrilling ride : " being that close to the wall there is a good sense of speed " . In May 2000 , two months after Superman : Krypton Coaster opened , it was reported that the park was " off to a flying start " for the season . Six Flags Fiesta Texas officials stated the ride proved popular in its first year of operation .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Superman : Krypton Coaster was ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters numerous times since its opening . It peaked at position 24 in 2002 , before it dropped to 50 in 2008 and rose again to 38 in 2011 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Superman : Krypton Coaster entered at position 20 in 2001 and peaked at 17 in 2004 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
= Sanctuary ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the Canadian science fiction – fantasy television series Sanctuary premiered on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on October 3 , 2008 , and concluded on ITV4 in the United Kingdom on January 5 , 2009 , after 13 episodes . It follows the actions of a secret organization known as the Sanctuary , who track down a series of creatures known as abnormals , and then bring them to the Sanctuary for refuge . The main story arc of the season involves the Sanctuary working against the Cabal , an organization who seek to control all abnormals for their own gain . Amanda Tapping , Robin Dunne , Emilie Ullerup , and Christopher Heyerdahl are billed in the opening credits as the main cast .
Initially an eight @-@ part web series , Sanctuary was successful enough for Sci Fi to commission a television series . Series creator and head writer Damian Kindler hired Sam Egan , and the two wrote all the episodes and composed the season @-@ long storyline . Many episodes had been written throughout the 2007 Christmas season before the season was green @-@ lit . Principal photography started in May 2008 . It was the first instance in North American television where RED cameras were used . Most of the season was filmed using green screen in a warehouse in Burnaby , British Columbia , though there are instances throughout that were filmed on location , including the Riverview Hospital in Coquitlam and the North Shore Mountains outside Vancouver . Anthem Visual Effects produced the season 's visual effects . The virtual sets meant that they produced around 400 visual effects per episode . Other forms of special effects , including prosthetics , were used to present the abnormals . The first season was budgeted at an estimated $ 21 million .
Sanctuary 's first season aired in over 50 countries worldwide . The season premiere drew the largest audience with 2 @.@ 7 million viewers , the highest rated Sci Fi premiere since Eureka in July 2006 . Including time @-@ shifted viewing , the season was seen by an average of 2 @.@ 35 million viewers per episode ; the ratings success allowed Sci Fi to renew Sanctuary for a second season . Critical reactions of the season were mixed . Some reviewers noted that , although the first six episodes were " hit and miss " , they liked the later episodes . In total , it won five awards : one Gemini and four Leos . The first season was released on a four @-@ disc set on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 9 , 2009 , in Region 4 , September 15 in Region 1 , and October 15 in Region 2 .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast .
= = Cast = =
= = = Regular cast = = =
The first season consists of four principal cast members . Amanda Tapping plays series protagonist Helen Magnus , a 157 @-@ year @-@ old English scientist who runs the Sanctuary network . Tapping darkened her hair color for the role . Robin Dunne plays Will Zimmerman , a former forensic psychiatrist and then Magnus ' protégé since the pilot . Damian Kindler noted that Dunne 's portrayal as Zimmerman differed vastly between the webisodes and the first season , often joking that Zimmerman was played by two different Dunnes . Emilie Ullerup plays Ashley , Magnus ' daughter . Ullerup enjoyed working with the cast during the first season . She felt that Tapping was " such a teacher " to her , and that it had been " such a treat " working with Tapping as a young and new actress .
Christopher Heyerdahl plays two characters : Bigfoot , an abnormal who works in the Sanctuary , and John Druitt , Magnus ' former fiancé and father to Ashley . As Bigfoot , Heyerdahl had to wear prosthetics . Tapping believed that Heyerdahl " has this incredible gift wearing prosthetics and acting through them and creating real humanity , and he does it with Bigfoot . " Ullerup also felt nervous , yet excited playing every scene with Heyerdahl when he plays Druitt .
= = = Recurring cast and guest appearances = = =
Ryan Robbins plays Henry Foss , who runs the Sanctuary 's computer and security systems . The producers wanted Henry to set a lighter tone to the series and add " goofy and fun " humor , including in somewhat dire situations . The producers cast Robbins , and were pleased with his performance . Chuck Campbell plays " two @-@ faced guy " , a character with another face at the back of his head . The back face was accomplished using visual effects . Panou plays Sylvio , an associate of Ashley 's . The character was originally named Ernie and was played by director Peter DeLuise in the webisodes , but he was unavailable to reshoot his scenes for the season premiere . Jonathon Young stars as Nikola Tesla . Heyerdahl suggested Young to the producers , who ended up being highly impressed by his performance . Young also played Tesla in a one @-@ man show before appearing in the series . Whilst filming the second part of " Revelations " , Young 's scenes in the underground city were filmed first , as he was scheduled for another play while the episode was shot .
At the time of filming " The Five " , the actors who played Watson and Griffin had not been cast yet . The producers would later cast Peter Wingfield as Watson . According to Amanda Tapping , casting Wingfield was " so easy " as " he has this sensibility about him , much like [ Christopher Heyerdahl ] does . " While filming his scenes , Wingfield did not want his exoskeleton prop to be removed between takes , as he wanted to stay in character . When the producers conceived Clara Griffin , the granddaughter of Nigel Griffin , they were looking for a young local actress to play the part who would look like a potential love interest to Will Zimmerman . Christine Chatelain would later play the part after she was recommended by Dunne , as they had worked together before .
When Adrien Dorval auditioned for his part on " Kush " , Kindler did not like his performance , but Wood did , as he believed the actor 's performance was perfect for a character who was stranded on a plane . For the same episode , Sarah Strange and Thai @-@ Hoa Lee had to learn how to speak Standard Tibetan phonetically a week in advance of filming . Katharine Isabelle guest starred in " Nubbins " as Sophie . While filming her scenes , Isabelle complained of a dry eye problem , which kept making her almost tear up . However , it ended up being beneficial for her portrayal of her character . Canadian actor Daryl Shuttleworth guest stars as a fight promoter in " Warriors " . During a readthrough of the script , Shuttleworth decided his character should speak with a British accent like in the film Lock , Stock and Two Smoking Barrels . The producers wanted to cast Rekha Sharma in " Instinct " as she appeared in several other Vancouver @-@ based productions , including Battlestar Galactica . The producers felt she " rocked " her audition , as she brought a lot of energy to her character .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Series creator Damian Kindler conceived the pilot in 2001 . When he became a Stargate SG @-@ 1 writer , he later asked Martin Wood , a director from the same show , if there was potential for a series , which Wood believed there was . A few years later , Kindler asked Amanda Tapping to take part in the project , and she accepted . Sanctuary originally started as an eight @-@ part bi @-@ weekly web series in 2007 , produced by Vancouver @-@ based Stage 3 Media . The producers of the series were looking to expand the series on other mediums , including television . Due to the success of the web series , in January 2008 , the Sci Fi Channel announced the commissioning of a first season of 13 episodes . The move to television has allowed the producers to widen the scope for the season . According to actress and executive producer Amanda Tapping , the season " is very different from what you 've seen on the Web " . However , her character , Helen Magnus , would still be a " crazy character ; [ ... ] very eccentric and very sexy and very unapologetic " . The season was given an estimated budget of $ 21 million .
= = = Writing = = =
All episodes of the first season were written by Sam Egan and Kindler ; Kindler hired Egan to assist in writing the first season , as he believed Egan to be creative , passionate , and talented . Several episodes of the first season were written throughout the Christmas season in 2007 . After the series was given the green @-@ light , they were rewritten to establish a season @-@ long storyline . Some of the episodes finished their writing stage as little as two and a half weeks before filming commenced . At times after the scripts were written , Sci Fi executive Mark Stern fed back to the writers , asking for certain elements to be explained so the audience could understand .
Kindler wrote both parts of " Sanctuary for All " , as well " Fata Morgana " , " Kush " , " The Five " , " Requiem " , " Instinct " , and the second part of " Revelations " . He penned his scripts quickly , with " Kush " being written in three and a half days . Wood contributed to the story of " Fata Morgana " by bringing up the idea of incorporating the Morrígan from Irish mythology , which would start giving the season an ancient and mythological feel . " Kush " introduces a series of episodes involving the working relationship between Will and Magnus . " The Five " became a significant part of the series mythology , revealing the Five , which Magnus is a part of , how Magnus got her longevity , and that Henry Foss is actually part werewolf . Tapping believed that introducing the Five was a " cool concept " . Kindler introduced vampires in the episode , and felt it would be best to introduce them as a dead species . He also felt that including real @-@ life historic figures such as Tesla was a " very ballsy thing " . In " Requiem " , Kindler wanted a scenario in which Will has to make a difficult decision to deal with Magnus when she becomes the threat of the episode . Though Kindler at first believed it was not a good episode , it ended up as a highlight of the season according to the producers . In writing " Instinct " , Kindler , inspired by Cloverfield , wanted to show the audience the protagonists hunting an abnormal in real @-@ time , where it does not always go according to plan .
Egan meanwhile , wrote " Folding Man " , " Nubbins " , " Edward " , " Warriors " , and the first part of " Revelations " . He also co @-@ wrote " Sanctuary for All " with Kindler . Egan liked to include the Rashomon effect in some of his scripts , a plot device which interprets scenes from different points of view . After writing " Folding Man " , Egan realized that he inadvertently based it on an episode of The X @-@ Files . " Nubbins " was inspired by the Star Trek original series episode " The Trouble With Tribbles " . " Edward " was inspired by Egan hearing of a young English man with savant syndrome , who flew over a city he had not visited before , and was able to accurately draw the city on a mural some 20 feet wide . Because the episode involved an abnormal , Egan wanted the boy to draw much faster . In writing " Warriors " , Egan wanted to reintroduce Magnus ' father Gregory Magnus from the webisodes ; there were plans to introduce him in " Fata Morgana " , but the idea did not make it to the final episode . Gregory was written not to have the longevity of his daughter . Egan decided not to include a full explanation of how he survived a hundred years without aging , but wanted to hint to the audience that he was in fact cryogenically frozen by the Cabal . The intention behind " Revelations " was to tie some of the previous episodes together , particularly involving the Cabal , and then set them up for the second season . The main issue with writing the finale was showing Ashley being interrogated , where in fact she was experimented on to turn her to the Cabal . Because Kindler wrote his script quickly , he believed that the misdirect did not turn out the way he hoped .
= = = Differences from the webisodes = = =
Differences were made between the original webisodes and the first episodes of the season . One example is the introduction of Druitt . In the webisodes , Druitt murders a prostitute after arriving in Old City , but in the pilot , writer Damian Kindler included dialogue between the two characters before Druitt murders her , as a way of proving to the audience how evil he is . Another is the ending of " Fata Morgana " , where the Morrígan leave the Sanctuary with the Cabal mercenaries ; in the webisodes , the sisters escape . Druitt directly tells Ashley in one of the first webisodes that he is her father . In the first season , the producers decided that she would not be aware of this until midway through , and even then , they did not want Druitt to tell her directly , but rather hint it to her , so that Ashley can pick up the pieces herself .
= = = Filming = = =
Initial photography started in May 2008 , and took place mostly in a warehouse in Burnaby , British Columbia . Each episode took around seven days to film , though some were completed in as little as five and a half . The first
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) , to a record crowd of 15 @,@ 000 . The group performed " Live While We 're Young " and " Little Things " on the BBC 's Children in Need 2012 telethon ( 16 November ) . One Direction also performed the track at Germany 's Bambi Awards ( 22 November ) . " Live While We 're Young " was included in the set list of the group 's headlining sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden ( 3 December ) . It also was incorporated on the set list of the group 's worldwide Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , utilised as the show 's twentieth song .
" Live While We 're Young " was featured in a Pepsi television commercial for the United States that featured both One Direction and the American football player Drew Brees . It premiered on Fox in the United States on 10 October 2012 . Vena called the clip comedic and assessed : " The brand @-@ new commercial not only allows the group to show off their funny bones , but it also serves as a reminder that their new album Take Me Home , featuring " LWWY , " is only a month away from dropping . " It was one of the songs covered by the cast of Glee during the 29 November 2012 episode " Thanksgiving " . The fictional character Sebastian Smythe , portrayed by Grant Gustin , sang lead vocals while the fictional Dalton Academy Warblers sang back @-@ up . The version was released on the studio album , Glee : The Music , Season 4 , Volume 1 . The track was also used for the opening scene of the Miss Universe 2012 pageant .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download – EP
" Live While We 're Young " – 3 : 18
" Live While We 're Young " ( Dave Audé remix ) – 5 : 40
" Live While We 're Young " ( The Jump Smokers remix ) – 4 : 25
" I Want " ( Live ) – 3 : 06
" Moments " ( Live ) ( Pre @-@ order only ) – 4 : 44
UK and US CD single
" Live While We 're Young " – 3 : 18
" I Want " ( Live ) – 3 : 06
= = Credits and personnel = =
Carl Falk – writing , production , programming , instruments , guitar , background vocals
Kristoffer Fogelmark – background vocals
Niall Horan – additional guitar
Savan Kotecha – writing , background vocals
Rami Yacoub – writing , production , programming , instruments , bass
Marcus Thompson - Flute
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Take Me Home .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = See Also = =
One Thing
Best Song Ever
Steal My Girl
What Makes You Beautiful
Drag Me Down
= New York State Route 373 =
New York State Route 373 ( NY 373 ) is a short state highway in Essex County , New York , within Adirondack State Park . It begins at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and proceeds eastward , ending at a ferry landing on Lake Champlain . It intersects two county routes , several local roads , and a reference route — NY 912T — which connects it with US 9 . NY 373 is the only connector between US 9 and the hamlet of Port Kent and the ferry that serves it .
The hamlet of Port Kent and the connecting road were originally built in 1823 . The village was planned to act as a source of labor for iron manufacturing and to provide for the industrial needs of Essex County . The hamlet grew and eventually became connected to Burlington , Vermont , via an hour @-@ long ferry across Lake Champlain . The road that accessed Port Kent originally began in Keeseville , but became part of the longer Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike in the 1830s . The highway that is now NY 373 was also designated as part of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway in 1919 .
When NY 373 was assigned in 1930 , a small portion of it was maintained by the town of Chesterfield . This section was turned over to the State of New York during a maintenance swap with Essex County in 1985 .
= = Route description = =
NY 373 , located entirely within Adirondack State Park , begins at US 9 at the Ausable Chasm , a deep , wooded canyon in the town of Chesterfield . The route intersects with NY 912T , its southern connector to US 9 , about 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 160 m ) in . NY 373 continues farther along and intersects with County Route 71 ( CR 71 ) before heading east @-@ southeast just north of the Ausable River . The highway then intersects CR 17 and several local roads , and then turns east @-@ northeast .
The route then passes south of a golf course and enters Port Kent , where it intersects with more local streets , most of which serve homes and businesses . The highway turns northward soon afterward , crosses a pair of train tracks maintained by Canadian Pacific Railway and the Port Kent Amtrak station , makes a U @-@ turn and comes to an end at the Burlington – Port Kent Ferry landing .
The Burlington – Port Kent Ferry connects NY 373 and the hamlet of Port Kent to the city of Burlington , Vermont . This , one of three ferries to cross Lake Champlain , is the longest as it crosses the widest part of the lake . It is maintained by the Lake Champlain Transportation Company , and is open all seasons except winter .
= = History = =
= = = Port Kent and the early highway to Keeseville = = =
In 1823 , a company was funded to establish a settlement and fishing wharf opposite the city of Burlington , Vermont on Lake Champlain in order to assist in the growth of iron factories and to supply dormant energy to the Essex County area . The newly founded company chose the name " Port Kent " and located the new hamlet on a site north of Trembleau Point . The original alignment of what is now NY 373 began as a wide road that was built to access Port Kent from the nearby village of Keeseville .
NY 373 exists entirely within the boundaries of Adirondack Park , a protected area maintained by the State of New York . Adirondack Park was created in the 1880s after concerns arose about logging trees in the area . The logging was a substantial part of New York 's economy , but protests were lodged by The New York Times and others against the clearing of entire mountains and wilderness areas of trees . Public opinion turned firmly against the loggers by the 1880s , and the park was created in 1885 . It was the first State Forest Preserve in America . The park was further protected in 1894 when a clause was added to the New York State constitution which banned the selling of timber from state parks .
= = = Old roads and designation = = =
On April 16 , 1827 , a team of three surveyors were commissioned to determine a routing for a new highway leading from Hopkinton , a town in northeastern St. Lawrence County , to Lake Champlain . The task took 26 days , after which it was determined that the highway would meet Lake Champlain at Fort Kent . An act authorizing the construction of the highway was passed by the New York State Legislature on April 18 , 1829 . A total of approximately $ 38 @,@ 500 ( equivalent to $ 855 @,@ 542 in 2016 ) was devoted to the project by the state of New York through the same act .
The 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) highway opened in 1833 as a toll road named the Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike . The turnpike had only one toll gate , located near the center of the route . Two years later , the turnpike commissioners petitioned to the state of New York , asking for permission to replace the single gate with two gates at opposite ends of the turnpike that would collect half of the toll amount . The commissioners believed that the change in the toll gate locations would result in higher revenue , allowing them to continue maintaining the highway . The change was approved ; however , the toll road was dissolved anyway three years later on March 30 , 1838 . At that time , maintenance of the Port Kent – Hopkinton highway was transferred to the towns it ran through .
The Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , a transcontinental auto trail extending from Portland , Oregon , to Portland , Maine , was established in 1919 . In eastern New York , the highway went through Keeseville , Ausable Chasm , and Fort Kent along what used to be the Port Kent and Hopkinton Turnpike before entering Vermont by way of the Burlington – Port Kent Ferry across Lake Champlain .
The state of New York assumed maintenance of most of the Ausable Chasm – Port Kent roadway at some point after 1920 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the entirety of the highway from Ausable Chasm to the Port Kent ferry landing was designated as NY 373 , despite the fact that the small portion of the route east of Lake Street in Port Kent was not maintained by the state at the time . On April 1 , 1985 , ownership and maintenance of NY 373 east of Lake Street was transferred from the town of Chesterfield to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and Essex County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Chesterfield , Essex County .
= New York City draft riots =
The New York City draft riots ( July 13 – 16 , 1863 ) , known at the time as Draft Week , were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of working @-@ class discontent with new laws passed by Congress that year to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War . The riots remain the largest civil and racial insurrection in American history , aside from the Civil War itself .
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln diverted several regiments of militia and volunteer troops from following up after the Battle of Gettysburg to control the city . The rioters were overwhelmingly working @-@ class men , primarily ethnic Irish , resenting particularly that wealthier men , who could afford to pay a $ 300 ( equivalent to $ 5 @,@ 766 in 2015 ) commutation fee to hire a substitute , were spared from the draft .
Initially intended to express anger at the draft , the protests turned into a race riot , with white rioters , mainly but not exclusively Irish immigrants , attacking blacks wherever they could find them . The official death toll was listed at 119 . The conditions in the city were such that Major General John E. Wool , commander of the Department of the East , said on July 16 that " Martial law ought to be proclaimed , but I have not a sufficient force to enforce it . "
The military did not reach the city until after the first day of rioting , when mobs had already ransacked or destroyed numerous public buildings , two Protestant churches , the homes of various abolitionists or sympathizers , many black homes , and the Colored Orphan Asylum at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue , which was burned to the ground .
The demographics of the city changed as a result of the riot . So many blacks left Manhattan permanently ( many moving to Brooklyn ) , that by 1865 their population fell below 10 @,@ 000 , the number in 1820 .
= = Background = =
New York 's economy was tied to the South ; by 1822 nearly half of its exports were cotton shipments . In addition , upstate textile mills processed cotton in manufacturing . New York had such strong business connections to the South that on January 7 , 1861 , Mayor Fernando Wood , a Democrat , called on the city 's Board of Aldermen to " declare the city 's independence from Albany and from Washington " ; he said it " would have the whole and united support of the Southern States . " When the Union entered the war , New York City had many sympathizers with the South .
The city was also a continuing destination of immigrants . Since the 1840s , most were from Ireland and Germany . In 1860 , nearly 25 percent of the New York City population was German @-@ born , and many did not yet speak English . During the 1840s and 1850s , journalists had published sensational accounts , directed at the working class , dramatizing the " evils " of interracial socializing , relationships , and marriages . Reformers joined the effort . Newspapers carried derogatory portrayals of blacks and ridiculed " black aspirations for equal rights in voting , education , and employment . " Pseudo @-@ scientific lectures on phrenology were popular , although countered by doctors . At the time , some areas of the city , such as Lower Manhattan , had mixed populations of residents .
The Democratic Party Tammany Hall political machine had been working to enroll immigrants as U.S. citizens so they could vote in local elections , and had strongly recruited Irish , most of whom already spoke English . In March 1863 , with the war continuing , Congress passed the Enrollment Act to establish a draft for the first time , as more troops were needed . In New York City and other locations , new citizens learned they were expected to register for the draft to fight for their new country . Black men were excluded from the draft as they were largely not considered citizens , and wealthier white men could pay for substitutes . Free blacks and immigrants competed for low @-@ wage jobs in the city .
New York political offices , including the mayor , were held by Democrats , but the election of Abraham Lincoln as president had demonstrated the rise in Republican political power nationally . The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863 alarmed much of the working class in New York , who feared that freed slaves would migrate to the city and add further competition to the labor market . There had already been tensions between black and white workers since the 1850s , particularly at the docks . In March 1863 , white longshoremen had refused to work with blacks and rioted , attacking 200 black men . In this area of the city , there were a variety of interracial venues of brothels and bars , and neighborhoods were mixed in terms of residents . Men competed as hacks ( carriage drivers ) , craftsmen , and in other jobs .
= = Riots = =
= = = Monday = = =
There were reports of rioting in Buffalo , New York , and certain other cities , but the first drawing of draft numbers — on July 11 , 1863 — occurred peaceably in New York City . The second drawing was held on Monday , July 13 , 1863 , ten days after the Union victory at Gettysburg in southern Pennsylvania . At 10 a.m. , a furious crowd of around 500 , led by the volunteer firemen of Engine Company 33 ( known as the " Black Joke " ) , attacked the assistant Ninth District provost marshal 's office , at Third Avenue and 47th Street , where the draft was taking place . The crowd threw large paving stones through windows , burst through the doors , and set the building ablaze . When the fire department responded , rioters broke up their vehicles . Others killed horses that were pulling streetcars and smashed the cars . To prevent other parts of the city being notified of the riot , they cut telegraph lines . Many of the rioters were Irish laborers who feared having to compete with emancipated slaves for jobs .
Since the New York State Militia had been sent to assist Union troops in Pennsylvania , the New York City Police Department was the only force to try to suppress the riots . The police superintendent , John A. Kennedy , arrived at the site on Monday to check on the situation . Although not in uniform , people in the mob recognized him and attacked him . Kennedy was left nearly unconscious , his face bruised and cut , his eye injured , his lips swollen , and his hand cut with a knife . He had been beaten to a mass of bruises and blood all over his body .
Police drew their clubs and revolvers , and charged the crowd , but were overpowered . The police forces were badly outnumbered and unable to quell the riots , but they kept the rioting out of Lower Manhattan below Union Square . Immigrants and others in the " Bloody Sixth " Ward , around the seaport and Five Points area , refrained from involvement in the rioting .
The Bull 's Head hotel on 44th Street , which refused to provide alcohol to the mob , was burned . The mayor 's residence on Fifth Avenue , the Eighth and Fifth District police stations , and other buildings were attacked and set on fire . Other targets included the office of the New York Times . The mob was turned back at the Times office by staff manning Gatling guns , including Times founder Henry Jarvis Raymond . Fire engine companies responded , but some firefighters were sympathetic to the rioters , as they had also been drafted on Saturday . Later in the afternoon , authorities shot and killed a man as a crowd attacked the Armory at Second Avenue and 21st Street . The mob broke all the windows with paving stones ripped from the street .
Rioters turned against black people as their scapegoats and the primary target of their anger . Many immigrants and other poor people viewed free black men as competition for scarce jobs , and worried about more slaves being emancipated and coming to New York for work . The mob beat , tortured or killed numerous black people , including one man who was attacked by a crowd of 400 with clubs and paving stones , then lynched , hanged from a tree and set alight .
The Colored Orphan Asylum at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue , a " symbol of white charity to blacks and of black upward mobility " that then provided shelter for 233 children , was attacked by a mob at around 4 p.m. A mob of several thousand , including many women and children , looted the building of its food and supplies . However , the police were able to secure the orphanage for enough time to allow the orphans to escape before the building burned down . Throughout the areas of rioting , mobs attacked and killed at least 120 black people , and destroyed their known homes and businesses , such as James McCune Smith 's pharmacy at 93 West Broadway , believed to be the first owned by a black man in the United States .
Near the midtown docks , tensions brewing since the mid @-@ 1850s boiled over . As recently as March 1863 , white employers had hired blacks , with whom Irish men refused to work , as longshoremen . An Irish mob attacked two hundred blacks who were working on the docks , while other rioters went into the streets in search of " all the negro porters , cartmen and laborers ... " to attempt to remove all evidence of a black and interracial social life from the area near the docks . White dockworkers attacked and destroyed brothels , dance halls , boarding houses , and tenements that catered to blacks . Mobs stripped the clothing off the white owners of these businesses .
= = = Tuesday = = =
Heavy rain fell on Monday night , helping to abate the fires and sending rioters home , but the crowd returned the next day . Rioters burned down the home of Abby Gibbons , a prison reformer and the daughter of abolitionist Isaac Hopper . They also attacked white " amalgamationists " , such as Ann Derrickson and Ann Martin , two white women who were married to black men , and Mary Burke , a white prostitute who catered to black men . The women escaped personal physical harm .
Governor Horatio Seymour arrived on Tuesday and spoke at City Hall , where he attempted to assuage the crowd by proclaiming that the Conscription Act was unconstitutional . Gen. John E. Wool , commander of the Eastern District , brought approximately 800 soldiers and Marines in from forts in New York Harbor , West Point , and the Brooklyn Navy Yard . He also ordered the militias to return to New York .
= = = Wednesday and Thursday : order restored = = =
The situation improved on Wednesday , when assistant provost @-@ marshal @-@ general Robert Nugent received word from his superior officer , Colonel James Barnet Fry , to postpone the draft . As this news appeared in newspapers , some rioters stayed home . But some of the militias began to return and used harsh measures against the remaining mobs .
Order began to be restored on Thursday . The New York State Militia and some federal troops were returned to New York , including the 152nd New York Volunteers , the 26th Michigan Volunteers , the 27th Indiana Volunteers and the 7th Regiment New York State Militia from Frederick , Maryland , after a forced march . In addition , the governor sent in the 74th and 65th regiments of the New York State Militia , which had not been in federal service , and a section of the 20th Independent Battery , New York Volunteer Artillery from Fort Schuyler in Throgs Neck . The NYSM units were the first to arrive . By July 16 , there were several thousand Federal troops in the city .
A final confrontation occurred on Thursday evening near Gramercy Park . According to Adrian Cook 's analysis in Armies of the Streets ( 1974 ) , twelve people died on the last day of the riots in skirmishes between rioters , the police , and the Army , including one African American , two soldiers , a bystander , and two women .
The New York Times reported on Thursday that Plug Uglies and Blood Tubs gang members from Baltimore , as well as " Scuykill Rangers [ sic ] and other rowdies of Philadelphia , " had come to New York during the unrest to participate in the riots alongside the Dead Rabbits and " Mackerelvillers " . The Times editorialized that " the scoundrels cannot afford to miss this golden opportunity of indulging their brutal natures , and at the same time serving their colleagues the Copperheads and secesh [ secessionist ] sympathizers . "
= = Aftermath = =
The exact death toll during the New York Draft Riots is unknown , but according to historian James M. McPherson ( 2001 ) , at least 120 people were killed . In all , eleven black men were lynched over five days . The riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city . Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area .
The most reliable estimates indicate at least 2 @,@ 000 people were injured . Herbert Asbury , the author of the 1928 book Gangs of New York , upon which the 2002 film was based , puts the figure much higher , at 2 @,@ 000 killed and 8 @,@ 000 wounded , but this figure is not widely accepted . Total property damage was about $ 1 – 5 million ( $ 19 @.@ 2 million – $ 96 @.@ 1 million , adjusted for inflation ) . The city treasury later indemnified one @-@ quarter of the amount .
The historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that the riots were " equivalent to a Confederate victory " . Fifty buildings , including two Protestant churches and the Colored Orphan Asylum , were burned to the ground . During the riots , landlords , fearing that the mob would destroy their buildings , had driven blacks from their residences . As a result of the violence against blacks , hundreds left New York , including James McCune Smith , moving to Williamsburg , Brooklyn ( still a separate city until 1898 ) and New Jersey .
The white elite in New York organized to provide relief to black riot victims , helping them find new work and homes . The Union League Club and the Committee of Merchants for the Relief of Colored People provided nearly $ 40 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 victims of the riots . By 1865 the black population had dropped to under 10 @,@ 000 , the lowest since 1820 . The white working @-@ class riots had changed the demographics of the city , and whites exerted their control in the workplace ; they became " unequivocally divided " from blacks .
On August 19 , the government resumed the draft in New York . It was completed within 10 days without further incident . Fewer men were drafted than had been feared by the working class : of the 750 @,@ 000 selected nationwide for conscription , only about 45 @,@ 000 went into service .
While the rioting mainly involved the working class , middle and upper @-@ class New Yorkers had split sentiments on the draft and use of federal power or martial law to enforce it . Many wealthy Democratic businessmen sought to have the draft declared unconstitutional . Tammany Democrats did not seek to have the draft declared unconstitutional , but helped pay the commutation fees for those who were drafted . In December 1863 , the Union League Club recruited over 2000 black soldiers , outfitted and trained them , honoring and sending men off with a parade through the city to the Hudson River docks in March 1864 . A crowd of 100 @,@ 000 watched the procession , which was led by police and members of the Union League Club .
New York City 's support for the Union cause continued , however grudgingly , and gradually Southern sympathies declined in the city . New York banks eventually financed the Civil War , and the state 's industries were more productive than those of the entire Confederacy . By the end of the war , more than 450 @,@ 000 soldiers , sailors , and militia had enlisted from New York State , which was the most populous state at the time . A total of 46 @,@ 000 military men from New York State died during the war , more from disease than wounds .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = New York City Police Department = = =
New York Metropolitan Police Department under the command of Superintendent John A. Kennedy.Commissioners Thomas Coxon Acton and John G. Bergen took command when Kennedy was seriously injured by a mob during the early stages of the riots .
= = = New York State Militia = = =
1st Division : Major General Charles W. Sandford
= = = Union Army = = =
Department of the East : Major General John E. Wool headquartered in New York
Defenses of New York City : Brevet Brigadier General Harvey Brown , Brown was in overall command of the military fortresses in New York city at the time and volunteered his services to General Wool . Wool instructed Brown to serve under the command of militia General Sandford to which Brown initially refused but eventually offered to serve in whatever capacity needed . Brig. General Edward R. S. Canby
Artillery : Captain Henry F. Putnam , 12th United States Infantry Regiment .
Provost marshals tasked with overseeing the initial enforcement of the draft :
Provost Marshal General U.S.A. : Colonel James Fry
Provost Marshal General New York City : Colonel Robert Nugent ( During the first day of rioting on July 13 , 1863 , in command of the Invalid Corps : 1st Battalion )
Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton authorized five regiments from Gettysburg , mostly federalized state militia and volunteer units from the Army of the Potomac , to reinforce the New York City Police Department . By the end of the riots , there were more than 4 @,@ 000 soldiers garrisoned in New York City .
= = Fiction = =
The Banished Children of Eve , A Novel of Civil War New York ( 1995 ) by Peter Quinn
On Secret Service ( 2000 ) by John Jakes
Paradise Alley ( 2003 ) by Kevin Baker
New York : the Novel ( 2009 ) by Edward Rutherfurd
Newt Gingrich 's alternate history novel Grant Comes East ( 2004 )
Theatre and film :
The short @-@ lived 1968 Broadway musical Maggie Flynn , starring Shirley Jones , was set in the Tobin Orphanage for black children ( modeled on the Colored Orphan Asylum ) .
Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , a film directed by Martin Scorsese , includes a fictionalized portrayal of the New York Draft Riots .
= Mary Seacole =
Mary Jane Seacole ( née Grant ; 1805 – 14 May 1881 ) was a Jamaican woman of Scottish and African descent who set up a " British Hotel " behind the lines during the Crimean War . She described this as " a mess @-@ table and comfortable quarters for sick and convalescent officers " , and provided succour for wounded servicemen on the battlefield . She was posthumously awarded the Jamaican Order of Merit in 1991 . In 2004 she was voted the greatest black Briton .
She acquired knowledge of herbal medicine in the Caribbean . When the Crimean War broke out , she applied to the War Office to assist but was refused . She travelled independently and set up her hotel and assisted battlefield wounded . She became extremely popular among service personnel who raised money for her when she faced destitution after the war .
After her death , she was forgotten for almost a century , but today is celebrated as a woman who successfully combatted racial prejudice . Her biography , Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands ( 1857 ) , is one of the earliest autobiographies of a mixed @-@ race woman , although some aspects of its accuracy have been questioned . It has been claimed that Seacole 's achievements have been exaggerated for political reasons . The erection of a statue of her at St Thomas ' Hospital , London on 30 June 2016 , describing her as a " pioneer nurse " , has generated controversy . Further controversy broke out in the United Kingdom late in 2012 over reports of a proposal to remove her from the country 's National Curriculum .
= = Early life , 1805 – 25 = =
Mary Seacole was born Mary Jane Grant in Kingston , Jamaica , the daughter of James Grant a Scottish soldier in the British Army , a Lieutenant , and a
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aptico and Clements . The project also involved new bridges over Gilbert Swamp Run , Chaptico Creek , and Budds Creek . When the project was completed in 1961 , MD 234 assumed the course of MD 237 between Chaptico and Leonardtown and MD 238 was extended over the segment of MD 234 between Chaptico and Helen .
The first roundabout in St. Mary 's County was installed at the intersection of MD 238 and MD 234 in Chaptico in 2007 . In September 2011 , MD 234 's bridge over Allens Fresh Run was washed out by flooding of the creek due to torrential rainfall from the remnants of Tropical Storm Lee . Traffic was detoured over MD 236 , MD 6 , and US 301 until a temporary bridge was completed parallel to the damaged section in November 2011 . The Maryland State Highway Administration dismantled the damaged 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) long bridge and built a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) long replacement bridge in 2012 .
= = Junction list = =
= Calitoxin =
Calitoxin , also known as CLX , is a sea anemone neurotoxin produced by the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica . It targets crabs and octopuses , among other invertebrates . Two isoforms ( CLX @-@ 1 and CLX @-@ 2 ) have been identified , both of which are formed from precursors stored in the stinging cells of the anemone . Once the toxin is activated and released , it causes paralysis by increasing neurotransmitter release at invertebrate neuromuscular junctions . Along with several other toxins derived from anemones , CLX is useful in ion channel research . Certain structural aspects of calitoxin are dissimilar from sea anemone toxins that also target the sodium ion channels . Other toxins resembling calitoxin function in completely different ways .
= = Source and discovery = =
Calitoxin is a highly potent neurotoxin produced by the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica , which is stored in the nematocysts of stinging cells ( cnidocytes ) . This sea anemone is a species from the Hormathiidae family and is present along the European coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea . The name calitoxin is derived from the organism from which the toxin was isolated . The toxin was isolated by a team of researchers in Naples , Italy from animals collected in the Bay of Naples . The team isolated the polypeptide through a series of centrifugations until the supernatant had lost toxic activity . The resulting pellet was purified using the techniques liquid chromatography , gel filtration , and chromatofocusing . The team then sequenced the purified polypeptide chain . They also published details on the toxin 's effects in vitro on crustacean tissue preparations , including nerve and muscle . Their findings were published in the journal Biochemistry in 1989 .
= = Structure and chemistry = =
The formula for calitoxin is C203H305N55O72S7 . It has a molecular mass of 4886 Daltons and an isoelectric point at pH 5 @.@ 4 . The amino acid sequence is markedly dissimilar from other known sea anemones toxins . There are two known genes coding for two highly homologous calitoxins — CLX @-@ 1 and CLX @-@ 2 . Both originate from a precursor peptide of 79 amino acids where the C @-@ terminus determines whether it will be the mature CLX @-@ 1 or CLX @-@ 2 . The activated toxins consist of 46 amino acids with three disulfide bonds . Researchers suspect that the toxins are stored as precursors in cnidocytes . Under the effects of some triggering stimulus , the precursor is modified and released in the active form . The patterning of cleavage sites targeted during maturation of the peptide suggest that the active quaternary structure might be a tetrapeptide .
Calitoxin and other sea anemone toxins are used in studying ion channels , with potential applications in biomedical and physiology research . In the mature CLX , one base @-@ pair substitution is responsible for a single glutamic acid to lysine replacement in the coding region of CLX @-@ 2 , leading to the difference between the two isoforms . The structural organization of these two genes show a high degree of homology . This suggests that the two different peptides have the same biological function . This cannot yet be confirmed because only CLX @-@ 1 has been isolated from C. parasitica . Calitoxin has a very different sequence from another sodium channel binding sea anemone toxin , ATX II , which is produced by the distantly related Anemonia sulcata . A better understanding of these differences might offer insights about the function of particular amino acid residues . Despite markedly dissimilar gene sequences , CLX @-@ 1 affects crustacean axon potentials similar to two other classes of anemone toxins . Alternatively , certain aspects of the structure of the CLX genes are found in scorpion toxins as well as other sea anemone toxins that block potassium channels .
= = Target and activity = =
Calitoxin causes massive neurotransmitter release from the nerve terminals of the neuromuscular junction , which in turn causes a strong muscle contraction and even paralysis . The exact target of calitoxin has not yet been clarified ; since it has a similar action on the neuromuscular junction as Anemonia sulcata toxins , calitoxin may slow down the inactivation of voltage @-@ gated sodium channels in motor neurons . Calitoxin has been tested for activity on the crab Carcinus mediterraneus . Purified toxin was injected into the hemocoel of the crab . The minimum dose of 0 @.@ 2 µg of toxin triggered muscle contractions in the crab , causing paralysis within 1 minute . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) is unknown .
= = Function in nature = =
Sea anemones produce toxins , such as calitoxin , in their stinging cells ( cnidocytes ) . These cells contain organelles called nematocysts . When triggered , an envenomation response occurs . This can result in injury to target organisms , including capture of prey , defense against predatory organisms , or against aggressors from within their own species . In its natural setting , C. parasitica can establish a mutualistic relationship with the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus . The sea anemone identifies shells inhabited by the hermit crab and attaches . C. parasitica provides protection for the hermit crab , by stinging or intimidating potential predators . Octopuses will avoid shells bearing C. parasitica . In return for the protection , the sea anemone gains an advantage in accessing a broader distribution of food sources , as the crab moves across the ocean floor .
= Americana ( film ) =
Americana is a 1983 American drama film starring , produced , edited and directed by David Carradine . The screenplay and story , written by Richard Carr , was based on a portion of the 1947 novel , The Perfect Round , by Henry Morton Robinson . The novel 's setting was originally post @-@ World War II , but the screenplay involved the post @-@ war experiences of a Vietnam War veteran , obsessed with restoring an abandoned carousel .
In 1981 , the film , won The People 's Choice Award at the Director 's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival . Financing the movie himself , Carradine shot most of the footage for the film , which was co @-@ produced by Skip Sherwood , in 1973 with a band of 26 people , mostly his family and friends , over the course of 18 days . Problems with financing and distribution kept the film from being released until 1983 . The film was well received by audiences , but met with primarily negative criticism .
= = Plot = =
A down on his luck , former Green Beret captain ( Carradine ) , freshly discharged from the Vietnam War , drifts into Drury , Kansas . There he finds a derelict merry @-@ go @-@ round that he decides to restore . " The symbolism of a man wanting to build something joyful after being part of the carnage and destruction of war , " surmised film critic , Charles Champlin . The people of the town have mixed reactions : some support his efforts while others hinder them . Among his supporters are two local business men : a hardware store owner , played by Barbara Hershey 's father , Arnold Herzstein , and Mike , a gas station proprietor played by Michael Greene , who had guest @-@ starred on two episodes of Carradine 's television series , Kung Fu . Both men supply employment to the veteran as well as parts and tools for his endeavour .
Another helpful character is a young local girl , who watches the reconstruction efforts from afar , and scampers off when she is seen . The girl , played by Carradine 's real life domestic partner , Barbara Hershey , provides a tool box and some food . Detractors of the veteran 's efforts include a band of local teenagers , one of whom is played by John Blyth Barrymore , a personal friend of Carradine 's and a frequent guest star on Kung Fu . The protagonist is also harassed by the town 's sheriff , played by Carradine 's brother , Bruce .
When the town 's ruffians vandalize the half @-@ restored carousel , the captain redoubles his efforts . By this time he has found , to his displeasure , that Mike 's favorite pastime is to officiate the weekly cock fights , and the two have a falling out . Mike refuses to make good on a promise of a much needed part for the carousel , unless the soldier agrees to fight a dog . The veteran reluctantly agrees to the fight during which he kills the dog . After installing the last piece that completes the carousel 's restoration , he lays the dog 's body inside it , starts it up and walks away , while the townspeople look on .
= = Cast and crew = =
In addition to those previously mentioned , the film also featured Dan Haggerty , who starred in the television series , The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams . He provided the fighting dog , played the role of the dog 's trainer and worked on the set design and the actual restoration of the carousel .
Robert Carradine , David Carradine 's younger half @-@ brother , assisted with the camera work . Greg Walker , former Kung Fu stunt coordinator , served as stunt coordinator and played one of the town 's ruffians . Fran Ryan , whom Carradine met while they both worked on The Long Riders ( 1980 ) , played a colonel in a scene that was shot several years after the main body of footage . Claire Townsend , a United Artists ( UA ) executive who had helped finance the film , played a lieutenant . Rick Van Ness , who had scouted the location , had a role as a Grateful Dead fan who gives the hero a ride . He also served as production manager .
Calista Carradine , David 's daughter , sang the theme song , " Around " , during the opening credits . The haunting tune , which was written by David Carradine , was reprised at the end of the movie , with Carradine himself singing . Several members of the Drury , Kansas community appear in the film as themselves . Carradine 's own dog , Buffalo , is credited in the film playing a stray dog .
= = Inspiration and production = =
In 1969 , David Carradine and Barbara Hershey met , and began a romantic relationship , on the set of Heaven with a Gun ( 1969 ) . The movie 's writer , Richard Carr , had occasion to tell the couple what he referred to as a " bedtime story " . Carradine remembered it as " the merry @-@ go @-@ round " story . A few years later , after Carradine had experienced financial success with Kung Fu , he decided he wanted to make the story into a movie . He contacted Carr , who secured the rights to the Henry Morton Robinson novel , and began writing the screenplay . He told Carradine that the book contained a much more complicated story than the one he had told him . Carradine responded , " I want to make the bedtime story . "
Carradine formed an acting company that he called " ' Kansas Flyer ' , a metaphor for a check that bounces . " He acquired a broken @-@ down carousel in a junk yard in Los Angeles , and some broken horses in Kansas City . He and his entourage then headed for Drury , Kansas . The original working title of the film was Around . While exploring film title designs for the picture , Carradine came across a style called Americana . " I was trying to figure out what it would look like if it said Around . Suddenly , I said to myself , ' Why am I doing this , anyway ? It 's right here in front of me . ' I called up the title designer and told him I was changing the title to Americana . "
Carradine provided most of the financing for the project , which cost under 1 million dollars . He stated that the purpose of his other acting jobs was to pay for his independent projects , over which he would have artistic control . Carradine said he even sold his Kung Fu residuals to raise money for his own projects , and consequently gone into debt . He also sought advice from directors he had worked with , including Martin Scorsese and Ingmar Bergman . " ' The wonderful thing about working with good directors , ' Carradine admitted , ' is it gives me the opportunity to pick their brains for my own films . ' " Using his spare time to edit the film , in 1981 , Carradine finally had a finished project to take to film festivals .
There were setbacks with distribution , however . United Artists , which had ownership of the movie , changed hands and the new owners had no interest in the movie . Carradine bought the movie back from U.A. , and set out to find a distributor . The picture was picked up by Crown International , which specialized in teen exploitation films . Just two weeks before the opening was scheduled , Carradine was still shooting some additional scenes .
Another problem arose when a representative from the Motion Picture Association of America set the pictures rating at " R " ( restricted ) , explaining that the sound of the fighting dog 's spine being broken was too loud . Carradine said that he would change it . A few weeks later he submitted it again and received the " PG " ( parental guidance suggested ) rating he wanted , without having changed a thing .
= = Reception and release = =
The Los Angeles Times film critic , Charles Champlin , explained that the Director 's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival " came into being as one of the consequences of the political turmoil that aborted the festival in 1968 . It is designed to make the festival a less than totally establishment affair and it offers Third World , independent and frequently angry films on social themes . " He further explained that Carradine 's Americana was " an ideal selection for the fortnight . " In fact , the film won the People 's Choice Award there in 1981 . Film columnist Christopher Hicks stated that Americana was also warmly received at the 1981 United States Film and Video Festival in Park City , Utah . This was the third of such events which would later become known as the Sundance Film Festival . Carradine said of the audience 's reaction to the film , " Well , they laughed in all the right places , and they applauded at the end , so I guess it went alright . " He also said , " Americana swept the festival and I came very close to making a distribution deal with Warner Brothers . " However , the Associated Press described Americana 's reception in Utah as " quiet " .
The moment of truth for the film came when it opened in New York City on October 21 , 1983 . Carradine had discussed Americana with film critic Kirk Honeycutt . Upon hearing of Carradine 's death in 2009 , Honeycutt recalled the discussion , remembering that he was " most impressed . " He explained , " I got an assignment from The New York Times to do a profile on Carradine the filmmaker " . Honeycutt 's profile was planned to coincide with the film 's opening at the Embassy 72d Street theater and the East Side Cinema , in New York City . Carradine commented that when he arrvied at the premiere to promote the film , he noticed that the poster and advertisement that he had made for the occasion had been replaced with " inferior ones " . He also said that the film received standing ovations at both venues .
However , negative reviews , like the one from New York Times film critic , Janet Maslin , killed the publication of Honeycutt 's piece . Maslin said of the final scene of the movie , " Anything this moment reveals about Vietnam and about America , not to mention about dogs and merry @-@ go @-@ rounds , has been said better elsewhere . " Critic Richard Freeman found Barbara Hershey 's character " moronic " , and referred to the film as " twaddle . " Freeman said it was " fraught with symbolism . Or maybe it is just fraught " . He further said of the film , " Actually , it 's about David Carradine , of whom the less said the better " . The Kokomo Tribune called the story " pointless " . When Carradine read the reviews , he went back to the hotel bathroom and threw up . " ' It wasn 't just that the critics didn 't like the picture ; they were angry at me for making it , ' Carradine said . ' I 'll never figure that out . ' "
= Soviet cruiser Molotov =
Molotov ( Russian : Молотов ) was a Project 26bis Kirov @-@ class cruiser of the Soviet Navy that served during World War II and into the Cold War . She supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Sevastopol , the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation and the amphibious landings at Novorossiysk at the end of January 1943 .
The ship was extensively modernized between 1952 and 1955 . She was renamed Slava ( Russian : Слава , Glory ) in 1957 after Vyacheslav Molotov fell out of favour . Slava was reclassified as a training ship in 1961 before being sold for scrap in 1972 .
= = Description = =
Molotov and her sister Maxim Gorky had heavier armor and were slightly improved from the first two Kirov @-@ class cruisers of Project 26 , and were thus designated Project 26bis .
She was 187 meters ( 614 ft ) long at the waterline , 191 @.@ 4 meters ( 628 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 66 meters ( 57 ft 11 in ) and a draft between 5 @.@ 87 to 6 @.@ 3 meters ( 19 ft 3 in to 20 ft 8 in ) . She displaced 8 @,@ 177 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 048 long tons ) at standard load and 9 @,@ 728 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 574 long tons ) at full load .
Her steam turbines produced a total of 129 @,@ 750 shaft horsepower ( 96 @,@ 750 kW ) during her sea trials , reaching a maximum speed of 36 @.@ 72 knots ( 68 @.@ 01 km / h ; 42 @.@ 26 mph ) , just shy of her designed speed of 37 knots , mainly because she was overweight by 900 metric tons ( 890 long tons ) . Molotov normally carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of fuel oil , 1 @,@ 660 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 630 long tons ) at full load and 1 @,@ 750 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 720 long tons ) at overload . This gave her a range of 4 @,@ 220 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 820 km ; 4 @,@ 860 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Molotov carried nine 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) 57 @-@ calibre B @-@ 1 @-@ P guns in three electrically powered MK @-@ 3 @-@ 180 triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of nine single 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) 56 @-@ calibre B @-@ 34 anti @-@ aircraft guns fitted on each side of the rear funnel . Her light AA guns consisted of six semi @-@ automatic 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K AA guns and four DK 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns . Six 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) 39 @-@ Yu torpedo tubes were fitted in two triple mountings .
Molotov was the first Soviet ship to carry radar , a Redut @-@ K air warning system , which she used for the entire war . Soviet @-@ designed Mars @-@ 1 gunnery radar systems were added by 1944 .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
By 1943 three of Molotov 's 45 mm semi @-@ automatic guns were replaced with twelve fully automatic 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K AA guns with one thousand rounds per gun and two extra DK machine guns . Her aircraft catapult was removed in 1942 to make room for more light AA guns .
In 1943 an improved ZK @-@ 1a catapult was fitted and successfully test @-@ launched a Supermarine Spitfire fighter . However , in 1947 the concept was abandoned and the catapult was removed .
= = World War II = =
Molotov was laid down at the Marti South , Nikolayev on 14 January 1937 , launched on 4 December 1939 and was completed on 14 June 1941 . As the only ship in the Soviet Navy with radar Molotov remained in Sevastopol for the initial period of Operation Barbarossa to provide air warning . The advance of German troops into the Crimea in late October 1941 forced her to transfer to Tuapse where she continued to provide air warning . However , the ship did bombard German troops near Feodosiya with nearly 200 180 mm shells on 9 November before returning to Tuapse . Molotov helped to carry the 386th Rifle Division from Poti to Sevastopol between 24 and 28 December 1941 . While off @-@ loading troops on 29 December her stern was damaged by German artillery and she shelled Axis positions in retaliation , firing 205 180 mm and 107 100 mm shells . The ship evacuated 600 wounded upon her departure on 30 December .
Molotov reprised her role as a transport during the first week of January . Her bow was damaged during a heavy storm in Tuapse when she was thrown against the jetty on 21 – 22 January 1942 . The ship spent most of the next month under repair , although her bow could not be straightened ; the residual damage reduced her speed by several knots . She made a number of bombardment sorties in support of Soviet troops on the Kerch Peninsula until 20 March when she returned to Poti for more permanent repairs . On 12 June Molotov transported 2998 men of the 138th Rifle Brigade to Sevastopol , shelling German positions while unloading . She evacuated 1065 wounded and 350 women and children as she departed . On 14 – 15 June the ship returned , carrying 3855 reinforcements in company with other ships , bombarded German positions again , and evacuated 2908 wounded and refugees . On 2 August , while returning from another bombardment mission near Feodosiya , 20 metres ( 66 ft ) of her stern was blown off by Heinkel He 111 torpedo bombers of 6 . / KG 26 acting in concert with Italian MAS torpedo boats . The damage reduced her speed to 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and Molotov had to be steered by her engines . Molotov was under repair at Poti until 31 July 1943 and used the stern of the incomplete Chapayev @-@ class cruiser Frunze , the rudder of the incomplete cruiser Zheleznyakov , the steering gear from the cruiser Kaganovich and the steering sensor from the submarine L @-@ 25 . The loss of three destroyers to German air attack on 6 October 1943 resulted in Stalin 's order that forbade the deployment of large naval units without his express permission ; this meant the end of Molotov 's active participation in the war .
= = Postwar career = =
Molotov was refitted in November 1945 to repair the last of her wartime damage . She suffered a fire in the shell handling room for Turret # 2 on 5 October 1946 that had to be extinguished by flooding the magazine and handling room at the cost of 22 dead and 20 wounded . The ship served as the test bed for the radars intended for the Chapayev and Sverdlov @-@ class cruisers during the late 1940s . Molotov 's postwar modernization began in 1952 and lasted until 28 January 1955 .
As part of this modernization Molotov received a radar suite composed of Gyuys for air search , Rif for surface search , Zalp for main @-@ armament gunnery and Yakor ' for anti @-@ aircraft gunnery . All of her light anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by eleven twin gun water @-@ cooled 37 mm V @-@ 11 mounts and her 100 mm guns were reinstalled on fully powered B @-@ 34USMA mountings . Her anti @-@ aircraft fire @-@ control system was replaced by a Zenit @-@ 26 with SPN @-@ 500 stabilized directors . In addition she lost her torpedo tubes , anti @-@ submarine weapons , boat cranes and all remaining aircraft equipment . This cost 200 million rubles , between half and three @-@ quarters the cost of a new Project 68bis Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser .
On 29 October 1955 the ship participated in rescue efforts after an explosion sank the ex @-@ Italian battleship Novorossiysk . Five of her own men were lost when the battleship capsized almost three hours after the explosion . She was renamed Slava on 3 August 1957 after Vyacheslav Molotov was purged from the government after an unsuccessful coup against Nikita Khrushchev that same year . She was reclassified as a training cruiser on 3 August 1961 . Slava was deployed to the Mediterranean between 5 – 30 June 1967 to show Soviet support of Syria during the Six @-@ Day War . She returned to the Mediterranean between September – December 1970 where the ship assisted the Kotlin @-@ class destroyer Bravyi after the latter 's collision with the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal on 9 November 1970 . Slava was sold for scrap on 4 April 1972 .
= Goalkeeper ( water polo ) =
In water polo , the goalkeeper occupies a position as the last line of defense between the opponent 's offence and their own team 's goal , which is 2 @.@ 8 m2 ( 30 sq ft ) .
The goalkeeper is different from other people on their team ; they possess certain privileges and are subject to different restrictions from those of field players . As well as this , they must possess different skills from those of the fielders .
Goalkeepers often have longer playing careers than field players because they swim far less .
In water polo , the goalkeeper is commonly known as the goalie or keeper and may also be known as the man / woman in the cage .
= = History = =
The position of the goalkeeper has existed since the game of water polo originated . At that time , the object of the game was to touch the ball on the opponent 's end of the pool . The goalkeeper would wait at the end of the pool until an opposing player approached the goal , when the goalkeeper would try to stop that player , for example , by dunking their head .
A change occurred in the game and the role of the goalkeeper in the 1880s , when the Scottish reduced the size of the scoring area by placing rugby posts , spaced about 10 feet apart , at each end of the pool . At the same time , the rules were changed to allow goalkeepers to stand on the pool deck and leap onto the head of an opposing player who approached the goal . This change in the rules was brief . To prevent the serious injuries that resulted from this method of goalkeeping , the rules were revised again to require the goalie to remain in the water .
The basic functions of the goalie position have changed little over the last century , but there have been changes affecting the style of play . In the 1940s , Hungary introduced a new technique called the eggbeater kick that enables goalkeepers to maintain a stable balance in the water .
= = Rules = =
Inside the 5 m ( 16 ft ) area , the goalkeeper is the only person on the team permitted to touch the ball with two hands , touch the bottom of the pool and punch the ball with a clenched fist . Although the goalkeeper may not advance beyond the half @-@ way line , they may attempt shots at the other goal .
Any goalkeeper who aggressively fouls an attacker in position to score can be charged with a penalty shot for the other team . The goalkeeper can also be temporarily ejected from the game for twenty seconds if they prevent a likely goal ( for example , by splashing ) . If the goalkeeper pushes the ball under the water in the 5 m ( 16 ft ) area , instead of being a free throw to the other team , it is a penalty . A penalty is also awarded to the other team if the goalkeeper pulls down from the crossbar of the goal to prevent a goal .
Unless reserve , all goalkeepers caps are numbered 1 and contrast with their team 's colour to distinguish their position . Reserve goalkeepers have differently numbered caps depending on the governing body ; they are shown in the table below .
= = = Rule variations = = =
Below is a table showing the major differences of rules and regulations for water polo goalkeepers between the three largest governing bodies : FINA , NCAA and NFHS .
= = Responsibilities and techniques = =
In water polo , field players possess entirely different skills and responsibilities to the goalkeeper .
= = = Responsibilities = = =
The primary role of the goalkeeper is to block shots at the goal . After saving the ball , the goalkeeper has the responsibility to keep possession of the ball in order to stop opposing players regaining possession . They must make sure that whenever the opposition appears to be ready to make a shot on goal , their hands are near or above the surface of the water . They also possess the job to pass down the pool accurately in order to retain possession of the ball , often starting the team 's counterattack .
The goalkeeper is the only player who may block a penalty and because 63 @.@ 7 % of penalties are goals , the goalkeeper has a massive role in this area but failure to be in the correct position at a penalty is an exclusion foul . At a penalty shootout , the goalkeeper 's job is critical and will largely determine the outcome of the match . If the goalkeeper is excluded during the course of the penalty shootout , then one of the other five players in the pool may take their place . The goalkeeper 's hips should be high at a penalty shot to give them extra height . The goalkeeper should do one of two things at a penalty shot :
Stay in the middle of the goal , raise themself up high and spread arms wide to eliminate the possibility of shots towards the centre of the goal
Move to one side of the goal as a guess to where the shooter will place the ball .
Moreover , goalkeepers should have leadership . They should inform field players of information , such as unmarked players and the time of the game clock and give instructions to the field players . Because of this , they may sometimes be known as the coach in the water .
When a man down , goalkeepers have extra responsibility . It is easier for the other team to continue to shoot , making the goalkeeper very worn out . Platanou said that with a man down the goalkeeper had " The highest possible intensity " .
= = = Body part techniques = = =
Most of the time , goalkeepers do low @-@ intensity work ( treading water without too much effort ) but when they do work ( for example , when they have a man down or are in the ready position ) it is very intense .
Goalkeepers must
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be able to perform the eggbeater kick to a high standard . Before the eggbeater kick , goalkeepers would use breaststroke which meant that they could not stay up for very long and players found it easier to score . By using the eggbeater kick , goalkeepers can raise their bodies high enough in the water to be able to block shots at the goal for longer periods of time . This can be used conjunctively with sculling , in which the goalkeeper keeps their hands closed ( with the fingers together ) and moves them forwards and backwards .
The easiest way for the goalkeeper to block shots is for them to block the ball with either their hands or arms . Longer arms can help the goalkeeper to reach the ball , thus being an advantage . Sports involving quick reactions may be helpful , as these help the goalkeeper 's reflexes which is a crucial skill .
= = = = Body part work = = = =
In order to improve , there are a variety of drills designed to improve the goalkeeper 's skill .
To start with , there are drills to help improve the goalkeeper in the water . These range from simple exercise ( such as jumping as high out of the water as possible with two hands ) to drills not specifically used in water polo ; rather they are used to improve the goalkeeper 's core muscles ( such as catching a ball dropped from the side into the water ) .
As the goalkeeper must be able to swim quickly for short distances , to improve they can practice exercises such as swimming quickly and then immediately stopping without touching the sides . It is important for the goalkeeper to swim both breastroke and freestyle - the breastroke helping with the eggbeater kick and the freestyle helping with the swimming in the match .
Moreover , at the start of the game it is vital for the goalkeeper to stretch for 15 minutes .
= = = Blocking techniques = = =
As blocking the ball is the primary role of the goalkeeper , they must have good knowledge of blocking techniques .
As the goalkeeper has the choice of how many hands they want to use , the decision should be made of what they want to do . A shot should be stopped with two hands either if it is weak or close to the goalkeeper 's body , and normally stopped with one in other circumstances . This is because one @-@ handed saves can go to the ball faster .
Goalkeepers should be wary of dummying , lob shots and skip or bounce shots . Dummying is where players fake shots , leading keepers to come out of the water too early . This can cause the goalkeeper to come up too early and have to go back down for energy . The lob shot is where a field player attempts to put the ball over where the goalkeeper 's hands can reach . This usually happens either if the goalkeeper is out of position from the dummies or if they are too far out from the goal . The goalkeeper should swim back to try to block it , as it is nowhere near as fast as the power shot . The bounce or skip shot is where a player propels the ball at the water with enough force to make it bounce or skim along the water . It can take the goalkeeper by surprise as they cannot predict the direction the ball will go .
Most shots are saved with the arms or the hands , but goalkeepers are known to save shots with their faces and even feet .
= = = Filmography = = =
Steve Hamann ( 2008 ) . Water polo goalkeeping : skills , drills , & angles . Coaches Choice . OCLC 317622663 .
Steve Hamann ( 2008 ) . Water polo goalkeeping : beyond " just block the ball " . Coaches Choice . OCLC 724024881 .
Sean Nolan ( 2011 ) . Becoming a Champion Water Polo Goalie . Championship Productions . OCLC 775016436 .
= Saved from the Titanic =
Saved from the Titanic is a 1912 American silent motion picture short starring Dorothy Gibson , an American film actress who survived the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15 , 1912 . It is the first film about the tragedy , premiering in the United States just 29 days after the event .
Gibson had been one of around 28 people aboard the first lifeboat to be launched from Titanic and was rescued about five and a half hours after leaving the ship . On returning to New York , she co @-@ wrote the script and played a fictionalized version of herself . The plot involves her recounting the story of the disaster to her fictional parents and fiancé , with the footage interspersed with stock footage of icebergs , Titanic 's sister ship Olympic and the ship 's captain , Edward Smith . To add to the film 's authenticity , Gibson wore the same clothes as on the night of the disaster . The filming took place in a New Jersey studio and aboard a derelict ship in New York Harbor .
The film was released internationally and attracted large audiences and positive reviews , though some criticized it for commercializing the tragedy so soon after the event . It is now regarded as a lost film , as the last known prints were destroyed in a studio fire in March 1914 . A few printed stills are now all that is known to survive of it . It is also the last film that Dorothy Gibson ever made , as she suffered a mental breakdown after completing it .
= = Gibson 's voyage on the Titanic = =
The 22 @-@ year @-@ old Gibson was a passenger aboard Titanic 's maiden voyage , joining the ship at Cherbourg in France on the evening of April 10 . She had been on vacation in Europe with her mother when her employers , the Éclair Film Company , recalled her to New York to participate in a new production . On the evening of the sinking , she was playing bridge ( this would have been bridge whist , a predecessor to today 's game ) in a first @-@ class saloon before retiring to the cabin that she shared with her mother . The game was later credited with saving the lives of the players who had stayed up late to finish it , despite it being ( as one American writer put it ) " a violation of the strict Sabbath rules of English vessels . " The collision with the iceberg at 11 : 40 pm sounded to Gibson like a " long , drawn , sickening scrunch " . After going to investigate , she fetched her mother when she saw Titanic 's deck beginning to list as water flooded into the ship 's boiler rooms .
Two of the bridge players , Frederic Seward and William Sloper , accompanied Gibson and her mother to the lifeboats . The group boarded lifeboat no . 7 , the first to be launched . Around 27 other people were on board the boat when it was lowered at 12 : 40 am , just over an hour after the collision . The lifeboat 's plug could not be found , causing water to gush in until , as Gibson later put it , " this was remedied by volunteer contributions from the lingerie of the women and the garments of men . " Around 1 @,@ 500 people were still aboard Titanic when she sank , throwing them into freezing water where they soon died of hypothermia . As they struggled in the water , Gibson heard what she described as a " terrible cry that rang out from people who were thrown into the sea and others who were afraid for their loved ones . " The sinking deeply affected her ; according to Sloper , she became " quite hysterical and kept repeating over and over so that people near us could hear her , " I 'll never ride in my little grey car again . " " The occupants of the lifeboat were finally rescued at 6 : 15 am by the RMS Carpathia and taken to New York .
= = Production = =
Only a few days after she returned to New York , Gibson began work on a film based on the disaster . The impetus may have come from Jules Brulatour , an Éclair Film Company producer with whom she was having an affair . According to Billboard magazine he sent " specially chartered tugboats and an extra relay of cameramen " to film the arrival of Carpathia . The footage was spliced together with other scenes such as Titanic 's Captain Edward Smith on the bridge of the RMS Olympic , Titanic 's sister ship , images of the launch of Titanic in 1911 and stock footage of icebergs . On April 22 , the resulting newsreel was released as part of the studio 's Animated Weekly series . It was an enormous success with sold @-@ out showings across America . President William Howard Taft , whose friend and military aide Archibald Butt was among the victims of the disaster , received a personal copy of the film .
The success of the newsreel appears to have convinced Brulatour to capitalize further with a drama based on the sinking . He had a unique advantage – a leading actress who was a survivor and eyewitness to what had happened . Gibson later described her decision to participate as an " opportunity to pay tribute to those who gave their lives on that awful night . " Jeffrey Richards suggests that it was more likely that Brulatour persuaded her that the disaster offered an opportunity to advance her career . The filming took place at Éclair 's studio in Fort Lee , New Jersey and aboard a derelict transport vessel in New York Harbor . It was completed in only a week and the entire process of filming , processing and distribution took only half the time normally required for a one @-@ reel film – a sign of the producers ' eagerness to get the film onto screens while news of the disaster was still fresh . The film was only ten minutes long but this was typical of the time , as feature films had not yet become the norm . Instead , a program typically consisted of six to eight short films , each between ten and fifteen minutes long and covering a range of genres . Although newsreels were the main vehicle for presenting current events , dramas and comedies also picked up on such issues . There was very little footage of Titanic herself , which hindered the ability of newsreels to depict the sinking ; however , the disaster was an obvious subject for a drama .
Gibson was plainly still traumatized – a reporter from the Motion Picture News described her as having " the appearance of one whose nerves had been greatly shocked " – and she was said to have burst into tears during filming . To add to the film 's air of authenticity , she even wore the same clothes that she was rescued in . Nonetheless , as well as starring as " Miss Dorothy " – herself , in effect – Gibson is said to have co @-@ written the script , which was based around a fictionalized version of her own experiences . Her parents and ( fictional ) fiancé , Ensign Jack , are shown waiting anxiously for her return after hearing news of the disaster . She arrives safely back home and recounts the events of the disaster in a long flashback , illustrated with newsreel footage of Titanic and a mockup of the collision itself . Titanic sinks but Dorothy is saved . When she concludes her story , her mother urges Dorothy 's fiancé to leave the navy as it is too dangerous a career . Jack ultimately rejects the mother 's advice , deciding that he must do his duty to flag and country . Dorothy 's father is moved by his patriotism and the film ends with him blessing the marriage .
The film 's structure aimed to promote its story 's authenticity and credibility through the integration of newsreel footage and the presence of a genuine survivor as the " narrator " . Audiences had previously seen survivors of disasters only as unspeaking " objects " shown as part of a story told by someone else . Gibson , by contrast , was a survivor given voice as the narrator of what was ostensibly her personal story .
= = Release and reception = =
Saved from the Titanic was released in the United States on May 14 , 1912 and was also released internationally , in the United Kingdom as A Survivor of the Titanic and in Germany as Was die Titanic sie lehrte ( " What the Titanic Taught Her " ) . It attracted a positive review in Motion Picture World of May 11 , 1912 , which described Gibson 's performance as " a unique piece of acting in the sensational new film @-@ play of the Éclair Company ... [ which is ] creating a great activity in the market , for the universal interest in the catastrophe has made a national demand . " The review went on :
Miss Gibson had hardly recovered from her terrible strain in the wreck , when she was called upon to take part in this new piece , which she constructed as well . It was a nerve @-@ racking task , but like actresses before the footlights , this beautiful young cinematic star valiantly conquered her own feelings and went through the work . A surprising and artistically perfect reel has resulted .
The Moving Picture News commended the film 's " wonderful mechanical and lighting effects , realistic scenes , perfect reproduction of the true history of the fateful trip , magnificently acted . A heart @-@ stirring tale of the sea 's greatest tragedy depicted by an eye @-@ witness . " However , some criticized the questionable tastefulness of portraying a disaster that had so recently occurred . " Spectator " in the New York Dramatic Mirror condemned the venture as " revolting " :
The bare idea of undertaking to reproduce in a studio , no matter how well equipped , or by re @-@ enacted sea scenes an event of the appalling character of the Titanic disaster , with its 1 @,@ 600 victims , is revolting , especially at this time when the horrors of the event are so fresh in mind . And that a young woman who came so lately , with her good mother , safely through the distressing scenes can now bring herself to commercialize her good fortune by the grace of God , is past understanding ...
= = Fate = =
Saved from the Titanic is now considered a lost film , as the only known prints were destroyed in a fire at Éclair Studios in March 1914 . Its only surviving visual records are a few production stills , printed in the Moving Picture News and Motion Picture World , showing scenes of the family and a still of Dorothy standing in front of a map of the North Atlantic pointing to the location of the Titanic . Frank Thompson highights the film as one of a number of " important movies that disappeared " , noting that it was unique for having " an actual survivor of the Titanic playing herself in a film " while wearing " the very clothes . . . in which she abandoned ship " :
[ T ] hat all this was committed to film within days of the disaster is enough to make any Titanic enthusiast sigh with frustration . No matter what melodramatic hocum found its way into the film – and the synopsis suggests that there was plenty – Saved from the Titanic is an irreplaceable piece of Titanic lore .
It was also Dorothy Gibson 's last film , as the effort of making it appears to have brought on an existential crisis for her . According to a report in the Harrisburg Leader , " she had practically lost her reason , by virtue of the terrible strain she had been under to graphically portray her part . "
= = Cast = =
Dorothy Gibson as Miss Dorothy
Alec B. Francis as Father
Julia Stuart as Mother
John G. Adolfi as Ensign Jack
William R. Dunn as Jack 's pal
Guy Oliver as Jack 's pal
= Christine Langan =
Christine Langan ( born January 1965 ) is an English film producer who has been Head of BBC Films since April 2009 .
After graduating from Cambridge University in 1987 and working in advertising for three years , Langan joined Granada Television 's drama serials department where she script edited daytime soap operas . From there , she transferred to Granada 's newly created comedy department , where she developed the acclaimed television series Cold Feet , and other one @-@ off comedies . In 2000 , she left Granada to become a freelance producer , and produced the romantic comedy series Rescue Me for the BBC . She returned to Granada in 2002 , where she produced the acclaimed dramas The Deal ( 2003 ) and Dirty Filthy Love ( 2004 ) . She made her feature film production debut on Pierrepoint ( 2005 ) , which got her a Carl Foreman Award nomination at the 60th British Academy Film Awards . Langan also produced The Queen ( 2006 ) for Granada , which won the BAFTA Award for Best Film and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture .
In 2006 , Langan became an executive producer at BBC Films , developing features such as The Other Boleyn Girl ( 2008 ) and The Duchess ( 2008 ) . In April 2009 , she was appointed Creative Director of BBC Films , giving her control of a £ 12 million annual budget and which projects are commissioned for development . By 2010 , Langan had led BBC Films to a record 13 nominations at the British Academy Film Awards , which included In the Loop ( 2009 ) , Fish Tank ( 2009 ) and An Education ( 2009 ) .
Langan lives in London with her partner , writer Christian Spurrier , and their two children .
= = Background = =
Christine Langan was born in January 1965 in Edmonton , London , England . Her mother and father , a dinner lady and a bricklayer respectively , already had three children . Growing up , Langan became interested in television production after seeing Lew Grade 's name in the credits of several programmes . She attended a Catholic grammar school and read English at Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge .
After graduating from Cambridge University in 1987 , Langan spent three years working as a copywriter for an advertising company . She also contributed film reviews to BBC Radio 2 's Cinema 2 programme . In 1990 , Langan began her career in film production as an assistant developer for Tessa Ross at British Screen . The following year , she responded to an advertisement for a script editor at Granada Television 's drama serials department , located in Manchester . She was hired by David Liddiment , and worked mainly on Granada 's daytime soap operas .
= = Career = =
= = = Granada comedy = = =
In 1993 , Langan returned to London to work for Andy Harries at Granada 's newly created comedy department , where she script @-@ edited September Song , the television adaptation of An Evening with Gary Lineker , and the second series of Rik Mayall Presents . In 1995 , she was associate producer on The Perfect Match , a one @-@ off comedy drama written by former BBC radio producer Mike Bullen . The Perfect Match was broadcast in September 1995 , and shortly afterwards , Harries asked Langan to develop more ideas from Bullen .
They devised Cold Feet , another one @-@ off comedy drama based on the love lives of Bullen himself and his friends . Langan produced Cold Feet , guiding Bullen through his script drafts , and hiring Father Ted director Declan Lowney to shoot it . Cold Feet was broadcast in March 1997 as one of four Comedy Premieres on ITV ( two others of which Langan script edited ) . It received poor ratings and little critical reaction . However , in May 1997 , it won the Rose d 'Or at the Montreux International Television Festival . ITV Network Centre commissioned a series of Cold Feet in August , which Langan also produced . For the series , Langan tried to achieve a written and visual style that differed from regular sitcoms by avoiding " one @-@ liners and quick laughs " and hiring directors who had done little television work before . Cold Feet premiered as a series in November 1998 , and Langan stayed until the third series in 2000 . She and Bullen received a nomination for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series in 2000 . Also in 1998 , Langan worked on her first feature film , script editing the Parker Posey @-@ led The Misadventures of Margaret .
In 1999 , Langan was made an executive producer in the department . She oversaw several productions , including Passion Killers ( 1999 , starring Ben Miller ) , Safe as Houses ( 2000 , starring Ricky Tomlinson ) , and the pilot episode of David Nicholls ' I Saw You ( 2000 , starring Paul Rhys and Fay Ripley ) . In 2000 , Langan was offered a position at the BBC 's drama department , which had been rearranged that year . The trade magazine Broadcast reported the BBC had made a " substantial offer " to her . Granada 's director of programmes Grant Mansfield countered the BBC 's bid by offering Langan the position of deputy controller of drama , operating under Andy Harries , who had recently been appointed controller of the same department . Langan accepted neither offer , and instead became a freelance producer after her contract with Granada expired .
As a freelancer , Langan developed three more episodes of I Saw You for Granada . Her only other project was producing David Nicholls ' romantic comedy series Rescue Me with Tiger Aspect Productions for BBC One . As well as producing it , she made her credited directorial debut on the final episode . The six @-@ part series , starring Sally Phillips , was broadcast in 2002 . It was not a ratings success , and the BBC did not commission a second series .
= = = Granada drama = = =
In September 2002 , Langan signed a new contract to develop new projects at Granada 's combined drama , film and comedy department . Her first production was the romantic comedy television film Watermelon , starring Anna Friel . At the end of 2002 , she began developing Peter Morgan 's The Deal , a dramatisation of the political rise of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown . Although initially giving full backing , the ITV network backed out during pre @-@ production . Channel 4 picked up the film from Granada , and it was broadcast in September 2003 . The Deal was presented with the British Academy Television Award for Best Single Drama in 2004 . The same year , she produced the one @-@ off drama Dirty Filthy Love , which was also nominated for the BAFTA for Best Single Drama .
In 2005 , Langan 's feature debut Pierrepoint was released at major film festivals . Based on the life of British hangman Albert Pierrepoint ( played by Timothy Spall ) , Pierrepoint got Langan a nomination for the Carl Foreman Award for Most Promising Newcomer at the 60th British Academy Film Awards in 2007 . 2006 saw the theatrical release of The Queen , a feature film follow @-@ up to The Deal , that focused on the impact the death of Diana , Princess of Wales had on Tony Blair and Queen Elizabeth II . Michael Sheen reprised his role as Tony Blair from The Deal , and Helen Mirren played Elizabeth . The film was produced by Granada in co @-@ operation with the ITV network , and was released in late 2006 to critical acclaim . In 2007 , it won the BAFTA Award for Best Film and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . Of Langan 's work on Pierrepoint and The Queen , a Variety writer said , " both pics are a tribute to her tactful skill at working with tricky but talented writers and directors to take stories that could easily have been confined to the small screen and give them real cinematic depth and breadth " .
= = = BBC Films = = =
In September 2006 , Langan made a low @-@ key departure from Granada to take up a position as an executive producer with BBC Films . Although approached to join BBC Films some years before , only in 2007 did she feel it was the time to " concentrate more exclusively on film " . She immediately began overseeing editing work on The Other Boleyn Girl , which was already in post @-@ production . She also began developing The Damned United , a film based on David Peace 's novel that fictionalised the 44 days Brian Clough managed Leeds United A.F.C. in 1974 . The film was adapted by Peter Morgan , executive produced by Andy Harries , and starred Michael Sheen as Clough . On why she continues to work with the same people on her projects , Langan said , " The reason I return to working with the same people is that you have invested time , energy and thought and care into these relationships and that can pay dividends — The Queen is an example of those relationships paying dividends " .
Following David M. Thompson 's announcement that he would be retiring from the post of head of BBC Films in September 2007 , Langan was widely expected to take over his duties . Confirmation was made the following month when she was appointed Commissioning Editor of the company , taking over the day @-@ to @-@ day duties of BBC Films and reporting to Jane Tranter , the Controller of Fiction at the BBC . When Tranter transferred to a BBC Worldwide position in Los Angeles in 2009 , the BBC decided not to fill the Controller of Fiction vacancy with a single person . Instead , the responsibilities were divided between four people ; Langan became Creative Director of BBC Films , responsible for " editorial strategy and commissioning " , and also joined the BBC Fiction board .
By 2010 , Langan was overseeing a £ 12 million annual budget at BBC Films , and had executive produced high @-@ profile films such as In the Loop ( Armando Iannucci , 2009 ) , Fish Tank ( Andrea Arnold , 2009 ) , and An Education ( Lone Scherfig , 2009 ) . BBC Films received 13 nomination at the 63rd British Academy Film Awards , described in the London Evening Standard as a record number . In 2010 , Langan also executive produced The Special Relationship — the final part of Peter Morgan 's " Blair trilogy " — and StreetDance , the first British feature film to be made in 3D . The Guardian recognised Langan 's achievements at BBC Films by ranking her at number 36 in its inaugural Film Power 100 list in September 2010 .
Through 2011 , Langan executive produced Ralph Fiennes ' directorial debut Coriolanus , the Marilyn Monroe biopic My Week with Marilyn , and Lynne Ramsay 's adaptation of Lionel Shriver 's novel We Need to Talk About Kevin . The project was in development hell since 2007 until Langan realised BBC Films was trying to get too big a budget to make it with . Ramsay rewrote the script in 2010 to allow a lower budget .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Coldplay =
Coldplay are a British rock band formed in 1996 by lead vocalist and pianist Chris Martin and lead guitarist Jonny Buckland at University College London ( UCL ) . After they formed under the name Pectoralz , Guy Berryman joined the group as a bassist and they changed their name to Starfish . Will Champion joined as a drummer and backing vocalist , completing the performing line @-@ up . Creative Director Phil Harvey is often referred to as the official fifth member by the band . The band renamed themselves " Coldplay " in 1998 , before recording and releasing three EPs : Safety in 1998 , Brothers & Sisters as a single in 1999 , and The Blue Room in the same year . The Blue Room was their first release on a major label , after signing to Parlophone .
They achieved worldwide fame with the release of the single " Yellow " in 2000 . This was followed by their debut album Parachutes released the same year , which was nominated for the Mercury Prize . The band 's second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2002 ) , was released to critical acclaim and won multiple awards , including NME 's Album of the Year . Their next release , X & Y , the best @-@ selling album worldwide in 2005 , was met with mostly positive reviews upon its release , though some critics felt that it was inferior to its predecessor . The band 's fourth studio album , Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends ( 2008 ) , was produced by Brian Eno and released again to largely positive reviews , earning several Grammy Award nominations and wins at the 51st Grammy Awards . On 24 October 2011 , they released their fifth studio album , Mylo Xyloto , which received mixed to positive reviews , topped the charts in over 34 countries , and was the UK 's best @-@ selling rock album of 2011 . On 16 May 2014 , they released their sixth album , titled Ghost Stories , which also received mixed to positive reviews and topped the iTunes Store albums charts in over 100 countries . On 4 December 2015 , the band released their seventh album , A Head Full of Dreams , which reached the top two in most major markets , but received generally mixed reviews .
The band has won 62 awards from 209 nominations throughout their career , including nine Brit Awards — winning Best British Group four times — five MTV Video Music Awards and seven Grammy Awards from 31 nominations . Coldplay have sold more than 80 million records worldwide , making them one of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists . In December 2009 , Rolling Stone readers voted the group the fourth @-@ best artist of the 2000s . Coldplay have been an active supporter of various social and political causes , such as Oxfam 's Make Trade Fair campaign and Amnesty International . The group have also performed at various charity projects such as Band Aid 20 , Live 8 , Sound Relief , Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief , The Secret Policeman 's Ball , Sport Relief and the UK 's Teenage Cancer Trust .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and first years ( 1996 – 99 ) = = =
Chris Martin and Jonny Buckland first met during their orientation week at University College London ( UCL ) in September 1996 . The pair spent the rest of the university year planning a band , ultimately forming a group called Pectoralz . Guy Berryman , a classmate of Martin and Buckland , later joined the group . By 1997 , the group , who had renamed themselves Starfish , performed gigs for local Camden promoters at small clubs . Martin also had recruited his longtime school friend Phil Harvey , who was studying classics at the University of Oxford , to be the band 's manager . Coldplay have since accepted Harvey as the fifth member of the group . The band 's line @-@ up was completed when Will Champion joined to take up percussion duties . Champion had grown up playing piano , guitar , bass , and tin whistle ; he quickly learned the drums ( despite having no previous experience ) . The band finally settled on the name " Coldplay " which was suggested by Tim Crompton , a local student who had been using the name for his group .
By 1997 Martin had met then Classics student Tim Rice @-@ Oxley . During a weekend at Virginia Water in Surrey they asked each other to play their own songs on the piano . Martin , finding Rice @-@ Oxley to be talented , asked him to be Coldplay 's keyboard player but Rice @-@ Oxley refused as his own band , Keane , was already active . Days after , this event would shape the second line @-@ up of Keane and keep Coldplay 's unaltered , thus leaving both bands as quartets . In 1998 , the band released 500 copies of the Safety EP . Most of the discs were given to record companies and friends ; only 50 copies remained for sale to the public . In December of that year , Coldplay signed to the independent label Fierce Panda . Their first release was the three @-@ track Brothers and Sisters EP , which they had quickly recorded over four days in February 1999 .
After completing their final examinations Coldplay signed a five @-@ album contract with Parlophone in early 1999 . After making their first appearance at Glastonbury the band went into the studio to record a third EP , titled The Blue Room . Five thousand copies
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were made available to the public in October and the single " Bigger Stronger " received BBC Radio 1 airplay . The recording sessions for The Blue Room were tumultuous . Champion was briefly fired from the band , but Martin later pleaded with him to return after kicking him out , and because of his guilt , went on a drinking binge . Eventually , the band worked out their differences and put in place a new set of rules to keep the group intact . Inspired by bands like U2 and R.E.M. , Coldplay decided that they would operate as a democracy . Additionally , the band determined they would fire anyone who used hard drugs .
= = = Parachutes ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
The band initially planned to record their debut album in the space of two weeks . However , tours and other live performances caused the recording to spread out between September 1999 and April – May 2000 . The album was recorded at Rockfield Studios , Matrix Studios , and Wessex Sound Studios with producer Ken Nelson , although the majority of Parachutes ' tracks were recorded at Liverpool 's Parr Street Studios ( where they accessed three studio rooms ) . The mixing process on all songs for the album was done by American engineer Michael Brauer in New York . During that period , they played on the Carling Tour , which showcased up @-@ and @-@ coming acts .
After releasing three EPs without a hit song , Coldplay had their first Top 40 hit with the lead single from Parachutes , " Shiver " , which was released in March 2000 and peaked at number 35 position on the UK Singles Chart . June 2000 was a pivotal moment in Coldplay 's history : the band embarked on their first headlining tour , including a showing at the Glastonbury Festival . The band also released the breakthrough single " Yellow " . It was Coldplay 's first release to reach the top five , rising to number four on the UK Singles Chart . " Yellow " and " Shiver " were initially released as EPs in the spring of 2000 . The former was later released as a single in United Kingdom on 26 June 2000 . In the United States , the song was released as the lead single from the then @-@ untitled debut album . In October 2000 , the track was sent to US college and alternative radio outlets .
Coldplay released their first studio album , Parachutes , on 10 July 2000 in the United Kingdom via their record label , Parlophone . The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It was released on 7 November 2000 by record label Nettwerk in North America . The album has been made available on various formats since its initial release ; both Parlophone and Nettwerk released it as a CD in 2000 , and it was also released as a cassette by US label Capitol in 2001 . In the following year , Parlophone issued the album as an LP . Four singles were released from Parachutes , including " Shiver " and " Yellow " , and enjoyed popularity in the UK and US . The third single was " Trouble " , which reached number 10 in the UK charts . It was released more than a year later in the US , and , although it did not make the Billboard Hot 100 , it reached number 28 in the Alternative Songs chart . In December 2001 , the band released a limited @-@ edition CD , Mince Spies , featuring a remix of " Yellow " and the Christmas song " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " . It was pressed to 1 @,@ 000 copies , and was issued only to fans and journalists .
Parachutes was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in September 2000 . Having found success in Europe , the band set their sights on North America , by releasing the album there in November 2000 , and started the US Club Tour in February 2001 . At the 2001 Brit Awards in February , Coldplay earned awards for Best British Group , and Best British Album . Although Parachutes was a slow @-@ burning success in the United States , it eventually reached double @-@ platinum status . The album was critically well received and earned a Best Alternative Music Album honours at the 2002 Grammy Awards . Chris Martin claimed , after the release of Parachutes , that the album 's success was intended to elevate the band 's status to the " biggest , best band in the world . " After single @-@ handedly managing the band until early 2001 , Phil Harvey resigned from his role due to the stress of performing a role usually requiring a team of people . Harvey then took on the role of " creative director " and is often referred as the official fifth member by the band , while Dave Holmes took over as the band 's manager .
= = = A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2001 – 04 ) = = =
After the success of Parachutes , Coldplay returned to the studio in September 2001 to begin work on their second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head , once again with Ken Nelson producing . Since the band had never stayed in London before , they had trouble focusing . They decided to relocate in Liverpool , where they recorded some of the songs on Parachutes . Once there , vocalist Chris Martin said that they became obsessed with recording . " In My Place " was the first song recorded for the album . The band released it as the album 's lead single because it was the track that made them want to record a second album , following a " strange period of not really knowing what we were doing " three months after the success of Parachutes . According to Martin " one thing kept us going : recording ' In My Place ' . Then other songs started coming . "
The band wrote more than 20 songs for the album . Some of their new material , including " In My Place " and " Animals " , was played live while the band was still touring Parachutes . The album 's title was revealed through a post on the band 's official website . The album was released in August 2002 and spawned several popular singles , including " In My Place " , " Clocks " , and the ballad " The Scientist " . The latter was inspired by George Harrison 's All Things Must Pass , which was released in 1970 .
Coldplay toured from June 2002 to September 2003 for the A Rush of Blood to the Head Tour . They visited five continents , including co @-@ headlining festival dates at Glastonbury Festival , V2003 and Rock Werchter . Many concerts showcased elaborate lighting and individualised screens reminiscent of U2 's Elevation Tour and Nine Inch Nails ' Fragility Tour . During the extended tour , Coldplay recorded a live DVD and CD , Live 2003 , at Sydney 's Hordern Pavilion . At the 2003 Brit Awards held at Earls Court , London , Coldplay received awards for Best British Group , and Best British Album . On 28 August 2003 , Coldplay performed " The Scientist " at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City , and won three awards .
In December 2003 , readers of Rolling Stone chose Coldplay as the best artist and the best band of the year . At that time the band covered The Pretenders ' 1983 song " 2000 Miles " ( which was made available for download on their official website ) . " 2000 Miles " was the top selling UK download that year , with proceeds from the sales donated to Future Forests and Stop Handgun Violence campaigns . A Rush of Blood to the Head won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards . At the 2004 Grammy Awards , Coldplay earned Record of the Year for " Clocks " .
= = = X & Y ( 2004 – 06 ) = = =
Coldplay spent most of 2004 out of the spotlight , taking a break from touring and releasing a satire music video of a song from a fictional band titled The Nappies while recording their third album . X & Y was released in June 2005 in UK and Europe . This new , delayed release date had put the album back into the next fiscal year , actually causing EMI 's stock to drop . It became the best @-@ selling album of 2005 with worldwide sales of 8 @.@ 3 million . The lead single , " Speed of Sound " , made its radio and online music store debut on 18 April and was released as a CD on 23 May 2005 . X & Y entered the album charts of 20 countries at the number one position and was the third @-@ fastest selling album in UK chart history .
Two other singles were released that year : " Fix You " in September and " Talk " in December . Critical reaction to X & Y was mostly positive , though slightly less enthusiastic than that of its predecessor . The New York Times critic Jon Pareles described Coldplay as " the most insufferable band of the decade " , whereas NME awarded the album 9 / 10 calling it " Confident , bold , ambitious , bunged with singles and impossible to contain , ' X & Y ' doesn 't reinvent the wheel but it does reinforce Coldplay as the band of their time " . Comparisons between Coldplay and U2 became increasingly common . Chris Martin later revealed that the reviews that ranged from mixed to negative , note @-@ worthy for their remarks on comparing them to U2 , made him feel " liberated " .
From June 2005 to July 2006 , Coldplay went on their Twisted Logic Tour , which included festival dates like Coachella , Isle of Wight Festival , Glastonbury and the Austin City Limits Music Festival . In July 2005 , the band appeared at Live 8 in Hyde Park , where they played a rendition of The Verve 's " Bitter Sweet Symphony " with Richard Ashcroft on vocals . On 28 August , Coldplay performed " Speed of Sound " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards in Miami . In September , Coldplay recorded a new version of " How You See the World " with reworked lyrics for War Child 's Help ! : A Day in the Life charity album . In February 2006 , Coldplay earned Best Album and Best Single honours at the Brit Awards . Two more singles were released during 2006 , " The Hardest Part " and " What If " . The sixth and final single , " White Shadows " was released in Mexico during June 2007 .
= = = Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
In October 2006 , Coldplay began work on their fourth studio album , Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends , with producer Brian Eno . Taking a break from recording , the band toured Latin America in early 2007 , performing in Chile , Argentina , Brazil , and Mexico . After recording in churches and other venues in Latin America and Spain during their tour , the band said the album would likely reflect Hispanic influence . The group spent the rest of the year recording with Eno .
Martin described Viva la Vida as a new direction for Coldplay : a change from their past three albums , which they have referred to as a " trilogy " . He said the album featured less falsetto as he allowed his voice 's lower register to take precedence . Some songs , such as " Violet Hill " , contain distorted guitar riffs and bluesy undertones .
" Violet Hill " was confirmed as the first single , with a radio release date of 29 April 2008 . After the first play , it was freely obtainable from Coldplay 's website from 12 : 15 pm ( GMT + 0 ) for one week ( achieving two million downloads ) , until it became commercially available to download on 6 May . " Violet Hill " entered the UK Top 10 , US Top 40 ( entering the Top 10 in the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart ) and charted well in the rest of the world . The title track , " Viva la Vida " , was also released exclusively on iTunes . It became the band 's first number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and their first UK number one , based on download sales alone . This was also the first Number One in the UK Singles Chart to be based solely on download sales .
Upon release , Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends topped the album charts worldwide , and was the world 's best @-@ selling album of 2008 . It hit number one on the UK album chart , despite having come on the market only three days previously . In that time , it sold 302 @,@ 000 copies ; the BBC called it " one of the fastest @-@ selling records in UK history " . By the end of June , it had set a new record for most @-@ downloaded album ever . In October 2008 , Coldplay won two Q Awards for Best Album for Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and Best Act in the World Today . On 9 November , Coldplay were named the World 's Best Selling Act of 2008 at the World Music Awards in Monte Carlo . They also picked up two other awards , World 's Best Selling Rock Act and Great Britain 's Best Selling Act . The band followed up Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends with the Prospekt 's March EP , which was released on 21 November 2008 . The EP features tracks from the Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends sessions and , as well as being available on its own , was issued as a bonus disc with later editions of Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends . " Life in Technicolor II " was the only single released from the EP .
Coldplay began their Viva la Vida Tour in June , with a free concert at
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Brixton Academy in London . This was followed two days later by a 45 @-@ minute performance that was broadcast live from outside BBC Television Centre . Released in late 2008 , " Lost ! " became the third single from the album , featuring a new version with Jay @-@ Z. After performing the opening set on 14 March 2009 for Sound Relief at the Sydney Cricket Ground , Coldplay headlined a sold @-@ out concert later that same night . Sound Relief is a benefit concert for victims of the Victorian Bushfire Crisis and the Queensland Floods . On 4 December 2008 , Joe Satriani filed a copyright infringement suit against Coldplay in the United States District Court for the Central District of California . Satriani 's suit asserted that the Coldplay song " Viva la Vida " includes " substantial original portions " of the Satriani song " If I Could Fly " from his 2004 album , Is There Love in Space ? . The Coldplay song in question received two Grammy Awards for " Song of the Year . " The band denied the allegation . An unspecified settlement was ultimately reached between the parties .
Coldplay were nominated for four awards at the 2009 Brit Awards : British Group , British Live Act , British Single ( " Viva la Vida " ) and British Album ( Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends ) . At the 51st Grammy Awards in the same year , Coldplay won three Grammy Awards in the categories for Song of Year for " Viva la Vida " , Best Rock Album for Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends , and Best Vocal Pop Performance by a Duo or Group for " Viva la Vida " . A live album entitled LeftRightLeftRightLeft was recorded at various shows during the tour . LeftRightLeftRightLeft , released on 15 May 2009 , was to be given away at the remaining concerts of their Viva la Vida tour . It was also released as a free download from their website . Following the Viva la Vida Tour , Coldplay announced another " Latin America Tour " to take place in February and March 2010 , in which they were to visit Mexico , Argentina , Brazil , and Colombia . In October 2009 , Coldplay won Song of the Year for " Viva la Vida " at The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Awards in London . In December 2009 , Rolling Stone readers voted the group the fourth best artist of the 2000s .
= = = Mylo Xyloto ( 2009 – 12 ) = = =
The band finished recording the new album in mid @-@ 2011 . When Martin and Champion were interviewed by BBC Radio and asked about the album 's lyrical themes , Martin replied " It 's about love , addiction , OCD , escape and working for someone you don 't like . " When asked whether or not their fifth album would be out by the summer , Martin and Champion said that there was plenty of work to be done before releasing it . They confirmed several festival appearances before its release date , including a headlining spot at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , T in the Park , Austin City Limits Music Festival , Rock in Rio , and Lollapalooza festival .
In an interview on 13 January 2011 , Coldplay mentioned two new songs to be included on their upcoming fifth album , " Princess of China " and " Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall " . In a February interview , Parlophone president Miles Leonard told HitQuarters that the band were still in the studio working on the album and that he expected the final version would appear " towards the autumn of this year " . On 31 May 2011 , Coldplay announced that " Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall " was to be the first single for the fifth album . It was released on 3 June 2011 . The band also presented five new songs at festivals during the summer of 2011 , " Charlie Brown " , " Hurts Like Heaven " , " Us Against the World " , " Princess of China " and " Major Minus " .
On 12 August 2011 , Coldplay announced via their official website that Mylo Xyloto was the new album title , and that it would be released on 24 October 2011 . On 12 September the band released " Paradise " , the second single from their upcoming album Mylo Xyloto . On 23 September 2011 , tickets for Coldplay 's European tour officially went on sale . Demand proved to be very high with most venues selling out in seconds . Mylo Xyloto was released on 24 October 2011 , to mixed to positive reviews , and topped the charts in over 34 countries .
On 19 October 2011 , Coldplay performed songs at Apple Inc . ' s private memorial event for Steve Jobs , including " Viva la Vida " , " Fix You " , " Yellow " and " Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall " . On 26 October their " Amex Unstaged " concert at the Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas in Madrid , Spain , was streamed by YouTube as a live webcast directed by Anton Corbijn . On 30 November 2011 , Coldplay received three Grammy Award nominations for the 54th Annual Grammy Awards which took place on 12 February 2012 in Los Angeles , and the band performed with Rihanna at the ceremony . On 12 January 2012 , Coldplay were nominated for two Brit Awards . On 21 February 2012 , they were awarded the Brit Award for Best British Group for the third time . The album was the best @-@ selling rock album in the United Kingdom , selling 908 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's second single , " Paradise " , was also the best @-@ selling rock single in the UK , selling 410 @,@ 000 copies . At the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards on 6 September , " Paradise " won the award for Best Rock Video . Mylo Xyloto has sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
Coldplay headlined the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Paralympic Games on 9 September 2012 , where they performed alongside other artists including Rihanna and Jay @-@ Z. To tie in with their performance at the closing ceremony , the group gave permission for bands who were participating in the Bandstand Marathon the opportunity to perform their 2008 single " Viva la Vida " to celebrate the end of the games .
In October 2012 , the music video for Coldplay 's song " Hurts Like Heaven " was released . The video was based on the story of Mylo Xyloto , a boy who grew up in tyranny ran by Major Minus . The fictional comics entitled Mylo Xyloto continued on the story portrayed in the music video when the series was released in early 2013 . A concert documentary film Coldplay Live 2012 chronicles their tour in support of the Mylo Xyloto album . The film premiered theatrically for one night only , 13 November 2012 , and was released on CD and home video on 19 November 2012 .
On 21 November , after a concert in Brisbane , Australia as part on the group 's Mylo Xyloto Tour , Coldplay hinted they were set to take a three @-@ year break from touring . Coldplay performed two shows with Jay @-@ Z in the Barclays Center , Brooklyn , New York , on 30 December and New Year 's Eve , and were set , which ended the Mylo Xyloto Tour . The Mylo Xyloto Tour was named the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing tour worldwide of 2012 with more than $ 171 @.@ 3 million earned in ticket sales .
= = = Ghost Stories ( 2012 – 14 ) = = =
Speaking to Australian radio station 2Day FM , Chris Martin revealed that the title for their next album : " is much easier to pronounce . " Martin debunked speculation that they were taking a break from touring by saying , " This three @-@ year break idea only came about because I said at a gig in Australia that we might not be back there for three years . That ’ s probably true , but that ’ s just how a world tour works . No chance are we taking a three @-@ year break . ”
On 9 August 2013 , Coldplay announced the release of their song , " Atlas " , which featured on the soundtrack for the film The Hunger Games : Catching Fire . Its release got pushed back to 6 September 2013 ( everywhere but the UK ) and 8 September ( UK ) . In December 2013 it was announced that future Coldplay releases will be distributed by Atlantic Records in the US due to restructuring within Warner Music Group following the purchase of Parlophone Records from EMI .
On 25 February 2014 , the band unveiled " Midnight " , a track from their yet @-@ to @-@ be released album . In early March 2014 , it was announced that the band 's sixth album , Ghost Stories , would be released 19 May 2014 . Ghost Stories is a spiritually driven album that revolves around two major themes mentioned by Chris Martin . The album explores the idea of past actions , and the effects they can have on your future and one 's capacity for unconditional love . The band took a different approach for their sixth studio album in contrast to their previous studio albums , with Martin inviting the band to contribute original songwriting material for the album , as opposed to building songs off his ideas as they had done during previous recording sessions .
From April to July , Coldplay embarked on a six @-@ date Ghost Stories Tour in support of the album , playing ' intimate ' shows in six cities : the Beacon Theatre in New York City on 5 May , Royce Hall in Los Angeles on 19 May , Casino de Paris in Paris on 28 May , Tokyo Dome City Hall in Tokyo on 12 June , Enmore Theatre in Sydney on 19 June , and closed the tour at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 2 July 2014 . The album was made available for pre @-@ order on iTunes , alongside a new single titled " Magic " . Two more singles from the album , " A Sky Full of Stars " and " True Love " , have since been released . Ghost Stories received generally mixed to favourable reviews . The album topped the charts in the UK , the US , and most major markets . It received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album and " A Sky Full of Stars " was nominated for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance . In December 2014 , Spotify named Coldplay the most @-@ streamed band in the world for 2014 , and third most @-@ streamed artist behind Ed Sheeran and Eminem .
= = = A Head Full of Dreams ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On 4 December 2014 , Chris Martin announced in an interview with Zane Lowe on BBC Radio 1 that Coldplay are in the middle of working on their seventh studio album , A Head Full of Dreams . Martin stated it might be the band 's final album and compared it to Harry Potter ; " It 's our seventh thing , and the way we look at it , it 's like the last Harry Potter book or something like that . " He added that , unlike their promotion efforts for Ghost Stories , the band will tour for the seventh record . In an interview with Jo Whiley on BBC Radio 2 , Martin hinted at the style of the album by saying that the band was trying to make something colourful and uplifting , yet not bombast . He also stated that it will be something to " shuffle your feet " to .
On 11 December 2014 , the band unveiled a new song , " Miracles " , which was written and recorded for the World War II drama film Unbroken directed by Angelina Jolie . At the 2015 Billboard Music Awards on 17 May , Ghost Stories was named Top Rock Album . On 26 September , Coldplay performed at the 2015 Global Citizen Festival in Central Park 's Great Lawn in New York , an event organised by Chris Martin that advocates an end to extreme global poverty . Coldplay , along with Beyoncé , Ed Sheeran and Pearl Jam , headlined the festival , which was broadcast on NBC in the US on 27 September and the BBC in the UK on 28 September .
Speaking on Nick Grimshaw 's Radio 1 Breakfast Show on the BBC on 6 November , Coldplay confirmed 4 December as the release date of A Head Full of Dreams , and a new song from the album , " Adventure of a Lifetime " , premiered on the show . The album features guest appearances from Beyoncé , Gwyneth Paltrow , Noel Gallagher , Tove Lo and Barack Obama . The album reached number one in the UK , and number two in the US , Australia , Canada , the Netherlands and Italy .
On 27 November 2015 , Coldplay announced the first dates to their 2016 A Head Full of Dreams Tour . Latin American and European legs were listed , which included three dates at Wembley Stadium , London in June , with further dates , including their North American tour , to be added . More dates , including the North America Tour , an extra Wembley concert , and an Oceania tour , were later added gradually . On 5 December , the band headlined the opening day of the 2015 Jingle Bell Ball at London 's O2 Arena . On 7 February 2016 Coldplay headlined the Super Bowl 50 halftime show . The band were joined by Beyoncé and Bruno Mars . In April 2016 , the band were named the sixth best selling artist worldwide in 2015 .
On 26 June 2016 , Coldplay closed the final day of the Glastonbury Festival in England . Their performance included a duet with Barry Gibb , the last surviving member of the Bee Gees .
= = Musical style = =
Martin once proclaimed the band 's music as " limestone rock " in comparison to " hard rock " . The band 's music has been called " meditative " and " blue romantic " ; it " [ reflects ] on their emotions " and Martin " endlessly examine [ s ] his feelings " .
Coldplay started out as one of many earnest post @-@ Britpop bands . In the late 1990s , the EPs released by the band had characteristics of dream pop , setting them apart from later studio albums . The tone of the band 's first studio album , Parachutes , was described as melodic pop with " distorted guitar riffs and swishing percussion " but also being " exquisitely dark and artistically abrasive " . Such alternative rock style has been compared to bands like U2 , Oasis , Radiohead and Travis . The band acknowledges the Scottish alternative rock band , Travis , as a major influence on their earlier material .
In their second studio album A Rush of Blood to the Head , the band drew inspiration from artists like Echo & the Bunnymen , Kate Bush , George Harrison and Muse . The songs in it were considered to contain " lush melodies and a heartbreak " and that they had a " newfound confidence . " The music on their third release X & Y has been considered to be " ruminations on Martin 's doubts , fears , hopes , and loves . " It was particularly influenced by the artists Johnny Cash and Kraftwerk .
In Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends , the group 's style was moving towards art rock , being influenced by the bands Blur , Arcade Fire and My Bloody Valentine . The band experimented with different instruments including orchestras , honky @-@ tonk pianos and further so . Mylo Xyloto carries the concept album format from the love and war @-@ induced Viva la Vida and expands the spectrum to include electronic and acoustic elements . Lyrical influences were taken from graffiti and the German resistance group White Rose .
Regarding the band 's wide international success , Parlophone 's president Miles Leonard has stated that one of their " secrets " is that they have never sounded like a parochial UK artist , saying : " Some bands are very proud to be British , but sometimes come across as being very ‘ British ’ . Coldplay never aspire to that ; on one hand they sound British but on the other they sound like a huge global artist . " In 2011 Coldplay were hailed as ' rock statesmen ' .
= = Activism and commercial endorsements = =
Despite their worldwide popularity , the band has remained protective of how their music is used in the media , refusing its use for product endorsements . In the past , Coldplay turned down multi @-@ million dollar contracts from Gatorade , Diet Coke , and Gap , who wanted to use the songs " Yellow " , " Trouble " , and " Don 't Panic " respectively . According to frontman , Chris Martin , " We wouldn 't be able to live with ourselves if we sold the songs ' meanings like that . " The song " Viva la Vida " was featured in a commercial for the iTunes Store , advertising its exclusive availability of the single as a digital download on iTunes . Additionally , Chris Martin appeared at an Apple Inc . Special Event on 1 September 2010 , playing a number of songs , and also thanked Apple for their assistance in marketing " Viva la Vida " . After the death of Steve Jobs , Coldplay performed four songs at Apple 's Campus in Cupertino , further thanking Jobs for the support he gave them .
Coldplay supports Amnesty International and performed for them at The Secret Policeman 's Ball fundraiser in 2012 . Martin is regarded as one of the most visible celebrity advocates for fair trade , supporting Oxfam 's ongoing Make Trade Fair campaign . He has been on trips with Oxfam to assess conditions , has appeared in its advertising campaign , and is known for wearing a " Make Trade Fair " wristband during public appearances ( including at Coldplay concerts ) . The band were also filmed for Make Poverty History , clicking their fingers .
During the early years , Coldplay became widely known in the media for giving 10 per cent of the band 's profits to charity , which they continue to do . Bassist Guy Berryman said , " You can make people aware of issues . It isn 't very much effort for us at all , but if it can help people , then we want to do it . " The band also asks that any gifts intended for them are donated to charity , according to a response on the FAQ section of Coldplay 's website . Martin spoke out against the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the US , UK and other forces during the Teenage Cancer Trust show at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 24 March 2003 , where he encouraged the sell @-@ out crowd to " sing against war " . He would later endorse the US Democratic presidential candidates John Kerry and Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012 respectively .
In June 2009 , Coldplay began supporting Meat Free Monday , a food campaign started by Paul McCartney which attempts to help slow climate change by having at least one meat free day a week . From 17 and 31 December 2009 , Coldplay auctioned a quantity of significant band memorabilia , including their first guitars . Proceeds went to Kids Company , a charity which helps vulnerable children and young people in London . A month later in January 2010 , Coldplay performed a slightly modified version of " A Message " , entitled " A Message 2010 " , at the Hope For Haiti Now telethon special , raising money for the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
In 2011 Coldplay endorsed the song " Freedom for Palestine " by posting a link to the video . In less than a day 12 @,@ 000 comments were made on that post . Some threatened to boycott the band , and a Facebook group was created that demanded an apology to Israel . The link to the song was eventually removed from their Facebook wall . According to Frank Barat of OneWorld , the link was not removed by Coldplay , but by Facebook after " thousands of people ( and computer generated posts ) reported it as abusive . "
Album Artists ( www.albumartists.co.uk ) staged an exhibition of art from Mylo Xyloto at Proud Gallery in Camden to support the charity Kids Company in November — December 2012 . The exhibition raised over £ 610 @,@ 000 for the children 's charity which supports disadvantaged children in London . In November 2014 , Martin joined the charity group Band Aid 30 , performing alongside current British and Irish pop acts on the latest version of the track " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa — this was the second time Martin has contributed to a Band Aid recording having performed in the 2004 version ( Band Aid 20 ) .
= = Band members = =
Chris Martin – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , piano , keyboards
Jonny Buckland – lead guitar , backing vocals , piano , keyboards , harmonica
Guy Berryman – bass guitar , backing vocals , piano , keyboards , harmonica , percussion , guitar
Will Champion – drums , percussion , drum machine , backing vocals , piano , keyboards , guitar
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Parachutes ( 20
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, a Northumbrian monk . Bede mentions Ælle as one of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings who exercised what he calls " imperium " over " all the provinces south of the river Humber " ; " imperium " is usually translated as " overlordship " . Bede gives a list of seven kings who held " imperium " , and Ælle is the first of them . The other information Bede gives is that Ælle was not a Christian — Bede mentions a later king as " the first to enter the kingdom of heaven " .
The second source is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals assembled in the Kingdom of Wessex in c . 890 , during the reign of Alfred the Great . The Chronicle has three entries for Ælle , from 477 to 491 , as follows :
477 : Ælle and his 3 sons , Cymen and Wlencing and Cissa , came to the land of Britain with 3 ships at the place which is named Cymen 's shore , and there killed many Welsh and drove some to flight into the wood called Andredes leag .
485 : Here Ælle fought against the Welsh near the margin of Mearcred 's Burn .
491 : Here Ælle and Cissa besieged Andredes cester , and killed all who lived in there ; there was not even one Briton left there .
The Chronicle was put together about four hundred years after these events . It is known that the annalists used material from earlier chronicles , as well as from oral sources such as sagas , but there is no way to tell where these lines came from . It should also be noted that the terms ' British ' and ' Welsh ' were used interchangeably , as ' Welsh ' is the Saxon word meaning ' foreigner ' , and was applied to all the native Romano @-@ British of the era .
Three of the places named may be identified :
" Cymen 's shore " ( " Cymenes ora " in the original ) is believed to be located at what is now a series of rocks and ledges , in the English Channel off Selsey Bill , on the south coast , known as the Owers . It has been suggested that Ower is derived from the word ora that is found only in placenames where Jutish and West Saxon dialects were in operation ( mainly in southern England ) . It is possible that the stretch of low ground along the coast from Southampton to Bognor was called Ora " the shore " , and that district names were used by the various coastal settlements , Cymens ora being one of them .
The wood called " Andredes leag " is the Weald , which at that time was a forest extending from north @-@ west Hampshire all through northern Sussex .
" Andredes cester " is thought to be Anderitum , the Saxon Shore fort , built by the Roman rebel Carausius in the late 3rd century , at Pevensey Castle , just outside the town . Some believe Andredes cester may have been an imperial stronghold somewhere else as Henry of Huntingdon described the place as a fortified city and gave a very full account of the siege which is inconsistent with the geography of ancient Pevensey and little archaeological evidence of sustained settlement there . Also , in his " Britannia " , William Camden suggests that it could be Newenden , Kent
The Chronicle mentions Ælle once more under the year 827 , where he is listed as the first of the eight " bretwaldas " , or " Britain @-@ rulers " . The list consists of Bede 's original seven , plus Egbert of Wessex . There has been much scholarly debate over just what it meant to be a " bretwalda " , and the extent of Ælle 's actual power in southern England is an open question . It is also noteworthy that there is a long gap between Ælle and the second king on Bede 's list , Ceawlin of Wessex , whose reign began in the late 6th century ; this may indicate a period in which Anglo @-@ Saxon dominance was interrupted in some way .
Earlier sources than Bede exist which mention the South Saxons , though they do not name Ælle . The earliest reference is still quite late , however , at about 692 : a charter of King Nothelm 's , which styles him " King of the South Saxons " . Charters are documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and which would be witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . They are one of the key documentary sources for Anglo @-@ Saxon history , but no original charters survive from earlier than the end of the 7th century .
There are other early writers whose works can shed light on Ælle 's time , though they do not mention either him or his kingdom . Gildas 's description of the state of Britain in his time is useful for understanding the ebb and flow of the Anglo @-@ Saxon incursions . Procopius , a Byzantine historian , writing not long after Gildas , adds to the meagre sources on population movement by including a chapter on England in one of his works . He records that the peoples of Britain — he names the English , the British , and the Frisians — were so numerous that they were migrating to the kingdom of the Franks in great numbers every year . Although this is probably a reference to Britons emigrating to Armorica to escape the Anglo @-@ Saxons . They subsequently gave their name to the area they settled as Brittany , or la petite Bretagne ( literally little Britain ) .
= = Evidence from place names in Sussex = =
The early dates given in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle for the colonization of Sussex are supported by an analysis of the place names of the region . The strongest evidence comes from place names that end in " -ing " , such as Worthing and Angmering . These are known to derive from an earlier form ending in " -ingas " . " Hastings " for example , derives from " Hæstingas " which may mean " the followers or dependents of a person named Hæsta " , although others suggest the heavily Romanised region may have had names of Gallo @-@ Roman origin derived from " -ienses " .
From west of Selsey Bill to east of Pevensey can be found the densest concentration of these names anywhere in Britain . There are a total of about forty @-@ five place names in Sussex of this form , however , personal names either were not associated with these places or fell out of use . This does not necessarily mean that the Saxons killed or drove out almost all of the native population , despite the slaughter of the Britons reported in the Chronicle entry for 491 ; however , it does imply that the invasion was on a scale that left little space for the British .
These lines of reasoning cannot prove the dates given in the Chronicle , much less the existence of Ælle himself , but they do support the idea of an early conquest and the establishment of a settled kingdom .
= = Reign = =
If the dates given by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle are accurate to within half a century , then Ælle 's reign lies in the middle of the Anglo @-@ Saxon expansion , and prior to the final conquest of the Britons . It also seems consistent with the dates given to assume that Ælle 's battles predate Mons Badonicus . This in turn would explain the long gap , of fifty or more years , in the succession of the " bretwaldas " : if the peace gained by the Britons did indeed hold till the second half of the 6th century , it is not to be expected that an Anglo @-@ Saxon leader should have anything resembling overlordship of England during that time . The idea of a pause in the Anglo @-@ Saxon advance is also supported by the account in Procopius of 6th century migration from Britain to the kingdom of the Franks . Procopius 's account is consistent with what is known to be a contemporary colonization of Armorica ( now Brittany , in France ) ; the settlers appear to have been at least partly from Dumnonia ( modern Cornwall ) , and the area acquired regions known as Dumnonée and Cornouaille . It seems likely that something at that time was interrupting the general flow of the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the continent to Britain .
The dates for Ælle 's battles are also reasonably consistent with what is known of events in the kingdom of the Franks at that time . Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom during the 480s and afterwards , and the Franks ' ability to exercise power along the southern coast of the English channel may have diverted Saxon adventurers to England rather than the continent .
It is possible , therefore , that a historical king named Ælle existed , who arrived from the continent in the late 5th century , and who conquered much of what is now Sussex . He may have been a prominent war chief with a leadership role in a federation of Anglo @-@ Saxon groups fighting for territory in Britain at that time . This may be the origin of the reputation that led Bede to list him as holding overlordship over southern Britain . The battles listed in the Chronicle are compatible with a conquest of Sussex from west to east , against British resistance stiff enough to last fourteen years . His area of military control may have extended as far as Hampshire and north to the upper Thames valley , but it certainly did not extend across all of England south of the Humber , as Bede asserts .
The historian Guy Halsall argues that as Ælle immediately preceded the late sixth @-@ century King Ceawlin as Bretwalda , it is far more likely that Ælle dates to the mid sixth century , and that the Chronicle has moved his dates back a century in order to provide a foundation myth for Sussex which puts it chronologically and geographically between the origins of the kingdoms of Kent and Wessex .
= = Death and burial = =
Ælle 's death is not recorded by the Chronicle , which gives no information about him , or his sons , or the South Saxons until 675 , when the South Saxon king Æthelwalh was baptized .
It has been conjectured that , as Saxon war leader , Ælle may have met his death in the disastrous battle of Mount Badon when the Britons halted Saxon expansion If Ælle died within the borders of his own kingdom then it may well have been that he was buried on Highdown Hill with his weapons and ornaments in the usual mode of burial among the South Saxons . Highdown Hill is the traditional burial @-@ place of the kings of Sussex .
= HMS New Zealand ( 1911 ) =
HMS New Zealand was one of three Indefatigable @-@ class battlecruisers built for the defence of the British Empire . Launched in 1911 , the ship was funded by the government of New Zealand as a gift to Britain , and she was commissioned into the Royal Navy in 1912 . She had been intended for the China Station , but was released by the New Zealand government at the request of the Admiralty for service in British waters .
During 1913 , New Zealand was sent on a ten @-@ month tour of the British Dominions , with an emphasis on a visit to her namesake nation . She was back in British waters at the start of World War I , and operated as part of the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet , in opposition to the German High Seas Fleet . During the war , the battlecruiser participated in all three of the major North Sea battles — Heligoland Bight , Dogger Bank , and Jutland — and was involved in the response to the inconclusive Raid on Scarborough , and the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . New Zealand contributed to the destruction of two cruisers during her wartime service and was hit by enemy fire only once , sustaining no casualties ; her status as a " lucky ship " was attributed by the crew to a Māori piupiu ( warrior 's skirt ) and hei @-@ tiki ( pendant ) worn by the captain during battle .
After the war , New Zealand was sent on a second world tour , this time to allow Admiral John Jellicoe to review the naval defences of the Dominions . In 1920 , the battlecruiser was placed in reserve . She was broken up for scrap in 1922 in order to meet Britain 's tonnage limit in the disarmament provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design = =
The Indefatigable class was not a significant improvement on the preceding Invincible class ; the main difference was the enlargement of the dimensions to give the ships ' two wing turrets a wider arc of fire . The ships were smaller and not as well protected as the contemporary German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann and subsequent German designs . While Von der Tann 's characteristics were not known when the lead ship of the class , HMS Indefatigable , was laid down in February 1909 , the Royal Navy obtained accurate information on the German ship before work began on New Zealand and her sister ship HMAS Australia .
New Zealand had an overall length of 590 feet ( 179 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) , and a draught of 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 18 @,@ 500 long tons ( 18 @,@ 800 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 130 long tons ( 22 @,@ 490 t ) at deep load . The battlecruiser 's Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines were designed to produce 44 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 33 @,@ 000 kW ) , propelling the ship at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . However , during trials in 1912 , the turbines produced over 49 @,@ 000 shp ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ) , which allowed New Zealand to reach 26 @.@ 39 knots ( 48 @.@ 87 km / h ; 30 @.@ 37 mph ) . The ship carried approximately 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 300 t ) of coal , and an additional 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of fuel oil ; this was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . This gave her a range of 6 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 390 km ; 7 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship carried eight BL 12 @-@ inch Mk X guns in four twin gun turrets . Two turrets were mounted fore and aft on the centreline , identified as ' A ' and ' X ' respectively . The other two were wing turrets mounted amidships and staggered diagonally : ' P ' was forward and to port of the centre funnel , while ' Q ' was situated starboard and aft . Each wing turret had a limited ability to fire to the opposite side , but if the ship was full broadside to her target she could bring all eight main guns to bear . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 4 @-@ inch BL Mk VII guns positioned in the superstructure . She mounted two 18 @-@ inch submerged torpedo tubes , one on each side aft of ' X ' barbette , and twelve torpedoes were carried .
New Zealand 's ' A ' turret was fitted with a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder at the rear of the turret roof . It was also equipped to control the entire main armament in the event that the normal fire control positions were knocked out or communication between the primary positions and the gun layers was disabled .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
The ship was fitted with a single QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun from October 1914 to the end of 1915 . In March 1915 , a single QF 3 inch 20 cwt AA gun was added . It was provided with 500 rounds . The battlecruiser 's 4 @-@ inch guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields during a refit in November to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action . Two aft guns were removed at the same time .
New Zealand received a fire @-@ control director sometime between mid @-@ 1915 and May 1916 ; this centralised fire control under the director officer , who now fired the guns . The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers transmitted from the director to align their guns on the target . This greatly increased accuracy , as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship 's roll dispersing the shells when each turret fired independently . An additional inch of armour was added to the top of the magazines and turret roofs after the Battle of Jutland .
By 1918 , New Zealand carried two aircraft , a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter , on flying @-@ off ramps fitted on top of ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets . The Pup was intended to shoot down Zeppelins while the 1 ½ Strutter was used for spotting and reconnaissance . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather .
= = Acquisition and construction = =
At the start of the 20th century , the British Admiralty maintained that naval defence of the British Empire , including the Dominions , should be unified under the Royal Navy . Attitudes on this matter softened during the first decade , and at the 1909 Imperial Conference , the Admiralty proposed the creation of Fleet Units : forces consisting of a battlecruiser , three light cruisers , six destroyers , and three submarines . While Australia and Canada were encouraged to purchase fleet units to serve as the core of new national navies , other fleet units would be operated by the Royal Navy at distant bases
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Dogger Bank = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Hipper sortied to clear Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . Alerted by decoded German transmissions , a larger force of British battlecruisers , including New Zealand , sailed under the command of Admiral Beatty to intercept . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 a.m. on the 24th , when Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 , the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this speed would outdistance any British battleships to the north @-@ west ; he planned to increase speed to the armoured cruiser SMS Blücher 's maximum of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if necessary to outrun any battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practical speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . New Zealand and Indomitable were the slowest of Beatty 's ships , and gradually fell behind the newer battlecruisers . Despite this , New Zealand was able to open fire on Blücher by 9 : 35 , and continued to engage the armoured cruiser after the other British battlecruisers had switched targets to the German battlecruisers . After about an hour , New Zealand had knocked out Blücher 's forward turret , and Indomitable began to fire on her as well at 10 : 31 . Two 12 @-@ inch shells pierced the German ship 's armoured deck and exploded in an ammunition room four minutes later . This started a fire amidships that destroyed her two port 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) turrets , while the concussion damaged her engines so that her speed dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and jammed her steering gear . At 10 : 48 , Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her , but the combination of a signalling error by Beatty 's flag lieutenant and heavy damage to Beatty 's flagship Lion , which had knocked out her radio and caused enough smoke to obscure her signal halyards , caused the rest of the British battlecruisers , temporarily under the command of Rear Admiral Sir Gordon Moore in New Zealand , to think that that signal applied to them . In response , they turned away from Hipper 's main body and engaged Blücher . New Zealand fired 147 shells at Blücher before the German ship capsized and sank at 12 : 07 after being torpedoed by Arethusa . Captain Halsey had again worn the piupiu over his uniform during the battle , and the lack of damage to New Zealand was once more attributed to its good luck properties .
New Zealand was relieved by Australia as flagship of the 2nd BCS on 22 February 1915 . The squadron joined the Grand Fleet in a sortie on 29 March , in response to intelligence that the German fleet was leaving port as the precursor to a major operation . By the next night , the German ships had withdrawn , and the squadron returned to Rosyth . On 11 April , the British fleet was again deployed on the intelligence that a German force was planning an operation . The Germans intended to lay mines at the Swarte Bank , but after a scouting Zeppelin located a British light cruiser squadron , they began to prepare for what they thought was a British attack . Heavy fog and the need to refuel caused Australia and the British vessels to return to port on 17 April , and although they were redeployed that night , they were unable to stop two German light cruisers from laying the minefield . From 26 to 28 January 1916 , the 2nd BCS was positioned off the Skagerrak while the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron swept the strait in an unsuccessful search for a possible minelayer .
On the morning of 21 April 1916 , the 2nd BCS sailed again for the Skagerrak , this time to support efforts to disrupt the transport of Swedish ore to Germany . The planned destroyer sweep of the Kattegat was cancelled when word came that the High Seas Fleet was mobilising for an operation of their own ( later learned to be timed to coincide with the Irish Easter Rising ) , and the British ships were ordered to a rendezvous point in the middle of the North Sea , while the rest of the Grand Fleet made for the south @-@ eastern end of the Long Forties . On the afternoon of 22 April , the Battlecruiser Fleet was patrolling to the north @-@ west of Horn Reefs when heavy fog came down . The ships were zigzagging to avoid submarine attack when Australia collided with sister ship New Zealand twice in three minutes . Australia was damaged badly enough to be put out of action for several months , but New Zealand returned to the fleet on 30 May , a day before the start of the Battle of Jutland , relieving Indefatigable as flagship .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
On 31 May 1916 , the 2nd BCS consisted of New Zealand ( flagship of Rear Admiral William Christopher Pakenham ) and Indefatigable ; Australia was still under repair following her collision with New Zealand . The squadron was assigned to Admiral Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet , which had put to sea to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 p.m. , but Beatty 's ships didn 't spot the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Two minutes later , he ordered a course change to east @-@ south @-@ east to position himself astride the German 's line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . He also ordered the 2nd BCS , which had been leading , to fall in astern of the 1st BCS . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn , Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time , Beatty altered course to the east as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper .
Thus began the so @-@ called " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east @-@ south @-@ east at 3 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn , and only the two leading ships , Lion and HMS Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The British formation was echeloned to the right with Indefatigable in the rear and the furthest to the west , and New Zealand ahead of her and slightly further east . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range as the German ships blended into the haze . Indefatigable aimed at SMS Von der Tann , while New Zealand , unengaged herself , targeted SMS Moltke . By 3 : 54 , the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 . Indefatigable was destroyed at about 4 : 03 , when her magazines exploded .
After Indefatigable 's loss , New Zealand shifted her fire to Von der Tann in accordance with Beatty 's standing instructions . The range had grown too far for accurate shooting , so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 . By this time , the 5th Battle Squadron , consisting of four Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , had closed up and was engaging Von der Tann and Moltke . At 4 : 23 , a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) shell from HMS Tiger struck near Von der Tann 's rear turret , starting a fire among the practice targets stowed there that completely obscured the ship and caused New Zealand to shift fire to Moltke . At 4 : 26 , the ship was hit by a 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shell , fired by Von der Tann , on ' X ' barbette that detonated on contact and knocked loose a piece of armour that briefly jammed ' X ' turret and blew a hole in the upper deck . Four minutes later , Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet charging north at top speed . Three minutes later , she sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not transmit a message to Beatty for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting himself before ordering a sixteen @-@ point turn to starboard in succession . New Zealand , the last ship in the line , turned prematurely to stay outside the range of the oncoming battleships .
New Zealand was straddled several times by the battleship SMS Prinzregent Luitpold but was not hit . Beatty 's ships maintained full speed in an attempt to increase the distance between them and the High Seas Fleet , and gradually moved out of range . They turned north and then north @-@ east to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet . At 5 : 40 , they opened fire again on the German battlecruisers . The setting sun blinded the German gunners , and as they could not make out the British ships , they turned away to the north @-@ east at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned more towards the east to allow him to cover the deployment of the Grand Fleet in battle formation and to move ahead of it , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading division to fall off towards the east , further away from the Germans . By 6 : 35 , Beatty was following Indomitable and HMS Inflexible of the 3rd BCS as they were steering east @-@ south @-@ east , leading the Grand Fleet , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their south @-@ west . A few minutes earlier , Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn and Beatty lost sight of the High Seas Fleet in the haze . Twenty minutes later , Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn which put them on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet , which had altered course to the south . This allowed the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's T , forming a battle line that cut across his battle line and badly damaging his leading ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 in an attempt to extricate the High Seas Fleet from the trap into which he had sent them .
This was successful , and the British lost sight of the Germans until 8 : 05 , when HMS Castor spotted smoke bearing west @-@ north @-@ west . Ten minutes later , she had closed the range enough to identify German torpedo boats , and engaged them . Beatty turned west upon hearing gunfire and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed by the rest of Beatty 's battlecruisers . New Zealand and Indomitable concentrated their fire on SMS Seydlitz , and hit her five times before she turned west to disengage . Shortly after 8 : 30 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted and fire switched to them . The Germans had poor visibility and were able to fire only a few rounds at them before turning away to the west . The British battlecruisers hit the German ships several times before they blended into the haze around 8 : 40 . After this , Beatty changed course to south @-@ south @-@ east and maintained that course , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until 2 : 55 the next morning , when the order was given to reverse course and head home .
New Zealand fired 420 twelve @-@ inch shells during the battle , more than any other ship on either side . Despite this , only four successful hits were credited to the battlecruiser : three on Seydlitz and one on the pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Schleswig @-@ Holstein . She was hit only once during the battle , confirming for the crew the piupiu and tiki worn by her new captain , J.F.E. ( Jimmy ) Green , brought good luck .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
New Zealand was relieved by Australia as flagship on 9 June and temporarily attached to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , until HMS Renown relieved her in September . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 that indicated that the High Seas Fleet , minus II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on 19 August , based on extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and six battlecruisers . Throughout the next day , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence ; after reaching the location in the North Sea where the British expected to encounter the High Seas Fleet , they turned north in the erroneous belief that they had entered a minefield . Scheer turned south again , then steered south @-@ eastward to pursue a lone British battle squadron sighted by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force of cruisers and destroyers under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans changed course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . The British and the German fleets returned home ; the British lost two cruisers to submarine attacks , and one German dreadnought had been torpedoed . New Zealand underwent a refit at Rosyth in November 1916 . She temporarily replaced Australia as squadron flagship between 29 November and 7 January 1917 .
German minesweepers and escorting light cruisers were attempting to clear British @-@ laid minefields in the Heligoland Bight in late 1917 . The Admiralty planned a large operation for 17 November to destroy the ships , and allocated two light cruiser squadrons and the 1st Cruiser Squadron covered by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and , more distantly , the 1st Battle Squadron of battleships . New Zealand was attached to the 1st BCS for this operation , which became known as the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . New Zealand did not fire her guns during the battle . As in previous engagements , Captain Green wore the piupiu and tiki for luck .
During 1918 , New Zealand and the Grand Fleet 's other capital ships were used on occasion to escort convoys between Britain and Norway . The 2nd BCS spent the period from 8 to 21 February covering these convoys in company with battleships and destroyers , and put to sea on 6 March in company with the 1st BCS to support minelayers . The 2nd BCS again supported minelayers in the North Sea from 25 June or 26 June to the end of July . During September and October , New Zealand and the 2nd BCS supervised and protected minelaying operations north of Orkney . The battlecruiser was present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet as part of the 2nd BCS .
= = = = Dominion tour = = = =
Following the war , Admiral Jellicoe was tasked with helping to plan and coordinate the naval policies and defences of the British Dominions . New Zealand was made available for his transportation , and was refitted between December 1918 and February 1919 for the tour ; the main changes were the removal of her flying @-@ off platforms and the lower forward four @-@ inch guns . The first stop was India , with New Zealand arriving in Bombay on 14 March 1919 and departing six weeks later . The battlecruiser arrived at Albany , Western Australia , on 15 May , where Jellicoe and his staff disembarked to take an overland route across the country . New Zealand sailed via Melbourne and Hobart to depart from Sydney for New Zealand on 16 August .
The ship called upon Christmas Island , southeast of Fanning Island , on 19 November 1920 , thinking it uninhabited . Instead , they were greeted by Joe English , of Medford , Massachusetts , who had been manager of a copra plantation on the island , but had become marooned with two others , when the war had broken out . The men were rescued .
The ship was particularly popular in New Zealand , where crowds flocked to visit her as they had done in 1913 . Jellicoe , too , was popular and he later returned to New Zealand to serve as Governor @-@ General from 1920 to 1924 . The ship stopped off at Fiji and Hawaii before arriving on 8 November in Canada , the final country to be assessed . After returning to the United Kingdom , the battlecruiser was paid off into reserve on 15 March 1920 . New Zealand was regarded as obsolete by the Royal Navy , because her 12 @-@ inch guns were inferior to the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns deployed on the latest generation of battlecruisers . She was sold for scrap on 19 December 1922 to meet the tonnage restrictions set on the British Empire by the Washington Naval Treaty . The New Zealand Government completed paying off the loan used to fund the ship in the 1944 / 45 financial year .
Many items from the battlecruiser were sent to New Zealand after she was scrapped . Equipment including several 4 @-@ inch guns , a range finder and laundry equipment , were used by military units while other artifacts were placed on display in museums . During World War II , the 4 @-@ inch guns were the main armament of the land batteries which protected the entrances to the harbours at Auckland , Wellington and Lyttelton . The captain 's piupiu was returned to New Zealand in 2005 , and is on display at the Torpedo Bay Navy Museum in Auckland alongside the ship 's bell and other artifacts . The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington also holds several items from the ship in its collection .
= 1993 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1993 Giro d 'Italia , ( English : Tour of Italy ) , was the 76th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Porto Azzurro on 23 May with a split stage , with the first leg being a mass @-@ start stage and the latter an individual time trial . The race ended on 13 June with a stage that stretched 166 km ( 103 @.@ 1 mi ) from Biella to Milan . Twenty teams entered the race , which was won by Miguel Indurain of the Banesto team . Second and third respectively were the Latvian Piotr Ugrumov and the Italian rider , Claudio Chiappucci . Indurain 's victory in the 1993 Giro was his first step in completing the Giro – Tour double – winning the Giro d 'Italia and Tour de France in one calendar year – becoming the first rider to repeat this feat in consecutive years .
Moreno Argentin was the first rider to wear the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after winning the opening stage . Argentin held that lead for ten more days before losing it to Miguel Indurain after the conclusion stage 10 . Bruno Leali stole the lead away from Indurain after the race 's eleventh leg and held it until the end of the fourteenth day of racing . Indurain gained the lead after mountainous stage 14 and then held it all the way to the Giro 's finish in Milan .
Indurain became the first Spanish rider to win the Giro d 'Italia in consecutive years . Amongst the other classifications that the race awarded , Italian Adriano Baffi of Mercatone Uno – Zucchini – Medeghini won the points competition , Carrera Jeans – Tassoni 's Claudio Chiappucci won the mountains classification , Lampre – Polti 's Pavel Tonkov completed the Giro as the best rider aged 25 or younger in the general classification , finishing fifth overall , and Ján Svorada of Lampre @-@ Polti won the intergiro competition . Lampre @-@ Polti finished as the winners of the team classification , ranking each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . Ariostea finished as winners of the team points classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1993 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , seven of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . From the riders that began the race , 132 made it to the finish in Milan .
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next day 's route was even more demanding as it contained two ascents of the Passo Pordoi , as well as the climbing of three other highly categorized climbs . Miguel Indurain , Ugrumov , Claudio Chiappucci , and a few other general classification hopefuls were in the leading breakaway as they crossed the Pordoi for the second time . The group rode into the finish in Corvara with race leader Leoni trailing by several minutes . Chiappucci won the sprint to the line , while Indurain regained the overall lead .
Davide Cassani won the fifteenth stage that featured a summit finish to Lumezzane , while the general classification remained largely unaltered . The next day of racing saw a break from the mountains , with a primarily flat course that stretched from Varazze to Pontechianale . The stage ultimately finished with a bunch sprint that was won by Italian Fabio Baldato . The Giro 's seventeenth stage concluded with a summit finish to Chianale . Marco Saligari won the stage by over a minute on the second @-@ place finisher Gianluca Bortolami , while the general classification contenders finished together leaving the classification largely unchanged . Stage eighteen was a primarily flat stage that closed with a field sprint . Adriano Baffi won the field sprint and the stage , which was his third stage victory at the Giro that year .
The final time trial in the 1993 Giro d 'Italia was 55 km ( 34 mi ) in length and had a summit finish on the famous climb of the Sestriere . Miguel Indurain won the leg and extended his lead over the rest of the field . The penultimate stage featured a 10 km ( 6 mi ) climb to Oropa . Second overall Piotr Ugrumov attacked multiple times on the final climb of the day to gain time on Indurain ; he attacked one last time and Indurain could not match his move . Massimo Ghirotto was the first rider to cross the finish line , with Ugrumov finishing in fifth and Indurain in tenth . Ugrumov gained 40 seconds on Indurain 's lead , but it was not good enough to take it away from the Spaniard . The final stage was a primarily flat course that stretched from Biella to Milan . The leg culminated with a bunch sprint that was won by Italian Fabio Baldato . Indurain had won his second consecutive Giro d 'Italia .
Success in stages was limited to nine of the competing teams , seven of which achieved multiple stage victories , while five individual riders won multiple stages . The riders that won more than once were Moreno Argentin in stages 1a and 13 , Adriano Baffi in stages 2 , 8 , and 18 , Fabio Baldato in stages 4 , 16 , and 21 , Dimitri Konyshev in stages 5 and 12 , and Miguel Indurain in stages 10 and 19 . Mecair – Ballan won two stages with Moreno Argentin and stage 3 with Piotr Ugrumov . Ariostea won four stages , with Bjarne Riis in stage 7 , Giorgio Furlan in stage 9 , Davide Cassani in stage 15 , and Marco Saligari stage 17 . Banesto won two stages with Miguel Indurain . GB – MG Maglificio won three stages with Fabio Baldato . Jolly Componibili @-@ Club 88 won two stages with Dimitri Konyshev . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni won two stages , stage 6 with Guido Bontempi and stage 14 with Claudio Chiappucci . Navigare – Blue Storm also won multiple stages , with Fabiano Fontanelli in stage 11 and three stages with Adriano Baffi .
Lampre – Polti and ZG Mobili each won one stage apiece . Maurizio Fondriest of Lampre @-@ Polti won the stage 1b individual time trial , while ZG Mobili rider Massimo Ghirotto won the mountainous stage 20 .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1993 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . The first rider to cross the Pordoi Pass was Spaniard Miguel Indurain . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1969 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also a classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time . There was another team classification that awarded points to each team based off their riding 's finishing position in every stage . The team with the highest total of points was the leader of the classification .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final Standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Miguel Indurain entered the Tour de France in July as the favorite to win the race . He would go on to win the race after taking the lead after the conclusion of the ninth stage . By winning the Tour , he became the first rider to complete the Giro - Tour double in two consecutive years .
= Delaware Route 4 =
Delaware Route 4 ( DE 4 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 279 and DE 896 in Newark east to DE 48 in downtown Wilmington . The route passes through suburban areas in northern New Castle County between Newark and Wilmington , intersecting DE 72 in the eastern part of Newark , DE 273 in Ogletown , DE 58 in Christiana , DE 7 in Stanton , DE 141 in Newport , DE 62 and DE 100 between Newport and Wilmington , and Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in Wilmington . DE 4 is a four @-@ lane road much of its length .
What is now DE 4 was originally a county road that was paved in the 1930s . DE 4 was designated in the 1960s to run from the Maryland border along Chestnut Hill Road near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington . Between 1971 and 1981 , the route extended past DE 48 along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension to US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in Bellefonte . In the 1980s , the western terminus of DE 4 was realigned from Chestnut Hill Road to the newly built Christiana Parkway , terminating at DE 2 ( now DE 279 ) and DE 896 .
= = Route description = =
DE 4 begins at an intersection with Elkton Road in Newark , which heads southwest as DE 279 and northeast as DE 896 . From here the route heads southeast concurrent with DE 896 on the three @-@ lane undivided Christiana Parkway , carrying two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane . The road runs through wooded areas and comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line before it cures east and widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it passes to the south of the University of Delaware 's Science , Technology , and Advanced Research campus .
At the intersection with South College Avenue DE 896 splits to the south and DE 4 continues east near Delaware Stadium and the Bob Carpenter Center on the University of Delaware campus to the north , intersecting Chestnut Hill Road . At this point the road becomes Chestnut Hill Road and runs between farmland to the north and residential neighborhoods to the south as it comes to a crossing of Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The road heads into commercial areas and intersects DE 72 .
Past this intersection , DE 4 continues east along Chestnut Hill Road and heads into suburban Brookside , passing through residential neighborhoods with some businesses and curving to the northeast . The route continues to Ogletown and passes to the southeast of the Delaware School for the Deaf before it has an interchange with DE 273 and the name changes to Ogletown Stanton Road . Following this , the road passes to the north of Christiana Hospital . Beyond the hospital DE 4 comes to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 58 and an access road to Delaware Park Racetrack and the Churchmans Crossing station on SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line ( which follows the Northeast Corridor ) in Christiana . The route continues through commercial areas with some woods and curves east to reach an intersection with DE 7 .
At this point , DE 4 turns north for a concurrency with DE 7 on the six @-@ lane divided Stanton Christiana Road , running through wooded areas with nearby development , including the Hale @-@ Byrnes House , and passing over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line and White Clay Creek . The road passes to the east of Delaware Park Racetrack and curves northeast into Stanton . At this point , the two routes head into a commercial area and split into the one @-@ way pair of Mitch Road eastbound and Main Street westbound . DE 7 splits from DE 4 by heading northwest on Limestone Road . DE 4 continues east along the one @-@ way pair past homes and businesses with two lanes in each direction . The directions of the route rejoin and the route becomes four @-@ lane divided West Newport Pike . DE 4 enters Newport and splits into the one @-@ way pair of West Market Street eastbound and West Justis Street westbound . The route interchanges with the DE 141 and the one @-@ way pair becomes East Market Street eastbound and East Justis Street westbound .
The two directions of DE 4 rejoin and the route continues northeast as four @-@ lane undivided East Newport Pike.The road leaves Newport and heads between suburban neighborhoods to the northwest and Banning Park to the southeast . The route intersects DE 62 and becomes Maryland Avenue , passing a mix of homes and businesses . The road comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 100 and crosses a CSX railroad line . DE 4 continues into Wilmington and passes rowhomes and businesses . The route passes under I @-@ 95 / US 202 and comes to a ramp from northbound I @-@ 95 / US 202 . Past this , DE 4 enters downtown Wilmington and splits into the one @-@ way pair of Maryland Avenue eastbound and South Monroe Street westbound before ending at DE 48 , which is routed on the one @-@ way pair of Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard eastbound and West Second Street westbound .
DE 4 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 53 @,@ 936 vehicles at the west end of the DE 7 concurrency to a low of 12 @,@ 033 vehicles at the I @-@ 95 / US 202 interchange . The entire length of DE 4 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what would become DE 4 existed as a county road
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in his honor . The United States Postal Service issued a 42 @-@ cent postage stamp in honor of Sinatra in May 2008 , commemorating the tenth anniversary of his death . The United States Congress passed a resolution introduced by Representative Mary Bono Mack on May 20 , 2008 , designating May 13 as Frank Sinatra Day to honor his contributions to American culture .
Sinatra received three honorary degrees during his lifetime . In May 1976 , he was invited to speak at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas ( UNLV ) graduation commencement held at Sam Boyd Stadium . It was at this commencement that he was bestowed an Honorary Doctorate litterarum humanarum by the university . During his speech , Sinatra noted that his education had come from " the school of hard knocks " and was suitably touched by the award . He went on to describe that " this is the first educational degree I have ever held in my hand . I will never forget what you have done for me today " . A few years later in 1984 and 1985 , Sinatra also received an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Loyola Marymount University as well as an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology .
= = Film and television portrayals = =
Sinatra has been portrayed on numerous occasions in film and on television . A television miniseries based on Sinatra 's life , titled Sinatra , was aired by CBS in 1992 . Sinatra was directed by James Steven Sadwith , who won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing for a Miniseries or a Special , and starred Philip Casnoff as Sinatra . Sinatra was written by Abby Mann and Philip Mastrosimone , and produced by Sinatra 's daughter , Tina .
Sinatra has subsequently been portrayed on screen by Ray Liotta ( The Rat Pack , 1998 ) , James Russo ( Stealing Sinatra , 2003 ) , Dennis Hopper ( The Night We Called It a Day , 2003 ) , and Robert Knepper ( My Way , 2012 ) , and spoofed by Joe Piscopo and Phil Hartman on Saturday Night Live . A biographical film directed by Martin Scorsese has long been in production . A 1998 episode of the BBC documentary series Arena , The Voice of the Century , focused on Sinatra . Alex Gibney directed a four @-@ part biographical series on Sinatra , All or Nothing At All , for HBO in 2015 . A musical tribute was aired on CBS television in December 2015 to mark Sinatra 's centenary .
= 2006 Subway 500 =
The 2006 Subway 500 was the 32nd stock car race of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the sixth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 22 , 2006 , before a crowd of 65 @,@ 000 , at Martinsville Speedway in Martinsville , Virginia , one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races . The 500 @-@ lap race was won by Jimmie Johnson of the Hendrick Motorsports team , after he started from ninth position ; Denny Hamlin finished second , and Bobby Labonte came in third .
Although Kurt Busch won the pole position , he was immediately passed by Jeff Gordon at the start of the race . 143 laps later Johnson took the lead for one lap . Gordon regained the lead on the next lap , only to lose it to Johnson again on the 153rd lap . Labonte moved into the lead on lap 406 and held it with 55 laps remaining , when he was passed by Johnson . At the race 's final restart on lap 495 Hamlin challenged Johnson for the lead , but the latter resisted Hamlin 's passing maneuver and won the race . There were 18 cautions and 16 lead changes by five different drivers during the race .
It was Johnson 's fifth win of the 2006 season , and the 23rd of his career . The result advanced him to third in the Drivers ' Championship , 41 points behind Matt Kenseth ( who took over the championship lead when Jeff Burton retired during the race ; this caused Burton to fall to fifth in the championship , one point behind Hamlin ) . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , 53 points ahead of Dodge and 61 ahead of Ford with four races left in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Subway 500 was the 32nd of 36 scheduled stock car races of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the sixth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 22 , 2006 at Martinsville Speedway in Martinsville , Virginia , one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Richmond International Raceway , Dover International Speedway , Bristol Motor Speedway and Phoenix International Raceway . The standard track at Martinsville Speedway is a four @-@ turn , 0 @.@ 526 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 847 km ) oval . Its turns are banked at eleven degrees , and neither the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) nor the back stretch is banked .
Before the race Jeff Burton led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 763 points , with Matt Kenseth second and Kevin Harvick third . Mark Martin and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. were fourth and fifth , and Denny Hamlin , Jimmie Johnson , Kasey Kahne , Kyle Busch and Jeff Gordon rounded out the top ten drivers competing for the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet led with 237 points ; Dodge was second with 189 , followed by Ford with 183 . Gordon was the race 's defending champion .
After falling from seventh to tenth in the Drivers ' Championship at the previous race ( at Charlotte Motor Speedway ) , Gordon said he would try and win races to return to contention for the championship . Jeff Burton called the Subway 500 " another volatile race in the Chase " , and thought it would significantly impact the chase contenders . Although Kenseth felt that the race would be the toughest for his team , he believed that a good finish would put him in a better position for the championship because of his good results at the tracks following the Martinsville race . After a good finish at Charlotte , Earnhardt felt he was in " good shape " : " Jeff has been at this a long time , but I don 't look at him as indestructible . If he has a mistake or even a couple of bad runs , it will completely shake up the points . " After winning the Busch Series championship , Harvick focused on the Nextel Cup championship : " We 're excited about it , proud of what we 've done this year , and , hopefully , we can do what we need to do on the Cup side in the next five weeks . I have never had a season like this . " Hamlin thought he would perform well at Martinsville , where he felt comfortable , and he and his team did not rule themselves out of contention for the title .
In preparation for the race , NASCAR held the last of its test days for Nextel Cup entrants on October 16 – 18 at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway . Sessions began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT , paused from 5 : 00 to 6 : 00 p.m. and concluded at 9 : 00 p.m. Fifty @-@ eight cars , a mix of Cars of Tomorrow and 2006 cars , participated in the October 16 afternoon session . Reed Sorenson was quickest with a speed of 171 @.@ 652 miles per hour ( 276 @.@ 247 km / h ) , and Casey Mears had the highest speed of 173 @.@ 077 miles per hour ( 278 @.@ 540 km / h ) in the evening session . During the third session ( with 75 cars ) , Kyle Busch had the fastest speed of 175 @.@ 382 miles per hour ( 282 @.@ 250 km / h ) ; Gordon had the highest speed of the three days , at 175 @.@ 553 miles per hour ( 282 @.@ 525 km / h ) in the fourth session . During the fifth session , on the afternoon of October 18 , 23 cars were tested . Scott Wimmer had the highest speed of 172 @.@ 364 miles per hour ( 277 @.@ 393 km / h ) , and Jeff Green had the highest speed of 174 @.@ 639 miles per hour ( 281 @.@ 054 km / h ) in the evening session .
One team substituted for its regular driver . Morgan @-@ McClure Motorsports driver Todd Bodine decided to concentrate on the Craftsman Truck Series title , and was replaced by Ward Burton , the 2002 Daytona 500 champion . Burton , who had not raced since 2004 , went to Motor Mile Speedway to reacquaint himself with NASCAR . According to crew chief Chris Carrier , Burton expressed a large amount of interest in driving at Martinsville : " He 's a Virginia driver and we 're a Virginia team . That makes for a great combination at Martinsville . " On October 18 , Roush Racing announced that Craftsman Truck Series driver David Ragan would drive the No. 06 car in four of the season 's five remaining races beginning with the Subway 500 . Ragan said that the experience would help him prepare for his full @-@ time début in 2007 .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race : one on Friday and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , the second 60 minutes and the third 45 minutes . In the first practice session , Gordon was fastest with a time of 19 @.@ 478 seconds ; Ryan Newman was second and Hamlin third . Johnson took fourth position , and Dave Blaney placed fifth . Kurt Busch , Sterling Marlin , Green , Sorenson and Kahne rounded out the session 's top ten drivers . Martin switched to a back @-@ up car after he crashed .
Although fifty cars were entered in the qualifier , according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Kurt Busch clinched his sixth pole position of the season , the ninth of his career and his first at Martinsville , with a time of 19 @.@ 408 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Gordon , who was 0 @.@ 038 seconds slower and had the pole position until Kurt Busch 's lap . Hamlin qualified third , Newman fourth and Tony Stewart fifth . Blaney was sixth , with Earnhardt and Green seventh and eighth . Johnson , a Chase for the Nextel Cup driver , qualified ninth and Ken Schrader rounded out the top ten qualifiers . Harvick , another driver in the Chase , set the twelfth @-@ fastest time . The seven drivers who failed to qualify were Mike Bliss , Hermie Sadler , Chad Chaffin , Morgan Shepherd , Ted Christopher , Derrike Cope and Stanton Barrett . After the qualifier Kurt Busch said , " It was a great lap , unexpected for me , but this team has always qualified well at this track , Martinsville is the kind of track that you either love or hate , and I 've learned to do both . It 's a tough , challenging short track . "
On Saturday morning Marlin was fastest in the second practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 668 seconds , ahead of Kahne and Gordon . Dale Jarrett was fourth @-@ fastest ; Mears was fifth and Johnson sixth . Hamlin , Brian Vickers , Greg Biffle and Jeff Burton followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Kyle Busch was 13th @-@ fastest and Martin set the 19th @-@ fastest time . During the second practice session , Scott Riggs ( who had the forty @-@ third quickest time ) had an engine failure in the session 's opening minutes and changed engines . Later that day , Johnson paced the final practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 722 ; Harvick was second and Biffle third . Marlin was fourth @-@ fastest , ahead of David Stremme and Hamlin . Earnhardt was seventh @-@ fastest , Kyle Busch eighth , Gordon ninth and Mears tenth . Other Chase drivers included Jeff Burton in 17th and Kahne in 17th ; all were within one @-@ tenth of a second of Johnson 's time . The session was suspended when Kenny Wallace 's engine blew up , since the track then needed to be checked and cleaned , and Wallace changed engines . Jarrett spun out with a brake problem , but since he made only minor contact with the wall he did not have to switch to a back @-@ up car . After a similar collision , Michael Waltrip also did not have to switch cars .
= = = Race = = =
Live television coverage of the race began at 12 : 32 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time in the United States on NBC . Rain showers were forecast for the day of the race , and at the start weather conditions were overcast and some rain had already fallen . The air temperature was around 48 ° F ( 9 ° C ) . Cleaning trucks cleared the track before the start . Eldrid Davis of Raceway Ministries began pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation , the Martinsville High School marching band performed the national anthem and Subway spokesperson Jared Fogle commanded the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Riggs and Wallace moved to the rear of the grid because they had changed their engines .
The race began at 1 : 00 p.m. Gordon accelerated faster than Kurt Busch off the line , and was ahead of him by the second turn . The first caution was given two laps later when Martin Truex Jr. spun sideways in turn four and Marlin , Sorenson and Kyle Petty sustained damage to their cars . Jeff Burton had front @-@ end damage to his vehicle when he contacted the rear of Joe Nemechek 's car . At the lap ten restart , Gordon maintained his lead over Kurt Busch and Denny Hamlin . Seven laps later , Hamlin passed Kurt Busch for second place . Earnhardt passed Kurt Busch for fourth place on the 44th lap . On lap 45 , he reported that one of his engine 's cylinders was misfiring and was worse coming out of the turns . Five laps later Gordon had a 1 @.@ 8 @-@ second lead over Hamlin , which grew to 2 @.@ 4 seconds on lap 60 ; Earnhardt had moved into second by that lap . On lap 64 , a collision between Mears and Newman in turn four prompted the second caution ; although Mears was spun around , he was able to continue . During the caution , all the leaders made pit stops for fuel and tires . Jeff Burton 's pit crew repaired his loose hood with tape on the right front . Biffle left the track on lap 67 with brake problems . Newman was sent to the rear of the longest line by NASCAR two laps later for his role in the incident with Mears , and Gordon maintained the top position at the lap @-@ 71 restart .
Eight laps later Earnhardt passed Raines for second position , and Gordon had a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ second advantage over Earnhardt by lap 80 . Raines was passed by Stewart for third on lap 83 , and Johnson took third place from Stewart six laps later . J.J. Yeley drove to pit road on the 94th lap with a flat left @-@ rear tire . On lap 106 , Burton ( whose car was hot because of the tape on his hood ) made contact with Gordon and escaped with minor damage after a
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@-@ Saudi ambassador to the US , Prince Bandar bin Sultan " in return for his role in the Al Yamamah deals . In late June 2007 the United States Department of Justice ( DOJ ) began a formal investigation into BAE 's compliance with anti @-@ corruption laws . On 19 May 2008 BAE Systems confirmed that its CEO Mike Turner and non @-@ executive director Nigel Rudd had been detained " for about 20 minutes " at two US airports the previous week and that the DOJ had issued " a number of additional subpoenas in the US to employees of BAE Systems plc and BAE Systems Inc as part of its ongoing investigation " . The Times suggested that such " humiliating behaviour by the DOJ " is unusual toward a company that is co @-@ operating fully .
A judicial review of the decision by the SFO to drop the investigation was granted on 9 November 2007 . On 10 April 2008 the High Court ruled that the SFO " acted unlawfully " by dropping its investigation . The Times described the ruling as " one of the most strongly worded judicial attacks on government action " which condemned how " ministers ' buckled ' to ' blatant threats ' that Saudi cooperation in the fight against terror would end unless the ... investigation was dropped . " On 24 April the SFO was granted leave to appeal to the House of Lords against the ruling . There was a two @-@ day hearing before the Lords on 7 and 8 July 2008 . On 30 July the House of Lords unanimously overturned the High Court ruling , stating that the decision to discontinue the investigation was lawful .
= = = Others = = =
In September 2005 The Guardian reported that banking records showed that BAE Systems paid £ 1 million to Augusto Pinochet , the former Chilean dictator . The Guardian has also reported that " clandestine arms deals " have been under investigation in Chile and the UK since 2003 and that British Aerospace and BAE Systems made a number of payments to Pinochet advisers . In 2003 , HMS Sheffield was sold to the Chilean Navy for £ 27 million , however the government 's profit from the sale was £ 3 million , after contracts worth £ 24 million were placed with BAE Systems for upgrade and refurbishment of the ship .
BAE Systems is alleged to have paid " secret offshore commissions " of over £ 7 million to secure the sale of HMS London and HMS Coventry to the Romanian Navy . The company received a £ 116 million contract for the refurbishment of the ships prior to delivery ; however the British taxpayer only received the scrap value of £ 100 @,@ 000 each from the sale .
BAE Systems ran into controversy in 2002 over the abnormally high cost of a radar system sold to Tanzania . The sale was criticised by several opposition MPs and the World Bank ; Secretary of State for International Development Clare Short declared that BAE Systems had " ripped off " developing nations . In December 2010 , leaked US diplomatic communications revealed that Edward Hoseah , the Tanzanian prosecutor investigating misconduct by BAE Systems , had confided in US diplomats that " his life may be in danger " and was being routinely threatened .
In January 2007 , details of an investigation by the Serious Fraud Office into BAE Systems ' sales tactics in regard to South Africa were reported , highlighting the £ 2 @.@ 3 billion deal to supply Hawk trainers and Gripen fighters as suspect . In May 2011 , as allegations of bribery behind South Africa 's Gripen procurement continued , the company 's partner Saab AB issued strong denials of any illicit payments being made ; however in June 2011 Saab announced that BAE Systems had made unaccounted payments of roughly $ 3 @.@ 5 million to a consultant , this revelation prompted South African Opposition parties to call for a renewed inquiry . The Gripen 's procurement by the Czech Republic was also under investigation by the Serious Fraud Office in 2006 over allegations of bribery .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Espionage = = =
In September 2003 The Sunday Times reported that BAE Systems had hired a private security contractor to collate information about individuals working at the Campaign Against Arms Trade and their activities . In February 2007 , it was reported that the corporation again obtained private confidential information from CAAT .
The company was reported in 2012 to have been the target of Chinese cyber espionage that may have stolen secrets related to the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II .
= = = Nuclear weapons = = =
In 2006 , BAE Systems was excluded from the portfolio of the government pension fund of Norway " because they develop and / or produce central components for nuclear weapons " . " According to the ethical guidelines for the Government Pension Fund – Global , companies that produce weapons that through normal use may violate fundamental humanitarian principles shall be excluded from the fund . " BAE Systems is indirectly engaged in production of nuclear weapons – through its 37 @.@ 5 % share of MBDA it is involved with the production and support of the ASMP missile , an air @-@ launched nuclear missile which forms part of the French nuclear deterrent . The company is also the UK 's only nuclear submarine manufacturer and thus produces a key element of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons capability . However , Norway has bound their strategic defence to the UK 's " since Napoleonic times " , including both protection under the British nuclear deterrent as well as the joint NATO nuclear sharing policy .
= = = Cluster bombs and land mines = = =
BAE Systems was in 2003 initially criticised for its role in the production of cluster bombs , due to the long term risk for injury or death to civilians . However , following the 2008 Oslo Convention on Cluster Munitions BAE Systems was among the first defence contractors to stop their manufacture and by 2012 the majority of the munitions had been destroyed .
= Imru ' al @-@ Qais =
Imra ’ ul @-@ Qais bin Hujr al @-@ Kindi ( Arabic : امْرُؤُ الْقَيْسِ ابْنُ حُجْرِ الْكِنْدِيِّ / ALA @-@ LC : Imrū ’ al @-@ Qays ibn Ḥujr al @-@ Kindī ) was an Arabic poet in the 6th century AD , and also the son of one of the last Kindite kings . He is sometimes considered the father of Arabic poetry . His qaseeda , or long poem , " Let us stop and weep " ( Arabic : قفا نبك ) is one of the seven Mu 'allaqat , poems prized as the best examples of pre @-@ Islamic Arabian verse . Imru ' al @-@ Qais was born in the Najd region of northern Arabia sometime in the early 6th century AD . His father was said to be Hujr bin al @-@ Harith ( حجر ابن الحارث / Ḥujr ibn al @-@ Ḥārith ) , the Kindah monarchy 's regent over the tribes of Asad and Ghatfan , and it is believed that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was born in the territory of Asad . His mother was said to be Fatimah bint Rabi 'ah al @-@ Taghlibi ( فاطمة بنت ربيعة التغلبي / Fāṭimah bint Rabī ‘ ah al @-@ Taghlibī ) .
Legend has it that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the youngest of his father 's sons , and began composing poetry while he was still a child . His father strongly disapproved of this habit in his son , believing poetry to be an unseemly pastime for the son of a king . His father also disapproved of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' scandalous lifestyle of drinking and chasing women , and eventually banished him from his kingdom , or so the legend goes . Later , when the tribe of Asad rebelled and assassinated his father , Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the only one of his brothers to take responsibility for avenging his death . Renouncing wine and women , he fought the tribe of Asad until he had exacted revenge in blood , and spent the remainder of his life trying to regain his father 's kingdom .
Like many figures of early Arabia , which at that time lacked a formal writing system and relied on the oral transmission of stories , the details of the life of Imru ' al @-@ Qais are hard to determine with any certainty . Even so , historians have been able to compare the various stories written down by later biographers with clues from Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' own poems and information about major historical events in the Persian and Byzantine empires to reconstruct a probable account of the life and ancestry of this most famous of the Jahili ( pre @-@ Islamic ) poets .
According to one account , his full name and ancestry was Imru ' al @-@ Qais , son of Hujr , son of al @-@ Harith , son of ' Amr , son of Hujr the eater of bitter herbs , son of Mu 'awiyya , son of Thawr of the tribe of Kindah ( Arabic : إمرؤ القيس ابن حجر ابن الحارث ابن عمرو ابن حجر اكل المرار ابن معاوية ابن ثور الكندي ) . He was also referred to as " The Lost King " ( الملك الضليل / al @-@ Malik aḍ @-@ Ḍalīl ) , because he was never able to recover his father 's throne .
= = Ancestry = =
The tribe of Kindah had its origins in Southern Arabia of and migrated north to Najd sometime in the 4th or 5th century AD . Sometime in the 5th century they asked the king of Yemen to select them a king , and Hujr the " eater of bitter herbs " became the first Kindite king . He was succeeded by his son ' Amr , who was succeeded by his son al @-@ Harith , who was the greatest of all the Kindite kings . One of al @-@ Harith 's sons was Hujr , and he made him regent over the tribes of Asad and Ghatfan , and Hujr was the father of Imru ' al @-@ Qais .
Of al @-@ Harith , it is told that when the Persian emperor Kavadh I adopted the teachings of the religious revolutionary Mazdak , al @-@ Harith converted to Mazdakism with him . This caused Kavadh to make al @-@ Harith king of the Hirah , a region in the south of modern @-@ day Iraq , and expel his previous Arab vassal al @-@ Mundhir . Kavadh 's son Khosrau I rejected Mazdakism and rebuked al @-@ Harith , restoring al @-@ Mundhir to the throne of the Hirah . It is not known for sure how al @-@ Harith died , but some reports indicate he was captured by al @-@ Mundhir as he fled al @-@ Hirah , and then killed along with two of his sons and more than forty of his kinsmen . Imru ' al @-@ Qais mourns this tragedy in one of the poems attributed to him :
Weep for me , my eyes ! Spill your tears
And mourn for me the vanished kings
Hujr ibn ' Amru 's princely sons
Led away to slaughter at eventide ;
If only they had died in combat
Not in the lands of Banu Marina !
No water was there to wash their fallen heads ,
And their skulls lie spattered with blood
Pecked over by birds
Who tear out first the eyebrows , then the eyes .
( Diwan , Poem 2 )
In 525 AD Yemen was occupied by the Negus ( Emperor ) of Axum ( modern @-@ day Ethiopia ) . With their sponsor destroyed , the Kindah monarchy quickly fell apart . It is probably during this period that the tribe of Asad rebelled and killed Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' father , Hujr .
= = Early life = =
Historians are divided as to the year of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' birth , but one estimate is that he was born sometime around 526 AD . He was said to be the youngest of the sons of Hujr , king over the tribes of Asad and Ghutfan . Some historians have pointed out that his father had other wives and concubines than his mother , in accordance with the custom of kings at this time , and it is possible that he received little fatherly attention . He began composing poetry from an early age , an activity that his father strongly disapproved of because it was not considered appropriate for the son of a king . Al @-@ Tahir Ahmad Makki comments that " among the northern tribes , likewise , each tribe had its chief and its poet , and the two were hardly ever the same . "
Another source of friction with his father was Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' excessive dedication to lewd drinking parties and his scandalous pursuit of women . One story says that , concerned with his son 's lack of responsibility , Hujr tried putting Imru ' al @-@ Qais in charge of the family 's camel herds , an experiment which ended in disaster . Another story says that Hujr finally disowned his son after Imru ' al @-@ Qais publicly courted his cousin ' Uzayzah , and after failing to win her hand in marriage , managed to enjoy her affections in secret , which caused a considerable scandal in the family . Yet other stories say that Imru ' al @-@ Qais may have written some lewd verses about his father 's wives or concubines , and that this was the cause of their falling out . Whatever the reason , most of the stories agree that Hujr became exasperated with his son 's behavior and expelled him from his kingdom . In his exile Imru ' al @-@ Qais wandered with his group of rebellious friends from oasis to oasis , stopping to drink wine , and recite poetry , and enjoy the performance of the singing @-@ girls , sometimes tarrying for days before packing up to wander again .
Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' adventures with women also formed an important part of his early life , consisting according to some records of dozens of marriages , divorces and affairs , all ending badly for one reason or another . Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' lovers feature large in his poetry , as he praises their graces , lambasts their cruelty , and laments their absence and the longing in his heart .
= = The death of his father = =
Some stories tell that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was in his father 's army fighting the tribe of Asad when his father was slain , but this is not agreed by all the biographers . The most popular story comes to us from ibn al @-@ Kalbi ( d . 826 AD ) . Ibn al @-@ Kalbi holds that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was still in exile at the time of his father 's death , and that the news reached him while he was in the midst of a party with his friends . Upon hearing the news , he said " May God be merciful to my father . He let me stray when I was small , and now that I am grown he has burdened me with his blood . There will be no alertness today , and no drunkenness tomorrow , " followed by perhaps his most famous quote : " Today is for drink , and tomorrow for serious matters . " ( Arabic : اليوم خمر وغداً أمر )
It is told that of all his father 's sons , Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the only one to take responsibility for avenging his father . One story tells that the tribe of Asad sent him an emissary and offered him three options — either that he kill one of their nobles to equal the death of his father , or that he accept a payment of thousands of sheep and camels , or that he make war on them , in which case they asked for one month to make ready . Imru ' al @-@ Qais chose the third option . The tribes of Bakr and Taghlib agreed to support him and fought with him against Asad , killing many Asad tribesmen . Bakr and Taghlib withdrew their support once they judged that enough of Asad had been killed to satisfy the requirements of revenge .
= = Exile and death = =
After exacting his revenge upon the tribe of Asad and losing the support of Bakr and Taghlib , Imru ' al @-@ Qais travelled all over the Arabian peninsula and the Levant , taking refuge with different tribes , running from his enemies and seeking support to regain his father 's kingship . His last journey was to Constantinople , to seek support from Emperor Justinian I. The Ghassanid prince Al @-@ Harith ibn Jabalah , Justinian 's north Arabian vassal , sponsored Imru ' al @-@ Qais in his appeal , and most accounts indicate that he won some promise of support from the Byzantine emperor , and perhaps even a contingent of troops . Some reports indicate that Justinian pressed the Negus of Axum to support Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' bid , but that he refused due to the ongoing feud between the Axumite Empire and the tribe of Kindah .
After leaving Constantinople , Imru ' al @-@ Qais travelled until he fell ill near the city of Ankara in modern @-@ day Turkey . He remained there until he died . There is a story which says that Emperor Justinian became angry with Imru ' al @-@ Qais after he left , and sent a messenger with a poisoned jacket , and that Imru ' al @-@ Qais wore the jacket and the poison killed him . This story says that Justinian was angry because he discovered that Imru ' al @-@ Qais had an affair with a woman in his court .
However , most historians downplay the likelihood of this account , in favor of the story that Imru ' al @-@ Qais actually died from a chronic skin disease , a disease which he mentioned in one of his poems .
The best estimates of the years of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' embassy to Justinian and death in Anatolia are from 561 to 565 AD . It has been said that after the death of Imru ' al @-@ Qais the Greeks made a statue of him on his tomb that was still seen in 1262 AD , and that his tomb is nowadays located in Hızırlık , Ankara .
= = Poetic influences = =
Makki summarizes the accounts of the biographers in identifying three older poets who Imru ' al @-@ Qais could have met and learned from . The first was Zuhayr bin Janab al @-@ Kalbi , a well @-@ known poet who was a friend and drinking companion of his fathers ' . It is also possible that Imru ' al @-@ Qais learned from Abu Du 'ah al @-@ Iyadi , and some accounts say that the young Imru ' al @-@ Qais was his reciter ( a poet 's disciple who would memorize all of his poems ) . A third possible poetic influence was a ' Amr bin Qami 'ah who was a member of his father 's retinue , and was said to have later joined Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' retinue and accompanied him until his death .
= = Religion = =
Most historians in the centuries since Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' death have been content with the assumption that , as an Arab before the advent of Islam , he was pagan . More recently some researchers have called this view into question , most notably Louis Shaykho ( c . 1898 ) , a Jesuit missionary , who insisted that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was a Christian . The evidence that Shaykho cites to support his claim consists mostly of a handful of references to Christian practices and symbols in Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' poems , as well as a few instances of the Arabic word for ( the one ) God ( Allah ) . Other historians have said that references to Christianity can be explained by the presence of monasteries and missionaries along the northern frontier of the Arabian peninsula , and the fact that many Arabs would have been impressed by these scenes without necessarily converting themselves . It can be explained by the fact that Arabs have been close to Jewish tribes since ancient times , too ( Gindibu helped the Juda kingdom during the Battle of Qarqar ) because of their ethnic similarity and geographic proximity . Others have pointed out that the word " Allah " was in use by the pagan Arabs long before the advent of Islam , and merely referred to the high God ( above all the many others ) .
Imru ' al @-@ Qais may have been a Hanif . Makki reports that some historians have suggested Imru ' al @-@ Qais could have been influenced by the purported Mazdakism of his grandfather , but also states that , in his opinion , there is little direct evidence to support this .
= = Cultural impact = =
To this day Imru ' al @-@ Qays remains the best @-@ known of the pre @-@ Islamic poets , and has been a source of literary and national inspiration for Arabic intellectuals all the way into the 20th century . Opening his entry in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Al @-@ Tahir Ahmad Makki says this about Imru ' al @-@ Qais :
The Prince @-@ Poet Imru ' al @-@ Qais , of the tribe of Kindah , is the first major Arabic literary figure . Verses from his Mu 'allaqah ( Hanging Poems ) , one of seven poems prized above all others by pre @-@ Islamic Arabs , are still in the 20th century the most famous--and possibly the most cited--lines in all of Arabic literature . The Mu 'allaqah is also an integral part of the linguistic , poetic and cultural education of all Arabic speakers .
Ibn Sallam al @-@ Jumahi ( d . 846 AD ) said of Imru ' al @-@ Qais in his " Generations of the Stallion Poets " ( Arabic : طبقات فحول الشعراء ) :
Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the originator of a great many things the Arabs considered beautiful , and which were adopted by other poets . These things include calling up his companions to halt , weeping over the ruins of abandoned campsites , describing his beloved with refinement and delicacy , and using language that was easy to understand . He was the first to compare women to gazelles and eggs , and to liken horses to birds of prey and to staves . He ' hobbled like a fleeing beast ' [ a reference to his famous description of his horse ] and separated the erotic prelude from the body of his poem . In the coining of similitudes , he surpassed everybody in his generation .
Some historians have emphasized the historical significance of the Kindah monarchy as the first attempt to unite the central Arabian tribes before the success of Islam , and Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' tragic place as one of the last Kindite princes . Others have focused on his colorful and violent life , putting it forward as an example of the immorality and brutality which existed in pre @-@ Islamic Arabia .
Iraqi writer Madhhar al @-@ Samarra 'i ( Arabic : مظهر السامرائي ) in his 1993 book Imru ' al @-@ Qais : Poet and Lover ( Arabic : إمرؤ القيس الشاعر العاشق ) , calls Imru ' al @-@ Qais the " poet of freedom " :
The poet Imru ' al @-@ Qais had a gentle heart and a sensitive soul . He wanted the best not only for himself but for all the people of his society . The freedom that he struggled for was not confined to the romantic and erotic relations between him and his beloved Fatimah , and was not limited to his demands to lift the restrictions on sexual relations between men and women , but exceeded all this , so that he was singing for the freedom of all mankind-- and from this point we are able to name him , the Poet of Freedom .
= Effects of Hurricane Georges in Louisiana =
The effects of Hurricane Georges in Louisiana included $ 30 @.@ 1 million in damage and three deaths . Forming from a tropical wave over the Atlantic Ocean , Georges attained a peak intensity of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) on September 20 , 1998 . Over the following several days , the storm tracked through the Greater Antilles and later entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 28 , the Category 2 storm made landfall in Mississippi before dissipating on October 1 . Before landfall , about 500 @,@ 000 residents in Louisiana evacuated from low @-@ lying areas . The mayor of New Orleans declared a state of emergency to allow federal assistance into the state . After nearly 1 @.@ 5 million people were urged to evacuate coastal areas , officials described the evacuation as " probably the largest [ ... ] we have ever achieved " .
Numerous homes located outside the levee system were flooded by the storm surge , and 85 fishing camps on the banks of Lake Pontchartrain were destroyed . An estimated 160 @,@ 000 residences were left without power due to Georges and severe beach erosion took place due to the slow movement of the hurricane . Precipitation statewide peaked at 2 @.@ 98 in ( 75 @.@ 69 mm ) in Bogalusa , and wind gusts reached 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . In the wake of the hurricane , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) opened 67 shelters throughout the state , and covered insurance claims totalling $ 14 @,@ 150 @,@ 532 , including from Puerto Rico and Mississippi . The Clinton administration appropriated $ 56 million in disaster relief to regions in Louisiana for recovery from Tropical Storm Frances and Hurricane Georges .
= = Background = =
Hurricane Georges began as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa during mid @-@ September 1998 . Tracking westward , the wave spawned an area of low pressure two days later , which quickly strengthened into a tropical depression . On September 16 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georges , and to Hurricane Georges the next day . The storm reached its peak intensity on September 20 with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , just below Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
Over the following five days , the hurricane tracked through the Greater Antilles , causing over 600 fatalities , primarily in the Dominican Republic and Haiti . By September 25 , Georges entered the Gulf of Mexico as a Category 2 hurricane . The storm made landfall three days later near Biloxi , Mississippi , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Upon landfall , the hurricane 's forward motion slowed to an eastward drift . Georges dissipated on October 1 near the Atlantic coast of Florida .
= = Preparations = =
At 9 : 00 am Central Daylight Time ( CDT ) on September 25 , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for coastal regions of Louisiana east of Morgan City . The following day , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning when the storm neared landfall . A hurricane watch was also issued for areas between Morgan City and Intracoastal City . When forecasts indicated a landfall east of the state , the hurricane watch was canceled and the hurricane warning amended to a tropical storm warning . By September 29 , all tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued .
During September 25 – 26 , large @-@ scale evacuations took place in response to forecasts suggesting a landfall near New Orleans . More than 1 @.@ 5 million people in New Orleans were advised to leave the city . The nine shelters opened throughout the area were collectively capable of accommodating up to 450 @,@ 000 people . New Orleans mayor Marc Morial declared a State of Emergency to allow federal assistance into the affected areas during the immediate aftermath of the hurricane . A curfew was instituted for those who ignored evacuation orders or could not leave the city .
Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people evacuated from Jefferson and Orleans Parishes in advance of the hurricane . Elsewhere , about 31 @,@ 000 others took refuge in shelters set up throughout the state . In Jefferson Parish , roughly 3 @,@ 900 people evacuated to public shelters , while 20 @,@ 000 temporarily moved to Orleans Parish , 14 @,@ 000 of whom were located in the Louisiana Superdome . In Plaquemines Parish , about 15 @,@ 000 residents evacuated and 2 @,@ 300 took refuge in public shelters . Grand Isle 's 1 @,@ 500 residents were ordered to evacuate for the fourth time in a month . Due to the large @-@ scale evacuations , 175 off @-@ duty state troopers and 250 national guard troops were deployed to help speed up the process . Only two highways , U.S. Route 90 and Interstate 10 lead in and out of New Orleans ; however , heavy rains from previous storms flooded parts of US 90 , hindering preparation efforts . Lt. Col. Ronnie Jones of the Louisiana state police noted that the evacuation was " probably the largest [ ... ] we have ever achieved " .
= = Impact = =
Compared to the record @-@ breaking rainfall in Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , Hurricane Georges produced relatively little precipitation in Louisiana , peaking at 2 @.@ 98 in ( 75 @.@ 69 mm ) in Bogalusa . The worst damages were confined to the southeastern portion of the state , concentrated in the Plaquemines and St. Bernard Parishes . A storm surge of 8 @.@ 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) was recorded in Gardene Bay before power at the recording station failed . Gale @-@ force winds impacted most of the parish and gusts peaked at 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . The combination of high winds and surge cut power to most of the area and flooded at least 50 homes , all of which were located outside the levee system . A lighthouse on one island was partially submerged in the Gulf of Mexico , nearly 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) from land following severe beach erosion . Six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) sand dunes on the islands were completely eroded by the storm , leaving boardwalks formerly situated atop the dunes suspended near the water 's surface .
In St. Tammany Parish , the storm 's effects were mainly limited to wind damage : gusts reached 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) , knocking down trees and power lines . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) flooded 20 homes in the parish . Winds in Jefferson Parish gusted up to 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) , causing minor roof damage and power outages . In Orleans Parish , a storm surge of 5 @.@ 81 ft ( 1 @.@ 77 m ) destroyed 85 fishing camps constructed on wooden pilings . Winds gusting up to 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) left 80 @,@ 000 residences without power in the parish . Throughout the state , a total of 160 @,@ 000 homes and businesses lost power due to the hurricane . Georges is blamed for three indirect fatalities ; two men collapsed and died due to medical conditions aggravated by the stress of the evacuation , and another died as the result of a house fire sparked by an emergency candle that was tipped over . Damages from the storm totaled approximately $ 30 @.@ 1 million .
= = Aftermath = =
Before Hurricane Georges , FEMA issued disaster declarations for Ascension , Assumption , Jefferson , Lafourche , Livingston , Plaquemines , Orleans , St. Bernard , St. Charles , St. James , St. John the Baptist , St. Tammany , Terrebone , Tangipahoa , and Washington Parishes . The declaration allowed residents to receive individual and public assistance . Including relief funds to Puerto Rico and Mississippi associated with Georges , a total of $ 14 @,@ 150 @,@ 532 insurance claims was paid for by FEMA . The Clinton administration appropriated $ 56 million in post @-@ disaster funds for regions impacted Tropical Storm Frances and Hurricane Georges in Louisiana .
Throughout the state , officials opened 67 shelters and deployed 1 @,@ 200 FEMA personnel to Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , Florida and Georgia . The day after Georges made landfall , 4 @,@ 000 of the 14 @,@ 000 residents who evacuated to the Louisiana Superdome returned to their homes ; however , Mayor Marc Morial requested that the residents stay in the superdome for their own safety . In attempts to prevent major flooding in the aftermath of Georges , the United States National Guard provided the Gulf Coast with 1 @.@ 25 million sandbags . Rescue teams flew nearly 50 missions in response to calls for help from stranded residents . The United Methodist Committee on Relief deployed its disaster response team on September 29 to the state to assess damages wrought by Georges . Thomas Michot , a United States Geological Survey ecologist , surveyed the islands following the storm and stated that " the single most important line of defense standing between New Orleans and future hurricanes had all but disappeared " .
= Cyclone Fantala =
Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Fantala was the strongest tropical cyclone of the south @-@ west Indian Ocean in terms of sustained winds . Part of the 2015 – 16 cyclone season , Fantala formed on 11 April to the south of Diego Garcia , an island in the central Indian Ocean . With a ridge to the south , the storm moved westward for several days while gaining strength , aided by warm waters and decreasing wind shear . Late on 17 April , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making Fantala the strongest tropical cyclone of the basin in terms of 10 @-@ minute sustained winds . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 on
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the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale and tied only with Agnielle from November 1995 as the strongest on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean .
While near peak intensity , Fantala passed near the Farquhar Group of the Seychelles , damaging most of the buildings in the small archipelago . By 18 April , Fantala had weakened to an intense tropical cyclone and slowed its forward motion , eventually reversing its direction of movement . After fluctuating in strength , the disorganized system reversed direction again , making its closest approach to Madagascar . Fantala degenerated into a remnant low on 24 April , and the remnants continued toward Tanzania . There , heavy rainfall resulted in flooding that washed away roads and houses , killing 13 people . Rains extended further into Kenya , with similar effects .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of disturbed weather persisted as of 9 April to the southeast of Diego Garcia . The system moved generally westwards , steered by a ridge , and a low @-@ level circulation gradually became more defined . Limiting factors to faster development included poor inflow and moderate wind shear , although associated convection became more organized . At 06 : 00 UTC on 11 April , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Météo @-@ France in La Réunion ( MFR ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 8 about 600 km ( 375 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . Six hours later , the agency upgraded the system to a tropical depression . At 13 : 00 UTC on 11 April , the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , noting the increased organization of the convection , circulation , and outflow . Later that day , the MFR upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Fantala , and the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 19S . By that time , the convection was quickly consolidating around the center , organizing into a circular central dense overcast .
On 12 April , the previously detrimental wind shear began easing , allowing the structure to become more symmetric . On that day , an eye feature began developing in the center of Fantala , indicative of strengthening . At 12 : 00 UTC on 12 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to severe tropical storm status , and six hours later , the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , with 1 minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; rapid strengthening was prevented by the entrainment of nearby dry air , although the core of convection continued to contract . At 06 : 00 UTC on 13 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to tropical cyclone status , with 10 minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . By that time , the eye feature persisted , consisting of a warm area within the deepest convection , although the dry air in the region prevented quicker strengthening .
By early on 14 April , the eye became better defined after an eyewall replacement cycle . The intensity fluctuated after outflow decreased to the north , although increasingly warm waters favored further intensification . Early on 15 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to an intense tropical cyclone , while the storm was undergoing rapid deepening . The outflow was enhanced by a large upper @-@ level low well to the southeast , and shear had decreased to a minimum . After reaching an initial peak intensity with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) at 12 : 00 UTC that day , Fantala 's intensity leveled off for the following 48 hours , with its 10 @-@ minute sustained winds fluctuating between 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) for the first 6 hours of this time period , 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) for the following 24 hours , and 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) for the remaining 18 hours , all equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane , with the latter two wind estimates equivalent to a western Pacific super typhoon .
On 16 April , Fantala turned more to the west @-@ northward toward the southern islands of the Seychelles , steered by a strengthening ridge near Madagascar . Intensification resumed by 12 : 00 UTC the following day , with the JTWC estimating 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , classifying Fantala as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Around 15 : 00 UTC , the cyclone moved through the Farquhar Group of the Seychelles , and its eyewall moved over several small islands . At 18 : 00 UTC on 17 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to a very intense tropical cyclone ; based on a Dvorak rating of T7.5 , the satellite @-@ derived wind estimate was 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , along with an estimated barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) . However , in the best track for Fantala , the MFR concluded that Fantala had been a very intense tropical cyclone 6 hours earlier as well , with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , and that its minimum central pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) had occurred 12 hours later , at 06 : 00 UTC the following day . The JTWC also estimated peak 1 minute winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) .
While maintaining peak intensity , Fantala slowed its forward movement as the ridge to its south over Madagascar weakened . The cyclone turned back to the southeast due to the building influence of a ridge to the northeast , and the storm retraced its former path . Cooler waters along its path – the result of upwelling – as well as another eyewall replacement cycle , caused Fantala to weaken to an intense tropical cyclone by 19 April . Fantala had maintained at least Category 4 @-@ equivalent intensity for about 90 hours , and of those 90 hours , about 30 were at both very intense tropical cyclone status and Category 5 @-@ equivalent intensity . That day , the eye disappeared on satellite imagery and the storm deteriorated further to tropical cyclone status . The eye redeveloped on 20 April , with pronounced outflow assisting in the re @-@ intensification , although increased shear resulted in weakening again on 21 April . That day , the MFR downgraded Fantala to a severe tropical storm . The structure improved again on 22 April as the system stalled due to the building ridge to the south . At 00 : 00 UTC that day , the MFR upgraded Fantala to an intense tropical cyclone once the eye became more pronounced again , only to downgrade it to tropical cyclone status by 06 : 00 UTC , though this was pushed back to 12 : 00 UTC in the best track . A small area of convection persisted over the center , although dry air in the region continued to weaken the thunderstorms .
The MFR again downgraded Fantala to a severe tropical storm on 23 April as the storm began drifting to the northwest . Increasing wind shear weakened Fantala further to a moderate tropical storm that day , and on 24 April , both the JTWC and MFR issued their final advisories ; the latter agency had first downgraded it to a tropical depression . By that time , the circulation was exposed from the convection as Fantala moved over cooled waters where it traversed a few days prior . The circulation continued to the northwest , with occasional flares of convection . By 27 April , a circulation was no longer present as the convective remnants of Fantala approached the coastline of Tanzania .
= = Impact and records = =
Cyclone Fantala first threatened Agaléga , part of the Outer Islands of Mauritius . Government officials forced all 72 residents on the South Island to evacuate to the North Island , and strongly advised fishermen to avoid sailing .
Fantala was the first tropical cyclone to threaten the Farquhar Group since Cyclone Bondo in 2006 . Most of the 34 residents on Farquhar Atoll evacuated ahead of the storm , and those that remained behind were uninjured . While moving through the Seychelles near peak intensity , Fantala had estimated 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , and days later it moved through the region again with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds estimated at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Based on satellite imagery , it was estimated that of the 50 structures on Farquhar Atoll , 19 were destroyed and 27 sustained severe damage . Only four buildings , which were constructed to be cyclone @-@ proof after Bondo , withstood the estimated 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) gusts , even then suffering moderate damage . In addition , many of the island 's trees were knocked down . Due to the storm 's prolonged passage through the island group , the Seychelles government declared the Farquhar islands as a disaster area on 20 April . In a visit to the Seychelles , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated that the country has become " highly vulnerable to storm surges , as we are reminded by the recent devastating effects of Cyclone Fantala . " A World Bank survey team found $ 4 @.@ 5 million in damage . The lodge on the island is not expected to be rebuilt until March 2017 , about 11 months after the storm .
The remnants of Fantala spurred warnings from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency after the storm produced heavy rainfall . In Kilimanjaro Region , the rains caused flooding that covered roads and entered houses , trapping hundreds of residents and killing eight . Officials required helicopters from nearby Kilimanjaro National Park to rescue residents . Five people were killed in the country 's Morogoro Region , all drowning in flooded rivers . The overflowing Umba River isolated several villages . In the region , 13 @,@ 933 people were left homeless after 315 houses were washed away . Flooding also washed away 12 @,@ 073 ha ( 29 @,@ 830 acres ) of crop fields , prompting officials to purchase and distribute maize , beans , and cooking oil to affected residents . The storm also sent a plume of moisture northward to Kenya , where storm @-@ influenced rainfall reached 133 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in Kwale in just four hours . This resulted in flooding in coastal portions of Kenya that destroyed several houses . About 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields were flooded . The port and several roads were closed in the city of Mombasa , Kenya 's second @-@ largest city .
The MFR 's estimate of peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) made Fantala the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean by that measure . According to estimates from the JTWC , Fantala attained peak 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , tied only with Cyclone Agnielle from November 1995 as the strongest cyclone on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . Reliable satellite @-@ based intensity estimates date back to 1990 . The storm was fueled by the powerful 2014 – 16 El Niño event , which also contributed to the record intensities of Hurricane Patricia in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and Cyclone Winston in the southern Pacific Ocean .
= K ' =
K Dash ( ケイ ・ ダッシュ , Kei Dasshu , commonly stylized as K ′ and also known as K Prime in certain English language materials ) , is a video game character from The King of Fighters fighting game series developed by SNK . He debuted as the leader of the Hero Team in The King of Fighters ' 99 , released in 1999 . He stars as the reluctant hero in the NESTS syndicate story arc of the series . He was created to be a " dark hero " in contrast to the series ' previous protagonist Kyo Kusanagi .
K ′ is a young man who lost all his memories when the NESTS syndicate captured him and injected the DNA of the powerful fighter Kyo into him to copy Kusanagi 's pyrokinetic abilities . Angered by what NESTS did to him , K ' betrays NESTS and decides to destroy them for using his body and deleting all his memories . Although he hates tournaments , K ' uses the King of Fighters tournaments to find NESTS members and defeat them . In his search , he meets allies who have the same goal and joins forces with them . Aside from the main series , K ' also appears in several other media series , such as spin @-@ offs and crossover video games , as well as printed adaptations of the series .
Since his introduction in the series , K ' has received both praise and criticism by video game publications . The character 's gameplay has been praised for its style and differences from previous known fighting styles . His absence in The King of Fighters XII was controversial and his return in the following game was due mainly to his popularity as a character .
= = Conception and creation = =
To contrast the previous protagonist of the series , Kyo Kusanagi , K ' was made to be the " dark hero " . During the early phases of the development of The King of Fighters ' 99 , the introduction of K ' to the series was meant to remove popular characters Kyo Kusanagi and Iori Yagami from the roster — though this idea was scrapped before the game 's release . Eiji , one of the game 's designers , commented that he thought K ' would be more popular than he turned out to be , noting that K ' was too plain . Nevertheless , character designer Tatsuhiko Kanaoka , better known as " Falcoon " , said K ' was one of his favorite original King of Fighters characters . Music composer Sha @-@ V suggested that K ' should yell " Dora ! " or " Ora ! " to mirror Kyo and Iori 's shouts , " Kurae ! " and " Doushita ! " respectively . Konny , another music composer , jokingly wondered if K ' is trying to say the word " dry " , since the first word of his yell was " Dorei ! "
It has been noted by several of the series ' designers that K ' is one of the most difficult characters to illustrate , since his look is very different when he is drawn by different illustrators . In the early development of the game , K ' had a slicked back hairstyle , but as it was nixed by his powers , the character 's hair was changed . They also jokingly mentioned that the reason for his hair being bushier than it needed to be may be a reflection of the conditions around him . The King of Fighters ' 99 was developed at the same time as Garou : Mark of the Wolves ; developers noted several similarities between K ' and Mark of the Wolves ' main character , Rock Howard , which caused K ' ' s designer to become very nervous . The producer of The King of Fighters 2002 : Unlimited Match , Neogeo Hakase , advised advanced players to use K ' stating that once the player had learned how to control him , the character would become very strong during fights .
For The King of Fighters XIII , K ' ' s design was crafted so that he had a " cool " appearance . Developers liked the result as his moves , such as putting on his sunglasses , were carefully detailed . His gameplay mechanics were developed so that gamers who had used him before would not find his new gameplay mechanics strange . In contrast to Kyo 's flames , K ' ' s were designed with intention of making them look more violent . As a result of various The King of Fighters endings showing K ' removing his red glove , a special move was required to show him doing the same thing . After thinking of several methods that would show this , the staff was inspired by The King of Fighters HK Comics printed adaptations in which the character 's glove once broke after defeating his opponent , leading to his winpose that happens only after he has used his strongest technique . Following various revisions of K ' ' s " Chain Drive " ( チェーンドライブ ) technique , in order to better follow the material that inspired the move , the staff decided to make K ' fight while wearing his sunglasses .
= = = Attributes = = =
K ' is a former subject of an experiment made by the NESTS organization . He stands 183cm ( 6 ' 0 " ) tall and weighs 65kg ( 143 lbs ) . In their attempt to create powerful soldiers , NESTS kidnapped K ′ and injected him with DNA from the fighter Kyo Kusanagi , giving him his pyrokinetic skills . Unlike Kyo , K ' is only able to create fire from his right hand , which he is sometimes unable to control . He wears a glove to protect his body from being burned accidentally . During the program , NESTS repressed K ′ ' s memories , and he was made to believe that he was Krizalid 's clone . While in NESTS , K ′ became enraged with how the organization played with human lives , and escaped to recover his memories . As he could not even remember his name , K ' decided to destroy NESTS in order to stop their experiments . K ' ' s fighting style is simply called Pure Violence which involves him using the fire from his right hand along with martial arts moves .
In the process of destroying NESTS , he becomes allied with Maxima , a cyborg whose best friend was killed by NESTS agents and is seeking to avenge the death . While Maxima sees K ' as a friend and his partner , K ' is stoic and cynical . He also meets Whip , who it is revealed is a clone of his sister , Seirah . Even though Whip reveals her identity to K ' , he ignores this , saying he will do what he pleases . Although he hates The King of Fighters tournaments , he commonly enters them , being asked by someone , or to find NESTS . The participants often criticize him for being antisocial . After destroying NESTS , K ' starts recovering his memories , but he suspects he could forget all the people he has met . He also becomes determined to prove he is better than Kyo , instead of being only a clone .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In The King of Fighters ' 99 , K ' and Maxima hear of a King of Fighters tournament being held by NESTS and decide to participate in it and face NESTS head @-@ on . They form a " Hero Team " along with Benimaru Nikaido and Shingo Yabuki . The Hero Team is taken to a NESTS base , where they meet NESTS ' agent Krizalid , who claims that K ' was cloned from him ; both are ignorant of the fact that K ′ was the original . After Krizalid asks K ' to join him , the two end up fighting . Following Krizalid 's defeat , K ' and Maxima become targets of NESTS . In The King of Fighters 2000 , K ' and Maxima enter a new tournament , along with mercenaries Vanessa and Ramon . K ′ and Maxima enter the tournament to discover NESTS ' scheme , but Vanessa and Ramon are using them to find NESTS . K ′ and his team make it to the finals and face NESTS ' agent Zero . After Zero 's defeat , K ' has a dream involving his sister . He wakes up with Maxima as well as Whip , the clone of his sister .
In The King of Fighters 2001 , K ' , Maxima , and Whip are joined by Lin , a Hizoku assassin who has a grudge against Ron , who betrayed the Hizoku to join NESTS . During the tournament , K ' and his team face the original Zero , the one they met during the events of The King of Fighters 2000 having been a clone , and the new NESTS leader , Igniz , who has the secrets to unlock K ' ' s memories . After Igniz commits suicide , K ′ forms an alliance with Kula Diamond , a clone designed to be the Anti @-@ K ' , and her guardian Diana to continue their lives . In The King of Fighters 2002 , a game without a storyline , K ′ is a playable character , along with Maxima and Whip . In The King of Fighters 2003 , K ' and Maxima are allowed to enter to that year 's tournament by Chin Gentsai to investigate a dark wave around the King of Fighters . In the finals , K ' faces Mukai , a demon who belongs to the group " Those from the Past " . Although K ' defeats Mukai , he is bothered by Mukai 's taunts about reaching his true potential . In The King of Fighters XI , K ' enters the tournament with Maxima and Kula , in order to surpass his limits . The King of Fighters XIII retains the same team from The King of Fighters XI , with K ′ teaming with Kula and Maxima .
Aside from the main series , K ' has also appeared in other media from The King of Fighters series . K ' appears in the spin @-@ off video game series The King of Fighters : Maximum Impact and Neowave . In Neowave , K ' is playable , as are Maxima and Whip ; while in Maximum Impact , he fights alone ( as do all characters in the game ) . In the Maximum Impact series , he enters into the King of Fighters tournaments searching for the host who sponsored it . In the crossover video game Neo Geo Battle Coliseum , K ' is featured as a playable character .
= = = In other media = = =
In the anime The King of Fighters : Another Day , K ' is featured prominently in the third chapter . K ' also appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters : Zillion that was created by Andy Seto . He stars in other manhua for the games , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 through 2003 , as well as the Maximum Impact series . He also appears in the CD dramas KOF 2000 , in which he confronts Kula , Diamond , and in KOF : Mid Summer Struggle , in which he appears in a fake King of Fighters tournament . Outside The King of Fighters , the character has appeared in a dating sim part of the Days of Memories series .
= = Reception = =
The character K ' has been well received by fans ; in a 2005 poll by SNK Playmore USA , he was voted the fans ' fourth favorite character , with a total of
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became a combination press secretary and chief of staff to McKinley .
= = = War with Spain = = =
For decades , rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule . By 1895 , the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence . As war engulfed the island , Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher . These included the removal of Cubans to internment camps near Spanish military bases , a strategy designed to make it hard for the rebels to receive support in the countryside . American opinion favored the rebels , and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies . As many of his countrymen called for war to liberate Cuba , McKinley favored a peaceful approach , hoping that through negotiation , Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence , or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy . The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897 , but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence , while the rebels ( and their American supporters ) would never settle for anything less .
In January 1898 , Spain promised some concessions to the rebels , but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana , McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property . On February 15 , the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed . Public opinion and the newspapers demanded war , but McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry first determine whether the explosion was accidental . Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence , but on March 20 , the court ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine . As pressure for war mounted in Congress , McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence . Spain refused McKinley 's proposals , and on April 11 , McKinley turned the matter over to Congress . He did not ask for war , but Congress declared war anyway on April 20 , with the addition of the Teller Amendment , which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba .
The expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley a greater control over the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed , and he used the new technologies to direct the army 's and navy 's movements as far as he was able . McKinley found Alger inadequate as Secretary of War , and did not get along with the Army 's commanding general , Nelson A. Miles . Bypassing them , he looked for strategic advice first from Miles 's predecessor , General John Schofield , and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin . The war led to a change in McKinley 's cabinet , as the President accepted Sherman 's resignation as Secretary of State ; Day agreed to serve as Secretary until the war 's end .
Within a fortnight , the navy had its first victory when the Asiatic Squadron , led by Commodore George Dewey , engaged the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines , destroying the enemy force without the loss of a single American vessel . Dewey 's overwhelming victory expanded the scope of the war from one centered in the Caribbean to one that would determine the fate of all of Spain 's Pacific colonies . The next month , he increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force 's commander , Major General Wesley Merritt , the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes — necessities for a long occupation . By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898 , McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States . He professed to be open to all views on the subject ; however , he believed that as the war progressed , the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war .
Meanwhile , in the Caribbean theater , a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa , Florida , for an invasion of Cuba . The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba , but by June , Corbin had made progress in resolving the problems . After lengthy delays , the army , led by Major General William Rufus Shafter , sailed from Florida on June 20 , landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later . Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24 , Shafter 's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill . In an intense day @-@ long battle , the American force was victorious , although both sides suffered heavy casualties . The next day , the Spanish Caribbean squadron , which had been sheltering in Santiago 's harbor , broke for the open sea but was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson 's North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war . Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago , which surrendered on July 17 , placing Cuba under effective American control . McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico , which met little resistance when it landed in July . The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible , and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war .
= = = Peace and territorial gain = = =
On July 22 , the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon , the French Ambassador to the United States , to represent Spain in negotiating peace . The Spanish initially wished to restrict the discussion to Cuba , but were quickly forced to recognize that their other possessions would be claimed as spoils of war . McKinley 's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico , but they disagreed on the Philippines , with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area . Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines , several prominent political leaders – including Bryan , ex @-@ President Grover Cleveland , and the newly formed American Anti @-@ Imperialist League – made their opposition known .
McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation , with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion . He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever . Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12 , and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898 . The talks continued until December 18 , when the Treaty of Paris was signed . The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam , and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba ; in exchange , the United States agreed to pay Spain $ 20 million . McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two @-@ thirds vote , but his lobbying , and that of Vice President Hobart , eventually saw success , as the Senate voted in favor on February 6 , 1899 , 57 to 27 .
During the war , McKinley also pursued the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii . The new republic , dominated by American interests , had seized power from the royal government in 1893 . The lame @-@ duck Harrison administration had submitted a treaty of annexation to the Senate ; Cleveland , once he returned to office , had sent a special commission to the islands . After receiving the report , Cleveland withdrew the treaty , stating that the revolution did not reflect the will of Hawaiian citizens . Nevertheless , many Americans favored annexation , and the cause gained momentum as the United States became embroiled in war with Spain . McKinley came to office as a supporter of annexation , and lobbied Congress to adopt his opinion , believing that to do nothing would invite a royalist counter @-@ revolution or a Japanese takeover . Foreseeing difficulty in getting two @-@ thirds of the Senate to approve a treaty of annexation , McKinley instead supported the effort of Democratic Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada to accomplish the result by joint resolution of both houses of Congress . The resulting Newlands Resolution passed both houses by wide margins , and McKinley signed it into law on July 8 , 1898 . McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan notes , " McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii , showing ... a firmness in pursuing it " ; the President told Cortelyou , " We need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California . It is manifest destiny . " Wake Island , an uninhabited atoll between Hawaii and Guam , was claimed for the United States on July 12 , 1898 .
= = = Expanding influence overseas = = =
In acquiring Pacific possessions for the United States , McKinley expanded the nation 's ability to compete for trade in China . Even before peace negotiations began with Spain , McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in the region and espoused an " Open Door Policy " , in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation 's territorial integrity . When John Hay replaced Day as Secretary of State at the end of the war , he circulated notes to that effect to the European powers . Great Britain favored the idea , but Russia opposed it ; France , Germany , Italy and Japan agreed in principle , but only if all the other nations signed on .
Trade with China became imperiled shortly thereafter as the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners and their property in China . Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and , in cooperation with other western powers , McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition . The westerners were rescued the next month , but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature . McKinley 's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military . After the rebellion ended , the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy , which became the basis of American policy toward China .
Closer to home , McKinley and Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America . The Clayton – Bulwer Treaty , which the two nations signed in 1850 , prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there . The war had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two @-@ ocean navy without a connection closer than Cape Horn . Now , with American business and military interests even more involved in Asia , a canal seemed more essential than ever , and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty . Hay and the British ambassador , Julian Pauncefote , agreed that the United States could control a future canal , provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified . McKinley was satisfied with the terms , but the Senate rejected them , demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal . Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation , but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate 's demands . He was successful , and a new treaty was drafted and approved , but not before McKinley 's assassination in 1901 .
= = = Tariffs and bimetallism = = =
Two of the great issues of the day , tariff reform and free silver , became intertwined in 1897 . Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced a new tariff bill ( later called the Dingley Act ) to revise the Wilson – Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 . McKinley supported the bill , which increased tariffs on wool , sugar , and luxury goods , but the proposed new rates alarmed the French , who exported many luxury items to the United States . The Dingley Act passed the House easily , but was delayed in the Senate as they assessed the French objections . French representatives offered to cooperate with the United States in developing an international agreement on bimetallism if the new tariff rates were reduced ; this pleased silverite Republicans in the Senate , whose votes were necessary for passage . The Senate amended the bill to allow limited reciprocity ( giving France some possibility of relief ) , but did not reduce the rates on luxury goods . McKinley signed the bill into law and agreed to begin negotiations on an international bimetallism standard .
American negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France , and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for bimetallism . The Prime Minister , Lord Salisbury , and his government showed some interest in the idea and told the American envoy , Edward O. Wolcott , that he would be amenable to reopening the mints in India to silver coinage if the Viceroy 's Executive Council there agreed . News of a possible departure from the gold standard stirred up immediate opposition from its partisans , and misgivings by the Indian administration led Britain to reject the proposal . With the international effort a failure , McKinley turned away from silver coinage and embraced the gold standard . Even without the agreement , agitation for free silver eased as prosperity began to return to the United States and gold from recent strikes in the Yukon and Australia increased the monetary supply even without silver coinage . In the absence of international agreement , McKinley favored legislation to formally affirm the gold standard , but was initially deterred by the silver strength in the Senate . By 1900 , with another campaign ahead and good economic conditions , McKinley urged Congress to pass such a law , and was able to sign the Gold Standard Act on March 14 , 1900 , using a gold pen to do so .
= = = Civil rights = = =
In the wake of McKinley 's election in 1896 , African Americans were hopeful of progress towards equality . McKinley had spoken out against lynching while governor , and most African Americans who could vote supported him in 1896 . McKinley 's priority , however , was in ending sectionalism , and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments . Although McKinley made some appointments of African Americans to low @-@ level government posts , and received some praise for that , the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations . Blanche K. Bruce , an African American who during Reconstruction had served as senator from Mississippi , received the post of register at the Treasury Department ; this post was traditionally given to an African American by Republican presidents . McKinley appointed several black postmasters ; however , when whites protested the appointment of Justin W. Lyons as postmaster of Augusta , Georgia , McKinley asked Lyons to withdraw ( he was subsequently given the post of Treasury register after Bruce 's death in 1898 ) . The President did appoint George B. Jackson , a former slave , to the post of customs collector in Presidio , Texas . However , African Americans in northern states felt that their contributions to McKinley 's victory were overlooked ; few were appointed to office .
The administration 's response to racial violence was minimal , causing him to lose black support . When black postmasters at Hogansville , Georgia in 1897 , and at Lake City , South Carolina the following year , were assaulted , McKinley issued no statement of condemnation . Although black leaders criticized McKinley for inaction , supporters responded by saying there was little the president could do to intervene . Critics replied by saying that he could at least publicly condemn such events , as Harrison had done .
According to historian Clarance A. Bacote , " Before the Spanish – American War , the Negroes , in spite of some mistakes , regarded McKinley as the best friend they ever had . " African Americans saw the onset of war in 1898 as an opportunity to display their patriotism ; and black soldiers fought bravely at El Caney and San Juan Hill . African Americans in the peacetime Army had formed elite units ; nevertheless they were harassed by whites as they traveled from the West to Tampa for embarkation to the war . Under pressure from black leaders , McKinley required the War Department to commission black officers above the rank of lieutenant . The heroism of the black troops did not still racial tensions in the South , as the second half of 1898 saw several outbreaks of racial violence ; 11 African Americans were killed in riots in Wilmington , North Carolina . McKinley toured the South in late 1898 , hoping for sectional reconciliation . In addition to visiting Tuskegee Institute and black educator Booker T. Washington , he addressed the Georgia legislature , wearing a badge of gray , and visited Confederate memorials . In his tour of the South , McKinley did not mention the racial tensions or violence . Although the President received a rapturous reception from Southern whites , many African Americans , excluded from official welcoming committees , felt alienated by the President 's words and actions .
According to Gould and later biographer Phillips , given the political climate in the South , with white legislatures passing segregationist laws such as that upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson , there was little McKinley could have done to improve race relations , and he did better than later presidents Theodore Roosevelt , who doubted racial equality , and Woodrow Wilson , who supported segregation . However , Gould concluded , " McKinley lacked the vision to transcend the biases of his day and to point toward a better future for all Americans " .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
After the retirement of Justice Stephen Johnson Field , McKinley appointed Attorney General Joseph McKenna to the Supreme Court of the United States in December 1897 . The appointment aroused some controversy as McKenna 's critics in the Senate said he was too closely associated with railroad interests and lacked the qualifications of a Supreme Court justice . Despite the objections , McKenna 's nomination was approved unanimously . McKenna responded to the criticism of his legal education by taking some courses at Columbia Law School for several months before taking his seat . Along with his Supreme Court appointment , McKinley appointed six judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 28 judges to the United States district courts .
= = = 1900 election = = =
Republicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899 , and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re @-@ election in 1900 . McKinley 's popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second . The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination ; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899 . McKinley initially favored Elihu Root , who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War , but McKinley decided that Root was doing too good a job at the War Department to move him . He considered other prominent candidates , including Allison and Cornelius N. Bliss , but none were as popular as the Republican party 's rising star , Theodore Roosevelt . After a stint as Assistant Secretary of the Navy , Roosevelt had resigned and raised a cavalry regiment ; they fought bravely in Cuba , and Roosevelt returned home covered in glory . Elected governor of New York on a reform platform in 1898 , Roosevelt had his eye on the presidency . Many supporters recommended him to McKinley for the second spot on the ticket , and Roosevelt believed it would be an excellent stepping stone to the presidency in 1904 . McKinley remained uncommitted in public , but Hanna was firmly opposed to the New York governor . The Ohio senator considered the New Yorker overly impulsive ; his stance was undermined by the efforts of political boss and New York Senator Thomas Platt , who , disliking Roosevelt 's reform agenda , sought to sideline the governor by making him vice president .
When the Republican convention began in Philadelphia that June , no vice presidential candidate had overwhelming support , but Roosevelt had the broadest range of support from around the country . McKinley affirmed that the choice belonged to the convention , not to him . On June 21 , McKinley was unanimously renominated and , with Hanna 's reluctant acquiescence , Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the first ballot . The Democratic convention convened the next month in Kansas City and nominated William Jennings Bryan , setting up a rematch of the 1896 contest .
The candidates were the same , but the issues of the campaign had shifted : free silver was still a question that animated many voters , but the Republicans focused on victory in war and prosperity at home as issues they believed favored their party . Democrats knew the war had been popular , even if the imperialism issue was less sure , so they focused on the issue of trusts and corporate power , painting McKinley as the servant of capital and big business . As in 1896 , Bryan embarked on a speaking tour around the country while McKinley stayed at home , this time making only one speech , to accept his nomination . Roosevelt emerged as the campaign 's primary speaker and Hanna helped the cause working to settle a coal miners strike in Pennsylvania . Bryan 's campaigning failed to excite the voters as it had in 1896 , and McKinley never doubted that he would be re @-@ elected . On November 6 , 1900 , he was proven correct , winning the largest victory for any Republican since 1872 . Bryan carried only four states outside the solid South , and
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The first issue of Tales of Wonder appeared in June 1937 . Sales were good enough for The World 's Work to continue publication , and from Spring 1938 the magazine appeared on a quarterly schedule , with occasional omissions . None of the other titles in the Master Thriller series ever turned into a separate magazine , so it was evidently selling well . The success of Tales of Wonder led Newnes to believe that they had been wrong to turn down Gillings , and in 1938 they launched Fantasy as a competitor .
The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 did not immediately lead to paper shortages , but paper began to be rationed in April 1940 , and the page count , which had already dropped from 128 to 96 , fell to 72 by 1941 . Gillings was called up for military service , and for a while he was able to edit the magazine from his army camp , but the magazine eventually ceased publication with the Spring 1942 issue .
= = Contents and reception = =
American science fiction magazines had by the mid @-@ 1930s begun to publish some more sophisticated stories than the straightforward adventure fiction that was a staple of the earliest years of the genre . Gillings decided that many British science fiction readers would not be familiar with most of the developments in American sf , and so he did not make a point of seeking innovative and original material . The first issue contained " The Perfect Creature " , an early story by John Wyndham , under the name " John Beynon " , as well as " The Prr @-@ r @-@ eet " , by Eric Frank Russell . The second issue included Wyndham 's novel Sleepers of Mars , and William F. Temple 's " Lunar Lilliput " , which was Temple 's first science fiction sale . " Stenographer 's Hands " , a story by David H. Keller , also appeared in the second issue , reprinted from a U.S. magazine ; Gillings claimed that this was to introduce British science fiction readers to American developments in sf , but in fact it was because he was having trouble obtaining good quality material from British writers .
Other reprints acquired by Gillings included Murray Leinster 's " The Mad Planet " and its sequel , " The Red Dust " , and two stories by Jack Williamson : his first sale , " The Metal Man " , along with " The Moon Era " ; these were both by American writers though Gillings tried to reprint stories from the U.S. markets by British writers when he could . Reprints were not restricted to American and British authors , or the U.S. pulp market , however : Gillings also ran " The Planet Wrecker " by R. Coutts Armour , an Australian writer who used the pseudonym " Coutts Brisbane " ; the story had originally appeared in The Red Magazine in 1914 . Some new stories from American writers did appear , including Lloyd A. Eshbach 's " Out of the Past " , and S.P. Meek 's " The Mentality Machine " . Gillings ran competitions for reader essays , one of which was won by Ken Bulmer , later a well @-@ known British science fiction writer , and he encouraged fans to contribute , with articles and fillers . The most significant writer introduced by Gillings was undoubtedly Arthur C. Clarke , whose first sales were to Gillings , for the science articles " Man 's Empire of Tomorrow " and " We Can Rocket to the Moon — Now ! " , which were published in the Winter 1938 and Summer 1939 issues .
Science fiction historian Mike Ashley regards Tales of Wonder as " a lively , entertaining and enjoyable magazine " . Its success demonstrated that there was a market in Britain for a magazine aimed at adult science fiction readers , despite the earlier failure of Scoops , and in 1938 George Newnes , Ltd. went ahead with their much @-@ delayed plans for an sf magazine , Fantasy , having seen the success of Tales of Wonder .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Tales of Wonder was published in pulp format for all 16 issues . It began at 128 pages ; this was cut to 96 pages with the Winter 1939 issue ; then to 80 pages with the Autumn 1940 issue ; and finally to 72 pages for the last three issues . It was edited throughout by Walter Gillings , and was priced at 1 / - . There was no volume numbering ; each issue was numbered consecutively .
= Ed Hochuli =
Edward G. Hochuli ( / ˈhɒkjᵿli / ; born December 25 , 1950 ) is an attorney for the firm of Jones , Skelton & Hochuli , P.L.C. since 1983 , and has been an American football official in the National Football League ( NFL ) since the 1990 NFL season . His uniform number is 85 . Prior to his officiating career , he played college football for four seasons at the University of Texas at El Paso ( UTEP ) .
Hochuli has worked numerous playoff games , including two Super Bowls . He is best known for his athletic / muscular physique and for explaining on @-@ field rulings in a manner that is comprehensive yet also clear and concise . In a poll conducted by ESPN in 2008 , Hochuli tied fellow referee Mike Carey for " best referee " votes ( eight each ) among NFL head coaches . Completing his 26th season in the league and 24th as referee ( crew chief ) with the 2015 NFL season , Hochuli 's officiating crew for 2015 consisted of umpire Clay Martin , head linesman Pat Turner , line judge Rusty Baynes , field judge Adrian Hill , side judge Greg Meyer , and back judge Scott Helverson .
With the retirement of Gerald Austin and Larry Nemmers following the 2007 season , Hochuli became the NFL 's longest @-@ tenured referee .
= = Personal = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hochuli was born on December 25 , 1950 , in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , and lived there until age eight before his family moved to Tucson , Arizona . He was the second child of six . He attended and later graduated from Canyon del Oro High School in the Tucson suburb of Oro Valley , Arizona in 1969 . During his high school years , he participated in football ( earning all @-@ state honors twice ) , basketball , wrestling , and track . He attributes his competitive nature to having an older brother , Chip Hochuli . Ed Hochuli told Referee in a 2004 interview , " I was somebody who wanted to be good and I wanted my brother to be proud of me , and I wanted my parents to be proud of me . " Following high school , he earned his Bachelor of Arts degree with honors from UTEP in 1972 . While at UTEP , Hochuli played linebacker on the school 's football team from 1969 to 1972 . As a football player , he earned All @-@ Western Athletic Conference academic honors in 1972 . His father , Walter Hochuli , was involved with law as a wills and estate planner , which influenced Ed Hochuli to pursue a career in law . He earned his Juris Doctor from the University of Arizona Law School in 1976 . While in law school , Hochuli served as a law clerk for two years under United States District Judge Carl Muecke . Upon completion of his education , Hochuli was admitted to the State Bar of Arizona .
= = = Family = = =
Hochuli resides in the Phoenix metropolitan area with his wife Cathie . They have six children and 10 grandchildren . Of the six , Shawn Hochuli played college football at Pitzer College and is following his father 's profession as an official , working his first NFL season in 2014 as a side judge . Arena Football League , and arenafootball2 games . On August 13 , 2011 , a day after his father refereed a preseason game between the New England Patriots and Jacksonville Jaguars , Shawn was head referee for ArenaBowl XXIV between the Jacksonville Sharks and Arizona Rattlers . Scott Hochuli owns Hochuli Design & Remodeling Team . , a company that specializes in residential design and construction in the Phoenix area . His brother , Daniel Hochuli , is the town attorney for Sahuarita , Arizona , and his brother Peter Hochuli is a judge at the Pima County Juvenile Court in Tucson , Arizona .
= = = Attorney = = =
Hochuli is a trial lawyer and a partner in the Arizona law firm of Jones , Skelton and Hochuli , P.L.C. since it was founded in 1983 . The firm started with five partners and seven associates , and has expanded to over 80 attorneys . Hochuli specializes in civil litigation in the areas of Bad Faith and Extra @-@ Contractual Liability , Complex Litigation , Insurance Coverage and Fraud , Legal Malpractice and Professional Liability , Product Liability Defense , Trucking and Transportation Industry Defense , and Wrongful Death and Personal Injury Defense , and claims to be involved in 200 cases at any time . Hochuli finds interest in trying cases , calling it an " adrenaline rush " and adding , " You love that challenge -- the competition , if you will -- of it . It 's a game . It 's obviously a very important game to people , and I don 't mean to diminish the importance of it . ... You have to follow these rules , and there 's a win @-@ or @-@ lose outcome . You 're on a stage . "
He is admitted to practice in Arizona state and federal courts and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . His recognition as an attorney includes being named Best Lawyers in America since 2003 and Southwest Super Lawyers in 2007 . Super Lawyers includes only the top five percent of lawyers in a state based on point totals , as chosen by peers and through independent research by Law & Politics .
Comparing his law and officiating professions , he says " A trial is nothing , pressure @-@ wise , compared to the NFL . … I have that long [ snaps his fingers ] to make a decision with a million people watching and second @-@ guessing ( by video ) in slow @-@ motion . You 've got to be right or wrong . I love the satisfaction when you are right — and the agony when you are wrong . " Hochuli finds similarities between the football field and courtroom saying , " On the football field , people like that I 'm in charge and know what I 'm doing , but a lot of the time , it 's just appearance . I 'm going to sell you on my decision . It 's the same in the courtroom . You don 't stand in front of a jury and say , ' I think my client is innocent . ' You say , ' We 're right ! ' "
= = Officiating career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Hochuli began officiating Pop Warner football games as a law student to earn additional income , which was suggested by one of his former high school coaches as " a way to stay in touch with the game " . His interest in officiating carried over into baseball , where he was a Little League Baseball umpire from 1970 to 1973 . Progressing to the high school level in 1973 , he focused on football , and officiated games in the Tucson area until 1985 . In addition to high school officiating , he worked college football games for the Big Sky Conference and Pacific @-@ 10 Conference as a line judge during the 1980s .
= = = NFL career = = =
= = = = Rise to refereedom = = = =
Hochuli was hired by the NFL in 1990 as a back judge ( now field judge ) after applying to the league before the 1989 NFL season . His first game in the league was on August 11 , 1990 , at Lambeau Field in Green Bay , Wisconsin . During his first two years in the league , he was assigned to the officiating crew headed by referee Howard Roe . To gain additional experience as a back judge and eventually a referee , Hochuli participated in the NFL 's partnership with the World League of American Football ( WLAF ) , a spring developmental league , in 1991 and 1992 . Using his experience in the WLAF , as well as the organization , precision , and analytical skills he learned while working under Roe 's guidance , Hochuli desired to become a crew chief in the NFL . He was promoted to referee in 1992 when longtime referee Stan Kemp was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig 's Disease and forced to retire . Hochuli had worked a pre @-@ season game that year in Tokyo , Japan , as a back judge when he received a telephone call following the game from then @-@ Senior Director of Officiating , Jerry Seeman . Seeman asked Hochuli to work as referee for the first time when the Denver Broncos hosted the Cincinnati Bengals in a pre @-@ season game .
Since becoming a referee , Hochuli headed the officiating crews for Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXVIII , and he was selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XXXI , Super Bowl XXXVII , and Super Bowl XXXIX . In addition to working two Super Bowls , he has officiated five conference championship games as of the start of the 2007 NFL season . Every officiating game performance is graded by the league each week . These grades determine which officials are assigned playoff games , as well as the Super Bowl . Hochuli credits his mentor , Jerry Markbreit , a four @-@ time Super Bowl referee , as the greatest influence on his career .
= = = = 2001 officials ' strike = = = =
Hochuli has served as the head of the NFL Referees Association , the union which represents NFL game officials . The union was responsible for negotiating a new contract for the officials prior to the 2001 NFL season . At the time , salaries ranged from a first @-@ year official earning US $ 1 @,@ 431 a game to a veteran official with twenty years of experience making $ 4 @,@ 330 a game . Officials were looking for a 400 percent increase in salary while the league was offering just 40 percent . During the negotiations , Hochuli believed the issue in finding a resolution was to convince the league that officials are full @-@ time employees .
At the start of the season , officials had rejected a league offer of a 60 percent immediate increase in salary , followed by an 85 percent salary increase in 2002 , and a 100 percent increase in 2003 . For the first time in league history , replacement officials were used during the regular season . Hochuli had distributed an e @-@ mail to 1 @,@ 200 potential replacement officials warning them that " Working as a scab will actually hurt and likely kill any chances you would have of ever getting into the NFL . " He later regretted sending the letter to college football officials across the United States . The stalemate between the union and the league ended on September 19 , 2001 , when officials agreed to a six @-@ year deal from the league with an immediate increase in salary of 50 percent with a raise each year . Officials had been locked out since the final week of pre @-@ season games that year and returned to work on September 23 , 2001 , when the league resumed games following the September 11 , 2001 attacks .
= = = = Notable games = = = =
Hochuli has worked memorable games throughout his career . In his second year as referee , he worked the 1993 Thanksgiving Day game between the Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins in Irving , Texas . During the final moments of the game , Miami placekicker Pete Stoyanovich had a field goal attempt blocked . The Cowboys ' Leon Lett inadvertently touched the loose ball before the Dolphins ' Jeff Dellenbach pounced on it . At the time , Hochuli had " no idea " what happened during the play and had to confer with three other officials to piece together the sequence of events . With the information gathered from the officials , he ruled that Miami retained possession of the football . Stoyanovich booted the ensuing winning field goal for the Miami win .
Hochuli was referee for 1995 's meeting between the Cowboys and the Eagles at Veteran 's Stadium ; the game saw the Cowboys try a 4th down conversion on their own 30 @-@ yard line ; the play was stopped but Hochuli blew the play dead saying the two @-@ minute warning had hit ; replay , though , indicated the play got off before the whistle blew . The Cowboys got another shot , tried another 4th down conversion , and it was stopped again . The Eagles kicked the winning field goal for the 20 @-@ 17 win .
Hochuli was referee for a November 1998 Monday Night Football meeting between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins . A last @-@ second pass from Dan Marino was caught at midfield ; Jimmy Johnson claimed one second was left on the game clock but Hochuli ruled the clock had expired and the game was thus over .
Hochuli was referee for the 1999 AFC Divisional Playoff between the Miami Dolphins and Jacksonville Jaguars ; it was the final game in the careers of Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson as the Jaguars won 62 @-@ 7 .
Hochuli was referee in the 2003 Divisional Playoffs between the Packers and the Eagles .
On October 2 , 2005 , he officiated the first regular @-@ season NFL game played outside the United States when the Arizona Cardinals played the San Francisco 49ers in Mexico City , Mexico as part of the league 's " Fútbol Americano " marketing campaign . On the first penalty announcement of the game , Hochuli gave the explanation in Spanish to pay respect to the host city and country .
Hochuli officiated the first regular season game at University of Phoenix Stadium on September 10 , 2006 , when the Cardinals hosted the 49ers .
He was the referee for the game between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers , played December 17 , 2006 , that included Green Bay quarterback Brett Favre becoming the all @-@ time leader for pass completions among quarterbacks in the NFL . Favre was unaware that his 4 @,@ 968 pass completions were a record until he was informed during the game by Hochuli . Hochuli was the referee again for another Favre record @-@ breaking moment when Favre threw his 421st touchdown pass of his career on September 30 , 2007 at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis , Minnesota to break the record previously held by Dan Marino . He also reffed the Week 17 game in 2008 in which the Lions became the first , and as of today , the only team in the NFL to finish 0 @-@ 16 .
One of Hochuli 's notable explanations came during a 2007 regular season game between the San Diego Chargers and New England Patriots . While nullifying a holding infraction , he announced through his microphone , " There was no foul on the play . It was not a hold . The defender was just overpowered . "
= = = = Controversial calls = = = =
On September 14 , 2008 , Hochuli officiated a now @-@ infamous game between the San Diego Chargers and the Denver Broncos , which became notable for a highly controversial call near the end of regulation play . The call came with 1 : 17 left in the game , while Denver was in possession of the ball at the San Diego one @-@ yard line , trailing the Chargers by seven points . On a second @-@ down play , Denver quarterback Jay Cutler fumbled the ball , and it was recovered by San Diego linebacker Tim Dobbins . Ed Hochuli blew his whistle during the play , signaling that the play was dead and ruling an incomplete pass . Hochuli admitted his mistake and spotted the ball at the point of the fumble , but could not award possession to San Diego , and the play was not reviewable under then @-@ current instant replay rules . Chargers head coach Norv Turner later said after the game , " Ed came over to me and said he blew it . And that to me is not acceptable . " Hochuli responded to the situation , writing , " Affecting the outcome of a game is a devastating feeling . Officials strive for perfection – I failed miserably . " Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones was even fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for publicly criticizing Hochuli . The NFL passed a rule the following offseason allowing such plays to be reviewable under the instant replay rule for the 2009 NFL season . Speaking to Referee in November 2009 , Hochuli told the magazine , " It was really an easy play . I ’ ve thought many times why I did what I did . The best explanation is it was almost like dyslexia . I realized it was a fumble and did the wrong thing . I realized I was wrong but there was nothing I could do about it . "
= = Celebrity = =
Hochuli 's presence on the football field has created a cult following . His rise in popularity is believed to have been started by Phil Simms , a former NFL quarterback and current color commentator for the NFL on CBS , who made reference to the size of Hochuli 's arms during a telecast . On the Internet , websites that sell Hochuli merchandise as well as blogs with his namesake exist . He is often affectionately referred to as " Hochules " , a combination of his last name and " Hercules " , in homage to his large biceps . While he is aware of his celebrity status , Hochuli does not understand it . He said in a USA Today interview , " I get a kick out of the notoriety , because I 'm just a referee . I 'm not the players . The players are the game . They 're what this is all about . I get notoriety because I explain things , and I get notoriety because I have a decent physique , which is funny because I 'm a shrimp , a peewee compared to those players . Neither one of those things has anything to do with whether I 'm a good referee . " His recognition extends to the streets , in airports , and in the courtroom . He has been approached by notable athletes such as former National Basketball Association ( NBA ) player Charles Barkley at the airport . " It never ceases to amaze me , " Hochuli told the Arizona Daily Star . " The number of people that will just come up to me and recognize me . " He appreciates the attention , saying , " I enjoy the fact that there are people who like me as a referee . I hear from a lot of people and I enjoy that . Like anybody , I like praise . Probably because of my personality , I thrive on that more than other people . "
Hochuli 's career as an NFL official has been chronicled on the NFL Network 's Six Days to Sunday in 2005 . The half @-@ hour television program detailed the game preparations that Hochuli goes through from Monday to Saturday during the season . This preparation work includes fifteen hours of video tape game review , a " couple hours " completing administrative tasks for the NFL , reading the rulebook , taking a weekly written exam on rules , and communicating with league supervisors .
Hochuli 's celebrity status off the field includes being mentioned on the " Top Ten List " during the January 29 , 2002 edition of the Late Show with David Letterman . His likeness appears in the Madden NFL video game franchise starting with Madden NFL 06 .
Hochuli appeared on the cover of the October 8 , 2012 issue of Sports Illustrated .
= Worship Music ( album ) =
Worship Music is the tenth studio album by American thrash metal band Anthrax . The album was released on September 12 , 2011 internationally , and on September 13 in the United States . It was the band 's first album of original material since We 've Come for You All ( 2003 ) , the first full @-@ length Anthrax album since 1990 's Persistence of Time to feature vocalist Joey Belladonna , and the final album with guitarist Rob Caggiano prior to his departure in January 2013 .
The album 's creation was a lengthy process , with work beginning as early as November 2008 . The album was delayed due to issues with the departure of vocalist Dan Nelson , and the re @-@ joining of John Bush who ultimately decided not to commit to the album . The band eventually reunited with Belladonna , and finished recording in April 2011 . Worship Music was positively received upon release , with critics describing it as " fresh and eruptive as ever " and qualified it as a return to form for the band . The record debuted at number 12 in the United States , their highest chart position since Sound of White Noise ( 1993 ) .
= = Background = =
In the December 2008 edition of his monthly SuicideGirls column , Food Coma , guitarist Scott Ian revealed that he had been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album since November 4 . Ian went on to say that drums , bass , and rhythm guitar had been arranged for 19 tracks , and that the process of recording the vocals had begun . " We should be mixing at the end of January and soon after that giving birth to a really pissed off , loud , fast and heavy child . " In a subsequent May 2009 Food Coma column , Ian announced that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman , whose previous credits include albums by Evanescence and Slipknot .
The album was initially scheduled to feature Dan Nelson on vocals . However , following the events later that year , he was no longer a member of the band . When asked what would happen to the completed studio album featuring Nelson 's vocals , Ian said : " Until we have a new singer , I can 't tell you what will happen to the record . We 'll probably change a few things on it , including the vocals . " Ian also indicated that the album 's release could be delayed until 2010 . It was assumed that John Bush was going to record new vocals for the album after his reunion with the band . However , this did not happen . In an interview at the time , Bush said he was trying to re @-@ record vocals for some of the songs that had already been recorded .
Bush eventually decided that he did not want to recommit to Anthrax full @-@ time and left the group . As a result , the band reunited with Joey Belladonna . Following shows during the summer and fall of 2010 , the band returned to the studio . Some of the completed songs were left as is , adding Belladonna 's vocals , others were re – written , and some entirely new songs were composed with Belladonna . Drummer Charlie Benante suggested the album 's title after the eponymous TV show . Although Ian stated that the album name could be changed , this turned out not to be the case . In October 2010 at Nassau Coliseum , Anthrax performed the song " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " for the first time . It was at this point that Ian said fans should expect the new record in late 2011 .
In December , Ian stated that the band had almost completed the new album and only had to re @-@ record two or three tracks . Ian further confirmed that all the material would feature vocals by Belladonna . Noisecreep reported that Worship Music had been shelved until Belladonna completed new vocal tracks . The band finished recording Worship Music in April 2011 , and called it their " most emotional album " . " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " was released as the lead single on June 24 , 2011 . It was released for free download as a way of saying " thank you " to fans ' loyalty in waiting in anticipation for the album . Three days later , Ian announced that the band had started the mastering process for the upcoming album . The cover art was revealed the following month .
= = Lyrics = =
The songs " Earth on Hell " and " Revolution Screams " refer to democracy in the United States and around the world . According to Ian , at the time of the album 's release , these songs were " very much about people taking the power back " . Although the songs were written long before , he cited the 2011 Egyptian revolution and Occupy Wall Street demonstrations as examples of this phenomenon coming to pass . " The Devil You Know " , despite the line " Let the right one in " and the band 's history of using horror stories as subject matter , was not a reference to the 2004 Swedish vampire novel Let the Right One In ; it was about World War II veterans . " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " is about a zombie apocalypse , and " In the End " was written as a tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio , an inspiration for the band , and Dimebag Darrell , a friend and collaborator on three Anthrax albums . " Judas Priest " was named as a tribute to the heavy metal band Judas Priest , and contains a bridge that references several well @-@ known Priest songs . " The Constant " is about the episode of the 2004 television series Lost of the same name , where a character travels through time until he finds his " constant " .
" I 'm Alive " was written when Dan Nelson was member of the band . Anthrax premiered the song live in 2008 , though it was titled " Vampires " at that time . It is notable for its tribal @-@ sounding introduction with clean guitars backed up by a marching drum beat , before taking off into a heavy riff and gradually breaking into a melodic chorus . In an album preview by Blabbermouth.net , " I 'm Alive " was described as " beautiful and grand with a build that demands audience participation " . The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance , the band 's fourth Grammy nomination .
= = Release = =
Worship Music was internationally released on September 12 , 2011 , and on September 13 in the United States . It sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release and debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , the third highest position of their career ( the second being its successor , For All Kings , which charted at number 9 ) and the highest since Sound of White Noise ( 1993 ) , which peaked at number 7 . The band 's previous studio album , We 've Come for You All ( 2003 ) , opened with just under 10 @,@ 000 units to debut at number 122 . The album charted at number 13 in Germany and managed to break into the top 10 in Finland , reaching number 6 . By September 2012 , Worship Music sold about 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
When asked about a possible follow @-@ up to Worship Music , bassist Frank Bello said that the band intended to re @-@ release Worship Music with several bonus tracks . The bonus tracks were set to include covers of Rush and Boston songs . Bello stated that the plan was to release the reissue in the fall of 2012 . A few days later , band members announced that five covers were included : " Anthem " by Rush , " Smokin ' " by Boston , " Neon Knights " by Black Sabbath , " T.N.T. " by AC / DC , and " Keep on Runnin ' " by Journey . Although Scott Ian expected the reissue to be released by the end of the year , it was eventually postponed for 2013 . The special edition of Worship Music was released on March 22 , 2013 by Nuclear Blast . It consists of the original album and a bonus EP of cover songs , Anthems , which was also released separately on the same day in Europe , and three days earlier in North America .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the album was generally positive . AllMusic 's Greg Prato noted that in spite of the issues surrounding the departure of Dan Nelson , the album fits together " seamlessly " and called it the group 's finest studio recording since Persistence of Time ( 1990 ) . Jason Heller of The A.V. Club praised the album for being rid of the " nü @-@ metal stench " of the previous record and the " all @-@ around patchiness " from the other John Bush @-@ era albums . Heller noted that it brought the band back into the " youthful dynamic " . Classic Rock journalist Malcolm Dome observed that musically , Worship Music is a mixture of " the grinding power " of We 've Come for You All and the more " clear @-@ cut melodic approach " of Among The Living ( 1987 ) , resulting in an album that is " violently metallic yet sophisticated " .
Michael Christopher of The Boston Phoenix commented that Anthrax has learned from its past mistakes in making the album . He observed that the humor that characterized the previous albums was still present , and called this album a " fresh fistful of metal " . Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times compared Worship Music to Metallica 's Lulu , saying that Anthrax , unlike Metallica , opted to " reclaim ground " dominated by younger bands . Mark Fisher , writing in Metal Forces , highlighted the guitar performance , saying it reminded him of the sound Anthrax is mostly associated with . Although Fisher preferred the albums with John Bush on vocals , he remarked that Worship Music is a fine recording with a career @-@ defining performance by Joey Belladonna . Chad Bowar from About.com also praised Belladonna 's performance , noting that the vocal delivery was filled with angst and emotion . He opined that Anthrax sounded rejuvenated and qualified the album as a return to form .
Chad Grischow of IGN commented that the album sounded " as fresh and eruptive as ever " with the exception of " Crawl " , the " rare misstep on the otherwise fantastic album " . Loudwire 's Matthew Wilkening said that Belladonna 's 20 @-@ year absence from the band hasn 't affected the band 's chemistry at all . According to him , the album represented the maturity and musical growth of the band . PopMatters 's Chris Colgan described the music as a combination of the " later material with shades of their thrash beginnings " . He believes this wasn 't " the glorious comeback " for Anthrax , but called it a solid album with signs of progress for the group . Metal Rules chose Worship Music the best metal album of 2011 .
= = Touring = =
Anthrax spent the following two years touring in support of Worship Music . The band started the tour with the " big four " shows alongside Metallica , Slayer , and Megadeth , which took place in the summer of 2011 . Due to the birth of his child , Ian missed the European leg of the tour ; Sepultura guitarist Andreas Kisser acted as a fill @-@ in . Ian was able to make an appearance in Milan , Italy , joining the band and Kisser for half of the setlist . Anthrax continued touring in late 2011 . In October and November , Anthrax embarked on a 23 date US tour co @-@ headlining with Testament and openers Death Angel . These three bands resumed performing together in early 2012 . The trio announced further dates in the US and Canada in the fall of 2012 , with Testament promoting their then @-@ new album , Dark Roots of Earth . Anthrax teamed up with Motörhead for a ten show UK tour in November . In January 2013 , it was announced that Caggiano had left the band . He was replaced by Shadows Fall guitarist Jonathan Donais .
Anthrax was announced as the headliner for the third annual Metal Alliance US tour , which endured through March and April 2013 . Supporting acts included Exodus , Municipal Waste , and Holy Grail , with the headliner Anthrax performing Among the Living in its entirety . Charlie Benante has been taking time off from gigs outside the US because of personal reasons . His place was filled in by drummer Jon Dette during these shows . The group filmed their performance at Santiago , Chile , with Benante on drums , for the DVD album Chile On Hell . The tour ended with a show at San Bernardino , California , at the two @-@ year anniversary of the album 's release . After finishing the tour , the band took a short break before reconvening to start work on a new album .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Anthrax ( except " New Noise " , written and originally performed by Refused ) . Tracks 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 11 , 12 and 13 co @-@ written by Dan Nelson .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Anthrax = = =
Joey Belladonna – lead vocals
Rob Caggiano – lead guitar , backing vocals
Scott Ian – rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Frank Bello – bass , backing vocals
Charlie Benante – drums
= = = Additional musicians = = =
Dan Nelson - co author on tracks 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 @,@ 8 @,@ 11 @,@ 12
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ː / ( ' art ' ) , bailiú / bˠaˈlʲuː / ( ' gather ' ) . In Ulster , long vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened but are not reduced to schwa , e.g. cailín / ˈkalʲinʲ / ( ' girl ' ) , galún / ˈɡalˠunˠ / ( ' gallon ' ) .
= = Processes relating to / x / = =
The voiceless velar fricative / x / , spelled 〈 ch 〉 , is associated with some unusual patterns in many dialects of Irish . For one thing , its presence after the vowel / a / triggers behavior atypical of short vowels ; for another , / x / and its slender counterpart / ç / interchange with the voiceless glottal fricative / h / in a variety of ways , and can sometimes be deleted altogether .
= = = Behavior of / ax / = = =
In Munster , stress is attracted to / a / in the second syllable of a word if it is followed by / x / , provided the first syllable ( and third syllable , if there is one ) contains a short vowel ( Ó Cuív 1944 : 66 ) . Examples include bacach / bˠəˈkax / ( ' lame ' ) and slisneacha / ʃlʲəˈʃnʲaxə / ( ' chips ' ) . However , if the first or third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong , stress is attracted to that syllable instead , and the / a / before / x / is reduced to / ə / as normal , e.g. éisteacht / ˈeːʃtʲəxt ̪ ˠ / ( ' listen ' ) , moltachán / ˌmˠɔl ̪ ˠhəˈxaːn ̪ ˠ / 5 ( ' wether ' ) .
In Ulster , unstressed / a / before / x / is not reduced to schwa , e.g. eallach / ˈal ̪ ˠax / ( ' cattle ' ) .
= = = Interaction of / x / and / ç / with / h / = = =
In many dialects of Irish , the voiceless dorsal fricatives / x / and / ç / alternate with / h / under a variety of circumstances . For example , as the lenition of / tʲ / and / ʃ / , / h / is replaced by / ç / before back vowels , e.g. thabharfainn / ˈçuːɾˠhən ̠ ʲ / 6 ( ' I would give ' ) , sheoil / çoːlʲ / ( ' drove ' ) . In Munster , / ç / becomes / h / after a vowel , e.g. fiche / ˈfʲɪhə / ( ' twenty ' ) . In Ring , / h / becomes / x / at the end of a monosyllabic word , e.g. scáth / sˠkaːx / ( ' fear ' ) . In some Ulster dialects , such as that of Tory Island , / x / can be replaced by / h / , e.g. cha / ha / ( ' not ' ) , and can even be deleted word @-@ finally , as in santach / ˈsˠan ̪ ˠt ̪ ˠah ~ ˈsˠan ̪ ˠt ̪ ˠa / ( ' greedy ' ) In other Ulster dialects , / x / can be deleted before / t ̪ ˠ / as well , e.g. seacht / ʃat ̪ ˠ / ( ' seven ' ) .
= = Samples = =
The following table shows some sample sentences from the Aran dialect .
The first eight chapters of Peadar Ua Laoghaire 's autobiography Mo Sgéal Féin at Wikisource include recordings of the text being read by a native speaker of Muskerry ( Munster ) Irish .
= = Comparison with other languages = =
= = = Scottish Gaelic and Manx = = =
Many of the phonological processes found in Irish are found also in its nearest relatives , Scottish Gaelic and Manx . For example , both languages contrast " broad " and " slender " consonants , but only at the coronal and dorsal places of articulation ; both Scottish Gaelic and Manx have lost the distinction in labial consonants . The change of / kn ̪ ˠ ɡn ̪ ˠ mn ̪ ˠ / etc. to / kɾˠ ɡɾˠ mɾˠ / etc. is found in Manx and in most Scottish dialects . Evidence from written manuscripts suggests it had begun in Scottish Gaelic as early as the sixteenth century and was well established in both Scottish Gaelic and Manx by the late 17th to early 18th century . Lengthening or diphthongization of vowels before fortis sonorants is also found in both languages . The stress pattern of Scottish Gaelic is the same as that in Connacht and Ulster Irish , while in Manx , stress is attracted to long vowels and diphthongs in noninitial syllables , but under more restricted conditions than in Munster .
Manx and many dialects of Scottish Gaelic share with Ulster Irish the property of not reducing unstressed / a / to / ə / before / x / .
= = = Hiberno @-@ English = = =
Irish pronunciation has had a significant influence on the features of Hiberno @-@ English . For example , most of the vowels of Hiberno @-@ English ( with the exception of / ɔɪ / ) correspond to vowel phones ( which may or may not be phonemes ) of Irish . The Irish stops [ t ̪ ˠ d ̪ ˠ ] have been taken over ( though without distinctive velarization ) into Hiberno @-@ English as common realizations of the English phonemes / θ ð / . Hiberno @-@ English also allows / h / to appear in positions where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English , such as before an unstressed vowel ( e.g. Haughey / ˈhɑhi / ) and at the end of a word ( e.g. McGrath / məˈɡɹæh / ) . Another feature of Hiberno @-@ English pronunciation taken from Irish is epenthesis in words like film [ ˈfɪləm ] and form [ ˈfɒːɹəm ] .
= Kiliaen van Rensselaer ( merchant ) =
Kiliaen van Rensselaer ( Dutch : [ ˈkɪlijaːn vɑn ˈrɛnsəlaːr ] ; 1586 , Hasselt , Overijssel – buried 7 October 1643 , Amsterdam ) was a Dutch diamond and pearl merchant from Amsterdam who was one of the founders and directors of the Dutch West India Company , being instrumental in the establishment of New Netherland .
He was one of the first patroons , but the only one to become successful . He founded the Manor of Rensselaerswyck in what is now mainly New York 's Capital District . His estate remained throughout the Dutch and British colonial era and the American Revolution as a legal entity until the 1840s . Eventually , that came to an end during the Anti @-@ Rent War .
Kiliaen van Rensselaer was born in the province of Overijssel to Hendrick Kiliaensz van Rensselaer , a soldier from Nijkerk in the States army of the duke of Upper Saxony , and Maria Pafraet , descendant of a well @-@ known printers ' dynasty . To keep from risking his life in the army like his father , he apprenticed under his uncle , a successful Amsterdam jeweler . He too became a successful jeweler and was one of the first subscribers to the Dutch West India Company upon its conception .
The concept of patroonships may have been Kiliaen van Rensselaer 's ; he was likely the leading proponent of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions , the document that established the patroon system . His patroonship became the most successful to exist , making full use of his business tactics and advantages , such as his connection to the Director of New Netherland , his confidantes at the West India Company , and his extended family members who were eager to emigrate to a better place to farm . Van Rensselaer married twice and had at least eleven children . When he died sometime after 1642 , two succeeded him as patroons of Rensselaerswyck .
Van Rensselaer had a marked effect on the history of the United States . The American van Rensselaers all descend from Kiliaen 's son Jeremias and the subsequent Van Rensselaer family is noted for being a very powerful and wealthy influence in the history of New York and the Northeastern United States , producing multiple State Legislators , Congressmen , and two Lieutenant Governors in New York .
= = Early years = =
Kiliaen van Rensselaer was born in Hasselt , Overijssel , Netherlands in 1586 . The exact day of his birth is unknown . He was the son of Hendrick van Rensselaer and Maria Pafraet . His father was a captain in the Dutch army until his death at the Siege of Ostend in early June 1602 .
With his father usually not home ( and eventually meeting his death ) because of a military career , van Rensselaer 's mother sent him to apprentice with his uncle , Wolfert van Bijler , a jeweler and diamond merchant . At the time , the gem trade was a prosperous enterprise to join , being a well @-@ developed craft . In those days , the diamond trade was nearly always combined with the trade in pearls , other articles of luxury , and rarities of every description . Dutch jewelers found a ready market for their valuable wares at the Dutch imperial court and the smaller German courts . This realm of work promoted van Rensselaer to a life of economic success .
Much of van Rensselaer 's early life is unknown to today 's historians , though in March 1608 it has been recorded that he was taking care of some business of van Bijler in Prague . It seems van Bijler gradually retired from his business , leaving it in the control of van Rensselaer . During his tenure at the helm of his uncle 's business , van Rensselaer proposed a merger with the firm of Jan van Wely , son of one of van Bijler 's sisters , who had an equally successful jewelry business . The firms combined under the name of Jan van Wely & Co. in February 1614 . Van Rensselaer 's name was not included in the name of the new company , since he contributed only one eighth of the investment capital , whereas van Wely contributed half ( 192 @,@ 000 guilders ) . In 1616 , van Wely was called on by Prince Maurice to meet at the Hague for a sale in jewels . He was murdered while waiting to meet with the Prince . The firm 's contract stipulated that at the death of Jan van Wely , the remaining members of the firm should continue the partnership for another six years . Van Wely 's murder , therefore , caused no change in the business , but it seems that at the expiration of that time , van Rensselaer began again on his own account , founding Kiliaen van Rensselaer & Co. with partner Jacques I 'Hermite .
= = Director of the Dutch West India Company = =
Some of van Rensselaer 's success as a jewel merchant came about due to trade made possible by the Dutch East India Company . The practical spirit of the Dutch merchant could not fail to recognize that the way to riches was through trade with the West Indies and Africa . During the Twelve Years ' Truce , Dutch merchants had sailed unmolested to the West Indies but also received no letters of marque to take prizes from the enemy .
Before the Eighty Years ' War began , people realized that the West Indies trade might bring great prosperity to the country and that more power might be developed against Spain . Rather than travel to the area singly on an armed ship or in the company of a few other vessels , traders could do business in the manner of the large and prosperous East India Company . A company for carrying on commerce in the West Indies and Africa could be organized , which might , like the sister company , act as the war @-@ waging power in those parts and be supported by the treasury , ships , and troops of the United Netherlands .
After long years of preparation , the Charter of the Dutch West India Company was granted by the States General on June 3 , 1621 , and the subscription list was opened . It is known that subscriptions did not come in very rapidly at first due to the exclusion of the salt trade from the charter . This barrier was overcome in a later amendment to the Charter , and the subscription rate increased .
With a capital of seven million florins , the West India Company was granted exclusive authority and trade privileges in the Dutch possessions of the two Americas , as well as the coast of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope . The objects of its creation were to establish an efficient and aggressive Atlantic maritime power in the struggle with Spain , as well as to colonize , develop , and rule the Dutch American dependencies — particularly New Netherland ( the modern states of New York and New Jersey ) , discovered by Henry Hudson in 1609 .
Van Rensselaer was one of the first subscribers to the West India Company . As with the other subscribers , he contributed 6000 guilders to be a member of one of its chambers . Having paid his way , he was welcomed to the Chamber of Amsterdam , one of five Chambers of the West India Company , each located in a principal Dutch city . The Chamber of Amsterdam was the largest with twenty members , mainly due to the city 's population , and represented four ninths of the management of the West India Company .
Due to the practical limitations of meetings with 74 members on a regular basis ( the total number of members from the five Chambers ) , the Charter called for a board of directors comprising nineteen members of the five Chambers . Van Rensselaer was chosen a member of this College of XIX , as it was called . It is said that care was exercised in the selection of the directors of each chamber , and only men of wealth and the highest known integrity were eligible for the trust . Van Rensselaer was apparently known as an unusually clear @-@ headed man and an able and practical merchant who did not limit himself to his own branch of trade . These qualities presumably garnered the trust needed to be elected to the College of XIX .
In its role supporting colonization of New Netherland , the West India Company had an executive board of nine members from the College of XIX to manage the concerns of their colony . Van Rensselaer was also a member of this group . In the early career of the Company , van Rensselaer was one of its mainstays , placing several of his vessels at its disposal and twice advancing money to save its credit . His name is conspicuously identified with all its measures of policy , including the original settlement of Manhattan Island , New Amsterdam .
= = Patroon = =
Unfortunately for the West India Company , the infant colony of New Netherland languished , the cautious Dutch people having very little inclination to emigrate to wild and uncultivated lands in which no substantial inducements were present . While the economic situation of the colony in the late 1620s could be considered a relatively good showing for a colony only newly started in a wilderness , its slow success was hardly sufficient to create much excitement among the directors of the West India Company . Within a few years , the Company realized that special measures which would afford a stimulus to colonization were indispensable .
It was for these reasons that the Company proposed the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions , which the States General ratified on June 7 , 1629 . This document was created to encourage settlement of New Netherland through the establishment of feudal patroonships purchased and supplied by members of the West India Company . With a total of 31 articles , the document spells out many requirements of these patroons , primarily stating that each patroon was required to purchase the land from the local Indians , and inhabit the land with 50 adults within four years , with at least one quarter arriving within one year . In return , the patroons were able to own the land and pass it to succeeding generations as a perpetual fiefdom , as well as receive protection and free African slaves from the Company .
It is believed that the system of patroonships was originally suggested by van Rensselaer himself . He was reportedly one of the first of the Company to perceive that the building up of New Netherland could not be carried on without labor , and that labor could not be procured without permanent settlers . " Open up the country with agriculture : that must be our first step , " was his urgent advice . The Company was not inclined to involve itself in further expense for colonization , and matters threatened to come to a halt , when someone — very likely van Rensselaer himself — evolved the plan of granting large estates to men willing to pay the cost of settling and operating them .
Van Rensselaer was quick to take part in the new endeavor : on January 13 , 1629 , he sent notification to the Directors of the Company that he , in conjunction with fellow Company members Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert , had sent Gillis Houset and Jacob Jansz Cuyper to determine satisfactory locations for settlement . This took place even before the Charter was ratified , but was done in accordance with a draft of the Charter from March 28 , 1628 .
The report of the agents sent out had not been unfavorable . They had selected an extensive domain on both sides of the North River in the vicinity of Fort Orange for van Rensselaer , which extended 24 miles ( 39 km ) in length , 40 miles ( 64 km ) in breadth and covered an area of almost 1 @,@ 000 square miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km2 ) . The location relative to the fort was chosen with care — in case of danger , it would be a sure point of defense or retreat , and its garrison would be very likely to intimidate the natives . In this manner van Rensselaer employed the troops of the Company more or less as coadjutors to his colonizing plans . Furthermore , the fort would become an easily reached marketplace for the colonists , where they could maintain communication with the outside world . For that reason , van Rensselaer diligently maintained friendly relations with the commander of the garrison and the authorities within the walls .
His first act was to obtain possession of the land for his colony from the Mohican , the original owners , who had never been willing to sell their territory — not even the ground of Fort Orange . However , after they had been involved in a bloody war with their neighbors , the Mohawks , and were defeated in 1629 , they were found ready to dispose of their possessions . In April , two officers of the West India Company in Fort Orange , Sebastiaen Jansen Krol and Dirk Cornelisz Duyster , specially empowered by writing of January 12 , 1630 , purchased a large tract of land on the west side of the North River . Gillis Houset , one of the men initially sent to determine a settlement location , increased this territory in August by adding tracts of land on the right bank , located above and below Fort Orange , and also by adding land on the east side of the river . After the initial expansion , the territory was later further extended by deeds of purchase in May 1631 and April 1637 .
The most troubling aspect of colonizing the patroonships was enlisting the required number of colonists , so that the failure of many of the other proposed patroonships may in part be attributed to this fact . The patroons still dealt with the issues of a cautious people not caring to venture to an undeveloped world . As an owner of extensive lands in the sandy Gooi and of family estates in the not much more fruitful Veluwe , where several relatives were landowners and struggled to subsist on meager means , van Rensselaer had an advantage — his agents needed to employ little persuasion to induce some Gooiers and Veluwers to migrate to more fruitful regions where the farming would be less difficult . In addition , he could depend on the indirect support of his nephew Wouter van Twiller , who had been appointed Director of New Netherland in 1632 , and with whom he engaged in friendly correspondence at a time when Dutch directors opposed the patroons in every way . In 1634 he collaborated with Michael Reyniersz Pauw , the patroon of Pavonia on shipping cattle .
With that , van Rensselaer shipped out 37 immigrants on his ship Rensselaerswijck from Amsterdam on September 26 , 1636 . The vessel arrived on April 7 , 1637 . The population rose to more than 100 by 1642 and doubled that in the next ten years . The village of Beverwyck alone had more than 1000 inhabitants by 1660 and is said to have become urban by this point .
The good understanding between the patroons of the Amsterdam Chamber left nothing to be desired ; Burgh , Godyn , Blommaert , and van Rensselaer , before signifying to the directors their willingness to start colonies , made an agreement to work the projected colonies on joint account , each under the direction of one of them . Three of them would have a one @-@ fifth share in each colony , while the fourth would receive the remaining two fifths , taking the responsibility for its management and exercising patroon rights .
Only Rensselaerswyck was a successful patroonship . Van Rensselaer successively purchased Godyn 's share in the patroonship from his heirs , so that van Rensslaer soon became the owner of three fifths . The two other shares remained partly in the hands of Blommaert and partly in the hands of others : Adam Bessels owning Blommaert 's fifth , while Johannes de Laet and Toussaint Muyssaert split Burgh 's fifth between them .
Letters saved by the van Rensselaer family show that Kiliaen van Rensselaer never visited his colony in person .
= = Personal life = =
= = = First marriage = = =
Van Rensselaer married his cousin Hillegonda van Bijler , on July 23 , 1616 . As the sole heir of her father Wolfert van Bijler ( or Byllaer ) , she inherited 12 @,@ 000 guilders . Hillegonda van Bijler was born around 1598 , making her near the age of 18 at the time of her marriage to van Rensselaer . The same year , the young husband purchased a couple of lots on the east side of the recently dug Keizersgracht in Amsterdam , between Marten and Wolven streets , where he built a house .
Van Rensselaer and van Bijler had three children . The first was Hendrick , Kiliaen 's first son , believed to have died in childhood . Johan , their second son , was baptized on September 4 , 1625 . Maria , their last child , was buried on January 4 , 1627 . She died as an infant .
Hillegonda van Bijler is presumed to have died in late December 1626 , since she was buried on January 1 , 1627 , three days before her third child Maria . She was around the age of 28 and the couple had been married less than eleven years .
= = = Second marriage = = =
Van Rensselaer re @-@ married on December 14 , 1627 to Anna van Wely , daughter of van Rensselaer 's former business partner . Van Wely was born around 1601 , making her about 26 at the time of the marriage . The couple had eight children between 1629 and 1639 , four boys and four girls :
Van Wely outlived her husband , having died in Amsterdam in 1670 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Little is known about van Rensselaer 's death , and sources even disagree on the year . Van Rensselaer was interred in the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam . His memorial stone states he was buried in the church on October 7 , 1643 .
Van Rensselaer 's son Jeremias is the sole ancestor of the entire van Rensselaer family in America , and only because of Kiliaen 's purchase and development of the land in New Netherland . Included in the subsequent family tree is a very powerful and wealthy group of individuals over the course of American history . Within the paternal ( van Rensselaer ) lineage , the family has produced numerous New York State Assemblymen and Senators , two Lieutenant Governors of New York , and five Congressmen from New York between 1789 and 1842 .
Van Rensselaer is also the source of the names of the town of Rensselaerville , city of Rensselaer , and county of Rensselaer in upstate New York . Additionally , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy was founded in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer III as the Rensselaer School . It is now a world @-@ renowned technical and engineering school . Notably , at the time of his death , Stephen III was worth about $ 10 million ( about $ 88 billion in 2007 dollars ) and is noted as being the tenth @-@ richest American in history .
Rensselaerswyck continued as a legal entity until the mid @-@ 1840s , having survived Dutch and British colonial times , even being given a special patent by Queen Anne to confirm the patroon 's fiefdom upon British takeover of the area . The end of the manor came with the Anti @-@ Rent War , when many tenants rose against the successors of Stephen Van Rensselaer III ( who had died in 1839 ) , having much influence on the Legislature elections of the time , and eventually intimidating the Van Rensselaer family enough to sell off most of its holdings .
The family records , many of which were translated and published in the Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts , reveal the personality of the man who figures prominently in the history of colonization as the founder of the only successful patroonship that ever existed in New Netherland . But beyond the fact that he managed this patroonship and that he was a merchant and director of the West India Company , practically nothing was known until the organization and translation of the family records in the early 1900s ( decade ) .
= FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 =
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 ( Czech : Mistrovství světa v klasickém lyžování Liberec 2009 ) took place 18 February – 1 March 2009 in Liberec , Czech Republic . This was the fourth time these championships were hosted either in the Czech Republic or in Czechoslovakia , having done so at Janské Lázně ( 1925 ) and Vysoké Tatry ( both in 1935 and 1970 ) .
The biggest sports event in the country 's history , it hosted 589 athletes from 61 countries . Women 's ski jumping and Men 's Nordic combined 10 km mass start events debuted at theses championships , both won by Americans Lindsey Van and Todd Lodwick , respectively . Norway won the most medals with twelve and most golds with five , all in the men 's cross @-@ country skiing events , including three from Petter Northug . Germany finished second in the total medal count with nine though none of them were gold ( eight silver and one bronze ) . Finland finished third in the medal count with eight with three golds , all from Aino @-@ Kaisa Saarinen in women 's cross @-@ country skiing . Fourth in total medal count , but second in gold medal count was the United States with six , including four golds , who prior to these championships , had won only three medals in all of the previous championships combined , including four medals in Nordic combined ( Lodwick : two golds , Bill Demong : one gold and one bronze ) . Kikkan Randall became the first American woman to medal in cross country skiing at the world championships with her silver in the individual sprint .
Besides the debut of women 's ski jumping at these championships , the big winner in the jumping events was Austria with three medals and two each for Wolfgang Loitzl and Gregor Schlierenzauer . Adding the 10 km mass start , the Nordic combined format was changed from 7 @.@ 5 km sprint and 15 km individual Gundersen to 10 km individual large hill ( aka Large hill Gundersen ) and 10 km individual normal hill ( aka Normal hill Gundersen ) , respectively . Estonia 's Andrus Veerpalu became the oldest gold medalist at 38 when he won gold in the men 's 15 km event . Despite concern over the lack of snowfall that plagued event preparation prior to the championships , the championships themselves had an abundance of snowfall and wind that caused the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined mass start to be postponed for a day and the ski jumping individual large hill competition to be limited to one jump .
Attendance was between 180 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 , twice the number at the previous championships in Sapporo , but 35 to 40 percent lower than the 2005 championships in Oberstdorf . FIS President Gian Franco Kasper commented at the closing ceremonies of the 15 nations earning medals at these championships , along with the successes of the television coverage by Czech TV and the success of the women 's ski jumping at these championships would pave the way for inclusion into the 2014 Winter Olympics . A broadcast report from the European Broadcasting Union released on 4 June 2009 had total viewership of 666 million global viewers , higher than that of the 2005 championships and the 2001 championships .
= = Competition format changes = =
The initial schedule for the competition was approved at the FIS Council meeting in Portorož , Slovenia during the weekend of 25 – 28 May 2007 . Women 's ski jumping became an official event for the first time at these championships on the normal hill which took place 20 February . This was approved at the May 2006 FIS Congress in Vilamoura , Portugal . Cross country skiing events had its classical interval start events adjusted to include a 5 km qualification event for women and a 10 km qualification for men for the women 's 10 km and men 's 15 km event with the top 20 finishers in each qualification advancing to the main events . These events took place 18 – 20 February . Nordic combined had the greatest changes in it schedule with the debut of the 10 km mass start that was also approved at the 2006 Congress in Vilamoura , and the replacement of the 7 @.@ 5 km sprint and 15 km individual Gundersen events with two separate 10 km individual events . The first event , replacing the 15 km Gundersen , was a single jump from the individual normal hill followed by a
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10 km cross country event using the Gundersen system while the second event , replacing the 7 @.@ 5 km sprint , was a single jump from the individual large hill followed by a 10 km cross country event also using the Gundersen system . The Nordic combined changes were approved at an autumn seasonal meeting in Zurich , Switzerland , the week of 29 September 2008 . Other changes listed in the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined team event was only one jump and being listed was the point @-@ time differential at 1 point equaling 1 @.@ 33 seconds .
= = History = =
= = = 2004 – June 2007 = = =
The host of the 2009 World championships was awarded at the 2004 FIS Congress in Miami , Florida , USA on 3 June 2004 . The opposing candidate city to Liberec was Oslo , Norway . Norwegian Ski President Sverre Seeberg stated to the Norwegian press before the voting started that he " thought it would be a close call , but not as close for FIS President Kasper to use his deciding vote . " The fact this was the fourth time in a row that Liberec applied for the championships , and that it was almost 40 years since it last was arranged in Eastern Europe ( 1970 in Vysoké Tatry , Czechoslovakia ) might give Liberec an advantage , according to Seeberg .
Liberec was selected 11 – 4 over Oslo , and since there were 17 FIS members , Kasper did not vote . Seeberg was ineligible to vote , even though he served in place of the late Jan Jensen . The Oslo committee quickly announced after the loss that they would apply for the 2011 championships , which they got awarded two years later .
Prior to being awarded the World championships in 2004 , Liberec had hosted a total of 40 cross country skiing , Nordic combined , and ski jumping competitions though it had not hosted a cross country World Cup event by June 2005 . At a 24 – 25 May 2005 meeting , a report was given by the Liberec committee to the FIS race directors on course inspection , including layout of the courses . On 10 May 2006 , a coordination group meeting was held led by Roman Kumpošt , the first organizing committee chair , regarding venue construction , television production , and construction within Liberec itself in preparation for the championships . A coordination meeting took place in Liberec 18 – 19 April 2007 to discuss venue information and event preparation .
= = = July - December 2007 = = =
Czech cross country skier and six @-@ time Winter Olympic medalist Kateřina Neumannová was originally an honorary vice president of the organizing committee . On 25 July 2007 , Neumannová was appointed as the new president of the organizing committee as approved by the organizing committee , replacing Kumpošt . She also served as a World Cup organizer for the second of the Tour de Ski events that took place in Prague on 30 December 2007 . During the week of 13 August 2007 , a delegation visited the FIS headquarters in Oberhofen , Switzerland and met with FIS President Kasper . This delegation included Liberec Mayor Jiří Kittner , Organizing Committee Secretary Marek Rejman , Czech Ski Association President Lukáš Sobotka , and its General Secretary Norbert Pelc , and all four confirmed the work toward the sites used for the championships were proceeding as planned with test events that occurred in February 2008 . Financing issues for the event were also clarified . The next scheduled update occurred at the FIS Autumn Meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 . Progress was given by Organizing President Neumannová and Executive Director Marek Rejman while at Zurich , including updates on the venues ( shown in the next section ) , and focused on the sports organization ( including the technical directors ) ; and the marketing and promotion of the test events . Liberec had also confirmed their support of the governmental financing for the university campus which served as the village for the teams in 2009 .
= = = 2008 = = =
FIS President Kasper stated that the first test weekend of 8 – 9 February 2008 " went well " in terms of sports organization . Kasper also expressed concerns about the cost for accommodation for skiing officials and media for the upcoming events . A spring coordination meeting was held the week of 7 April 2008 that discussed preparations for the event . Among the participants were FIS , the EBU , and marketing partner APF , whom focused on lessons learned from the test events held in February 2008 . Coordination group members were pleased in what transpired during the February 2008 test events , including an athletes village that was constructed at the local university . Final competition schedule was confirmed by the FIS Council in its May 2008 meeting in Cape Town , followed by a final inspection on 13 October 2008 . Following the final inspection that day , a six @-@ hour press conference was held on the status of preparations . Detailed reports were given on the test events held in February 2008 and the lessons learned from them . FIS President Kasper expressed his support of the organizing committee 's efforts to present the best championships ever . Neumannová stated that the cross country skiing facility at Vesec was ready while the ski jumping facility at Ještěd was ready in the fall once construction of the access road and surrounding area was complete . The main concern of Neumannová 's was the weather given the problems with the test events in February and the need for snow making equipment . The Czech government gave the organizing committee an additional CZK 189 million ( € 7 @.@ 3 million ) in financial support . At the end of 2008 , the championships were the biggest sports event in the history of the Czech Republic . On 16 December 2008 , FIS Secretary General Lewis , FIS Event and Sponsor Manager Niklas Carlsson , Neumannová , and other key Organizing Committee staff met to discuss promotional activities for the event , including ceremonies , social events , and the accreditation system . That same day , an entire inspection of the team village took place at the Technical University of Liberec where the entire complex was renovated . The students at the university left at the end of January 2009 for the teams to arrive on campus in mid @-@ February .
= = = 2009 = = =
As of 21 January 2009 , there were a total of 600 competitors from 59 nations , both Championship records . Neumannová stated that the area had about 70 centimetres ( 28 in ) of snow at both testing areas . She also stated that Czech representatives had tested both Ještěd and Vesec and were satisfied with both areas . Free public transportation in Liberec and tram transfers from the neighboring town of Jablonec nad Nisou were organized . Doping programs that were successful at the previous World Championships in Sapporo continued with 78 EPO and 430 blood testing on athletes in the 1 – 15 February period prior to the 2009 championships . 450 pre @-@ competition blood tests were conducted with the top four finishers plus two randomly selected athletes of each event , totalling 120 for the championships . These tests were conducted by the Czech National Anti @-@ Doping Agency with assistance of the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency . Testing costs for the program were CHF 1 @.@ 5 million . As of 25 February , a total of 90 @,@ 000 spectators had attended the championships . Prior to the championships , there was concern of the lack of snowfall during the championships . During the championships , there was continuing snowfall . On 23 February , Czech Republic Senate Parliament chair Přemysl Sobotka presented FIS President Kasper with a silver commemorative medal of the Senate for his merits in the development of world skiing . Kasper lead the FIS delegation to this ceremony that took place in Liberec with Sobotka which included FIS officials and representative of all 61 teams . Included in this delegation were Milan Jirasek , FIS Council Member and Chair of the Czech Olympic Committee , and Neumannová
= = = Media accreditation and television coverage = = =
Media accreditation was available online until 17 October 2008 . Television coverage was provided by Czech Television ( CT ) , the host broadcaster . CT expected to produce over 60 hours of international coverage with a total of 54 TV cameras connected to 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) of cables . Over 1500 international media were onsite for the event . A total of 771 cumulative broadcast hours took place during the championship event , 70 @.@ 3 % shown live with the rest being tape @-@ delayed . 17 national broadcasters televised the championships along with 69 Eurosport and Eurosport Asia @-@ Pacific nations . , resulting in a total of 666 million global viewers The top events with the greatest naitional live audience was the men 's ski jumping individual large and normal hill event from Poland 's TVP1 with 5 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 4 million viewers respectively . Germany 's ZDF had the 2nd highest national event ratings with 4 @.@ 0 million viewers for the ski jumping men 's team large hill event .
= = = Mascot = = =
The mascot was announced by the Organizing Committee during the week of 30 June 2008 . It was a lion named Libi and it made its first appearance in the Czech Republic with Neumannová and Czech Republic prime minister Mirek Topolánek at a meeting that same week .
= = Social programs = =
Among the social programs involved during the event were the opening ceremonies at the Tipsport arena . Included were musical performances from the English rock band Deep Purple , who performed at the opening ceremony 18 February , and the Slovak band Elán , who performed on 20 February . Concerts took place on the Liberec main square where medal award ceremonies occurred . In addition , there were special themed days , including Italian Day , Czech Day , Norwegian Day and Slovak Day . One recurring theme of this was free beer for people from these countries in some pubs at happy hour . The most famous fans at the championships were the Norwegians , who were very numerous compared with the other countries .
= = World Cup discipline leaders prior to the World championships = =
As of 15 February 2009 , the top three World Cup positions were as follows :
Cross @-@ country skiing 's Tour de Ski winners were Finland 's Virpi Kuitunen for the women and Cologna for the men ; both got 400 World Cup points for their respective TdS victories . Loitzl won Ski jumping 's Four Hills Tournament .
= = Participants = =
589 athletes from 61 countries were entered to compete for the championships . These include 239 men and 155 women from 60 countries in cross country skiing , 77 athletes from 18 countries in Nordic combined , and 79 athletes from 22 countries in ski jumping . Additionally , 39 women from 13 countries competed in the premiere world championship ski jumping event . FIS President Kaspar hoped that the women 's ski jumping event did well enough for inclusion in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia .
= = Venues = =
At a coordination group meeting on 18 – 19 April 2007 in Liberec , the event and facility preparations were discussed . A review was also done for what could have done better from the previous World Championships in Sapporo earlier that year . According to FIS Secretary General Lewis , she was pleased about the construction progress of both Ještěd ( ski jumping ) and Vesec ( cross country skiing ) and both venues were used as test events for the upcoming World Cup season . Organizing Committee chair Kumpošt stated that both venues would be completed by fall 2007 in order to ensure FIS certification . Also in attendance was the EBU and the organizing committee for the 2011 Championships in Oslo . Snowfall that started on 17 November 2008 made it possible to produce man @-@ made snow for the event , according to Vesec cross country skiing venue manager Robert Heczko . In ideal conditions , fourteen days of snow production were required to create the needed 60 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 2 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of snow to ensure coverage of all competition courses at Vesec . Over 20 snow cannons were used in the snow @-@ making process when temperatures dip below freezing according to Heczko .
= = = Cross country skiing = = =
The cross country skiing venue took place at Vesec which had two 3 @.@ 75 km loops in 2007 . These loops were shortened to 3 @.@ 3 km and 2 @.@ 5 km , and then combined . Four additional loops of 1 @.@ 2 km ( women 's sprint ) , 1 @.@ 3 km ( men 's sprint ) , 5 km , and 7 @.@ 5 km were also created . At the fall 2007 meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 , it was announced that Vesec had completed paving the courses for roller skiing and in @-@ line skating , finalization of bridges , access roads , and permanent facilities ; and installing snow @-@ making equipment . The test event for cross country occurred during the weekend of 15 – 17 February 2008 . Because of warm weather and the lack of snow , the organizing committee was forced to bring snow from the mountains surrounding Liberec . As a result , the races were held on the paved roller skiing track . Initially on 16 February they were scheduled to be pursuit events , but were changed to interval start events . The winner of the 10 km women 's event was Norway 's Astrid Jacobsen while the winner of the 15 km men 's event was Jean Marc Gaillard of France . Team sprint winners on the 17th were both from Norway with the ladies going to Marit Bjørgen and Astrid Jacobsen and the men going to Martin Johnsrud Sundby and Simen Østensen Snow was lacking at the cross @-@ country course as of 16 December 2008 , but organizers were ready for expected cold temperatures from Christmas 2008 onward to prepare the courses for the championships . As of 14 January 2009 , about 50 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of snow had been produced using between 20 and 27 snow guns and two snow lances . Tracks were groomed , widen , and maintained in preparation of the Slavic Cup ( Czech Republic , Poland , and Slovakia ) events that took place the weekend of 17 – 18 January 2009 . Courses were covered with snow of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) as of 11 February 2009 . Snow reserves guaranteed the best conditions even if warm weather hit the Jizera Mountains . Closing ceremonies of the championships were held at Vesec .
= = = Ski jumping = = =
The ski jumping venue took place at Ještěd which has two hills that were already to FIS specifications . The normal hill size ( HS ) was 100 m ( HS100 ) while the large hill size was 134 m ( HS134 ) . Both hills were used for FIS ski jumping World Cup venues with Finnish ski jumper Janne Ahonen holding the record jump of 139 m on the HS134 hill in 2004 . Modifications were done to the outrun and data was gathered on the wind flow within the ski jumping area from January to March for 2006 to 2009 . At the fall 2007 meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 , it was announced by the Organizing Committee that construction was proceeding according to schedule , with completion in mid @-@ December 2007 . The test event for Jested took place on 8 – 9 February 2008 . A grandstand of 10 @,@ 000 spectators was constructed in order to have night time ski jumping the weekend of 9 – 10 February 2008 . The hill suffered a landslide caused by continuous rainfall around the hill during the week of 28 January 2008 , but the outrun was not affected by the event , according to Liberec mayor Jiri Kittner . On 1 February , Neumannová stated that the ski jumping events took place as scheduled . The lift to the ski jump that was not working during the FIS World Cup B Nordic combined event in January was fixed . The winners of the ski jumping test event at the HS134 hill were Thomas Morgenstern of Austria on 8 February and Anders Jacobsen of Norway on 9 February . An Alpen Cup competition took place on the weekend of 20 – 21
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in October , 2009 , in South Bend , Indiana . The video is somewhat unusual in that it does not feature the album version of the song . Rather , it features an original recording that was actually performed live during filming of the video . OK Go 's Tim Nordwind noted that the song lent itself well to large orchestration .
In the video , the members of OK Go are seen in a field wearing marching band garb . The uniforms were originally from Rochelle Township High School of Rochelle , Illinois . They begin to march , and as the song progresses , the band is joined by members of the University of Notre Dame 's Marching Band many of whom rise up camouflaged in ghillie suits . They are also joined in the final chorus by a children 's choir cobbled together from two local South Bend preschools . Like many of their other videos , the marching band video was shot in one take .
The marching band video was created to bridge the time between the release of the album and the expected completion of the Rube Goldberg video . The band had originally planned to release the marching band version after the debut of the Rube Goldberg video . However , they found time during October 2009 to work with the Notre Dame band , and realizing the length of time to complete the Rube Goldberg machine , went ahead and completed the marching band version .
= = Second music video : Rube Goldberg Machine = =
The second music video for " This Too Shall Pass " was directed by James Frost . Similar to the band 's video for " Here It Goes Again " , the " This Too Shall Pass " video features a four @-@ minute , apparent one shot sequence of the song being played in time to the actions of a giant Rube Goldberg machine built in a two @-@ story warehouse from over 700 household objects , traversing an estimated half @-@ mile course . As the song and machine operate , the members of the band are seen singing alongside the machine , with the members being shot at by paint guns at the song 's finale . Parts of the machine are synchronized in time with the music ; in one instance , glasses of water are used to repeat part of the song 's melody in the fashion of a glass harp . One part of the machine shows the " Here It Goes Again " video on a television before it is smashed by the machine . The MAKE magazine 1993 Ford Escort racecar , used for the 24 Hours of LeMons , appears in the video along with a miniature LEGO version of the car . Alongside the LEGO car , several LEGO mini @-@ figurines are displayed as a reference to the marching band video .
= = = Creation = = =
The video 's inspiration was from the band , who wanted " a giant machine that we dance with " , a long @-@ term aspiration of the band and inspired by other Rube Goldberg machines shown in videos on YouTube , including the interstitials used on the Japanese children 's show , PythagoraSwitch . While they considered the idea of the machine for each song on Of the Colour , they opted to use " This Too Shall Pass " to make the end result " majestic and epic " , even though it already duplicated the previous marching band video . They sought help through online science message boards , eventually coming in contact with Syyn Labs . From a pool of talent at a Syyn Labs @-@ hosted " Mindshare LA " gathering , about 55 to 60 people from Syyn Labs , the California Institute of Technology ( including some who work at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and participated in the Mars Exploration Rover program , hence the model rover seen in the video ) and MIT Media Lab helped to design and construct the machine . Damian Kulash 's father ( Damian Kulash Sr. ) also participated in the machine 's construction .
The team had to work on a limited budget , using recycled trash for many of the props in the device ; after filming , the total estimated cost was approximately $ 90 @,@ 000 . The team avoided the use of " magic " — automated devices like computers or motors — and instead focused on purely physical devices . The total time to create the video from conceptualization was about six months , with two months of planning and four months for design and filming . The warehouse where filming took place was in the Echo Park section of Los Angeles , and was secured by Syyn Labs in November 2009 . The final construction within the warehouse took over a month and a half during January and February 2010 . The band members helped in the last two weeks of construction , having spent the previous four months on tour .
Once the machine was completed , the filming , using a single Steadicam , took two days to complete on February 11 and 12 , with an estimated 60 takes for the machine to properly function . The first day of filming included 47 takes , none of which successfully completed the entire machine and necessitated a second day of filming . Many of the takes ended only 30 seconds into the process , at the start of the song 's chorus , where a tire would fail to roll properly into the next section of the machine . Syyn Labs had a group of 30 people to help reset the machine after each failed take , a process that took upwards of an hour depending on how far the machine ran . There were no significant injuries during filming ; Tim Nordwind once was hit hard with paint at the end , while the Steadicam operator nearly got hit with one of the barrels at the end of the mechanism in the shot used for the final video . His reaction may be seen in the released version of the video .
Several elements of the machine had to be properly adjusted to match the timing for the song . The group broke the song into sections , triggered when the machine passed certain gates , to account for small changes in timing that could occur ( up to 0 @.@ 5 sec , according to Brett Doar , one of the machine 's chief designers ) , allowing the band to continue to lip synch while the machine operated . Smaller objects like dominoes were found to be the trickiest to set , as their patterns would be less predictable than larger and bulkier objects , which are more predominant in the later parts of the machine . Once the machine transitioned to the downstairs portion , it would generally run the rest of the course untouched . Furthermore , the time of day and temperature would play a big factor in how some small components would behave , forcing the team to readjust the timing . Ball tracks and other features had to be wiped clear of dust and debris to prevent slowing down rolling objects . A carved wooden ball track shown early in the video was created to have motions timed to the music , but required a low inclined angle that would often cause the balls to skip out of the tracks .
Kulash noted that their largest " nightmare " for the machine was a set of mousetraps , triggered to release a display of colored flags ; they were found to be overly sensitive to earlier actions of the machine , such as the dropping of a piano , and redesign and padding were needed to prevent the traps from being set off prematurely . The timing had to take into account the movements of both the band members and the cameraman ; Damien Kulash estimated that though the machine was able to complete its opening at least three times , these shots were botched , because either the band members or the cameraman had fallen behind the action of the machine .
While the video was filmed as a single shot on at least three different occasions , they planned on using post @-@ editing to slow down or speed up certain parts of the take to keep it in time with the final soundtrack . There is a noted cut in the video , in which the camera passes through a set of curtains on the transition to the downstairs portion of the machine ; according to one of the machine designers , Hector Alvarez , this cut was introduced by the band , speculating it was introduced to avoid a shot of one of the band members or cameraman in frame or otherwise to keep the machine video synchronized to the machine . Both Tim Nordwind , bassist for the band , and Adam Sadowsky , president of Syyn Labs , said that while the machine worked in its entirety 3 times , and no cut was needed , the decision was made so a better result on the downstairs portion could be included in the final version . There was also a second cut which can be noticed by watching a piano against a wall as the camera passed behind some rods ; the piano can be seen apparently warping in shape and position .
= = Responses = =
The Rube Goldberg machine video premiered on YouTube on March 2 , 2010 . Within a day of the video 's premiere , it was viewed more than 900 @,@ 000 times . The video achieved 6 million views within six days , which was comparable to the popularity of the " Here It Goes Again " video , and was considered " instantly viral " by CNN . The video had more than 10 million views in its first month of release . As part of the success of both videos , the band has begun auctioning props from the videos , including uniforms worn by the band for the marching band video and the individual ping @-@ pong balls from the second video . The Rube Goldberg video was included in a shortlist of 125 entries out of 23 @,@ 000 for inclusion in " YouTube Play : A Biennial of Creative Video " , a showcase of the best user @-@ created videos from YouTube in conjunction with the Guggenheim Museums , but ultimately was not selected as one of the 25 winning videos .
Despite the success of the videos on the Internet , this has not translated into sales for the album Of the Blue Colour of the Sky which the song is a part of , selling only 40 @,@ 000 copies since its January release . Part of this is attributed to the " unremarkable " music on the album and for the video ; musician Max Tundra suggested that the band should " record an innovative , exciting piece of music – and make a plodding , nondescript video to go with it . " However , ticket sales for OK Go concerts have seen a surge since the video 's release , as well as sales of digital downloads of the song through services like iTunes . According to Nordwind , the band is not concerned with album sales , as their successes have come from " untraditional ways " through the band 's career . Kulash has stated that with the continued success of their music videos as viral videos as was the case for " This Too Shall Pass " , the band has seen more touring opportunities and an expanded audience they don 't believe they would have gotten with more traditional videos under corporate label control . This has led OK Go to " look at making videos like [ they ] look at making records — it 's part of the art of what [ they ] do " , according to Nordwind . In part of the success of " This Too Shall Pass " and their previous videos , OK Go won the 14th Annual Webby Special Achievement Award for Film and Video Artist of the Year . The video was named both " Video of the Year " and " Best Rock Video " at the 3rd annual UK Music Video Awards .
In May 2010 , after the band split with EMI , the single debuted at # 39 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart , their first appearance on the chart since " Here It Goes Again " in 2006 . The song eventually peaked at # 36 .
At the time of the creation of the video , Syyn Labs had just been formed ; the viral success of " This Too Shall Pass " brought the company to light for several similar creative projects involving the innovative combination of technology . When OK Go appeared on The Colbert Report on April 29 , 2010 in which they performed " This Too Shall Pass " , Stephen Colbert opened the show with another , shorter Rube Goldberg machine created by Syyn Lab 's Brett Doar , one of the chief creators of the " This Too Shall Pass " music video , using assorted props from the show . Syyn Labs have since created advertisements for Disney and Sears , and have been contacted for future work in music videos and movie opening sequences , and are considering a reality television show based on their creative process .
In February 2011 , music video blog Yes , We 've Got a Video ! ranked both the marching band video and the Rube Goldberg machine video at number 3 in their top 30 videos of 2010 . The latter in particular was praised for " the cleverness of it and the fact that you could always pick up something new upon each and every view . " The Song was also used as the theme for the American remake of British sitcom , The Inbetweeners .
= = Difficulties with EMI = =
The marching band video sparked much controversy online immediately after its release . Because of deals between the band 's label , EMI ( through Capitol Records ) , and YouTube , the video was not embeddable , nor was it viewable across the globe , frustrating many fans and music industry professionals who wanted to post the video on their blogs . The band , led by singer Damian Kulash , explained the label 's rationale via the band 's blog and through an op @-@ ed piece in The New York Times . According to Kulash , EMI disallowed the embeddable play of the video because they only receive royalties for views on the YouTube site itself . He further pleaded to allow embedding of their next video , citing a 90 % drop in viewership when EMI disabled embedding on existing videos , affecting the band 's own royalties from viewership .
The band was able to secure the rights to allow the " This Too Shall Pass " Rube Goldberg video to be distributed via embedding prior to its premiere , in part due to funding support from State Farm Insurance , which helped to settle issues with EMI ; in exchange , State Farm had some say in the creative process , and the video includes elements with the State Farm logo , including a toy truck that is used to start the machine . The video was completed a week later than expected ; according to sources close to the band , Capitol Records considered the window of opportunity for promoting the single to radio to be closed due to the delay , and would not be available again until June 2010 . The band has since decided to break away from the EMI label on amiable terms , due to a combination of the issues of video embedding and radio promotions , and has become its own independent recording label , Paracadute Recordings .
= = Charts = =
= Martha MacKenzie =
Martha Jane MacKenzie ( also Stewart , previously Holden ) is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Jodi Gordon . Martha made her first on @-@ screen appearance on 8 September 1988 . She was originally played by Burcin Kapkin . In 2005 , the character returned to Home and Away , played by Jodi Gordon . Gordon was a model and she took acting lessons before auditioning for the role . Gordon won a Logie Award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " in 2006 and she earned several more award nominations for her portrayal of Martha . Martha returned on screen on 30 March 2005 .
Martha was described as being friendly , feisty and fun loving . Martha 's appearance has evolved throughout her time in the show : she was initially a tomboy who loved sport , but she later became a stylish woman . Upon her return in March 2005 , Martha 's storylines saw her surviving a helicopter crash , having an abortion and a miscarriage , battling alcoholism , being diagnosed with breast cancer and becoming a widow after her husband was shot . In a controversial storyline Martha worked as a pole dancer ; the scenes were criticised by the broadcasting regulator for their content . Whilst playing Martha , Gordon was at the center of a number of personal scandals , which put her future in the show in doubt . In January 2010 , it was announced that Gordon was leaving the show and Martha departed on 9 June 2010 .
= = Casting = =
The role of Martha was originally played by Burcin Kapkin upon her introduction in 1988 . In 2005 the character returned to the show , played by the model Jodi Gordon . Gordon took acting lessons before successfully auditioning for the role . Gordon later revealed that she was initially nervous about auditioning due to her lack of acting experience . However , producers gave her two months prior to filming so she could learn her scripts and gain more acting skills . Gordon said , " I 'd never done any acting . So I did a few little acting course things and then I kind of fluked the part " .
During March 2007 , Gordon was written out of the show indefinitely after her partner , Chris Burkhardt , died from cancer . The Home and Away writers had previously rewritten several scripts to allow Gordon to spend as much time as possible with Burkhardt .
In 2009 , Gordon became the center of media attention due to a series of scandals in her private life . The serial 's home network Channel Seven decided to support Gordon through the ordeals . The scandals cast doubt over whether Gordon would be staying with the serial and it was reported that she wanted to leave Australia for other roles . However , it was later confirmed she would be staying with the show and a spokesperson said , " Jodi is looking forward , not backward , and is hard at work on the set of Home and Away " . Gordon was backed by her fellow cast members and fans of her character , who voiced their support for her . At the time Gordon was signed to appear in the serial for another two years after she had signed to a three @-@ year contract .
In January 2010 , it was announced that Gordon had decided to leave the show . She asked Channel Seven to release her two years early from her contract . Producers and network executives had urged her to stay with the show because her character was popular with viewers . Gordon said , " I 've had a wonderful five years with Channel Seven and Home and Away — it 's been an amazing experience to be a part of this incredible show . I 've learnt so much . " Gordon filmed her final scenes at the end of February . Fellow Actor Ray Meagher who plays Martha 's grandfather Alf Stewart backed her decision to leave the show , but said he was sad that his character would be left on @-@ screen without any blood relatives .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Channel Seven described Martha as being " Friendly , straight down the line , and with a great enthusiasm for life " , and Jetstar magazine called Martha " a feisty addition to the Stewart family " . Gordon described Martha 's persona stating : " Martha 's pretty feisty all of the time but in the sense of always fighting for what 's right and keeping up a strong perspective on where I want to go , things like that . " Gordon says that she feels Martha always makes bad choices when it comes to her love life , because she never knows what she wants . Gordon said that Martha is " messed up " but with a " warm side " to her persona , and that overall Martha is " fun loving , easy going girl @-@ next @-@ door " type character . Of her portrayal , Gordon says that she enjoys the challenge of playing Martha because she gets to shout a lot when showing her crazy and fun side . Gordon later said that " There will always be a little bit of trouble attached to Martha . She will always be a little bit mischievous " . On the character 's appearance , RTÉ said " Martha was a self @-@ confessed tomboy , loving sport and anything physical . Now she has grown into a stylish woman with great taste in clothes which range from shorts and strappy tops to gorgeous summer dresses . "
= = = Relationship with Jack Holden = = =
Most of Martha 's storylines were central to her on @-@ off relationship with Jack Holden ( Paul O 'Brien ) . Viewers saw the couple go through marriage , divorce , a second marriage and Martha being widowed . Holy Soap said that Martha and Jack proved to be one of the " best loved couples " , before they married for the first time . However , their marriage does not last long and they split . Martha and Jack start to lead separate lives , but Jack is there for Martha after she has an abortion . Martha is feeling low at this point and kisses him ; Jack 's girlfriend Sam Tolhurst ( Jessica Chapnik ) sees this . O 'Brien stated : " I think Jack felt like ' Oh this is nice , but I 've moved on , I 've finally moved on and found someone ' , but deep down he still wants Martha . " Martha is left " shattered " after Jack plans to marry Sam . Martha was caught trying on Sam 's wedding dress as she tried to figure out if she still had feelings for Jack . Gordon said that from day one , Jack and Martha have wanted to be together , but " they 're never in the same headspace " . O 'Brien added that he believes Jack was always in love with Martha , even whilst he was in a relationship with Sam . Both O 'Brien and Gordon agreed that when Jack and Martha first broke up it was a bad time for Jack , as his life was spiraling out of control , he needed her , but she left him when he needed her the most . They later become friends ; O 'Brien believed it was hard to understand how Jack could be so forgiving toward her .
Although the characters were separated on screen , they had gained a fan base on the Internet that believed Martha should be with Jack and wanted the pair to reunite . Gordon herself backed the pairing , stating that she believed they should be together . She said : " I actually love Jack and Martha together , I 'm a sucker for romance so , I want want them to be together [ ... ] I want them to continue on , [ ... ] the timing is not right , they are not mature enough . Jack 's in a relationship with someone else as Martha is , there just seems to be things getting in the way of them getting back together all the time . " Gordon also hoped for a happy ending for the two characters if they were to ever leave the serial adding : " If I had it my way , and I got to write the scripts then I 'd make it happily ever after , Martha and Jack riding off into the sunset . " Gordon has spoken of her understanding from the audiences point of view , that together Jack and Martha are " the ultimate couple " . She also reiterated her belief that it would be to tough at the time of Martha 's downward spiral for them to work together , but if Martha is to get through her troubles and have a happy ending , that it would be with Jack . The Daily Telegraph commented on the Martha and Jack situation , saying it is played out in a " classic soapie technique " . They said " Bring the characters together , push them apart , but always leave open the possibility that they could get back together . It has worked for Days of Our Lives ' John Black and Marlena Evans " .
On @-@ screen Jack and Martha later reconcile , after he helps her through her hard times . Gordon believed that their relationship was at its strongest peak whilst Martha had breast cancer . She added that Martha would do anything to avoid jeopardising their happiness .
= = = Downward spiral and stripping = = =
One of the most notable story lines for Martha was her secret life as a pole dancer and subsequent road into alcoholism . This was a result of her abortion and failed relationships with Jack and Ash Nader ( Ben Geurens ) along with her new relationship with Cameron " Cam " Reynolds ( Ashley Lyons ) , who was leading her astray . The story line began playing out from the 2006 " cliffhanger " episode , when Ash reveals that he is married with children and leading a double life . Gordon branded Martha as ignorant to the situation she has got herself into : " I think she is so naive , she wants to believe that she 's found a great guy and she keeps giving him second chances . She wants to make it work . " Martha fails to cope with the situation , as Gordon describes : " It 's this whole emotional roller @-@ coaster that , if you don 't deal with your life , can be terrible . " Their relationship falls apart after Martha aborts Ash 's child , causing Martha to begin her transition into a party girl . Gordon commented that " I think everyone in this show begins as a scruffy bum and gradually they turn you into a glamour puss . "
Martha begins a downward spiral and is manipulated by new boyfriend Cam , who has a hold over her due to his power and money , and her vulnerable state - he " swept her off her feet " . Cam always got the better of Martha because " The worse it got with her family , the better it got with Cam . " O 'Brien , who played Jack , said that he felt that Martha was trying to reinvent herself as a different person .
Gordon pointed out that Martha was not stripping , just pole dancing . Gordon took pole dancing lessons for a period of a few weeks funded by Channel Seven , and found the experience embarrassing and physically challenging . She found it hard dancing in front of her fellow cast members , commenting that " There 's even one scene when all of the boys turn up at the club and they 're looking at me – it 's like having your mates seeing you half naked . It 's not very nice , a bit intimidating but it 's always exciting to have a challenging story line like that . It 's worth while in the end knowing that you 've put everything into it . " Gordon believed that the storyline was a turning point in Martha 's development , as she has to hit rock bottom to realise who she is and what she really wants from life .
After everyone finds out about Martha 's situation , they try to stop her working in the club . Kate Ritchie who plays on @-@ screen friend Sally Fletcher discussed how Martha would not take any advice from those closest to her and how Sally and Alf have to pick up the pieces for her in the end . She compared Martha 's pole dancing to many real life experiences ordinary people go through . Sally 's interference made Martha 's situation worse , of this Ritche added : " It 's been hard for Sally to realise and Alf as well , just that you just have to stand back and let it run its course and be there at the end . " Of Martha 's downward spiral and pushing her friends away , Gordon stated : " Now she 's found herself in this hole , she ruined all these relationships with her family , her friends , Jack , everyone 's trying to help her and she 's really against everyone , she 's in a really bad place at the moment " .
The broadcast scenes proved to be controversial in Australia after broadcasting regulator ACMA felt the scenes featured sexual content . They noted that " ACMA determined that pole @-@ dancing scenes contained in the programmes contained visual depictions of sexual behaviour , that their impact was higher than very mild , and that the episodes were not suitable for children to watch without supervision . " Channel Seven defended the scenes and stated that whereas most episodes of the serial
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They later begin a relationship . Martha plays a joke on Jack , which goes wrong and he hits his head . At the hospital , Jack is told he is deaf . Jack blames Martha for the accident and they split up .
Martha then begins a relationship with Jack 's best friend , Corey Henderson ( Adam Saunders ) , after he saves her from a violent man . Corey begins a hate campaign against Irene Roberts ( Lynne McGranger ) and starts poisoning her with mercury , leading to her being sectioned . Martha finds out the truth about Corey and he chases her through the outback and holds her hostage . Jack saves her and Corey is sent to prison .
Martha becomes best friends with Tasha Andrews ( Isabel Lucas ) . Tasha gets involved in a cult called " The Believers " and she is later raped . Martha tries to help save Tasha but Jonah Abraham ( James Mitchell ) kidnaps her . Jonah is later sent to prison for kidnapping and rape . Jack and Martha get back together , become engaged and marry . At their wedding reception , ( Eve Jacobsen ( Emily Perry ) , causes an explosion . Most of the guests are injured and they are rushed to the hospital . Martha is part of a group with serious burns , that are taken by a helicopter , which crashes in the outback . Martha and the others are lost in the bush for days , but they are eventually found . Not long after , Martha 's marriage to Jack breaks down .
Martha meets and sleeps with a man called Ash . Jack decides he wants Martha back , but when Martha reveals she has slept with Ash , Jack is heartbroken because Ash turns out to be his former best friend . As Martha and Ash take their relationship further she is shocked to find out he is married with children . He tells Martha he has left his wife , but Martha finds out that his wife is pregnant with their third child . Martha ends their relationship and she finds out that she is pregnant . Martha has an abortion , which leads her to start drinking heavily .
Martha starts dating Cam Reynolds and he encourages her to work at his pole dancing club . Martha becomes the star pole dancer at the venue after Cam manipulates her . Peter Baker ( Nicholas Bishop ) has a stag night at the venue and Martha is caught pole dancing by Jack , Ric and Tony Holden ( Jon Sivewright ) . Jack is annoyed with Martha 's new life and tries to convince her to leave Cam . Cam sets fire to his club and Martha is left trapped inside until Jack saves her . Jack and Martha become good friends once more , until they sign their divorce papers . Jack then begins a relationship with Sam Tolhurst which devastates Martha .
Martha bumps into Jonah , who is now going by the name of Michael . Martha tries to get him out of town , vandalises his van and verbally abuses him . She falls into a mine shaft with him and he saves her . They grow closer and later they start a relationship , which no one approves of . Martha looks after Jack while he is in a coma after he is shot . Jack reveals he still loves her , but he decides to stand by Sam . Martha realises she loves Jack as well as Michael . She and Michael leave town , but Martha returns days later to stop Jack and Sam 's wedding , but she fails .
Sam commits suicide by taking heroin and Martha is suspected of her murder , but she is later proved innocent . Jack and Martha grow close again , but Martha begins seeing Roman . Martha and Jack later get back together and decide to marry . Martha discovers she is pregnant , but she is not sure if the father is Jack or Roman . Following a paternity test , it is revealed that the baby is Roman 's . Martha is diagnosed with breast cancer and is told she needs a termination for her own health . She decides not to and Jack is angry because it means she might die . Jack and Martha decide to get married again . Martha collapses and has to be resuscitated . She also discovers that she has lost the baby . Martha begins to recover and later goes into remission .
Martha then suffers the pain of losing Jack when he is accidentally shot by Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . Whilst grieving , Jack 's cousins , Xavier ( David Jones @-@ Roberts ) and Hugo Austin ( Bernard Curry ) arrive in Summer Bay for the funeral and she takes them into her home . Martha later falls for Hugo and they begin a relationship . A few months later , Martha is led to believe that Hugo is going to propose to her , but instead he ends their relationship , leaving Martha confused and upset . Martha is then kidnapped by Hugo 's ex @-@ wife Suzy Sudiro ( Tasneem Roc ) . Angelo saves Martha and she assists him with the capture and arrest of Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) .
Martha discovers that Hugo is part of a people smuggling racket and she tells him that she wants nothing more to do with him . Martha then believes that she has witnessed Hugo 's murder . She later discovers that he is alive and that he went into a witness protection programme . Some criminals come after Hugo and his family . Martha , Xavier and Gina Austin ( Sonia Todd ) are captured and held hostage . Hugo and Tony manage to overcome the criminals and the others manage to free themselves from drowning in a tank at Martha 's farm .
Detective Gordon Eaves ( Lewis Fitz @-@ Gerald ) is sent to the Bay . Hugo , who is hiding at Martha 's farm , overhears him and recognises him as the cop that he and the others paid off when he was involved in the people smuggling racket . Martha makes this aware to Angelo who agrees to go to Martha 's farm with Eaves . On the way , Eaves threatens Angelo to go along with his plans . Eaves shoots Hugo and then flees the scene . Hugo is rushed indoors and Martha phones local doctor , Rachel Armstrong ( Amy Mathews ) . Eaves is caught by Angelo , Tony and Charlie Buckton ( Esther Anderson ) . Angelo then arrests both Hugo and Martha . As Angelo is driving them to the police station , he suddenly stops and lets them out . He tells Hugo to punch him to make it look like he and Martha had overpowered him and escaped . Martha thanks Angelo for letting them leave together . Hugo and Martha use Angelo 's police car to escape and they flee the Bay , leaving behind their family and friends .
= = Reception = =
Gordon has earned various awards nominations for her portrayal of Martha . In 2006 , Gordon won a Logie Award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " . The 2009 ceremony saw Gordon nominated for " Most Popular Actress " . Gordon was nominated for the " Best Newcomer " Award and " Best Couple " with co @-@ star Paul O 'Brien at the 2006 Inside Soap Awards . Gordon was nominated for " Sexiest Female " and " Best Storyline " for Jack and Martha 's wedding day at the 2007 Inside Soap Awards . The following year , Gordon was again nominated for " Sexiest Female " , she was also nominated for " Best Couple " along with co @-@ star Paul O 'Brien once more . Gordon was once again nominated for " Sexiest Female " in 2009 . At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards , Gordon was nominated for " Sexiest Female " and " Best On @-@ Screen Partnership " with O 'Brien . At the 2009 Australian Cosmopolitan " Fun , Fearless Female Women of the Year awards " , Gordon was nominated in the TV category .
Holy Soap describe Martha 's most memorable moments as finding out she has cancer and that Jack ( whom in their opinion was her true love ) had been shot . Martha and Jack were included in Virgin Media 's feature on the " Soaps ' sexiest couples " . Virgin Media said that the couple " loved getting hitched so much that they did it twice " , and that they " had more hurdles to overcome than an Olympic athlete " .
Jaci Stephen of British newspaper , the Daily Mail was negative towards Matha 's love life , saying on one occasion " Guys get involved with Martha at their peril " . She later said that " Martha forms an attachment with anything " . In February 2010 , Stephen commented on Martha 's brief romance with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) . She said that Martha wastes no time in recovering from her personal tragedies , as she asks Liam to move in with her after he works on some fencing . Stephen added " It ’ s lucky women like Martha weren ’ t around when the Great Wall of China was being built . They ’ d still be on phase one " . After Martha is blown up , lost in the bush and kidnapped ; Stephen said " oh , for goodness sake , this is ridiculous - how much can one woman take ? "
In 2010 , it was announced that an episode of Home and Away featuring Martha and Liam had been was deemed too " raunchy " for New Zealand television . The Broadcasting Standards Authority decided to uphold a complaint about a scene between the characters , which saw them sharing a passionate kiss before Martha showed her bra . The scene was said to be too " sexually charged " for its G rating . This was the first time that a complaint about Home and Away 's sexual content had been upheld . Ray Meagher later defended the scenes stating he didn 't understand what all the fuss was about , branding it as tame compared to the scenes involving guns that aired previously .
= M ( James Bond ) =
M is a fictional character in Ian Fleming 's James Bond book and film series ; the character is the Head of the Secret Intelligence Service — also known as MI6 — and is Bond 's superior . Fleming based the character on a number of people he knew who commanded sections of British intelligence . M has appeared in the novels by Fleming and seven continuation authors , as well as appearing in twenty @-@ four films . In the Eon Productions series of films , M has been portrayed by four actors : Bernard Lee , Robert Brown , Judi Dench and Ralph Fiennes , the incumbent ; in the two independent productions , M was played by John Huston , David Niven and Edward Fox .
= = Background = =
Fleming based much of M 's character on Rear Admiral John Godfrey , who was Fleming 's superior at the Naval Intelligence Division during the Second World War . After Fleming 's death , Godfrey complained " He turned me into that unsavoury character , M. "
Other possible inspirations include Lieutenant Colonel Sir Claude Dansey , the deputy head of MI6 and head of the wartime Z network , who achieved different interpretations of his character from those who knew him : Malcolm Muggeridge thought him " the only professional in MI6 " , while Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper considered Dansey to be " an utter shit , corrupt , incompetent , but with a certain low cunning " . A further inspiration for M was Maxwell Knight , the head of MI5 , who signed his memos as " M " and whom Fleming knew well . The tradition of the head of MI6 signing their name with a single letter came from Mansfield Smith @-@ Cumming , who would sign his initial " C " with green ink .
Another possibility for the model of M was William Melville , an Irishman who became the head of the Secret Service Bureau , the forerunner to both MI5 and MI6 : Melville was referred to within government circles as M. Melville recruited Sidney Reilly into government service and foiled an assassination plot against Queen Victoria on her 1887 Golden Jubilee . Fleming 's biographer John Pearson also hypothesised that Fleming 's characterisation of M reflects memories of his mother :
= = Novels = =
Fleming 's third Bond novel , Moonraker , establishes M 's initials as " M * * * * M * * * * * * * " and his first name is subsequently revealed to be Miles . In the final novel of the series , The Man with the Golden Gun , M 's full identity is revealed as Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG ; Messervy had been appointed to head of MI6 after his predecessor had been assassinated at his desk .
A naval theme runs throughout Fleming 's description of M and his surroundings , and his character was described by journalist and Bond scholar Ben Macintyre as " every inch the naval martinet " . Macintyre also notes that in his study of Fleming 's work , Kingsley Amis outlined the way Fleming had described M 's voice , being : angry ( three times ) ; brutal , cold ( seven times ) ; curt , dry ( five times ) ; gruff ( seven times ) ; stern , testy ( five times ) .
Over the course of twelve novels and two collections of short stories , Fleming provided a number of details relating to M 's background and character . In On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year , ( £ 122 @,@ 749 in 2016 pounds ) £ 1 @,@ 500 of which comes from retired naval pay . Although his pay is good for the 1950s and 1960s , it is never explained how M received or can afford his membership at Blades , an upscale private club for gentlemen he frequents in London to gamble and dine . Blades has a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen and all must be able to show £ 100 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 888 @,@ 453 in 2016 pounds ) in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Kingsley Amis noted in his study , The James Bond Dossier , that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling . As a personal favour to M , the staff at Blades keeps a supply of cheap red wine from Algeria on hand but does not include it on the wine list . M refers to it as " Infuriator " and tends only to drink it in moderate quantities unless he is in a very bad mood .
The academic Paul Stock argues that M 's office is a metonym for England and a stable point from which Bond departs on a mission , whilst he sees M as being an iconic representative of England and Englishness .
In the first post @-@ Fleming book , Colonel Sun , M is kidnapped from Quarterdeck , his home , and Bond goes to great lengths to rescue him . The later continuation books , written by John Gardner , retain Sir Miles Messervy as M , who protects Bond from the new , less aggressive climate in the Secret Service , saying that at some point Britain will need " a blunt instrument " . In Gardner 's final novel , COLD , M is kidnapped and rescued by Bond and finishes the book by retiring from MI6 . Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson 's 1998 novel The Facts of Death continued Messervy 's retirement , where he still resides in Quarterdeck . The book also introduces a new M , Barbara Mawdsley .
= = Films = =
= = = Eon Productions films = = =
= = = = Bernard Lee : 1962 – 79 = = = =
M was played by Bernard Lee from the first Bond film , Dr. No , until Moonraker ( 1979 ) . In Dr. No , M refers to his record of reducing the number of operative casualties since taking the job , implying someone else held the job recently before him . The film also saw M refer to himself as head of MI7 ; Lee had originally said MI6 , but was overdubbed with the name MI7 prior to the film 's release . Earlier in the film , the department had been referred to as MI6 by a radio operator .
A number of Bond scholars have noted that Lee 's interpretation of the character was in line with the original literary representation ; Cork and Stutz observed that Lee was " very close to Fleming 's version of the character " , while Rubin commented on the serious , efficient , no @-@ nonsense authority figure . Smith and Lavington , meanwhile , remarked that Lee was " the very incarnation of Fleming 's crusty admiral . "
Lee died of cancer in January 1981 , four months into the filming of For Your Eyes Only and before any of his scenes could be filmed . Out of respect , no new actor was hired to assume the role , due to Broccoli refusing to have the character recast and , instead , the script was re @-@ written so that the character is said to be on leave , with his lines given to either his Chief of Staff Bill Tanner or the Minister of Defence , Sir Frederick Gray . Later films referred to Lee 's tenure as head of the service , with a painting of him as M in MI6 's Scottish headquarters during the 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough .
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The likeness of Lee was used in the 2005 James Bond video game adaptation of James Bond 007 : From Russia with Love for the role of M by EA Games .
= = = = Robert Brown : 1983 – 89 = = = =
After Lee 's death in 1981 , the producers hired actor Robert Brown to play M in Octopussy . Brown had previously played Admiral Hargreaves , Flag Officer Submarines , in the 1977 film , The Spy Who Loved Me . Bond scholars Steven Jay Rubin , John Cork , and Collin Stutz all consider Admiral Hargreaves would have been appointed to the role of M , rather than Brown playing a different character as M.
Pfeiffer and Worrall considered that whilst Brown looks perfect , the role had been softened from that of Lee ; they also considered him " far too avuncular " , although in Licence to Kill they remarked that he came across as being very effective as he removed Bond 's double @-@ 0 licence . Continuation author Raymond Benson agrees , noting that the M role was " once again under written , and Brown is not allowed the opportunity to explore and reveal his character traits " ; Benson also considered the character to be " too nice " .
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= = = = Judi Dench : 1995 – 2012 = = = =
After the long period between Licence to Kill and GoldenEye , the producers brought in Dame Judi Dench to take over as the new M replacing Robert Brown . The character is based on Stella Rimington , the real @-@ life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996 . For GoldenEye , Dench 's M is cold , blunt and initially dislikes Bond , whom she calls a " sexist , misogynist dinosaur , a relic of the Cold War . " Tanner , her Chief of Staff , refers to her during the film as " the Evil Queen of Numbers " , given her reputation at that stage for relying on statistics and analysis rather than impulse and initiative .
Following Pierce Brosnan 's departure from the role , Dench continued playing M for the 2006 film Casino Royale , which rebooted the series with Daniel Craig playing Bond . In this new continuity , M has worked for MI6 for some time , at one point muttering , " Christ , I miss the Cold War " . According to Skyfall , M was previously in charge of MI6 's operations in Hong Kong during the 1990s . Her ability to run MI6 has been questioned several times ; in Casino Royale , she is the subject of a review when Bond is caught shooting an unarmed prisoner and blowing up a foreign embassy on camera ; in Quantum of Solace , the Foreign Secretary orders her to personally withdraw Bond from the field in Bolivia and to stop any investigations into Dominic Greene 's eco @-@ terrorist organisation ; and in Skyfall , she is the subject of a public inquiry when MI6 loses a computer hard drive containing the identities of undercover agents around the world . Skyfall marks Dench 's final appearance as M , where she is targeted by former MI6 agent Raoul Silva , whom she left to die during a mission in order to save six other agents . She is shot and killed in the film , making her the only M to die in the Eon Bond films . Dench 's M makes a cameo appearance in Spectre in a video will , giving Bond a final order to hunt down and terminate someone , which ultimately leads him to the film 's titular criminal organisation .
There have also been brief references to M 's family : in GoldenEye , she responds to Tanner 's " Evil Queen of Numbers " jibe by telling him that when she wants to hear sarcasm she will listen to her children . Quantum of Solace director Marc Forster suggested that Dench 's casting gave the character maternal overtones in her relationship with Bond , overtones made overt in Skyfall , in which Silva repeatedly refers to her as " Mother " and " Mommy " [ sic ] . In Skyfall she is also revealed to be a widow .
Unlike the M played by other actors , Dench 's M was never referred to by name on @-@ screen . However , a prop from the final scene of Skyfall , where M bequeaths some of her possessions to Bond following her death , revealed that her character was given the name " Olivia Mansfield " . As the character was never directly referred to by this name , its canonicity is unresolved .
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= = = = Ralph Fiennes : 2012 – = = = =
After the death of Judi Dench 's M at the end of Skyfall , she is succeeded by Gareth Mallory , played by Ralph Fiennes . Mallory had been the Chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee prior to heading up MI6 , and is a former lieutenant colonel in the British Army . He served in Northern Ireland with the Special Air Service during the Troubles , where he had been held hostage by the Irish Republican Army for three months . In Spectre , the 00 Section of MI6 is briefly dismantled and Mallory demoted . He assists Bond in the field when it is revealed that the Nine Eyes initiative is part of Spectre 's plan for world domination .
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= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = John Huston / David Niven : 1967 = = = =
The 1967 satire Casino Royale featured not one but two Ms. The first is played by John Huston , who also co @-@ directed . In this film , M 's real name is McTarry and he is accidentally killed when , in order to get Bond out of retirement , he orders the military to fire mortars at Bond 's mansion when the retired spy refuses to return to duty . The first quarter of the film features Bond 's subsequent visit to McTarry Castle in Scotland , on a quest to return the only piece of M 's remains recovered after the attack — his bright red toupée . Subsequently , Bond — played by David Niven — becomes the new M and proceeds to order that all MI6 agents , male and female , be renamed " James Bond 007 " in order to confuse the enemy .
= = = = Edward Fox : 1983 = = = =
In 1983 's Never Say Never Again , Edward Fox played M as a bureaucrat , contemptuous of Bond — far removed from the relationship shared between Bernard Lee 's M and Sean Connery 's Bond ; the academic Jeremy Black notes that the contempt felt for the 00 section by Fox 's M was reciprocated by Connery 's Bond . Fox 's M is also younger than any of the previous incarnations . The media historian James Chapman notes that whilst M considers Bond to be an out @-@ dated relic , the Foreign Secretary orders the 00 section to be re @-@ activated .
= = Outside the regular Bond @-@ continuity = =
Alan Moore and Kevin O 'Neill 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comic series establishes that the 1898 @-@ era League ( led by Mina Harker ) was directed by Campion Bond ( James Bond 's grandfather ) , who served under a master called M. This M was later revealed to be none other than James Moriarty in disguise , using the League to win a gang war against Fu Manchu . After the death of Moriarty , Sherlock Holmes 's older brother Mycroft Holmes assumed the role of M. In the sequel volume The Black Dossier , set during a moribund and dystopian 1950s post @-@ war Britain , the head of the British secret service , M , is Harry Lime , from Graham Greene 's The Third Man . In the final volume of Century , spanning from 1910 to 2009 , the M of 2009 is an elderly Emma Peel from The Avengers . In the 2003 film adaptation of the series , M is once again Moriarty , and played by Richard Roxburgh .
= Incoming =
Incoming is a 3D shooter video game developed by Rage Software and published by Interplay . The game was first released for the PC in late 1998 , and was followed by a Sega Dreamcast version , which was released in Japan on December 17 , 1998 , in Europe on October 14 , 1999 , and in North America on November 30 , 1999 . Set in the near @-@ future of 2009 , the game primarily revolves around controlling vehicles and turrets to fight alien invaders of Earth in one of the Campaign modes , the Arcade mode , and with or against another player . Some levels include brief real @-@ time strategy segments .
Praised for its then @-@ advanced graphics and sound , the game was generally well @-@ received on the PC , though the critical response was less positive for the Dreamcast version . A sequel entitled Incoming Forces was released in 2002 exclusively for the PC . An arcade version of the game , utilising a unique hardware interface , was released in 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Primarily a vehicle simulation game , the player controls one of a number of possible vehicles in order to complete objectives . The vehicle used could be an aerial craft , defence emplacement , or surface craft , and is usually armed with a primary weapon ( with infinite ammunition ) and sometimes secondary weapons ( with either a limited or infinite supply ) . Incoming was also noted for its arcade style ; in particular , the logging of high scores and a " life " system .
There are three different game modes . The campaign mode follows the main storyline in which the player must complete a series of objectives to neutralise the alien threat . Typical goals include transporting cargo and defending allied convoys . Two variants of the campaign exist : " campaign action " purely consists of the simulation missions ; " campaign tactics " features the same main missions as campaign action , but with some extra sub @-@ missions . These sub @-@ missions take place in the " tactical display " , where the player controls several vehicles and gun emplacements in a similar manner to real @-@ time strategy games .
Either campaign consists of ten missions ( referred to as " phases " in the game ) in each of the six locations . These locations can also be accessed in the arcade mode . This mode sees the player fight off alien craft while picking up as many " power @-@ ups " ( items which confer some advantage upon the player , such as temporary invulnerability and upgraded weaponry ) as is possible . The same mechanics apply to the multiplayer mode , with some slight variations depending on the game type selected . Multiplayer is available in split @-@ screen mode on both platforms in addition to networking and Internet options on the PC version .
= = Story = =
Acknowledged by critics for having a simple storyline , Incoming is set in 2009 over a period of fifteen days . An increasing number of UFO sightings culminate in attacks on the international lunar base and other locations on Earth ; and the construction of a base in the Arctic . Secret work is started on an " ADATA " ( Anomaly Detection And Tracking Array ) near Mount Kilimanjaro . The events of the game take place after an attack on the ADATA facility is initiated by alien forces .
The game is set in six locations : Kenya , defending the ADATA facility ; the Arctic , attacking an alien base while defending a human one ; the North Atlantic Ocean , where the player must defend oil rigs and attack a second alien base ; California , where parts of a fleet to invade the alien 's moon base must be defended ; the Moon , attacking a further alien base ; and a planet in the Crab Nebula , assaulting the planet from which the alien attackers came .
If the player has completed these in the Campaign Action mode , then in addition to these ten missions in each location , there are bonus " virus " scenarios , with one level in each location . Shortly before these missions , the aliens launched four virus bombs which impacted in the four location on Earth the player had previously visited . All buildings in these areas must be destroyed by the player to prevent the virus from spreading further .
= = Technology and releases = =
Rage Software , developers of Incoming , were known for their cutting @-@ edge graphics and effects . Incoming was no exception . The game utilized the 3dfx technology , and was included in some retail versions of the Voodoo2 graphics card . Critics were praising the game 's visuals on its 1998 PC release . In particular , the explosions , similar special effects and cut scenes using the main game engine were noted for their quality . The Dolby Surround @-@ encoded sound was a further source of acclaim . The reception , however , was less positive when the game was ported to the Dreamcast . A release title for Sega 's console , critics complained that the graphics were not top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ range at the time of its late 1999 release , with the draw distance being cited as a specific hindrance on gameplay . An arcade version followed in 2003 , running on the Vortek V3 Global VR arcade board , utilising the system 's unique virtual reality hardware interface .
= = Critical reception = =
The PC version of Incoming was generally well @-@ received , with a GameSpot review aggregate score of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . British magazine PC Zone gave the game a glowing score of 90 % , describing it as " bloody good , " with " some modest simulation elements . " PC Zone praised the setting of the game : " a refreshing change from the deep space of most futuristic combat sims , and something which definitely has a positive effect on gameplay . " The review concluded by saying that " it 's as fun as it looks . Just for once , all those people who don 't read reviews and buy games purely on the strength of pretty pictures on the packaging are gonna find themselves playing a very , very enjoyable game . "
Though considering the game " pretty darn tough , " IGN praised the game 's variety and length . It also praised the sound and graphics , though the latter was a source of criticism : " Incoming 's got it all ... but it all comes at a high price : getting this game to run on our PCs was one big pain in the butt . " Despite calling it " an outstanding @-@ looking and great playing game , " IGN only gave the game a " decent " 7 @.@ 0 / 10 because of the system problems . Conversely , GameSpot 's review noted none of these hardware issues , praising the visuals as " some of the finest ... of any action game " . The reviewer , however , described the game design as " strong yet slightly flawed ... [ it ] definitely pulls you in , but leaves a little to be desired as far as keeping you there , " complaining that " what [ the developer ] have presented gets tiresome quickly . " Rating the game 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , GameSpot summarised the game as " a fine game and a definite must @-@ have for arcade fans ... What it lacks is a realization that computer games have moved beyond this simplistic style of gameplay " .
The Dreamcast port of Incoming received a mixed reaction from critics , with a Game Rankings average score of 63 % . IGN opened their review by saying that " although the game is lacking in many areas , there 's more than enough here for the hardcore shooting fans out there to have their requisite blast of shooting action . " Though criticizing the graphics ' ability to " get in the way at times , " the " very vague " mission briefings and the " odd flying model for the planes , " the reviewer conceded that " if you 're a hardcore shooting fan , and you 're looking for a good challenge , you 'll probably want to look into Incoming . " The game was given as score of 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . GameSpy 's review was harsher , describing the plot as " the same recycled garbage used in tons of other games of this type , " the multiplayer split screen mode as " lame " and the objectives as " mundane . " The reviewer also noted graphical issues , clipping problems and poor controls . Though dismissing the graphics as " a bit dated , " the reviewer did acknowledge the " nifty special effects . " Giving the game a score of 6 / 10 , it was admitted that " Incoming may be worth a rental ... [ it ] is only slightly better than mediocre . "
In a rare positive review for the Dreamcast version , GameVortex rated the game 9 / 10 . The reviewer described the visuals as " some of the most breathtaking visuals you 'll find in any game . " Though describing the multiplayer as " fun " , it considered " by far , the best [ mode to be ] Campaign mode . " The review concluded by describing the game as " lots of fun and highly recommended . "
= = Incoming Trilogy Digital Re @-@ Release = =
On March 12 , 2015 , Funbox Media , Ltd , owners of the Incoming brand , revealed that the Jordan Freeman Group was the only firm in the industry able to successfully convert the Incoming Subversion Expansion Pack for modern PCs . Incoming Trilogy comes bundled with the original Incoming , Incoming Forces , and the aforementioned , Incoming Subversion Expansion Pack . Incoming Trilogy comes bundled with its original soundtracks and original manuals . The Incoming Trilogy is being distributed exclusively via JFG 's ZOOM @-@ Platform.com.
= German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee =
Admiral Graf Spee was a Deutschland @-@ class " Panzerschiff " ( armored ship ) , nicknamed a " pocket battleship " by the British , which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . The two sister @-@ ships of her class , Deutschland and Admiral Scheer , were reclassified as heavy cruisers in 1940 . The vessel was named after Admiral Maximilian von Spee , commander of the East Asia Squadron that fought the battles of Coronel and the Falkland Islands , where he was killed in action , in World War I. She was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in October 1932 and completed by January 1936 . The ship was nominally under the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limitation on warship size imposed by the Treaty of Versailles , though with a full load displacement of 16 @,@ 020 long tons ( 16 @,@ 280 t ) , she significantly exceeded it . Armed with six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns in two triple gun turrets , Admiral Graf Spee and her sisters were designed to outgun any cruiser fast enough to catch them . Their top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) left only the few battlecruisers in the Anglo @-@ French navies fast enough and powerful enough to sink them .
The ship conducted five non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 – 1938 , and participated in the Coronation Review of King George VI in May 1937 . Admiral Graf Spee was deployed to the South Atlantic in the weeks before the outbreak of World War II , to be positioned in merchant sea lanes once war was declared . Between September and December 1939 , the ship sank nine ships totaling 50 @,@ 089 gross register tons ( GRT ) , before being confronted by three British cruisers at the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December . Admiral Graf Spee inflicted heavy damage on the British ships , but she too was damaged , and was forced to put into port at Montevideo . Convinced by false reports of superior British naval forces approaching his ship , Hans Langsdorff , the commander of the ship , ordered the vessel to be scuttled . The ship was partially broken up in situ , though part of the ship remains visible above the surface of the water .
= = Design = =
Admiral Graf Spee was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 65 m ( 71 @.@ 0 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 34 m ( 24 @.@ 1 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 14
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@,@ 890 t ( 14 @,@ 650 long tons ; 16 @,@ 410 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 16 @,@ 020 long tons ( 16 @,@ 280 t ) , though the ship was officially stated to be within the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Treaty of Versailles . Admiral Graf Spee was powered by four sets of MAN 9 @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines . The ship 's top speed was 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , at 54 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 40 @,@ 000 kW ) . At a cruising speed of 18 @.@ 69 knots ( 34 @.@ 61 km / h ; 21 @.@ 51 mph ) , the ship had a range of 16 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 30 @,@ 200 km ; 18 @,@ 800 mi ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 33 officers and 586 enlisted men , though after 1935 this was significantly increased to 30 officers and 921 – 1 @,@ 040 sailors .
Admiral Graf Spee 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery originally consisted of three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 guns , though in 1935 these were replaced with six 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 78 guns . In 1938 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed , and six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns were installed in their place . The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Admiral Graf Spee 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 17 to 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick faces and 80 mm thick sides . Radar consisted of a FMG G ( gO ) " Seetakt " set ; Admiral Graf Spee was the first German warship to be equipped with radar equipment .
= = Service history = =
Admiral Graf Spee was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . Ordered as Ersatz Braunschweig , Admiral Graf Spee replaced the reserve battleship Braunschweig . Her keel was laid on 1 October 1932 , under construction number 125 . The ship was launched on 30 June 1934 ; at her launching , she was christened by the daughter of Admiral Maximilian von Spee , the ship 's namesake . She was completed slightly over a year and a half later on 6 January 1936 , the day she was commissioned into the German fleet .
Admiral Graf Spee spent the first three months of her career conducting extensive sea trials to ready the ship for service . The ship 's first commander was Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Conrad Patzig ; he was replaced in 1937 by KzS Walter Warzecha . After joining the fleet , Admiral Graf Spee became the flagship of the German Navy . In the summer of 1936 , following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , she deployed to the Atlantic to participate in non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . Between August 1936 and May 1937 , the ship conducted three patrols off Spain . On the return voyage from Spain , Admiral Graf Spee stopped in Great Britain to represent Germany in the Coronation Review at Spithead for King George VI on 20 May .
After the conclusion of the Review , Admiral Graf Spee returned to Spain for a fourth non @-@ intervention patrol . Following fleet manoeuvres and a brief visit to Sweden , the ship conducted a fifth and final patrol in February 1938 . In 1938 , KzS Hans Langsdorff took command of the vessel ; she conducted a series of goodwill visits to various foreign ports throughout the year . These included cruises into the Atlantic , where she stopped in Tangier and Vigo . She also participated in extensive fleet manoeuvres in German waters . She was part of the celebrations for the reintegration of the port of Memel into Germany , and a fleet review in honour of Admiral Miklós Horthy , the Regent of Hungary . Between 18 April and 17 May 1939 , she conducted another cruise into the Atlantic , stopping in the ports of Ceuta and Lisbon . On 21 August 1939 , Admiral Graf Spee departed Wilhelmshaven , bound for the South Atlantic .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of war between Germany and the Allies in September 1939 , Adolf Hitler ordered the German Navy to begin commerce raiding against Allied merchant traffic . Hitler nevertheless delayed issuing the order until it became clear that Britain would not countenance a peace treaty following the conquest of Poland . The Admiral Graf Spee was instructed to strictly adhere to prize rules , which required raiders to stop and search ships for contraband before sinking them , and to ensure that their crews are safely evacuated . Langsdorff was ordered to avoid combat , even with inferior opponents , and to frequently change position . On 1 September , the cruiser rendezvoused with her supply ship Altmark southwest of the Canary Islands . While replenishing his fuel supplies , Langsdorff ordered superfluous equipment transferred to the Altmark ; this included several of the ship 's boats , flammable paint , and two of her ten 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns , which were installed on the tanker .
On 11 September , while still transferring supplies from Altmark , Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado floatplane spotted the British heavy cruiser HMS Cumberland approaching the two German ships . Langsdorff ordered both vessels to depart at high speed , successfully evading the British cruiser . On 26 September , the ship finally received orders authorizing attacks on Allied merchant shipping . Four days later Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado located Booth Steam Ship Co 's cargo ship Clement off the coast of Brazil . The cargo ship transmitted an " RRR " signal ( " I am under attack by a raider " ) before the cruiser ordered her to stop . Admiral Graf Spee took Clement 's captain and chief engineer prisoner but let the rest of her crew to abandon ship in the lifeboats . The cruiser then fired 30 rounds from her 28 cm and 15 cm guns and two torpedoes at the cargo ship , which broke up and sank . Langsdorff ordered a distress signal sent to the naval station in Pernambuco to ensure the rescue of the ship 's crew . The British Admiralty immediately issued a warning to merchant shipping that a German surface raider was in the area . The British crew later reached the Brazilian coast in their lifeboats .
On 5 October , the British and French navies formed eight groups to hunt down Admiral Graf Spee in the South Atlantic . The British aircraft carriers HMS Hermes , Eagle , and Ark Royal , the French aircraft carrier Béarn , the British battlecruiser Renown , and French battleships Dunkerque and Strasbourg , and 16 cruisers were committed to the hunt . Force G , commanded by Commodore Henry Harwood and assigned to the east coast of South America , comprised the cruisers Cumberland and Exeter . Force G was reinforced by the light cruisers Ajax and Achilles ; Harwood detached Cumberland to patrol the area off the Falkland Islands while his other three cruisers patrolled off the River Plate .
On the same day as the formation of the Anglo @-@ French hunter groups , Admiral Graf Spee captured the steamer Newton Beech . Two days later , she encountered and sank the merchant ship Ashlea . On 8 October , the following day , she sank Newton Beech , which Langsdorff had been using to house prisoners . Newton Beech was too slow to keep up with Admiral Graf Spee , and so the prisoners were transferred to the cruiser . On 10 October , she captured the steamer Huntsman , the captain of which had not sent a distress signal until the last minute , as he had mistakenly identified Admiral Graf Spee as a French warship . Unable to accommodate the crew from Huntsman , Admiral Graf Spee sent the ship to a rendezvous location with a prize crew . On 15 October , Admiral Graf Spee rendezvoused with Altmark to refuel and transfer prisoners ; the following morning , the prize Huntsman joined the two ships . The prisoners aboard Huntsman were transferred to Altmark and Langsdorff then sank Huntsman on the night of 17 October .
On 22 October , Admiral Graf Spee encountered and sank the steamer Trevanion . At the end of October , Langsdorff sailed his ship into the Indian Ocean south of Madagascar . The purpose of that foray was to divert Allied warships away from the South Atlantic , and to confuse the Allies about his intentions . By this time , Admiral Graf Spee had cruised for almost 30 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 56 @,@ 000 km ; 35 @,@ 000 mi ) and needed an engine overhaul . On 15 November , the ship sank the tanker Africa Shell , and the following day , she stopped an unidentified Dutch steamer , though did not sink her . Admiral Graf Spee returned to the Atlantic between 17 and 26 November to refuel from Altmark . While replenishing supplies , the crew of Admiral Graf Spee built a dummy gun turret on her bridge and erected a dummy second funnel behind the aircraft catapult to alter her silhouette significantly in a bid to confuse allied shipping as to her true identity .
Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado floatplane located the merchant ship Doric Star : Langsdorff fired a shot across her bow to stop the ship . Doric Star was able to send out a distress signal before she was sunk , which prompted Harwood to take his three cruisers to the mouth of the River Plate , which he estimated would be Langsdorff 's next target . On the night of 5 December , Admiral Graf Spee sank the steamer Tairoa . The next day , she met with Altmark and transferred 140 prisoners from Doric Star and Tairoa . Admiral Graf Spee encountered her last victim on the evening of 7 December : the freighter Streonshalh . The prize crew recovered secret documents containing shipping route information . Based on that information , Langsdorff decided to head for the seas off Montevideo . On 12 December , the ship 's Arado 196 broke down and could not be repaired , depriving Graf Spee of her aerial reconnaissance . The ship 's disguise was removed , so it would not hinder the ship in battle .
= = = = Battle of the River Plate = = = =
At 05 : 30 on the morning of 13 December 1939 , lookouts spotted a pair of masts off the ship 's starboard bow . Langsdorff assumed this to be the escort for a convoy mentioned in the documents recovered from Tairoa . At 05 : 52 , however , the ship was identified as HMS Exeter ; she was accompanied by a pair of smaller warships , initially thought to be destroyers but quickly identified as Leander @-@ class cruisers . Langsdorff decided not to flee from the British ships , and so ordered his ship to battle stations and to close at maximum speed . At 06 : 08 , the British spotted Admiral Graf Spee ; Commodore Harwood divided his forces up to split the fire of Admiral Graf Spee 's 28 cm guns . The German ship opened fire with her main battery at Exeter and her secondary guns at the flagship Ajax at 06 : 17 . At 06 : 20 , Exeter returned fire , followed by Ajax at 06 : 21 and Achilles at 06 : 24 . In the span of thirty minutes , Admiral Graf Spee had hit Exeter three times , disabling her two forward turrets , destroying her bridge and her aircraft catapult , and starting major fires . Ajax and Achilles moved closer to Admiral Graf Spee to relieve the pressure on Exeter .
Langsdorff thought the two light cruisers were making a torpedo attack , and turned away under a smokescreen . The respite allowed Exeter to withdraw from the action ; by now , only one of her gun turrets was still in action , and she had suffered 61 dead and 23 wounded crew members . At around 07 : 00 , Exeter returned to the engagement , firing from her stern turret . Admiral Graf Spee fired on her again , scored more hits , and forced Exeter to withdraw again , this time with a list to port . At 07 : 25 , Admiral Graf Spee scored a hit on Ajax that disabled her aft turrets . Both sides broke off the action , Admiral Graf Spee retreating into the River Plate estuary , while Harwood 's battered cruisers remained outside to observe any possible breakout attempts . In the course of the engagement , Admiral Graf Spee had been hit approximately 70 times ; 36 men were killed and 60 more were wounded , including Langsdorff , who had been wounded twice by splinters while standing on the open bridge .
= = = = Scuttling = = = =
As a result of battle damage and casualties , Langsdorff decided to put into Montevideo , where repairs could be effected and the wounded men could be evacuated from the ship . Most of the hits scored by the British cruisers caused only minor structural and superficial damage but the oil purification plant , which was required to prepare the diesel fuel for the engines , was destroyed . Her desalination plant and galley were also destroyed , which would have increased the difficulty of a return to Germany . A hit in the bow would also have negatively affected her seaworthiness in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic . Admiral Graf Spee had fired much of her ammunition in the engagement with Harwood 's cruisers .
After arriving in port , the wounded crewmen were taken to local hospitals and the dead were buried with full military honours . Captive Allied seamen still aboard the ship were released . Repairs necessary to make the ship seaworthy were expected to take up to two weeks . British naval intelligence worked to convince Langsdorff that vastly superior forces were concentrating to destroy his ship , if he attempted to break out of the harbour . The Admiralty broadcast a series of signals , on frequencies known to be intercepted by German intelligence . The closest heavy units — the carrier Ark Royal and battlecruiser Renown — were some 2 @,@ 500 nmi ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) away , much too far to intervene in the situation . Believing the British reports , Langsdorff discussed his options with commanders in Berlin . These were either to break out and seek refuge in Buenos Aires , where the Argentine government would intern the ship , or to scuttle the ship in the Plate estuary .
Langsdorff was unwilling to risk the lives of his crew , so he decided to scuttle the ship . He knew that although Uruguay was neutral , the government was on friendly terms with Britain and if he allowed his ship to be interned , the Uruguayan Navy would allow British intelligence officers access to the ship . Under Article 17 of the Hague Convention , neutrality restrictions limited Admiral Graf Spee to a period of 72 hours for repairs in Montevideo , before she would be interned for the duration of the war . On 17 December 1939 , Langsdorff ordered the destruction of all important equipment aboard the ship . The ship 's remaining ammunition supply was dispersed throughout the ship , in preparation for scuttling . On 18 December , the ship , with only Langsdorff and 40 other men aboard , moved into the outer roadstead to be scuttled . A crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched as the scuttling charges were set ; the crew was taken off by an Argentine tug and the ship was scuttled at 20 : 55 . The multiple explosions from the munitions sent jets of flame high into the air and created a large cloud of smoke that obscured the ship which burned in the shallow water for the next two days .
On 20 December , in his room in a Buenos Aires hotel , Langsdorff shot himself in full dress uniform and lying on the ship 's battle ensign . In late January 1940 , the neutral American cruiser USS Helena arrived in Montevideo and the crew was permitted to visit the wreck of Admiral Graf Spee . The Americans met the German crewmen , who were still in Montevideo . In the aftermath of the scuttling , the ship 's crew were taken to Argentina , where they were interned for the remainder of the war .
= = = Wreck = = =
The wreck was partially broken up in situ in 1942 – 1943 , though parts of the ship are still visible ; the wreck lies at a depth of only 11 m ( 36 ft ) . The salvage rights were purchased from the German Government by the British , for £ 14 @,@ 000 , using a Montevideo engineering company as a front . The British had been surprised by the accuracy of the shooting and expected to find a radar range finder and were not disappointed . They used the knowledge thus acquired to try to develop countermeasures , under the leadership of Fred Hoyle at the British radar project . The Admiralty complained about the large sum paid for the salvage rights .
In February 2004 , a salvage team began work raising the wreck of Admiral Graf Spee . The operation was in part being funded by the government of Uruguay , in part by the private sector as the wreck was a hazard to navigation . The first major section — a 27 metric tons ( 27 long tons ; 30 short tons ) gunnery range @-@ finding telemeter — was raised on 25 February . On 10 February 2006 , the 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) , 400 kg eagle and swastika crest of Admiral Graf Spee was recovered from the stern of the ship ; it was stored in a Uruguayan naval warehouse following German complaints about exhibiting " Nazi paraphernalia " .
= Sesame Street =
Sesame Street is a long @-@ running American children 's television series created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett . The program is known for its educational content , and images communicated through the use of Jim Henson 's Muppets , animation , short films , humor , and cultural references . The series premiered on November 10 , 1969 , to positive reviews , some controversy , and high viewership ; it has aired on the U.S. ' s national public television provider ( PBS ) since its debut , with its first run moving to premium channel HBO on January 16 , 2016 .
The show has undergone significant changes throughout its history . The format of Sesame Street consists of a combination of commercial television production elements and techniques which have evolved to reflect the changes in American culture and the audience 's viewing habits . With the creation of Sesame Street , producers and writers of a children 's television show used , for the first time , educational goals and a curriculum to shape its content . It was also the first time a show 's educational effects were studied .
Shortly after creating Sesame Street , its producers developed what came to be called the " CTW model " ( named for the show 's production company , the Children 's Television Workshop ) , a system of television show planning , production , and evaluation based on collaborations between producers , writers , educators , and researchers . The show was initially funded by government and private foundations but has become somewhat self @-@ supporting due to revenues from licensing arrangements , international sales , and other media . By 2006 , there were independently produced versions , or " co @-@ productions " , of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries . In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of various international versions of Sesame Street , and by the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , it was broadcast in more than 140 countries .
By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was the fifteenth @-@ highest rated children 's television show in the United States . A 1996 survey found that 95 % of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old . In 2008 , it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children . As of 2014 , Sesame Street has won 159 Emmy Awards and 8 Grammy Awards — more than any other children 's show .
= = History = =
Sesame Street was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Foundation vice president Lloyd Morrisett . Their goal was to create a children 's television show that would " master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them " , such as helping young children prepare for school . After two years of research the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) received a combined grant of US $ 8 million ( $ 52 million in 2016 dollars ) from the Carnegie Foundation , the Ford Foundation , and the U.S. Federal Government to create and produce a new children 's television show . The program premiered on public television stations on November 10 , 1969 . It was the first preschool educational television program to base its contents and production values on laboratory and formative research . Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews , some controversy , and high ratings . By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries , and 20 international versions had been produced .
Sesame Street has evolved from its initial inception . According to writer Michael Davis , by the mid @-@ 1970s the show had become " an American institution " . The cast and crew expanded during this time , with emphasis on the hiring of women crew members and the addition of minorities to the cast . The show 's success continued into the 1980s . In 1981 , when the federal government withdrew its funding , CTW turned to , and expanded , other revenue sources , including its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing , and foreign broadcast income . Sesame Street 's curriculum has expanded to include more affective topics such as relationships , ethics , and emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast , and crew , most notably , the 1982 death of Will Lee — who played Mr. Hooper — and the marriage of Luis and Maria in 1988 .
In recent years Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges , including changes in viewing habits of young children , competition from other shows , the development of cable television , and a drop in ratings . After the turn of the 21st century , Sesame Street made major structural changes . For example , starting in 2002 , its format became more narrative and included ongoing storylines . After its thirtieth anniversary in 1999 and due to the popularity of the Muppet Elmo , the show also incorporated a popular segment known as " Elmo 's World " . Upon its fortieth anniversary in 2009 , the show received a Lifetime Achievement Emmy at the 36th Daytime Emmy Awards .
On August 13 , 2015 , as part of a five @-@ year programming and development deal , Sesame Workshop announced that first @-@ run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO beginning with season 46 , which premiered on January 16 , 2016 . HBO will hold first @-@ run rights to all newer episodes of the series , after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine @-@ month exclusivity window , with no charge to the stations for airing the content . The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix ; on August 14 , Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in @-@ house subscription streaming service , Sesame Go , as a standalone service ; the service will remain in operation , likely with its offerings reduced to a slate content available for free or serving as a portal for Sesame Street 's website . The deal came in the wake of cutbacks that had affected the series in recent years , the changing viewer habits of American children in the previous ten years , and Sesame Workshop 's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales .
= = Format = =
From its first episode , Sesame Street has structured its format by using " a strong visual style , fast @-@ moving action , humor , and music , " as well as animation and live @-@ action short films . When Sesame Street premiered , most researchers believed that young children did not have long attention spans , therefore the new show 's producers were concerned that an hour @-@ long show would not hold their audience 's attention . At first , the show 's " street scenes " — the action taking place on its set — consisted of character @-@ driven interactions and were not written as ongoing stories . Instead , they consisted of individual , curriculum @-@ based segments which were interrupted by " inserts " consisting of puppet sketches , short films , and animations . This structure allowed the producers to use a mixture of styles and characters , and to vary the show 's pace . By season 20 , research had shown that children were able to follow a story , and the street scenes , while still interspersed with other segments , became evolving storylines .
Upon recommendations by child psychologists , the producers initially decided that the show 's human actors and Muppets would not interact because they were concerned it would confuse young children . When the CTW tested the appeal of the new show , they found that although children paid attention to the shows during the Muppet segments , their interest was lost during the " Street " segments . The producers requested that Henson and his team create Muppets such as Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch to interact with the human actors , and the Street segments were re @-@ shot . Sesame Street 's format remained intact until the show 's later decades , when the changing audience required that producers move to a more narrative format . In 1998 the popular segment " Elmo 's World " , a 15 @-@ minute long segment hosted by the Muppet Elmo , was created . Starting in 2014 , during the show 's 45th season , the producers introduced a bonus half @-@ hour version of the program . The new version , which complemented the full @-@ hour series , was both broadcast weekday afternoons and streamed on the internet .
= = Educational goals = =
As author Malcolm Gladwell has stated , " Sesame Street was built around a single , breakthrough insight : that if you can hold the attention of children , you can educate them " . Gerald S. Lesser , the CTW 's first advisory board chair , went even further , saying that the effective use of television as an educational tool needed to capture , focus , and sustain children 's attention . Sesame Street was the first children 's show to structure each episode , and the segments within them , to capture children 's attention , and to make , as Gladwell put it , " small but critical adjustments " to keep it . According to CTW researchers Rosemarie Truglio and Shalom Fisch , Sesame Street was one of the few children 's television programs to utilize a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum , garnered from formative and summative research .
The creators of Sesame Street and their researchers formulated both cognitive and affective goals for the show . Initially , they focused on cognitive goals , while addressing affective goals indirectly , in the belief that doing so would increase children 's self @-@ esteem and feelings of competency . One of their primary goals was preparing very young children for school , especially children from low @-@ income families , using modeling , repetition , and humor to fulfill these goals . They made changes in the show 's content to increase their viewers ' attention and to increase its appeal , and encouraged " co @-@ viewing " to entice older children and parents to watch the show by including more sophisticated humor , cultural references , and celebrity guest appearances .
After Sesame Street 's first season , its critics forced its producers and researchers to address more overtly such affective goals as social competence , tolerance of diversity , and nonaggressive ways of resolving conflict . These issues were addressed through interpersonal disputes among its Street characters . During the 1980s , the show incorporated the real @-@ life experiences of the show 's cast and crew , including the death of Will Lee ( Mr. Hooper ) and the pregnancy of Sonia Manzano ( Maria ) to address affective concerns . In later seasons , Sesame Street addressed real @-@ life disasters such as the September 11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina .
The show 's goals for outreach were addressed through a series of programs that first focused on promotion and then , after the first season , on the development of educational materials used in preschool settings . Innovative programs were developed because their target audience , children and their families in low @-@ income , inner @-@ city homes , did not traditionally watch educational programs on television and because traditional methods of promotion and advertising were not effective with these groups .
= = Funding = =
As a result of Cooney 's initial proposal in 1968 , the Carnegie Institute awarded her an $ 8 million ( $ 52 million in 2016 dollars ) grant to create a new children 's television program and establish the CTW , renamed in June 2000 to Sesame Workshop ( SW ) . Cooney and Morrisett procured additional multimillion @-@ dollar grants from the U.S. federal government , The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations , CPB , and the Ford Foundation . Davis reported that Cooney and Morrisett decided that if they did not procure full funding from the beginning , they would drop the idea of producing the show . As Lesser reported , funds gained from a combination of government agencies and private foundations protected them from the economic pressures experienced by commercial broadcast television networks , but created challenges in procuring future funding .
After Sesame Street 's initial success , its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources . From the first season , they understood that the source of their funding , which they considered " seed " money , would need to be replaced . The 1970s were marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government ; in 1978 , the U.S. Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of CTW 's fiscal year . As a result , the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements with toy companies and other manufacturers , publishing , and international sales for their funding .
In 1998 , the CTW accepted corporate sponsorship to raise funds for Sesame Street and other projects . For the first time , they allowed short advertisements by indoor playground manufacturer Discovery Zone , their first corporate sponsor , to air before and after each episode . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader , who had previously appeared on Sesame Street , called for a boycott of the show , saying that the CTW was " exploiting impressionable children " .
= = Production = =
= = = Research = = =
Producer Joan Ganz Cooney has stated , " Without research , there would be no Sesame Street " . In 1967 , when Cooney and her team began to plan the show 's development , combining research with television production was , as she put it , " positively heretical " . Shortly after creating Sesame Street , its producers began to develop what came to be called " the CTW model " , a system of planning , production , and evaluation that did not fully emerge until the end of the show 's first season . According to Morrow , the CTW model consisted of four parts : " the interaction of receptive television producers and child science experts , the creation of a specific and age @-@ appropriate curriculum , research to shape the program directly , and independent measurement of viewers ' learning " .
Cooney credited the show 's high standard in research procedures to Harvard professors Gerald S. Lesser , whom the CTW hired to design the show 's educational objectives , and Edward L. Palmer , who was responsible for conducting the show 's formative research and for bridging the gap between the show 's producers and researchers . The CTW conducted research in two ways : in @-@ house formative research that informed and improved production , and independent summative evaluations , conducted by the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) during the show 's first two seasons , which measuring its educational effectiveness . Cooney stated , " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " . Cooney also described the collaboration as an " arranged marriage " .
= = = Writing = = =
Sesame Street has used many writers in its long history . As Dave Connell , one of Sesame Street 's original producers , has stated , it was difficult to find adults who could identify a preschooler 's interest level . Fifteen writers a year worked on the show 's scripts , but very few lasted longer than one season . Norman Stiles , head writer in 1987 , reported that most writers would " burn out " after writing about a dozen scripts . According to Gikow , Sesame Street went against the convention of hiring teachers to write for the show , as most educational television programs did at the time . Instead , Cooney and the producers felt that it would be easier to teach writers how to interpret curriculum than to teach educators how to write comedy . As Stone stated , " Writing for children is not so easy " . Long @-@ time writer Tony Geiss agreed , stating in 2009 , " It 's not an easy show to write . You have to know the characters and the format and how to teach and be funny at the same time , which is a big , ambidextrous stunt " .
The show 's research team developed an annotated document , or " Writer 's Notebook " , which served as a bridge between the show 's curriculum goals and script development . The notebook was a compilation of programming ideas designed to teach specific curriculum points , provided extended definitions of curriculum goals , and assisted the writers and producers in translating the goals into televised material . Suggestions in the notebook were free of references to specific characters and contexts on the show so that they could be implemented as openly and flexibly as possible .
The research team , in a series of meetings with the writers , also developed " a curriculum sheet " that described the show 's goals and priorities for each season . After receiving the curriculum focus and goals for the season , the writers met to discuss ideas and story arcs for the characters , and an " assignment sheet " was created that suggested how much time was allotted for each goal and topic . When a script was completed , the show 's research team analyzed it to ensure that the goals were met . Then each production department met to determine what each episode needed in terms of costumes , lights , and sets . The writers were present during the show 's taping , which for the first twenty @-@ four years of the show took place in Manhattan , and after 1992 , at the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens to make last @-@ minute revisions when necessary .
= = = Media = = =
Early in their history Sesame Street and the CTW began to look for alternative funding sources and turned to creating products and writing licensing agreements . They became , as Cooney put it , " a multiple @-@ media institution " . In 1970 , the CTW created a " non @-@ broadcast " division responsible for creating and publishing books and Sesame Street Magazine . They decided that all materials their licensing program created would " underscore and amplify " the show 's curriculum . In 2004 , over 68 % of
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als , unscripted , and spontaneous . Many of their reactions were unpredictable and difficult to control , but the adult cast learned to handle the children 's spontaneity flexibly , even when it resulted in departures from the planned script or lesson . CTW research also revealed that the children 's hesitations and on @-@ air mistakes served as models for viewers . According to Morrow , this resulted in the show having a " fresh quality " , especially in its early years . Children were also used in the voice @-@ over commentaries of most of the live @-@ action films the CTW produced .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
When Sesame Street premiered in 1969 , it aired on only 67 @.@ 6 % of American televisions , but it earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , which totaled 1 @.@ 9 million households . By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , 9 million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . According to a 1993 survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education , out of the show 's 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , 2 @.@ 4 million kindergartners regularly watched it . 77 % of preschoolers watched it once a week , and 86 % of kindergartners and first- and second @-@ grade students had watched it once a week before starting school . The show reached most young children in almost all demographic groups .
The show 's ratings significantly decreased in the early 1990s , resulting from changes in children 's viewing habits and in the television marketplace . The producers responded by making large @-@ scale structural changes to the show . By 2006 , Sesame Street had become " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " , with 20 international independent versions and broadcasts in over 120 countries . A 1996 survey found that 95 % of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old . In 2008 , it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children . By the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television .
= = = Influence = = =
As of 2001 , there were over 1 @,@ 000 research studies regarding Sesame Street 's efficacy , impact , and effect on American culture . The CTW solicited the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) to conduct summative research on the show . ETS 's two " landmark " summative evaluations , conducted in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrated that the show had a significant educational impact on its viewers . These studies have been cited in other studies of the effects of television on young children . Additional studies conducted throughout Sesame Street 's history demonstrated that the show continued to have a positive effect on its young viewers .
Lesser believed that Sesame Street research " may have conferred a new respectability upon the studies of the effects of visual media upon children " . He also believed that the show had the same effect on the prestige of producing shows for children in the television industry . Historian Robert Morrow , in his book Sesame Street and the Reform of Children 's Television , which chronicled the show 's influence on children 's television and on the television industry as a whole , reported that many critics of commercial television saw Sesame Street as a " straightforward illustration for reform " . Les Brown , a writer for Variety , saw in Sesame Street " a hope for a more substantial future " for television .
Morrow reported that the networks responded by creating more high @-@ quality television programs , but that many critics saw them as " appeasement gestures " . According to Morrow , despite the CTW Model 's effectiveness in creating a popular show , commercial television " made only a limited effort to emulate CTW 's methods " , and did not use a curriculum or evaluate what children learned from them . By the mid @-@ 1970s , commercial television abandoned their experiments with creating better children 's programming . Other critics hoped that Sesame Street , with its depiction of a functioning , multicultural community , would nurture racial tolerance in its young viewers . It was not until the mid @-@ 1990s when a children 's television educational program , Blue 's Clues , used the CTW 's methods to create and modify their content . The creators of Blue 's Clues were influenced by Sesame Street , but wanted to use research conducted in the 30 years since its debut . Angela Santomero , one of its producers , said , " We wanted to learn from Sesame Street and take it one step further " .
As critic Richard Roeper has stated , perhaps one of the strongest indicators of the influence of Sesame Street has been the enduring rumors and urban legends surrounding the show and its characters , especially those concerning Bert and Ernie .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sesame Street was praised from its debut in 1969 . Newsday reported that several newspapers and magazines had written " glowing " reports about the CTW and Cooney . The press overwhelmingly praised the new show ; several popular magazines and niche magazines lauded it . In 1970 , Sesame Street won twenty awards , including a Peabody Award , three Emmys , an award from the Public Relations Society of America , a Clio , and a Prix Jeunesse . By 1995 , the show had won two Peabody Awards and four Parents ' Choice Awards . In addition , it was the subject of retrospectives at the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of Modern Art .
Sesame Street was not without its detractors , however . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi , the state Henson was actually from , voted to ban Sesame Street because of its " highly integrated cast of children " which " the commission members felt ... Mississippi was not yet ready for " . According to Children and Television , Lesser 's account of the development and early years of Sesame Street , there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . Historian Robert W. Morrow speculated that much of the early criticism , which he called " surprisingly intense " , stemmed from cultural and historical reasons in regards to , as he put it , " the place of children in American society and the controversies about television 's effects on them " .
According to Morrow , the " most important " studies finding negative effects of Sesame Street were conducted by educator Herbert A. Sprigle and psychologist Thomas D. Cook during its first two seasons . Social scientist and Head Start Program founder Urie Bronfenbrenner criticized the show for being too wholesome . Psychologist Leon Eisenberg saw Sesame Street 's urban setting as " superficial " and having little to do with the problems confronted by the inner @-@ city child . Head Start director Edward Zigler was probably Sesame Street 's most vocal critic in the show 's early years .
In spite of their commitment to multiculturalism , the CTW experienced conflicts with the leadership of minority groups , especially Latino groups and feminists , who objected to Sesame Street 's depiction of Latinos and women . The CTW took steps to address their objections . By 1971 , the CTW hired Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers , and by the mid @-@ 1970s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " . As The New York Times has stated , creating strong female characters " that make kids laugh , but not ... as female stereotypes " has been a challenge for the producers of Sesame Street . According to Morrow , change regarding how women and girls were depicted on Sesame Street occurred slowly . As more female Muppets performers like Fran Brill , Pam Arciero , Carmen Osbahr , Stephanie D 'Abruzzo , Jennifer Barnhart , and Leslie Carrara @-@ Rudolph were hired and trained , stronger female characters like Rosita and Abby Cadabby were created .
In 2002 , Sesame Street was ranked No. 27 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time . It also won another Peabody Award in 2009 for sesamestreet.org. In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the series No. 30 on its list of the 60 Best Series . As of 2016 , Sesame Street has received 167 Emmy Awards , more than any other television series .
= Vegetable =
In everyday usage , a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a savory meal . The term " vegetable " is somewhat arbitrary , and largely defined through culinary and cultural tradition . It normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits , nuts and cereal grains , but includes seeds such as pulses . The original meaning of the word vegetable , still used in biology , was to describe all types of plant , as in the terms " vegetable kingdom " and " vegetable matter " .
Originally , vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter @-@ gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world , probably during the period 10 @,@ 000 BC to 7 @,@ 000 BC , when a new agricultural way of life developed . At first , plants which grew locally would have been cultivated , but as time went on , trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types . Nowadays , most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits , and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations . China is the largest producer of vegetables , and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries . The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food , to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single @-@ product crops . Depending on the type of vegetable concerned , harvesting the crop is followed by grading , storing , processing and marketing .
Vegetables can be eaten either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition , being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates , but high in vitamins , minerals and fiber . Many governments encourage their citizens to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables , five or more portions a day often being recommended .
= = Etymology = =
The word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century . It comes from Old French , and was originally applied to all plants ; the word is still used in this sense in biological contexts . It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis " growing , flourishing " ( i.e. of a plant ) , a semantic change from a Late Latin meaning " to be enlivening , quickening " .
The meaning of " vegetable " as a " plant grown for food " was not established until the 18th century . In 1767 , the word was specifically used to mean a " plant cultivated for food , an edible herb or root " . The year 1955 noted the first use of the shortened , slang term " veggie " .
As an adjective , the word vegetable is used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning , namely of " related to plants " in general , edible or not — as in vegetable matter , vegetable kingdom , vegetable origin , etc .
= = Terminology = =
The exact definition of " vegetable " may vary simply because of the many parts of a plant consumed as food worldwide – roots , tubers , bulbs , corms , stems , leaf stems , leaf sheaths , leaves , buds , flowers , fruits and seeds . The broadest definition is the word 's use adjectivally to mean " matter of plant origin " to distinguish it from " animal " , meaning " matter of animal origin " . More specifically , a vegetable may be defined as " any plant , part of which is used for food " , a secondary meaning then being " the edible part of such a plant " . A more precise definition is " any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed , but including mature fruits that are eaten as part of a main meal " . Falling outside these definitions are mushrooms and other edible fungi , as well as edible seaweed which , although not parts of green plants , are often treated as vegetables .
In everyday language , the words " fruit " and " vegetable " are mutually exclusive . " Fruit " has a precise botanical meaning , being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant . This is considerably different from the word 's culinary meaning . While peaches , plums , and oranges are " fruit " in both senses , many items commonly called " vegetables " , such as eggplants , bell peppers and tomatoes , are botanically fruits . The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893 . The court ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden that a tomato is correctly identified as , and thus taxed as , a vegetable , for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 on imported produce . The court did acknowledge , however , that , botanically speaking , a tomato is a fruit .
= = History = =
Before the advent of agriculture , humans were hunter @-@ gatherers . They foraged for edible fruit , nuts , stems , leaves , corms and tubers , scavenged for dead animals and hunted living ones for food . Forest gardening in a tropical jungle clearing is thought to be the first example of agriculture ; useful plant species were identified and encouraged to grow while undesirable species were removed . Plant breeding through the selection of strains with desirable traits such as large fruit and vigorous growth soon followed . While the first evidence for the domestication of grasses such as wheat and barley has been found in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East , it is likely that various peoples around the world started growing crops in the period 10 @,@ 000 BC to 7 @,@ 000 BC . Subsistence agriculture continues to this day , with many rural farmers in Africa , Asia , South America and elsewhere using their plots of land to produce enough food for their families , while any surplus produce is used for exchange for other goods .
Throughout recorded history , the rich have been able to afford a varied diet including meat , vegetables and fruit , but for poor people , meat was a luxury and the food they ate was very dull , typically comprising mainly some staple product made from rice , rye , barley , wheat , millet or maize . The addition of vegetable matter provided some variety to the diet . The staple diet of the Aztecs in Central America was maize and they cultivated tomatoes , avocados , beans , peppers , pumpkins , squashes , peanuts and amaranth seeds to supplement their tortillas and porridge . In Peru , the Incas subsisted on maize in the lowlands and potatoes at higher altitudes . They also used seeds from quinoa , supplementing their diet with peppers , tomatoes and avocados .
In Ancient China , rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north , the latter made into dumplings , noodles and pancakes . Vegetables used to accompany these included yams , soya beans , broad beans , turnips , spring onions and garlic . The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based on bread , often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth . Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful . These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows , broad beans , lentils , onions , leeks , garlic , radishes and lettuces .
The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread , and this was accompanied by goat 's cheese , olives , figs , fish and occasionally meat . The vegetables grown included onions , garlic , cabbages , melons and lentils . In Ancient Rome a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans , accompanied by green vegetables but little meat , and fish was not esteemed . The Romans grew broad beans , peas , onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots .
= = Some common vegetables = =
= = Nutrition and health = =
Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition . Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling . They supply dietary fibre and are important sources of essential vitamins , minerals and trace elements . Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins A , C and E. When vegetables are included in the diet , there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer , stroke , cardiovascular disease and other chronic ailments . Research has shown that , compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day , those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke . The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably ; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat , and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A , vitamin K and vitamin B6 , provitamins , dietary minerals and carbohydrates . Vegetables contain a great variety of other phytochemicals ( bioactive non @-@ nutrient plant compounds ) , some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant , antibacterial , antifungal , antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties .
However , vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients which interfere with the absorption of nutrients . These include α @-@ solanine , α @-@ chaconine , enzyme inhibitors ( of cholinesterase , protease , amylase , etc . ) , cyanide and cyanide precursors , oxalic acid and others . These toxins are natural defenses , used to ward off the insects , predators and fungi that might attack the plant . Some beans contain phytohaemagglutinin , and cassava roots contain cyanogenic glycoside as do bamboo shoots . These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking . Green potatoes contain glycoalkaloids and should be avoided .
Fruit and vegetables , particularly leafy vegetables , have been implicated in nearly half the gastrointestinal infections caused by norovirus in the United States . These foods are commonly eaten raw and may become contaminated during their preparation by an infected food handler . Hygiene is important when handling foods to be eaten raw , and such products need to be properly cleaned , handled and stored to limit contamination .
= = = Dietary recommendations = = =
The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming five to nine servings of fruit and vegetables daily . The total amount consumed will vary according to age and gender , and is determined based upon the standard portion sizes typically consumed , as well as general nutritional content . Potatoes are not included in the count as they are mainly providers of starch . For most vegetables and vegetable juices , one serving is half of a cup and can be eaten raw or cooked . For leafy greens , such as lettuce and spinach , a single serving is typically a full cup . A variety of products should be chosen as no single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients needed for health .
International dietary guidelines are similar to the ones established by the USDA . Japan , for example , recommends the consumption of five to six servings of vegetables daily . French recommendations provide similar guidelines and set the daily goal at five servings . In India , the daily recommendation for adults is 275 grams ( 9 @.@ 7 oz ) of vegetables per day .
= = Production = =
= = = Cultivation = = =
Vegetables have been part of the human diet from time immemorial . Some are staple foods but most are accessory foodstuffs , adding variety to meals with their unique flavors and at the same time , adding nutrients necessary for health . Some vegetables are perennials but most are annuals and biennials , usually harvested within a year of sowing or planting . Whatever system is used for growing crops , cultivation follows a similar pattern ; preparation of the soil by loosening it
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as agreements were signed between the Urban District Council and London County Council and the Greater London Council for the town to re @-@ house over @-@ spill population from London . Following the post World War II arrival of immigrants from the Commonwealth group of nations into Britain , a sizeable Black Caribbean and Indian / Pakistani community grew up in this small market town , and now represents 7 % of the population in the Borough and to 11 % within the town .
= = Economy = =
Wellingborough has approximately 2 @,@ 500 registered businesses within its boundaries . Much of the town centre was redeveloped during the 1970s , when it grew rapidly from London overspill . The Borough Council has adopted a ' Town Centre Action Plan ' . The former traditional economic structure based on footwear and engineering is gradually diversifying with wholesale , logistics , and service sectors providing new opportunities for employment .
As a market town , Wellingborough has major high street chains mainly located in the town centre . The only shopping centre , Swansgate , previously known as the Arndale Centre , was built in the 1970s . Since 2009 the Borough Council has been looking at rebuilding the centre and major stores want bigger floor @-@ spaces . The Britannica Fund , which owns Swansgate shopping centre is currently in administration , and decision on the future of the centre is expected in early 2013 . Supplementing the town centre shops are several out @-@ of @-@ town retail parks and supermarkets including a Sainsbury 's , four Tesco stores , an Aldi store and a Morrisons store in the town centre . The town has a market three times a week and a weekly privately organised market .
Other businesses operating within the town include motorsport , high performance engineering , distribution , engineering , environmental technology and renewable energy , digital and creative media , financial and business services , and global brands , once such brand being Cummins UK at Park Farm , and major park home manufacturer Tingdene Homes Ltd at Finedon Road Industrial Estate . There are several industrial estates in the town , these include Park Farm , Denington , Leyland and Finedon Road .
Future developments
As part of its Milton Keynes South Midlands ( MKSM ) study , the government has identified Wellingborough as one of several towns in Northamptonshire into which growth will be directed over the next thirty years . It allocates 12 @,@ 800 additional homes to Wellingborough , and will also create additional facilities , further improve the town centre , improve infrastructure and increase employment opportunities . A jobs growth target of 12 @,@ 400 jobs has been set to accompany the large scale housing growth . A plan for 3 @,@ 000 homes north of the town has been accepted by the British Government after an appeal by Bee Bee Developments . The plan was first refused by Wellingborough Borough Council .
As a result , plans have been made for a major urban extension in the town , mainly to the east of the railway station . When finished , the town would be around 30 % larger and 3 @,@ 200 new homes would be built on ' Stanton Cross ' site , with new schools , bus stops , community centres , shops , a doctor 's surgery and new open spaces . The railway station would be developed into an ' interchange ' with local buses and trains . The upgrade would provide a new platform , footbridge and new station buildings . Outside the station a new road bridge from Midland Road over the railway line is also planned with a new footbridge to reach the new development . Other plans to include the development of the High Street , Shelley Road and the north of the town areas are also being considered .
= = Transport = =
The A45 dual carriageway skirting to the south , links the town with the A14 , and M1 which also allows links to the east and west of the country . The A45 links Wellingborough with Northampton , Rushden , Higham Ferrers , Raunds , Thrapston , Oundle and Peterborough .
The town is served by a bus network provided by Stagecoach in Northants , Centrebus and Soul Brothers with local Wellingborough buses W1 , W2 , W3 and W4 linking the town centre ( Church Street ) with local suburbs and villages . Departing every 30 minutes the X4 service also links the town with Milton Keynes , Northampton , Kettering , Corby , Oundle and Peterborough . Other routes include 45 , X46 and X47 .
East Midlands Trains operate direct trains to London St Pancras International from Wellingborough railway station , departing every 30 minutes , with an average journey time of around 55 minutes . The railway line also connects Wellingborough with Bedford , Luton , Kettering , Corby , Leicester , Nottingham , Derby , Sheffield and Leeds . Just north of the railway station is a GB Railfreight location , usage is for London Underground maintenance and other freight services .
Several UK airports are within two hours ' drive of the town , including London Luton , East Midlands , Birmingham and London Stansted . Luton can be reached directly by train while East Midlands and Stansted can be reached by one change at Leicester . Sywell Aerodrome , located 5 miles northwest of Wellingborough , caters for private flying , flight training and corporate flights .
= = Education = =
Fourteen government controlled primary schools feed the secondary schools that include : Wellingborough School , an independent , fee @-@ paying school with a cadet force , and the state secondary schools of Sir Christopher Hatton School , Weavers Academy ( formerly the Technical Grammar School & then Weavers School ) , Wrenn School ( formerly the Wellingborough Grammar School ) , and Friars School .
The Tresham College of Further and Higher Education has a main campus in Wellingborough , and outreach locations in Kettering , Oakham and Corby . It provides further education and offers vocational courses , GCSEs and A Levels . In collaboration with several universities the college also offers Higher Education options .
The University of Northampton in Northampton , with around 10 @,@ 000 students on two campuses , offers courses from foundation and undergraduate levels to postgraduate , professional and doctoral qualifications . Subjects include traditional arts , humanities and sciences subjects , as well as entrepreneurship , product design and advertising .
= = Culture = =
The Castle Theatre was opened in 1995 on the site of Wellingborough 's old Cattle Market . It brings not only a theatre to the area but other facilities for local people . Most rooms are used on a daily basis by the local community , users include the Castle Youth Theatre and Youth Dance .
Wellingborough has a public library in the corner of the market square . The Wellingborough Museum , an independent museum run by the Winifred Wharton Trust , located next door to The Castle Theatre , has exhibitions which show the past of Wellingborough and the surrounding villages . The museum is housed in a Victorian swimming pool ( " Dulley 's Baths " ) built in 1892 , from 1918 to 1995 it was Cox 's shoe factory . Accompanying the exhibitions and articles is a souvenir shop and cafe . Free entry .
In 1959 : The residents of Wellingborough , England woke to find a trail of white footprints painted along the main street of their town . At the end of the trail were the words , " I must fly . " Police had later identified the individual as none other than " local scumbag " Frederick Hatton Gherkins . Related : • April Fool 's Day Street Pranks http : / / www.museumofhoaxes.com / hoax / aprilfool / P30 /
= = Sport = =
Wellingborough is home to two football clubs : Wellingborough Town and Wellingborough Whitworth . In 2009 the town 's rugby club was the first club to be awarded the RFU Whole Club Seal of Approval in the East Midlands . Harrowden Hall , a 17th @-@ century building in Great Harrowden village just on the outskirts of the town , is the clubhouse of a privately owned golf course . The four leisure centres and health clubs in Wellingborough include Bannatyne 's , Redwell , Waendel and Weavers ( which is part of Weavers school ) .
Wellingborough was also served for many years by Club Diana . Club Diana was closed by administrators on 1 June 2011 . However it has now been reopened and is available once again . It has a swimming pool , 5 squash courts and a bar and restaurant .
Waendal is home to the local swimming club : WASC . ( Wellingborough Amateur Swimming Club ) . They also train at Wollaston , Oundle , and Rushden .
Wellingborough Phoenix is one of the United Kingdom 's largest basketball clubs ; the men 's first team currently play in EBL Division 3 and the women play in EBL Division 2 . Youth teams also play in the EBL ; ages ranging from u13 to u16 .
= = Services = =
Several NHS centres provide health care facilities , with Isebrook Hospital being equipped for procedures such as large X @-@ Rays and neurological investigations , and long @-@ term care , that are not catered for by primary care surgeries . Accident & Emergency ( A & E ) , maternity , and surgical issues are mainly covered by Kettering General Hospital . The Air Ambulance is provided by Warkshire and Northamptonshire Air Ambulance service . A petition signed by thousands of local residents in the towns of Wellingborough and Rushden for a new A & E to be built in Wellingborough has been handed to 10 Downing Street ( when Prime Minister Gordon Brown was in power ) , by local MP Peter Bone on 10 February 2010 .
Other emergency services are provided by the Northamptonshire Fire and Rescue Service and the Northamptonshire Police . Wellingborough Prison was located just outside the town , but closed in 2012 .
= = Landmarks = =
The railway station is a Grade II Listed building , and among the many unusual and other listed buildings in Wellingborough is the 600 @-@ year @-@ old Grade I listed steeple that forms part of All Hallows Church .
The Three Silver Ladies is one of two identical sculptures installed on the Harrowden Road , They depict local Roman history , the river , and the townspeople working together .
= = Wellingburians = =
Ryan Carter , of Wild Things fame , was born and raised in Wellingborough .
Wellingborough is the birthplace and residence of many notable people , including the former world champion snooker player Peter Ebdon , and Sir David Frost , OBE , a broadcaster who attended Wellingborough Grammar School , whose campus is now occupied by the Wrenn School . The winner of Britain 's Strongest Man contest in 2002 , Marc Iliffe , lives in the town .
Scientist Kenneth Mees , and Frederic Henry Gravely an arachnologist , entomologist , and zoologist were born in the town . Paul Pindar , an
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tropical cyclones developed in September , including the most intense system of the season , Hurricane Ivan . Activity decreased further in October , with the formation of only two systems , Tropical Storm Matthew and Subtropical Storm Nicole . The season then went dormant for over a month and a half , until Tropical Storm Otto developed on November 29 . Otto was the final tropical cyclone of the season and degenerated into a remnant low pressure on December 3 .
= = = Impact = = =
The 2004 season was very deadly , with about 3 @,@ 270 fatalities overall . Nearly all of the deaths were reported in Haiti following the floods and mudslides caused by Tropical Storm Jeanne . The other tropical cyclones that caused fatalities include Hurricane Alex , Charley , Frances , Gaston , and Ivan , and Tropical Storms Bonnie and Earl . Because four out of the six major hurricanes made several landfalls , the season was also extremely damaging , with losses estimated at about $ 36 @.@ 1 billion , over half of which was caused by Hurricanes Charley and Ivan . A few other tropical cyclones caused light to moderate damage , including Hurricanes Alex and Gaston and Tropical Storms Bonnie and Matthew . In addition to the 16 tropical cyclones of the season , a tropical low in May brought torrential flooding to Haiti and the Dominican Republic , killing 2 @,@ 000 people and causing extensive damage . Though the system was not officially classified as a tropical storm , it did have a circulation with loosely organized convection , resembling a subtropical cyclone .
= = = Records = = =
The 2004 season had numerous unusual occurrences . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1964 , a record which would be surpassed in 2005 . Florida was severely impacted by four hurricanes during the season – Hurricane Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This was the first time four tropical cyclones produced hurricane @-@ force winds in one state during a single season since four hurricanes made landfall in Texas in 1886 . There were many other hurricanes in the season that were individually unusual . Hurricane Alex was the strongest hurricane on record to intensify north of 38 ° N latitude . Hurricane Ivan was the most unusual storm of the season . Ivan became the first major hurricane in the Atlantic on record to form as low as 10 ° N latitude . A 91 ft ( 28 m ) wave , possibly the largest ever recorded , was attributed to Ivan ; this wave may have been as high as 131 ft ( 40 m ) . Additionally , hurricanes Charley and Ivan ranked as the third and second costliest hurricanes in the United States at the time , respectively , behind only Hurricane Andrew . With $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage , this was the costliest season at the time , until 2005 .
= = = Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) = = =
The season 's activity was reflected with a accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 227 , one of the highest values on record in the Atlantic basin . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alex = = =
The interaction between a trough and tropical wave resulted in the development of a tropical depression on July 31 , while centered about 200 mi ( 320 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . After initially being poorly organized , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Alex late on August 1 . The storm tracked northeastward and became a hurricane on August 3 . As Alex moved out to sea , it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and peaked with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Alex reached major hurricane status second farthest north in the Atlantic , after Hurricane Ellen in 1973 . Eventually , Alex weakened due to cooler sea surface temperatures . The hurricane fell to tropical storm intensity around 12 : 00 UTC on August 6 . Six hours later , it became extratropical while located about 955 mi ( 1 @,@ 540 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland , and was soon absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone .
Rough seas and a storm surge up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) on the Outer Banks of North Carolina caused minor beach erosion and washed out portions of a highway in Cape Fear . A man drowned near Nags Head due to these conditions . Strong winds also pelted the area , with sustained winds reaching 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) and gusts up to 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) in Hatteras . As a result , 10 @,@ 000 buildings and houses were left without electricity . The combination of strong winds and the storm surge damaged more than 100 buildings and houses . At Ocracoke , coastal flooding was considered the worst since Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . Additionally , rainfall up to 7 @.@ 55 in ( 192 mm ) on the Outer Banks flooded nearly 500 cars . Damage in North Carolina reached about $ 7 @.@ 5 million . In Rehoboth Beach , Delaware , three people were injured by rip currents , while five others were hospitalized in New Jersey .
= = = Tropical Storm Bonnie = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 3 , while located about 315 mi ( 505 km ) east of Barbados . The depression crossed the Lesser Antilles on August 4 , before degenerating back into a tropical wave . The remnants traversed the Caribbean Sea , and re @-@ developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 8 . The depression strengthened further upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie on August 9 . A break in a mid @-@ level ridge re @-@ curved Bonnie northward on August 10 and then northeastward on August 11 . Later that day , the storm peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , before wind shear began weakening it . At 14 : 00 UTC on August 12 , Bonnie made landfall near Apalachicola , Florida with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm rapidly weakened inland and degenerated as a remnant low offshore of New Jersey on August 14 .
In the Lesser Antilles , the storm brought light winds and mostly localized flooding to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The regenerated system brought light rainfall to the Yucatan Peninsula . In North Florida , scattered power outages were reported , and rainfall and storm surge flooded roads , especially in Taylor County . A tornado in Jacksonville damaged several businesses and homes . Tornadoes were also reported in The Carolinas , and Virginia , with one in North Carolina destroying 17 homes and impacting 59 others . It also caused three deaths and $ 1 @.@ 27 million in damage . In Greenville County , South Carolina , a few roads were washed out , while portions of U.S. Route 501 were inundated with 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Minor flooding also occurred in Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . In Atlantic Canada , basement and road flooding was reported , especially in Edmundston , New Brunswick . Slick roads caused one death in that area .
= = = Hurricane Charley = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Three on August 9 to the south @-@ southeast of Barbados . Early on August 10 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley , before reaching hurricane intensity south of Jamaica on August 11 . Charley continued to strengthen after curving northwestward and was a 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane when it made landfall near Alquízar , Cuba on August 13 . After emerging into the Straits of Florida , Charley weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . However , the storm abruptly strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane later on August 13 , with winds peaking at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . At 19 : 45 UTC on August 13 , Charley made landfall at Cayo Costa , Florida , followed by another landfall in Punta Gorda about an hour later . Charley rapidly weakened over Florida , falling to Category 1 by early on August 14 . Later that day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic , before making two more landfalls in Cape Romain and Myrtle Beach , South Carolina as a minimal hurricane . Late on August 14 , Charley weakened to a tropical storm over southeastern North Carolina , shortly before becoming extratropical near Virginia Beach , Virginia .
The storm brought rainfall and strong winds to the island of Jamaica . In Westmoreland Parish , flooding inundated several homes and damaged roadways . Winds in the parish caused a large tree to fall on a house , resulting in significant damage to the home . In Kingston , high winds damaged power lines and homes . Widespread power outages occurred due to numerous downed trees and power lines . The storm left $ 4 @.@ 1 million in damage and one fatality in Jamaica . Winds up to 118 mph ( 190 km / h ) in Cuba left all of Pinar del Río Province and more than 50 % of La Habana Province without electricity for several days . At least 70 @,@ 290 homes and about 3 @,@ 000 agricultural buildings were either damaged or destroyed . Roughly 95 % of sugar cane , bean , and banana crops were ruined . There were four deaths and $ 923 million in damage . Impact in Florida was extreme : strong winds caused 2 million power outages and destroyed more than 2 @,@ 439 structures and impacted over 26 @,@ 749 others . Charley caused 24 deaths and 792 injuries . Agricultural losses were heavy , especially to oranges . Damage to agriculture totaled about $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . In South Carolina , 2 @,@ 231 houses were damaged , with 2 @,@ 317 of those severely damaged and 40 were destroyed . Approximately 141 @,@ 00 people were left without electricity . Winds up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) in North Carolina downed trees and power lines , and left 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2 @,@ 231 other homes in the state . Throughout the United States , the storm caused $ 15 @.@ 1 billion in damage , with nearly of all of it in Florida . The remnants of Charley produced light rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Danielle = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four while south @-@ southeast of Cape Verde on August 31 . Although sea surface temperatures were only marginally warm
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They also said subsidies given to the Brazilian Grand Prix and Carnaval among others also bring benefits to the city . Public Prosecutor Marcelo Milani contested the validity of tax credits issued by the city and sued then @-@ mayor Gilberto Kassab for R $ 1 @.@ 74 billion ; the judges said Milani 's case was without merit and dismissed it .
= = = Project changes = = =
The project executed is not the project approved by the city council in 2011 . Amendments were made to the final project , which was submitted on 25 July 2013 and approved on 13 February 2014 .
= = = Construction accidents = = =
Two people were killed in an accident on 27 November 2013 , which destroyed part of the east building . A crane fell while carrying a part of the roof , destroying eight columns of the LED screen and part of an internal slab . The structure was not affected because anti @-@ vandalism glass was installed on the east façade . An area of 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) was closed for investigation . Initial hypotheses were human error , crane mechanical failure and unstable ground under the crane . Liebherr said the crane 's " black box " data recorder did not record anything on the day of the accident , although it should have done .
As of August 2014 , the case has not yet been concluded . Liebherr paid for a study from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , which concluded that the cause was unstable ground — the same conclusion reached by police experts ; based on this , police indicted nine construction workers . Odebrecht refuted the conclusions , and showed a study by private company Geocompany as proof . Another report on the incident provided by IPT / University of São Paulo blamed the accident on the counterweights being heavier than what was specified on the rigging plan . Crane operations in the stadium were suspended at the time ; all cranes on the site were inspected and approved to continue work 16 days later . The families of the deceased workers received R $ 2 @.@ 9 million in compensation .
Another worker died in an accident on the site while working on the temporary seating . Local authorities ' initial assessment was that the worker caused the accident by not following the required safety procedures . As of March 2014 , an investigation into the death was underway .
= Fredmans epistlar =
Fredmans epistlar ( English : Fredman 's Epistles or Epistles of Fredman ) is a collection of 82 poems set to music by Carl Michael Bellman , a major figure in Swedish 18th century song . Though first published in 1790 , it was created over a period of twenty years from 1768 onwards . A companion volume , Fredmans sånger ( Fredman 's Songs ) was published the following year .
The Epistles vary widely in style and effect , from Rococo @-@ themed pastorale with a cast of gods and demigods from classical antiquity to laments for the effects of Brännvin @-@ drinking , tavern @-@ scenes , and apparent improvisations . The lyrics , based on the lives of Bellman 's contemporaries in Gustavian @-@ age Sweden , describe a gallery of fictional and semi @-@ fictional characters and events taking place in Stockholm . Jean Fredman , an alcoholic former watchmaker , is the central character and fictional narrator . The " soliloquy " of Epistle 23 , a description of Fredman lying drunk in the gutter and then recovering in the Crawl @-@ In Tavern , was described by Oscar Levertin as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " . Ulla Winblad , based on one of Bellman 's friends , is the chief of the fictional " nymphs " . She is half goddess , half prostitute , a key figure among the demimonde characters of Fredman 's Epistles .
The Epistles are admired for the way that their poetry and music fit so well together . Bellman chose not to compose the tunes , instead borrowing and adapting existing melodies , most likely to exploit the humour of contrasting the associations of well @-@ known tunes with the meanings he gave them . This may also have been intended to provide historical depth to his work ; he sometimes devoted considerable energy to adapting melodies to fit an Epistle 's needs .
Many of the Epistles have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia , especially in Sweden . They are widely sung and recorded : by choirs such as the Orphei Drängar , by professional solo singers such as Fred Åkerström and Cornelis Vreeswijk , and by ensemble singers such as Sven @-@ Bertil Taube and William Clauson . The Epistles have been translated into German , French , English , Russian , Polish , Finnish , Italian and Dutch .
= = Overview = =
Bellman wrote a total of 82 Fredman 's Epistles , starting in 1768 . The overall theme of the Epistles is , on the surface , drinking , and its effects , but the Epistles are very far from being drinking songs . Instead , they are a diverse collection of songs , often telling stories . They are sometimes romantically pastoral , sometimes serious , even mournful , but always dramatic , full of life . Together , they " paint in words and music a canvas of their age " . They are populated by a lengthy cast of characters , and set firmly in Bellman 's time and place , eighteenth century Stockholm , but are simultaneously decorated , for romantic or humorous effect , in Rococo style . As a result , listeners are confronted with both striking realism and classical imagery . Within these general themes , the Epistles follow no discernible pattern , and do not join together to tell any single story . Their tunes , too , are borrowed from a variety of sources , often French . The words that are fitted to the tunes are often in parodic contrast to their original themes , very likely achieving humorous effects on their eighteenth @-@ century audiences . Fredman 's Epistles are thus not easy to categorise , and the critic Johan Henric Kellgren stated that Bellman 's songs " had no model and can have no successors " .
Bellman was a skilful and entertaining performer of his songs , accompanying himself on the cittern , putting on different voices , and imitating the sounds made by a crowd of people . He is unusual , even unique , among major poets in that almost all of his work was " conceived to music " . His achievement has been compared to Shakespeare , Beethoven , Mozart , and Hogarth . Bellman , however , was no great playwright , nor a major classical composer . His biographer , Paul Britten Austin , suggests that the comparison with Hogarth is closer to the mark . Bellman had a gift for using elegant classical references in comic contrast to the sordid realities of drinking and prostitution . The way he does this , at once regretting and celebrating these excesses in song , achieves something of what Hogarth achieved in engravings and paint . The art historian Axel Romdahl describes Bellman 's sensibility as if he had been a painter : " An unusual swiftness of apprehension , both optical and aural , must have distinguished him . " Britten Austin agrees with this , noting that " When [ Bellman 's ] words and music have faded into silence it is the visual image which remains . " Jan Sjåvik comments in the Historical Dictionary of Scandinavian Literature and Theater that " Bellman 's achievement consists in taking this humble and unrecognized literary form [ the drinking song ] and raising it to a genre that became impossible to ignore , while in the process creating songs and characters that have become an indispensable part of Sweden 's literary and cultural heritage . "
= = The Epistles = =
Many of the 82 Fredman 's Epistles remain popular in Sweden . Their diverse styles and themes may be illustrated with examples of some of the best @-@ known songs . To begin with No. 23 , Ach du min Moder ! ( Alas , thou my mother ) , which has been described as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " , tells , in realist style , the story of a drunk who wakes in a Stockholm gutter outside the Crawl @-@ In Tavern . He curses his parents for conceiving him " perhaps upon a table " as he looks at his torn clothes . Then the tavern door opens , and he goes in and has his first drink . The song ends with loud thanks to the drunk 's mother and father . In contrast , the Rococo No. 28 , I går såg jag ditt barn , min Fröja ( Yesterday I saw thy child , my Freya ) , tells the tale of an attempt to arrest the " nymph " Ulla Winblad , based on a real event . Bellman here combines realism – Ulla wearing a black embroidered bodice , and losing her watch in a named street ( Yxsmedsgränd ) in Stockholm 's Gamla stan – with images from classical mythology , such as a myrtle crown and an allusion to the goddess Aphrodite .
Quite a different tone is set in No. 40 , Ge rum i Bröllops @-@ gåln din hund ! ( Make room in the wedding @-@ hall , you dog ! ) , as some unruly soldiers interfere in a chaotic wedding , mixing roughly with the musicians and the wedding @-@ party . Shouts of " Shoulder arms ! " and panic at a chimney fire combine with a complex rhyming pattern to create a humorous picture of the disastrous event . The story ends with the priest pocketing some of the collection money . A later Epistle , No. 48 , Solen glimmar blank och trind ( The sun gleams smooth and round ) , narrates the relaxed and peaceful journey of a boat bringing Ulla Winblad home to Stockholm across Lake Mälaren on a lovely spring morning , after a night of carousing . The boatmen call to each other , apparently haphazardly , but each detail helps to create a pastoral vision as " Gradually the wind blows up / In the fallen sails ; / The pennant stretches , and with an oar / Olle stands on a hayboat ; " . The song is " one of Bellman 's greatest " , creating " an incomparable panorama of that eighteenth @-@ century Stockholm which meets us in Elias Martin 's canvasses . "
No. 71 , Ulla ! min Ulla ! säj får jag dig bjuda ( Ulla ! My Ulla ! Say , may I offer thee ) is another of the best @-@ loved pastoral Epistles , and the melody may well be by Bellman himself . It imagines how Fredman , sitting on horseback outside Ulla 's window at Fiskartorpet on a summer 's day , invites her to come and dine with him on " reddest strawberries in milk and wine " . The following Epistle , No. 72 , Glimmande nymf ( Gleaming nymph ) , is a night @-@ piece , set to an Andante melody from a French opéra comique . It describes in erotic detail the " nymph " asleep in her bed . To create the desired mood of rising excitement , Bellman creates a rainbow — after sunset . Britten Austin comments that the audience " does not even notice " . Meanwhile , No. 80 , Liksom en Herdinna , högtids klädd ( Like a shepherdess in her best dress ) , is a pastorale , almost paraphrasing Nicolas Boileau @-@ Despréaux 's French guide to the construction of pastoral verse , starting with " As a Shepherdess splendidly dressed / By the spring one day in June / gathers from the grass 's rosy bed / adornments and accents for her dress " . The effect is of an " almost religious invocation " .
The final Epistle , No. 82 , Hvila vid denna källa ( Rest by this spring ) , is both pastoral and Rococo , depicting a " little breakfast " in the Stockholm countryside . Red wine flows ; there is roast chicken , and an almond tart . Flowers " of a thousand kinds " are all around ; a stallion parades in a field " with his mare and foal " ; a bull roars ; a cockerel hops on the roof , and a magpie chatters . Meanwhile , the musicians are exhorted to blow along with the wind god Eol , small love @-@ sprites are asked to sing , and Ulla is called a nymph . The final chorus asks everyone to drink their dram of brandy .
= = Cast of characters = =
The lyrics of the Epistles describe a gallery of fictional and semi @-@ fictional characters who take part in more or less real events in and around the Stockholm of Bellman 's time . This cast includes some 44 named personages , many of whom appear only once or twice . Some , like the principal characters Jean Fredman and Ulla Winblad , are based on real people , and in Fredman 's case his real name was used . The Fredman of the Epistles is an alcoholic former watchmaker , and is the central character and fictional narrator . He is thus supposedly present in all the Epistles , but is only named in a few of them . The backdrop of many of the Epistles , Stockholm 's taverns , is also frequented by musicians including Christian Wingmark on flute , Father Berg on various instruments , Father Movitz , and the dance master Corporal Mollberg .
A particular group is the Order of Bacchus ( Bacchi Orden ) : to become a member , one must be seen lying in a drunken stupor in a Stockholm gutter at least twice . Among the more minor characters is the brandy @-@ distiller Lundholm . Another is Norström , Ulla Winblad 's husband ; the real Eric Nordström did in fact marry the " real Ulla Winblad " , Maria Kristina Kiellström , a silk @-@ spinner and fallen woman made pregnant by a passing nobleman . In the Epistles , Ulla Winblad is the chief of the " nymphs " . She is half goddess , half prostitute , chief among the demimonde characters of the Epistles .
= = Rococo theme = =
Many of the Epistles have a Rococo theme , especially the pastorale pieces with a cast of gods and demigods from classical mythology . Thus , Epistle 25 , " Blåsen nu alla ( All blow now ! ) " , a short crossing of the Stockholm waterway to Djurgården , is peopled with billowing waves , thunder , Venus , Neptune , tritons , postillions , angels , dolphins , zephyrs " and Paphos 's whole might " , as well as water @-@ nymphs splashing about the " nymph " – in other words , Ulla Winblad .
The principal figures , given that the Epistles focus on drinking and its effects , along with " nymphs " , are Bacchus and Venus / Fröja , but the cast is wider , including :
Amaryllis – a nymph of the countryside ( from Virgil 's Eclogues )
Bacchus – god of wine and drinking
Charon – the ferryman of Hades , carrying souls to the place of the dead
Chloris / Flora – the nymph or goddess of springtime , flowers and growth
Clotho – one of the three fates , spinning the thread of human life ( which is suddenly cut off )
Cupid / Astrild – god of desire and erotic love , Astrild being a late Nordic invention
Jupiter / Jofur – king of the gods on Mount Olympus , god of thunder
Morpheus – god of sleep
Neptune – god of the sea , accompanying the birth of Venus from the waves
Nymph – a ( beautiful ) female nature deity
Pan – god of wildness and rough countryside
Themis – Titaness of divine law and justice
Triton – messenger of the sea , accompanying Neptune
Venus / Fröja / Aphrodite at Paphos – goddesses of love
= = Realism = =
Alongside the frankly mythological , Fredman 's Epistles have a convincing realism , painting pictures of moments of low life in Bellman 's contemporary Stockholm . Bellman himself provided a list of descriptions of his characters , giving a brief pen @-@ portrait of each one , like " Anders Wingmark , a former clothier in Urvädersgränd , very cheerful and full of commonsense " . Different characters appear in different Epistles , making them realistically episodic . There is a fire in Epistle 34 ; a funeral is busily prepared in Epistles 46 and 47 ; and a fight breaks out in Epistle 53 . Many of the songs are about the effects of strong drink , from the damage to the Gröna Lund Tavern in Epistle 12 to the masterly portrait of a drunkard lying in the gutter of Epistle 23 , described by Oscar Levertin as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " .
The pastoral Epistles , too , give the impression of being in real places , with flesh @-@ and @-@ blood people , at specific times of day . Epistle 48 tells how the friends return to Stockholm by boat after a night out on Lake Mälaren , one summer morning in 1769 . Each of its twenty @-@ one verses paints a picture of a moment in the peaceful journey , from the wind stirring the fallen sails , the skipper 's daughter coming out of her cabin , the cockerel crowing , the church clock striking four in the morning , the sun glimmering on the calm water . The effects may seem to be haphazard , but " each stanza is a little picture , framed by its melody . We remember it all , seem to have lived through it , like a morning in our own lives . " Britten Austin calls it " a new vision of the natural and urban scene . Fresh as Martin 's . Detailed as Hogarth 's . Frail and ethereal as Watteau 's . "
Britten Austin tempers his praise for Bellman 's realism with the observation that the effects are chosen to work in song , rather than to be strictly correct or even possible . Thus in Epistle 72 , " Glimmande Nymf " , the memorable rainbow with its glowing colours " of purple , gold and green " is seen after nightfall . He comments " Never mind . It is a beautiful scene , even if its chronology calls for much poetic license . " Or in Epistle 80 , " Liksom en herdinna " , the farmer is for some reason going to or coming from market on a Sunday , when the market would be closed ; and his cart " heavy on staggering wheel " must have been absurdly full if it contained chickens , lambs , and calves all at once . But it had to be a Sunday to allow Ulla Winblad to step out of her swaying chaise , on an outing from the city . Britten Austin remarks that " until such solecisms are actually pointed out , one does not even notice them . " It is the same with the meals , which would cause " terrible indigestion " if the listener actually had to eat them , but " as a feast for mind , eye and ear they are highly satisfactory " , the imagination filled with " all the poetic wealth " that Bellman provides .
The literary historian Lars Warme observes that Bellman 's sharp eye for detail has brought him praise for being the first Swedish realist , but at once balances this by saying that
his particular brand of ' realism ' carries with it a heaping measure of pure fantasy , grotesque humor , and — not least — an elegant veneer of classical mythology .
Warme credits Bellman with a good knowledge of a literary craftsman 's tools , using rhetoric and classical knowledge " to provide a theatrical backdrop for his tavern folk . " The result is an " astonishing mixture of realism and wild mythological fantasy " , set to complicated musical structures :
marches and contradances , operatic ariettes , and graceful minuets . The result is related to a drinking song only by derivation . As an artistic achievement it stands alone in the history of Swedish poetry .
= = Fitted to music = =
The critic Johan Henric Kellgren , in his introduction to the first edition , found that the songs could not be known fully only as poems . Never before , he stated , had the art of poetry and the art of music been more fraternally united . They were not , Kellgren argued , verse that had been set to music ; not music , set to verse ; but the two were so thoroughly melted together into One beauty that it was impossible to see which would most miss the other for its fulfilment . Quoting this in the final paragraph of his thesis , the musicologist James Massengale commented " That is how it ought to be said ! "
Massendale argues that , given that music is so important in the Epistles , and that Bellman had more than enough musical skill to write a tune , it is remarkable that all or almost all the tunes are borrowed . He suggests that this " seems to indicate that Bellman wanted to preserve some vestige of the borrowing . " That the borrowing was not just about saving effort or making up for absent skill , Massengale argues , is demonstrated by the fact that the amount of work Bellman had to put into the melodies for Epistles 12 ( " Gråt Fader Berg och spela " ) and 24 ( " Kära Syster ! " ) was " surely tantamount to the production of new melodies . " Borrowing was accepted , even encouraged at the time , but that does not explain why Bellman would have done it so consistently . The " poetic possibility " , Massengale suggests , is that Bellman wished to exploit the humorous contrast between a melody of one type and a story of another , or between an existing image associated with the melody , and a fresh one presented in an Epistle . In addition , Bellman was able to use what his audience knew to be borrowed music to reinforce the historical flavour of the Epistles , introducing exactly the kind of ambiguity that he was seeking .
Massengale points out that in the Epistles , Bellman employs a variety of methods to make the poetry work . For example , in Epistle 35 , Bröderna fara väl vilse ibland , Bellman uses a panoply of metrical devices to counteract the " metrically plodding melody " . He uses the rhetorical figure anadiplosis ( repeating the last word of a clause at the start of the next ) in verse 3 with " ... skaffa jag barnet ; barnet det dog , ... " ( ... got I the child ; the child died ... ) and again in verse 4 . He uses epanalepsis ( repeating the first word of a clause at its end ) in verse 3 , with " Men , min Anna Greta , men ! " ( But , my Anna Greta , but ! ) , and again in verse 5 . And he uses anaphora ( repeating a word at the starts of neighbouring clauses ) in verse 4 , " häll den på hjärtat , häll man fyra ! " ( pour ... pour out four ! ) , and again in verse 5 . Massengale observes that good musical poetry , like this Epistle , is always a compromise , as it has both to fit its music or be no good as a musical setting , and to contrast with its music , or be no good as poetry . The final verse , containing all three metrical devices , is not , argues Massengale , an example of " decay " , but shows Bellman 's freedom , change of focus ( from lament to acceptance ) , and the closure of the Epistle .
= = Impact = =
= = = In Bellman 's lifetime = = =
King Gustav III called Bellman " Il signor improvisatore " ( The master improviser ) . Bellman is said to have had an " enormous reputation " in his lifetime . The critic Kellgren however objected both to Bellman 's fame and to his flouting of the rules of good literary taste . Kellgren put his objections into verse :
Anacreon ! Where is thy fame ?
Thy lyre another 's hand has seized
Whose wit , with drunken sallies pleas 'd , Priapus ' court delights ; the same
Grows wild apace as e 'er Chrysippos ,
And full as rich his learnéd vein .
In other words , Bellman was a " tavern rhymester " , admittedly with a wonderful gift of improvisation , who wildly ignored the rules of literary genres . For example , within the classical tradition odes and satires were supposed to have different metres and different use of language . Kellgren did not mind the amoral attitude : " indeed he shared it " . But an Epistle like No. 28 traversed all moods , " from lyrical to humorous , tragic , descriptive and dramatic . " It was too much for critics such as Kellgren .
= = = In later times = = =
Bellman was sung " with delight " by students and schoolchildren from the start of the 19th century . The Romantic movement treated Bellman as an inspired genius , whereas later he was admired more for his artistic skill and literary innovation . Research into Bellman 's work began in the 19th century ; the Bellman Society formalised Bellman studies with their standard edition and their Bellmansstudier publications in the 20th century . Towards the end of the 20th century , an increasing number of doctoral theses have been written on Bellman 's life and work .
Many of the songs have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia , especially in Sweden , where Bellman remains " widely popular to this day " . In 1989 , the Swedish government subsided an edition of Bellman 's Epistles and Songs , with illustrations by Peter Dahl , to bring the texts to a wide audience .
Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven . Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called " Swedish poetry 's Mozart , and Hogarth " , observing that
The comparison with Hogarth was no accident . Like the English portrait painter , Bellman drew detailed pictures of his time in his songs , not so much of life at court as of ordinary people 's everyday .
Britten Austin says instead simply that :
Bellman is unique among great poets , I think , in that virtually his entire opus is conceived to music . Other poets , of course , notably our Elizabethans , have written songs . But song was only one branch of their art . They did not leave behind , as Bellman did , a great musical @-@ literary work nor paint in words and music a canvas of their age . Nor are their songs dramatic .
Charles Wharton Stork commented in his 1917 anthology of Swedish verse that " The anthologist finds little to pause over until he comes to the poetry of Karl Mikael Bellman ( 1740 @-@ 1795 ) , but here he must linger long . " Describing him as a " master of improvisation " , he wrote :
Like all great masters , Bellman reconciles the opposing elements of style and substance , of form and fire . His content reminds one somewhat of the pictures of Rome in Horace 's Epistles . Fredman , who is the poet himself , introduces his readers to an intimate circle of friends : to Movitz , to Mollberg , to Amaryllis , to Ulla Vinblad , and the rest . With them we witness the life of Stockholm : the world awakening at daybreak after rain , a funeral , a concert , a visit to a sick friend , and various idyllic excursions into the neighboring parks and villages . The little world lives and we live in it . Considering this phase of Bellman 's genius , the critic will pronounce him a realist of the first order . But when one notes his dazzling mastery of form , his prodigal variety of meter and stanza , his ease and spontaneity , one is equally tempted to call him a virtuoso of lyric style . "
= = = Performance and recordings = = =
The Epistles are widely sung and recorded by amateur choirs and professional singers alike . The Orphei Drängar ( Orpheus 's farmhands ) are a choir named for a phrase in Epistle 14 , and set up to perform Bellman 's works ; they give concerts ( of music by many composers ) around the world .
Several professional solo singers in the Swedish ballad tradition largely made their name in the 1960s singing Bellman , while accompanying themselves in Bellmanesque style with a guitar . They were the members of the " Storks " artistic community ( " Vispråmen Storken " ) in Stockholm , and they include Fred Åkerström ( 1937 – 1985 ) with his albums Fred sjunger Bellman , Glimmande nymf and Vila vid denna källa , and Cornelis Vreeswijk with his albums Spring mot Ulla , spring ! and Movitz ! Movitz ! Other singers , such as Sven @-@ Bertil Taube and William Clauson , used the less authentic accompaniment of an ensemble ; Clauson was also the first to release a recording of Bellman in English , alongside his Swedish recordings .
Singers from other traditions sometimes sing Bellman ; for example , the folk singer Sofia Karlsson and the rock musician Kajsa Grytt .
= = Editions = =
The 1790 edition was the only one to appear in Bellman 's lifetime . It was published by Olof Åhlström , by royal privilege ; he held a monopoly on the printing of sheet music in Sweden . Åhlström arranged the songs for piano , and Kellgren edited the song texts and wrote an introduction , but the extent of their influence on the shape of Fredman 's Epistles cannot be fully determined . The edition was illustrated with a frontispiece by the leading Swedish artist Johan Tobias Sergel , engraved by Johan Fredrik Martin .
The corpus of published Epistles did not change after Bellman 's death . Many minor selections from the Epistles have been published , sometimes with illustrations and introductions . The Epistles have been translated , at least partially , into German , French , English , Russian , Polish , Finnish , Italian and Dutch , as shown below .
The English edition by Britten Austin is a selection of the Epistles , and is in rhyming verse in the original metre . Britten Austin describes the challenge of translation as difficult or impossible , and admits that
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ias trained his soldiers , re @-@ equipped the army with newer guns , improved the quality of the officer corps , and upgraded the health corps and overall hygiene of the troops , putting an end to epidemics . Alfredo d 'Escragnolle Taunay ( later the Viscount of Taunay ) , who fought in the war , remembered that Caxias was a " generous military chief , who forgave small errors , but was implacable with those who committed grave misdeeds , or , then , who betrayed his confidence . "
As the Brazilian army was ready for combat , Caxias sought to encircle Humaitá and force its capitulation by siege . To aid the operation , he used observation balloons to gather information of the enemy lines . The combined Brazilian – Argentine – Uruguayan army advanced through hostile territory to surround Humaitá . By 2 November , Humaitá was completely cut off from land reinforcement by Paraguayan forces . On 19 February 1868 , Brazilian ironclads successfully made a passage up the Paraguay River under heavy fire , gaining full control of the river and isolating Humaitá from resupply by water .
= = = Dezembrada = = =
The relationship between the Marquis of Caxias , now the allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , and the governing Progressives worsened until it became a political crisis that led to the cabinet 's resignation . The Emperor called Conservatives , under Itaboraí 's leadership , back into power on 16 July 1868 , while the Progressive League was rechristened as the Liberal Party . Meanwhile , the allies occupied Humaitá on 25 July after López managed to engineer a successful withdrawal of all Paraguayan troops from its fortress .
Pressing his advantage , the marquis began organizing an assault on the new Paraguayan defenses which López had thrown up along the Pikysyry , south of Asunción ( Paraguay 's capital ) . This stream afforded a strong defensive position which was anchored by the Paraguay River and by the swampy jungle of the Chaco region , both considered to be nearly impassable by a large force . Rather than making a frontal attack on López 's line , Caxias had a road cut through the Chaco . The road was finished by early December , allowing the allied forces to outflank the Paraguayan lines and attack from the rear . In three successive battles ( Ytororó , Avay and Lomas Valentinas ) which became known as Dezembrada ( Deed of December ) , the combined allied forces annihilated the Paraguayan army . López barely managed to escape with a few followers , and on 1 January 1869 , the Brazilians occupied Asunción . According to historian Ronaldo Vainfas , Caxias ' " performance ahead of the allied forces contributed in an unquestionable way to the final triumph over the enemy . "
The marquis had to take great risks to win these victories . In the Ytororó engagement , which occurred on 5 December , the allied objective was to take a bridge over the Ytororó River . Several attempts were made to cross the bridge , but each was repelled by intense fire from the Paraguayan positions . In the final attempt , the Brazilian soldiers panicked and began to flee in disorder . Caxias , witnessing the unfolding disaster , unsheathed his sword and charged on horseback toward the bridge , followed by his staff . He passed through the fleeing troops , shouting " Hail to His Majesty " , " Hail to Brazil " and finally , " Sigam @-@ me os que forem brasileiros ! " ( " Those who are true Brazilians , follow me ! " ) His display of courage stopped the retreat immediately ; the units regrouped , and a vigorous attack led personally by Caxias overwhelmed the Paraguayan positions . Several men who were next to him during the attack were killed , as was his horse .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Caxias was growing old , and was ill and exhausted by the time he reached Asunción . As he did not feel up to the task of pursuing López into the Paraguayan hinterland , he asked to be either relieved of his post or given a short leave . Although his request was denied , he appointed a senior member of his staff as acting commander , and left for Brazil on 19 January 1869 . The Emperor was angered that the marquis had left his post without permission , and especially that Caxias had declared the war to have been already won — even though López was still at large and regrouping his few remaining military assets . Caxias ' ill @-@ conceived decision seriously endangered the hard @-@ won achievements of the past months , even as the objective of eliminating López as a threat remained tantalizingly within reach .
In early February the marquis arrived back unannounced at his house in Rio de Janeiro , much to the surprise of his wife . The Viscount of Inhaúma also returned home shortly afterwards , but with his health so compromised that he died a few weeks later . Upon learning of Inhaúma 's death , Caxias said : " and the same would have had happened to me , had I not resolved to get out of that hell . " Pedro II was greatly disappointed in Caxias , but he was also very aware that the marquis was the person most responsible for the great successes during the war , accomplishments that had come at the cost of years of sacrifice and personal bravery . The Emperor called the marquis to the Imperial Palace , the Paço de São Cristóvão , on 21 February 1869 for a reconciliation .
A few days later the Emperor awarded Caxias the Order of Pedro I and raised him from marquis to duke , the highest rank of Brazilian nobility , and a unique distinction during Pedro II 's 58 @-@ year reign . The Emperor also appointed him to the Council of State on October 1870 . But none of this prevented Caxias from attacks and accusations — some petty — in the parliament , including having left his post without permission . The embittered duke wrote to his friend Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval : " When I was young , my friend , I did not know how to explain why the elderly were selfish , but now that I am old , I see that they are like that because of the disappointments and ingratitudes they suffer during their lives . At least this is what happens to me " .
= = Later years = =
= = = Figurehead presidency = = =
Paranhos , now Viscount of Rio Branco , led a cabinet from 1871 to 1875 . Two serious crises arose that challenged its viability and undermined the foundations of the monarchy . The first resulted from the controversy over the Law of Free Birth , which Caxias voted for . The law was to emancipate children born to slave women after its enactment . With half of Conservative Party members supporting the bill and the other half staunchly opposed , a serious rift opened in the ranks . Opponents represented the interests of powerful coffee farmers such as Caxias , planters who had long been the main political , social , and economic supporters of the Conservative Party .
The second crisis was the Religious Question , which developed after the government came into conflict with two bishops who had ordered that Freemasons be expelled from lay brotherhoods . The dispute grew out of proportion when both bishops were convicted and given prison sentences for disobeying the government 's order to rescind their expulsions . As Catholicism was the state religion , the Emperor exercised , with the papacy 's acquiescence , a great deal of control over church affairs — paying clerical salaries , appointing parish priests , nominating bishops , ratifying papal bulls , and overseeing seminaries . As a result of the furor over the handling of the affair , Rio Branco and his cabinet resigned , " disunited and weary after four years in office " , according to historian Roderick J. Barman . Pedro II asked Caxias to form a new cabinet . The duke later gave a remarkable account of their meeting :
Believe that when I entered my carriage to go São Cristóvão , summoned by the Emperor , I was determined not to accept . But he , as soon as he saw me , embraced me and said to me that he would not let me go unless I told him that I would accept the post of minister and that , if I refused to do this service , he would summon the Liberals and would have to tell everybody that I was responsible for the consequence , all the while encircling me with his arms . I pointed out to him my circumstances , my age , and my infirmity ; but he concurred in nothing . To free myself from him , I should have had to shove him off , and this I could not do . I bowed my head and said that I would do what he wanted but that I was sure that he would have cause for regret , since I would not be minister for long , because I would die from work and troubles . However , he listened to nothing and told me that I should only do what I could do but that I must not abandon him , since he would in that case abandon us and go away .
The elderly Caxias , almost 72 and widowed since 1874 , was in poor health and could serve only as a figurehead president of the government formed on 25 June 1875 . Cotejipe was the de facto president . The Caxias @-@ Cotejipe cabinet attempted to dissipate the discord created by the previous cabinet . Their measures included financial aid to coffee farmers , an amnesty for the convicted bishops , and , to please the pro @-@ slavery Conservatives , the selection of new ministers and a call for elections . Caxias , who was a Freemason but also a staunch Catholic , threatened to resign if the Emperor did not grant the amnesty , which Pedro II grudgingly issued in September 1875 .
= = = Death = = =
At the end of 1877 , Pedro II paid a visit to Caxias and ascertained that he could no longer remain in office . The entire cabinet resigned on 1 January 1878 . His health problems had become so troubling that he had been asking repeatedly to resign since early 1876 . Caxias was not only afflicted by concerns over his declining health , but increasingly felt a sense of alienation . He did not feel he could play a relevant role in politics . He belonged to an older generation who perceived the Emperor ( and consequently , the monarchy ) as essential for holding the nation together .
The new politicians who had begun to dominate the government had little memory of the times before Pedro II assumed control in 1840 . Unlike their predecessors , they had no experience of the regency and the early years of Pedro II 's reign , when external and internal dangers threatened the nation 's existence ;
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they had only known a stable administration and prosperity . The young politicians saw no reason to uphold and defend the imperial office as a unifying force beneficial to the nation . Times were changing fast , and Caxias was aware of the situation . He became increasingly nostalgic for the former times he had spent with his now @-@ dead Conservative Party colleagues and held a pessimistic view of future political prospects . When Itaboraí — one of the last survivors of those Conservative leaders who had begun their careers during the 1830s — died in 1872 , the duke wrote to a friend : " Who will replace him ? I don 't know , I cannot see ... The vacuum he left will not be filled , as it was not with Eusébio , Paraná , Uruguai , Manuel Felizardo and many others who helped us sustain this little church [ i.e. , the monarchy , his ' second faith ' ] , which collapsed or almost collapsed on 7 April 1831 . "
Confined to a wheelchair as his health slowly declined , the Duke of Caxias lived his remaining days at Santa Mônica farm , located near the town of Valença , in the countryside of Rio de Janeiro province . On 7 May 1880 at 11 pm he quietly died , attended by members of his family . A saddened Pedro II ( who visited Caxias several times during his long illness ) remarked about his " friend of almost a half century " , that he had " known him , and esteemed him since 1832 . He was 76 , almost 77 years old . And so we remain in this world . " Caxias asked for a simple funeral , with no pomp , no honors , no invitations , and only six soldiers of good conduct to carry his coffin . His last wish was not entirely respected : Pedro II sent a carriage used for funerals of members of the imperial family only , to be followed by sixteen servants of the imperial household , and one corporal and thirteen , not six , soldiers of good conduct to carry his remains . A huge procession was followed by a funeral ( attended by Pedro II ) and his body was laid to rest in the São Francisco de Paula cemetery in the city of Rio de Janeiro .
= = Legacy = =
From his death in 1880 until the 1920s , the Duke of Caxias was not regarded as the most important military figure in Brazilian history . This honor belonged to Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval . Caxias was held to be a minor figure in comparison to Erval . His reputation slowly grew , and in 1923 , the Ministry of the Army created an annual celebration in his honor . In 1925 , his birthday officially became the " Day of the Soldier " , which commemorates the Brazilian army . On 25 August 1949 , his remains , along with those of his wife , were exhumed and reinterred in Rio de Janeiro 's Duke of Caxias Pantheon . On 13 March 1962 , Caxias became patrono ( protector ) of the army , making him the most important figure in its tradition . According to Adriana Barreto de Souza , Francisco Doratioto and Celso Castro , Caxias supplanted Osório because he was seen as a loyal and dutiful officer who could serve as a role model in a Brazilian republic plagued since its birth in 1889 by military insubordination , rebellions and coups . " His name " , said the historian Thomas Whigham , " has become synonymous with the upright officer and citizen who never breaks the law — hence the popular term caxias , which refers to individuals who follow regulations without mistrust , doubt and evasion . "
The historiography is often positive toward Caxias and several historians have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian military officer . To historian Nelson Werneck Sodré , he was " not only the greatest military commander of his continent [ South America ] , in his time , but [ also ] a great politician " . Moreover , Caxias was " — more than D. Pedro II — the Empire . " Francisco Doratioto said that the duke " in Paraguay had doubts , pride , resentment , and made mistakes ; in short , he was a real character ... Caxias , however , was able to rise above his limitations , imposed on himself great personal sacrifices and incorporated the responsibility of accomplishing the objective ... In this context , Caxias was , indeed , a hero ; he carried with him , it is true , social and political prejudices of his time , but one can not demand from the past the observance of present @-@ day values . "
Roderick J. Barman affirmed that Caxias was not only " extremely powerful in the Conservative party " , but also " the country 's most distinguished " and " most successful soldier " , who had " proved his capacity and his loyalty by defeating revolts against the regime " . C. H. Haring said that he was " a brilliant army officer " , also " Brazil 's most famous military figure " and a man " who was genuinely loyal to the throne " . To Whigham , the duke was " destined to occupy a lofty spot in Brazil 's national mythology . He often had to act as a statesman as much as military man " and was " [ s ] hrewdly competent in both roles " . Hélio Viana regarded Caxias as " the greatest soldier of Brazil " , a view shared by Eugênio Vilhena de Morais , Pedro Calmon , Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa , Antônio da Rocha Almeida and Gustavo Barroso .
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Titles of nobility = = =
Baron of Caxias ( without Greatness ) on 18 July 1841 .
Count of Caxias on 25 March 1845 .
Marquis of Caxias on 26 June 1852 .
Duke of Caxias on 23 March 1869 .
= = = Other titles = = =
Member of the Brazilian Council of State .
Member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute .
Member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council .
Emperor 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp .
Emperor 's veador ( gentleman usher ) .
= = = Honors = = =
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross .
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Rose .
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Pedro I.
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz .
Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa .
= = = Military honors = = =
Medal ( oval ) of the Independence War ( Bahia ) .
Medal of the army in the Oriental State of Uruguay in 1852 .
Commemorative medal of the surrender of the division of the army of Paraguay that occupied the village of Uruguaiana .
Medal ( oval ) of bravery " to the bravest ones " ( 1867 ) .
Medal awarded to the army , armada and to civil servants in operations in the Paraguayan War ( 1870 ) .
= = Endnotes = =
= 2010 Heluva Good ! Sour Cream Dips 400 =
The 2010 Heluva Good ! Sour Cream Dips 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on June 13 , 2010 at Michigan International Speedway in Brooklyn , Michigan . Contested over 200 laps , it was the fifteenth race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Denny Hamlin for the Joe Gibbs Racing team . Kasey Kahne finished second , and Kurt Busch , who started first , clinched third .
Pole position driver Busch maintained his lead into the first turn to begin the race , but Jamie McMurray , who started in the second position on the grid , passed him to lead the first lap . Hamlin soon became the leader and would lead a race high of 123 laps . On the final restart , Hamlin started beside Kahne . Hamlin held onto first to claim his first Sprint Cup Series win at Michigan and his fifth of the season .
There were four cautions and nineteen lead changes among nine different drivers throughout the course of the race . The result left Kevin Harvick in the first position in the Drivers ' Championship , twenty @-@ two points ahead of second place driver Kyle Busch and forty @-@ seven ahead of Denny Hamlin . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , six points ahead of Toyota and thirty @-@ eight ahead of Dodge , with twenty @-@ one races remaining in the season . A total of 95 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 4 @.@ 3 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Michigan International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races , the others being Daytona International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . The standard track at Michigan International Speedway is a four @-@ turn superspeedway that is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at eighteen degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at twelve degrees . The back stretch , has a five degree banking . Michigan International Speedway can seat up to 119 @,@ 500 people .
Before the race , Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 2 @,@ 063 points , and Kyle Busch stood in second with 2 @,@ 044 points . Denny Hamlin was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 927 points , Matt Kenseth was fourth with 1 @,@ 893 points , and Kurt Busch was in fifth with 1 @,@ 881 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 100 points , twelve points ahead of their rival Toyota . Dodge , with 61 points , was three points ahead of Ford in the battle for third . Mark Martin was the race 's defending champion .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were scheduled before the race — one on Friday , June 11 , 2010 , and two on Saturday , June 12 , 2010 . The first practice session lasted only 70 minutes , but was scheduled to be 90 minutes . The Saturday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted sixty minutes . In the first practice session , which was held under mostly cloudy conditions , Juan Pablo Montoya was fastest , ahead of Jimmie Johnson and Kurt Busch in second and third . Greg Biffle and Jeff Gordon followed in fourth and fifth . In the morning practice session , Paul Menard was the quickest , with a time of 38 @.@ 824 seconds while Carl Edwards , Jeff Burton , Jimmie Johnson , and Jeff Gordon followed in second , third , fourth and fifth . During the third practice session , Jimmie Johnson , was the fastest , ahead of Paul Menard in second , Denny Hamlin in third , Jeff Gordon in fourth , and Kevin Harvick in fifth .
During Friday afternoon 's qualifying session , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only the fastest forty @-@ three were able to enter the race . Kurt Busch clinched his second pole position of 2010 , with a time of 37 @.@ 898 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Jamie McMurray . Jimmie Johnson and Kasey Kahne shared the second row in the third and fourth position , while Jeff Burton , with a time of 38 @.@ 00 seconds , qualified fifth . The three drivers that failed to qualify were Dave Blaney , Michael Waltrip and Johnny Sauter .
= = = Race summary = = =
The race , the fifteenth out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 1 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on TNT . To begin pre @-@ race ceremonies , at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT , Fr . Geoff Rose , OSFS , from Lumen Christi High School in Jackson , Michigan , gave the invocation . Then , the Army Chorus A Capella Team performed the national anthem , and Adam Sandler and Kevin James delivered the command , " Gentlemen , start your engines ! " Three drivers had to move to the rear from making major adjustments to their race car after first practice , they were Kyle Busch , with an engine change , Clint Bowyer , who changed to a back @-@ up car , and Kevin Conway because of a transmission change .
Kurt Busch made a good start , retaining the first position ; Jamie McMurray behind him maintained the second position . At the end of the first lap , McMurray passed Busch . One lap later , Busch reclaimed the first position . By lap 3 , Kasey Kahne and Jimmie Johnson had passed McMurray to put him in the fourth position . McMurray dropped to sixth place on the sixth lap . On lap 7 , Kahne started catching the leader , and McMurray announced on the team 's radio that his car was loose . On lap 11 , Max Papis went to the garage ( the place where teams repair or park their car ) because of overheating problems . On lap 18 , Marcos Ambrose spun through the grass , to cause the first caution . Afterward , most drivers made pit stops for fuel and tires while Joe Nemechek decided to stay out to lead one lap . On the same lap , Todd Bodine drove his car to the garage .
On lap 22 , the green flag waved , as Tony Stewart led Kurt Busch , Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , and Kasey Kahne on the restart . Stewart dropped to third after being passed by Kurt Busch and Montoya . Two laps later , Joe Nemechek went to garage with electrical problems . On lap 26 , Jimmie Johnson moved into the third position after passing Montoya . By lap 27 , Kurt Busch had a two @-@ second lead over Tony Stewart . Johnson , Stewart and Kahne were battling three @-@ wide for the second position on lap 30 . One lap later , Nemechek returned to the track after having electrical problems . On lap 33 , the top @-@ five positions were single file with Kurt Busch in first , Kahne in second , Johnson in third , Denny Hamlin in fourth and Stewart in fifth . A lap later , Bobby Labonte went to garage because of overheating problems . On lap 37 , Landon Cassill went to the garage with rear gear problems . Afterward , on lap 41 , J.J. Yeley drove to the garage because of overheating problems , but he returned to the track four laps later .
On the forty @-@ eighth lap , debris in turn two brought out the second caution . Robby Gordon and David Gilliland stayed out while the other teams made pit stops . Gordon and Gilliand made pit stops the next lap and gave the lead to Kurt Busch . Kurt Busch brought the field to the green flag with Hamlin in second , Montoya in third , Johnson in fourth , and Kahne in fifth on lap 51 . After Hamlin made a good restart he passed Kurt Busch on lap 52 . Afterward , on lap 54 , Landon Cassill returned to the track while J.J. Yeley returned to the garage . Kahne passed Montoya for the third position . After 67 laps , Hamlin had a 2 @.@ 4 second lead over Kurt Busch in the second position . On lap 87 , green flag pit stops began . One lap later , most drivers in the first ten positions made pit stops . Denny Hamlin , who was in the first position , came to pit road on lap 92 , but had problems leaving which gave Kurt Busch the lead .
On laps 94 – 95 , Kurt Busch in first , and Kahne in second were battling for the lead , but Kahne did not pass Kurt Busch until one lap later . After the green flag pit stops , Kahne was first , Kurt Busch in second , Hamlin in third , Montoya in fourth and Jeff Gordon in fifth . On lap 99 , Scott Speed spun after contact with his team @-@ mate Casey Mears , and brought out the third caution . One lap later , Sam Hornish , Jr. stayed out as other teams made pit stops . On lap 101 , Casey Mears collided with David Ragan while on pit road . Mears drove to the garage the following lap . On lap 103 , Hornish , Jr. led Kurt Busch , Jeff Gordon , Hamlin and Kahne on the restart . Three laps later , Kurt Busch passed team @-@ mate Hornish , Jr . Afterward , Hornish , Jr. dropped to fourth . On lap 113 , Hamlin passed Kurt Busch for the lead in turn three . On lap 119 , Kahne passed Kurt Busch for the second position .
On lap 126 , Hamlin had a 2 @.@ 8 second lead over Kahne . Seven laps later , Stewart passed Jeff Burton for the fifth position . By lap 134 , the green flag pit stops began . Hamlin , Kahne , and Stewart made pit stops , as Matt Kenseth became the new leader . Two laps later , Hamlin regained the lead from Kenseth . On lap 146 , Hamlin was in first , Kahne in second , Kurt Busch in third , Jeff Gordon in fourth , and Greg Biffle in fifth . Four laps later , Ryan Newman told his crew that his car was not running correctly from hitting a piece of aluminum . On lap 154 , Hamlin was leading by seven seconds over Kahne . Most teams started making pit stops for fuel only on lap 161 . On lap 177 , Kahne became the leader as Hamlin made a pit stop . Kahne made a pit stop on lap 178 to give the lead back to Hamlin ; . On lap 179 , Hamlin was leading by nine seconds . With twenty laps to go , Hamlin was first , Kahne was second , Kurt Busch was third , Jeff Gordon was fourth , and Biffle was fifth .
The fourth caution came out on lap 181 because of debris on the back straightaway . The first nine positions stayed off of pit road while the rest made pit stops . On lap 186 , Hamlin made a good start and maintained the first position . On lap 188 , Jimmie Johnson , who restarted twelfth , had moved up to the sixth position . On lap 193 , Hamlin had a growing lead over Kahne . Denny Hamlin crossed the line to win the race , a second ahead of second place Kasey Kahne . Kurt Busch maintained third while Jeff Gordon and Tony Stewart finished fourth and fifth .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Denny Hamlin appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his fifth win of the season , and his first Sprint Cup win at Michigan International Speedway , in front of a crowd of 95 @,@ 000 people . " It ’ s so easy to drive cars like this , " Hamlin said . He also stated , " We never stop working , regardless of whether we ’ ve got a nine @-@ 10ths @-@ of @-@ a @-@ second lead or a nine @-@ second lead . "
Kasey Kahne , who finished second , said , " I hung with him for about three laps running in his kind of dirty air . I was right there . Then he just slowly crept away . It felt good . We were close . That ’ s a huge improvement . I was pretty happy . " " We had a similar [ fuel ] issue at the start of the Pocono race last year where we broke a fuel cable , " Hamlin said after the race . " I thought maybe that ’ s what we did . When I went to take off [ after his stop ] , it immediately shut off . While it was " a downer , I was pretty confident we weren ’ t going to have it again . Because Mike [ Ford , crew chief ] never really gave me an alarm we were going to be stretching it on fuel . " In the subsequent press conference , Hamlin 's crew chief said , " Towards the end of last season , where I said the best is yet to come , I strongly felt that way because towards the end of last season we closed out the season strong . I knew that was a catalyst to really turn up the team , to get a little bit more out of everyone . Denny goes down with his knee injury . He comes back , obviously not 100 percent . The team steps up . We narrow the gap to try to pick him up knowing he 's not going to be there , and we start winning races , even with a driver that is not 100 percent . Now that he 's coming back healthier each week , we 're winning more and more . I simply think that 's the catalyst for us to move forward . It 's easier when the morale is high to get a little bit more out of your guys . Our benchmark is ourselves and we 're just trying to work on that . "
The race left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 2 @,@ 169 points . Kyle Busch , who finished twentieth , was second on 2 @,@ 147 , twenty @-@ five points ahead of Hamlin in second and ninety @-@ six ahead of Kurt Busch in third . Matt Kenseth was fifth with 2 @,@ 019 points . Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 103 points . Toyota placed second with 97 points , and Dodge followed with 65 points , now even with Ford . 4 @.@ 3 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , thirty @-@ three minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 246 seconds .
= = Race results = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= American Airlines Flight 77 =
American Airlines Flight 77 was a scheduled American Airlines domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles , Virginia , to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles , California . The Boeing 757 @-@ 223 aircraft serving the flight was hijacked by five men affiliated with al @-@ Qaeda on September 11 , 2001 , as part of the September 11 attacks . They deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , near Washington , D.C. , killing all 64 people on board , including the five hijackers and six crew , as well as 125 people in the building .
Less than 35 minutes into the flight , the hijackers stormed the cockpit . They forced the passengers , crew , and pilots to the rear of the aircraft . Hani Hanjour , one of the hijackers who was trained as a pilot , assumed control of the flight . Unknown to the hijackers , passengers aboard made telephone calls to friends and family and relayed information on the hijacking .
The hijackers crashed the aircraft into the western side of the Pentagon at 09 : 37 EDT . Dozens of people witnessed the crash , and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes . The impact severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and caused a large fire . A portion of the building collapsed ; firefighters spent days working to fully extinguish the blaze . The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt in 2002 , with occupants moving back into the completed areas that August . The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the crash site . The 1 @.@ 93 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 800 m2 ) park contains a bench for each of the victims , arranged according to their year of birth and ranging from 1930 to 1998 .
= = Hijackers = =
The hijackers on American Airlines Flight 77 were led by Hani Hanjour , who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon . Hanjour first came to the United States in 1990 .
Hanjour trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale , Arizona , earning his FAA commercial pilot 's certificate in April 1999 . He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for the Saudi national airline but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999 . Hanjour 's brother later explained that , frustrated at not finding a job , Hanjour " increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers " . Hanjour returned to Saudi Arabia after being certified as a pilot , but left again in late 1999 , telling his family that he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline . Hanjour likely went to Afghanistan , where Al @-@ Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they might have . Already having selected the Hamburg cell members , Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers .
Alec Station , the CIA 's unit dedicated to tracking Osama bin Laden , had discovered that two of the other hijackers , al @-@ Hazmi and al @-@ Mihdhar , had multiple @-@ entry visas to the United States well before 9 / 11 . Two FBI agents inside the unit tried to alert FBI headquarters , but CIA officers rebuffed them .
In December 2000 , Hanjour arrived in San Diego , joining " muscle " hijackers Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , who had been there since January 2000 . Soon after arriving , Hanjour and Hazmi left for Mesa , Arizona , where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation .
In April 2001 , they relocated to Falls Church , Virginia , where they awaited the arrival of the remaining " muscle " hijackers . One of these men , Majed Moqed , arrived on May 2 , 2001 , with Flight 175 hijacker Ahmed al @-@ Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport . They moved into an apartment with Hazmi and Hanjour .
On May 21 , 2001 , Hanjour rented a room in Paterson , New Jersey , where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August . The last Flight 77 " muscle " hijacker , Salem al @-@ Hazmi , arrived on June 29 , 2001 , with Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari ( a hijacker of Flight 11 ) at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates . They stayed with Hanjour .
Hanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro , New Jersey , and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield , New Jersey . Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel , Maryland , on September 2 , 2001 . While in Maryland , Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at Gold 's Gym in Greenbelt . On September 10 , he completed a certification flight , using a terrain recognition system for navigation , at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg , Maryland .
On September 10 , Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi — accompanied by other hijackers — checked into the Marriott in Herndon , Virginia , near Dulles Airport .
= = = Suspected accomplices = = =
According to a U.S. State Department cable leaked in the WikiLeaks dump in February 2010 , the FBI has investigated another suspect , Mohammed al @-@ Mansoori . He had associated with three Qatari citizens who flew from Los Angeles to London ( via Washington ) and Qatar on the eve of the attacks , after allegedly surveying the World Trade Center and the White House . U.S. law enforcement officials said that the data about the four men was " just one of many leads that were thoroughly investigated at the time and never led to terrorism charges " . An official added that the three Qatari citizens have never been questioned by the FBI . Eleanor Hill , the former staff director for the congressional joint inquiry on the September 11 attacks , said the cable reinforces questions about the thoroughness of the FBI 's investigation . She also said that the inquiry concluded that the hijackers had a support network that helped them in different ways .
The three Qatari men were booked to fly from Los Angeles to Washington on September 10 , 2001 , on the same plane that was hijacked and piloted into the Pentagon on the following day . Instead , they flew from Los Angeles to Qatar , via Washington and London . While the cable said that Mansoori was currently under investigation , U.S. law enforcement officials said that there was no active investigation of him or of the Qatari citizens mentioned in the cable .
= = Flight = =
The American Airlines Flight 77 aircraft was a Boeing 757 @-@ 223 ( registration N644AA ) . The aircraft was built and had its first flight in 1991 . The flight crew included pilot Charles Burlingame ( a Naval Academy graduate and former fighter pilot ) , First Officer David Charlebois , and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger , Jennifer Lewis , Kenneth Lewis , and Renee May . The capacity of the aircraft was 188 passengers , but with 58 passengers on September 11 , the load factor was 33 percent . American Airlines said that Tuesdays were the least @-@ traveled day of the week , with the same load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three months for Flight 77 .
= = = Boarding and departure = = =
On the morning of September 11 , 2001 , the five hijackers arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport . At 07 : 15 , Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight 77 , arriving at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07 : 18 . Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening . Moqed continued to set off the
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Olio . Though Eriksson maintained in press conferences that his personal life was a private matter , his relationships with Jonsson in 2002 and Alam in 2004 were subject to tabloid headlines for several weeks .
= = = Campaigns = = =
The media , both broadsheet and tabloid , have sometimes campaigned for a manager to be dismissed , appointed or retained . Campaigns for managers to be dismissed have been front page news , with eye @-@ catching headlines including " The final ron @-@ devouz " , " In the Name of Allah Go " , " Norse Manure " , " Blair Gives Hoddle The Red Card " for ( respectively ) Ron Greenwood , Bobby Robson , Graham Taylor and Glenn Hoddle .
Eriksson survived several scandals whilst in office , but his tenure was eventually ended when he was one of a series of celebrities targeted by a tabloid ' sting ' , orchestrated by The Fake Sheikh . Eriksson 's indiscretions revealed by the newspaper " ... proved the final straw for the FA " , although Eriksson was permitted to stay on in the role until the end of the 2006 World Cup .
These campaigns have also sometimes backfired . Former FA chief executive , Graham Kelly recalled a campaign , orchestrated by The Sun against Bobby Robson , that began in 1984 ( six years before his resignation ) :
Sections of the media have often campaigned for a particular person to be appointed England manager . At various times , but particularly during the tenure of Bobby Robson , the media campaigned for the appointment of Brian Clough . Robson once told FA chairman Bert Millichip " I 'm having a rough time and everybody wants Brian – give the job to him . If he 's successful , everybody 's happy . If he fails , that 's the end of the clamour for Brian Clough to be England manager . " Robson added , " He would have ruffled a few feathers and disturbed the corridors of power but I think he would have been a good England manager . He had good judgement , knew how to design a team and was a great motivator . " Terry Venables was also the subject of a media campaign for dismissal during his time as manager but was then supported by the press to return to the role in 2000 .
Steve McClaren received media criticism , and , as failure to qualify for Euro 2008 looked increasingly likely , the headlines became more visceral . In January 2008 , football magazine When Saturday Comes described the newspaper coverage of his final month as " relentless and remorseless " . Both tabloids and broadsheets published critical pieces , with The Times headlining an editorial " Fail and McClaren has to go " .
The media have also parodied this genre of campaigns for recruitment , dismissal or retention of managers . In October 2000 , The Sun launched a campaign promoting a donkey as the new England manager .
= = Statistical summary = =
The following table provides a summary of the complete record of each England manager including their progress in both the World Cup and the European Championship .
Statistics correct as of 22 July 2016
Key : P – games played , W – games won , D – games drawn ; L – games lost , % – win percentage
= = Statistical summary for British Home championships = =
The following table provides a summary of results for each England manager in the British Home Championship , held annually until the 1983 – 84 season .
Key : P – Number of complete tournaments played , W – Number of tournaments won , S – Number of tournaments shared , % – outright win percentage
= Let Go ( Avril Lavigne album ) =
Let Go is the debut studio album by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Avril Lavigne , released on 4 June 2002 . For a year after signing a record deal with Arista , Lavigne struggled due to conflicts in musical direction . She relocated to Los Angeles , California , and recorded there , her earlier materials for the album ; the kind of sound to which the label was not amenable . She was paired to the production team The Matrix , who understood her vision for the album .
The album was credited as the biggest pop debut of 2002 , and was certified 6 × Platinum in the United States . It was released to generally positive reviews , although Lavigne 's songwriting received some criticism . It also did extremely well in Canada , receiving a diamond certification from the Canadian Recording Industry Association , as well as reaching multi @-@ platinum in many countries around the world , including the UK in which she became the youngest female solo artist to have a number @-@ one album in the region .
As of December 2013 , Let Go had sold over 20 million copies worldwide , becoming Lavigne 's highest @-@ selling album to date . According to Billboard magazine , the album was the number 21 top @-@ selling album of the decade . A Rolling Stone readers poll named Let Go as the fourth best album of the 2000s .
On 18 March 2013 , Let Go was re @-@ released as a double disc @-@ set paired with her second studio album , Under My Skin , which is released under RCA Records .
= = Background = =
Lavigne relocated to Los Angeles , where she collaborated with songwriter @-@ producer Clif Magness , who gave her ample creative control in the writing process . Lavigne and Magness wrote " Losing Grip " and " Unwanted " , songs that she deemed reflective of her vision for the entire album . However , Arista was not thrilled with the heavy @-@ guitar laden songs that Lavigne was writing , prompting the label to look for other producers to match their demands .
Now two years since she signed the deal , Lavigne , who was then unknown , came to the attention of the three @-@ piece production team The Matrix . Arista could not find the right direction for Lavigne , so the team 's manager , Sandy Roberton , suggested that they work together : " Why don 't you put her together with The Matrix for a couple of days ? " According to member Lauren Christy , they had been listening to Lavigne 's early songs and felt they contained " a Faith Hill kind of vibe " . As soon as they saw Lavigne coming into their studio , The Matrix felt that her musical direction was incongruous to her image and attitude . After talking to Lavigne for an hour , " we cottoned on that she wasn 't happy but couldn 't quite figure out where to go " . The Matrix played her songs with Faith Hill influences , because it was those kind of songs the label wanted Lavigne to sing . But Lavigne dismissed it , saying she wanted songs with punk rock inclinations . Lavigne played The Matrix a song that she had recorded and really loved , a track with sounds in the likes of the rock band System of a Down . Fortunately , prior to forming The Matrix , its members ' early projects were in the pop @-@ rock type , so they readily figured out what Lavigne wanted to record and knew exactly what to do with her . They told her to come back the following day , and in the afternoon during that day , they wrote a song that evolved into " Complicated " and another song called " Falling Down " ( Falling Down appears on the Sweet Home Alabama Soundtrack ) . They played it to Lavigne when she came back the following day , inspiring her what path she should take .
When Josh Sarubin , the A & R executive who signed Lavigne to the imprint , heard the song , he knew it was right for her . Lavigne presented the song to Reid , who agreed the musical direction Lavigne and The Matrix were taking , and set " Complicated " as the album 's lead single . Reid sent Lavigne back to The Matrix to work with them , initially for a month . Arista gave the team carte blanche to write and produce 10 songs , which took them two months . The album was originally entitled Anything But Ordinary , after the track of the same name that The Matrix produced , but Lavigne asked Reid for the album to be called Let Go instead .
Critics described Let Go as an alternative rock album with pop rock influences and post @-@ grunge @-@ oriented sound .
= = Writing and recording = =
With The Matrix , Lavigne recorded tracks in Decoy Studios , situated in a Los Angeles suburb known as Valley Village . She also worked with producer @-@ songwriter Curt Frasca and Peter Zizzo , whose Manhattan studio Lavigne was checked in prior to securing a record deal with Arista , and where Lavigne also recorded some of the tracks . The Matrix member Scott Spock was their principal engineer for the project , while Tom Lord @-@ Alge was assigned to mix the tracks . Lavigne recorded complete takes " against the largely finished instrumental tracks " . Spocks revealed Lavigne normally recorded each song in five or six takes , " and probably 90 percent of what was finally used came from the first or second takes " . The Matrix also contributed backing vocals .
Introduced as a singer @-@ songwriter , Lavigne 's involvement produced significant issues . Lavigne has implied that she is the primary author of the album . In an article published in Rolling Stone magazine , Lavigne stated that while working with The Matrix , one member would be in the recording studio while they were writing , but did not write the guitar parts , lyrics , or the melody . According to Lavigne , she and Christy wrote all the lyrics together . Graham would come up with some guitar parts , " and I 'd be like , ' Yeah , I like that , ' or ' No , I don 't like that . ' None of those songs aren 't from me . "
The Matrix , who produced six songs for Lavigne , five of which appear in the album , had another explanation of how the collaboration went . According to them , they wrote much of the portions in the three singles : " Complicated " , " Sk8er Boi " , and " I 'm with You " , which were conceived using a guitar and piano . Christy said , " Avril would come in and sing a few melodies , change a word here or there . " Reid complemented the issue over the credits : " If I 'm looking for a single for an artist , I don 't care who writes it . Avril had the freedom to do as she really pleased , and the songs show her point of view . ... Avril has always been confident about her ideas . "
Although she needed pop songs " to break " into the industry , Lavigne felt " Complicated " does not reflect her and her songwriting skills . Nonetheless , she was grateful for the song as it successfully launched her career . She favors more " Losing Grip " , because " it means so much more when it comes straight from the artist " .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released on 4 June 2002 , in Canada and the United States . Later , on 22 July , Let Go hit record stores worldwide , and on 26 August in some parts of Europe , including the United Kingdom and Ireland . A DataPlay version of the album was released in September 2002 . Arista had established a deal with DataPlay earlier in 2002 , and included Let Go alongside albums by rock singer Santana and singer Whitney Houston in the release .
Although Lavigne was targeted to the teen audience , a marketing strategy credited with the successful launch of her career ; Lavigne performed on a host of radio @-@ sponsored multi @-@ artist holiday shows throughout the United States , a marketing strategy that induced higher sales of the album during the season . She embarked on her first headlining tour , Try To Shut Me Up Tour , which took place on 23 January 2003 , and ended on 4 June 2003 . Lavigne toured with her band — drummer Matthew Brann , bassist Mark Spicoluk , and guitarists Jesse Colburn and Evan Taubenfeld — which she had grouped after signing the deal . In the tour , she included all songs off Let Go , B @-@ sides , and cover versions of " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " by Bob Dylan and " Basket Case " by Green Day .
Lavigne filmed her performance in Buffalo , New York , on 18 May 2003 , the final date of her five @-@ week headlining North American tour . The tour DVD My World was released on 4 November 2003 , on joint venture by Arista Records and 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . The DVD features the concert , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette , five music videos and a six @-@ song bonus audio CD that includes an unreleased track " Why " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Complicated " was released by Arista as the album 's lead single , which was seen as an across @-@ all @-@ age @-@ groups introduction to Lavigne . Thought to produce wide cross @-@ demographic appeal , however , the music video to the single features Lavigne and her band wreaking havoc in a mall , " the sort of imagery that might have grown @-@ ups thinking ' Clean that mess up ! ' more than clamoring for the record " . The song was a worldwide No. 1 hit and was nominated for two Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance .
" Sk8er Boi " The follow @-@ up single was aimed at pop @-@ punk oriented kids . The release of " Sk8er Boi " created disagreement among many radio programming directors . However , their impressions were diverted as listeners helped change their minds ; early rotation of the single proved successful , showing it was as popular with post @-@ collegiate listeners as with teens . The song even went to No. 1 in U.S. mainstream radio .
" I 'm with You " The adult ballad hit record stores in late November 2002 , close to Christmas holidays to remind parents about the album to , if not to buy it themselves , to purchase it for any children in their family . The song ended up being another hit for Lavigne reaching No. 4 in the Billboard Hot 100 , No. 1 in mainstream radio and top 10 in the UK and Canada . It was not officially released in Australia but received radio and television airplay , this song was also nominated for two Grammy Awards the same categories as " Complicated " . The release arrangement of the album 's singles , with " I 'm With You " being served as the third , was regarded as " controversial " , given that " I 'm With You " was " thought by
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worldwide during Christmas holiday with almost 860 @,@ 000 copies sold worldwide during Christmas week and then another 600 @,@ 000 copies worldwide in the first week of 2003 .
= = Track listing = =
( * ) Additional production
= = Personnel = =
This list of credits is based on barnesandnoble.com.
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Awards = =
At the 2003 Grammy Awards , Lavigne received five nominations , including Best Pop Vocal Album for Let Go , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Complicated " , Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for " Sk8er Boi " and the coveted Best New Artist . At the 2004 Grammy Awards Lavigne received the nominations Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " I 'm with You " and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for " Losing Grip " .
= R.E.M. =
R.E.M. was an American rock band from Athens , Georgia , formed in 1980 by lead singer Michael Stipe , lead guitarist Peter Buck , bassist / backing vocalist Mike Mills , and drummer Bill Berry . One of the first popular alternative rock bands , R.E.M. were noted for Buck 's ringing , arpeggiated guitar style , Stipe 's particular vocal quality , and Mills ' melodic basslines and backing vocals . R.E.M. released their first single , " Radio Free Europe " , in 1981 on the independent record label Hib @-@ Tone . The single was followed by the Chronic Town EP in 1982 , the band 's first release on I.R.S. Records . In 1983 , the group released its critically acclaimed debut album , Murmur , and built its reputation over the next few years through subsequent releases , constant touring , and the support of college radio . Following years of underground success , R.E.M. achieved a mainstream hit in 1987 with the single " The One I Love " . The group signed to Warner Bros. Records in 1988 , and began to espouse political and environmental concerns while playing large arenas worldwide .
By the early 1990s , when alternative rock began to experience broad mainstream success , R.E.M. was viewed by subsequent acts such as Nirvana and Pavement as a pioneer of the genre . The band then released its two most commercially successful albums , Out of Time ( 1991 ) and Automatic for the People ( 1992 ) , which veered from the band 's established sound and catapulted it to international fame . R.E.M. ' s 1994 release , Monster , was a return to a more rock @-@ oriented sound , but still continued its run of success . The band began its first tour in six years to support the album ; the tour was marred by medical emergencies suffered by the three band members .
In 1996 , R.E.M. re @-@ signed with Warner Bros. for a reported US $ 80 million , at the time the most expensive recording contract in history . Its 1996 release , New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi , though critically acclaimed , fared worse commercially than expected . The following year , Bill Berry left the band , while Stipe , Buck , and Mills continued the group as a trio . Through some changes in musical style , the band continued its career into the next decade with mixed critical and commercial success , despite having sold more than 85 million records worldwide and becoming one of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists of all time . In 2007 , the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , in their first year of eligibility . R.E.M. disbanded amicably in September 2011 , announcing the split on its website .
= = History = =
= = = 1980 – 81 : Formation = = =
In January 1980 , Michael Stipe met Peter Buck in Wuxtry Records , the Athens record store where Buck worked . The pair discovered that they shared similar tastes in music , particularly in punk rock and protopunk artists like Patti Smith , Television , and The Velvet Underground . Stipe said , " It turns out that I was buying all the records that [ Buck ] was saving for himself . " Stipe and Buck soon met fellow University of Georgia students Mike Mills and Bill Berry , who had played music together since high school . The quartet agreed to collaborate on several songs ; Stipe later commented that " there was never any grand plan behind any of it " . Their still @-@ unnamed band spent a few months rehearsing and played its first show on April 5 , 1980 , at a friend 's birthday party held in a converted Episcopal church in Athens . After considering names like " Twisted Kites " , " Cans of Piss " , and " Negro Wives " , the band settled on " R.E.M. " ( which stands for the stage of sleep called rapid eye movement ) , which Stipe selected at random from a dictionary .
The band members eventually dropped out of school to focus on their developing group . They found a manager in Jefferson Holt , a record store clerk who was so impressed by an R.E.M. performance in his hometown of Chapel Hill , North Carolina , that he moved to Athens . R.E.M. ' s success was almost immediate in Athens and surrounding areas ; the band drew progressively larger crowds for shows , which caused some resentment in the Athens music scene . Over the next year and a half , R.E.M. toured throughout the Southern United States . Touring was arduous because a touring circuit for alternative rock bands did not then exist . The group toured in an old blue van driven by Holt , and lived on a food allowance of $ 2 each per day .
During the summer of 1981 , R.E.M. recorded its first single , " Radio Free Europe " , at producer Mitch Easter 's Drive @-@ In Studios in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina . The single was released on the local independent record label Hib @-@ Tone with an initial pressing of one thousand copies , which quickly sold out . Despite its limited pressing , the single garnered critical acclaim , and was listed as one of the ten best singles of the year by The New York Times .
= = = 1981 – 87 : I.R.S. Records and cult success = = =
R.E.M. recorded the Chronic Town EP with Mitch Easter in October 1981 , and planned to release it on a new indie label named Dasht Hopes . However , I.R.S. Records acquired a demo of the band 's first recording session with Easter that had been circulating for months . The band turned down the advances of major label RCA Records in favor of I.R.S. , with whom it signed a contract in May 1982 . I.R.S. released Chronic Town that August as its first American release . A positive review of the EP by NME praised the songs ' auras of mystery , and concluded , " R.E.M. ring true , and it 's great to hear something as unforced and cunning as this . "
I.R.S. first paired R.E.M. with producer Stephen Hague to record its debut album . Hague 's emphasis on technical perfection left the band unsatisfied , and the band members asked the label to let them record with Easter . I.R.S. agreed to a " tryout " session , allowing the band to return to North Carolina and record the song " Pilgrimage " with Easter and producing partner Don Dixon . After hearing the track , I.R.S. permitted the group to record the album with Dixon and Easter . Because of its bad experience with Hague , the band recorded the album via a process of negation , refusing to incorporate rock music clichés such as guitar solos or then @-@ popular synthesizers , in order to give its music a timeless feel . The completed album , Murmur , was greeted with critical acclaim upon its release in 1983 , with Rolling Stone listing the album as its record of the year . The album reached number 36 on the Billboard album chart . A re @-@ recorded version of " Radio Free Europe " was the album 's lead single and reached number 78 on the Billboard singles chart in 1983 . Despite the acclaim awarded the album , Murmur sold only about 200 @,@ 000 copies , which I.R.S. ' s Jay Boberg felt was below expectations .
R.E.M. made its first national television appearance on Late Night with David Letterman in October 1983 , during which the group performed a new , unnamed song . The piece , eventually titled " So . Central Rain ( I 'm Sorry ) " , became the first single from the band 's second album , Reckoning ( 1984 ) , which was also recorded with Easter and Dixon . The album met with critical acclaim ; NME 's Mat Snow wrote that Reckoning " confirms R.E.M. as one of the most beautifully exciting groups on the planet " . While Reckoning peaked at number 27 on the US album charts — an unusually high chart placing for a college rock band at the time — scant airplay and poor distribution overseas resulted in it charting no higher than number 91 in Britain .
The band 's third album , Fables of the Reconstruction ( 1985 ) , demonstrated a change in direction . Instead of Dixon and Easter , R.E.M. chose producer Joe Boyd , who had worked with Fairport Convention and Nick Drake , to record the album in England . The band members found the sessions unexpectedly difficult , and were miserable due to the cold winter weather and what they considered to be poor food ; the situation brought the band to the verge of break @-@ up . The gloominess surrounding the sessions ended up providing the context for the album itself . Lyrically , Stipe began to create storylines in the mode of Southern mythology , noting in a 1985 interview that he was inspired by " the whole idea of the old men sitting around the fire , passing on ... legends and fables to the grandchildren " .
They toured in Canada in July and August 1985 , and throughout Europe in October of that year , including in The Netherlands , England ( one concert was held at the famous Hammersmith Palais in London ) , Ireland , Scotland , France , Switzerland , Belgium and West Germany . On October 2 , 1985 , the group played a concert in Bochum , West Germany , for the German TV show Rockpalast . Stipe had bleached his hair blond during this time . Fables of the Reconstruction performed poorly in Europe and its critical reception was mixed , with some critics regarding it as dreary and poorly recorded . As with the previous records , the singles from Fables of the Reconstruction were mostly ignored by mainstream radio . Meanwhile , I.R.S. was becoming frustrated with the band 's reluctance to achieve mainstream success .
For its fourth album , R.E.M. enlisted John Mellencamp producer Don Gehman . The result , Lifes Rich Pageant ( 1986 ) featured Stipe 's vocals closer to the forefront of the music . In a 1986 interview with the Chicago Tribune , Peter Buck related , " Michael is getting better at what he 's doing , and he 's getting more confident at it . And I think that shows up in the projection of his voice . " The album improved markedly upon the sales of Fables of the Reconstruction and eventually peaked at number 21 on the Billboard album chart . The single " Fall on Me " also picked up support on commercial radio . The album was the band 's first to be certified gold for selling 500 @,@ 000 copies . While American college radio remained R.E.M. ' s core support , the band was beginning to chart hits on mainstream rock formats ; however , the music still encountered resistance from Top 40 radio .
Following the success of Lifes Rich Pageant , I.R.S. issued Dead Letter Office , a compilation of tracks recorded by the band during their album sessions , many of which had either been issued as B @-@ sides or left unreleased altogether . Shortly thereafter , I.R.S. compiled R.E.M. ' s music video catalog ( except " Wolves , Lower " ) as the band 's first video release , Succumbs .
= = = 1987 – 90 : Breakthrough = = =
Don Gehman was unable to produce R.E.M. ' s fifth album , so he suggested the group work with Scott Litt . Litt would be the producer for the band 's next five albums . Document ( 1987 ) featured some of Stipe 's most openly political lyrics , particularly on " Welcome to the Occupation " and " Exhuming McCarthy " , which were reactions to the conservative political environment of the 1980s under American President Ronald Reagan . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote in his review of the album , " ' Document ' is both confident and defiant ; if R.E.M. is about to move from cult @-@ band status to mass popularity , the album decrees that the band will get there on its own terms . " Document was R.E.M. ' s breakthrough album , and the first single " The One I Love " charted in the Top 20 in the US , UK , and Canada . By January 1988 , Document had become the group 's first album to sell a million copies . In light of the band 's breakthrough , the December 1987 cover of Rolling Stone declared R.E.M. " America 's Best Rock & Roll Band " .
Frustrated that its records did not see satisfactory overseas distribution , R.E.M. left I.R.S. when its contract expired and signed with the major label Warner Bros. Records . Though other labels offered more money , R.E.M. ultimately signed with Warner Bros. — reportedly for an amount between $ 6 million and $ 12 million — due to the company 's assurance of total creative freedom . In the aftermath of the group 's departure , I.R.S. released the 1988 " best of " compilation Eponymous ( assembled with input from the band members ) to capitalize on assets the company still possessed . The band 's 1988 Warner Bros. debut , Green , was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee , and showcased the group experimenting with its sound . The record 's tracks ranged from the upbeat first single " Stand " ( a hit in the United States ) , to more political material , like the rock @-@ oriented " Orange Crush " and " World Leader Pretend " , which address the Vietnam War and the Cold War , respectively . Green has gone on to sell four million copies worldwide . The band supported the album with its biggest and most visually developed tour to date , featuring back @-@ projections and art films playing on the stage . After the Green tour , the band members unofficially decided to take the following year off , the first extended break in the band 's career . In 1990 Warner Bros. issued the music video compilation Pop Screen to collect clips from the Document and Green albums , followed a few months later by the video album Tourfilm featuring live performances filmed during the Green World Tour .
= = = 1990 – 94 : Non @-@ touring years and international success = = =
R.E.M. reconvened in mid @-@ 1990 to record its seventh album , Out of Time . In a departure from Green , the band members often wrote the music with non @-@ traditional rock instrumentation including mandolin , organ , and acoustic guitar instead of adding them as overdubs later in the creative process . Released in March 1991 , Out of Time was the band 's first album to top both the US and UK charts . The record eventually sold 4 @.@ 2 million copies in the US alone , and about 12 million copies worldwide by 1996 . The album 's lead single " Losing My Religion " was a worldwide hit that received heavy rotation on radio , as did the music video on MTV . " Losing My Religion " was R.E.M. ' s highest @-@ charting single in the US , reaching number four on the Billboard charts . " There 've been very few life @-@ changing events in our career because our career has been so gradual , " Mills said years later . " If you want to talk about life changing , I think ' Losing My Religion ' is the closest it gets " . The album 's second single , " Shiny Happy People " ( one of three songs on the record to feature vocals from Kate Pierson of fellow Athens band The B @-@ 52 's ) , was also a major hit , reaching number 10 in the US and number six in the UK . Out of Time garnered R.E.M. seven nominations at the 1992 Grammy Awards , the most nominations of any artist that year . The band won three awards : one for Best Alternative Music Album and two for " Losing My Religion " , Best Short Form Music Video and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal . R.E.M. did not tour to promote Out of Time ; instead the group played a series of one @-@ off shows , including an appearance taped for an episode of MTV Unplugged and released music videos for each song on the video album This Film Is On . The MTV Unplugged session of " Losing My Religion " was recorded with members of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra in Madison , Georgia , at Madison @-@ Morgan Cultural Center .
After spending some months off , R.E.M. returned to the studio in 1991 to record its next album . Late in 1992 , the band released Automatic for the People . Though the group had intended to make a harder @-@ rocking album after the softer textures of Out of Time , the somber Automatic for the People " [ seemed ] to move at an even more agonized crawl " , according to Melody Maker . The album dealt with themes of loss and mourning inspired by " that sense of ... turning thirty " , according to Buck . Several songs featured string arrangements by former Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones . Considered by a number of critics ( as well as by Buck and Mills ) to be the band 's best album , Automatic for the People reached numbers one and two on UK and US charts , respectively , and generated the American Top 40 hit singles " Drive " , " Man on the Moon " , and " Everybody Hurts " . The album would sell over fifteen million copies worldwide . As with Out of Time , there was no tour in support of the album . The decision to forgo a tour , in conjunction with Stipe 's physical appearance , generated rumors that the singer was dying or HIV @-@ positive , which were vehemently denied by the band .
= = = 1994 – 97 : Return to touring and continued success = = =
After the band released two slow @-@ paced albums in a row , R.E.M. ' s 1994 album Monster was , as Buck said , " a ' rock ' record , with the rock in quotation marks . " In contrast to the sound of its predecessors , the music of Monster consisted of distorted guitar tones , minimal overdubs , and touches of 1970s glam rock . Like Out of Time , Monster topped the charts in both the US and UK . The record sold about nine million copies worldwide . The singles " What 's the Frequency , Kenneth ? " and " Bang and Blame " were the band 's last American Top 40 hits , although all the singles from Monster reached the Top 30 on the British charts . Warner Bros. assembled the music videos from the album as well as those from Automatic for the People for release as Parallel in 1995 .
In January 1995 , R.E.M. set out on its first tour in six years . The tour was a huge commercial success , but the period was difficult for the group . On March 1 , Berry collapsed on stage during a performance in Lausanne , Switzerland , having suffered a brain aneurysm . He had surgery immediately and recovered fully within a month . Berry 's aneurysm was only the beginning of a series of health problems that plagued the Monster Tour . Mills had to undergo abdominal surgery to remove an intestinal adhesion in July ; a month later , Stipe had to have an emergency surgery to repair a hernia . Despite all the problems , the group had recorded the bulk of a new album while on the road . The band brought along eight @-@ track recorders to capture its shows , and used the recordings as the base elements for the album . The final three performances of the tour were filmed and released in home video form as Road Movie .
R.E.M. re @-@ signed with Warner Bros. Records in 1996 for a reported $ 80 million ( a figure the band constantly asserted originated with the media ) , rumored to be the largest recording contract in history at that point . The group 's 1996 album New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi debuted at number two in the US and number one in the UK . The five million copies of the album sold were a reversal of the group 's commercial fortunes of the previous five years . Time writer Christopher John Farley argued that the lesser sales of the album were due to the declining commercial power of alternative rock as a whole . That same year , R.E.M. parted ways with manager Jefferson Holt , allegedly due to sexual harassment charges levied against him by a member of the band 's home office in Athens . The group 's lawyer Bertis Downs assumed managerial duties .
= = = 1997 – 2000 : Berry 's departure and Up = = =
In April 1997 , the band convened at Buck 's Kauai vacation home to record demos of material intended for the next album . The band sought to reinvent its sound and intended to incorporate drum loops and percussion experiments . Just as the sessions were due to begin in October , Berry decided , after months of contemplation and discussions with Downs and Mills , to tell the rest of the band that he was quitting . Berry told his band mates that he would not quit if they would break up as a result , so Stipe , Buck , and Mills agreed to carry on as a three @-@ piece with his blessing . Berry publicly announced his departure three weeks later in October 1997 . Berry told the press , " I 'm just not as enthusiastic as I have been in the past about doing this anymore . . . I have the best job in the world . But I 'm kind of ready to sit back and reflect and maybe not be a pop star anymore . " Stipe admitted that the band would be different without a major contributor : " For me , Mike , and Peter , as R.E.M. , are we still R.E.M. ? I guess a three @-@ legged dog is still a dog . It just has to learn to run differently . "
The band cancelled its scheduled recording sessions as a result of Berry 's departure . " Without Bill it was different , confusing " , Mills later said . " We didn 't know exactly what to do . We couldn 't rehearse without a drummer . " The remaining members of R.E.M. resumed work on the album in February 1998 at Toast Studios in San Francisco . The band ended its decade @-@ long collaboration with Scott Litt and hired Pat McCarthy to produce the record . Nigel Godrich was taken on as assistant producer , and drafted in Screaming Trees member Barrett Martin and Beck 's touring drummer Joey Waronker . The recording process was plagued with tension , and the group came close to disbanding . Bertis Downs called an emergency meeting where the band members sorted out their problems and agreed to continue as a group . Led off by the single " Daysleeper " , Up ( 1998 ) debuted in the top ten in the US and UK . However , the album was a relative failure , selling 900 @,@ 000 copies in the US by mid @-@ 1999 and eventually selling just over two million copies worldwide . While R.E.M. ' s American sales were declining , the group 's commercial base was shifting to the UK , where more R.E.M. records were sold per capita than any other country and the band 's singles regularly entered the Top 20 .
A year after Up 's release , R.E.M. wrote the instrumental score to the Andy Kaufman biographical film Man on the Moon , a first for the group . The film took its title from the Automatic for the People song of the same name . The song " The Great Beyond " was released as a single from the Man on the Moon soundtrack album . " The Great Beyond " only reached number 57 on the American pop charts , but was the band 's highest @-@ charting single ever in the UK , reaching number three in 2000 .
= = = 2000 – 07 : Reveal and Around the Sun = = =
R.E.M. recorded the majority of its twelfth album Reveal ( 2001 ) in Canada and Ireland from May to October 2000 . Reveal shared the " lugubrious pace " of Up , and featured drumming by Joey Waronker , as well as contributions by Scott McCaughey ( a co @-@ founder of the band The Minus 5 with Buck ) and Posies founder Ken Stringfellow . Global sales of the album were over four million , but in the United States Reveal sold about the same number of copies as Up . The album was led by the single " Imitation of Life " , which reached number six in the UK . Writing for Rock 's Backpages , The Rev. Al Friston described the album as " loaded with golden loveliness at every twist and turn " , in comparison to the group 's " essentially unconvincing work on New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi and Up . " Similarly , Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called Reveal " a spiritual renewal rooted in a musical one " and praised its " ceaselessly astonishing beauty . "
In 2003 , Warner Bros. released the compilation album and DVD In Time : The Best of R.E.M. 1988 – 2003 and In View : The Best of R.E.M. 1988 – 2003 , which featured two new songs , " Bad Day " and " Animal " . At a 2003 concert in Raleigh , North Carolina , Berry made a surprise appearance , performing backing vocals on " Radio Free Europe " . He then sat behind the drum kit for a performance of the early R.E.M. song " Permanent Vacation " , marking his first performance with the band since his retirement .
R.E.M. released Around the Sun in 2004 . During production of the album in 2002 , Stipe said , " [ The album ] sounds like it 's taking off from the last couple of records into unchartered R.E.M. territory . Kind of primitive and howling " . After the album 's release , Mills said , " I think , honestly , it turned out a little slower than we intended for it to , just in terms of the overall speed of songs . " Around the Sun received a mixed critical reception , and peaked at number 13 on the Billboard charts . The first single from the album , " Leaving New York " , was a Top 5 hit in the UK . For the record and subsequent tour , the band hired a new full @-@ time touring drummer , Bill Rieflin , who had previously been a member of several industrial music acts such as Ministry and Pigface . The video album Perfect Square was released that same year .
EMI released a compilation album covering R.E.M. ' s work during its tenure on I.R.S. in 2006 called And I Feel Fine ... The Best of the I.R.S. Years 1982 – 1987 along with the video album When the Light Is Mine : The Best of the I.R.S. Years 1982 – 1987 — the label had previously released the compilations The Best of R.E.M. ( 1991 ) , R.E.M. : Singles Collected ( 1994 ) , and R.E.M. : In the Attic – Alternative Recordings 1985 – 1989 ( 1997 ) . That same month , all four original band members performed during the ceremony for their induction into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame . While rehearsing for the ceremony , the band recorded a cover of John Lennon 's " # 9 Dream " for Instant Karma : The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur , a tribute album benefiting Amnesty International . The song — released as a single for the album and the campaign — featured Bill Berry 's first studio recording with the band since his departure almost a decade earlier .
In October 2006 , R.E.M. was nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in its first year of eligibility . The band was one of five nominees accepted into the Hall that year , and the induction ceremony took place in March 2007 at New York 's Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . The group — which was inducted by Pearl Jam lead singer Eddie Vedder — performed three songs with Bill Berry ; " Gardening at Night , " " Man on the Moon " and " Begin the Begin " as well as a cover of " I Wanna Be Your Dog . "
= = = 2007 – 11 : Accelerate , Collapse into Now , and breakup = = =
Work on the group 's fourteenth album commenced in early 2007 . The band recorded with producer Jacknife Lee in Vancouver and Dublin , where it played five nights in the Olympia Theatre between June 30 and July 5 as part of a " working rehearsal " . R.E.M. Live , the band 's first live album ( featuring songs from a 2005 Dublin show ) , was released in October 2007 . The group followed this with the 2009 live album Live at The Olympia , which features performances from its 2007 residency . R.E.M. released Accelerate in early 2008 . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard charts , and became the band 's eighth album to top the British album charts . Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke considered Accelerate an improvement over the band 's previous post @-@ Berry albums , calling it " one of the best records R.E.M. have ever made . "
In 2010 , R.E.M. released the video album R.E.M. Live from Austin , TX — a concert recorded for Austin City Limits in 2008 . The group recorded its fifteenth album , Collapse into Now ( 2011 ) , with Jacknife Lee in locales including Berlin , Nashville , and New Orleans . For the album , the band aimed for a more expansive sound than the intentionally short and speedy approach implemented on Accelerate . The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , becoming the group 's tenth album to reach the top ten of the chart . This release fulfilled R.E.M. ' s contractual obligations to Warner Bros. , and the band began recording material without a contract a few months later with the possible intention of self @-@ releasing the work .
On September 21 , 2011 , R.E.M. announced via its website that it was " calling it a day as a band " . Stipe said that he hoped fans realized it " wasn 't an easy decision " : " All things must end , and we wanted to do it right , to do it our way . " Long @-@ time associate and former Warner Bros. Senior Vice President of Emerging Technology Ethan Kaplan has speculated that shake @-@ ups at the record label influenced the group 's decision to disband . The group discussed breaking up for several years , but was encouraged to continue after the lackluster critical and commercial performance of Around the Sun ; according to Mills , " We needed to prove , not only to our fans and critics but to ourselves , that we could still make great records . " The band members finished their collaboration by assembling the compilation album Part Lies , Part Heart , Part Truth , Part Garbage 1982 – 2011 , which was released in November 2011 . The album is the first to collect songs from R.E.M. ' s I.R.S. and Warner Bros. tenures , as well as three songs from the group 's final studio recordings from post @-@ Collapse into Now sessions . In November , Mills and Stipe did a brief span of promotional appearances in British media , ruling out the option of the group ever reuniting .
In 2014 , Unplugged : The Complete 1991 and 2001 Sessions was released for Record Store Day . Digital download collections of I.R.S. and Warner Bros. rarities followed . Later in the year , the band compiled the video album box set REMTV , which collected their two Unplugged performances along with several other documentaries and live shows , while their record label released the box set 7IN — 83 – 88 , made up of 7 " vinyl singles . In December 2015 , the band members agreed to a distribution deal with Concord Bicycle Music to re @-@ release their Warner Bros. albums .
= = Musical style = =
In a 1988 interview , Peter Buck described typical R.E.M. songs as , " Minor key , mid @-@ tempo , enigmatic , semi @-@ folk @-@ rock @-@ balladish things . That 's what everyone thinks and to a certain degree , that 's true . " All songwriting is credited to the entire band , even though individual members are sometimes responsible for writing the majority of a particular song . Each member is given an equal vote in the songwriting process ; however , Buck has conceded that Stipe , as the band 's lyricist , can rarely be persuaded to follow an idea he does not favor . Among the original line @-@ up , there were divisions of labor in the songwriting process : Stipe would write lyrics and devise melodies , Buck would edge the band in new musical directions , and Mills and Berry would fine @-@ tune the compositions due to their greater musical experience .
Michael Stipe sings in what R.E.M. biographer David Buckley described as " wailing , keening , arching vocal figures " . Stipe often harmonizes with Mills in songs ; in the chorus for " Stand " , Mills and Stipe alternate singing lyrics , creating a dialogue . Early articles about the band focused on Stipe 's singing style ( described as " mumbling " by The Washington Post ) , which often rendered his lyrics indecipherable . Creem writer John Morthland wrote in his review of Murmur , " I still have no idea what these songs are about , because neither me nor anyone else I know has ever been able to discern R.E.M. ' s lyrics . " Stipe commented in 1984 , " It 's just the way I sing . If I tried to control it , it would be pretty false . " Producer Joe Boyd convinced Stipe to begin singing more clearly during the recording of Fables of the Reconstruction .
Stipe later called chorus lyrics of " Sitting Still " from R.E.M. debut album , Murmur , " nonsense " , saying in a
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King of Lithuania , appoint a bishop for Lithuania , and build a cathedral . The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the Holy See , rather than to the Archbishop of Riga . This autonomy was a welcome development . The precise date of Mindaugas ' baptism is not known . His wife , two sons , and members of his court were baptized ; Pope Innocent wrote later that a multitude of Mindaugas ' subjects also received Christianity .
The process of coronation and the establishment of Christian institutions would take two years . Internal conflicts persisted ; during the spring or summer of 1251 , Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas ' warriors and the Livonian Order 's crossbow @-@ men in Voruta Castle . The attack failed , and Tautvilas ' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tviremet Castle ( presumed to be Tverai in Samogitia ) . Vykintas died in 1251 or 1252 , and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia .
= = The Kingdom of Lithuania = =
Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned during the summer of 1253 . Bishop Henry Heidenreich of Kulm presided over the ecclesiastical ceremonies and Andreas Stirland conferred the crown . 6 July is now celebrated as Statehood Day ( Lithuanian : Valstybės diena ) ; it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania . The exact date of the coronation is not known ; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius , who promulgated this precise date , is sometimes challenged . The location of the coronation also remains unknown .
Relative peace and stability prevailed for about eight years . Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on the expansion to the east , and to establish and organize state institutions . He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia , in Polatsk , a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin , and in Pinsk . He also negotiated a peace with Galicia – Volhynia , and married his daughter to Svarn , the son of Daniel of Galicia , who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania . Lithuanian relationships with western Europe and the Holy See were reinforced . In 1255 , Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania . A noble court , an administrative system , and a diplomatic service were initiated . Silver long coins , an index of statehood , were issued . He sponsored the construction of a cathedral in Vilnius , possibly on the site of today 's Vilnius Cathedral .
Immediately after his coronation , Mindaugas transferred some lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia , Nadruva , and Dainava — although his control over these western lands was tenuous . There has been much discussion among historians as to whether in later years ( 1255 – 1261 ) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the order . The deeds might have been falsified by the order ; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas and by various irregularities in treaty witnesses and seals .
Mindaugas and his antagonist Daniel reached a reconciliation in 1255 ; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman , Daniel 's son . Afterwards Mindaugas 's son Vaišvilkas received baptism as a member of the Orthodox faith , becoming a monk and later founding a convent and monastery . Tautvilas 's antagonism was temporarily resolved when he recognized Mindaugas ' superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom . A direct confrontation with the Mongols occurred in 1258 or 1259 , when Berke Khan sent his general Burundai to challenge Lithuanian rule , ordering Daniel and other regional princes to participate . The Novgorod Chronicle describes the following action as a defeat of the Lithuanians , but it has also been seen as a net gain for Mindaugas .
A single sentence in the Hypatian Chronicle mentions Mindaugas defending himself in Voruta against his nephews and Duke Vykintas ; two other sources mention " his castle " . The location of Voruta is not specified , and this has led to considerable speculation , along with archeological research , concerning the seat of his court . At least fourteen different locations have been proposed , including Kernavė and Vilnius . The ongoing formal archeological digs at Kernavė began in 1979 after a portion of the site named " Mindaugas Throne hill @-@ fort " collapsed . The town now hosts a major celebration on Statehood Day .
= = Assassination and aftermath = =
The Livonian Order used their alliance with Mindaugas to gain control over Samogitian lands . In 1252 he approved the Order 's construction of Klaipeda Castle . Their governance , however , was seen as oppressive . Local merchants could only conduct transactions via Order @-@ approved intermediaries ; inheritance laws were changed ; and the choices among marriage partners and residencies were restricted . Several pitched battles ensued . In 1259 the Order lost the Battle of Skuodas , and in 1260 it lost the Battle of Durbe . The first defeat encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians , and the defeat at Durbe spurred the Prussians into the Great Prussian Rebellion , which lasted for 14 years . Encouraged by these developments and by his nephew Treniota , Mindaugas broke peace with the Order . The gains he had expected from Christianization had proven to be minor .
Mindaugas may have reverted to paganism afterwards . His motivation for conversion is often described by modern historians as merely strategic . The case for his apostasy rests largely on two near @-@ contemporary sources : a 1324 assertion by Pope John XXII that Mindaugas had returned to error , and the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . The chronicler writes that Mindaugas continued to practice paganism , making sacrifices to his god , burning corpses , and conducting pagan rites in public . Historians have pointed to the possibility of bias in this account , since Mindaugas had been at war with Volhynia . Pope Clement IV , on the other hand , wrote in 1268 of " Mindaugas of happy memory " ( clare memorie Mindota ) , expressing regret at his murder .
In any event , the Lithuanians were not prepared to accept Christianity , and Mindaugas ' baptism had little impact on further developments . The majority of the population and the nobility remained pagan ; his subjects were not required to convert . The cathedral he had built in Vilnius was superseded by a pagan temple , and all the diplomatic achievements made after his coronation were lost , although the practice of Christianity and intermarriage were well tolerated .
Regional conflicts with the Order escalated . Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod , Tautvilas , and Tautvilas 's son Constantine agreed to form a coalition in opposition to Mindaugas , but their plans were unsuccessful . Treniota emerged as the leader of the Samogitian resistance ; he led an army to Cēsis ( now in Latvia ) , reaching the Estonian coast , and battled Masovia ( now in Poland ) . His goal was to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Christian orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership . His personal influence grew while Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Ruthenian lands , dispatching a large army to Bryansk . Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities . The Rhymed Chronicle mentions Mindaugas 's displeasure at the fact that Treniota did not create any alliances in Latvia or Estonia ; he may have come to prefer diplomacy . In the midst of these events Mindaugas ' wife Morta died , and he took her sister , Daumantas ' wife , as his own . In retaliation , Daumantas and Treniota assassinated Mindaugas and two of his sons in fall 1263 . According to a late medieval tradition , the assassination took place in Aglona . He was buried along with his horses , in accordance with ancestral tradition . After Mindaugas ' death , Lithuania lapsed into internal disorder . Three of his successors — Treniota , his son @-@ in @-@ law Svarn , and his son Vaišvilkas — were assassinated during the next seven years . Stability did not return until the reign of Traidenis , designated Grand Duke c . 1270 .
= = Legacy = =
Mindaugas held a dubious position in Lithuanian historiography until the Lithuanian national revival of the 19th century . While pagan sympathizers held him in disregard for betraying his religion , Christians saw his support as lukewarm . He received only passing references from Grand Duke Gediminas and was not mentioned at all by Vytautas the Great . His known family relations end with his children ; no historic records note any connections between his descendants and the Gediminids dynasty that ruled Lithuania and Poland until 1572 . A 17th @-@ century rector of Vilnius University held him responsible for the troubles then being experienced by the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( " the seed of internal discord among the Lithuanians had been sown " . ) A 20th @-@ century historian charged him with the " destruction of the organization of the Lithuanian state " . The first academic study of his life by a Lithuanian scholar , Jonas Totoraitis ( Die Litauer unter dem König Mindowe bis zum Jahre 1263 ) was not published until 1905 . In the 1990s historian Edvardas Gudavičius published his findings pinpointing a coronation date , which became a national holiday . The 750th anniversary of his coronation was marked in 2003 by the dedication of the Mindaugas Bridge in Vilnius , numerous festivals and concerts , and visits from other heads of state . In Belarus , there is the legendary Mindaugas ' Hill in Navahrudak , mentioned by Adam Mickiewicz in his 1828 poem Konrad Wallenrod . A memorial stone on the Mindaugas ' hill was installed in 1993 and a metal sculpture of Mindaugas in 2014 .
Mindaugas is the primary subject of the 1829 drama Mindowe , by Juliusz Słowacki , one of the Three Bards . He has been portrayed in several 20th @-@ century literary works : the Latvian author Mārtiņš Zīverts ' tragedy Vara ( Power , 1944 ) , Justinas Marcinkevičius ' drama @-@ poem Mindaugas ( 1968 ) , Romualdas Granauskas ' Jaučio aukojimas ( The Offering of the Bull , 1975 ) , and Juozas Kralikauskas ' Mindaugas ( 1995 ) . Coronation of Mindaugas and creation of the Grand Duchy is the main topic of the 2002 Belarusian novel Alhierd 's Lance by Volha Ipatava dedicated to the 750th anniversary of the coronation .
= The Cheese Special =
The Cheese Special is a 1913 American silent short comedy film featuring Max Asher and marking the film debut of Louise Fazenda . The scenario was written by Allen Curtis , but the identity of the director is unknown . It was the first production released by the newly formed Joker productions , as part of the Universal Film Manufacturing Company . The film is presumed to be lost and there is no published synopsis of the film . Known production details state that it was shot on a beach resort and used a miniature train . The film had a wide release and was reviewed by The Moving Picture World as a low comedy suited for the burlesque theaters .
= = Plot = =
No known script or plot of the film has surfaced , but the highlight of the film was summarized in the Corsicana Daily Sun as " a roaring Joker comedy in which Dauntless Dan stops the train with one hand and rescues the heroine with the other while the villain hisses between his teeth . "
= = Cast = =
Max Asher
Louise Fazenda as heroine / Schmaltz 's daughter
Henry Mann as Schmaltz
Lee Morris
Bobby Vernon as Sylvion De Jardins
= = Production = =
Few details are known about the production of the film , but it was shot on a beach resort and used a miniature train . Due the lack of credits , both Louise Fazenda and Henry Mann 's roles were provided by Photoplay , in response to an reader inquiry . The film was the first release by the new Joker productions , which was dedicated to producing only short comedy films . Kalton C. Lahue and Samuel Gill credit this production as being Louise Fazenda 's film debut . Film historian Richard E. Braff notes that Allen Curtis as the writer , but provides no directorial credits . The single reel production was released on October 25 , 1913 .
= = Reception = =
The new Joker line was billed as one of the " best comedies yet " by advertisers wanting to draw crowds to the theaters , but there may have been truth in the claims because it was cited as one of Max Asher 's best roles in a 1914 edition of Moving Picture World . The film had a wide release with showings in Indiana , Kansas , Ohio , North Carolina , Maryland , Pennsylvania , Texas , and in Chicago , Illinois . The Moving Picture World review of the film noted that it was a low comedy suitable for the burlesque houses with " less particular audiences " than finer establishments because one of the minor characters spat frequently on camera , interrupting the humor and thus making it unfit for the best theaters . Another newspaper review claimed that it was one of the best comedies released in months , but ended up referring to the film as " The Chinese Special " . The date of disappearance is unknown , but Universal destroyed its remaining copies of silent era films in 1948 . The film is presumed to be lost .
= James Walker ( Australian politician ) =
James Thomas Walker ( 20 March 1841 – 18 January 1923 ) was a Scottish @-@ born Australian banker and politician .
Walker was born in Scotland but spent his early childhood in New South Wales , before returning to Scotland with his family to study finance . Joining the Bank of New South Wales , he returned to Australia and held various financial positions in New South Wales and Queensland . Gaining a public reputation for financial expertise , he was active in the Federationist cause and was a delegate to the 1897 Constitutional Convention , where he was a significant figure in the development of Commonwealth finance schemes . After assisting the successful " Yes " campaign for the 1898 referendum , he was elected to the Senate in 1901 as a Free Trader .
As a senator , Walker continued to focus on finance , although his views on social policy sometimes saw him on the outside of his party . He supported the White Australia policy but disagreed with key elements , and was a leader in opposition to the dictation test , by which a potential immigrant was required to pass a test in any European language before their application was accepted . He also campaigned for a transcontinental railway and for a capital city to be located on federal territory . Attempts to guide financial reform through the parliament as a backbench senator led to frustration , and Walker retired due to ill health in 1913 with his legislation unpassed .
= = Early life and career = =
Walker was born on Leith Walk in Edinburgh to grazier John William Walker and his wife Elizabeth , née Waterston . The family migrated to New South Wales in 1844 and settled on Castlereads Station near Boorowa . In 1849 , John Walker sold the property to Hamilton Hume and returned to Scotland . James was educated at the Edinburgh Institution and King 's College London before returning to Edinburgh in 1857 . After several years in Scotland working first for the paper manufacturers Cowan & Sons , and then for stockbroker Robert Allan , he joined the Bank of New South Wales ' London branch in March 1860 ; his cousin , Thomas Walker , was one of the bank 's directors . In January 1862 he departed for Melbourne on Swiftsure and was posted to the bank 's Sydney office .
Walker was then sent by the bank to Rockhampton in Queensland , where he worked as an accountant until 1866 when he was appointed manager of the Townsville branch . In 1867 he was transferred to the Toowoomba branch , which he managed until 1878 when he was promoted assistant inspector in Brisbane . He married Janette Isabella Palmer on 16 April 1868 at Range View . In 1885 he resigned from the Bank of New South Wales to become the first manager of the Royal Bank of Queensland , but in 1887 he returned to New South Wales to manage the estate of Eadith Walker , the daughter of his late cousin Thomas .
= = Federation = =
Walker had a strong interest in Federation and was a member of the Australasian Federation League of New South Wales . In 1896 he attended the People 's Federal Convention in Bathurst , where he proposed a financial scheme that would provide savings for a federal government based on income from state taxes and federal spending . His reputation for financial expertise saw him elected to the Australian Federal Convention in 1897 . There he supported equal representation for all states in an upper house , Commonwealth control of railways , and a national capital on federal territory . He reiterated his financial proposals , but was overlooked for the finance and trade committee , having been described by Alfred Deakin as " a mere commercial man " .
Despite this setback , Walker continued to play an active part in the development of the Australian Constitution . He had the name of the federal upper house changed from the " States Assembly " to the Senate , although his proposal that the federated colonies adopt the name " Commonwealth of Australasia " , with a view to the future inclusion of New Guinea , New Zealand and Fiji , was not adopted . He also supported a minimum age for senators of twenty @-@ five , rather than twenty @-@ one , and voted for Paddy Glynn 's proposal to include recognition of a " Divine Sovereign " in the Constitution .
The second session of the Convention took place in Sydney in September 1897 . Walker was appointed to a subcommittee on federal finance , which proposed a financial scheme based on Walker 's Bathurst proposal that was adopted by the Convention . He was active in the Federation referendum campaign , travelling around New South Wales to encourage a " Yes " vote . He mostly focused on financial issues , and in 1899 went to Western Australia , the most reluctant colony , to increase support .
Following the success of the referendum , Walker was encouraged to stand for the Senate by a petition of over 6500 signatures . A staunch free trader , Walker campaigned as part of the Free Trade Party 's endorsed ticket . He had resigned as president of the Bank of New South Wales in 1897 , but remained a director . At the first federal election in March 1901 , Walker was elected as a New South Wales Senator at the head of the poll .
= = Senate career = =
As a senator , Walker devoted his support to a variety of causes , including a transcontinental railway and equal pay for women . He opposed a federal old @-@ age pension scheme on the grounds of lack of funds , and also opposed the Immigration Restriction Bill , although he supported the White Australia policy in principle . He opposed the proposed form of the dictation test and supported James Macfarlane 's amendment requiring the test to be administered in a language known to the immigrant , moving his own amendment after Macfarlane 's was defeated . He also expressed reservations about the deportation of Kanaka labourers , supporting the reduction in their use but advocating that those resident in Australia for at least five years be permitted to remain . He vigorously opposed compulsory arbitration , and voted against the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill .
Re @-@ elected as an Anti @-@ Socialist in 1906 , Walker expressed the view that the three @-@ party system of the Australian Parliament 's first decade was dysfunctional , and implored electors to vote " for either socialism or anti @-@ socialism , and so end this triangular government " . He continued to support the transcontinental railway and lamented the slow progress of the decision on a site for the federal capital , and supported a higher rate of immigration and the watering down of the Immigration Restriction Act . In 1908 , he introduced the Commonwealth Companies Reserve Liabilities Bill , which permitted special reserve funds for banks to assist shareholders during a financial crisis , and in 1910 followed with the similar Commonwealth Banking Companies Reserve Liabilities Bill . He complained of the difficulty of passing private senators ' bills , and at the 1913 election he retired , suffering from ill health .
= = Later life = =
Walker maintained an interest in politics after his retirement , and remained a director of the Bank of New South Wales until 1921 . He had been president of the Australian Golf Club ( 1903 – 19 ) , a director of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital , and a member of the Presbyterian Church 's finance committee . A fellow of the Institute of Bankers in London since 1886 and vice @-@ president of the Australian Economic Association , he also continued as a director of the Australian Mutual Provident Society and a councillor of St Andrew 's College at the University of Sydney . Walker died on 18 January 1923 at Woollahra in Sydney , and was survived by his wife and five of their seven children . Buried at South Head Cemetery , his estate at his death was worth £ 27 @,@ 697 .
= Hurricane Marty ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Marty was a tropical cyclone that produced heavy rains and flooding in several states in Southwestern and Western Mexico . The twentieth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Marty developed from a tropical wave on September 26 , 2015 to the southwest of Acapulco , Guerrero , in Mexico . Initially a tropical depression , the system strengthened into a tropical storm early on the following day . Due to favorable atmospheric conditions , Marty continued to intensify , but wind shear sharply increased as the storm approached a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Despite this , the cyclone deepened further , becoming a hurricane on September 28 and peaking with sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) shortly thereafter . Wind shear quickly took its toll on the hurricane , weakening it to a tropical storm early on September 29 . About 24 hours later , Marty degenerated into a post @-@ tropical low pressure area offshore Guerrero . The low further degenerated into a trough later on September 30 , and eventually dissipated on October 4 .
In anticipation of the storm , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in the states of Guerrero and Michoacán . Flooding occurred , particularly in Guerrero , where areas near Acapulco observed 5 to 6 in ( 130 to 150 mm ) of rainfall . There were several landslides and over 300 homes in the municipality of Coyuca de Benitez were flooded . The remnants also caused severe flooding in Sonora . About 800 homes and 400 vehicles were damaged in the city of Guaymas alone . Total damage in the state reached 500 million pesos ( US $ 30 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 10 . Tracking westward , the wave split into two portions , with the slower @-@ moving northern portion ultimately developing into Atlantic Tropical Depression Nine on September 16 . The southern portion crossed Venezuela and Colombia and emerged into the Pacific , where a large area of deep convection began to form . A well @-@ defined low pressure area developed on September 26 , and organized into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 p.m. CDT ) the same day while situated about 335 mi ( 540 km ) southwest of Acapulco , Guerrero . Six hours later , after banding features became more defined and intensity estimates using the Dvorak technique showed a slight increase in intensity , the depression was classified as a tropical storm and was accordingly named Marty by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . At the time , the storm was moving slowly northward due
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0 ) , again starring Juliette Binoche , was made in Tuscany and was Kiarostami 's first film to be shot and produced outside Iran . The story of an encounter between a British man and a French woman , it was entered in competition for the Palme d 'Or in the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian describes the film as an " intriguing oddity " , and said , " Certified Copy is the deconstructed portrait of a marriage , acted with well @-@ intentioned fervour by Juliette Binoche , but persistently baffling , contrived , and often simply bizarre – a highbrow misfire of the most peculiar sort . " He concluded that the film is " unmistakably an example of Kiarostami 's compositional technique , though not a successful example . " Roger Ebert , however , praised the film , noting that " Kiarostami is rather brilliant in the way he creates offscreen spaces . " Binoche won the Best Actress Award at Cannes for her performance in the film . Kiarostami 's final film , Like Someone in Love , set and shot in Japan , received mostly positive reviews by critics .
= = = Film festival work = = =
Kiarostami was a jury member at numerous film festivals , most notably the Cannes Film Festival in 1993 , 2002 and 2005 . He was also the president of the Caméra d 'Or Jury in Cannes Film Festival 2005 . He was announced as the president of the Cinéfondation and short film sections of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival .
Other representatives include the Venice Film Festival in 1985 , the Locarno International Film Festival in 1990 , the San Sebastian International Film Festival in 1996 , the São Paulo International Film Festival in 2004 , the Capalbio Cinema Festival in 2007 ( in which he was president of the jury ) , and the Küstendorf Film and Music Festival in 2011 . He also made regular appearances at many other film festivals across Europe , including the Estoril Film Festival in Portugal .
= = Cinematic style = =
= = = Individualism = = =
Though Kiarostami has been compared to Satyajit Ray , Vittorio de Sica , Éric Rohmer , and Jacques Tati , his films exhibit a singular style , often employing techniques of his own invention .
During the filming of The Bread and Alley in 1970 , Kiarostami had major differences with his experienced cinematographer about how to film the boy and the attacking dog . While the cinematographer wanted separate shots of the boy approaching , a close @-@ up of his hand as he enters the house and closes the door , followed by a shot of the dog , Kiarostami believed that if the three scenes could be captured as a whole it would have a more profound impact in creating tension over the situation . That one shot took around forty days to complete , until Kiarostami was fully content with the scene . Kiarostami later commented that the breaking of scenes would have disrupted the rhythm and content of the film 's structure , preferring to let the scene flow as one .
Unlike other directors , Kiarostami showed no interest in staging extravagant combat scenes or complicated chase scenes in large @-@ scale productions , instead attempting to mold the medium of film to his own specifications . Kiarostami appeared to have settled on his style with the Koker trilogy , which included a myriad of references to his own film material , connecting common themes and subject matter between each of the films . Stephen Bransford has contended that Kiarostami 's films do not contain references to the work of other directors , but are fashioned in such a manner that they are self @-@ referenced . Bransford believes his films are often fashioned into an ongoing dialectic with one film reflecting on and partially demystifying an earlier film .
He continued experimenting with new modes of filming , using different directorial methods and techniques . A case in point is Ten , which was filmed in a moving automobile in which Kiarostami was not present . He gave suggestions to the actors about what to do , and a camera placed on the dashboard filmed them while they drove around Tehran . The camera was allowed to roll , capturing the faces of the people involved during their daily routine , using a series of extreme @-@ close shots . Ten was an experiment that used digital cameras to virtually eliminate the director . This new direction towards a digital micro @-@ cinema is defined as a micro @-@ budget filmmaking practice , allied with a digital production basis .
Kiarostami 's cinema offers a different definition of film . According to film professors such as Jamsheed Akrami of William Paterson University , Kiarostami consistently tried to redefine film by forcing the increased involvement of the audience . In his later years , he also progressively trimmed the timespan within his films . Akrami thinks that this reduces the filmmaking from a collective endeavor to a purer , more basic form of artistic expression .
= = = Fiction and non @-@ fiction = = =
Kiarostami 's films contain a notable degree of ambiguity , an unusual mixture of simplicity and complexity , and often a mix of fictional and documentary elements ( docufiction ) . Kiarostami has stated , " We can never get close to the truth except through lying . "
The boundary between fiction and non @-@ fiction is significantly reduced in Kiarostami 's cinema . The French philosopher Jean @-@ Luc Nancy , writing about Kiarostami , and in particular Life and Nothing More ... , has argued that his films are neither quite fiction nor quite documentary . Life and Nothing More ... , he argues , is neither representation nor reportage , but rather " evidence " :
[ I ] t all looks like reporting , but everything underscores ( indique à l 'évidence ) that it is the fiction of a documentary ( in fact , Kiarostami shot the film several months after the earthquake ) , and that it is rather a document about " fiction " : not in the sense of imagining the unreal , but in the very specific and precise sense of the technique , of the art of constructing images . For the image by means of which , each time , each opens a world and precedes himself in it ( s 'y précède ) is not pregiven ( donnée toute faite ) ( as are those of dreams , phantasms or bad films ) : it is to be invented , cut and edited . Thus it is evidence , insofar as , if one day I happen to look at my street on which I walk up and down ten times a day , I construct for an instant a new evidence of my street .
For Jean @-@ Luc Nancy , this notion of cinema as " evidence " , rather than as documentary or imagination , is tied to the way Kiarostami deals with life @-@ and @-@ death ( cf. the remark by Geoff Andrew on ABC Africa , cited above , to the effect that Kiarostami 's films are not about death but about life @-@ and @-@ death ) :
Existence resists the indifference of life @-@ and @-@ death , it lives beyond mechanical " life , " it is always its own mourning , and its own joy . It becomes figure , image . It does not become alienated in images , but it is presented there : the images are the evidence of its existence , the objectivity of its assertion . This thought — which , for me , is the very thought of this film [ Life and Nothing More ... ] — is a difficult thought , perhaps the most difficult . It 's a slow thought , always under way , fraying a path so that the path itself becomes thought . It is that which frays images so that images become this thought , so that they become the evidence of this thought — and not in order to " represent " it .
In other words , wanting to accomplish more than just represent life and death as opposing forces , but rather to illustrate the way in which each element of nature is inextricably linked , Kiarostami devised a cinema that does more than just present the viewer with the documentable " facts , " but neither is it simply a matter of artifice . Because " existence " means more than simply life , it is projective , containing an irreducibly fictive element , but in this " being more than " life , it is therefore contaminated by mortality . Nancy is giving a clue , in other words , toward the interpretation of Kiarostami 's statement that lying is the only way to truth .
= = = Themes of life and death = = =
The concepts of change and continuity , in addition to the themes of life and death , play a major role in Kiarostami 's works . In the Koker trilogy , these themes play a central role . As illustrated in the aftermath of the 1990 Tehran earthquake disaster , they also represent the power of human resilience to overcome and defy destruction .
Unlike the Koker films , which convey an instinctual thirst for survival , Taste of Cherry explores the fragility of life and focuses on how precious it is .
Symbols of death abound in The Wind Will Carry Us , with the scenery of the graveyard , the imminence of the old woman 's passing , and the ancestors referred to early in the film by the character Farzad . Such devices prompt the viewer to reflect on the parameters of the afterlife and immaterial existence . The viewer is asked to consider what constitutes the soul , and what happens to it after death . In discussing the film , Kiarostami said that he is the person who raises questions , rather than answers them .
Some film critics believe that the assemblage of light versus dark scenes in Kiarostami 's film grammar , such as in Taste of Cherry and The Wind Will Carry Us , suggests the mutual existence of life with its endless possibilities , and death as a factual moment of anyone 's life .
= = = Visual and audio techniques = = =
Kiarostami 's style is notable for the use of panoramic long shots , such as in the closing sequences of Life and Nothing More and Through the Olive Trees , where the audience is intentionally distanced physically from the characters in order to stimulate reflection on their fate . Taste of Cherry is punctuated throughout by shots of this kind , including distant overhead shots of the suicidal Badii 's car moving across the hills , usually while he is conversing with a passenger . However , the visual distancing techniques stand in juxtaposition to the sound of the dialog , which always remains in the foreground . Like the coexistence of a private and public space , or the frequent framing of landscapes through car windows , this fusion of distance with proximity can be seen as a way of generating suspense in the most mundane of moments .
This relationship between distance and intimacy , between imagery and sound , is also present in the opening sequence to The Wind Will Carry Us . Michael J. Anderson has argued that such a thematic application of this central concept of presence without presence , through using such techniques , and by often referring to characters which the viewer does not see and sometimes not hear directly affects the nature and concept of space in the geographical framework in which the world is portrayed . Kiarostami 's use of sound and imagery conveys a world beyond what is directly visible and / or audible , which Anderson believes emphasizes the interconnectedness and shrinking of time and space in the modern world of telecommunications .
Other commentators such as film critic Ben Zipper believe that Kiarostami 's work as a landscape artist is evident in his compositional distant shots of the dry hills throughout a number of his films directly impacting on his construction on the rural landscapes within his films .
= = = Poetry and imagery = = =
Ahmad Karimi @-@ Hakkak , of the University of Maryland , argues that one aspect of Kiarostami 's cinematic style is that he is able to capture the essence of Persian poetry and create poetic imagery within the landscape of his films . In several of his movies such as Where is the Friend 's Home and The Wind Will Carry Us , classical Persian poetry is directly quoted in the film , highlighting the artistic link and intimate connection between them . This in turn reflects on the connection between the past and present , between continuity and change .
The characters recite poems mainly from classical Persian poet Omar Khayyám or modern Persian poets such as Sohrab Sepehri and Forough Farrokhzad . One scene in The Wind Will Carry Us has a long shot of a wheat field with rippling golden crops through which the doctor , accompanied by the filmmaker , is riding his scooter in a twisting road . In response to the comment that the other world is a better place than this one , the doctor recites this poem of Khayyam :
However , the aesthetic element involved with the poetry goes much farther back in time and is used more subtly than these examples suggest . Beyond issues of adaptation of text to film , Kiarostami often begins with an insistent will to give visual embodiment to certain specific image @-@ making techniques in Persian poetry , both classical and modern . This prominently results in enunciating a larger philosophical position , namely the ontological oneness of poetry and film .
It has been argued that the creative merit of Kiarostami 's adaptation of Sohrab Sepehri and Forough Farrokhzad 's poems extends the domain of textual transformation . Adaptation is defined as the transformation of a prior to a new text . Sima Daad of the University of Washington contends that Kiarostami 's adaptation arrives at the theoretical realm of adaptation by expanding its limit from inter @-@ textual potential to trans @-@ generic potential .
= = = Spirituality = = =
Kiarostami 's films often reflect upon immaterial concepts such as soul and afterlife . At times , however , the very concept of the spiritual seems to be contradicted by the medium . Some film theorists have argued that The Wind Will Carry Us provides a template by which a filmmaker can communicate metaphysical reality . The limits of the frame , the material representation of a space in dialog with another that is not represented , physically become metaphors for the relationship between this world and those which may exist apart from it . By limiting the space of the mise en scène , Kiarostami expands the space of the art .
Kiarostami 's " complex " sound @-@ images and philosophical approach have caused frequent comparisons with " mystical " filmmakers such as Andrei Tarkovsky and Robert Bresson . While acknowledging substantial cultural differences , much of Western critical writing about Kiarostami positions him as the Iranian equivalent of such directors , by virtue of a similarly austere , " spiritual " poetics and moral commitment . Some draw parallels between certain imagery in Kiarostami 's films with that of Sufi concepts .
While most English @-@ language writers , such as David Sterritt and the Spanish film professor Alberto Elena , interpret Kiarostami 's films as spiritual , other critics , including David Walsh and Hamish Ford , have not rated its influence in his films as lower .
= = Poetry , art and photography = =
Kiarostami , along with Jean Cocteau , Satyajit Ray , Derek Jarman , Alejandro Jodorowsky , and Gulzar , was a filmmaker who expressed himself in other genres , such as poetry , set designs , painting , or photography . They expressed their interpretation of the world and their understanding of our preoccupations and identities .
Kiarostami was a noted photographer and poet . A bilingual collection of more than 200 of his poems , Walking with the Wind , was published by Harvard University Press . His photographic work includes Untitled Photographs , a collection of over thirty photographs , mostly of snow landscapes , taken in his hometown Tehran , between 1978 and 2003 . In 1999 , He also published a collection of his poems . Kiarostami also produced Mozart 's opera , Così fan tutte , which premiered in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence in 2003 before being performed at the English National Opera in London in 2004 .
Riccardo Zipoli , from the Ca ' Foscari University of Venice , has studied the relations and interconnections between Kiarostami 's poems and his films . The results of the analysis reveal how Kiarostami 's treatment of " uncertain reality " is similar in his poems and films . Kiarostami 's poetry is reminiscent of the later nature poems of the Persian painter @-@ poet , Sohrab Sepehri . On the other hand , the succinct allusion to philosophical truths without the need for deliberation , the non @-@ judgmental tone of the poetic voice , and the structure of the poem — absence of personal pronouns , adverbs or over reliance on adjectives — as well as the lines containing a kigo ( きご季語 , a " season word " ) gives much of this poetry a haikuesque characteristic .
All of the original poetry books by Kiarostami alongside his selections from Persian classic and contemporary poets including Nima , Hafez , Rumi and Saadi were translated into English by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin in 2015 and were published as bilingual ( Persian / English ) editions in New York City . Kiarostami has two other poetry books which are anthologies entitled Night with his selections from a variety of classical and contemporary Persian poets on the topic of Night which were translated into English as well .
= = Personal life = =
In 1969 , Kiarostami married Parvin Amir @-@ Gholi . They had two sons , Ahmad ( born 1971 ) and Bahman ( 1978 ) . They divorced in 1982 .
Kiarostami was one of the few directors who remained in Iran after the 1979 revolution , when many of his peers fled the country . He believes that it was one of the most important decisions of his career . His permanent base in Iran and his national identity have consolidated his ability as a filmmaker :
When you take a tree that is rooted in the ground , and transfer it from one place to another , the tree will no longer bear fruit . And if it does , the fruit will not be as good as it was in its original place . This is a rule of nature . I think if I had left my country , I would be the same as the tree .
Kiarostami frequently wore dark spectacles or sunglasses , which he required because of a sensitivity to light .
= = = Illness and death = = =
In March 2016 , Kiarostami was hospitalized due to intestinal bleeding and reportedly went into a coma after undergoing two operations . Sources , including a Ministry of Health and Medical Education spokesman , reported that Kiarostami was suffering from gastrointestinal cancer . On 3 April 2016 , Reza Paydar , the director of Kiarostami 's medical team , made a statement denying that the filmmaker had cancer . However , in late June he left Iran for treatment in a Paris hospital , where he died on 4 July . Just last week before his death , Kiarostami had been invited to join the Academy Awards in Hollywood as part of efforts to increase the diversity of its OSCAR judges . Ali Ahani , Iran 's ambassador to France stated that Kiarostami 's body will be transferred to Iran to be buried at Behesht @-@ e Zahra cemetery . However , it was later announced that his body will be buried in Lavasan , a resort town about 40 kilometers northeast of Tehran , based on his own will , after it is flown back to Tehran from Paris . His body was returned to Tehran 's Imam Khomeini International Airport on 8 July , while a crowd of Iranian film directors , actors , actresses and other artists were in Tehran airport to pay their respects .
Mohammad Shirvani , a close friend to Kiarostami wrote in his Facebook account a quote from him on 8 June 2016 that he has criticized his medical team : " I do not believe I could stand and direct any more films . They destroyed that [ digestive system ] . " After this comment , a campaign was set by Iranians in twitter and Facebook to follows Kiarostami 's health and possible medical error in his treatment . However , Ahmad Kiarostami , elder son of Kiarostami denied any medical errors in his father 's treatment after Shirvani 's comment and said that his father 's health is not emergency . After Kiarostami 's death , Alireza Zali , Head of Kiarostami 's Medical Council Organization sent a letter to his French counterpart Patrick Bouet urged him to send the medical dossier of Kiarostami to Iran for more researches about possible medical error . He added evaluating the aspects of the death of the Iranian artist is considered as a grave concern of Iran 's Medical Council Organization . He said the Medical Council Organization had established an expert group for evaluating the medical dossier of Kiarostami in Iran . On 13 July 2016 , and nine days after Kiarostami 's death , his family officially complained from Kiarostami 's personal doctor for mistake in his treatment . Dariush Mehrjui , famous Iranian cinema director also criticized Kiarostami 's medical team and demanded them for a trial .
= = = = Reactions = = = =
Martin Scorsese said he was " deeply shocked and saddened " by the news . Oscar @-@ winning Iranian film @-@ maker Asghar Farhadi – who had been due to fly to Paris to visit his friend – said he was " very sad , in total shock " . Mohsen Makhmalbaf echoed the sentiment , saying Iran 's cinema owes its global reputation to his fellow director , but that this visibility did not translate into a greater visibility for his work in his homeland . " Kiarostami gave the Iranian cinema the international credibility that it has today , " he told The Guardian . " But his films were unfortunately not seen as much in Iran . He changed the world 's cinema ; he freshened it and humanised it in contrast with Hollywood 's rough version . " Persian mystic and poet Jalal al @-@ Din Rumi 's 22nd niece Esin Celebi also expressed her condolences over the demise of Kiarostami in a separate message . Iran 's representative office at the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , UNESCO also opened a memorial book for signature to honour Kiatostami .
Iranian President Hassan Rouhani said on Twitter that the director 's " different and profound attitude towards life and his invitation to peace and friendship " would be a " lasting achievement . " Foreign Minister Mohammad @-@ Javad Zarif also said Kiarostami 's death was a loss for international cinema . In a statement , French President François Hollande praised the director for forging " close artistic ties and deep friendships " with France .
Medias , such as The New York Times , CNN , The Guardian , The Huffington Post , The Independent , Associated Press , Euronews and Le Monde also reacted to Kiarostami 's death . The New York Times wrote : " Abbas Kiarostami , Acclaimed Iranian Filmmaker , Dies at 76 " and Peter Bradshaw payed tribute to Kiarostami : " a sophisticated , self @-@ possessed master of cinematic poetry "
The crowd that had gathered for this service in Paris held a vigil by the River Seine . They then allowed the Seine waves to take photos of Kiarostami that the crowd had left on the river floating . It was symbolic moment of saying goodbye to a film director that many Iranians have come to passionately appreciate .
= = = = Funeral = = = =
Artists , cultural authorities , government officials and the Iranian people gathered to say goodbye to Kiarostami on 10 July , in an emotional funeral , six days after his passing in France . The ceremony was held at the Center for the Intellectual Education of Children , where he began his film @-@ making career some 40 years ago . Attendees held banners with the titles of his movies and pictures of his most famous posters , as they praised the support Kiarostami contribution to culture , and particularly , to filmmaking in Iran . The ceremony was hosted by famous Iranian actor Parviz Parastooie , and included speeches by painter Aidin Aghdashlou and by also prize @-@ winning film director Asghar Farhadi , who stressed his professional abilities . He was later buried in a private ceremony in northern Tehran town , Lavasan .
= = Reception and criticism = =
Kiarostami has received worldwide acclaim for his work from both audiences and critics , and , in 1999 , he was voted the most important film director of the 1990s by two international critics ' polls . Four of his films were placed in the top six of Cinematheque Ontario 's Best of the ' 90s poll . He has gained recognition from film theorists , critics , as well as peers such as Jean @-@ Luc Godard , Nanni Moretti ( who made a short film about opening one of Kiarostami 's films
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4 in ) AA guns in twin turrets . In addition the ships were fitted with a dozen 54 @-@ caliber Breda 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) light AA guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts and twelve 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda M31 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , also in twin mounts . The 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns were bored out to 320 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) and their turrets were modified to use electric power , a fixed loading angle of + 12 degrees , and the guns could now elevate to + 27 degrees . The 320 mm AP shells weighed 525 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 157 lb ) and had a maximum range of 28 @,@ 600 meters ( 31 @,@ 300 yd ) with a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . In 1940 the 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns were replaced by 65 @-@ caliber 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns in twin mounts . Giulio Cesare received two more twin mounts as well as four additional 37 mm guns in twin mounts on the forecastle between the two turrets in 1941 . The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower , protected with 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) thick armor . Atop the conning tower there was a director fitted with two rangefinders , with a base length of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) .
The deck armor was increased during reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) over the magazines , although its distribution over three decks , each with multiple layers , meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness . The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) plates . All this armor weighed a total of 3 @,@ 227 long tons ( 3 @,@ 279 t ) .
The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese system that consisted of a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead . It lacked enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes . A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ships ' increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare served as flagships in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I , but saw no action and spent little time at sea . Leonardo da Vinci was also little used and was sunk by an internal magazine explosion at Taranto harbor on the night of 2 / 3 August 1916 while loading ammunition . Casualties included 21 officers and 227 enlisted men killed . The Italians blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs , but unstable propellant may well have been responsible . The ship was refloated , upside down , on 17 September 1919 and righted on 24 January 1921 . The Regia Marina planned to modernize her by replacing her center turret with six 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) AA guns , but lacked the funds to do so and sold her for scrap on 22 March 1923 .
In 1919 , Conte di Cavour sailed to North America and visited ports in the United States as well as Halifax , Canada . Giulio Cesare made port visits in the Levant in 1919 and 1920 . Conte di Cavour was mostly inactive in 1921 because of personnel shortages and was refitted at La Spezia from November to March 1922 . Both battleships supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered on the Greco @-@ Albanian border ; Benito Mussolini was not satisfied with the Greek Government 's response so he ordered Italian troops to occupy the island . Conte di Cavour bombarded the town with her 76 mm guns , killing 20 and wounding 32 civilians .
Conte di Cavour escorted King Victor Emmanuel III and his wife aboard Dante Alighieri , on a state visit to Spain in 1924 and was placed in reserve upon her return until 1926 , when she conveyed Mussolini on a voyage to Libya . The ship was again placed in reserve from 1927 until 1933 . Her sister became a gunnery training ship in 1928 , after having been in reserve since 1926 . Conte di Cavour was reconstructed at the CRDA Trieste Yard while Giulio Cesare was rebuilt at Cantieri del Tirreno , Genoa between 1933 and 1937 . Both ships participated in a naval review by Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples in May 1938 and covered the invasion of Albania in May 1939 .
Early in World War II , the sisters took part in the Battle of Calabria ( also known as the Battle of Punta Stilo ) on 9 July 1940 , as part of the 1st Battle Squadron , commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni , during which they engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet . The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria , while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi , Libya . Admiral Andrew Cunningham , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto . Crew on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the Italian battleships opened fire at 15 : 53 at a range of nearly 27 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 000 yd ) . The two leading British battleships , HMS Warspite and Malaya , replied a minute later . Three minutes after she opened fire , shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed , to throw off the Italian ship 's aim , at 16 : 00 . At that same time , a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The shell pierced the rear funnel and detonated inside it , blowing out a hole nearly 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft ) across . Fragments started several fires and their smoke was drawn into the boiler rooms , forcing four boilers off @-@ line as their operators could not breathe . This reduced the ship 's speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Uncertain how severe the damage was , Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged . Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September .
On the night of 11 November 1940 , Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare were at anchor in Taranto harbor when they were attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , along with several other warships . One torpedo exploded underneath ' B ' turret at 23 : 15 , and her captain requested tugboats to help ground the ship on a nearby 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft ) sandbank . His admiral vetoed the request until it was too late and Conte di Cavour had to use a deeper , 17 @-@ meter ( 56 ft ) , sandbank at 04 : 30 on 12 November . In an effort to lighten the ship , her guns and parts of her superstructure were removed and Conte di Cavour was refloated on 9 June 1941 . Temporary repairs to enable the ship to reach Trieste for permanent repairs took until 22 December . Her guns were operable by September 1942 , but replacing her entire electrical system took longer and she was still under repair when Italy surrendered a year later . The Regia Marina made plans to replace her secondary and anti @-@ aircraft weapons with a dozen 135 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) dual @-@ purpose guns in twin mounts , twelve 64 @-@ caliber 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) , and twenty @-@ three 65 @-@ caliber 20 mm AA guns . Her hulk was damaged in an air raid and capsized on 23 February 1945 . Refloated shortly after the end of the war , Conte di Cavour was scrapped in 1946 .
Giulio Cesare participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November 1940 , but never got close enough to any British ships to fire at them . The ship was damaged in January 1941 by a near miss during an air raid on Naples ; repairs were completed in early February . She participated in the First Battle of Sirte on 17 December 1941 , providing distant cover for a convoy bound for Libya , again never firing her main armament . In early 1942 , Giulio Cesare was reduced to a training ship at Taranto and later Pola . She steamed to Malta in early September 1943 after the Italian surrender . The German submarine U @-@ 596 unsuccessfully attacked the ship in the Gulf of Taranto in early March 1944 .
After the war , Giulio Cesare was allocated to the Soviet Union as war reparations in 1949 , and renamed Novorossiysk , after the Soviet city on the Black Sea . The Soviets used her as a training ship when she was not undergoing one of her eight refits in their hands . In 1953 , all remaining Italian light AA guns were replaced by eighteen 37 mm 70 @-@ K AA guns in six twin mounts and six singles . They also replaced her fire @-@ control systems and added radars , although the exact changes are unknown . The Soviets intended to rearm her with their own 305 mm guns , but this was forestalled by her loss . While at anchor in Sevastopol on the night of 28 / 29 October 1955 , she detonated a large German mine left over from World War II . The explosion blew a hole completely through the ship , making a 4 @-@ by @-@ 14 @-@ meter ( 13 by 46 ft ) hole in the forecastle forward of ' A ' turret . The flooding could not be controlled and she later capsized with the loss of 608 men . Novorossiysk was stricken from the Navy List on 24 February 1956 , salvaged on 4 May 1957 , and subsequently scrapped .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Gudovac massacre =
The Gudovac massacre ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Pokolj u Gudovcu ; Serbian Cyrillic : Пoкoљ у Гудовцу ) was the mass killing of around 190 Bjelovar Serbs by the Croatian nationalist Ustaše movement on 28 April 1941 , during World War II . The massacre occurred shortly after the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the Ustaše @-@ led Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) . It was the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustaše upon coming to power and presaged a wider Ustaše @-@ perpetrated campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war .
The Ustaše used the mysterious deaths of two of their local followers as a pretext for the killings . The victims were drawn from Gudovac and its surroundings on 28 April . Most were arrested under the guise that they were Serb rebels loyal to the ousted Yugoslav government . They were taken to a nearby field and collectively shot by a firing squad of up to 70 Ustaše guards . Five of the prisoners managed to survive the initial volley and crawled away to safety . The Ustaše forced Gudovac 's surviving inhabitants to dig a mass grave for the victims and pour quicklime on the bodies to speed up decomposition . The following day , relatives of one of the victims informed the Germans of what had transpired . The Germans ordered a partial exhumation of the mass grave and had forty suspected perpetrators arrested . Mladen Lorković , a senior Ustaše official , used his influence to have the detained men released and promised German ambassador Siegfried Kasche that the Croatian authorities would carry out a thorough investigation . No such investigation ever took place .
An ossuary and mausoleum were erected on the site of the massacre in 1955 , as was a monument by the sculptor Vojin Bakić . In 1991 , amid inter @-@ ethnic violence during the Croatian War of Independence , the monument and mausoleum were destroyed by Croatian nationalists , as was another one of Bakić 's works , Bjelovarac ( The Man From Bjelovar ) . The ruins of the ossuary were removed by the local authorities in 2002 . That same year , residents signed a petition to have the Bjelovarac monument erected once again . The restored monument was unveiled in December 2010 .
= = Background = =
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
Gudovac is a village near Bjelovar , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) east of Zagreb . It was first settled during the Middle Ages , and had an ethnically mixed population through much of its history . In 1931 , Gudovac had 1 @,@ 073 inhabitants living in 330 households . Croats formed two @-@ thirds of the population , while the remaining inhabitants were ethnic Serbs . The Gudovac municipality had a population of 8 @,@ 000 , including 3 @,@ 000 Serbs .
Gudovac had been part of a common South Slav state since November 1918 , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed . At its creation , the Kingdom included six million Serbs , 3 @.@ 5 million Croats and one million Slovenes , among others . Being the largest ethnic group , the Serbs favoured a centralized state . Croats , Slovenes and Bosnian Muslims did not . The Vidovdan Constitution , approved on 28 June 1921 and based on the Serbian constitution of 1903 , established the Kingdom as a parliamentary monarchy under the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty . Belgrade was chosen as the capital of the new state , assuring Serb and Orthodox Christian political dominance . In 1928 , Croatian Peasant Party ( Hrvatska seljačka stranka , HSS ) leader Stjepan Radić was shot and mortally wounded on the floor of the country 's parliament by a Serb deputy . The following year , King Alexander proclaimed the 6 January Dictatorship and renamed his country the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to deemphasize its ethnic makeup . Yugoslavia was divided into nine administrative units called banovinas , six of which had ethnic Serb majorities . In 1931 , the king issued a decree which allowed the Yugoslav Parliament to reconvene on the condition that only pro @-@ Yugoslav parties were allowed to be represented in it . Marginalized , far @-@ right and far @-@ left parties thrived . The Ustaše , a Croatian fascist movement , emerged as the most extreme of these . The movement was driven by a deep hatred of Serbs . In 1932 , the Ustaše launched the so @-@ called Velebit uprising , attacking a police station in the village of Brušane in Lika . The police responded harshly to the attack and harassed the local population , leading to further animosity between Croats and Serbs . In 1934 , an Ustaše @-@ trained assassin killed Alexander while he was on a state visit to France . Alexander 's cousin , Prince Paul , became regent and took up the king 's responsibilities until Alexander 's son Peter
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to refer to Naja haje ( in reference to the hood , like a shield ) . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree snake , which refers to the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus . The specific name angusticeps is derived from the Latin word angustus , which means " narrow " and -ceps is also Latin and is derived from the word " cephalicus " which means " head " or " of or relating to the head " , calling attention to the long narrow head of this species . In addition to being called the eastern green mamba , this species is also commonly known as the common green mamba , East African green mamba , white @-@ mouthed mamba , or just simply the green mamba .
The genus was first described by the German ornithologist and herpetologist Hermann Schlegel in 1848 . Slowinski et al . ( 1997 ) pointed out that the relationships of the African genus Dendroaspis are problematical . However , evidence suggests that Dendroaspis , Ophiophagus , Bungarus , and Hemibungarus form a solid non @-@ coral snake Afro @-@ Asiatic clade .
= = Description = =
The eastern green mamba is a large , with a slightly compressed , and very slender bodied snake with a medium to moderately long tapering tail . Adult males average around 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in total length , while females average 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in total length . This species rarely exceeds lengths of 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . In general , the total length is 4 @-@ 4 @.@ 3 times the length of the tail . The head is narrow , elongate , and coffin @-@ shaped with a distinct canthus and slightly distinct from the neck . When threatened or otherwise aroused in someway , this species is capable of flattening its neck area , though no real hood formed . The eastern green mamba has relatively long front fangs located at proscenium end of the maxillary bone at the very front of the maxilla , which can rotate at its axis with the prefrontal bone , giving this species more control of the movements of their fangs , unlike other elapids . The maxillary bone has no other solid teeth . However , a pair of long , recurved , fang @-@ like solid teeth , followed behind by a distinct interspace and numerous small teeth are on the front of the lower jaw . Their eyes are medium in size with round pupils .
= = = Scalation = = =
Dorsal scales are oblique , smooth and narrow . Coloration in this species is bright green dorsally and yellow @-@ green ventrally , with a few bright yellow scales scattered on the flanks in some specimens . Juveniles are blue @-@ green , and develop the brighter green adult coloration anteriorly to posteriorly in successive sheddings of the skin . Most individuals over 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) in total length have the full adult coloration , but even some adults may return to a darker bluish green just before shedding . The border of the pupil may have a narrow bright ochre to golden yellow edge , and the posterior border of the iris may become bright green . The inside of the mouth may be white or bluish white . The males of this species usually have fewer ventral scales than the females .
The head , body , and tail scalation of the eastern green mamba :
= = Reproduction = =
The eastern green mamba is solitary , except during breeding season , when they are most active and males engage in combat and males and females mate . Gravid females tend to be sedentary , but males will actively search out and court females during the long rainy season , which is between the months of April and June . Males have been observed engaging in agonistic behaviour and may fight each other over potential mating opportunities , or possibly to establish a dominance hierarchy . Typically , a male initiates a fight by moving on top of the other ’ s body and tongue @-@ flicking , after which the two snakes “ intertwine their necks and bodies , and push against each other ” in an attempt to pin each other 's head repeatedly to the ground . Male @-@ male combat can last for several hours , but combat between males of this species don 't ever include biting and the nature of the combat is never as aggressive and / or vicious as commonly seen among the eastern green mamba 's much larger cousin , the black mamba . Males locate females by following a scent trail . The male courts the female by aligning his body along the female ’ s while rapidly tongue @-@ flicking . Depending on whether the female is receptive to mating , she will lift her tail and cloacal juxtaposition will follow shortly . Courtship and mating take place in the trees , after which the female lays anywhere between 4 @-@ 17 eggs ( average of 10 to 15 eggs are laid ) , which occurs in the summer months of October and November . The eggs are white and elongated , usually measuring 65x35 millimetres . The eggs are usually laid in a hollow tree , among decaying vegetation , or leaf litter . The incubation period is 10 to 12 weeks . When the young emerge from the eggs , they are approximately 30 to 40 centimetres ( 12 to 16 in ) or around an average of 44 centimetres ( 17 in ) in length , and they 're highly venomous right at birth . Individuals of this species usually reach adult coloration at a length of 60 to 75 centimetres ( 24 to 30 in ) Hatchlings tend to grow 50 to 80 centimetres ( 20 to 31 in ) in length in the first year of life . As the hatchlings age , their growth rates decrease but they never stop completely growing .
= = = Lifespan = = =
The longest living eastern green mamba was a captive specimen which lived for 18 @.@ 8 years . Another captive specimen lived for 14 years . However , while it may be possible for wild specimens to live that long , they are thought to have shorter lifespans in general due to the threats of predation , habitat loss , disease , and other biological and environmental factors .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is indigenous to more coastal regions of southern Africa and east Africa . The eastern green mamba 's range extends from Kenya south through Tanzania , Mozambique , Malawi , eastern Zimbabwe , eastern Zambia into South Africa as far as southern Natal and northern Pondoland . It can also be found in Zanzibar . The distribution of this species is assumed to be continuous , but reports seem to be scarce in regions within the species ' range .
The eastern green mamba is primarily arboreal ( living in trees ) , only rarely descending to the ground . An elusive snake due to its coloration , it is usually well camouflaged in trees or bushes . It is believed by some herpetologists that this species is limited to tropical rainforests in coastal lowlands , however , according to other experts , this species can also be found in coastal bush , and dune and montane forest . Unlike its close relative the black mamba ( D. polylepis ) , this species is rarely found in open terrain and prefers relatively dense , well @-@ shaded vegetation . In addition to wild forest habitats , this species is also commonly found in thickets and farm trees ( such as citrus , mango , coconut , and cashew ) . In coastal east Africa they are known to enter houses and may even shelter in thatched roof dwellings . Specimens of this species have been found at elevations up to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level .
= = = Conservation status = = =
As of June 26 , 2011 , the conservation status of Dendroaspis angusticeps has not been assessed by the IUCN . The eastern green mamba is , however , a fairly common species of snake throughout its geographical range , and populations are believed to be stable . Large concentrations of two to three individuals per hectare have been documented in coastal Kenya and southern Tanzania , and in one instance a group of five eastern green mambas were seen in a single tree . Although populations of this species are stable , habitat destruction and deforestation may pose a possible threat to this species .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The eastern green mamba is a diurnal , arboreal , and secretive species of snake , and it tends to spend most of its time above the ground in relatively dense brush , where it is well camouflaged . This species is not commonly found on land unless motivated by thirst , prey , or the need to bask in the sun ( thermoregulation ) . It is an alert , nervous , excellent climber and extremely agile snake . It sleeps at night in a tree coiled up in leafy clumps rather than seeking a tree hollow ( although sometimes found in them ) . In a study of the movement patterns of two adult specimens of this species over a 27 @-@ day period , the researcher found that their activity range areas to be very low , comparable to other predators who ambush prey rather than actively hunt them . This is in contrast to most elapid species , including other mambas , who tend to actively hunt or forage for prey . The study 's preliminary evidence sheds some light on this species ' method of hunting prey and suggests that it may be an ambush predator due to the sit @-@ and @-@ wait behavior displayed . However , this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species . A specimen systematically hunting a sleeping bat was observed by William York . There is no evidence that the eastern green mamba migrates ; in fact , this species is thought to be relatively sedentary . It can remain in the same location for days at a time , apparently moving most commonly to find food or mates . On average , individuals of this species move only about 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 18 ft ) per day . Unlike its much larger cousin the black mamba , this mamba is more shy and not as aggressive or fearsome . It will avoid confrontation with humans or any other potential predators when possible , and will rather rely on its camouflage , or flee , than alert a potential threat of its presence . They are fast snakes , capable of moving 7 mph . They don 't always strike , but under continuous harassment and provocation and especially if cornered , they may suddenly strike repeatedly in quick succession , often leading to severe envenomation .
= = = Diet = = =
This mamba preys primarily on adult birds , eggs and rodents . This species has also been documented to prey on bats . It is also believed that this species eats arboreal lizards as well , but this has not been documented . The preliminary evidence suggests that this species displays a sit @-@ and @-@ wait strategy of foraging . However , this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species . One witness observed a specimen systematically hunt sleeping bats ( J. Ashe , pers. comm . 1991 ) . They have also been known to raid the nests of young birds . Sit @-@ and @-@ wait tactics may be successful with highly mobile prey , such as adult birds or rodents . Documented prey include the sombre greenbul , which occur in dense portions of natural and cultivated vegetation along Kenya 's coastline . Ionides and Pitman ( 1965 ) reported a large Bushveld gerbil in the stomach of a green mamba in Tanzania . Although the Bushveld gerbil does not occur in Kenya , green mambas will prey on any of the seven species of gerbil that inhabit various portions of its range .
= = = Predators = = =
The eastern green mamba has a few natural predators . Humans , mongooses , snake eagles , and genets commonly prey on this species of mamba . Hornbills and other snakes tend to prey on juvenile green mambas .
= = Venom = =
The eastern green mamba is an especially venomous snake . The venom consists of both pre @-@ synaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins ( dendrotoxins ) , cardiotoxins , calcicludine , and fasciculins . The average venom yield per bite is 80 mg according to Engelmann and Obst ( 1981 ) , while Minton ( 1974 ) gives it a range of 60 – 95 mg ( dry weight ) . The subcutaneous LD50 is 1 @.@ 3 mg / kg . The LD50 in mice through the IV route is 0 @.@ 45 mg / kg . Like all other mamba species , the toxicity of individual specimens within the same species can vary greatly based on several factors including geographical region , age , seasonal variation , diet , and so on . Local swelling is variable and sometimes absent after mamba bites . However , patients bitten by the eastern green mamba develop swelling of the entire bitten limb and also show mild haemostatic disturbances ( Warrell DA ; MacKay et al . 1966 ) . The rare cases of local tissue damage usually resulted from bites on the fingers or the use of a tight tourniquet . This species has caused bites to humans and many of the bites attributed to this species have often resulted in fatalities . The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be quite high . Symptoms of envenomation by this species include swelling of the bite site , dizziness , and nausea , accompanied by difficulty breathing and swallowing , irregular heartbeat , convulsions , rapid progression to respiratory paralysis . Bites that produce severe envenomation can be rapidly fatal . Case reports of rapidly fatal outcomes , in as little as 30 minutes , have been recorded for this species .
= Shrine of Remembrance =
The Shrine of Remembrance , located in Kings Domain on St Kilda Road , Melbourne , Australia was built as a memorial to the men and women of Victoria who served in World War I and is now a memorial to all Australians who have served in war . It is a site of annual observances of ANZAC Day ( 25 April ) and Remembrance Day ( 11 November ) and is one of the largest war memorials in Australia .
Designed by architects Phillip Hudson and James Wardrop who were both World War I veterans , the Shrine is in a classical style , being based on the Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus and the Parthenon in Athens . The crowning element at the top of the memorial 's ziggurat roof references the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates . Built from Tynong granite , the Shrine originally consisted only of the central sanctuary surrounded by the ambulatory . The sanctuary contains the marble Stone of Remembrance , upon which is engraved the words " Greater love hath no man " . Once a year , on 11 November at 11 a.m. ( Remembrance Day ) , a ray of sunlight shines through an aperture in the roof to light up the word " Love " in the inscription . Beneath the sanctuary lies the crypt , which contains a bronze statue of a soldier father and son , and panels listing every unit of the Australian Imperial Force .
The Shrine went through a prolonged process of development which began in 1918 with the initial proposal to build a Victorian memorial . Two committees were formed , the second of which ran a competition for the memorial 's design . The winner was announced in 1922 . However , opposition to the proposal ( led by Keith Murdoch and The Herald ) forced the governments of the day to rethink the design , and a number of alternatives were proposed , the most significant of which was the ANZAC Square and cenotaph proposal of 1926 . In response , General Sir John Monash used the 1927 ANZAC Day march to garner support for the Shrine , and finally won the support of the Victorian government later that year . The foundation stone was laid on 11 November 1927 , and the Shrine was officially dedicated on 11 November 1934 .
= = History = =
= = = Conception : 1918 – 1922 = = =
A war memorial in Melbourne was proposed as soon as the war ended in November 1918 . In the early 1920s the Victorian state government appointed the War Memorials Advisory Committee , chaired by Sir Baldwin Spencer , which recommended an " arch of victory " over St Kilda Road , the major boulevard leading out of the city of Melbourne to the south . In August 1921 an executive committee was formed , with the former commander of the Australian forces in the war , General Sir John Monash , as its driving force . The committee soon abandoned the idea of an arch and proposed a large monumental memorial to the east of St Kilda Road , a position which would make it clearly visible from the centre of the city . A competition was launched in March 1922 to find a design for the new memorial , open both to British subjects residing in Australia and any Australian citizens who were residing overseas . A total of 83 entries were submitted , and in December 1923 the design offered by two Melbourne architects ( and war veterans ) , Phillip Hudson and James Wardrop , was announced as the winner .
= = = Opposition and response : 1922 – 1927 = = =
The winning design had a number of supporters , including publications such as The Age and George Taylor 's Sydney @-@ based trade journal , Building , prominent citizens including artist Norman Lindsay and University of Sydney Dean of Architecture , Leslie Wilkinson , and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects ( who had been heavily involved in the competition ) . Nevertheless , the design was also fiercely criticised in some quarters — especially by Keith Murdoch 's Herald , Murdoch reportedly describing the Shrine as " too severe , stiff and heavy , that there is no grace or beauty about it and that it is a tomb of gloom " — on the grounds of its grandiosity , its severity of design and its expense . As part of the campaign against the Shrine proposal , the Herald searched for alternative concepts , arguing that the funds could be better spent on more practical projects such as a hospital or a war widow 's home . Furthermore , some Christian churches also attacked the design as pagan for having no cross or other Christian element .
The new Victorian Labor government of 1924 , under George Prendergast , supported the Herald 's view , and pushed for a memorial hospital instead of the Shrine . When the Labor government was replaced with John Allan 's Country / National coalition , the plan changed once again , leaning towards the earlier suggestion of an arch of victory to be built over St. Kilda Road . As a result of the debate , significant delays postponed the construction of the new memorial , so a temporary wood @-@ and @-@ plaster cenotaph was raised for the 1926 ANZAC day march . The success of the temporary cenotaph led the Victorian government to abandon the earlier project in 1926 , and propose instead to build a permanent cenotaph in a large " ANZAC Square " at the top of Bourke St in front of Parliament House . While this would have involved demolishing the Windsor Hotel , one of Melbourne 's favourite hotels , the new plan won the support of the Herald , the Returned Soldiers League ( RSL ) and the Melbourne City Council .
Nevertheless , both Monash and Legacy still supported the Shrine . After a vote in favour of the Shrine by their executive council , Legacy started a public relations campaign , gaining the support of much of the media — although the council , state government and the Herald continued to oppose . In 1927 , with the then Duke of York , Prince Albert , visiting the country , Monash spoke on the eve of ANZAC day at the RSL dinner , arguing for the Shrine . The audience had been seeded with supporters , who provided a standing ovation at the conclusion of his speech , which helped to produce a groundswell of support . When a vote was called for , the majority voted in favour of the Shrine proposal . The next day , with Monash leading 30 @,@ 000 veterans in the 1927 ANZAC Day march , and with the new support of the RSL , The Age , and the Argus , the Shrine proposal had gained " new momentum " . Faced with such support , and with Monash 's arguments that the ANZAC Square would be prohibitively expensive , Edmond Hogan 's new Labor government decided in favour of the Shrine .
Another early point of contention ( although not explicitly related to the nature of the memorial ) concerned the possibility of incorporating a " Tomb of the Unknown Soldier " into the memorial — an approach that was championed by the St. Kilda RSL , who revealed plans to bury a soldier from either Gallipoli or France on ANZAC day , 25 April 1922 . This proposal received considerable debate , and was countered by the argument that the Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey represented all of the dead of the British Empire . Monash was on the side of those against such a burial , as while he could see a place for an Unknown Soldier in a national memorial , he did not feel that it would be suitable at the Victorian Shrine . The Stone of Remembrance was later placed in the position where an Unknown Soldier might have been laid . An Australian Unknown Soldier was eventually interred at the Australian War Memorial by Prime Minister Paul Keating on 11 November 1993 .
= = = Construction and dedication : 1927 – 1934 = = =
The foundation stone was laid on 11 November 1927 , by the Governor of Victoria , Lord Somers . Although both the Victorian and Commonwealth governments made contributions , most of the cost of the Shrine ( £ 160 @,@ 000 out of a total of £ 250 @,@ 000 ; equating to about £ 8 @.@ 6 million out of £ 13 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) was raised in less than six months by public contributions , with Monash as chief fundraiser .
Monash , who was also an engineer , took personal charge of the construction , which began in 1928 and was handled by the contractors Vaughan & Lodge . Monash died in 1931 , before the Shrine was finished , but the Shrine was the cause " closest to his heart " in his later years .
Work was finally completed in September 1934 , and the Shrine was formally dedicated on 11 November 1934 by the Duke of Gloucester , witnessed by a crowd of over 300 @,@ 000 people — a " massive turnout " given that Melbourne 's population at the time was approximately 1 million , and , according to Carl Bridge , the " largest crowd ever to assemble in Australia to that date " .
= = = Post World War II : 1945 – 1985 = = =
After World War II it was felt necessary to add to the Shrine an element commemorating the Australian war dead of the second great conflict . Once again a competition was run , with A. S. Fall and E. E. Milston as the joint winners . Milston 's design was eventually chosen as the one to go ahead , and the result was the World War II Forecourt , a wide expanse of stone in front of the Shrine 's north face ; the Eternal Flame , a permanent gas flame set just to the west of the north face ; and the World War II Memorial , a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 41 ft ) cenotaph a little further west . The Forecourt replaced a reflecting pool that had previously stood in front of the Shrine . These enlargements were dedicated by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 February 1954 . Australia 's involvements in later wars , such as the Korean War , the Borneo campaign ( 1945 ) , the Malayan Emergency , the Indonesian Confrontation in North Borneo and Sarawak , the Vietnam War and the Gulf War , are commemorated by inscriptions .
In 1951 the body of Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey , Australia 's military commander during World War II , was held at the Shrine for three days for public viewing followed by a State funeral on site . 20 @,@ 000 people visited the Shrine as he lay in state .
During the Vietnam War the Shrine became a centre of conflict when anti @-@ war demonstrators protested during ANZAC Day services against Australia 's involvement in the war . In 1971 the Shrine was defaced when the word PEACE ! was painted in large white letters on the pillars of the north portico .
In 1985 the Remembrance Garden was added beneath the western face of the Shrine to honour those who served during post @-@ World War II conflicts .
= = = Redevelopment : 2002 – present day = = =
Restoration work on the terraces surrounding the Shrine during the 1990s raised once again the possibility of taking advantage of the space under the Shrine : as the Shrine had been built on a hollow artificial hill , the undercroft ( although at the time filled with rubble from the construction ) provided a large space for development . At a planned cost of $ 5 @.@ 5 million , the new development was intended to provide a visitor 's centre , administration facilities and an improved access to the Shrine 's crypt , as many of the remaining veterans and their families found the stairs at the traditional ceremonial entrance difficult to climb . In redeveloping the site , special consideration was given to the positioning of the new entrance . The original plan was to use a tunnel from the east , but this was discarded as it had " no sense of ceremony " . Instead it was decided to develop two new courtyards , and place the new gallery under the northern steps . Construction commenced in 2002 , with the design by Melbourne architects Ashton Raggatt McDougall , and the new areas were opened in August 2003 . The completed project was awarded the Victorian Architecture Medal by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects in 2004 .
After this construction was complete , there were still more calls to further develop the site , and especially to provide facilities for education about the wars . A $ 62 million proposal was presented in 2006 , incorporating a museum and an underground carpark . Designed once again by Ashton Raggatt McDougall , the proposal was opposed by local residents and some council members , and ran into significant funding problems when the Federal Government decided not to provide funding .
In 2012 the Victorian Government announced that $ 22 @.@ 5 million would be allocated to redevelop the Shrine ’ s undercroft and extend it to the south . The new exhibition space , known as the " Galleries of Remembrance " , was opened on Remembrance Day in 2014 . A lifeboat from the ship SS Devanha , deployed during the landing at Anzac Cove at the start of the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , is a centrepiece of the new development .
= = Architecture and features = =
Materials for building the Shrine were sourced from within Australia : the chosen building stone was granodiorite quarried from Tynong ; the internal walls use sandstone from Redesdale ; and the black marble columns used stone from Buchan . This raised some concerns when redeveloping the Shrine , as the Tynong quarry was no longer in use , and it proved to be prohibitively expensive to reopen the site . Fortunately another quarry in the area was available and was able to provide the necessary stone .
= = = Exterior = = =
The design of the Shrine is based on the ancient Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus , one of the Seven Wonders of the World , and the Parthenon in Athens . It is a structure of square plan roofed by a stepped pyramid and entered on the north and south through classical porticos , each of eight fluted Doric columns supporting a pediment containing sculpture in high relief . The porticos are approached by wide flights of steps which rise in stages to the podium on which the Shrine sits . The east and west facing fronts are marked at the corners by four groups of statuary by Paul Raphael Montford , representing Peace , Justice , Patriotism and Sacrifice . The Art Deco style and motifs draw on Greek and Assyrian sculpture . The symbolism is Neo @-@ Classical .
Around the outer stone balustrade that marks the Shrine 's external boundary are the 16 stone " battle honours " discs . These represent the battle honours granted by King George V and commemorate Australia 's contributions to the following battles : Landing at Anzac ( Gallipoli ) , Sari Bair , Rumani , Gaza @-@ Beersheba , the North Sea , the Cocos Islands , Megiddo , Damascus , Villers Bretonneux , Amiens , Mont St Quentin , the Hindenburg Line , Ypres , Messines , Pozieres and Bullecourt .
= = = Interior = = =
Inside the Shrine is the Sanctuary , a high vaulted space entered by four tall portals of Classical design . A simple entabulature is carried on sixteen tall fluted Ionic columns and supports a frieze with twelve relief panels sculptured by Lyndon Dadswell , depicting the armed services at work and in action during World War I. At the centre of the Sanctuary is the Stone of Remembrance . This is a marble stone sunk below the pavement , so that visitors must bow their heads to read the inscription on it :
GREATER LOVE HATH NO MAN
The inscription is part of a verse from the Bible ( John 15 : 13 ) " Greater love hath no man than this , that a man lay down his life for his friends " . The Stone is aligned with an aperture in the roof of the Sanctuary so that a ray of sunlight falls on the word LOVE on the Stone of Remembrance at exactly 11 a.m. on 11 November , marking the hour and day of the Armistice which ended World War I. Since the introduction of daylight saving in Victoria , the ray of sunlight is no longer in the right place at 11 a.m. A mirror has been installed to direct sunlight onto the Stone at 11 a.m. During the rest of the year , a light is used to simulate the effect .
Monash , with the advice of Professor T. G. Tucker and the assistance of Bernard O 'Dowd and Felix Meyer , reworded Phillip Hudson 's inscription which appears on the western wall of the Shrine :
LET ALL MEN KNOW THAT THIS IS HOLY GROUND . THIS SHRINE , ESTABLISHED IN THE HEARTS OF MEN AS ON THE SOLID EARTH , COMMEMORATES A PEOPLE 'S FORTITUDE AND SACRIFICE . YE THEREFORE THAT COME AFTER , GIVE REM
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= = =
= = = = Hall of Famers = = = =
Roger Neilson – Senators assistant coach & head coach ( 2001 – 03 ) , was inducted ( as a Builder ) on November 4 , 2002 , for his career in coaching .
Dominik Hasek – Senators goaltender ( 2005 – 06 ) , was inducted in 2014 , for his career as a goalie .
= = = = Retired numbers = = = =
1 Finnigan was honoured for his play from 1923 through 1934 for the original Ottawa Senators ( as a right wing , 1923 – 31 & 1932 – 34 ) . He was the last surviving Senator from the Stanley Cup winners of 1927 and participated in the ' Bring Back The Senators ' campaign .
99 ( Wayne Gretzky ) was retired by the NHL in February 2000 .
= = = All @-@ time players = = =
= = Team record = =
Statistics and records are current after the 2015 – 16 season , except where noted .
= = = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = = =
For the full season @-@ by @-@ season history , see List of Ottawa Senators seasons
Note : GP
= Games Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , OTL
= Overtime Losses , Pts =
Points , GF
= Goals for , GA =
Goals against , PIM = Penalties in minutes
Last five seasons
= = = Team scoring leaders = = =
These are the top @-@ ten regular season point @-@ scorers in franchise history , post @-@ 1992 , after the 2015 – 16 season :
Note : Pos
= Position ; GP =
Games Played ; G
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts
= Points ; P / G =
Points per game average ;
* = current Senators player
° = current NHL player
Totals contain only games played for Ottawa .
Source : Ottawa Senators Media Guide
= = = NHL awards and trophies = = =
= = = Team records = = =
Source : Ottawa Senators .
= John R. Tunis =
John Roberts Tunis ( December 7 , 1889 – February 4 , 1975 ) , " the ' inventor ' of the modern sports story " , was an American writer and broadcaster . Known for his juvenile sports novels , Tunis also wrote short stories and non @-@ fiction , including a weekly sports column for the The New Yorker magazine . As a commentator Tunis was part of the first trans @-@ Atlantic sports cast and the first broadcast of the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament to the United States .
After graduating from Harvard and serving in the Army during World War I , Tunis began his writing career freelancing for American sports magazines while playing tennis in the Rivera . For the next two decades he wrote short stories and articles about sports and education for magazines including Reader 's Digest , The Saturday Evening Post and Esquire . Tunis ' work often protested the increasing professionalization of sports in America . He believed that amateur participation in sports taught values important for good citizenship like perseverance , fair play and equality , and that the emphasis on professional sports was turning America into a country of spectators . His sports books also tackled current social issues such as antisemitism and racial equality .
Though Tunis never considered himself a children 's writer , all but one of his twenty @-@ four books were published for juveniles ; their success helped create the juvenile fiction book market in the 1940s . Books like Iron Duke ( 1938 ) , All American ( 1942 ) and Keystone Kids ( 1943 ) were well received by readers and critics . Iron Duke received the New York Herald Tribune Spring Book Festival Award for best juvenile novel and was named a The Horn Book Magazine Best Book . The Child Study Association of America gave its Golden Scroll Award to Keystone Kids .
Tunis ' eight @-@ book baseball series about the Brooklyn Dodgers began with The Kid from Tomkinsville , a book often cited by sports writers and commentators as inspiring childhood reading . Phillip Roth used The Kid from Tomkinsville and its main character Roy Tucker in his book American Pastoral . It is also considered an influence for Bernard Malamud 's The Natural and Mark Harris ' Bang the Drum Slowly .
= = Early years = =
John Roberts Tunis was born December 7 , 1889 to John Arthur and Caroline Greene Roberts Tunis , a teacher , in Boston , Massachusetts . John Arthur came from a well @-@ to @-@ do family , which he upset by leaving the Episcopalian church to become a Unitarian minister . His family disowned him when he married Caroline , the daughter of a waiter . When Tunis was seven and his brother Robert five their father died of Bright 's disease ; no one from the Tunis side of the family attended the funeral . After his death their mother taught at Brearley School for girls in Manhattan , later moving the family to Cambridge , Massachusetts , where she ran a boarding house .
Tunis ' maternal grandfather encouraged the brothers to take an interest in baseball . Two of young Tunis ' heroes were Boston Nationals ' baseball players Billy Hamilton and Fred Tenney . At age fourteen Tunis and his brother , too poor to pay the admission price , managed to watch a Davis Cup tennis match by climbing on top of a brewery wagon outside the courts . Tunis played tennis at Cambridge Latin School , then followed in his father 's footsteps to Harvard where he competed in tennis and ran track . He graduated from Harvard with a B. A. in 1911 , then got a job in a Newburyport , Massachusetts , cotton mill . Tunis became an officer in the U.S. Army , serving in France during World War I. On February 19 , 1918 , Tunis married Lucy Rogers in Cambridge , Massachusetts . They did not have any children .
= = Early career = =
= = = Freelance writing and sportscasting = = =
In 1921 the couple went to Europe where Tunis freelanced as a sports writer for American publications and played in some tennis tournaments on the Riviera , including a match against King Gustaf V of Sweden , who was 70 at the time . Tunis also played a doubles match against the French women 's champion Suzanne Lenglen . Returning to the U.S. at the end of the summer , he dropped in on former Harvard classmate Lawrence Winship , the Sunday editor of The Boston Globe . When Winship learned that Tunis actually knew the flamboyant Lenglen , he insisted he write an article about her for the Globe before leaving the building . The pressure of that deadline caused him such anxiety that after half an hour of struggle he went to the building 's fire escape , " leaned over the railing , and threw up . I 'll never forget it . I wiped my face with copy paper . But I did the story . " Between 1920 and 1940 Tunis freelanced for a number of major magazines , including Reader 's Digest , Harper 's , Atlantic Monthly , Collier 's , The Saturday Evening Post and Esquire , writing primarily on two topics : sports and education . He also covered sports for the New York Evening Post from 1925 to 1932 and had a weekly column in The New Yorker . According to Norman Cousins in Writing for Love or Money , Tunis was known for producing " fact @-@ packed articles based upon research " . Working six days a week and taking the seventh to play tennis , Tunis published over 2 @,@ 000 articles and short stories , becoming one ofAmerica 's premier sportswriters .
At the same time , Tunis worked as a sport announcer , including commentating for tennis events for NBC . By 1927 The Harvard Crimson felt comfortable calling him " a world 's authority on tennis " . He was part of the first trans @-@ Atlantic sports broadcast , a Davis Cup match from France in 1932 . In 1934 Tunis announced the first broadcast of the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament to a U.S. audience . According to Anita Silvey in Children 's Books and Their Creators , between broadcasting and journalism Tunis became a " household name " .
= = = Novels and sports criticism = = =
Tunis ' first novel , American Girl , appeared in 1930 . An unflattering and thinly veiled fictionalization of tennis star Helen Wills Moody , it became the basis for the 1951 movie Hard , Fast and Beautiful . It turned out to be the only one of Tunis ' novels to be published for adults .
In 1936 , on the 25th anniversary of his graduation from Harvard , Tunis wrote Was College Worthwhile ? , a condemnation of the Ivy League school and of his classmates that became a best seller . Jerome Holtzman , in No Cheering in the Press Box , calls it " a searing assault on Harvard traditions " . Throughout his career he continued to write about education , including the chapter " New Leaven on the Campus " for Democracy 's Challenge to Education , and " Education and Ethics " for the Journal of Higher Education .
The 1920 @-@ 1930s have been called the Golden Age of Sports , and Tunis was right in the middle of much of it as a commentator , writer , and athlete , but he often criticized what he saw . He disliked the way the media was covering sports and its players . In the 1920s some sports promoters bribed newspapers for favorable coverage , and he felt the media was glorifying the business and ignoring its problems . Tunis also believed that high salaries would destroy the pleasure and benefits sports brought the everyday player . His essay " The Great God Football " appeared in Harper 's Magazine in 1928 , attacking what he saw as the increasing commercialization of college football . The article became the center of a continuing controversy . A 2010 The Texas Observer cover story , titled The Golden Football : The University of Texas ’ Bad Example , opens with a two @-@ paragraph reference to Tunis ' article , and concludes by referring the reader back to Tunis ' 1928 description of college football as a " first @-@ class octopus strangling the legitimate pursuits of educational institutions . " " Who Owns Football ? " appeared in Sports Story Magazine in 1931 , in 2012 John Dinan 's Sports in the Pulp Magazines called it " timeless " .
According to Ryan K. Anderson in Upon Further Review : Sports in American Literature , " By the 1940s , Tunis enjoyed a career based on the practice of criticizing those aspects of American culture that others took lightly " . " He felt that the more organized sports became , the more they led to the glorification of athletes , turning the United States into a country of spectators . As much as he loved sports , his writings often tried to show the need for balance in personal and national life . At one point he declared " Sports is the great opium of the people . It has become an addiction . It has made them forget more important things . "
= = Later career = =
= = = 1940s = = =
As the Depression took its toll on magazine finances , Tunis began working on another novel , Iron Duke , the story of a small @-@ town Iowa football star who struggles to fit in with his elite classmates at Harvard , and eventually finds strength through success as a runner . He wrote the book for adults , but Alfred Harcourt wanted to publish and market it for juveniles . This initially dismayed Tunis , partly because at that time the separate field of young @-@ adult fiction did not exist , and Tunis did not consider himself a children 's writer . He eventually agreed and in 1938 Harcourt , Brace published Iron Duke as a children 's book . The novel won the New York Herald Tribune Spring Book Festival Award for best juvenile novel and opened a new arena for Tunis . Tunis ' success with these books made him one of a handful of writers who helped establish the young @-@ adult market as a separate field . Kirkus Reviews gave Iron Duke a starred review among " books of remarkable merit " , its reviewer calling it " One of the best modern college stories I have read " . It was also named a The Horn Book Magazine Fanfare Best Book for 1938 . The following year Harcourt released the sequel , The Duke Decides , which covers Duke 's senior year at Harvard . Duke 's participation as part of the U.S. Olympic team in Germany allowed Tunis to highlight the growing totalitarianism in Europe . Iron Duke was Tunis ' best selling novel and remains his most well known work .
In 1940 Tunis received $ 200 from his publisher to visit the Dodgers ' spring training camp in Clearwater , Florida . He then began work on his first baseball novel . The Kid from Tomkinsville became the first in a series of eight books about the Brooklyn Dodgers . In it , Tunis introduced rookie pitcher Roy Tucker and his teammates : " Bones " Hathaway , " Razzle " Nugent and " Fat Stuff " Foster . Tunis says in a note at the beginning of the book that " all the characters in this book were drawn from real life . " Though his papers only list Tucker as " Number 36 " , they do say that , among others , " Gabby " Gus was based on Leo Durocher and Tucker 's Rabbi was inspired by Luke Sewell . Kirkus gave it another starred review , saying it " struck a new note " . Tucker 's story continues in 1941 's World Series .
The next year Tunis took a break from baseball stories to release two novels that again received starred reviews from Kirkus . Million Miler , based on the life of TWA and U.S. Air Corps pilot Jack Zimmerman , was overshadowed by his other 1942 release , All American , called by Simon Certner in The English Journal " the most superb novel produced in its genre " . All American centers on football star Ronald Perry , who in protest over anti @-@ Sem
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, Amorim e Terroso . To the south , the city is extending out to combine with Vila do Conde .
The city started from an inland town that extended to the coast . The Bairro da Matriz , whose nucleus was the centre from whence the city grew , is intersected by 14th century narrow and twisted streets lined by single family homes . The historical district has old buildings such as the sixteenth @-@ century house in front of Matriz Church — the main church , the old Town Hall ( 14th century ) , the seventeenth century Solar dos Carneiros and house of Captain Leite Ferreira , and the eighteenth century Limas and the Coentrão Houses . The fishermen were grouped in the south coast , around Póvoa Cove ( Enseada da Póvoa ) ; The fisher district was already developed in the 18th century with its structure of narrow streets parallel to the coast .
Póvoa de Varzim City Centre or Centro is dominated by the service sector and by the shopping streets of Junqueira and Mousinho de Albuquerque Avenue . Praça do Almada , the central square , is tipped by City Hall , municipal departments , banks and other services . In the middle of the square , to the west , the Manueline pillory of Póvoa de Varzim stands . The Pelourinho , granted to the town in 1514 , is a national monument representing the municipal emancipation of Póvoa de Varzim .
Bairro Norte , the beach district , is north of town and is densely occupied . Continuous to this area , the Agro @-@ Velho beach district , mostly known as Nova Póvoa , is the area of the city with most high @-@ rises , the largest of which the Nova Póvoa , with 30 floors and 95 metres ( 312 ft ) high , complete in 1979 , was the tallest building in Portugal until the year 2000 and is still today one of the five tallest buildings . Close at hand , Barreiros and Parque da Cidade are districts from the latest expansion .
Inland , Giesteira , derived from the old village of Giesteira that , with Argivai , formed the main nucleus of the settlement before the 14th century , and whose lavradores ( farmers ) set up " Póvoa " in the coast . Argivai is divided by the Santa Clara Aqueduct , the second largest aqueduct in Portugal , construction started in 1626 . The old areas of Mariadeira , Regufe , Penalves , and Gândara have modest development , possess different topologies and are residential with small central areas . The Regufe Quarter has as symbol the Regufe Lighthouse , a sample from the 19th century iron art . Aver @-@ o @-@ mar is the northernmost urban coastal district and also of residential nature , with the exception of Santo André also known as Quião , which keeps an untouched fishing character recognized by family homes that have grown up in a spontaneous way .
Of the diverse religious buildings the 18th century Baroque churches are prominent : the Matriz Church , the Senhora das Dores Church and its six chapels , and the fishermen Lapa Church , with its curious Lapa Lighthouse . On the other hand , Misericórdia Church and Coração de Jesus Basilica denote the preference for the Neoclassical style in the end of the 19th century . The Romanesque revival style can be seen in São José de Ribamar .
= = = Beaches and parks = = =
Póvoa de Varzim 's beach is a 12 km , or 7 @.@ 5 mi ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) , stretch , forming sheltered bays and divided by rocks , rich in iodine . Most beaches in the city are family @-@ oriented such as Redonda , Salgueira or Lagoa Beach and during the summer period it can get crowded while those away from the city core , such as Santo André , are less crowded . Salgueira and Aguçadoura are surfing beaches . Located near a camping park , Rio Alto Beach is chosen by naturists given its difficult access and the privacy offered by the sand dunes .
The Póvoa de Varzim City Park is almost entirely landscaped and includes hills , an island , small ponds , a stream , and a lake shaped by man . It has great lawn areas , rustic buildings and amphitheatres . It is a popular place for jogging , cycling and birdwatching . It stretches from the A28 freeway to Pedreira Lake .
Espaço Agros is a private @-@ sponsored park with 22 hectare in the former Anjo woodland that kept the essential rural values of the location , with some landscaping and environmental improvements , such as a lake . Damaged by the construction of high speed roads , the woodland is expected to get a further 5 @.@ 2 hectare public parkland .
São Félix Hill ( Monte São Félix ) , with iconic panoramic views over the city and the countryside , is a religious and forested hill that has the Senhora da Saúde Sanctuary at the foot of the hill and São Félix church at the summit . There 's a gardened stairway throw the hill 's slope . Rates Park is an adventure @-@ camp with sport activities , canopy walkways , ecotourism by foot , horse , all @-@ terrain vehicles or mountain biking .
= = = Countryside = = =
The green belt of Póvoa de Varzim includes a web of 98 localities in the parishes of Aguçadoura , Amorim , Balazar , Beiriz , Estela , Laundos , Navais , Rates , and Terroso . São Pedro de Rates , Codixeira , Aldeia , Pedreira , Fontainhas , Areosa , Teso , and Santo André de Baixo are the main rural communities , but there are tiny villages , such as Além , Calves , Gestrins , Gresufes , Passô , Sejães , and Crasto .
Terroso , Amorim and Beiriz are located in the urban hinterland . Beiriz has the notorious Beiriz carpets and diverse old country estates such as villas and a tapada , a hunting park , while Amorim is known for the bread eaten at high temperatures just after being made — the Broa de Amorim . The hills of Póvoa de Varzim : Cividade and São Félix are located in Terroso and Laúndos , respectively . On the first hill , there is Cividade de Terroso , with 3 thousand years was one of the major Castro culture cities , and the eremite Saint Félix is thought to have lived on the second hill during the Middle Ages .
Rates was a small town during the Middle Ages which developed around the monastery established by Count Henry in 1100 on the site of an older temple and gained importance due to the legend of Saint Peter of Rates , first bishop of Braga , becoming a central site in the Portuguese way of Saint James . Of the millenarian monastery , the São Pedro de Rates Church remains and is one of the oldest and best preserved Romanesque monuments in Portugal and is classified as national monument since 1910 . Bordering Rates , Balazar became a Christian pilgrimage destination in the 20th century due to Alexandrina Maria da Costa , died 1955 , who gained fame as a Saint , beatified by Pope John Paul II .
The northern sandy land of the municipality , Aguçadoura , Navais , and Estela is the farming area of Póvoa de Varzim , supplying the European markets with horticultural goods . In old times , the population attributed legends , magical virtues or therapeutic effects to several springs . In Navais , there is the very ancient Moura Encontada Fountain , associated with Moura — a feminine water deity and guardian of enchanted treasures .
= = Culture and contemporary life = =
Junqueira is Póvoa de Varzim 's busiest shopping district , that cater to both the daily needs of residents and visitors . The main street , a shopping street since the 18th century , is a pedestrian area since 1955 , one of the earliest in Portugal , and a model for other Portuguese cities that later did similar developments . It has about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) of pedestrian streets . Dotted with boutiques in old traditional buildings , Junqueira is renowned for its jewellery , with Ourivesaria Gomes is a well known goldsmith in Portugal .
People in Póvoa de Varzim observe a variety of festivals each year . The major celebration is Póvoa de Varzim Holiday , dedicated to Saint Peter . Neighbourhoods are decorated and , on the night of June 28 to 29 , the population gathers in the streets and neighbourhoods compete in the rusgas carnival . The population behaves much like football supporters , when defending their preferred quarter . Families who emigrated to the United States and beyond , have been known to come back to Póvoa , time and again , simply to relish the spectacular feelings of excitement and community present at this festival . Easter Monday or Anjo festival is a remnant of a pagan festival , formerly called " Festa da Hera " ( The Ivy Festival ) , in which several family picnics are held in the woods .
Carnival is a traditional festival in Póvoa de Varzim with the old Carnival Balls , masked people gathering in Rua da Junqueira until the late 1970s which led to the 1980s expensive carnival parades in the waterfront . The remains of such organized events are now celebrated spontaneously by the people who gather for a parade in Avenida dos Banhos . Despite not having any sort of advertising or media coverage , Póvoa 's " Spontaneous Carnival " ( Carnaval dos espontâneos ) started to attract thousands of people .
Póvoa de Varzim 's waterfront is a beach and nightlife area popular with tourists and locals alike . Avenida dos Banhos , along Redonda and Salgueira beaches , is an iconic avenue , with nightclubs , bars , and esplanades along the way . Passeio Alegre is a beach square filled with esplanades and nearby Caetano de Oliveira Square , to the north , is a small lively square , with several bars where younger Povoans meet , before going on to the nightclubs . Póvoa has an LGBT @-@ friendly history since the late 1990s , and held the Northern Portugal Pride , the first city in the North to held a gay pride festival , which ended in 2005 , due to climbing rental prices . It was organized by former Hit Club and ILGA Portugal .
Póvoa de Varzim has been a writers Mecca since the 19th century , gathering in tertulia sessions . Famous writers closely associated with the city are Almeida Garrett , António da Costa , Ramalho Ortigão , João Penha , Oliveira Martins , António Nobre , Antero de Figueiredo , Raul Brandão , Teixeira de Pascoaes , Alexandre Pinheiro Torres , and Agustina Bessa @-@ Luís . However , the city is mostly remembered as the birthplace of Eça de Queiroz , one of the main writers in the Portuguese language . Camilo Castelo Branco wrote part of his life 's work in former Hotel Luso @-@ Brazileiro and José Régio wrote most of his work in Diana Bar , currently the beach library .
In modern times , the city gained international prominence with Correntes d 'Escritas , a literary festival where writers from the Portuguese and Spanish @-@ speaking world gather in a variety of presentations and an annual award for best new release . Latin American writer Luis Sepúlveda or the Africans Mia Couto and Ondjaki became associated with the city .
= = = Entertainment and performing arts = = =
Casino da Póvoa is a gaming and entertainment venue since the 1930s . In 2006 , it was the second casino in revenues , with 54 million euros and the third most popular with 1 @.@ 2 million customers . The casino has several bars , a live performances bar , a theater and restaurants , including haute cuisine of local and Portuguese inspiration . In the 19th century , Póvoa had over a dozen gambling venues , such as Salão Chinês , Café Suisso , Café David , Café Universal and Luso @-@ Brasileiro . Póvoa de Varzim has hotels . The most historic of which is the Grande Hotel da Póvoa , built in the 1930s , an arresting modernist building and , siding it , the Hotel Luso @-@ Brasileiro , the oldest in town , running since the 19th century , other 19th century former hotels are found in the city such as Hotel Universal in Praça do Almada .
Póvoa 's theatrical tradition can be traced to 1793 when Italian operas and Portuguese comedies were presented in a theatre built in Campo das Cobras . It developed with Teatro Garrett ( 1873 ) and Teatro Sá da Bandeira ( 1876 ) . The Varazim Teatro is a cultural and youth group of amateur theatre that has encouraged local drama with its own space known as Espaço D 'Mente . Póvoa de Varzim Auditorium houses the local school of music and the Póvoa de Varzim Symphony Orchestra , which is the resident orchestra during the Festival Internacional de Música da Póvoa de Varzim , an event established in 1978 . Póvoa de Varzim Music Hall is the residence of Banda Musical da Póvoa de Varzim ( 1864 ) and its pops orchestra .
The Póvoa de Varzim Bullfighting Arena is used for Portuguese @-@ style bullfighting , horse shows , and concerts . The most important run in the local bullring is known as Grande Corrida TV Norte ( TV 's Great Run - North ) in late July . Others runs are held , such as 18th century @-@ style Gala runs , with horsewomen , or weaponless Garraida , with young bulls and Porto students .
= = = Museums = = =
The Ethnography and History Municipal Museum of Póvoa de Varzim ( 1937 ) on Rua Visconde de Azevedo houses archaeological finds and exhibits relating to the seafaring history of the city. it is one of the oldest ethnic museums in Portugal and the " Siglas Poveiras " exhibit won the 1980 " European Museum of The Year Award " . It possesses ancient sacred art , Poveiro boats and archaeological finds such as Roman inscriptions and Castro culture pottery .
Themed museums exist : Santa Casa Museum with a religious theme , the Museum Nucleus of the Romanesque Church of Saint Peter of Rates , the Archaeological Nucleus of Cividade de Terroso , and the Bullfighting Museum located in Póvoa de Varzim bullring . Another two museums are due to open : Casa do Pescador ( Fisherman home ) and Farol de Regufe ( Regufe lighthouse ) .
Small art galleries housing contemporary works of art are located in Casino da Póvoa , which exhibits paintings from some of the finest Portuguese artists , and the Ortopóvoa Art Gallery , bordering the Municipal Museum . An arts cooperative created in 1935 , A Filantrópica has as its purpose the execution of cultural activities and inducement to artistic creation .
The Rates Ecomuseum is a historical and countryside route , with various stops starting on the Praça ( the Square ) with the Senhor da Praça baroque chapel , the Rates pillory and the old Rates township house , and primordial springs , wind and water mills , rustic ways and houses . The Arquivo Municipal is the city 's archive planned for those who are interested in tracing their family pedigree chart or scrutinize the city 's records .
= = = Ethnography = = =
The culture of Póvoa de Varzim derives from different working classes and with influences arriving from the maritime route from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean . The docudrama film Ala @-@ Arriba ! by José Leitão de Barros , popularized this unique Portuguese fishing community within the country during the 1940s . The local expression ala @-@ arriba means " go upwards " and it represents the co @-@ operation between the inhabitants .
Siglas Poveiras are a form of proto @-@ writing system , with a restricted number of symbols that were combined to form more complex symbols ; these were used as a rudimentary visual communication system , and as a signature to mark belongings . Merchants wrote them in their books of credit ; fishermen used it in religious rituals by marking them in the door of Catholic chapels near hills or beaches ; in the table of the church during marriage and in their tombstone ; and also had magical significance , such as the São Selimão sigla , that could be used as a protecting symbol and not as family mark . Children used the same family mark with piques as a form of cadency . The youngest son would not have any pique and would inherit his father 's symbol . The siglas are still used , though much less commonly , by some families ; and are related with Viking traditions .
The Poveiro is a specific genre of boat characterized by a wide flat @-@ bottom and a deep helm . There were diverse boats with different sizes , uses and shapes . The most notable of which , the Lancha Poveira , was believed to be derived from the Drakkar Viking , but without a long stern and bow and with a lateen sail . Each boat carried carvings , namely a sigla poveira mark for boat identification and magical @-@ religious protection at sea . According to a tradition that persists to this day , the youngest son is the heir of the family , as in old Brittany and Denmark , because it was expected that he would take care of his parents when they became old . Women govern the family , because men were usually away from home fishing .
The Branqueta is the traditional dress of the fishermen of Póvoa de Varzim . The Camisola Poveira are pullovers , part of the dress , that have fishery motifs in white , black and red , with the name of the owner embroidered in siglas poveiras . Other dresses include the urban tricana poveira for women and children 's catalim caps . Handicrafts include the Tapetes de Beiriz rustic carpets .
Formerly , the population was divided into different " castes " , Lanchões , Rasqueiros , and Sardinheiros which were stratified depending on their Poveiro boat and fisheries caught . Apart from them , the Lavradores ( the farmers ) and the Sargaceiros and Seareiros , who went to the sea searching for fertilizers . As a rule , the groups remained distinct , and mixed marriages between them were forbidden , mostly because of the isolationism of the fishermen .
São Félix Hill is a reference point for fishermen at sea and on the last Sunday of May , there is the Pilgrimage of Nossa Senhora da Saúde ( Our Lady of Good Health ) which covers a distance of 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) between the Matriz Church and the hill . In Cape Santo André there is the Saint 's Rock , which has a mark that the Povoan fishermen believe to be a footprint of Saint Andrew . The saint is seen as the " Boatman of Souls " , fishing the souls of those who drown in the sea after a shipwreck , and helped in fisheries and marriages . The procession to the cape occurs on the dawn of the last day of November , when groups of men and women , wearing black hoods and holding lamps , go to the chapel via the beach . On August 15 , the pinnacle of the fishermen 's Feast of the Assumption occurs in the seaport with carefully arranged boats and fireworks . In Mid @-@ September , there 's the Senhora das Dores festival with the century @-@ old Pottery Fair .
= = = Cuisine = = =
The most traditional ingredients of the local cuisine are locally @-@ grown vegetables and fish . The fish used in the traditional cuisine are divided in two categories , the " poor " fish ( sardine , ray , mackerel , and others ) and the " wealthy " fish ( such as whiting , snook , and alfonsino ) . The most famous local dish is Pescada à Poveira ( Poveira Whiting ) , whose main ingredients are , along with the fish that gives the name to the dish , potatoes , eggs and a boiled onion and tomato sauce . Other fishery dishes include the Arroz de Sardinha ( sardine rice ) , Caldeirada de Peixe ( fish stew ) , Lulas Recheadas à Poveiro ( Poveiro stuffed squids ) , Arroz de Marisco ( seafood rice ) and Lagosta Suada ( steamed spiny lobster ) . Shellfish and boiled iscas , pataniscas , and bolinhos de bacalhau are popular snacks . Other dishes include Feijoada Poveira , made with white beans and served with dry rice ( arroz seco ) ; and Francesinha Poveira made in long bread that first appeared in 1962 as fast food for holidaymakers .
Restaurants specializing in Portuguese barbecued chicken , seafood , francesinha , bacalhau can be found along the Estrada Nacional 13 road and other areas of the city .
= = = Sports = = =
The city has developed a number of sporting venues and has hosted several national , European and world championships in different sports . 38 % of the population practiseF sport , a high rate when compared to the national average .
The most popular sport in Póvoa de Varzim is association football . The city is home to Varzim SC , a professional football club , who play in Estádio do Varzim on the North Side . City Park 's Stadium and surrounding football fields are the main stage for Póvoa de Varzim 's People 's championship where its football clubs compete : Aguçadoura , Amorim , Argivai , Averomar , Balasar , Barreiros , Beiriz , Belém , Estela , Juve Norte , Laundos , Leões da Lapa , Mariadeira , Matriz , Navais , Rates , Regufe , Terroso , and Unidos ao Varzim .
Swimming is the second most practised sport . The International Meeting of Póvoa de Varzim , in long course pool , is part of the European winter calendar . The meeting occurs in the city pool complex belonging to Varzim Lazer , a municipal company that also runs other sports venues found north of the city : the tennis academy , the bullring , and the municipal pavilion . The other complex is property of Clube Desportivo da Póvoa , a club that is notorious , in the city , because it competes in several sports : rink hockey , volleyball , basketball , auto racing , and athletics . Other small clubs for other sports exist : Clube de Andebol da Póvoa de Varzim in Handball , Póvoa Futsal Club in Futsal and Póvoa de Varzim and Vila do Conde united clubs exists for Baseball and American Football , Villas Vikings and Villas Titans , respectively . Beach volley and Footvolley are more popular sports , and it was in Póvoa that footvolley was , for the first time , practiced in Portugal .
The marina , near the seaport , offers sea activities developed by the local yacht club - the Clube Naval Povoense . Costa Verde Trophy , linking Póvoa and Viana do Castelo , is one of the regattas organized by the club and Rally Portugal yacht racing is a sailing and sightseeing event along the west Iberian coast .
The Grande Prémio de São Pedro ( Saint Peter Grand Prix ) , which occurs in the city 's streets during the summer , is part of the national calendar of the Portuguese Athletics Federation . In 2007 , the Grande Prémio da Marginal ( Waterfront Grand Prix ) , an annual event between Póvoa de Varzim and Vila do Conde , aiming for the funding of the National Association of Paramiloidosis . The Cego do Maio Half Marathon aims at the promotion of the city and the sport activity among the population . In Cycling it hosts the Clássica da Primavera ( Spring Classic ) in April . Mountain bike events are common . There is a links golf course , a greyhound racing , and a shooting camp in the outskirts .
Due to its location and suitable urban areas , board culture is omnipresent in Póvoa de Varzim . Bodyboarders and surfers meet at Salgueira Beach . In Lota , a recreation area for several audiences , is especially popular amongst the skater and biker communities , and is considered the most charismatic skater area in the country .
= = = Media = = =
O Comércio da Póvoa de Varzim ( est . 1903 ) , A Voz da Póvoa ( est . 1938 ) , and Póvoa Semanário , which appeared during the 1990s , are Póvoa de Varzim 's major weekly newspapers ; while the Gazeta da Póvoa de Varzim ( 1870 – 1874 ) was the first local newspaper . Most are dedicated to local news and have Internet editions .
The local radio stations Rádio Mar ( 89 @.@ 0 ) and Radio Onda Viva ( 96 @.@ 1 ) broadcast on FM and online . The stations ' programming include local news and sports and feature an in @-@ depth look at the city 's top news by interviewing a guest at lunchtime on weekends . Radio Onda Viva airs Mandarin Chinese programming daily . The radio station , Rádio Mar , and the newspaper Póvoa Semanário belong to the same group ; the same company offers news services to the neighbouring cities of Vila do Conde and Esposende .
= = Education = =
Higher education has limited history and availability . The Superior School of Industrial Studies and Management ( ESEIG ) , part of Porto Polytechnic , was founded in 1990 . The school was based in two campuses , one in Avenida Mouzinho de Albuquerque and another one in Vila do Conde , but it was united in a single campus in 2001 . The new campus has 31 @,@ 544 square metres ( 7 @.@ 795 acres ) and includes facilities such as an auditorium and research space . ESEIG offers undergraduate and post @-@ graduate education . Academic choices are centered around industrial engineering , industrial design , biomedical engineering , management , human resources , accountancy , and corporate finance .
Póvoa de Varzim has public , denominational and independent schools in the city and outskirts . Public education in the municipality is provided by five school districts : Flávio Gonçalves , Cego do Maio , Aver @-@ o @-@ Mar , Campo Aberto , and Rates . These school districts arrange kindergartens and schools to the 9th grade of different locales of the municipality and are headed by Escolas de Educação Básica do 2 . ° e 3 . ° Ciclo ( 6th to the 9th grade schools ) that give the name to each district . Private schools are primarily run by Catholic parishes or groups , but the Grande Colégio da Póvoa de Varzim and Campo Verde School of Agriculture are eminent independent schools and MAPADI is a large facility and school for children with down syndrome . Colégio do Sagrado Coração de Jesus , where Agustina Bessa @-@ Luís studied and developed her writing style , reopened in the 2007 @-@ 2008 school year , planning to become a leading catholic school .
High schools ( 10th to the 12th grade ) are situated in the school section at Póvoa city centre : Escola Secundária Eça de Queirós and Escola Secundária Rocha Peixoto . The Colégio de Amorim is an independent school in the outskirts that also offers secondary education . Eça de Queirós was a lyceum created in 1904 that maintains its humanist outlook and Rocha Peixoto was a former industrial and commercial school created in 1924 .
The Rocha Peixoto Municipal Library , established in 1880 , on the 300th anniversary of the death of Luís de Camões was housed in the current building in 1991 . Small suburban library branches and Diana Bar Library are extension posts of the municipal library . A little more than one quarter of the population now has intermediate or superior level qualifications . The illiteracy level was 5 @.@ 9 percent in 2001 .
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Artists and Repertoire executive Gary Harris , who later assisted neo soul singer D 'Angelo in recording his debut album Brown Sugar ( 1995 ) , later commented on Gaye 's significant artistry on I Want You and its opening title track . In an interview with writer Michael Eric Dyson , Harris said :
Another significant feature of the recording sessions for I Want You was Gaye 's use of the synthesizer in his music . During the time of recording , the instrument had entered its modern period of use and had been included in the music of such popular acts as Stevie Wonder and Led Zeppelin . For the instrumental version of " After the Dance " , Gaye implemented it for a more spacey sound than his previous recordings had featured . Other recordings from these sessions to feature Gaye 's synthesizer were later featured on the deluxe edition re @-@ release of I Want You .
= = Artwork = =
The original Sugar Shack painting , which was later used for the front album cover of I Want You , was painted and released by neo @-@ mannerist artist Ernie Barnes in 1971 . In 1974 , Barnes redesigned the painting for use by television producer Norman Lear for the opening credits of Good Times , his hit CBS sitcom that ran from 1974 to 1979 . The Sugar Shack portrays a cultural image of a shack full of black people dancing . The Sugar Shack was painted by Barnes in his signature post @-@ mannerist style , using serpentine lines , elongation of the human figure , clarity of line , unusual spatial relationships , painted frames , and distinctive color palettes . This style of technique and composition is similar to the mannerist style of 16th @-@ century artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael , which has led Barnes to be credited as the founder of the Neo @-@ Mannerism movement . Art critic Frank Getlein later called The Sugar Shack a " stunning demonstration of the fusion of Neo @-@ Mannerism and Genre painting that Barnes alone has perfected and practices " , and went on to say :
The Sugar Shack has been known to art critics for embodying the style of art composition known as " Black Romantic " , which , according to Natalie Hopkinson of The Washington Post , is the " visual @-@ art equivalent of the Chitlin ' circuit . " According to Barnes , he created the original version after reflecting upon his childhood , during which he was not " able to go to a dance . " In an interview with SoulMuseum.net , Barnes was asked whether there were any messages he was attempting to express through the painting . He stated " ' Sugar Shack ' is a recall of a childhood experience . It was the first time my innocence met with the sins of dance . The painting transmits rhythm so the experience is re @-@ created in the person viewing it . To show that African @-@ Americans utilize rhythm as a way of resolving physical tension "
Gaye was introduced to Barnes by colleague Barbara Hunter , which led to him buying eight Barnes originals , including The Sugar Shack . After Gaye asked him for permission to use the painting as an album cover , Barnes then augmented the painting by adding references to Gaye 's album , including banners hanging from the ceiling of the shack promoting the album 's singles . Since the initial wide acclaim for The Sugar Shack , Barnes has gained further recognition from art critics as one of the best black painters of his time and was cited by the Oakland Tribune as the " Picasso of the black art world . "
= = Release and reception = =
I Want You was released March 16 , 1976 in the United States on the Motown @-@ subsidiary label Tamla Records . While not as successful sales @-@ wise as Gaye 's previous landmark albums What 's Going On and Let 's Get It On , I Want You sold in excess of 1 million copies in the United States with help mostly coming from its first single " I Want You " . The single topped the Billboard Soul Singles chart , quickly becoming Marvin Gaye 's eleventh number @-@ one hit on that chart , while peaking at number fifteen on the Billboard Pop Singles chart .
The album 's second single , the quiet storm track " After the Dance ( Vocal ) " , charted modestly , peaking at # 14 on the Soul Singles chart and # 74 on the Pop Singles chart , while another single release version of the song , a double A @-@ sided vinyl record for dance clubs and discothèques , hit the top ten of the Billboard Disco Singles chart . The song became a staple of dance clubs and discothèques during the late 1970s . " After the Dance " was hailed as one of Gaye 's signature songs during the late 1970s and was later described by Gaye @-@ biographer David Ritz as " emblematic for the final chapter of his career . " I Want You became his fourth album to reach the top ten of the Billboard 200 chart and his fifth number @-@ one album on the Soul Albums chart .
Despite its chart success , I Want You received mixed reviews from music critics at the time of its release . It has been noted by music writers that the critical reception of disco music in general had been poor and ill @-@ considered , which may have caused the slightly disco @-@ styled I Want You to suffer critically , in comparison to Gaye 's previous albums . Los Angeles Times writer Dennis Hunt called the album " disappointing " and " only partially commendable " . Rolling Stone 's Vince Aletti criticized Leon Ware 's production for being too low @-@ key , and perceived that Gaye lacks the certain passion in his lyricism and singing from his previous records . Aletti compared the album to Gaye 's previous work , writing that " Gaye seems determined to take over as soul 's master philosopher in the bedroom , a position that requires little but an affectation of constant , rather jaded horniness . The pose has already been established in Let 's Get It On , on which Gaye was hot , tender , aggressive , soothing and casually raunchy — the modern lover with all his contradictions . I Want You continues in the same vein but with only the faintest traces of the robust passion that shot through and sustained the earlier album ... one expects something with a little more substance and spirit . But there 's no fire here , only a well @-@ concealed pilot light . "
Cliff White of NME called the album " almost a voyeur 's delight " , and was not favorable of Gaye 's sensual themes , stating " Although getting down , getting mellow , and getting it on are paramount considerations in the privacy of my own home , I don 't particularly want to be party to someone else 's night life . Not on record anyway ... Like peeking through the windows of the Gaye residence in the wee wee hours . Perhaps that 's your kick , but personally I find it a mite frustrating . " White also criticized the album 's sound , describing the songs as " all expressions of the same mood . Sensual , satisfied , and spaced out " , and calling I Want You " simply the explorative aftermath of Let 's Get It On . The sweet nuthin 's of a drowsy , sweat @-@ streaked lover . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote favorably of the album 's sound quality . However , he criticized the lyrical content , as well as Ware 's involvement in songwriting , stating " was it Ware who instructed Marvin to eliminate all depth and power from his voice ? I mean , if you 're into insisting on sex it 's in bad taste to whine about it . "
= = Legacy and influence = =
After critical re @-@ examination of the album , I Want You has been recognized by writers and music writers as one of Marvin Gaye 's most controversial and influential works and , much like its predecessor Let 's Get It On , has served as a major influence on the quiet storm and contemporary R & B genres . Its standing has also improved among critics following an expanded edition release of the album on July 29 , 2003 , which featured extensive liner notes and photography by Ryan Null . Following that release , Allmusic praised Gaye 's different direction in music and the eroticism portrayed in Leon Ware 's smooth @-@ tempo production and Gaye 's intimate lyricism . Reviewer Thom Jurek wrote :
Such musicians as Todd Rundgren , Robert Palmer and Madonna have stated they were influenced by I Want You , while songs from the album have been sampled by such hip hop artists as EPMD to Mary J. Blige , who sampled the title track for her hit song " Be Happy " . The careers of neo soul and R & B musicians including D 'Angelo , Musiq Soulchild , R. Kelly , Maxwell ( particularly on Urban Hang Suite ) , Sade , and Prince show the influence of the soulful sound and equally romantic and erotic lyrics of I Want You , Let 's Get It On and Leon Ware 's Musical Massage . According to one critic , Ware 's arrangements " solidified the suite @-@ like theme for the album . " Much like Let 's Get It On , slow jam music , as well as modern soul and the quiet storm genre , are now viewed by critics to have been engendered by I Want You and by Gaye .
Following the release of I Want You , Ware released Musical Massage ( 1976 ) , which received little mainstream notice . Despite this , Musical Massage , Ware 's second studio album , became a cult hit among soul music fans who were intrigued by I Want You and songs from that album 's producer . Critical recognition of Ware 's album later improved , being cited by Allmusic as " the perfect mix of soul , light funk , jazz , and what was about to become the rhythmic foundation for disco . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = Deluxe edition = = =
On July 29 , 2003 , I Want You was reissued by Motown as a two @-@ disc expanded edition release , featuring 24 @-@ bit digital remastering of the original album 's recordings , previously unissued material , and a 24 @-@ page booklet , which contains the original LP liner notes by Marvin Gaye , as well as comprehensive essays by writers including David Ritz .
= = = 2002 remaster bonus tracks = = =
= = Personnel = =
Artwork by : Ernie Barnes , Frank Mulvey
Arranged by ( Strings , Horns ) : Coleridge @-@ Taylor Perkinson
Bass : Chuck Rainey , Henry Davis , Ron Brown , Wilton Felder
Bongos , Congas : Bobbye Hall Porter , Eddie " Bongo " Brown
Drums : James Gadson
Electric Piano ( Fender Rhodes ) , Piano : Jerry Peters , John Barnes , Sonny Burke
Engineer : Fred Ross , Art Stewart
Executive Producer : Berry Gordy , Marvin Gaye
Guitar : David T. Walker , Dennis Coffey , Jay Graydon , Melvin " Wah Wah " Watson , Ray Parker , Jr .
Percussion : Gary Coleman , Jack Arnold
Producer : Leon Ware , Marvin Gaye , Arthur " T @-@ Boy " Ross ( co @-@ produced tracks : A1 , A3 , B1 , B2 , B4 @-@ B6 )
Vocals : Marvin Gaye
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Sample use = =
The information regarding sampling of songs from I Want You is adapted from TheBreaks.com
" I Want You ( intro jam ) "
" HaHa Tysons " by DJ Harrison produced at Jellowstone Records
= Exelon Pavilions =
The Exelon Pavilions are four buildings that generate electricity from solar energy and provide access to underground parking in Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The Northeast Exelon Pavilion and Northwest Exelon Pavilion ( jointly the North Exelon Pavilions ) are located on the northern edge of the park along Randolph Street , and flank the Harris Theater . The Southeast Exelon Pavilion and Southwest Exelon Pavilion ( jointly the South Exelon Pavilions ) are located on the southern edge of the park along Monroe Street , and flank the Lurie Garden . Together the pavilions generate 19 @,@ 840 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 67 @,@ 697 MBtu ) of electricity annually , worth about $ 2 @,@ 350 per year .
The four pavilions , which cost $ 7 million , were designed in January 2001 ; construction began in January 2004 . The South Pavilions were completed and opened in July 2004 , while the North Pavilions were completed in November 2004 , with a grand opening on April 30 , 2005 . In addition to producing energy , three of the four pavilions provide access to the parking garages below the park , while the fourth serves as the park 's welcome center and office . Exelon , a company that generates the electricity transmitted by its subsidiary Commonwealth Edison , donated $ 5 @.@ 5 million for the pavilions . Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin praised the South Pavilions as " minor modernist jewels " , but criticized the North Pavilions as " nearly all black and impenetrable " . The North Pavilions have received the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) silver rating from the United States Green Building Council , as well as an award from the American Society of Heating , Refrigerating and Air @-@ Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE ) .
= = Background = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . As of 2009 , Millennium Park trailed only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
In 1836 , a year before Chicago was incorporated , the Board of Canal Commissioners held public auctions for the city 's first lots . Citizens with the foresight to keep the lakefront as public open space convinced the commissioners to designate the land east of Michigan Avenue between Randolph Street and Park Row ( 11th Street ) " Public Ground — A Common to Remain Forever Open , Clear and Free of Any Buildings , or Other Obstruction , whatever . " Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since , protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett decommissioned the Fort Dearborn reserve and declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings " .
Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park , and to keep it from building new ones . In 1890 , arguing that Michigan Avenue property owners held easements on the park land , Ward commenced legal actions to keep the park free of new buildings . In 1900 , the Illinois Supreme Court concluded that all landfill east of Michigan Avenue was subject to dedications and easements . In 1909 , when he sought to prevent the construction of the Field Museum of Natural History in the center of the park , the courts affirmed his arguments and the museum was built elsewhere .
As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park ; structures over 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall are not allowed in the park , with the exception of bandshells . However , within Millennium Park , the 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Crown Fountain and the 139 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) Jay Pritzker Pavilion were exempt from the height restrictions , because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures . Shorter structures do not run afoul of the height restrictions . The Harris Theater , which lies between the North Pavilions , was built mostly underground to avoid the restrictions . The Northwest Pavilion , tallest of the four , is three stories high ; the Northeast Pavilion is two stories , and the South Pavilions are each one story .
= = Design and construction = =
The pavilions are named for Exelon , a Chicago @-@ based company that generates the electricity transmitted by its subsidiary Commonwealth Edison ( ComEd ) . The city of Chicago has collaborated with Exelon and ComEd on a variety of environmental projects , including the installation of solar power in buildings , support for sustainable design and renewable energy , and furthering educational and social awareness of green architecture in the city . The pavilions cost $ 7 million , $ 5 @.@ 5 million of which was donated by Exelon and ComEd .
The lead designer for the North Pavilions was Thomas H. Beeby of Hammond Beeby Rupert Ainge Architects . Beeby 's designs for the North Pavilions are " in harmony with the Harris Theater " , for which he was the architect as well . The North Pavilions are along Randolph Street on either side of the theater , which is Millennium Park 's indoor performing @-@ arts venue .
The South Pavilions were designed by architect Renzo Piano of Renzo Piano Building Workshop . Piano designed the Art Institute of Chicago 's Modern Wing , which is across Monroe Street from the South Pavilions and opened in 2009 . The facades of the South Pavilions are limestone and glass in order to complement the Modern Wing , even though it was not completed until several years after the pavilions were finished . Piano also designed the Nichols Bridgeway , which connects Millennium Park and the Art Institute , and is next to the Southwest Pavilion .
The design process for the Exelon Pavilions began in September 2001 , with construction starting in January 2004 . The general contractor for all four pavilions was Walsh Construction . The South Pavilions were completed in July 2004 and opened when Millennium Park celebrated its grand opening on July 16 , 2004 . The North Pavilions were not finished in July 2004 , but were completed in November of that year . All four Exelon Pavilions were officially opened to the public on April 30 , 2005 .
= = Structures = =
The North Pavilions were designed as minimalist black cubes , and together are capable of producing 16 @,@ 000 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 54 @,@ 594 MBtu ) of electricity annually . The outermost layer of the exterior of each pavilion is a curtain wall made of recycled aluminum . These walls contain specially designed " mono @-@ crystalline photovoltaic modules and insulated glass " . Convection from radiant solar heat gain causes air to cycle within air cavities covered by the photovoltaic modules . A " highly heat @-@ reflective thermoplastic membrane " is used to waterproof each roof , and helps mitigate the urban heat island effect .
The photovoltaic modules generate electricity to power much of the pavilions ' lighting . The North Pavilions are the first Chicago buildings to use building integrated photovoltaic cells , which are a solar energy system incorporated into the building 's structural elements . Millennium Park 's planners claimed that the pavilions had the first electricity @-@ generating curtain walls in the Midwest .
= = = Northwest Pavilion = = =
The Northwest Pavilion , located at 151 E. Randolph Street , houses the Millennium Park Welcome Center and an Exelon energy display . It contains the Millennium Park offices , and public restrooms . The three @-@ story Northwest Pavilion is the largest of the four pavilions , with 6 @,@ 100 square feet ( 566 @.@ 7 m2 ) , and is the only pavilion that does not provide access to the parking garage below . The Northwest Pavilion has 460 photovoltaic modules to harness solar energy , houses recycling facilities , and its " interior finishes and construction materials are derived from renewable resources " .
The Millennium Park Welcome Center in the Northwest Pavilion offers guides to the park and wheelchairs . It houses exhibitions on parks and energy , and has interactive displays on how the pavilions ' solar panels function and on renewable energy . There are exhibits with interactive web @-@ based touch screens that depict the city 's use of solar energy , and a dynamic multi @-@ screen video presentation on electricity generation and usage . The building 's atrium includes a sculpture by Chicago @-@ based artists Patrick McGee and Adelheid Mers with three backlit 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) two @-@ way mirrors . The sculpture , titled Heliosphere , Biosphere , Technosphere , is " designed to interpret the links between the Earth 's atmosphere , the solar system and scientific applications " . It is the only permanent work of art by Chicago artists within the park .
= = = Northeast Pavilion = = =
The Northeast Pavilion houses a pedestrian entrance to the Millennium Park parking garage , and provides access to the Harris Theater 's rooftop terrace . It is at 201 E. Randolph Street , east of the theater and west of the McDonald 's Cycle Center . The pavilion 's second floor has the Chicago Shop , which offers a self @-@ guided Millennium Park audio tour for rental and sells official Millennium Park and Chicago souvenirs . The two @-@ story Northeast Pavilion is the second @-@ largest , with 4 @,@ 100 square feet ( 380 @.@ 9 m2 ) of surface area , and also has 460 photovoltaic modules to generate electricity from sunlight .
= = = South Pavilions = = =
The south pavilions are east and west of the Lurie Garden along Monroe Street , and their glass walls allow views of the garden . Both of the South Pavilions provide access to the parking garage below the park . The 550 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 51 m2 ) Southwest Pavilion is the smallest of the four pavilions , and has the least number of photovoltaic modules with 16 on its roof . It is west of the garden and east of the Nichols Bridgeway . The Southeast Pavilion is east of the garden , has the second smallest area at 75
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cricket journalism and had much in common with Sydney Pardon , though he was always the hard @-@ headed Yorkshireman . He kept his mind on the game , had no use for frills , and despised modern stunting . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1881 , Pullin married Alice Ramsden . The couple had four sons . He did not have many friends , but he was very close to the ones he had . His early association with churches , through his father , gave him an interest in ecclesiastical music ; he often played the harmonium to entertain himself and his family . He had strong views on organ music , and once he had formed an opinion he rarely changed his mind .
Pullin died in 1934 while travelling to a Test match at Lord 's Cricket Ground . He collapsed on a bus and was pronounced dead on his arrival at hospital . He had been suffering from heart trouble for some time , but wished to continue working and to die " with his boots on " . He was buried in Wakefield cemetery . Upon his death , senior figures from Yorkshire County Cricket Club paid tribute to his influence , and his dignity and zealousness were praised by the Leeds branch of the National Union of Journalists . Hutton , who had just broken into the Yorkshire team aged 18 , wrote that he " had just got into the habit of looking for that kindly , alert , grey @-@ bearded face of Mr Pullin 's either among the players before the day 's play or in a Press @-@ tent " . Cardus concluded his tribute to Pullin in the Manchester Guardian : " [ He ] wrote simply , well , and with courtesy and knowledge . A good man and a good friend " .
= History of The Simpsons =
The Simpsons is an American animated television sitcom starring the animated Simpson family , which was created by Matt Groening . He conceived of the characters in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office and named them after his own family members , substituting " Bart " for his own name . The family debuted as shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . After a three @-@ season run , the sketch was developed into a half @-@ hour prime time show called The Simpsons , which debuted on December 17 , 1989 . The show was an early hit for Fox , becoming the first Fox series to land in the top 30 ratings in a season ( 1990 ) .
The show was controversial from its beginning and has made the news several times . In the early seasons , some parents and conservatives characterized Bart as a poor role model for children and several United States public schools even banned The Simpsons merchandise and t @-@ shirts . In January 1992 , then @-@ President George H. W. Bush made a speech during his re @-@ election campaign in which he said : " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " In 2002 , the show was nearly sued by the Rio de Janeiro tourist board for creating an unreal image of the city on the show .
The Simpsons Movie , a feature @-@ length film , was released in theaters worldwide on July 26 and July 27 , 2007 . Previous attempts to create a film version of The Simpsons failed due to the lack of a script of appropriate length and production crew members . Eventually , producers Brooks , Groening , Al Jean , Mike Scully , and Richard Sakai began development of the film in 2001 . They conceived numerous plot ideas , with Groening 's being the one developed into a film . The script was re @-@ written over a hundred times , and this creativity continued after animation had begun in 2006 . The film was a box office success , and received overwhelmingly positive reviews .
The Simpsons eventually became the longest @-@ running American sitcom , the longest @-@ running American animated program , and in 2009 it surpassed Gunsmoke as the longest @-@ running American primetime , scripted television series . Since its debut on December 17 , 1989 , the show has broadcast 596 episodes and its 27th season started airing on September 27 , 2015 .
= = The Tracey Ullman shorts ( 1987 – 1989 ) = =
When producer James L. Brooks was working on the television variety show The Tracey Ullman Show for the fledging Fox network , he decided that he wanted to include small animated sketches before and after the commercial breaks . Having seen one of cartoonist Matt Groening 's Life in Hell comic strips , Brooks asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts , which Groening initially intended to present as his Life in Hell series . Groening later realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work , and passed on the offer . Richard Sakai contacted Groening to see if he had any other characters he would be willing to let Fox merchandise , and , in short , Groening developed a dysfunctional family that became the Simpsons . Garth Ancier contends that Groening created the characters at home and brought them the next day , while Phil Roman claims Groening sketched out the characters on the drive to Fox . Groening 's account states he hurriedly formulated The Simpsons while waiting in the lobby of Brooks 's office for the pitch meeting , which is the most common and famous story . He named the characters after his own family members , substituting " Bart " for his own name , adapting an anagram of the word " brat " .
Fox negotiated a deal which would prove extremely lucrative for Groening , in which he retained a large portion of revenue from merchandising . To animate the short segments , Brooks and company settled on Klasky Csupo , a small animation house who offered to produce the cartoons for cheap . Brooks initially just wanted to animate the shorts through the basic line drawings , and Klasky @-@ Csupo offered color for the same cost . The studio only employed three young animators — CalArts graduates Bill Kopp , Wes Archer , and David Silverman — who adapted Groening 's scripts for animation in one week , doing layouts , animation and inbetweening by hand in the very short amount of time . Groening submitted only basic sketches to the three , and assumed that the figures would be cleaned @-@ up in production . However , the animators merely re @-@ traced his drawings , which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial short episodes . Colorist Gyorgyi Peluce was the person who decided to make the characters yellow .
Appearing initially alongside cartoons by M. K. Brown , The Simpson family first appeared in short subjects in The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 and were featured the first three seasons . The actors who voiced the characters would later reprise their roles in The Simpsons . Dan Castellaneta performed the voices of Homer Simpson , Abraham Simpson , and Krusty the Clown . Homer 's voice in the shorts is a loose impression of Walter Matthau , whereas it became more robust and humorous on the half @-@ hour show , allowing Homer to cover a fuller range of emotions . Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , and Yeardley Smith performed the voices of Marge Simpson , Bart Simpson , and Lisa Simpson respectively . The crew began to string the clips together on tape to play for the show 's live audience , and The Simpsons generated " the biggest laughs of the show " according to John Ortved , author of The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History . The writing staff of Ullman soon began to view The Simpsons as poor relations due to the popularity , and Brooks began to consider adapting the shorts for its own half @-@ hour series . Brooks ' decision was partly inspired by the cheerleading of David Silverman , who drunkenly approached him at a Christmas party and suggested the idea , passionately emphasizing what a primetime series would mean for the animation industry .
= = The Groening , Brooks , and Simon years ( 1989 – 1991 ) = =
In 1989 , a team of production companies adapted The Simpsons into a half @-@ hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The team included what is now the Klasky Csupo animation house . Due to the increased workload of the full @-@ length episodes , production was subcontracted to South Korean animation studio AKOM . While character and background layout is done by the domestic studio , tweening , coloring and filming is done by the overseas studio .
The Simpsons was co @-@ developed by Groening , Brooks , and Sam Simon , a writer @-@ producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects . Groening said his goal was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called " the mainstream trash " . Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content . Fox network was unsure if the show could sustain the audience 's attention for the duration of the episode . They proposed doing three seven @-@ minute shorts per episode and four specials until the audience adjusted , but in the end , the producers gambled by asking Fox for 13 full @-@ length episodes .
Simon assembled and led the initial team of writers , and has been credited as " developing [ the show 's ] sensibility " . Writer Ken Levine says he " brought a level of honesty to the characters " and made them " three @-@ dimensional " , adding that Simon 's " comedy is all about character , not just a string of gags " . Simon saw The Simpsons as a chance to solve what he did not like about Saturday @-@ morning cartoon shows . He wanted all the actors in a room together , instead of reading their lines separated from each other . In addition to Castellaneta , Kavner , Cartwright and Smith , actors Harry Shearer and Hank Azaria were added to the show 's cast .
Groening developed a lengthy opening sequence in order to cut down on the animation necessary for each episode , but devised the two gags as compensation for the repeated material each week . In the first gag , the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School , where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard . This message , which changes from episode to episode , has become known as the " chalkboard gag " . The other gag is known as a " couch gag " , in which a twist of events occur when the family meets to sit on their couch and watch television . Groening , who had not paid much attention to television since his own childhood , was unaware that title sequences of such length were uncommon by that time . The theme , which plays over the sequence , was composed by Danny Elfman in 1989 , after Groening approached him requesting a retro @-@ style theme . The piece , which took two days to create , has been noted by Elfman as the most popular of his career .
The half @-@ hour series premiered on December 17 , 1989 with " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . The series was originally set to debut in the fall of 1989 with the episode " Some Enchanted Evening " , but the producers discovered that the animation was so appalling that 70 percent of the episode needed to be redone . At the time there were only a few choices for animation style . Usually , they would either follow the style of Disney , Warner Bros. , or Hanna @-@ Barbera . The producers wanted a realistic environment in which the characters and objects could not do anything that was not possible in the real world . They considered aborting the series if the next episode " Bart the Genius " turned out as bad , but it only suffered from easily fixable problems . The debut was moved to December , and " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " became the first episode of the series . In some of the episodes of the first season , the characters act completely differently from in later seasons ; Lisa , for example , is undisciplined and short @-@ tempered , while Homer is the voice of reason ; these roles are reversed in later episodes .
During the second season , The Simpsons aired the first Halloween special called " Treehouse of Horror " . The annual series typically consist of four parts : an opening and Halloween @-@ themed version of the credits , followed by three segments . These segments usually have a horror , science fiction or supernatural theme and quite often are parodies of films , novels , plays , television shows , Twilight Zone episodes , or old issues of EC Comics . Part of the attraction for the writers is that they are able to break the rules and include violence that would not make a regular episode . In some cases , the writers will have an idea that is too violent and far @-@ fetched or too short for a normal episode , but can be used as a segment in the seasonal special . The first " Treehouse of Horror " episode was the first time that an alternate version of the theme airs over the end credits .
= = = Bartmania and criticism from conservatives = = =
The show was controversial from its beginning . The rebellious lead character at the time , Bart , frequently received no punishment for his misbehavior , which led some parents and conservatives to characterize him as a poor role model for children . Several US public schools even banned The Simpsons merchandise and t @-@ shirts , such as one featuring Bart and the caption " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " . In the season two opening episode " Bart Gets an F " , Bart fails four consecutive history exams and the school psychiatrist recommends that Bart repeat the fourth grade . Several critics thought that the episode " Bart Gets an F " was a response to these controversies . However , Brooks denied that it was a response and added , " we 're mindful of it . I do think it 's important for us that Bart does badly in school . There are students like that . Besides , I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model . You don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? "
In the October 1 , 1990 edition of People , First Lady Barbara Bush called The Simpsons " the dumbest thing [ she ] had ever seen " which led to the writers sending a letter to Bush where they posed as Marge Simpson . Bush immediately sent a reply in which she apologized . A few years later , on January 27 , 1992 then @-@ President of the United States George H. W. Bush made a speech during his re @-@ election campaign where he said , " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " The writers decided that they wanted to respond by adding a response to the next broadcast of The Simpsons , which was a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " on January 30 . The broadcast included a new tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek opening where they watch Bush 's speech . Bart replies , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too " . The criticism eventually led to the idea for the episode " Two Bad Neighbors " , which has George and Barbara move into the house across the street from the Simpsons .
= = = Competing with The Cosby Show = = =
The Simpsons first season was the Fox network 's first TV series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest @-@ rated shows . Due to its success , the Fox network decided to switch The Simpsons timeslots in hopes that it would result in higher ratings for the lead out shows . It would move from 8 : 00 PM on Sunday night to the same time on Thursday where it would compete with The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Many of the producers were against the move , as The Simpsons had been in the top 10 while airing on Sunday and they felt the move would destroy its ratings .
" Bart Gets an F " was the first episode to air against The Cosby Show and averaged an 18 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating and 29 % of the audience . In the weeks ratings , it finished tied for eighth behind The Cosby Show which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . However , an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . At the time , it was the most watched episode in the history of the Fox Network . Ratings wise , new episodes of The Cosby Show beat The Simpsons every time during the second season and The Simpsons eventually fell out of the top 10 . At the end of the season Cosby averaged as the fifth highest rated show on television while The Simpsons ranked 38th . It would not be until the third season episode " Homer at the Bat " that The Simpsons would beat The Cosby Show in the ratings . The show remained in its Thursday timeslot until the sixth season , when it moved back to its original timeslot on Sundays .
= = = Music release and " Do the Bartman " = = =
David Geffen , founder of Geffen Records , had the idea to record the album The Simpsons Sing the Blues based on The Simpsons , to be released in time for Christmas 1990 . The writers wrote humorous lyrics for the actors to perform over blues and hip hop . The album faced great publicity before its release . One particular element that was highly publicized was Michael Jackson 's involvement , which was denied around the time of the album 's release . Early published reports attributed Jackson as the composer of " Do the Bartman " , which Groening denied in a press release . However , Groening revealed in 1998 that " Do the Bartman " was actually co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Jackson , but he could not receive credit for it because he was under contract to another record label . Jackson was a fan of The Simpsons , especially Bart , and had called the producers one night offering to write Bart a number one single and do a guest spot on the show , which is how " Do the Bartman " came about . Jackson eventually guest @-@ starred in the episode " Stark Raving Dad " .
The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues peaked at # 3 on the Billboard 200 , making it the highest charting Simpsons album . On February 13 , 1991 , the record was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 3 million copies . The producers followed up on the album with The Yellow Album in 1998 , which featured original recordings by Prince , Linda Ronstadt , C + C Music Factory , and George Clinton of Funkadelic as well as the cast of The Simpsons . The soundtrack albums Songs in the Key of Springfield ( 1997 ) , Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons ( 1999 ) , The Simpsons Movie : The Music ( 2007 ) , and The Simpsons : Testify ( 2007 ) were also released .
= = The Jean and Reiss years ( 1991 – 1993 ) = =
Although they initially worked well together , Simon and Groening 's relationship became " very contentious " according to Groening . According to John Ortved 's book The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , Simon resented the media attention Groening received , particularly the praise for the show 's writing ; Simon felt that Groening 's involvement was limited , and that he should have been the one receiving credit for the show . As well as Groening , Simon was often at odds with Brooks and production company Gracie Films and left the show in 1993 . Before leaving , he negotiated a deal that saw him receive a share of the show 's profits every year , and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since . Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had written for The Simpsons since the start of the show , took over as showrunners for the third season . Compared to being an executive producer , the showrunner position is more involved with the show and acts as head writer and manages the show 's production for an entire season . As well as a turnover in the staff , The Simpsons moved the production of the animation from
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Klasky Csupo to Film Roman in season four .
During the fourth season the episode " A Streetcar Named Marge " was produced . The musical within the episode contains a controversial song about New Orleans , which describes the city as a " home of pirates , drunks and whores " , among other things . Jeff Martin , the writer of the episode , had meant the song to be a parody of the opening number in Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street , which speaks of London in unflattering terms . A New Orleans critic viewed " A Streetcar Named Marge " and published the song lyrics in his newspaper before the episode aired . Many readers took the lyrics out of context , and New Orleans ' Fox affiliate , WNOL , received about one hundred complaints on the day the episode aired . Several local radio stations also held on @-@ air protests in response to the song . The Simpsons ' producers rushed out an apologetic chalkboard gag for " Homer the Heretic " , which aired a week after " A Streetcar Named Marge " . It read , " I will not defame New Orleans " .
Ullman filed a lawsuit in 1992 , claiming that her show was the source of The Simpsons ' success and therefore should receive a share of the show 's profit . " I breast @-@ fed those little devils , " Ullman once said of The Simpsons . She wanted a share of The Simpsons ' merchandising and gross profits and believed she was entitled to $ 2 @.@ 5 million of Fox 's estimated $ 50 million in 1992 . The Fox network had paid her $ 58 @,@ 000 in royalties for The Simpsons as well as $ 3 million for the 3 ½ seasons her show was on the air . Eventually the courts ruled in favor of the network .
= = The Mirkin years ( 1993 – 1995 ) = =
Several of the show 's original writers who had worked on The Simpsons since the first season had left following the completion of season four . David Mirkin took over as showrunner and executive producer for the fifth and sixth season . In The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History ( 2009 ) , John Ortved describes Mirkin as an " outsider " on the show as , unlike the bulk of the writing staff , Mirkin was not a Harvard University graduate . The writing staff were , at least initially , divided on Mirkin 's abilities as a leader . Mirkin conducted the show 's writing sessions in one room , rather than splitting the writers into two groups as other showrunners had done , and often worked late into the night . Writer Richard Appel praised Mirkin 's leadership and comedy style , saying that " the shows were great under him . " In contrast to much of Ortved 's account , in a 2004 interview with Animation Magazine , Mirkin stated that he " really wasn 't at all intimidat [ ed ] to join [ the show 's writing ] crew , " because he " had worked with and written with " many of his fellow writers previously .
Mirkin said that he " brought [ the show ] back to a more story @-@ oriented " approach and increased the character and emotion focus , while " at the same time still keeping it surreal and weird " . During his tenure , Mirkin moved the show 's focus towards Homer , and developed some of the secondary characters , such as Apu . He also strongly opposed censorship and network interference . Mirkin 's era and style of humor are popular amongst the show 's fans , but the writing staff were divided on his style of humor , which saw the show move away from more " realistic " emotional and character based stories to " pure comedy " and " surreal " humor . The episode " Deep Space Homer " was controversial when the episode was in production . Some of the writers felt that having Homer go into space was too " large " of an idea and Groening felt that the idea was so big that it gave the writers " nowhere to go " .
The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpsons family traveled to Australia . They had previously poked fun at several American institutions and thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation . They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun . The episode " Bart vs. Australia " received a mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian fans saying the episode was a mockery of their country . Shortly after it had aired , the Simpsons staff received over 100 letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode . Reiss claimed that this episode is Australia 's least favorite , and that " whenever we have the Simpsons visit another country , that country gets furious , including Australia " . He also claimed that they were " condemned in the Australian Parliament after the episode had aired " .
Former showrunners Jean and Reiss had left to produce their own series , The Critic , along with The Simpsons co @-@ creator Brooks . The Critic was a short @-@ lived animated series that revolved around the life of movie critic Jay Sherman . For the second season of The Critic , Brooks cut a deal with the Fox network to have the series switch over . The episode " A Star Is Burns " was pitched by Brooks , who had wanted a crossover that would help launch The Critic on Fox , and he thought having a film festival in Springfield would be a good way to introduce Sherman . In addition , Jean and Reiss returned to produce two episodes ( " A Star is Burns " and " ' Round Springfield " ) with the staff of The Critic , to relieve some of the stress on The Simpsons ' writing staff . Groening felt that the crossover was a thirty @-@ minute advertisement for another show and blamed Brooks , calling it an attempt to get attention for one of his unsuccessful shows . After unsuccessful attempts to get the episode pulled , he decided to go public with his concerns shortly before the episode aired and had his name removed from the credits . In response , Brooks said , " for years , Al [ Jean ] and Mike [ Reiss ] were two guys who worked their hearts out on this show , staying up until 4 in the morning to get it right . The point is , Matt 's name has been on Mike 's and Al 's scripts and he has taken plenty of credit for a lot of their great work . In fact , he is the direct beneficiary of their work . ' The Critic ' is their shot and he should be giving them his support . "
Groening conceived the idea of an episode in which the character Mr. Burns was shot , which could be used as a publicity stunt . The writers decided to write the episode " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " in two parts with a mystery that could be used in a contest . Part one was the final episode of the sixth season and originally aired on the Fox network on May 21 , 1995 . Part two was the premiere of the seventh season and originally aired on September 17 , 1995 . It was important for the writers to design a mystery that had clues , took advantage of freeze frame technology , and was structured around one character who seemed the obvious culprit . In the months following the broadcast of the first part , there was widespread debate among fans of the series as to who shot Mr. Burns . Fox offered a contest to tie in with the mystery where the viewers could guess who the culprit was . It ran from August 13 to September 10 and was one of the first contests to tie together elements of television and the internet . Fox launched a new website , www.Springfield.com , devoted to the mystery which got over 500 @,@ 000 hits during the summer of 1995 . The winner would be animated on an episode of the show . No one , however , was ever animated on the show . This was because no one officially guessed the right answer , so the chosen winner did not have the right answer and was paid a cash prize in lieu of being animated .
= = The Oakley and Weinstein years ( 1995 – 1997 ) = =
After season six , Mirkin suggested that Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein took over as showrunners , but remained on the show in an advisory capacity , helping them with technical aspects of the show such as editing and sound mixing , and attending the scripts ' table readings . Oakley and Weinstein wanted to produce Treehouse of Horror episodes , episodes about Sideshow Bob , Itchy & Scratchy and several " format @-@ bending " episodes such as " 22 Short Films About Springfield " . They aimed for " at least two episodes per season that ' pushed the envelope ' , [ and ] expanded the definition of what an episode could be . " Season eight featured several episodes in which focus was given to secondary characters and in which new issues , such as divorce , were explored . Their preferred choice of guest stars were those with unique and interesting voices , and several of their guest stars were " old grizzled men with distinctive voices " .
Their goal for the episodes was to be realistic and focus more on the five members of the Simpson family and explore their feelings and emotions towards each other . Oakley considered season three to be the single greatest comedic season of television ever produced and so attempted to recreate the feel of that season , focusing on stories with real emotions and situations , as well as some off @-@ the @-@ wall episodes . Season three was their basis for Homer : " We liked Homer the way he was in the second and third seasons . That was what we consciously used as our model . Dimwitted , loving , hyper @-@ enthusiastic , creatively goofy , parody of the American father – drawn with real emotions , though admittedly amplified . "
The script supervisor for the show and voice of the character Lunchlady Doris , Doris Grau , died on December 30 , 1995 . The episode " Team Homer " , which aired eight days later , was one of the last episodes to feature her voice and featured a dedication to her . From season nine until season eighteen , Lunchlady Doris appeared only as a background character . She returned as a speaking character in several episodes since " The Mook , the Chef , the Wife and Her Homer " , and is now voiced by Tress MacNeille .
The episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " featured a permanent character development when Lisa becomes a vegetarian . The story had been pitched by David S. Cohen and the producers felt it would be a surefire way to get Paul McCartney to guest star . McCartney agreed , but only on the condition that Lisa would stay a vegetarian and not revert . The trait stayed and is one of the few permanent character changes made in the show . In the season 13 episode " She of Little Faith " , Lisa underwent another permanent character change when she converted to Buddhism .
On February 9 , 1997 , The Simpsons surpassed The Flintstones with the episode " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " as the longest @-@ running prime @-@ time animated series in the United States . The producers took this milestone and made the episode deal with the issue of longevity and the problems that arise when the producers try to make a show " fresh " again ; themes commonly known as " jumping the shark " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger , in a review printed two days after the episode originally aired , praised the writers for not airing a " very special " episode to celebrate the milestone of overtaking The Flintstones . He noted " [ the episode is ] so self @-@ aware it put the best in @-@ jokes on St. Elsewhere to shame . "
= = The Scully years ( 1997 – 2001 ) = =
Oakley and Weinstein stood down as showrunners after season eight because they " didn 't want to break [ the show ] " and Mike Scully took over as showrunner in 1997 . As showrunner and executive producer , Scully said his aim was to " not wreck the show " , Scully was popular with the staff members , many of whom praised his organization and management skills . Writer Tom Martin said he was " quite possibly the best boss I 've ever worked for " and " a great manager of people " while writer Don Payne commented that for Scully " it was really important that we kept decent hours " . Scully noted : " I wrote a lot of Lisa 's shows . I have five daughters , so I like Lisa a lot . I like Homer , too . Homer comes very naturally to me : I don 't know if that 's a good or a bad thing . A lot of my favorite episodes are the ones when Homer and Lisa are in conflict with each other ... They 're very human , I think that 's their appeal . "
Despite this , Scully 's tenure as showrunner of The Simpsons has been the subject of criticism from the show 's fans . John Ortved wrote " Scully 's episodes excel when compared to what The Simpsons airs nowadays , but he was the man at the helm when the ship turned towards the iceberg . " The BBC noted " the common consensus is that The Simpsons ' golden era ended after season nine " , while an op @-@ ed in Slate by Chris Suellentrop argued The Simpsons changed from a realistic show about family life into a typical cartoon during Scully 's years . The Simpsons under Scully has been negatively labelled as a " gag @-@ heavy , Homer @-@ centric incarnation " by Jon Bonné of MSNBC , while some fans have bemoaned the transformation in Homer 's character during the era , from sweet and sincere to " a boorish , self @-@ aggrandizing oaf " , dubbing him " Jerkass Homer " . Martin said that he does not understand the criticism against Scully and that he thinks the criticism " bothered [ Scully ] , and still bothers him , but he managed to not get worked up over it . " Ortved noted in his book that it is hard to tell how much of the decline is Scully 's fault , and that blaming a single showrunner for lowering the quality of the show " is unfair . "
UGO Networks ' Brian Tallerico has defended the season against the criticism . He wrote in a 2007 review that comparing " tenth season Simpsons episodes to the prime of the series ( 3 @-@ 7 ) is just unfair and really kind of self @-@ defeating . ' Yeah , I laughed , but not as hard as a couple of years ago . So it sucks . ' That 's nonsense . The fact is that even the tenth season of The Simpsons was funnier than most [ other ] show 's best years . " PopMatters ' Hassenger commented in his review that although the show had declined in quality , " this is not to say that these episodes are without their charm ; many , in fact , are laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funny and characteristically smart . "
On May 28 , 1998 , Phil Hartman , voice actor of Troy McClure and Lionel Hutz , was shot and killed by his wife while he slept in their Encino , Los Angeles , home . His wife , Brynn Omdahl , then committed suicide several hours later . In the weeks following his death , Hartman was celebrated in a wave of tributes . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly opined that Hartman was " the last person you 'd expect to read about in lurid headlines in your morning paper ... a decidedly regular guy , beloved by everyone he worked with " . After Hartman 's death in 1998 , rather than replace him with a new voice actor , the production staff retired McClure and Hutz from the show . McClure last appeared in the season ten episode " Bart the Mother " , which was dedicated to Hartman .
In the season 10 episode " Thirty Minutes over Tokyo " , the family travels to Japan . The episode references and mocks several aspects of Japanese and American culture , as well as differences between the two . At a sumo wrestling match , Bart and Homer encounter the Japanese emperor , Akihito . After Homer throws him into a trunk of sumo thongs , Bart and Homer are put in jail , where they have to re @-@ enact a kabuki play about the forty @-@ seven Ronin , do origami , flower arranging and meditation . The episode also references the Japanese 's adaption to American culture . Although all other episodes of The Simpsons have been dubbed and broadcast on Japanese television , " Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo " has never aired in Japan . The scene , which shows Homer throw the emperor of Japan into a box filled with sumo thongs , was considered disrespectful .
= = = Labor difficulties = = =
Up until the production of season ten in 1998 , these six main voice actors were paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . In 1998 , a salary dispute between them and the Fox Broadcasting Company arose , with the actors threatening to strike . Fox went as far as preparing for casting of new voices , but an agreement was soon made and their salaries were raised to $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode . Groening expressed his sympathy for the actors in an issue of Mother Jones a while after the salary dispute had been settled . He told the magazine : " [ The cast members ] are incredibly talented , and they deserve a chance to be as rich and miserable as anyone else in Hollywood . " The show also made a change for the writers to become signatories to the Animation Guild . Most writers in animation belong to the guild , but The Simpsons as well as other animated shows on Fox were different . Scully commented that " everyone expected a big fight with the studio " and continued that " it never materialized , because they conceded that prime @-@ time animation was successful and everyone was benefiting . "
Voice actress Maggie Roswell left The Simpsons in spring 1999 after a pay dispute with Fox . The network originally reported that she decided to quit only because she was tired of flying between Denver and Los Angeles for the recording sessions . It was then announced by Roswell that she had asked for a raise , not only because she was tired of the traveling , but because of the increasing cost of flight tickets . Roswell was paid $ 1 @,@ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 000 per episode during the three seasons before she left , and she asked Fox for a raise to $ 6 @,@ 000 per episode . However , Fox only offered her a $ 150 raise , which did not even cover the travel costs , so she decided to quit . As a result of Roswell 's departure , the Maude Flanders character was killed off in the episode " Alone Again , Natura @-@ Diddily " . Voice actress Marcia Mitzman Gaven was hired to fill in for Roswell 's other characters . Roswell returned to The Simpsons in 2002 in the season premiere of the fourteenth season . She reached a deal with Fox to record her lines from her Denver home and thus the dispute ended .
= = The return of Jean ( 2001 – 2007 ) = =
Jean returned full @-@ time to The Simpsons during the tenth season . He once again became showrunner with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001 , this time without Reiss . Jean said that " the hardest thing at this point is just thinking of fresh ideas . People are so on top of things that we 've done before , so the challenge now is to think of an idea that 's good , but hasn 't been seen . " In April 2001 , in an interview with the The New York Times , Jean stated that he wanted " to take the show back to the family " . His return was welcomed , with MSNBC 's Jon Bonné stating : " [ Jean ] has guided the show away from its gag @-@ heavy , Homer @-@ centric incarnation ... these are certainly brighter days for the show 's long @-@ time fans . " Bill Gibron of PopMatters.com noted that " the show corralled much of its craziness for more personal stories " and that " Homer ’ s Neanderthal nonsense and bratty Bart gave way to ' softer ' episodes focusing on Marge and Lisa . "
In the season 13 episode " Blame It on Lisa " , The Simpsons visit Rio de Janeiro in Brazil . In the week following the episode 's original broadcast , it faced intense controversy involving the country of Brazil , most specifically the Rio de Janeiro Tourist Board ( Riotur ) . The board claimed that the city was portrayed as having rampant street crime , kidnappings , slums and a rat infestation . The tourist board asserted that the show " went too far " and undermined an $ 18m ( £ 12.5m ) advertising campaign to attract visitors to the city . Fernando Henrique Cardoso , then the president of Brazil , stated that the episode " brought a distorted vision of Brazilian reality . " By April 9 , Riotur , was preparing to sue the producers and Fox , for damage to its international image and loss of revenue . The issue threatened to become a diplomatic incident . Upon knowledge of an impending lawsuit , the show 's producers contacted Fox lawyers , who informed them that a city could not technically sue for defamation . In response , executive producer Brooks apologized , stating " we apologize to the lovely city and people of Rio de Janeiro " . Jean commented that it was " one of the biggest controversies in the history of the show " .
In season 14 , production switched from traditional cel animation to digital ink and paint . The first episode to experiment with digital coloring was " Radioactive Man " in 1995 . Animators used digital ink and paint during production of the season 12 episode " Tennis the Menace " , but Gracie Films delayed the regular use of digital ink and paint until two seasons later . The already completed " Tennis the Menace " was broadcast as made .
As the show 's revenue continued to rise through syndication and DVD sales , the main cast stopped appearing for script readings in April 2004 . The work stoppage occurred after weeks of unsuccessful negotiations with Fox , in which the cast asked for an increase in their pay to $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode , or $ 8 million over a 22 @-@ episode season . The strike was resolved a month later and their salary was raised to something between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode .
Season 16 featured one of the few major character developments since the show 's inception . It was reported a long time in advance of the airing of the episode " There 's Something About Marrying " that a major character would come out as gay during the episode . At the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International convention in July 2004 , Al Jean revealed : " We have a show where , to raise money , Springfield legalises gay marriage . Homer becomes a minister by going on the internet and filling out a form . A long @-@ time character comes out of the closet , but I 'm not saying who . " This led to much media speculation and publicity in the press for the episode . Many fans correctly guessed that it would be one of Homer 's sisters @-@ in @-@ law , either Patty or Selma , while others believed it to be Waylon Smithers .
= = Film ( 2007 ) = =
20th Century Fox , Gracie Films , and Film Roman produced an animated The Simpsons film that was released on July 27 , 2007 . The production staff of The Simpsons had entertained the thought of a film since early in the series , but production never came together . Groening felt a feature @-@ length film would allow them to increase the show 's scale and animate sequences too complex for a TV series . The film was directed by David Silverman and written by a team of Simpsons writers comprising Groening , Brooks , Jean , Reiss , Mirkin , Scully , George Meyer , John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , Matt Selman , and Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham . Work continued on the screenplay from 2003 onwards and did not cease , taking place in the small bungalow where Groening first pitched The Simpsons in 1987 . Groening read about a town that had to get rid of pig feces in their water supply , which inspired the plot of the film . He also wanted to make the film dramatically stronger than a TV episode , as " we wanna really give you something that you haven 't seen before . " Production of the film occurred alongside continued writing of the series despite long @-@ time claims by those involved in the show that a film would enter production only after the series had concluded .
After winning a Fox and USA Today competition , Springfield , Vermont hosted the film 's world premiere . The Simpsons Movie grossed a combined total of $ 74 million in its opening weekend in the US , taking it to the top of the box office , and set the record for highest grossing opening weekend for a film based on a television series , surpassing Mission : Impossible II . It opened at the top of the international box office , taking $ 96 million from seventy @-@ one overseas territories — including $ 27 @.@ 8 million in the United Kingdom , making it Fox 's second highest opening ever in that country . In Australia , it grossed A $ 13 @.@ 2 million , the biggest opening for an animated film and third largest opening weekend in the country . As of November 23 , 2007 the film has a worldwide gross of $ 525 @,@ 267 @,@ 904 . The film garnered a 90 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes , with 171 of a total 191 reviews being determined as positive . It received a rating of 80 out of 100 ( signifying " generally favorable reviews " ) on Metacritic from 36 reviews .
= = Post movie seasons ( 2007 – present ) = =
Jean continued as showrunner after the movie . Critics have argued that the quality of the show has declined in Jean 's tenure . Jacob Burch , an administrator of the website NoHomers.com , said in an interview that the show " seems less cohesive , more about trying to get the jokes in there , instead of make a story and let the jokes come off of that " and adds " I just think there 's only so much you can do [ with the characters ] . " Steven Hyden of A.V. Club argues in an online debate over this issue that " The Simpsons has come to rely too much on wacky Homer shtick and tired , meaningless guest stars " and that the writers are " content to amuse themselves with in @-@ jokes , non sequiturs , and self @-@ consciously silly plot twists . " Jean responded to this criticism by saying : " Well , it 's possible that we 've declined . But honestly , I 've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying , ' It 's gone downhill . ' If we 'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13 . I 'm glad we didn 't . "
The writers of The Simpsons went on strike together with the Writers Guild of America at the end of 2007 . The broadcasting of The Simpsons was not affected by the strike . Since it takes a long time to produce an episode of an animated show , the episodes are written up to a year in advance . So the strike would have had to go on for a while for the show to have run out of new episodes . Production of season 20 was further delayed because of contract negotiations with the six main voice actors . The dispute was resolved , and the actors ' salary was raised to $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . The delay in production has caused the planned 22 episodes to be shortened to 20 .
= = = 20th anniversary and run length record = = =
To celebrate the 20th anniversary of the premiere of The Simpsons , Fox announced a year @-@ long celebration of the show titled " Best . 20 Years . Ever . " , which ran from January 14 , 2009 to January 14 , 2010 . Morgan Spurlock , an Academy Award nominated documentary filmmaker ( Best Documentary Feature for Super Size Me in 2004 ) and fan of The Simpsons since his college days , was asked to direct the special The Simpsons 20th Anniversary Special – In 3 @-@ D ! On Ice ! in February 2009 . Spurlock believes " the reason [ the producers ] called [ him ] to begin with was to not have a show that would be a glad @-@ hand , pat @-@ everyone @-@ on @-@ the @-@ back special , that 's why rooting it in the people who kept this show on the air for the last 20 years is important . " It was shown on January 10 , 2010 alongside " Once Upon a Time in Springfield " , which was promoted as the 450th episode of the series .
The episode " Million Dollar Maybe " featured a new character created by the winner of the " Best . Character . Ever . " contest , in which fans could submit their own ideas for a new , and possibly recurring , Simpsons character . Over 25 @,@ 000 entries were sent in . The winner of the contest was Peggy Black from Orange , Connecticut , who created the character Ricardo Bomba . She described Ricardo as " someone that all the women love and all the men want to be " and " something like a Casanova . " Jean was one of the judges of the contest , which he described as " a thank you to loyal fans . " He also noted that there is a possibility the Ricardo character might appear on the show again . Another change was to air The Simpsons in 720p high @-@ definition television with the episode " Take My Life , Please " on February 15 , 2009 . With the new broadcasting system came a new opening sequence . It was the first major permanent change to the show 's introduction since the beginning of the show 's second season in 1990 ; previous changes have included variations in the duration of the intro . This new intro also includes some 3D animation when the camera pans over Springfield .
To commemorate the show 's twentieth anniversary , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Homer , Marge , Bart , Lisa and Maggie . The stamps , designed by Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 and approximately one billion stamps were printed . The Simpsons is the first television series still in production to receive this recognition . After entering into their 21st season in late 2009 , the show beat Gunsmoke 's record as the longest @-@ running American primetime , scripted television series .
= = = Cancellation threat = = =
On October 4 , 2011 , 20th Century Fox Television released a statement saying : " 23 seasons in , The Simpsons is as creatively vibrant as ever and beloved by millions around the world . We believe this brilliant series can and should continue , but we cannot produce future seasons under its current financial model . We are hopeful that we can reach an agreement with the voice cast that allows The Simpsons to go on entertaining audiences with original episodes for many years to come . " One of the problems was that The Simpsons was possibly worth more cancelled than on the air . A 17 @-@ year @-@ old syndication deal with local TV stations prohibits Fox from selling the show to cable networks . As long as The Simpsons still produces new episodes , Fox cannot break this deal . In the mean time , cable networks have grown to become just as big a market as the local TV stations . Another consideration was that Fox 's parent company News Corp was having meetings discussing the possibility of a cable channel that would only air The Simpsons episodes . Analyst considers a cancellation and subsequent second @-@ run deal that includes cable networks to be worth $ 750 million . On this issue , Jean commented in an interview with TV Guide that " It 's a big company , and there are definitely people whose interests would have been better served by ending it . Those interests were superseded because we 're still valuable to the network in terms of our ratings . "
For the negotiations , the studio requested that the cast members accept a 45 percent cut of their salaries so that more seasons could be produced after season 23 , or else that season would be the series ' last . The actors were willing to take a pay cut , but wanted a percentage of the back @-@ end payments instead . At one point Shearer even offered a 70 percent pay cut in exchange for back @-@ end percentages , but the studio was unwilling to make any deal involving back @-@ end percentages . In the end , the studio and the actors reached a deal , in which the actors would take a pay cut of 30 percent , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode , prolonging the show to its 25th season . As well as the voice actors , everybody involved in the show took a pay cut . This included animators , writers , the post @-@ production crew and even Jean himself . The further use of digital animation also saves money , as the animation of the show becomes more efficient .
In 2013 , FXX purchased the exclusive American cable rights to the series . Airing from August 2014 , the show will also be available on @-@ demand via the Simpsons World website . The website is only available in the United States .
= Hellingly Hospital Railway =
The Hellingly Hospital Railway was a light railway owned and operated by East Sussex County Council , used for transporting coal and passengers to Hellingly
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in ) ) , golden color , and well @-@ formed membranous ring ; P. subcubensis is nearly identical , differing only in microscopic characteristics . Known only from the Auckland region , P. auklandii fruits in soil rich in woody debris near Leptospermum and Dacrydium , and in Monterey Pine ( Pinus radiata ) plantations . P. semilanceata , one of the most common Psilocybe mushrooms , is only found in high @-@ altitude grasslands on the South Island .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe makarorae is known only from New Zealand . The reported collection locations have been on both the North and South Islands , including the Bay of Plenty , Westland District , Central Otago , and Dunedin , although Stamets suggests that it is more widely distributed . Like all Psilocybe species , it is saprobic , and feeds on decomposing organic matter . Fruit bodies grow scattered or in groups on the fallen , rotting wood of southern beeches ( genus Nothofagus ) , and are often encountered near lakes and picnic grounds .
= A Polish Nobleman =
A Polish Nobleman is a 1637 painting by Rembrandt depicting a man in a costume of either Polish szlachta or boyar nobility . The identity of the subject of the painting is unclear , and has given rise to several different interpretations . The view that the figure 's dress is clearly Polish is not universally held and it may have been a self @-@ portrait .
The painting has changed owners several times , and its past owners have included Catherine II the Great and Andrew Mellon . It is currently located at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C.
= = Description = =
The portrait represents a man , estimated by some to be 45 years of age , standing turned to the viewer 's right , looking at the viewer with a commanding expression . In his uplifted right hand he holds a baton with a golden cap . He has a thick moustache and wears a high fur cap on which there is a golden chain with precious stones and a coat of arms in the center . From his ear a large pear @-@ shaped pearl hangs from a golden pendant earring . He wears a reddish brown mantle with a broad fur collar and , over it , a heavy gold chain from which the order of three horse tails , set in rich pendants , hangs on his right shoulder . A full light from the left falls on the right side of his face . The background is brownish @-@ grey .
= = History and provenance = =
The painting was created by Rembrandt in 1637 . It was not given an official title . The current one is the most recent , widely accepted one . Prior and alternate names include Portrait of a Slav Prince , Portrait d 'un Turc , and Man in Russian Costume . Its authenticity was supported by an analysis of the panel 's wood , which showed that it was cut from a tree felled around 1635 that was also used in the painter 's River Landscape with Ruins ( 1650 ) . The painting underwent restoration in 1985 and has been X @-@ rayed .
The painting 's first owner or owners are not clear , but it might have been owned by a certain Harman van Swole . It was purchased in 1768 by Catherine II the Great and held in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg . It was purchased by Andrew Mellon in 1931 , and given by the Mellon Trust to the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. in 1937 . The painting was one of a number of artworks that Mellon had purchased from the Hermitage during the 1930s . He denied having made these purchases for several years , since the US was in a major depression — which would have made the acquisitions seem extravagant — and at odds with the Soviet government . The works were kept for some time in a non @-@ public section of the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C.
= = Analysis = =
This work was labeled by some art critics as a tronie , a painting with an exaggerated facial expression or a stock character in costume . For instance , Melissa Percival notes that in this particular painting the viewer may notice an extravagant fur cape , lopsided hat , tufted mustache , and similar paraphernalia , all giving " an impression that the painting should not be taken too seriously " .
Scholars have attempted for more than a century to understand who is portrayed in this painting . Earlier proposals that the subject was John III Sobieski ( who would have been eight years old in 1637 ) or Stephen Bathory ( who died in 1586 ) have been discredited . According to Otakar Odložilík , while the man in the painting is clearly wearing Polish garb , it is neither certain who he is , nor whether he is a Pole . Odložilík 's research on this issue suggested that the painting may be that of Andrzej Rej , a Polish noble and diplomat of that era who passed through Amsterdam , the Netherlands , where Rembrandt was working , at the time the painting was created . Nonetheless , without any documents from that era clearly acknowledging that fact , as Odložilík noted , it may never be known for certain who the subject really is .
Odložilík concluded ( writing in 1963 ) that most scholars are in consensus that Rembrandt portrayed a real Polish noble . He cited research by Kurt Bauch who has suggested that it may be Rembrandt 's brother Adriaen who modeled for him , but judged it as unlikely . Other views have emerged since the publication of his article . In 1979 the art historian Kenneth Clark opined that it was a self @-@ portrait , idealized and " got up in fancy dress . " Walter Liedtke of the Metropolitan Museum of Art writing in 2001 identifies the hat as Russian and Marieke de Winkel in 2006 asserted that " ... the man cannot be identified as a Pole but as a Muscovite boyar . " The National Gallery website states that it is " probably not a portrait of a specific individual " , but notes a strong resemblance to Rembrandt himself and suggests in turn that it may be a self @-@ portrait . One objection to its classification as a self @-@ portrait , that the subject 's jowls were too pronounced , was addressed by an X @-@ ray analysis showing that Rembrandt modified the painting during the course of its creation .
= Gilbert Brulé =
Gilbert Jean Marco Brulé ( born January 1 , 1987 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who currently plays for KHL Medveščak Zagreb of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . Drafted out of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , Brulé played major junior with the Vancouver Giants for three seasons . After being named the WHL rookie of the year in 2004 , Brulé was selected as the WHL playoff MVP and led the Memorial Cup in scoring , as part of the Giants ' WHL championship @-@ winning season two years later . Selected sixth overall in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft , he began his NHL career with the Columbus Blue Jackets before being traded to the Edmonton Oilers prior to the 2008 – 09 season . After three seasons with the Oilers , he was placed on waivers , then acquired by the Coyotes for the 2011 @-@ 12 season and playoffs . He then joined the ZSC Lions for the 2012 @-@ 13 season . Brulé was released by the Zurich @-@ based team in October 2012 . Internationally , Brulé has represented Team Canada at the 2004 World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge and 2004 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , winning silver and gold medals , respectively .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early junior career = = =
Brulé was selected first overall in the 2002 WHL Bantam Draft by the Vancouver Giants . The selection was originally possessed by the Prince Albert Raiders , but was dealt to the Giants in exchange for their third overall and third round selections . He debuted in one game with the Giants during the subsequent WHL season , while playing Junior A in the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) with the Quesnel Millionaires . Recording 57 points ( 32 goals and 25 assists ) over 48 games in his lone BCHL season , he was named the Interior Conference 's recipient of the Bruce Allison Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year .
In 2003 – 04 , Brulé joined the Giants and tallied 60 points in 67 games . He became the first Giants player to win a major WHL award , receiving the Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy as league rookie of the year . The distinction made him a nominee for Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Rookie of the Year , which went to Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) rookie of the year Sidney Crosby of the Rimouski Océanic . He joined Crosby on the CHL All @-@ Rookie Team .
The following season , Brulé finished third in WHL scoring with 87 points ( 39 goals and 48 assists ) , establishing a Giants single @-@ season point @-@ scoring record ( surpassed by Casey Pierro @-@ Zabotel in 2008 – 09 ) . During the campaign , he was chosen to a squad of WHL All @-@ Stars against the Russian select team in the 2004 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in November . Several months later , he competed in the 2005 CHL Top Prospects Game , where he recorded the first hat trick in the history of the all @-@ star match and was named Team Cherry 's player of the game . At the end of the season , Brulé was named the CHL Scholastic Player of the Year , having taken more high school credits than any other WHL player .
= = = NHL debut and Memorial Cup tournament = = =
Brulé was selected sixth overall in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets . He remained the highest @-@ drafted Giants player in team history until Evander Kane was selected fourth overall in 2009 . Brulé had been the second @-@ ranked prospect behind Crosby by the International Scouting Services ( ISS ) at the beginning of the 2004 – 05 season , while the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ( CSB ) named him the WHL 's top prospect in their preliminary rankings . By the end of the season , Brulé was ranked fourth overall by the ISS and fifth among North American skaters by the CSB . At the time of his draft , he was touted as an offensively skilled player with a competitive and physical edge . The ISS scouted him as an " outstanding skater with great vision on the ice ... a natural goalscorer . "
Brulé made the Blue Jackets ' lineup in his first NHL training camp and signed with the club to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract on October 3 , 2005 . He made his NHL debut against the Washington Capitals in the Blue Jackets ' season opener two days later , notching an assist on a goal by Dan Fritsche in a 3 – 1 loss . The following game , he suffered a fractured sternum after receiving a hit from Calgary Flames defenceman Roman Hamrlík on October 7 . After missing 17 games , he returned to the lineup on November 20 . Brulé scored his first NHL career goal that night against Phoenix Coyotes , his team 's lone tally in a 5 – 1 loss , beating goaltender David LeNeveu with a shot from the left offensive zone faceoff circle . Ten days later , he suffered his second injury in as many months , breaking his leg during a game against the Minnesota Wild .
Upon recovering , he was returned to the WHL on January 13 , 2006 . By reassigning Brulé before he played 10 NHL games , the Blue Jackets retained the first year of his rookie contract . Another strong factor in the decision to return him to junior was the acquisition of centre Sergei Fedorov , making Brulé expendable . Returning to the Giants , Brulé scored at a near @-@ goal @-@ a @-@ game pace . He was named WHL Player of the Week on February 20 , 2006 , after recording 5 goals and 10 points in 3 Giants wins . He was later chosen as WHL Player of the Month for February with 12 goals and 23 points in 13 games . Completing the season with 23 goals and 38 points in 27 games , he earned WHL Second All @-@ Star Team honours . In the opening round of the WHL playoffs , Brulé was named WHL and CHL Player of the Week by scoring four goals and seven points over three games against the Prince George Cougars . He received his second WHL and CHL Player of the Week honour during the WHL Finals against the Moose Jaw Warriors on May 10 , having accumulated five goals and nine points in two games . His award @-@ winning week included a three @-@ goal , four @-@ point performance in Game 1 of the series – a 7 – 5 win for the Giants . He went on to lead the WHL in scoring with 30 points in 18 games to earn the airBC Trophy as playoff MVP , helping the Giants to their first President 's Cup as WHL champions .
Advancing to the 2006 Memorial Cup , the Giants tied for third out of four teams after the round @-@ robin . Requiring a tie @-@ breaker game to determine who would play in the semi @-@ final , Brulé recorded five points ( two goals , three assists ) against the Peterborough Petes , one point short of the tournament single @-@ game record , in a 6 – 0 win . The Giants were subsequently eliminated in the semi @-@ final by the Moncton Wildcats 3 – 1 . Brulé registered the only Giants goal in the game . Finishing with 12 points in 5 games , Brulé earned the Ed Chynoweth Trophy as the national tournament 's leading scorer . He was also named to the Memorial Cup All @-@ Star Team , alongside Giants teammate Paul Albers .
Four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years after his junior career , the club honoured him in a ceremony prior to a game against the Kamloops Blazers on January 28 , 2011 , as part of " Gilbert Brulé Night " . Brulé was the fourth alumnus added to the club 's Ring of Honour , commemorating the team 's best players ; a plaque was unveiled inside the stadium bearing his name and the number 17 he wore on his jersey as a Giant . At the end of the Giants ' 2010 – 11 WHL season , they released their fan @-@ voted " Top 10 Giants of the Decade " , which listed Brulé at # 2 , behind Milan Lucic .
= = = Columbus Blue Jackets = = =
Still eligible for junior , Brulé made the Blue Jackets ' roster for the 2006 – 07 season . A month into the campaign , he was assured by General Manager Doug MacLean that he would not be returned to the Giants as he had been the previous season . He was scratched several times under head coach Gerard Gallant , but after Gallant was replaced by Ken Hitchcock in late @-@ November , he began receiving more playing time . Playing mostly on the fourth line in his rookie season , he averaged 10 minutes of ice time per game . He went on to tally 19 points ( 9 goals and 10 assists ) over 78 games in his first full NHL season .
During his second NHL season , Brulé recorded 9 points ( 1 goal and 8 assists ) over 61 games with the Blue Jackets . He was sent down to the American Hockey League ( AHL ) in January 2008 for a month @-@ long assignment as his play struggled , notching 5 goals and 10 points in 16 games with the Blue Jackets ' minor league affiliate , the Syracuse Crunch . At the end of the Blue Jackets ' regular season , Brulé was reassigned to Syracuse for the club 's Calder Cup playoff run . Helping the Crunch advance to the second round , he recorded 2 goals and 5 points over 13 post @-@ season games .
= = = Edmonton Oilers = = =
In the 2008 off @-@ season , Brulé was traded to the Edmonton Oilers for forward Raffi Torres on July 1 , 2008 . He was one of the final cuts in his first training camp with the Oilers and was assigned to the Springfield Falcons , Edmonton 's AHL affiliate . On October 17 , 2008 , he suffered a knee @-@ on @-@ knee hit from opposing defenceman Adam McQuaid during a game against the Providence Bruins , causing him to miss several contests injured . During a call @-@ up to the NHL later in the season , Brulé scored his first goal with the Oilers on January 11 , 2009 , in a 2 – 1 win against the St. Louis Blues . He was reassigned to Springfield 10 days later . Finishing the season with 3 points in 11 games with the Oilers and 24 points in 39 games with the Falcons , he was re @-@ signed by Edmonton in the off @-@ season to a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract on August 12 , 2009 .
Brulé began the 2009 – 10 season as the Oilers ' fourth @-@ line centre out of training camp . With improved play and the injury of first @-@ line winger Ales Hemsky , Brulé moved up the Oilers ' depth chart and recorded his best statistical season in the NHL . However , after suffering from a recurring flu throughout the campaign , which sidelined him for a combined 11 games , he suffered a high @-@ ankle sprain during a game against the Dallas Stars on April 2 , 2010 ; following a collision with opposing forward Brian Sutherby , his skate got jammed underneath goaltender Kari Lehtonen 's pad . The injury sidelined him for the remaining week of the campaign . He finished the season with a career @-@ high 17 goals , 20 assists and 37 points in 65 games , third in team @-@ scoring . Becoming a restricted free agent in the 2010 off @-@ season , Brulé filed for arbitration with the Oilers after failing to come to terms on a new contract . The two sides managed to avoid their arbitration hearing by signing a two @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 7 million deal on July 27 , 2010 .
After staying healthy through the first three months of the 2010 – 11 season , Brulé suffered continued injury problems for the rest of the campaign . After being sidelined with a stomach virus for four games , he suffered an abdominal injury the following month and missed 23 additional contests . After returning to the lineup , he sustained a concussion during a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins on March 13 , 2011 . In total , Brulé missed 39 games with injuries in 2010 – 11 , limiting him to 7 goals and 2 assists .
On June 24 , 2011 , it was reported that Brulé had been traded along with a fourth @-@ round draft pick to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for forward Ryan Smyth . Due to health concerns , the deal never materialized as Brulé had not yet been cleared to play following his concussion ( under league rules , an injured player can be traded but cannot be bought out , which is what the Kings had planned on doing ) . Furthermore , Kings General Manager Dean Lombardi made it apparent to the media that the team wanted someone with a smaller salary cap hit if Brulé could not be bought out . The Oilers ultimately acquired Smyth in exchange for forward Colin Fraser ( whose cap hit was over $ 1 million less ) and a seventh @-@ round pick in the 2012 draft .
During the off @-@ season , Brulé worked with a sports psychologist to address the mental aspect of his game , including his confidence . Near the end of the Oilers ' training camp , on October 2 , 2011 , he was placed on waivers for the purpose of being assigned to the team 's AHL affiliate , the Oklahoma City Barons . While the departure of Andrew Cogliano in July 2011 made room for Brulé to move up the Oilers ' depth chart at centre , the performance of Oilers rookies Ryan Nugent @-@ Hopkins and Anton Lander helped make him expendable . Regarding the move , Oilers General Manager Steve Tambellini described Brulé as having lacked consistency . Brulé cleared waivers two days later ; an Edmonton Sun article suggested that he would have likely been picked up by another team if not for his $ 1 @.@ 85 million salary .
= = = Phoenix Coyotes = = =
After recording 18 points ( eight goals and ten assists ) over 27 games with the Barons , Brulé was recalled by the Oilers on January 9 , 2012 , in lieu of injured forwards Nugent @-@ Hopkins and Jordan Eberle . In order to join the team , however , he needed to clear re @-@ entry waivers and he was consequently claimed by the Phoenix Coyotes the following day . Brulé debuted with the Coyotes on January 12 , playing 14 minutes in a 3 – 2 shootout loss to the Detroit Red Wings . Two games later , he recorded his first two points as a Coyote , a goal and an assist , in a 6 – 1 win against the Colorado Avalanche .
A free agent going into the NHL lockout , Brulé opted to sign as a free agent in Switzerland with ZSC Lions of the National League A on a one @-@ year contract August 13 , 2012 . In the 2012 – 13 season , he appeared in only 14 games before he requested an immediate release from his contract with the Lions to return to Canada for personal issues on October 23 , 2012 .
In the following season , Brulé accepted an invitation to the Coyotes ' training camp for the 2013 – 14 season . He was assigned to the Coyotes ' AHL affiliate , the Portland Pirates , to begin the season on a try @-@ out contract before on November 30 , 2013 , re @-@ signing with Phoenix on a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract . Brulé played three games in his return to the Coyotes before he was reassigned to the Pirates . In declining to report back to the Pirates , Brulé opted to retire from professional hockey on January 1 , 2014 .
= = = Return to hockey = = =
On May 12 , 2014 , reports surfaced that Brulé opted to resume his playing career after signing a one @-@ year contract with Russian club Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) .
= = International play = =
Brulé made his international debut with Hockey Canada representing Team Pacific at the 2004 World U17 Hockey Challenge in Newfoundland . During the semi @-@ final , he scored a goal and three assists , leading Team Pacific to a win against the United States . His efforts earned him his third player of the game award of the tournament . In the gold medal game , Team Pacific lost to Team Ontario 5 – 2 , earning silver . Later that year , he represented Team Canada in the 2004 U18 Junior World Cup as an alternate captain . Brulé helped lead Team Canada to gold , scoring the game @-@ winning goal in the championship match , a 4 – 1 win against the Czech Republic .
The following year , Brulé participated in the Canadian national junior team 's summer development camp in preparation for the 2006 World Junior Championships . At the time of the final roster selection in December 2005 , however , Brulé was recovering from a leg injury , suffered during NHL play with the Blue Jackets . He was invited to the team 's summer camp again in 2006 , but declined , choosing to focus instead on making the roster for Columbus .
= = Personal life = =
Brulé was born in Edmonton , Alberta , later moving to North Vancouver , British Columbia , during his childhood . He had a sister named Leah who died at the age of 12 as a result of complications from cerebral palsy . Brulé was nine years old at the time of his sister 's death and later had her name tattooed on his left wrist . Despite growing up in both Edmonton and Vancouver , Brulé was a childhood fan of the Los Angeles Kings .
In May 2010 , Brulé donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to a fund assisting an Edmonton boy suffering from lymphatic cystic hydroma . The money was allocated to a costly surgery to be performed in New York , which doctors in Canada were unable to perform . Brulé received further media attention a year later for picking up a pair of hitchhikers who turned out to be Irish rock band U2 frontman Bono and his assistant in a West Vancouver neighbourhood on May 31 , 2011 . In return , Brulé was given backstage passes for him , as well as his girlfriend and mother , for U2 's concert in Edmonton on the next day . During the show , Bono thanked Brulé for the ride .
In July 2013 , Brulé revealed in an interview that an adverse relationship with his father may have been at least partly to blame for his floundering NHL career .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Unusual Suspects =
" Unusual Suspects " is the third episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by Kim Manners and aired in the United States on November 16 , 1997 on the Fox network . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 13 @.@ 0 , being watched by 21 @.@ 72 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to moderately positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . " Unusual Suspects " , however , functions as a flashback episode : in 1989 , two salesmen and a federal employee join forces when they meet Susanne Modeski , a woman who claims that she is being pursued by her supposedly violent ex @-@ boyfriend , an FBI agent named Fox Mulder . A sequel to the episode was later filmed during the series ' sixth season , entitled " Three of a Kind " .
The concept for having an episode dedicated to The Lone Gunmen arose when the show 's producers were forced to start production of the fifth season in the last week of August in Vancouver , but still needed series stars David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson for the filming of The X @-
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@ Files movie in Los Angeles . Writing duties fell to Vince Gilligan , who initially drafted a story about nanotechnology , before changing to the origins of The Lone Gunmen on behest of series creator Chris Carter . In addition , " Unusual Suspects " served as a cross @-@ over with the NBC series Homicide : Life on the Street , featuring Richard Belzer 's Detective John Munch character . Gillian Anderson as main character FBI Special Agent Dana Scully is absent in the episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in medias res in 1989 , when a SWAT team conducts a raid on a Baltimore warehouse . Inside , they find a naked and disoriented Fox Mulder in a box , shouting , " They 're here ! " Three men attempt to flee the scene and are captured ; they are revealed to be the Lone Gunmen . As they sit in a city jail , they begin blaming each other for the predicament they have found themselves in . Detective John Munch interrogates John Fitzgerald Byers , who tries to explain what happened .
In the flashback , Byers , a public affairs officer for the FCC , attends a computer and electronics convention . There , he follows a beautiful woman who passes his booth ; he also passes by booths manned by Melvin Frohike and Richard Langly , who were both selling stolen cable television . When Byers bumps into the woman , she introduces herself as Holly and claims that her daughter had been kidnapped by her ex @-@ boyfriend , who is in the Baltimore area .
Holly possesses a piece of paper with " ARPANET / WHTCORPS " written on it . Byers realizes that the words refer to the Defense Department 's computer network , which she requests he hack into . Byers , at the time an unquestioningly loyal government employee , complies after great reluctance . He finds an encrypted file on her daughter , named Susanne Modeski . Just then , a man whom Holly claims to be her boyfriend passes by Byers ' booth — Mulder .
Byers and Holly recruit Frohike to help them decipher the file . Both Byers and Frohike decide to assault Mulder , but they decide not to when he introduces himself as an FBI agent . Returning to his booth , Byers finds his FCC colleague being arrested for the hacking he committed . Frohike convinces Byers not to turn himself in , and recruits Langly to help them hack into the FBI database to learn more about Holly . They discover that " Holly " is actually Susanne Modeski , who is wanted for acts of murder , sabotage , and terrorism at a weapons facility in New Mexico .
Susanne admits her deception but claims that she was scapegoated for trying to leave her job at the weapons facility . There , she had been working on ergotamine , an aerosolized gas that causes paranoia and anxiety . Susanne claims that the government plans to test the gas on civilians in Baltimore . After deciphering the file , the Lone Gunmen find that she was telling the truth , learning the location of the gas . Susanne also finds evidence that she had a tracking device put in a tooth , which she pulls out .
The four of them head to the warehouse , where they found the gas stored inside asthma inhalers . Suddenly , Mulder arrives to arrest them , but two dark @-@ suited men came to take Susanne . They fire at Mulder , hitting the boxes behind him and exposing him to the gas . The exposure causes Mulder to strip naked , hide in the box , and hallucinate about seeing aliens in the warehouse . Susanne shoots the men and escapes . More men then arrive , led by X , who intimidates the Lone Gunmen . Byers confronts X , asking him about his actions and mentioning the supposed cover @-@ up of the John F. Kennedy assassination . X 's unconvincing denial — " I heard it was a lone gunman " — becomes the origin of the trio 's name . X leaves , just as the police arrive and arrest the Lone Gunmen .
In the present , Detective Munch does not believe Byers ' story , but it is soon corroborated by Mulder . After the Lone Gunmen are released , they encounter Susanne after she has failed to get the press to believe her story ; she tells them to reveal the truth to as many people as possible . Susanne is then captured by X , who leers at the Lone Gunmen as he departs with her . Later , the three of them meet Mulder in the convention center and explain what happened to him .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The concept for having an episode dedicated to The Lone Gunmen arose when the show 's producers were forced to start production of the fifth season in the last week of August in Vancouver , but still needed series stars David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson for the filming of The X @-@ Files movie in Los Angeles . The producers decided to create an episode dedicated to The Lone Gunmen , and writing duties were assigned to Vince Gilligan . Gilligan initially drafted a story involving nanotechnology , which was rejected by series creator Chris Carter . Carter came up with the idea for the episode to be how The Lone Gunmen met . Gilligan then developed the script , which took place in the city of Baltimore . The scenes with Duchovny were shot a few weeks after the rest of the episode .
The episode helped to solidify the different personalities of The Lone Gunmen . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz explained , " Up [ until ' Unusual Suspects ' ] , they were sort of interchangeable in the information they delivered . But then Vince , who loved the characters and really wanted a chance to dig more deeply into them , created a back story and they became a lot more interesting . " Actor Dean Haglund , who played Langly , said of the episode , " What we read in the script wasn 't really our origins as we 'd imagined it . I 'd thought we were all in a university garage band together or something . Bruce [ Harwood ] thought he was a photocopier repair man . " Much of the episode 's action focused on Byers , played by Bruce Harwood . This experience was different for him , and he noted , " I don 't think I 'd ever done an episode where I was the lead character . But I felt like the lead because it was my story about falling in love with this woman and then dragging these other two schmucks into the disaster that followed . " Vince Gilligan was particularly happy with his characterization of Byers , later admitting , " I just loved the idea of Byers working for the government and being this very gung @-@ ho pro @-@ government guy . That 's just a fundamental drama where you take a character on a journey and the journey take him 180 degrees from who he original [ ly ] was . "
Gilligan researched the episode in order to make it as authentic to 1989 as possible . Purportedly , he tasked Ken Hawryliw , who worked on props for the show , to find " the biggest cell phone you can find " , which yielded the Motorola featured in the episode . In addition , Gilligan met with a group of hackers who ran a news magazine called 2600 in order to learn hacker terminology and get inspiration for the episode . The episode featured cameos from several staff members of the show , including Hawryliw and Eric Knight , who was Duchovny 's personal assistant . Susanne 's alias , ' Holly ' was a reference to Gilligan 's girlfriend .
= = = Casting and directing = = =
Gilligan also came up with the idea to have a crossover with the show Homicide : Life on the Street , which also takes place in Baltimore . He later recalled , " I realized that the whole episode was framed around Byers telling his story to a Baltimore homicide detective . So I figured ' what the heck ? Homicide 's a great show , so why not try to get Richard Belzer to play his Detective [ John Munch ] character ? ' " Despite some hesitancy from Fox 's lawyers , the show got in contact with NBC executive producer Tom Fontana , who was more than willing to allow the use of Belzer : Gilligan later described Fontana as a " great guy " for assistance in the matter . The episode also features the first reappearance of X , who had been murdered in the season four opener " Herrenvolk " . The idea to bring back X was thought up by executive producer John Shiban , who helped Gilligan storyboard the episode . He noted , " we had the board set up and [ … ] and there was a piece missing and we just couldn 't come up with a how to get out of this situation , why doesn 't this assassin just kill The Lone Gunmen ? It was a flashback story and it was in 1989 and we were pacing around in my backyard , and [ … ] I just turned to him and said , ' X ! [ … ] X has another agenda ! X is the assassin , it 's not some other character , it 's our X. [ … ] He wouldn 't kill the Gunmen , ' cause he 's trying to help Mulder . ' "
The episode was directed by Kim Manners , who was extremely pleased with the final result . He explained , " it was a lot of fun to shoot that show . It was the first show that the Gunmen carried and I had a real good time shepherding Tommy , Dean , and Bruce , ' cause [ sic ] they were nervous , they had the whole hour to carry . " One scene with which Manners was extremely pleased was the shot wherein Susanne Modeski breaks into the Lone Gunmen 's hotel room and the Gunmen cower in fear in a corner . Manners was inspired by the 1939 film adaption of The Wizard of Oz , most specifically the image of " the Scarecrow , and the Tinman , and the Lion [ … ] shaking behind Dorothy . " Manners later noted that the sequence " really worked out well " .
= = Reception = =
" Unusual Suspects " premiered on the Fox network on November 16 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 21 @.@ 72 million viewers .
The episode received mixed to moderately positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff gave " Unusual Suspects " an A- , and wrote that the episode " is a love letter to the very idea of paranoia " . Furthermore , VanDerWerff argued that " as the episode moved its way to its climax , when Mr. X improbably lets the Gunmen live after seeing as much as they did [ ... ] it struck me that what we ’ re seeing here may not entirely be meant to be taken seriously , just as ' Memoirs Of A Cigarette Smoking Man ' [ sic ] is more about who the CSM wished he might have been than the person he actually was . This isn ’ t a true story ; it ’ s a manifesto . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 6 / 10 , and , while calling the entry " an interesting diversion from the normal format of the series " , he noted that " there are still some issues with the plausibility of the story , and ultimately , the questions surrounding Mulder overshadow the character development of the Gunmen themselves . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two compared the episode to " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , but called it " throw away and charming " . Shearman and Pearson criticized the episode for being " largely concerned in suggesting to the audience that the government is being conspiratorial … five seasons into a hit series which has turned that argument into a cliche . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . She wrote that , " ' Unusual Suspects ' is filler – but amusing filler " . Vitaris further complimented the performance of Signy Coleman as Susanne Modeski , and called the return of " not @-@ yet @-@ dead " X as " welcome " .
= Vengeance ( 2009 film ) =
Vengeance ( Chinese : 復仇 ) is a 2009 Hong Kong – French thriller film directed by Johnnie To , and written by Wai Ka @-@ Fai . It stars Johnny Hallyday , Anthony Wong , Lam Ka @-@ Tung , Lam Suet , Simon Yam and Sylvie Testud . Vengeance tells the story of Francis Costello , a French chef and former assassin . When his daughter , son @-@ in @-@ law and grandchildren are attacked by a gang of Triads , Costello heads to Macau to embark on a violent quest for revenge , enlisting the aid of three hitmen . The film explores the themes of assassination , violence and the influence of Triads in modern society . Produced by Milkyway Image , the film was released by ARP Sélection in France , and Media Asia Films in Hong Kong .
The idea of Johnnie To directing an English @-@ language film originated with the ARP co @-@ founders and French producers Michèle and Laurent Pétin , who had Alain Delon in mind for the lead role . In 2006 , after Delon turned down the role , the Pétins recommended Johnny Hallyday , who was cast in the lead role after meeting with To in early 2008 . Principal photography for Vengeance began in November 2008 , and concluded in February 2009 ; filming took place on location in Hong Kong and Macau , with a crew mainly based in Hong Kong .
Vengeance competed for the Palme D 'Or award at the 62nd Cannes Film Festival , and was released theatrically in France on 20 May 2009 . The film was later released in Hong Kong on 20 August 2009 . It premiered in North America at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival . Vengeance was met with positive reviews , with several critics praising To 's direction , Hallyday 's performance , the cinematography and editing . During its theatrical run , the film grossed over US $ 1 @.@ 3 million worldwide , having been released in Asia and parts of Europe . In the United States , the film was distributed by IFC Films , which made it available as a video @-@ on @-@ demand selection on pay television formats .
= = Plot = =
In Macau , three men break into a house , shoot a French woman ( Sylvie Testud ) and kill her husband and two children . The woman 's father , Francis Costello ( Johnny Hallyday ) , arrives to visit his daughter who is now suffering from serious injuries . She is nevertheless able to tell her father that there were three shooters and that she shot one of the killers in the ear . At a hotel , Costello meets Kwai ( Anthony Wong ) , Chu ( Lam Ka @-@ Tung ) and Fat Lok ( Lam Suet ) , a trio of hitmen who are hired to murder the unfaithful wife of Triad crime boss George Fung ( Simon Yam ) . After overhearing the murder in a hotel room , Costello reaches an unspoken agreement to walk away . Costello later tracks down Kwai 's syndicate , hands them a stack of Euros and his watch , and asks them to help him avenge his daughter 's family 's deaths . Before doing so , though , he takes a Polaroid picture of each of the hitmen , and writes down their names , so that he will not forget what they look like . Together , the four make their way to the apartment where the shooting occurred and surmise the weapons used .
The four men visit a landfill to
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Jack considers marrying her anyway , saying that love requires one to overlook another 's flaws , but worries about what would happen if he would ever be unfaithful . Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tells Jack that he has never cheated on his wife , Angie ( Sherri Shepherd ) , which makes Jack think that he too can be faithful . However , when Elisa grows too suspicious of Jack 's relationship with Liz , he calls off the engagement .
Meanwhile , at the 30 Rock studios , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) decide to play a prank on J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , which results in Lutz getting hurt , after a flat @-@ screen monitor falls on top of him . Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) becomes romantically interested in one of the paramedics ( Josh Casaubon ) , but unsure of how to contact him , tries to bring him to the studio by giving the show 's page , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , strawberries , which triggers his allergies . Kenneth willingly consumes some , after Jenna tells him that the paramedic might be " the one " , only for Jenna to decide against having a relationship with the paramedic because he has a son .
= = Production = =
" The Ones " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt , and directed by Beth McCarthy , a long @-@ time television director who worked with series creator Tina Fey on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . This was Burditt 's tenth writing credit , and was McCarthy 's sixth directed episode . " The Ones " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 23 , 2009 .
At the beginning of the episode , Jack and Liz are at a jewelry store , as Jack is searching for an engagement ring for Elisa . They shot that scene in a Cartier store in New York 's Fifth Avenue , which was filmed on February 22 , 2009 . A scene featuring Sue LaRoche @-@ Van der Hout ( Sue Galloway ) as the Grim Reaper , in which Jenna is led to believe Kenneth has gone into shock because of the strawberries , was cut from the airing . According to Jane Krakowski , in the DVD commentary for this episode , there were alternate scenes with Jenna letting Kenneth know about the tampering she did to Kenneth 's items , his chickpea , water bottle , and harmonica .
" The Ones " was actress Salma Hayek 's final guest appearance on 30 Rock . Her first appearance on the show was in the episode " Señor Macho Solo " , as a nurse for Jack 's mother and love interest for him . She next guest @-@ starred in the episodes " Flu Shot " , " Generalissimo " , " St. Valentine 's Day " , and " Larry King " .
News anchor Brian Williams , of NBC Nightly News , guest @-@ starred as himself in this episode . In a scene with Tracy and Jack at a club , Tracy reveals to Jack that he has been giving out his phone number to different women , though it is not his real number , which results in Williams receiving the calls .
= = Cultural references = =
Kenneth revealing that his real name is " Dick Whitman " is a reference to the main character Don Draper of Mad Men ( played by Jon Hamm , who had a recurring role on 30 Rock earlier in the season ) . " Earn this " , spoken by Kenneth as Jenna has poisoned him again , references the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan when actor Tom Hanks says the same words to actor Matt Damon 's title character . When she is told that Kenneth has gone into a severe allergic shock and needs to have his hands cut off , Jenna apologizes to him for what she has done , telling him " I 'm just a girl sitting in front of a boy she poisoned so this other guy would go to town on her " , which Jenna misquotes from actress Julia Roberts ' character from the romantic comedy Notting Hill ( 1999 ) . After Kenneth drinks his strawberry water , as he risked his life so that Jenna can meet the paramedic again , Jenna says to Kenneth " You magnificent sonofabitch ! " , a line quoted by actor George C. Scott in the American biographical war film Patton ( 1970 ) . Kenneth blows white smoke out while referencing bringing back something from " the other side " ( death ) echoes the same look when actor Haley Joel Osment remarked " I see dead people " in the movie The Sixth Sense ( 1999 ) .
The final three clips in the montage of Tracy taking off his shirt are real clips from Tracy Morgan interviews . Also , Elisa wears a " What the Frak ? ! " Battlestar Galactica t @-@ shirt , as she admits her secret to Jack and Liz . " It 's not product placement — I just like it ! " , says Liz to Jack , after he storms into her office and she is wearing a Slanket , a sleeved blanket with sleeves usually made of fleece material .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Ones " was watched by 6 @.@ 3 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It earned a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was the eighth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network that week , while it finished in 19th place — tied with episodes of Brothers & Sisters , The Celebrity Apprentice , and Heroes — in the weekly ratings for the week of April 20 – 26 , 2009 . Jane Krakowski received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards for her work in this episode , but lost it to actress Kristin Chenoweth .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . IGN contributor Robert Canning rated the episode an 8 out of 10 , saying it " gave all the main characters an opportunity to shine " and that the episode " delivered some great laughs and elevated some standard sit @-@ com plots to a much funnier level . " He argued that Liz helped make the episode good . Though , Canning found Elisa 's secret disappointing and felt that Salma Hayek 's exit from the show too much like a conventional sitcom . Entertainment Weekly 's Aly Semigran wrote that the episode gave good character revelations about Tracy , Jenna , and Kenneth , but that episode did not exceed expectations from the previous week 's episode , " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " . Writing for The Star @-@ Ledger Alan Sepinwall reported that despite the episode not being a 30 Rock classic it " had more than enough funny things in it to keep me satisfied . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin wrote that " The Ones " felt " a little stock " but that it was " just pretty good . " He further added that " the one " gag featured in this episode " was mildly amusing but a little obvious . " He felt that Elisa 's secret felt more like a Soap opera secret than a 30 Rock one . Nonetheless , Rabin gave " The Ones " a B- . David Bauder of the Guelph Mercury , however , was complimentary towards Hayek 's guest appearances throughout season 3 , noting , that they are " the best this absurdist comedy has to offer . Hayek throws herself into her role with gusto , matching Tina Fey and Alec Baldwin step for silly step " .
Jenna 's storyline in the episode received mixed reception . Canning enjoyed her subplot but found it predictable and stereotypical , while Sepinwall reported it did not work , and wrote that Jenna 's stories need to have Liz or Jack featured prominently or that she be put with Scott Adsit 's 30 Rock character , Pete Hornberger , as in this episode , " as her insanity 's only amusing when contrasted against a relatively normal character . As with Sepinwall , Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad believed Jenna 's subplot was fair , observing it was great in parts but " it just went on too long and got tedious and silly . " He believed it would be a good idea to have Jenna dating or perhaps marrying a recurring character , but opined " The Ones " did not choose that path . Tom O 'Neil from the Los Angeles Times , in an August 2009 article , was thrilled for Krakowski receiving an Emmy nomination for her work on 30 Rock , but felt that " The Ones " would not be the episode for which she 'd win the Outstanding Supporting Actress award .
= 2008 Turkish Grand Prix =
The 2008 Turkish Grand Prix ( formally the IV Petrol Ofisi Turkish Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 11 May 2008 at the Istanbul Racing Circuit , Istanbul , Turkey . It was the fifth race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 58 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team after starting from pole position . Lewis Hamilton finished second in a McLaren , with Kimi Räikkönen third in the second Ferrari .
Massa claimed pole , with teammate Räikkönen fourth , the two Ferrari cars sandwiching the McLarens of Heikki Kovalainen and Hamilton . At the first corner Räikkönen clipped Kovalainen 's rear tyre and gave him a puncture . The safety car was deployed on the first lap , after a collision , but only remained out for one lap . During the course of the race , Hamilton , intending to make one more pit stop than both Ferrari drivers , was faster than Massa due to carrying a lighter fuel load and overtook him on lap 24 . After Hamilton had made his third pit stop , he rejoined in second behind Massa but in front of the Championship leader , Räikkönen . Massa won the race , with Hamilton 3 @.@ 779 seconds behind , and Räikkönen a further half @-@ second behind . The two BMW Sauber cars of Robert Kubica and Nick Heidfeld took fourth and fifth .
In the week running up to the grand prix , the Super Aguri team had withdrawn from Formula One , due to financial problems , leaving the sport with only ten teams . Massa 's victory was his third consecutive pole position and victory in Turkey , having also won the race from pole in 2006 and 2007 . Rubens Barrichello celebrated his 257th Grand Prix start , breaking Riccardo Patrese 's previous record of 256 . Due to the race result , Räikkönen 's lead in the Drivers ' Championship was lowered to seven points . Massa rose to second from fourth , whilst Hamilton dropped to third , both drivers tying on 28 points but separated by Massa 's two wins thus far to Hamilton 's one . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari increased their lead to 22 points ahead of BMW Sauber , with McLaren a further two points behind in third .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , BMW Sauber , Renault , Williams , Red Bull Racing , Toyota , Toro Rosso , Honda , Force India and McLaren . This was two drivers fewer than in previous rounds of the 2008 season , due to the withdrawal of the Super Aguri team from the sport following the previous race .
Going into the race , Kimi Räikkönen was leading the Drivers ' Championship , on 29 points ; nine points ahead of Lewis Hamilton , with Räikkönen 's teammate , Felipe Massa , in fourth 11 points behind . BMW Sauber drivers Robert Kubica and Nick Heidfeld were third and fifth , on 19 and 16 points respectively . In the Constructors ' Championship Ferrari were leading on 47 points ; 12 points ahead of BMW Sauber on 35 points , with McLaren just one further point behind them . The race was also Rubens Barrichello 's 257th Grand Prix , which broke the record for the number of Grand Prix starts previously held by Riccardo Patrese . The particular Grand Prix at which he broke this record was disputed , as there was some disagreement about what constituted a " start " , such as the 2002 Spanish Grand Prix , where Barrichello entered but did not actually take part in the race on Sunday . Barrichello and Honda decided to make Turkey the site for their celebrations , issuing a statement that said , " In view of the lack of consensus regarding which specific race marks Rubens ’ 257th Grand Prix , Rubens will celebrate the milestone of 257 Grand Prix appearances at the Turkish Grand Prix " . His Honda team gave him a special anniversary livery and helmet , both of which prominently featured the number 257 . Patrese said that he would feel some sadness at having his record broken .
The Super Aguri team had been in financial trouble since a proposed takeover deal backed by equity firm Dubai International Capital , under the " Magma Group " banner , failed to take effect . Early in the week before the Grand Prix , after team owner Aguri Suzuki revealed the extent of his difficulties , the team 's trucks were blocked from entering the paddock by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , Formula One 's governing body . This decision was taken by the FIA after being informed by Honda 's Formula One team CEO , Nick Fry , that Super Aguri , who used Honda engines and Honda @-@ derived chassis , would not be racing at Istanbul Park . Suzuki then admitted that his financial troubles could not be solved by existing primary sponsor SS United Group Oil & Gas Company , leaving the team with no choice but to withdraw from Formula One as of May 6 . Super Aguri had competed in Formula One since the 2006 Bahrain Grand Prix . After scoring its first championship points after 22 race starts at the 2007 Spanish Grand Prix , the team finished ninth overall in the 2007 Constructors ' Championship .
The Toro Rosso team 's plan to introduce its new car , the STR3 , at this race were postponed due to a lack of spare parts . This was due to an accident suffered by driver Sébastien Bourdais during testing prior to the previous race , which had resulted in the chassis sustaining heavy damage . Toro Rosso had already used an updated version of its 2007 car , the STR2 , for the first four races of the season , and were now forced to race with it in Turkey as well . The team 's other driver , Sebastian Vettel , said that he was " disappointed " that the new car was not ready . However , this was the last race in which the STR2 competed , as the STR3 subsequently made its début at the next race .
Ferrari decided not to use a new nose for their car that that had made its début at the previous race due to the low @-@ downforce nature of the Turkish circuit . According to team manager Luca Baldisserri , " The cars used by Kimi [ Räikkönen ] and Felipe [ Massa ] are basically to the same specification as those that were used in Spain , with the exception that at Istanbul Park we will not use the slotted nose . This is because this solution is much more efficient at medium to high downforce levels , whereas Turkey requires less downforce . The new nose worked very well , but as we said when we gave it its race debut in Barcelona , we would only use it at circuits where we deem it will bring us an advantage over a more conventional component . "
McLaren 's Heikki Kovalainen was passed fit to race in the days leading up to the race . At the previous race , Kovalainen had suffered a serious crash , although he escaped uninjured apart from minor concussion . Kovalainen said that he felt ready to race again : " I arrived here today feeling confident that I would pass the FIA test as I feel 100 % and if I had not felt 100 % I would have told the team already and stayed at home . My preparation for this weekend has gone well and we have done a lot of fitness training . "
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race – two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . In the first free practice session , several large damp patches around the circuit – caused by late track cleaning rather than rain – dissuaded drivers from attempting laps and left the frustrated teams sitting in the pits waiting for the surface to dry as low track temperatures made the situation worse . When the cars did take to the track , many of the drivers either went off the road or spun . Räikkönen only did three laps , before retiring with a gearbox problem , causing him to finish last . Massa set the session 's fastest time , ahead of McLaren duo Heikki Kovalainen and Hamilton . After the session had ended , Fisichella was given a three @-@ place grid penalty by the stewards for exiting the pit lane whilst the light at its exit was still red .
The second free practice session was held in dry conditions , but the track was still damp from earlier drizzle . After 30 minutes , Red Bull 's Mark Webber crashed at turn six , his car sustaining serious damage . Webber was unhurt , although the crash meant that he finished the session in 19th position as he was unable to complete any further laps . The session was briefly stopped as a result while the marshals cleared away the debris . In this session , Räikkönen set the fastest time , with Hamilton next up . Massa was third , while David Coulthard of Red Bull broke up the Ferrari @-@ McLaren domination by setting the fourth @-@ fastest time , ahead of Kovalainen . The third and final practice session was held on the Saturday morning in dry conditions , but with damp patches on the track from earlier rain . As was the pattern for the season , the championship contenders appeared to work on preparations for the final part of qualifying and the race in this session and thus carry heavier fuel loads . Webber set the fastest time in the session , with Renault 's Fernando Alonso in second , and Coulthard in third . Massa was fifth , Hamilton seventh , Räikkönen 11th and Kovalainen 12th .
Following the withdrawal of the Super Aguri team 's two entries , minor changes were made to the qualifying procedure . In the first qualifying session , which would run for 20 minutes , the five slowest cars ( a reduction from the previous number of six ) would be eliminated , leaving 15 drivers to continue into the second session . In the second session , which would last 15 minutes , the five slowest runners ( again reduced from six ) were to once again be eliminated , leaving the ten fastest drivers to compete in session three , as had previously been the case . The time taken for each session remained the same . The third session would determine the positions from first to tenth , and would decide pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in first and second sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Qualifying was a two @-@ way battle between Ferrari and McLaren , with BMW Sauber not showing as strong a pace as they had in previous qualifying sessions , and Alonso not on as light a fuel load as he had in Spain . Massa qualified on pole with a time of 1 : 27 @.@ 617 , ahead of Kovalainen and Hamilton . Hamilton elected not to run a lap on the softer option of the two tyre compounds , feeling that they were running low on grip in the later stages of the lap . He completed his final lap of the session on a " scrubbed " set of the harder tyre compound and it got him third place . Afterwards Hamilton said that he felt that his tyre choice had been incorrect . However , he changed his mind the following day , having made an examination of the relevant telemetry data . Championship leader Räikkönen qualified fourth , ahead of Kubica and Webber . Alonso , Trulli , Heidfeld and Coulthard completed the top 10 . Nico Rosberg driving for Williams qualified 11th , ahead of Barrichello and his teammate Jenson Button . Vettel qualified 14th , followed by Timo Glock for Toyota . Nakajima qualified in 16th , ahead of Nelson Piquet Jr . ( Renault ) and Bourdais . Afterward Bourdais said that his low position was due to being held up by both Force India drivers : " Bad traffic , basically the Force India guys , ruined my afternoon : on my first run I was held up by Sutil as early as Turn 3 and on the second , I came up behind Fisichella in Turn 8 " . Fisichella qualified 19th but his three @-@ place penalty saw him drop behind teammate Sutil to 20th and last place on the grid .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , Hamilton immediately overtook Kovalainen to claim second behind Massa . Räikkönen had a bad start and was squeezed into the first corner by Kovalainen . The two cars made light contact , with Räikkönen 's front wing touching Kovalainen 's left rear tyre . This resulted in a puncture for the McLaren driver which forced him to make an unscheduled pit stop on the second lap , which dropped him to 18th and last position . Räikkönen damaged his front wing but continued the entire race distance without changing the nose section of his car . Meanwhile , Kubica took advantage to move up into third position , whilst Räikkönen was also passed by Alonso . Further back , Vettel collided with Sutil and both were forced to pit , Vettel with a puncture and Sutil for a new front wing . Sutil 's team mate Fisichella and Nakajima collided at the first turn as well , after Fisichella braked too late and could not avoid the Williams driver . Fisichella retired on the spot but Nakajima , despite losing both his front and rear wing in the incident , was able to make it back to his pit box before retiring . The incident resulted in the safety car being deployed .
The safety car was withdrawn at the end of the second lap and the race got underway again with Massa in the lead . Räikkönen , meanwhile , overtook Alonso for fourth place . Between lap four and lap eleven , Massa and Hamilton exchanged fastest laps and the McLaren driver managed to hold the gap between him and the leader at one and a half seconds . The two drivers left third @-@ placed Kubica behind , who in turn was being caught quickly by Räikkönen . Further back , Kovalainen passed Sutil on lap 12 and Vettel on lap 17 . Hamilton then began to close the gap between himself and Massa , posting consecutive quick lap times and was within seven – tenths of a second by lap fifteen . Alonso was the first of the leading runners to make a pit stop on lap 15 , dropping to tenth . Hamilton pitted one lap later and dropped to sixth , while Massa stayed out for another three laps . Both he and Kubica pitted at the same time , leaving Räikkönen temporarily in the lead . On lap 20 , he set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 21 @.@ 506 , before he himself pitted at the end of lap 21 , as did the then second @-@ placed Heidfeld . Räikkönen rejoined ahead of Kubica , while Heidfeld came out ahead of both Alonso and Webber , to elevate himself to fifth . Massa was now back in the lead , but with Hamilton just 0 @.@ 8 seconds behind . Running lighter on fuel with a view to making an additional pit stop to the Ferrari driver , Hamilton was able to close the gap on Massa and on lap 24 , he overtook him at turn twelve . Hamilton now led , with Massa second and Räikkönen third .
Hamilton soon broke away from Massa , lapping over a second quicker than the Ferrari driver . Further back , Bourdais spun off at turn twelve , with a rear suspension failure that put him out of the race . The top five in the race were now Hamilton , Massa , Räikkönen , Kubica and Heidfeld . Over the next six laps , Hamilton stretched his lead to over six seconds before pitting on lap 32 . He rejoined the race in third , 2 @.@ 6 seconds behind second @-@ placed Räikkönen . Further back , on lap 34 , Kovalainen passed Glock , only to be immediately re @-@ passed . He did succeed up the main straight , on the same lap . Two laps later , he passed Button .
Eight laps after Hamilton 's pit stop , Ferrari called Massa in for his final stop of the afternoon , making Räikkönen the leader of the race once more . This lead , however , only lasted for a couple of laps as the Finn pitted on lap 43 , also making his final stop of the afternoon . On lap 43 , Hamilton led by 14 @.@ 4 seconds from Massa with Räikkönen a further seven seconds behind . Two laps later Hamilton was forced to make his
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third and final pit stop . The McLaren driver rejoined the track behind Massa but crucially ahead of championship leader Räikkönen . The top three would remain this way for the remainder of the race .
Further back in fourth and fifth were the two BMW Saubers of Kubica and Heidfeld and behind them were Alonso , Trulli , Webber , Rosberg and Coulthard , with Kovalainen pursuing closely behind them . Kovalainen passed Coulthard on lap 48 , and then on the next lap passed Rosberg . However , Rosberg immediately overtook Kovalainen to regain his position , and Kovalainen was forced to pit on lap 50 . After his final pit stop , Kovalainen rejoined the circuit in 13th position . Felipe Massa won the race , making it his third consecutive win at the circuit , 3 @.@ 7 seconds ahead of Hamilton , with Räikkönen a further half @-@ second behind in third . The two BMWs of Kubica and Heidfeld finished fourth and fifth respectively while further back Alonso , Webber and Rosberg completed the top eight . Coulthard finished ninth , Trulli 10th and Button 11th . After his puncture at the start , Kovalainen had managed to recover to 12th by the end of the race , passing Glock in the closing stages . Glock , Barrichello , Piquet , Sutil and Vettel were the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The race victory was Massa 's third win in Turkey in as many years , having won in both 2006 and 2007 . The top three finishers appeared in the subsequent press conference . Massa said that :
It was a very tough race but the team work magnificently , giving me a great car . When Hamilton came underneath me at an incredible pace , I preferred not to take too many risks : the pit wall informed me that he was clearly running a lighter fuel load even if we were not certain he was on a three stop strategy . When that became clear , we were calmer , knowing we had everything in place to go for the win .
Ron Dennis , McLaren 's team principal , commented on Hamilton 's drive : " Today we saw a truly phenomenal drive from Lewis [ Hamilton ] , in which he optimised a three @-@ stop strategy that we were forced to adopt as a consequence of concerns we had with his tyres . " Hamilton said that he felt that McLaren had closed the gap on Ferrari , and that he was " very excited " about the next race in Monaco .
Räikkönen said : " It was a difficult weekend for me but six points are definitely better than nothing . At the start , I was almost alongside Heikki but then he slowed and I had to brake too to avoid a heavy crash . We touched just enough to damage the end plate of the front wing on my car : it was not a very serious problem , but it definitely didn 't help my race . " Räikkönen also said that he decided not to change his front wing , which was damaged after his collision with Kovalainen , the process would have taken too long .
Fisichella , who had collided with Nakajima on the first lap , which caused both drivers to retire , blamed Bourdais : " I made a good start but then under braking Bourdais changed direction twice and I couldn 't brake in time and went into the back of the Williams . " Nakajima said that , " I don 't know exactly what happened ; I just went into the first corner following the guy in front . I didn 't change my line and I was suddenly hit from behind . "
Bourdais commented on his retirement : " Something broke at the back of the car ... Going into Turn 12 , I braked at the usual point and the car went sideways , I felt the right rear corner of the car drop and it spun me round . "
Räikkönen 's lead in the Drivers ' World Championship was reduced by two points to seven , ahead of Massa and Hamilton , the latter two on 28 points each . Kubica was in fourth , on 24 points , followed by his teammate Heidfeld on 20 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , the Ferrari team increased its lead with a total of 66 points , whilst BMW Sauber were second with 44 points . McLaren were third with 42 points , Williams fourth with 13 points , and Red Bull were fifth , on ten .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
^ 1 Giancarlo Fisichella got a three place grid penalty for exiting the pitlane whilst the red lights were still on during Friday 's first practice session .
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Tropical Storm Fay ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Fay was the sixth named storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season ; it was a moderate tropical storm which caused flooding in parts of Texas and Mexico . In early September , a trough of low pressure moved south into the Gulf of Mexico , and became stationary . A low pressure center developed along this trough , and on September 5 , a Hurricane Hunter airplane reported that the system had gained sufficient organization to be a tropical depression , 95 miles ( 153 km ) southeast of Galveston . The depression drifted south @-@ southwest while strengthening , reaching its peak strength of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) on the morning of September 6 . The system then made an abrupt turn to the west @-@ northwest , and remained steady in strength and course until landfall the next day , near Matagorda . The system weakened at a fast rate after landfall , but its circulation would not totally dissipate for three more days .
The storm caused extremely heavy rainfall in inland areas ; damage totalled $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 5 @.@ 2 million USD in 2007 ) ; no deaths occurred as a result of Fay .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the first few days of September 2002 , an upper @-@ level trough emerged in the Gulf of Mexico and stalled . Thunderstorms developed along the trough and concentrated around a weak low pressure system . Gradually , the trough and associated low pressure drifted south into the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . A low pressure area in the northwest Gulf of Mexico became the dominant circulation and slowly developed persistent convection near the center . On September 5 , a reconnaissance aircraft investigated the system . During the flight , a low @-@ level center became evident and some deep convection persisted ; as a result , it was classified as a tropical depression . Wind shear within the Gulf of Mexico was weak and remained favorable to tropical cyclone formation . A reconnaissance flight later that day discovered an ill @-@ defined circulation which led to low confidence of the location of the center of circulation . However , enough convection persisted for the depression to be upgraded into Tropical Storm Fay that evening .
Stationary in movement , the associated convection became removed from the center of circulation ; despite this , the system gradually intensified . On September 6 , the storm reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Light wind shear prevented Fay from intensifying further , and the gradual movement was dictated by a weak mid @-@ level ridge to the north . A low pressure system to the south of Fay produced wind shear and resulted in decreased convection on the southern half of the circulation , with the majority of convective activity located on the northern half . Fay soon became disorganized which prompted National Hurricane Center forecaster Avila to state , " [ Fay ] rather resembles a subtropical storm " . Fay moved little , and intensified slightly late on September 6 .
On September 7 , Fay began to drift northwest towards the Texas coast as rainbands reached the northwest portion of the Texas coastline . Fay accelerated towards the Texas coast and made landfall early on September 7 . The storm meandered throughout inland Texas , and as the system moved inland , forward speed decreased and Fay weakened to a tropical depression . The last advisory was issued on Fay on September 7 , although the depression persisted for several days just inland of the Texas Coast .
= = Preparations = =
Coinciding with the development of the tropical depression , forecasters issued a tropical storm warning for parts of the Texas coast . When the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Fay , the warnings were extended from Matagorda , Texas to coastal Louisiana . On September 8 , forecasters extended the warnings to Port Aransas , Texas , and areas from Port O 'Connor to High Island , Texas were put under a hurricane watch as the storm was forecast to reach hurricane strength before making landfall . However , the hurricane watch for those areas were discontinued when Fay failed to reach hurricane strength . In addition , coastal Texas as well as coastal Louisiana were under a coastal flood warning , while parts of inland Texas were under flash flood warnings and flood warnings .
Schools closed in Galveston and High Island on September 6 in anticipation of the storm , and voluntary evacuation orders were put into effect along low @-@ lying coastal areas . Some grocery stores in Angleton reported supply shortages .
= = Impact = =
In Louisiana and Mississippi , effects were minor , and limited to moderate rain up to three inches ( 76 mm ) .
The effects in Texas were moderate to severe in some locations , with flooding being the main source of damage . In total , 400 houses sustained damage from flooding . Along the coast , a waterspout spawned by Fay made landfall , and caused minor damage along the northern end of Galveston Island . Storm surge along the Texas coast was 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) above the normal high tide . Peak rainfall throughout the area was in the range of 10 @-@ 15 inches ( 250 – 380 mm ) . Severe damage resulted from Fay in Sweeny , where about 1 @,@ 000 homes and businesses were damaged by the storm , and there was $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 4 @.@ 1 million 2007 USD ) in damage . Rainfall totals up to 24 inches ( 600 mm ) caused severe flash flooding there , and in areas near there . Another area that received severe damage from Fay was Matagorda County , where flooding from the storm left $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 5 million 2007 USD ) in damage to roads and public facilities .
Twelve tornadoes were reported during Fay 's landfall ; the most notable one destroyed a mobile home , and damaged a barn . Heavy rain from Fay 's remnants also dropped 2 – 3 inches ( 50 – 75 mm ) of rain over Frio County . Rainfall of 8 inches ( 200 mm ) was reported near the Atascosca County line with an isolated report of 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in other areas . The rainfall caused severe flashflooding which forced people to flee to roof tops . Damage to buildings , roads and crops totaled up to $ 800 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ; $ 940 @,@ 000 2007 USD ) .
In Mexico , effects were mostly related to rainfall ; up to 16 inches ( 400 mm ) fell in some areas . When Fay flooded areas such as Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , 100 families were evacuated from their homes , and 120 people were stranded in hotels . It is reported that in that town , 10 trees fell causing little or no damage . Also , the Rio Grande flooded its banks to 3 @.@ 3 meters ( 10 ft ) above flood stage . It is reported that 300 families were not able to return to their homes for several weeks as a result of the flooding .
= = Aftermath = =
Nine counties in Texas were declared disaster areas after Tropical Storm Fay : Brazoria , Frio , Galveston , La Salle , Live Oak , Matagorda , Nueces , San Patricio and Wharton . The declaration enabled business owners and residents to apply for federal and state government aid programs . Disaster housing checks handed out after the storm totaled to over $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 3 @.@ 1 million 2007 USD ) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) had carried out over 2 @,@ 700 home and building inspections . Non @-@ government relief programs
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bird 's large , dark brown eyes . The beak is robust , disproportionately large , and black . This beak can be considered crow @-@ like , is noticeably decurved in the upper mandible , and is about 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . The bird 's chin and throat are covered in a thin layer of white feathers , and the neck is long and slender . The nape is also covered in white feathers , while the hindneck is nearly bare , revealing the orange @-@ yellow skin . The upper mantle is a solid black , merging into a greyish @-@ black lower mantle . The rockfowl 's thighs are very muscular and aid its partially terrestrial lifestyle . The back , rump , and undertail are a bluish grey , while the tail is a dark brown and tented in shape . The moderately @-@ sized wings are also a dark brown . The underparts are a creamy white and appear their creamiest in the upper breast . In dim light the white @-@ necked rockfowl can appear to be solely black above and white below . The legs are blue and relatively long . Overall the plumage appears to be smooth with long feathers . The adult weighs 200 to 250 g ( 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) .
The nestling is born naked with dark @-@ brown skin above and translucent pink skin below , blind , and with an orange @-@ red gape . After a few days , the gape changes to a bright yellow @-@ orange . After hatching , the head 's skin is all yellow without the black patches of the adult ; these are gained about a week before leaving the nest . An immature rockfowl after its fourth week is very similar to the adult , but its underparts are creamier and silkier than those of the adult , its neck possesses fewer feathers , and the yellow on the head is paler . Most noticeably , its tail is significantly shorter than that of the adult .
Although numerous calls have been recorded , the white @-@ necked rockfowl is normally a silent bird . Its call has been compared to the clucks of a chicken , with clucks of " chuk @-@ chuk @-@ chuk " or " choop @-@ choop @-@ choop " being made at a constant rate of eight notes every five seconds . This call typically lasts for at least a minute . It has been suggested that this call may be a proper song , but more research is required to determine if this is accurate . The rockfowl 's alarm call , one of its more frequent sounds , has been described as a continuous , low @-@ pitched , guttural chatter similar to " ow , ow , ow " . Adults and juveniles have also been known to produce a long @-@ drawn " owooh " call note . Additionally , fledglings can give a loud , quavering second @-@ long whistle as a contact call .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is only found in West Africa from Guinea to Ghana . It is locally common in southeastern Guinea , and is widespread in Sierra Leone except for the north and northwest , and in Liberia except for the north and northeast . In Côte d 'Ivoire the species is currently restricted to areas near the Guinean and Liberian border . The bird also lives in Ghana , where it is both local and uncommon in the south central parts of the nation . The white @-@ necked rockfowl 's total range covers approximately 391 @,@ 000 km2 ( 151 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . However , the species occurs in low population densities in patches across this large range . The species does not migrate , though it does disperse widely after the breeding season .
This rockfowl lives on steep slopes in both primary and mature secondary forests . These forests are typically covered in rocks and are found in hilly lowland areas up to 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . The white @-@ necked rockfowl often lives near flowing streams and rivers so that it has access to wet mud for nest construction . Colonies are typically found within 100 m ( 330 ft ) of a stream . The species also seems to show a preference for living near inselbergs . Rockfowl are occasionally seen in partly cleared forests and near cities , but this appears to be abnormal . Recent surveys have shown that abandoned rockfowl nests are more likely to be in or near secondary forest .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
This picathartes typically keeps low in the vegetation or on the ground near its nesting grounds . It moves quickly through its forested habitat primarily through a series of hops and bounds , followed by a pause before resuming its movements . It uses its tail for balance while traversing the forest . The rockfowl also flies at a low altitude for short distances between vines and trees , and it rarely flies for long distances . This species can disappear from sight into a mass of creepers or rocks . It is capable of high jumps , sometimes jumping 6 m ( 20 ft ) off the cave floor to its nest while only partly using its wings .
It was once thought that the rockfowl rarely ventures far from its breeding grounds ; however , new data suggests that the species has a much broader range than previously thought . Rockfowl have been known to continue roosting on their nests for a period following the breeding season . These birds are normally solitary or in pairs , though sometimes they live in groups of three to five birds . Typically , they silently evade any unusual movements in their forest . However , if these birds know that they have been sighted , they can become quite inquisitive and occasionally approach observers . One of the rockfowl 's displays entails several of the birds in a colony forming a loose circle . Individual rockfowl run at each other , forcing the approached bird to retreat slightly before chasing either the bird that charged it or another in the circle . At intervals during this display a rockfowl leans forward on a branch , tucking its head between its legs and half @-@ spreading its wings , thus revealing its crown to the other rockfowl . It is believed that this behavior shows the intent of the rockfowl to roost in a group , though recent evidence suggests that the display could be involved in breeding . To scratch its head , the bird lifts its foot over its wing . This species is long @-@ lived .
= = = Diet = = =
The white @-@ necked rockfowl forages across slopes on mossy , creeper @-@ covered boulders and in trees covered in lianas and hanging mosses . It occasionally forages by hopping across sand by a stream or even in the stream , as evidenced by crab remains in the rockfowl 's droppings . While foraging on the ground , the rockfowl picks up leaves with its bill and tosses them aside . It feeds in mixed @-@ species groups ahead of swarms of Dorylus ants with alethes , bristlebills , and Finsch 's rufous thrushes , picking off insects flushed by the ants , mostly off the ground . The rockfowl has also been observed hopping from the ground and snatching prey midair .
The diet is diverse and generalized , enabling the white @-@ necked rockfowl to have a degree of adaptability in collecting food . This rockfowl primarily eats insects , including larval cockroaches , tettigoniid grasshoppers , earwigs , ants from the genera Pachycondyla and Dorylus , click beetles from the genus Psephus , and termites . Other than insects , it has been observed eating millipedes , centipedes , snails , earthworms , and occasionally small frogs and lizards . When feeding its nestlings , the rockfowl primarily collects earthworms , small frogs , and lizards , with the vertebrates forming most of the biomass fed to the young . In addition , rockfowl are occasionally seen eating plant material , normally from angiosperms or mosses .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The White @-@ necked rockfowl breeds primarily in caves and pairs nest either alone or as part of a small colony . While its courtship behavior is unknown , the species is monogamous and therefore does not breed with rockfowl other than its mate despite earlier suggestions that it bred cooperatively . The White @-@ necked rockfowl has two breeding seasons throughout the year , though the timing of the breeding seasons is determined by the location of the birds and the timing of the wet season , with nesting occurring just before and after the wet season and averaging 127 days apart . The rockfowl reuses its nest , and typically repairs it two to eight weeks prior to laying eggs . Guinean birds breed from July to January , while those in Sierra Leone breed from November to February and from April to October . In Liberia , breeding occurs from September to December and from March to July . Ghana 's rockfowl breed from March to June and September to November . Breeding caves are traditionally deserted while the rockfowl are not breeding , so increased usage by the rockfowl is considered a first sign of breeding . Nesting colonies average two to five nests , although one colony had forty nests . In addition to breeding birds , sometimes non @-@ breeding rockfowl are present . These birds occasionally attempt infanticide to gain access to prime nesting sites or mates . Birds in these colonies often chase each other in circles , even through the treetops , a rare destination for this species .
Unusually for a rainforest @-@ dwelling bird , the white @-@ necked rockfowl builds a nest out of mud with varying amounts of plant fibers mixed in . Mud is collected from nearby rivers and streams and is shaped into a strong , thick @-@ walled , and deep cup attached to the cave wall or roof , a cliff , or a large boulder approximately 2 to 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) above the ground . These rocks must be sloped inwards to provide the nest with protection from the rain . Phloem fibers and roots from plants line the inside of the cup . The white @-@ necked rockfowl 's nesting caves normally are populated by wasps , and the wasp nests 2 @-@ to @-@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 @-@ to @-@ 1 @.@ 18 in ) long are often found embedded in the rockfowl 's nests . It is believed that in order to build their nest on the smooth cave walls , rockfowl use the nests of the wasps as a nucleus to build around . Cliff nests are always built at a distance from nearby plants . Both birds work on the construction of the nest , with roles alternating as one bird collects the materials while the other shapes them into the nest . The mud is sometimes swallowed and regurgitated prior to use . While nearly all rockfowl nests are found in caves or on cliffs , there are records of nesting occurring on a riverbank and on a fallen tree trunk . Nests are typically constructed at least 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) apart , but one colony had six nests adjoining each other . Nests also vary widely in size , though they average to be 108 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long , 172 mm ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and 129 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) deep . It used to be believed that each pair builds two nests , one for breeding and one for roosting ; however , recent surveys have found no evidence of this , with all nests in the colony being used for breeding .
One to two eggs , typically two , are laid in each nest a day or two apart . The eggs weigh about 14 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 51 oz ) and have an average size of 25 @.@ 8 by 38 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 02 by 1 @.@ 51 in ) . The eggs are a creamy white with dark brown blotches spread across the egg but in higher density near the larger end . Incubation , which begins after the first egg is laid , lasts for 23 to 28 days . The parents take turns incubating their eggs . Hatching typically takes at least 12 hours . The infant rockfowl 's eyes open after nine to eleven days , while feathers begin to grow seven days after hatching . After the young hatch , food is brought to them almost four times an hour . To feed its young , the adult rockfowl clings to the side of its nest while fluttering its wings ; some birds use their tails as a prop underneath the nest to help support themselves . Rockfowl have been known to kill the young of other rockfowl , while nest predation is carried out by cobras of the genus Naja , the Nile monitor , sun squirrels , red @-@ chested goshawks , and Procolobus monkeys . This leads on average to only 0 @.@ 44 nestlings surviving per pair of rockfowl . Due to potential infanticide by other rockfowl , parents protect their nest and vicious fights often occur . Rare among other bird species , this behaviour is prevalent in white @-@ necked rockfowl . Not fully understood , it is thought to occur for the sake of resource competition or sexual selection . The young leave the nest after 23 to 27 days , at which time they resemble the adult rockfowl but with much shorter tails . The young leave the nest by standing on the edge , emitting a piercing whistle , and then gliding down to the ground on spread wings where they are met by an adult bearing insects . Even after leaving the nest , the young return to roost on it with their parents .
= = Relationship with humans = =
In the lore of Sierra Leone 's indigenous people , the often bizarre rock formations near which the white @-@ necked rockfowl lives were believed to house ancestral spirits . Its residence there led it to be considered a guardian of the formations , leading to a degree of residual respect for the species that persists despite the beliefs that spawned this respect being practically extinct . However , in some regions the rockfowl 's secretive habits and inaccessible habitat have meant it was unknown to the local population . Conversely , migrant Liberian hunters sometimes catch the nestlings for food . Due to this species ' uniqueness it became a symbol for ecotourism and rainforest conservation in the region in the 1990s . The white @-@ necked rockfowl has been depicted on numerous postage stamps from Ghana and Sierra Leone . Due to its strange appearance and behavior and the difficulty in seeing the species , this bird is considered particularly fascinating by birdwatchers . This species is considered to be one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by ornithologists .
This species also helped launch Sir David Attenborough 's career in 1954 , when he was the producer on the new television program Zoo Quest . The show 's presenter Jack Lester was required to travel to Africa to record attempts to capture animals for display in zoos , with the focus of the series being on the white @-@ necked rockfowl . However , when he fell ill , Attenborough took his place , which launched him into the limelight and starting his narrating career .
= = = Conservation = = =
This species is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN due to its highly fragmented distribution , dwindling population , and habitat destruction . It is considered to be less common and more threatened than the closely related grey @-@ necked rockfowl . The stronghold of the species is in Sierra Leone and southern Guinea , where the bird is still locally common if difficult to locate . It is estimated that only 2 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 white @-@ necked rockfowl survive , with the population dwindling and spread out over a known 32 sites ; however , most individuals studying this species believe that the population is far fewer than the 10 @,@ 000 maximum . Many of its colonies are currently approaching the minimum population size necessary to guarantee long @-@ term viability against inbreeding . The primary threat is the commercial destruction of its habitat for timber . Although the white @-@ necked rockfowl is capable of withstanding some disturbance of the nearby habitat , as demonstrated by one colony surviving after it was completely surrounded by a cocoa plantation , habitat disturbance is far more likely to negatively impact on breeding success . Most of the remaining colonies in Guinea , Sierra Leone , and Côte d 'Ivoire are on protected land , while Liberia and Ghana 's colonies are mostly unprotected . In part to protect this species , Sierra Leone recently upgraded its protection of the Gola forest by turning it into its second national park , Gola National Park , and has announced that the country intends to work with Liberia to form a trans @-@ national park protecting the Gola rainforest . In return for lost logging rights , Sierra Leone has compensated locals with road and school renovations , additional training for police officers , and construction of churches and a mosque . Liberia has also expressed a desire to expand its national park system , which would help protect the species . In Guinea , the bird 's forests are being logged to provide land for rice farming to help support farmers immigrating from the country 's drier north .
Laws exist in Sierra Leone , Liberia , and Ghana to protect this species , but enforcement is minimal . International trading of the white @-@ necked rockfowl is regulated as the bird is currently listed under CITES Appendix I. Additionally , in 2004 BirdLife International drafted an international action plan to provide strategies for protecting this species . This plan focused on surveying the remaining habitat , raising awareness amongst the local populace , and limiting the continued destruction of its habitat . In 2006 , BirdLife International received a US $ 19 @,@ 900 grant from the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund to help enact this plan . Surveys conducted with this funding have resulted in the discovery of additional populations in Sierra Leone . Additionally , wardens have been trained to protect Sierra Leone 's Western Area Forest Reserve . This plan , coupled with the bird 's appearance and unusual habits , have led it to become a flagship species for habitat conservation across Africa and particularly in its upper Guinean forests .
Until 2003 , the species was thought to be extinct in Ghana . Most of the Ghanaian sites from which it is known are active forest reserves , where logging periodically occurs . Outside of the reserves , bush @-@ burning and mining for gold and other metals threaten remaining habitat . Following its rediscovery in Ghana , the Ghana Wildlife Society has begun to survey remaining habitat and implement conservation strategies .
In the 1950s and 1960s , collecting this species for display in zoos was a major threat , and in Liberia in particular this practice destroyed several of the bird 's colonies . The rockfowl were captured by the indigenous peoples through the use of traps , while hunters in Guinea , who were already catching rodents and hyraxes at the bird 's nesting colonies , sometimes captured rockfowl at night . In Côte d 'Ivoire specimens were sometimes caught by bat @-@ catchers . Most birds collected from the wild die within 24 hours . Despite over 70 white @-@ necked rockfowl being displayed in zoos during the 1970s , captive breeding was a rare occurrence and no stable captive populations have been formed . Despite this , zoos did have limited success and at least one zoo was able to hand @-@ rear a white @-@ necked rockfowl . As of 2002 , no white @-@ necked rockfowl have existed outside of Africa since 1998 .
= Smallpox =
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by either of two virus variants , Variola major and Variola minor . The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera , derived from varius ( " spotted " ) or varus ( " pimple " ) . The disease was originally known in English as the " pox " or " red plague " ; the term " smallpox " was first used in Britain in the 15th century to distinguish variola from the " great pox " ( syphilis ) . The last naturally occurring case of smallpox ( Variola minor ) was diagnosed on 26 October 1977 .
Infection with smallpox is focused in small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth and throat before disseminating . In the skin it results in a characteristic maculopapular rash and , later , raised fluid @-@ filled blisters . V. major produced a more serious disease and had an overall mortality rate of 30 – 35 percent . V. minor caused a milder form of disease ( also known as alastrim , cottonpox , milkpox , whitepox , and Cuban itch ) which killed about 1 percent of its victims . Long @-@ term complications of V. major infection included characteristic scars , commonly on the face , which occur in 65 – 85 percent of survivors . Blindness resulting from corneal ulceration and scarring , and limb deformities due to arthritis and osteomyelitis were less common complications , seen in about 2 – 5 percent of cases .
Smallpox is believed to have emerged in human populations about 10 @,@ 000 BC . The earliest physical evidence of it is probably the pustular rash on the mummified body of Pharaoh Ramses V of Egypt . The disease killed an estimated 400 @,@ 000 Europeans annually during the closing years of the 18th century ( including five reigning monarchs ) , and was responsible for a third of all blindness . Of all those infected , 20 – 60 percent — and over 80 percent of infected children — died from the disease . Smallpox was responsible for an estimated 300 – 500 million deaths during the 20th century . As recently as 1967 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimated that 15 million people contracted the disease and that two million died in that year .
After vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , the WHO certified the global eradication of smallpox in 1979 . Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated , the other being rinderpest , which was declared eradicated in 2011 .
= = Classification = =
There were two clinical forms of smallpox . Variola major was the severe and most common form , with a more extensive rash and higher fever . Variola minor was a less common presentation , and a much less severe disease , with historical death rates of 1 percent or less . Subclinical ( asymptomatic ) infections with variola virus were noted but were not common . In addition , a form called variola sine eruptione ( smallpox without rash ) was seen generally in vaccinated persons . This form was marked by a fever that occurred after the usual incubation period and could be confirmed only by antibody studies or , rarely , by virus isolation .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The incubation period between contraction and the first obvious symptoms of the disease is around 12 days . Once inhaled , variola major virus invades the oropharyngeal ( mouth and throat ) or the respiratory mucosa , migrates to regional lymph nodes , and begins to multiply . In the initial growth phase the virus seems to move from cell to cell , but around the 12th day , lysis of many infected cells occurs and the virus is found in the bloodstream in large numbers ( this is called viremia ) , and a second wave of multiplication occurs in the spleen , bone marrow , and lymph nodes . The initial or prodromal symptoms are similar to other viral diseases such as influenza and the common cold : fever of at least 38 @.@ 3 ° C ( 101 ° F ) , muscle pain , malaise , headache and prostration . As the digestive tract is commonly involved , nausea and vomiting and backache often occur . The prodrome , or preeruptive stage , usually lasts 2 – 4 days . By days 12 – 15 the first visible lesions — small reddish spots called enanthem — appear on mucous membranes of the mouth , tongue , palate , and throat , and temperature falls to near normal . These lesions rapidly enlarge and rupture , releasing large amounts of virus into the saliva .
Smallpox virus preferentially attacks skin cells , causing the characteristic pimples ( called macules ) associated with the disease . A rash develops on the skin 24 to 48 hours after lesions on the mucous membranes appear . Typically the macules first appear on the forehead , then rapidly spread to the whole face , proximal portions of extremities , the trunk , and lastly to distal portions of extremities . The process takes no more than 24 to 36 hours , after which no new lesions appear . At this point variola major infection can take several very different courses , resulting in four types of smallpox disease based on the Rao classification : ordinary , modified , malignant ( or flat ) , and hemorrhagic . Historically , smallpox has an overall fatality rate of about 30 percent ; however , the malignant and hemorrhagic forms are usually fatal .
= = = Ordinary = = =
Ninety percent or more of smallpox cases among unvaccinated persons were of the ordinary type . In this form of the disease , by the second day of the rash the macules became raised papules . By the third or fourth day the papules filled with an opalescent fluid to become vesicles . This fluid became opaque and turbid within 24 – 48 hours , giving them the appearance of pustules ; however , the so @-@ called pustules were filled with tissue debris , not pus .
By the sixth or seventh day , all the skin lesions have become pustules . Between seven and ten days the pustules matured and reached their maximum size . The pustules were sharply raised , typically round , tense , and firm to the touch . The pustules were deeply embedded in the dermis , giving them the feel of a small bead in the skin . Fluid slowly leaked from the pustules , and by the end of the second week the pustules deflated , and started to dry up , forming crusts ( or scabs ) . By day 16 – 20 scabs had formed over all the lesions , which have started to flake off , leaving depigmented scars .
Ordinary smallpox generally produced a discrete rash , in which the pustules stood out on the skin separately . The distribution of the rash was densest on the face ; denser on the extremities than on the trunk ; and on the extremities , denser on the distal parts than on the proximal . The palms of the hands and soles of the feet were involved in the majority of cases . Sometimes , the blisters merged into sheets , forming a confluent rash , which began to detach the outer layers of skin from the underlying flesh . Patients with confluent smallpox often remained ill even after scabs have formed over all the lesions . In one case series , the case @-@ fatality rate in confluent smallpox was 62 percent .
= = = Modified = = =
Referring to the character of the eruption and the rapidity of its development , modified smallpox occurred mostly in previously vaccinated people . In this form the prodromal illness still occurred but may be less severe than in the ordinary type . There is usually no fever during evolution of the rash . The skin lesions tended to be fewer and evolve more quickly , are more superficial , and may not show the uniform characteristic of more typical smallpox . Modified smallpox was rarely , if ever , fatal . This form of variola major is more easily confused with chickenpox .
= = = Malignant = = =
In malignant @-@ type smallpox ( also called flat smallpox ) the lesions remained almost flush with the skin at the time when raised vesicles form in the ordinary type . It is unknown why some people developed this type . Historically , it accounted for 5 – 10 percent of cases , and the majority ( 72 percent ) were children . Malignant smallpox was accompanied by a severe prodromal phase that lasted 3 – 4 days , prolonged high fever , and severe symptoms of toxemia . The rash on the tongue and palate was extensive . Skin lesions matured slowly and by the seventh or eighth day they were flat and appeared to be buried in the skin . Unlike ordinary @-@ type smallpox , the vesicles contained little fluid , were soft and velvety to the touch , and may have contained hemorrhages . Malignant smallpox was nearly always fatal .
= = = Hemorrhagic = = =
Hemorrhagic smallpox is a severe form that is accompanied by extensive bleeding into the skin , mucous membranes , and gastrointestinal tract . This form develops in approximately 2 percent of infections and occurred mostly in adults . In hemorrhagic smallpox the skin does not blister , but remains smooth . Instead , bleeding occurs under the skin , making it look charred and black , hence this form of the disease is also known as black pox .
In the early , or fulminating form , hemorrhaging appears on the second or third day as sub @-@ conjunctival bleeding turns the whites of the eyes deep red . Hemorrhagic smallpox also produces a dusky erythema , petechiae , and hemorrhages in the spleen , kidney , serosa , muscle , and , rarely , the epicardium , liver , testes , ovaries and bladder . Death often occurs suddenly between the fifth and seventh days of illness , when only a few insignificant skin lesions are present . A later form of the disease occurs in patients who survive for 8 – 10 days . The hemorrhages appear in the early eruptive period , and the rash is flat and does not progress beyond the vesicular stage . Patients in the early stage of disease show a decrease in coagulation factors ( e.g. platelets , prothrombin , and globulin ) and an increase in circulating antithrombin . Patients in the late stage have significant thrombocytopenia ; however , deficiency of coagulation factors is less severe . Some in the late stage also show increased antithrombin . This form of smallpox occurs in anywhere from 3 to 25 percent of fatal cases depending on the virulence of the smallpox strain . Hemorrhagic smallpox is usually fatal .
= = Cause = =
= = = Pathogens = = =
Smallpox is caused by infection with variola virus , which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus , the family Poxviridae and subfamily chordopoxvirinae .
The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled . It most likely evolved from a rodent virus between 68 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 years ago . The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock . One clade was the variola major strains ( the more clinically severe form of smallpox ) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1 @,@ 600 years ago . A second clade included both alastrim minor ( a phenotypically mild smallpox ) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1 @,@ 400 and 6 @,@ 300 years before present . This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago . A second estimate has placed the separation of variola from Taterapox at 3000 – 4000 years ago . This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin . However , if the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses , the divergence date between variola from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50 @,@ 000 years ago . While this is consistent with the other published estimates , it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete . Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed .
Variola is a large brick @-@ shaped virus measuring approximately 302 to 350 nanometers by 244 to 270 nm , with a single linear double stranded DNA genome 186 kilobase pairs ( kbp ) in size and containing a hairpin loop at each end . The two classic varieties of smallpox are variola major and variola minor .
Four orthopoxviruses cause infection in humans : variola , vaccinia , cowpox , and monkeypox . Variola virus infects only humans in nature , although primates and other animals have been infected in a laboratory setting . Vaccinia , cowpox , and monkeypox viruses can infect both humans and other animals in nature .
The life cycle of poxviruses is complicated by having multiple infectious forms , with differing mechanisms of cell entry . Poxviruses are unique among DNA viruses in that they replicate in the cytoplasm of the cell rather than in the nucleus . In order to replicate , poxviruses produce a variety of specialized proteins not produced by other DNA viruses , the most important of which is a viral @-@ associated DNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase .
Both enveloped and unenveloped virions are infectious . The viral envelope is made of modified Golgi membranes containing viral @-@ specific polypeptides , including hemagglutinin . Infection with either variola major or variola minor confers immunity against the other .
= = = Transmission = = =
Transmission occurs through inhalation of airborne variola virus , usually droplets expressed from the oral , nasal , or pharyngeal mucosa of an infected person . It is transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face @-@ to @-@ face contact with an infected person , usually within a distance of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but can also be spread through direct contact with infected bodily fluids or contaminated objects ( fomites ) such as bedding or clothing . Rarely , smallpox has been spread by virus carried in the air in enclosed settings such as buildings , buses , and trains . The virus can cross the placenta , but the incidence of congenital smallpox is relatively low . Smallpox is not notably infectious in the prodromal period and viral shedding is usually delayed until the appearance of the rash , which is often accompanied by lesions in the mouth and pharynx . The virus can be transmitted throughout the course of the illness , but is most frequent during the first week of the rash , when most of the skin lesions are intact . Infectivity wanes in 7 to 10 days when scabs form over the lesions , but the infected person is contagious until the last smallpox scab falls off .
Smallpox is highly contagious , but generally spreads more slowly and less widely than some other viral diseases , perhaps because transmission requires close contact and occurs after the onset of the rash . The overall rate of infection is also affected by the short duration of the infectious stage . In temperate areas , the number of smallpox infections were highest during the winter and spring . In tropical areas , seasonal variation was less evident and the disease was present throughout the year . Age distribution of smallpox infections depends on acquired immunity . Vaccination immunity declines over time and is probably lost within thirty years . Smallpox is not known to be transmitted by insects or animals and there is no asymptomatic carrier state .
= = Diagnosis = =
The clinical definition of smallpox is an illness with acute onset of fever equal to or greater than 38 @.@ 3 ° C ( 101 ° F ) followed by a rash characterized by firm , deep seated vesicles or pustules in the same stage of development without other apparent cause . If a clinical case is observed , smallpox is confirmed using laboratory tests .
Microscopically , poxviruses produce characteristic cytoplasmic inclusions , the most important of which are known as Guarnieri bodies , and are the sites of viral replication . Guarnieri bodies are readily identified in skin biopsies stained with hematoxylin and eosin , and appear as pink blobs . They are found in virtually all poxvirus infections but the absence of Guarnieri bodies cannot be used to rule out smallpox . The diagnosis of an orthopoxvirus infection can also be made rapidly by electron microscopic examination of pustular fluid or scabs . However , all orthopoxviruses exhibit identical brick @-@ shaped virions by electron microscopy . However , if particles with the characteristic morphology of herpesviruses are seen this will eliminate smallpox and other orthopoxvirus infections .
Definitive laboratory identification of variola virus involves growing the virus on chorioallantoic membrane ( part of a chicken embryo ) and examining the resulting pock lesions under defined temperature conditions . Strains may be characterized by polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) and restriction fragment length polymorphism ( RFLP ) analysis . Serologic tests and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays ( ELISA ) , which measure variola virus @-@ specific immunoglobulin and antigen have also been developed to assist in the diagnosis of infection .
Chickenpox was commonly confused with smallpox in the immediate post @-@ eradication era . Chickenpox and smallpox can be distinguished by several methods . Unlike smallpox , chickenpox does not usually affect the palms and soles . Additionally , chickenpox pustules are of varying size due to variations in the timing of pustule eruption : smallpox pustules are all very nearly the same size since the viral effect progresses more uniformly . A variety of laboratory
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, Gould provided expert testimony against the equal @-@ time creationism law in McLean v. Arkansas . Gould later developed the term " non @-@ overlapping magisteria " ( NOMA ) to describe how , in his view , science and religion could not comment on each other 's realm . Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail , particularly in the books Rocks of Ages ( 1999 ) and The Hedgehog , the Fox , and the Magister 's Pox ( 2003 ) . In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould wrote :
Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity , but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms . Morality is a subject for philosophers , theologians , students of the humanities , indeed for all thinking people . The answers will not be read passively from nature ; they do not , and cannot , arise from the data of science . The factual state of the world does not teach us how we , with our powers for good and evil , should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner .
The anti @-@ evolution petition A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism spawned the National Center for Science Education 's pro @-@ evolution counterpart Project Steve , which is named in Gould 's honor .
Gould also became a noted public face of science , often appearing on television . In 1984 Gould received his own NOVA special on PBS . Other appearances included interviews on CNN 's Crossfire , NBC 's The Today Show , and regular appearances on the Charlie Rose show . Gould was also a guest in all seven episodes of the Dutch talk series A Glorious Accident , in which he appeared with his close friend Oliver Sacks .
Gould was featured prominently as a guest in Ken Burns 's PBS documentary Baseball , as well as PBS 's Evolution series . Gould was also on the Board of Advisers to the influential Children 's Television Workshop television show 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 Contact , where he made frequent guest appearances .
In 1997 he voiced a cartoon version of himself on the television series The Simpsons . In the episode " Lisa the Skeptic " , Lisa finds a skeleton that many people believe is an apocalyptic angel . Lisa contacts Gould and asks him to test the skeleton 's DNA . The fossil is discovered to be a marketing gimmick for a new mall . During production the only phrase Gould objected to was a line in the script that introduced him as the " world 's most brilliant paleontologist " . In 2002 the show paid tribute to Gould after his death , dedicating the season 13 finale to his memory . Gould had died two days before the episode aired .
= = Controversy = =
Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history , but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking . The public debates between Gould 's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed " The Darwin Wars " by several commentators .
John Maynard Smith , an eminent British evolutionary biologist , was among Gould 's strongest critics . Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology , and was critical of Gould 's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution . In a review of Daniel Dennett 's book Darwin 's Dangerous Idea , Maynard Smith wrote that Gould " is giving non @-@ biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory . " But Maynard Smith has not been consistently negative , writing in a review of The Panda 's Thumb that " Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active ... Often he infuriates me , but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these . " Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould 's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology .
One reason for criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution , and argued for the importance of mechanisms other than natural selection , mechanisms which he believed had been ignored by many professional evolutionists . As a result , many non @-@ specialists sometimes inferred from his early writings that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific ( which Gould never tried to imply ) . Along with many other researchers in the field , Gould 's works were sometimes deliberately taken out of context by creationists as " proof " that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved . Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works .
As documented by Kim Sterelny in his book Dawkins vs. Gould , Gould disagreed with Richard Dawkins about the importance of gene selection in evolution . Dawkins argued that evolution is best understood as competition among genes ( or replicators ) , while Gould advocated the importance of multi @-@ level selection , including selection amongst genes , cell lineages , organisms , demes , species , and clades .
Dawkins also said that Gould deliberately played down the difference between rapid gradualism and macromutation in his theory of punctuated equilibrium . Criticism of Gould and his theory of punctuated equilibrium can be found in Dawkins 's The Blind Watchmaker and Unweaving the Rainbow , as well as a chapter in Dennett 's Darwin 's Dangerous Idea .
= = = Cambrian fauna = = =
Gould 's interpretation of the Cambrian Burgess Shale fossils in his book Wonderful Life emphasized the striking morphological disparity ( or " weirdness " ) of the Burgess Shale fauna , and the role of chance in determining which members of this fauna survived and flourished . He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role of contingency in the broader pattern of evolution .
His view was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible of Creation . Conway Morris stressed those members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa . He also promoted convergent evolution as a mechanism producing similar forms in similar environmental circumstances , and argued in a subsequent book that the appearance of human @-@ like animals is likely . Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life , Conway Morris shared many of Gould 's sentiments and views . It was only after publication of Wonderful Life that Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more progressive stance towards the history of life .
Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa , though this is still a subject of intense research and debate , and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists .
Richard Dawkins also disagreed with Gould 's view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian fauna , arguing :
The extreme Gouldian view — certainly the view inspired by his rhetoric , though it is hard to tell from his own words whether he literally holds it himself — is radically different from and utterly incompatible with the standard neo @-@ Darwinian model . ... For a new body plan — a new phylum — to spring into existence , what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly , out of the blue , is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm . No zoologist who thinks through the implications , not even the most ardent saltationist , has ever supported any such notion .
= = = Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology = = =
Gould also had a long @-@ running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology , both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed , but which Richard Dawkins , Daniel Dennett , and Steven Pinker advocated . These debates reached their climax in the 1970s , and included strong opposition from groups like the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People . Pinker accuses Gould , Lewontin , and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being " radical scientists " , whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science . Gould stated that he made " no attribution of motive in Wilson 's or anyone else 's case " but cautioned that all human beings are influenced , especially unconsciously , by our personal expectations and biases . He wrote :
I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice , and I was active , as a student , in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s . Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments . … [ but ] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality , for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences — and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice . Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data , not absence of preference .
Gould 's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support , and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality , or their adaptive nature . Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well , and either hypothesis is equally plausible . Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature , but reframed the debate as " biological potentiality vs. biological determinism . " Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors . Its flexibility " permits us to be aggressive or peaceful , dominant or submissive , spiteful or generous … Violence , sexism , and general nastiness are biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors . But peacefulness , equality , and kindness are just as biological — and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish . "
= = = The Mismeasure of Man = = =
Gould was the author of The Mismeasure of Man ( 1981 ) , a history and inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing , generating perhaps the greatest controversy of all his books and receiving both widespread praise and extensive criticism , including claims of misrepresentation . Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry , as well as the history of psychological testing . Gould claimed that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism , the view that " social and economic differences between human groups — primarily races , classes , and sexes — arise from inherited , inborn distinctions and that society , in this sense , is an accurate reflection of biology . " The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of The Bell Curve .
In 2011 , a study conducted by six anthropologists reanalyzed Gould 's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements , and concluded that Gould 's analysis was poorly supported and incorrect . They praised Gould for his " staunch opposition to racism " but concluded , " we find that Morton 's initial reputation as the objectivist of his era was well @-@ deserved . " Ralph Holloway , one of the co @-@ authors of the study , commented , " I just didn 't trust Gould . ... I had the feeling that his ideological stance was supreme . When the 1996 version of ' The Mismeasure of Man ' came and he never even bothered to mention Michael 's study , I just felt he was a charlatan . "
The group 's paper was reviewed in the journal Nature , which recommended a degree of caution , and notes that " because they couldn 't measure all the skulls , they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately . " The journal stated that Gould 's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton 's data , but also noted that " Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations . Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania , and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias . "
The group 's paper was critically reviewed in the journal Evolution & Development by philosopher of science Michael Weisberg , also of the University of Pennsylvania . Weisberg argues that " most of Gould 's arguments against Morton are sound . Although Gould made some errors and overstated his case in a number of places , he provided prima facia evidence , as yet unrefuted , that Morton did indeed mismeasure his skulls in ways that conformed to 19th century racial biases . " Biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan , Massimo Pigliucci , and Joshua Banta also published a critique of the groups 's paper , arguing that many of its claims were misleading and the re @-@ measurements were " completely irrelevant to an evaluation of Gould 's published analysis . " They also argue that both Morton and Gould 's statistical methods on which skulls to include and which to exclude , and how they computed averages , " were both inappropriate . "
= = Non @-@ overlapping magisteria = =
In his book Rocks of Ages ( 1999 ) , Gould put forward what he described as " a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion . " He defines the term magisterium as " a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution . " The non @-@ overlapping magisteria ( NOMA ) principle therefore divides the magisterium of science to cover " the empirical realm : what the Universe is made of ( fact ) and why does it work in this way ( theory ) . The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value . These two magisteria do not overlap , nor do they encompass all inquiry . " He suggests that " NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support , even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard @-@ line traditionalism " and that NOMA is " a sound position of general consensus , established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria . "
However , this view has not been without criticism . For example , in his book The God Delusion , Richard Dawkins argues that the division between religion and science is not as simple as Gould claims , as few religions exist without claiming the existence of miracles , which " by definition , violate the principles of science . " Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values , and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own . He goes on to say that he believes Gould is disingenuous in much of what he says in Rocks of Ages . Similarly , humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics . In fact , Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles .
= = Publications = =
= = = Articles = = =
Gould 's publications were numerous . One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer @-@ reviewed papers , 22 books , 300 essays , and 101 " major " book reviews . A select number of his papers are listed online .
= = = Books = = =
The following is a list of books either written or edited by Stephen Jay Gould , including those published posthumously , after his death in 2002 . While some books have been republished at later dates , by multiple publishers , the list below comprises the original publisher and publishing date .
= 1978 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1978 Atlantic hurricane season was the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all @-@ female naming list . The hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . It was an above average season due to a subsiding El Niño . The first storm , a subtropical storm , developed unusually early – on January 18 – and dissipated five days later without causing any damage . At the end of July and early August , short @-@ lived Tropical Storm Amelia caused extensive flooding in Texas after dropping as much as 48 in ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain . There were 33 deaths and $ 110 million ( 1978 USD ) in damage . Tropical Storm Bess and Hurricane Cora resulted in only minor land impacts , while the latter was attributed to one fatality .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Debra produced widespread effects , though damage was also relatively minor . Hurricane Ella became the northernmost Category 4 hurricane while located at 38 ° N , and lashed the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada with gusty winds and rip currents . Hurricanes Flossie and Kendra as well as Tropical Storms Hope , Irma , and Juliet caused minimal land impacts as a tropical cyclone . However , the precursor to Hurricane Kendra caused flooding in Puerto Rico . Hurricane Greta brought strong winds , high tides , and flooding to Central America , particularly Belize and Honduras . Greta resulted in about $ 25 million in damage and at least five fatalities . Overall , the storms of this season collectively caused $ 191 million in damage and 42 fatalities . Hurricane Greta crossed into the eastern pacific and was renamed Olivia .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1978 . Although 24 tropical cyclones developed , only twelve of them reached tropical storm intensity , which is slightly above the 1966 @-@ 2009 average of 11 @.@ 3 named storms per season . Of the twelve tropical storms , five of them strengthened into a hurricane , which is slightly below the 1966 @-@ 2009 average of 6 @.@ 2 . Two of the five hurricane became major hurricanes , which is Category 3 or greater on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Three tropical storms and two hurricanes made landfall during the season and caused at least 41 fatalities and $ 135 million . Additionally , the precursor to Hurricane Kendra brought flooding to Puerto Rico , with $ 6 million in damage and one death . The season officially ended on November 30 , 1978 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began very early , with the development of a subtropical storm on January 18 . It dissipated about five days later . However , the next tropical cyclone , an unnumbered depression , did not develop until June 21 . In July , there were two systems , including an unnumbered tropical depression and Tropical Storm Amelia . Seven tropical cyclones formed in August , including Tropical Depression Four and tropical storms Bess and Debra and hurricanes Cora and Ella . There were also seven system in September – tropical depressions Eight , Nine , and Twelve , Tropical Storm Hope , and hurricanes Flossie and Greta . During the month of October , there were five tropical cyclones , with two unnumbered tropical depressions , tropical storms Irma and Juliet , and Hurricane Kendra . There was another unnumbered tropical depression in November , which dissipated on November 5 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 63 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
In the middle of January , an upper @-@ level trough in the westerlies spawned a surface low pressure area to the east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles to the south of the subtropical ridge . Isolated from the detrimental effects of the westerlies , it was initially non @-@ tropical in nature and intensified through a baroclinic energy source , or one that derives energy from the interaction of cold and warm air . Convection increased slightly despite cool sea surface temperatures of around 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) . At 1200 UTC on January 18 , it organized into a subtropical depression about 1 @,@ 725 mi ( 2 @,@ 776 km ) east @-@ northeast of Puerto Rico while moving in a general westward track , which it would maintain for much of its duration . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated Dvorak classifications on the cyclone at 0000 UTC on January 19 , assessing a Dvorak number of T2.5 , suggesting both tropical and subtropical characteristics . On the same day , the pressure gradient between the storm and the ridge produced gale force winds . By early on January 20 , the storm maintained minimal convection near its center , with its primary rainband revolved cyclonically around its well @-@ defined center . Later that day , the storm strengthened into a subtropical storm and attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , supported by both ship and Hurricane Hunters reports .
Late on January 21 , the outer rainbands to the south and east of the center began diminishing , which began a weakening trend after the storm maintained peak winds for about 36 hours . At around that time , the cyclone was moving west @-@ southwestward , and within 72 hours was forecast by one hurricane forecast model to be located over Hispaniola . By midday on January 22 , the winds decreased to below gale force after the convection dissipated near the center . Subsequently it turned more to the west away from land , and by January 23 the circulation degenerated into a remnant trough about 185 mi ( 298 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles . The storm was one of six tropical or subtropical cyclones on record in the month of January , and one of four to have formed in the month .
= = = Tropical Storm Amelia = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on July 19 . The wave did not develop significantly while crossing the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The disturbance then entered an area of the Gulf of Mexico that was conducive to tropical cyclogenesis and became a tropical depression while located about 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas on July 30 . Despite its proximity to land , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Amelia on July 31 and peaked with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Around that time , Amelia made landfall near Port Isabel , Texas . Later on July 31 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated early the following day .
Amelia affected the Texas coast for two days , causing several shipping incidents and minor damage in Corpus Christi and South Padre Island . While active , there were no deaths linked to the storm . However , the biggest impact from the storm followed its dissipation , when its remnants contributed to record rainfall totals over the state . The state , already suffering from a previous drought , believed that the rain would help alleviate the conditions . However , the dry ground aided the flooding from the storm . The rainfall caused several rivers and creeks to flood , especially around the Texas Hill Country and northern Texas , leading to severe damage . Overall , Amelia caused 33 fatalities with an estimated $ 110 million in damages .
= = = Tropical Storm Bess = = =
A low pressure area developed in Georgia along a dissipating cold front on August 1 . The system detached from the cold front and drifted southwestward , reaching northeastern Gulf of Mexico on August 3 . Satellite imagery , buoys , and reconnaissance aircraft flights indicated that by August 5 , the system likely acquired a closed circulation . Thus , the National Hurricane Center estimated that a tropical depression developed in the central Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC that day . On August 6 , a reconnaissance flight into the depression resulted in an upgrade to Tropical Storm Bess , while located about 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The storm had initially headed west @-@ southwestward at 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) , before moving southwestward at nearly the same speed .
At 1200 UTC on August 7 , Bess attained its minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , Bess began to turn nearly due southward under the influence of a high pressure area over southern Texas . Later on August 7 , the storm reached its maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Early on August 8 , Bess made landfall near Nautla , Veracruz , at the same intensity and then rapidly dissipated inland . In Tuxpan , Veracruz and Tampico , Tamaulipas , sustained winds reached only 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) . The storm also produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 12 @.@ 04 in ( 306 mm ) in La Estrella . However , no flooding occurred and no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Hurricane Cora = = =
A disturbance exited the west coast of Africa on August 4 and developed into a tropical depression about three days later , while located well east of the Lesser Antilles . On August 8 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cora . The storm moved at an unusually high forward speed for a cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in August , and intensified into a hurricane later that day . The hurricane was upgraded into a hurricane based solely on satellite photography , the second time this occurred . Early on August 9 , it peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Around 0000 UTC the next day , Cora weakened to a tropical storm while west @-@ southwestward . The storm made landfall on Grenada on August 11 , while weakening to a tropical depression . Cora weakened further to a tropical depression , before losing its circulation and degenerating into a tropical wave on August 12 . The remnant crossed over Central America into the Pacific Ocean , where it regenerated into Hurricane Kristy .
Cora was an unusual cyclone , maintaining an unusually low latitude in the Atlantic in August at high speeds . While passing through the Lesser Antilles , gusty winds and light rainfall in Barbados and Saint Lucia . In the latter , a person died after stepping on a high tension power line that was downed in Castries . Approximately two to four percent of trees on the island were toppled . Cora was also responsible for altering weather conditions in Presque Isle , Maine , allowing for a takeoff of the historical flight of the Double Eagle II hot air balloon .
= = = Tropical Storm Debra = = =
A low @-@ pressure area that developed over southeast Florida and an area of convection near the Yucatán Peninsula merged and resulted in the formation of a tropical depression over the southern Gulf of Mexico on August 26 . Tacking west @-@ northwestward around a high pressure ridge , the depression gradually intensified began and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Debra on August 28 . Debra turned to the north and reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) on August 29 , shortly before making landfall in southwestern Louisiana . It was a disorganized storm , with most of the convection located to the east of the center . The system weakened rapidly and dissipated over Arkansas on August 29 , though its remnants continued into the Ohio Valley .
One person died while attempting to evacuate an oil rig to the south of Cameron , Louisiana . Damage caused by Debra was considered minimal . In Louisiana , rainfall peaked at 10 @.@ 81 in ( 275 mm ) in Freshwater Bayou . However , no flooding was reported . Wind impacts were light and mainly limited to down trees and damage to roofs in Lake Charles and New Orleans . The storm spawned several tornadoes in Arkansas , Mississippi , Louisiana , Tennessee , and Texas . In Mississippi , a tornado in Crystal Springs destroyed three mobile homes and a house , killing one person and seriously injuring another .
= = = Hurricane Ella = = =
A cold front spawned a tropical disturbance near Bermuda , which became a tropical depression on August 30 . The depression strengthened , and by early on August 31 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ella . Ship reports indicated that Ella became a hurricane later that day . Further significant intensification occurred , and the storm reached a preliminary peak intensity of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . A short @-@ wave trough over the Eastern United States caused Ella to decelerate and turn north . Simultaneously , dry air diminished convection on September 2 , which in turn resulted in weakening . Eventually , another trough forced Ella to re @-@ curve northeastward , thereby remaining well offshore the East Coast of the United States .
The storm then re @-@ intensified and by 1200 UTC on September 4 , Ella peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Thereafter , Ella rapidly weakened as it passed offshore Atlantic Canada , before being absorbed by
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= = Collected editions = =
Two series of Ozy and Millie books have been formed , the first of which was discontinued and replaced by the second . Simpson wrote that she would " be condensing the first five books into three that will be larger but cost the same , and making them as comprehensive as I can make them . " Editorial cartoonist Ted Rall included six pages of interview illustrated with Ozy and Millie strips in Attitude 3 : The New Subversive Online Cartoonists .
= = = Discontinued books = = =
= = = Current books = = =
= The Madcap Laughs =
The Madcap Laughs is the debut solo album by the English singer @-@ songwriter Syd Barrett . It was recorded after Barrett had left Pink Floyd in April 1968 . The album had a chequered recording history , with work beginning in mid @-@ 1968 , but the bulk of the sessions taking place between April and July 1969 , for which five different producers were credited − including Barrett , Peter Jenner ( 1968 sessions ) , Malcolm Jones ( early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1969 sessions ) , and fellow Pink Floyd members David Gilmour and Roger Waters ( mid @-@ 1969 sessions ) . Among the guest musicians are Willie Wilson from ( Gilmour 's old band ) Jokers Wild and Robert Wyatt of the band Soft Machine .
The Madcap Laughs , released in January 1970 on Harvest in the UK , and on Capitol Records in the US , enjoyed minimal commercial success on release , reaching number 40 on the UK 's official albums chart , while failing to hit the US charts . It was re @-@ released in 1974 as part of Syd Barrett ( which contained The Madcap Laughs and Barrett ) . The album was remastered and reissued in 1993 , along with Barrett 's other albums , Barrett ( 1970 ) and Opel ( 1988 ) , independently and as part of the Crazy Diamond box set . A newly remastered version was released in 2010 .
= = Background = =
In the second half of 1967 and through to early 1968 , when still part of Pink Floyd , Barrett 's behaviour became increasingly erratic and unpredictable . Many report having seen him on stage with the group during this period , strumming on one chord through an entire concert or not playing at all . In August 1967 , Pink Floyd were forced to cancel their appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival , informing the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion . Band manager Peter Jenner and bassist Roger Waters arranged for Barrett to see a psychiatrist ( an appointment he failed to attend ) , while a stay on the Spanish island of Formentera with Sam Hutt , a doctor well established in the underground music scene , led to no visible improvement in Barrett 's behaviour . A few dates in September were followed by the band 's first tour of the United States . At this point , Barrett 's condition grew steadily worse . At a show at The Fillmore in San Francisco , during a performance of " Interstellar Overdrive " , Barrett slowly detuned his guitar ; the audience seemed to enjoy such antics , unaware of the rest of the band 's consternation . Sometime in October , Jenner transferred tapes of " In the Beechwood " , two takes of " Vegetable Man " , and a 5 @-@ minute backing track called " No Title " , which Jenner hoped Barrett would finish eventually .
Around Christmas 1967 , guitarist David Gilmour , an old friend of Barrett 's from Cambridge , was asked by the other members of Pink Floyd to join as a second guitarist , initially to not replace Barrett , but to cover for him , because his unpredictable behaviour prevented him from performing . For several shows Gilmour sang and played guitar while Barrett wandered around on stage , every now and then deciding to join in playing guitar and singing . Waters and fellow band members keyboardist Richard Wright and drummer Nick Mason soon grew weary of Barrett 's on @-@ stage antics and , on 26 January 1968 , when Waters was driving his bandmates from London to a show at Southampton University , they all agreed to go without Barrett : according to Gilmour 's recollection , one person asked , " Shall we pick Syd up ? " and another said , " Let 's not bother . " Since Barrett had written or co @-@ written 10 of the 11 songs on their debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , as well as the band 's three singles up to this point , the original plan was to keep him in the group as a non @-@ touring member − in a similar arrangement to what The Beach Boys had done with Brian Wilson − but this soon proved to be unworkable . On 6 April , the group officially announced that Barrett was no longer a member of Pink Floyd . Upon leaving the Floyd , Barrett said to Melody Maker : " I suppose it was really just a matter of being a little offhand about things " .
= = Recording = =
= = = Peter Jenner sessions = = =
After Barrett left Pink Floyd in April 1968 , Peter Jenner and Andrew King , from the band 's management , followed suit . In May , Jenner led Barrett into the then @-@ named EMI Studios , on Abbey Road in northwest London , to record some solo material , only part of which would later appear on The Madcap Laughs . Jenner thought Barrett would like to finish the tracks that Jenner transferred the previous October , Barrett on the other hand , had other plans . During these first , tentative sessions , Jenner failed to properly record any vocals at all , for the tracks " Golden Hair " , " Late Night " , " Clowns and Jugglers " ( later retitled " Octopus " ) , " Silas Lang " , or " Lanky ( Parts One and Two ) " . After recording had resumed in June and July , progress continued on these tracks , especially " Swan Lee " , and a new , improved version of " Clowns and Jugglers " was taped at this point also . Barrett wouldn 't commit to recording the track " Rhamadam " ( sic ) to tape properly , however .
Although Jenner claims he got on well with the singer , he would also state that the 1968 sessions had not gone smoothly , admitting : " I had seriously underestimated the difficulties of working with him ... " Shortly after the July dates , Barrett abruptly stopped recording , breaking up with girlfriend Lindsay Corner and then going off on a drive around Britain in his Mini ; he ended up in psychiatric care in Cambridge .
By the start of 1969 , a somewhat recovered Barrett decided to return to his musical career and revisit the Jenner @-@ produced recordings . He contacted EMI , and was passed on to Malcolm Jones , then @-@ head of EMI 's new prog rock label , Harvest . After both Jenner and Norman Smith , Pink Floyd 's producer at the time , declined to work on the album , Jones agreed to take on the role .
= = = Malcolm Jones sessions = = =
Jones had little difficulty in persuading his boss , Roy Featherstone , and Ron White , authoriser of EMI recordings , to allow Barrett to record with the company again . In April 1969 , the young executive took over the project and Barrett began working on newer material , while reworking the 1968 recordings . Jones would later explain the rationale behind EMI letting Barrett record again : " What was decided was to see what was the strength of Syd 's new material , and plan accordingly . If it worked , then , O.K. we 'd do an album . If not , we 'd call it a day ... " In a meeting at Barrett 's flat in Earls Court , unsure of Jenner 's production technique , Jones asked to hear some of the previous year 's tapes ; Barrett played him " Swan Lee " , " Late Night " , " Rhamadam " , " Lanky ( Parts One and Two ) " and " Golden Hair " . Of these , " Swan Lee " had no vocals , but Jones saw potential in the song ; " Late Night " did have vocals and , Jones remarked , " a certain charm " ; while " Golden Hair " was " great " . After the playbacks , Barrett performed several songs on guitar for Jones : " Opel " and " Clowns and Jugglers " ( both attempted during the sessions with Peter Jenner ) , and the newly written " Terrapin " and " Love You " .
The Jones @-@ produced sessions commenced on 10 April 1969 at EMI 's Studio 3 , with that day being dedicated to going through the 1968 tapes again to see what could be improved upon . The first track to be worked on was " Swan Lee " , which received vocal overdubs and a new guitar track , and several ideas for " Clowns and Jugglers " were considered ; Barrett and Jones both felt that the results were superior to the previous versions . The following day , in about five hours , Barrett recorded vocal and guitar tracks for four recently recorded songs , starting with " Opel " , and two old ones . Barrett and his new producer were in agreement that " Opel " was among the best of the new recordings at this time ; only two complete takes of the song were taped , though , after multiple false starts . The next song attempted was " Love You " , the first take of which featured a faster tempo than the officially released take 2 . After " Love You " , they recorded " It 's No Good Trying " , which was similarly completed in just a few takes . Barrett was in " great form , and very happy " , Jones recalled , and " very together " . During the lunch break that day , they talked about improving some of the other songs from the Jenner sessions , particularly " Golden Hair " and " Late Night " , the last of which was just a backing track at this point . After returning to the studio , they worked on " Terrapin " , with Barrett requiring just a single take , and added slide guitar and vocals to " Late Night " .
The following session took place on 17 April , in Studio 2 at Abbey Road . Jones arrived there to find that Barrett had brought in friends of his as support musicians : Jerry Shirley , drummer with Humble Pie , and Willie Wilson , Jokers Wild 's drummer , although for this occasion he was playing bass . The problem with this new set @-@ up , though , was that the songs were recorded as Barrett played them live in the studio ; on the released versions , a number of them have false starts and commentaries from Barrett . The first track Barrett and his fellow musicians worked on was " No Man 's Land " , after Barrett had played through the song several times , to allow Shirley and Wilson to pick up the segments . Once the rehearsal was through , they went for a take , to check how the band sounded and to test the equipment from within the control room . After these tests , the band recorded three takes , the last of which became the master take for " No Man 's Land " ; the bass , however , was re @-@ recorded at a later date . Playing along with Barrett wasn 't easy , according to Jones : " It was a case of following him , not playing with him . They were seeing and then playing so they were always a note behind ... " Shirley said of Barrett : " He gave the impression he knew something you didn 't . He had this music sort of giggle ... "
Next , they recorded a song that Barrett had written in a few minutes , " Here I Go " , which required no overdubs at all . This session for " No Man 's Land " and " Here I Go " lasted just three hours . When asked if he had any new songs for the following week 's session , on 23 April , Barrett 's replied that he had " a weird idea I want to try out " and that other musicians would not be required . Afterwards , Barrett mentioned that he was interested in revisting one of the Jenner tracks − " Rhamadam " . On the morning of the 23rd , Barrett arrived at the studio with a cassette player , on which he had recorded motorbike sounds ; these , he told Jones , were " all ready to [ be ] put onto the ' Rhamadam ' four track " . The producer described the sound quality as " terrible " , an opinion that was confirmed once Barrett 's player had been hooked up to a 4 @-@ track machine . Instead it was decided that Barrett should source the motorbike sounds from EMI 's large sound effects library . The selection process took up to an hour , at which point Jones started to lose faith in Barrett . Later on , Barrett changed his mind and abandoned the idea .
The session on 25 April was almost cancelled , due to Jones becoming ill from colitis . Beforehand , it had been agreed that this session would be dedicated to transferring their previously recorded , 4 @-@ track recordings onto Studio 3 's newer 8 @-@ track machine , for further overdubs in later sessions . At Jones ' suggestion , and despite warnings the producer had received that Barrett should not be in the studio unaccompanied . Barrett went in on his own to carry out the mixing . It had been decided that nearly all of the tracks that were recorded up to that point needed further overdubbing except for " No Man 's Land " and " Here I Go " . At this point , Barrett considered placing " Opel " on the album , Jones calls it among Barrett 's " best and most haunting " songs . On the session for 3 May , three tracks on the album were overdubbed by Robert Wyatt , Hugh Hopper and Mike Ratledge , all members of the band Soft Machine : The three songs were " Love You " , ( now dropping " It 's " ) " No Good Trying " , and " Clowns and Jugglers " . Even after the Soft Machine members added overdubs to " Clowns and Jugglers " , Barrett wished to add bass and drums to it .
Robert Wyatt had said that the musicians would ask " What key is that in , Syd ? " , to which Barrett would simply reply " Yeah " or " That 's funny " . During this time , Barrett also played guitar on the sessions for Soft Machine founder Kevin Ayers ' debut LP , Joy of a Toy , although his performance on " Religious Experience " was not released until the album was reissued in 2003 . The next day 's session had Barrett adding backwards guitar to " No Good Trying " , and lead to " Terrapin " and " No Man 's Land " . It was around this time that Jones ' involvement came to an end – during these last few sessions , Gilmour had started taking an interest in how Barrett was getting along with his album . Although Barrett had told his flatmate that he was going off " for an afternoon drive " , he instead followed Pink Floyd out to Ibiza . During the trip , he asked David Gilmour for his help on the album , and , at the end of May , Malcolm Jones abandoned his production responsibilities .
= = = David Gilmour and Roger Waters sessions = = =
In his book The Making of the Madcap Laughs , Jones states that " when Dave came to me and said that Syd wanted him and Roger to do the remaining parts of the album , I acquiesced " . Roger Waters and David Gilmour were in the process of completing Pink Floyd 's Ummagumma album when they got involved with The Madcap Laughs that July and helped Barrett finish his album − " in a two @-@ day sprint " , according to Pink Floyd biographer Rick Sanders . " We had very little time , " Gilmour recalled in a May 2003 interview . " Syd was very difficult , we got that very frustrated feeling : Look , its your fucking career , mate . Why don 't you get your finger out and do something ? The guy was in trouble , and was a close friend for many years before then , so it really was the least one could do . "
After the first session with new producers Gilmour and Waters , on 12 June , they had remade " Clowns and Jugglers " into " Octopus " , from the Soft Machine 's overdubbed version ; then , they re @-@ recorded " Golden Hair " , and recorded " Long Gone " and " Dark Globe " . As the following day 's session was dedicated to overdubbing " Octopus " , this became Barrett 's final session for over a month , due to a temporary halt while Gilmour and Waters mixed Ummagumma , to Barrett 's dismay , and a Floyd tour in the Netherlands . However , towards the end of July , on the 26th , they managed to record " She Took a Long Cold Look at Me " , " Feel " , " If It 's in You " , another version of " Long Gone " , an attempt at a re @-@ make of " Dark Globe " , and even a medley of " She Took " / " Feel " / " If It 's in You " . Barrett would not allow the musicians to rehearse or to re @-@ record their overdubs , insisting that they sounded fine . After several months of intermittent recording , the album was finally deemed complete . After the final recording sessions for the album had been completed , Gilmour and Waters mixed not just the tracks they had produced , but also the Jones tracks , in a matter of two days . Five tracks were mixed on 5 August : " Long Gone " , " She Took " , " Feel " , " If It 's in You " , and " Octopus " . The following day , three tracks , " Golden Hair " , " Dark Globe " , and " Terrapin " , were mixed in just three hours . The track order was sequenced by Barrett and Gilmour on 6 October .
= = Release , reception , and aftermath = =
" Octopus " was released as a single in November 1969 and The Madcap Laughs followed on 3 January 1970 . The album was released by Harvest in the UK , while in the US it was issued by Capitol Records . It sold 6 @,@ 000 copies in the first few months and reached number 40 in the UK and was fairly well @-@ reviewed by music critics . Upon release , Gilmour said : " Perhaps we were trying to show what Syd was really like . But perhaps we were trying to punish him ... " While Barrett admitted that " I don 't think it would stand as my last statement " , Waters was more optimistic , declaring Barrett a " genius " . Initial sales and reaction were deemed sufficient by EMI to sanction a second solo album .
Malcolm Jones was shocked by the substandard musicianship on the Gilmour and Waters @-@ produced songs , however : " I felt angry . It 's like dirty linen in public and very unnecessary and unkind ... " Barrett later said of the album : " I liked what came out , only it was released far too long after it was done . I wanted it to be a whole thing that people would listen to all the way through with everything related and balanced , the tempos and moods offsetting each other , and I hope that 's what it sounds like . " In a bid to increase sales , Jones wrote a letter to music magazine , Melody Maker , under an alternate name , writing how great the album was .
It 's quite nice but I 'd be very surprised if it did anything . If I were to drop dead , I don 't think it would stand as my last statement . "
On 6 June 1970 , Barrett gave his one and only solo performance , the performance was held at the Kensington Olympia , backed by Gilmour and Shirley , and baffled the audience ( including Gilmour and Shirley ) when he abruptly took off his guitar after the fourth number and walked off stage . They played " Terrapin " , " Gigolo Aunt " , " Effervescing Elephant " , and " Octopus " . From the start of the performance up to ( but not including ) " Octopus " , the vocals were inaudible . The performance has been bootlegged .
= = Cover artwork = =
For the album cover , Barrett painted the floor of his bedroom in Wetherby Mansions orange and purple . The nude woman appearing on the back of the record sleeve was an acquaintance of his known as " Iggy the Eskimo " . Photographer Mick Rock says , " When I arrived for ' The Madcap Laughs ' photo session , Syd was still in his underpants .. His lady friend of two weeks , ' Iggy the Eskimo ' , was naked in the kitchen .. " Iggy met Barrett in March 1969 , through Barrett 's then @-@ girlfriend , Jenny Spires . Barrett had moved into Wetherby Mansions , and Jenny took Iggy there one evening . Iggy stayed on at the flat when Jenny left for The States a couple of weeks later . Iggy didn 't know who Barrett was or that he was previously in Pink Floyd . Iggy heard Barrett play several songs that would later appear on the album , one being " Terrapin " , which she called " quite catchy " . In October 2010 she was interviewed , revealing that her name was Evelyn . The album was designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis . The original sleeve featured no musician credits , barring producer credit ; later issues contain musician credits . On the original release , track 10 is listed as " She Took a Long Cold Look " , although on the 2010 remaster the track is re @-@ titled to " She Took a Long Cool Look " , in similar vein to An Introduction to Syd Barrett .
= = Reissues = =
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a lawyer living in suburban Oakton , Virginia , but had been working as general counsel at Radio Free Asia in downtown Washington , D.C. He had stayed the night at the home of friends located about one mile from his office . According to police affidavits , Wone was believed to have been " restrained , incapacitated , and sexually assaulted " before his death . The murder was not committed by an intruder unknown to residents of the home Price , Victor Zaborsky and Dylan Ward .
Within days of the murder , D.C. police alleged that the crime scene had been tampered with , but no charges were filed for over two years . In late 2008 , police charged Price , Zaborsky and Ward with obstruction of justice and conspiracy related to alleged tampering with the crime scene . The men were acquitted of the charges in June 2010 . No one has been charged with Wone 's killing . In November 2008 , Wone 's widow filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Price , Zaborsky and Ward ; the suit was settled on August 3 , 2011 for an undisclosed sum and agreement .
= = Crime = =
Late on August 2 , 2006 , Robert Eric Wone was fatally stabbed while staying overnight at a Swann Street , NW townhouse in Washington , D.C. , owned by Joseph Price ( a / k / a Joseph Anderson ) and his domestic partner Victor Zaborsky , where they lived with Dylan Ward ( a / k / a Dylan Thomas ) in a polyamourous relationship as a family . Wone had gone to Price 's residence at approximately 10 : 30 PM after working late , as had been arranged days before . Neighbors reported hearing a scream , later identified as Zaborsky 's , during the 11 : 00 PM newscast ( i.e. before 11 : 35 PM ) . Zaborsky made a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call at 11 : 49 PM , and paramedics arrived five minutes later , followed by the police . Price phoned Wone 's wife , and Wone was pronounced dead at George Washington University Hospital at 12 : 24 AM on August 3 .
Price , Zaborsky and Ward all initially spoke with the police without attorneys , and video recordings of those interviews were shown at the subsequent conspiracy trial . They denied any involvement in the death and speculated that an intruder had killed Wone . The three also denied any sexual relationship with Wone , and Wone 's family have described him as both " straight and happily married " . All three men attended Wone 's funeral , where Price served as a pallbearer . Eric Holder , who worked at that time at Covington & Burling , called Wone " a kind and gentle man " who was " killed in the most horrible of ways " .
= = Investigation = =
Paramedics responding to the emergency call " found the three residents ’ calm behavior unusual ; none was screaming or even helping direct the paramedics . " According to Ward 's attorney , detectives who interrogated the three housemates on the night of the murder informed them that they were the main suspects in the case , and asked many sexually charged , accusatory questions . Three days after the murder , the Gay and Lesbian Liaison Unit of the D.C. police were called in , but unit head Sgt. Brett Parson declined to discuss the unit 's involvement . Within two weeks of the murder , police publicly alleged that the crime scene had been tampered with . Investigators spent more than three weeks examining the townhouse in detail , " removing flooring , pieces of walls , a chunk of staircase , the washing machine , even sink traps . " Allegations that the area around Wone 's body had been cleaned were revealed in an affidavit in support of a search warrant for homeowner Joseph Price 's offices at the D.C. law firm of Arent Fox .
= = = Burglary = = =
Three months after Wone 's death , Price 's brother and an accomplice burgled the Swann Street residence ; they took more than $ 7 @,@ 000 of electronic equipment . Two individuals , including Price 's brother , were charged with the burglary , but those charges were later dropped . In 2007 , D.C. police revealed that they had been preparing to make an arrest in the Wone murder case in 2006 , but that the burglary had derailed those plans . Police have not revealed the name of the arrest target , nor the charge ( s ) that would have been filed .
= = = Lack of progress = = =
In August 2007 The Washington Post reported Katherine Wone 's frustration with the FBI crime lab , " It has been trying at times as we continue to wait for the FBI to complete their analysis of all the samples that were taken . " Over one year the case had been transferred to three separate prosecutors , earning it " vagabond status " in the U.S. Attorneys ' office . On the one @-@ year anniversary of Wone 's death , Katherine Wone held a press conference to appeal for public assistance in finding the killer , her first public comment on the case . During the press conference , Holder publicly pleaded with the three residents to provide additional information , saying " You need to ask yourself , ' Have I provided police with all the information I know ? ' " Interested parties , such as the OCA , used the first anniversary of Wone 's death to criticize what they deemed police inaction in the investigation . In contrast to the first anniversary of Wone 's murder , there was no press conference on the second anniversary , and neither the Wone family nor police made any statements to the press .
= = = Arrests and charges = = =
An obstruction of justice charge was filed in October 2008 against housemate Dylan Ward , who had since moved to Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida and was living in a home owned by Price . In November 2008 , Price and Zaborsky were arrested and also charged with obstruction of justice . All three men were later released pending trial , but subject to electronic monitoring and curfews . On December 19 , 2008 , additional charges of conspiracy were filed against all three men . During the same hearing , the electronic monitoring and curfew restrictions for the three defendants were ended and prosecutors announced the possibility that charges related to tampering with evidence could be filed in the future .
The affidavit filed by authorities supporting the arrest warrant for Ward showed that investigators had concluded the men were not telling the truth about what happened . The report states " The evidence demonstrates that Robert Wone was restrained , incapacitated , sexually assaulted , and murdered inside 1509 Swann Street , " and there exists " overwhelming evidence , far in excess of probable cause " that Price , Zaborsky , and Ward " obstructed justice by altering and orchestrating the crime scene , planting evidence , delaying the reporting of the murder to the authorities , and lying to the police about the true circumstances of the murder . " Lawyers for the three accused men have called the affidavit " speculation , innuendo , assumptions , and irrelevant inflammatory comments " and maintain their clients ' innocence . Price and Zaborsky were domestic partners , and the affidavit alleges that Price had previously had a sexual relationship with Ward . Washington attorney Dale Sanders opined that the release of the extensively detailed affidavit was intended to turn one of the housemates , presumably Ward , against the others , and hypothesized that it indicated prosecutors lacked sufficient evidence to charge any of the housemates with additional crimes without the cooperation of a witness .
Officials believe that a knife from the kitchen had been smeared with blood and placed near the body , while a duplicate of the knife which was missing from a set found in Ward 's bedroom would have been more consistent with the wounds to Wone 's body . The autopsy revealed evidence of some degree of suffocation , perhaps by a pillow , and puncture marks on his neck , chest , foot and hand . Though no toxins were found in his blood , a lack of evidence of struggle led investigators to suspect Wone had been injected with a paralytic agent . Cadaver dogs found a blood residue in a dryer lint trap and the patio drain , which detectives believe may be evidence that someone washed themselves in the back patio area , and dried wet clothes in the dryer . City Paper Columnist Jason Cherkis reported unattributed criticism of the medical examiner 's failure to test for exotic drugs and to keep a sample of Wone 's blood for later testing , as well as detectives ' failure to follow up on a lint trap that had attracted a cadaver dog 's attention . Price 's lawyer has challenged the timing of the indictments , has said that the civil suit " looked unseemly " , and questioned whether the prosecutors and Wone family attorneys were acting in concert .
In April , 2009 , prosecutors disclosed that two emails had been drafted on Wone 's BlackBerry " at a time when prosecutors believed Wone dead " . An independent criminal law attorney noted that " The defense will argue that this is consistent with their claim that the murder happened quickly by an intruder and it was not a long , drawn @-@ out effort to sexually assault Wone before he was killed , as the government is alleging . " Previously a court filing indicated the government intended to release a personal profile that Price allegedly used on ALT.com , " a sexually oriented web site specializing in S & M practices " .
Formal defense in the conspiracy case began on June 17 , 2010 , and concluded without any of the defendants testifying .
Judge Lynn Leibovitz found each of the three men not guilty of charges of conspiracy , obstruction of justice and tampering with evidence on June 29 , 2010 . Leibovitz , in explaining her ruling for almost an hour from the bench , stated that she personally believed that the men knew who killed Wone , but was not convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that they committed the offenses with which they were charged .
= = = Civil lawsuit = = =
On November 25 , 2008 , Wone 's widow Katherine filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the three men , largely based on the police affidavit . The lawsuit alleged " defendants ' negligent failure to rescue Robert Wone after he was injured , defendants ' destruction of evidence of Robert Wone ’ s murder , and defendants ' conspiracy to destroy evidence and obstruct the police investigation into Robert Wone ’ s murder . " The suit was settled August 3 , 2011 for an undisclosed sum and agreement . Prior to his nomination as United States Attorney General , Eric Holder advised Wone 's widow on a pro bono basis .
= = Aftermath = =
Wone 's death has proven to be one of Washington , D.C. ' s most mysterious homicide cases . The Washington Examiner listed the Wone case , in light of the arrests , as one of eight top crime stories in D.C. for 2008 . The Washington Blade stated that the case " has captured the interest of the gay community because it occurred inside the home of a prominent gay male couple . " In March 2009 , a MyFoxDC.com story on the crime highlighted a website ( Whomurderedrobertwone.com ) cataloging the investigative efforts of " four amateur sleuths who live in the neighborhood " .
Since Wone 's death , multiple organizations have established scholarships and other memorials in his name , including the Virginia Department of Social Services " Robert E. Wone Award for Exemplary Service " ; the annual " Robert E. Wone Judicial Clerkship & Internship Conference , " which rotates among the D.C. area law schools , including Georgetown University Law Center , American University Washington College of Law , and Howard University School of Law ; a workroom at OCA headquarters ; the " Robert E. Wone Fellowship " of the Asian Pacific American Bar Association Educational Fund ; the " Robert E. Wone Scholarship " of OCA 's New Jersey Chapter ; the " Robert E. Wone Memorial Trust , " administered by the Community Foundation of the National Capital Region ; and the " Robert E. Wone Clinical Fellowship " at the University of Pennsylvania Law School , including a room in the law school 's Civil Practice Clinic . On October 22 , 2011 , family and friends gathered at Barksdale Field at the College of William and Mary to dedicate two benches and two Chinese pistache trees in Robert 's memory . The plaques on the benches read " Rest awhile and enjoy the wonderful world around you , " a reference to one of Wone 's favorite songs by Louis Armstrong , It 's a Wonderful World .
= = Victim = =
Robert Eric Wone ( June 1 , 1974 – August 3 , 2006 ) was a fourth generation Chinese American , born in Manhattan and raised in Brooklyn , New York . After graduating from Xaverian High School as salutatorian of his class , he attended The College of William and Mary as a James Monroe Scholar . There , Wone met Joseph Price , then a senior , in the 1992 – 93 academic year . Wone and Price shared several activities , including an honor society and student government leadership positions , before Price graduated in 1993 . During 1993 , the Richmond Times Dispatch published an opinion piece co @-@ written by Wone , criticizing a prior Times Dispatch article on William and Mary faculty . Graduating in 1996 , Wone then received his law degree with honors from the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1999 . He subsequently served as law clerk to Judge Raymond A. Jackson of the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . Wone later worked in commercial real estate law for six years as an associate with the Washington , D.C. , firm of Covington & Burling . As part of his public service responsibilities with the law firm , Wone served as general counsel for the Organization of Chinese Americans ( OCA ) . On June 7 , 2003 , Wone married Katherine Ellen Yu , and the couple lived in Fairfax County . On June 30 , 2006 , about two months before he was killed , Wone left Covington & Burling and was hired as general counsel for Radio Free Asia . Wone was very active within the Asian American community , supporting organizations such as OCA and the Museum of Chinese in the Americas . At the time of his death , he was president @-@ elect of the Asian Pacific American Bar Association .
= Ivan the Russian =
Ivan the Russian ( Bulgarian : Иван Русина , Ivan Rusina ; Hungarian : Orosz Iván ) ( fl . 1288 / 1323 – 1332 ) was a 14th @-@ century Bulgarian military leader of Russian origin who served Bulgarian tsars Michael Shishman and Ivan Alexander . Prior to joining the armed forces of the Second Bulgarian Empire , Ivan the Russian may have been a military commander in the service of the Hungarian governor of Severin .
Ivan the Russian rose to a high rank in the Bulgarian military in the wake of the accession of Michael Shishman to the throne . In 1323 , he was in charge of the Bulgarian defence of Plovdiv during the prolonged and ultimately successful Byzantine siege of the city . In 1328 , he was involved in a failed Bulgarian attempt to capture the Byzantine capital Constantinople from within . Probably taking part in the turbulent events that surrounded and followed Michael Shishman 's death , Ivan the Russian was last mentioned as a representative of Ivan Alexander in 1332 .
= = Early years and siege of Plovdiv = =
Bulgarian historian Plamen Pavlov conjectures that Ivan the Russian was a Ruthenian born in the Kingdom of Galicia – Volhynia ( centred on modern western Ukraine ) , a hypothesis based only on his ties to Hungary , the western neighbour of Galicia – Volhynia . Hungarian sources from 1288 make notice of one Russian named Ivan ( Iwan dicto Oroz ) as an ally of the ban of Severin , Theodore Vejtehi from the kindred Csanád , who was one of the nobles that opposed the rule of Charles I of Hungary in 1316 – 1317 . The land to the south of Severin was governed for Bulgaria by the despot of Vidin , Michael Shishman , a supporter of Vejtehi . Thus , as the Hungarian king established his authority over Severin and suppressed Vejtehi 's rebellion , Ivan the Russian may have fled to Vidin and entered the service of Michael Shishman . Ivan is thought to have been joined , as a commander subordinate to the despot of Vidin , by his personal forces which consisted of Hungarians and , presumably , Russians .
While Hungarian scholar György Györffy supports the identification of Ivan the Russian as the Iwan dicto Oroz of Hungarian chronicles , historian István Vásáry points to the lack of clear evidence and the large time span between the two . Before that identification was proposed , it was considered that Ivan had arrived in Bulgaria after fleeing the Mongol conquest of Rus ' , much like another Russian in Bulgarian service , Jacob Svetoslav . Either way , in 1323 Ivan 's right @-@ hand man was a Hungarian named Inas .
Michael Shishman 's accession to the Bulgarian throne in 1323 meant that Ivan the Russian assumed an elite rank in the Bulgarian military hierarchy . Pavlov theorizes that he became protostrator , a title borrowed from Byzantium . The title was held by the second @-@ in @-@ command of the army and was approximate to the Western marshal . In the same year , Ivan was dispatched to the city of Plovdiv ( Philippopolis ) which had been recently conquered by Bulgaria after decades of Byzantine rule . With a one @-@ thousand @-@ strong cavalry force of Alans , Bulgarians and possibly Hungarians and two thousand infantrymen , Ivan was to defend the city from Byzantine raids . In that task he was assisted by his deputy Inas and the Alan chieftains Itil and Temir . At the time , Ivan was already well @-@ known even in Byzantium as a military commander .
The Bulgarian forces commanded by Ivan the Russian managed to withstand the four @-@ month siege of Plovdiv undertaken by Andronikos III Palaiologos , claimant to the Byzantine throne , and his Bulgarian ally Voysil , despot of Kopsis . In their attempts to capture the city , the Byzantines employed German specialists to construct a siege machine , from which they fired with crossbows at the Bulgarian defenders . Despite the elaborate siege tactics , by the summer of 1323 the Bulgarians had not only retained the city , but also launched raids on nearby Byzantine @-@ held fortresses in the Rhodope Mountains , such as Stenimachos ( modern Asenovgrad ) and Tsepina . Plovdiv was lost , however , to the Byzantines soon thereafter . As Ivan 's forces were leaving the city to meet the Bulgarian garrison that was to replace them , the pro @-@ Byzantine inhabitants of Plovdiv opened the city gates and let a covert Byzantine detachment in .
= = Anti @-@ Byzantine plot and later career = =
The loss of Plovdiv did not seem to have had a profound effect on Ivan 's career , and he remained a royal favourite . In 1328 , Ivan was tasked by Tsar Michael Shishman with the defence of the Great Palace of Constantinople , the residence of emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos . Andronikos II , facing imminent defeat at the hands of his grandson and co @-@ emperor Andronikos III in a protracted civil war , was distrustful of his own guard , and had requested the assistance of Michael Shishman . The Bulgarian emperor sent Ivan the Russian along with 3 @,@ 000 horsemen to Constantinople in aid . In the words of Byzantine historian Nikephoros Gregoras , the actual intentions of Michael Shishman were to use Ivan and his men as a Trojan Horse . In a suitable moment , the Bulgarian guard would arrest the emperor and take hold of the palace before allowing Michael Shishman with a large army and Tatar mercenaries into Constantinople .
In accordance with the plan , Ivan and his cavalry approached Constantinople while Michael Shishman waited in Yambol with his army . The plot was uncovered by the spies of Andronikos III . Fearing for his own imperial ambitions , he wrote to his rival and grandfather not to accept the Bulgarians into the capital . While Ivan stuck to the plan and signed an oath that he had come with peace to persuade the Byzantines , he promptly retreated to Bulgarian territory upon receiving that order from Michael Shishman .
Ivan 's role in the final years of Tsar Michael Shishman 's reign and the rule of Ivan Stephen is uncertain , as he is not mentioned in the sources pertaining to that period . His high @-@ ranking position nevertheless leads Pavlov to conjecture that Ivan took part in the Battle of Velbazhd of 28 July 1330 , a Serbian victory over Bulgaria that paved the way to the Serbian dominance of the Balkans in the mid @-@ 14th century . Michael Shishman was killed in the battle and succeeded by his son Ivan Stephen ( 1330 – 1331 ) . Pavlov believes that Ivan the Russian was among the Bulgarian nobles that ousted the weak Ivan Stephen in 1331 and placed Ivan Alexander ( 1331 – 1371 ) on the throne . It is also probable that Ivan the Russian took part in the Bulgarian victory over Byzantium at Rusokastro in 1332 because he was last recorded as Ivan Alexander 's representative in the peace negotiations that followed .
= = Assessment = =
Ivan the Russian was held in high regard by John VI Kantakouzenos , writer and later Byzantine emperor who likely personally faced Ivan in battle . In his History , Kantakouzenos calls Ivan a man “ skilled in strategy ” . Kantakouzenos also referred to Ivan as “ one of Bulgaria 's illustrious people ” in his writings . Czech historian Konstantin Josef Jireček , a prominent researcher of Bulgarian history , assesses Ivan as “ the most clear @-@ cut figure of a Bulgarian military leader ” of that age . In the eyes of Pavlov , despite his foreign origin Ivan the Russian was not considered an emigrant or a mercenary by the Bulgarian nobility and the emperor , but rather a trusted commander and one of their own .
= Lethal Inspection =
" Lethal Inspection " is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the animated sitcom Futurama , originally aired on July 22 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In the episode Bender learns that he suffers from a terminal manufacturing defect , effectively rendering him mortal . Bender must cope with his newfound mortality and enlists Hermes Conrad 's help to track down the mysterious quality inspector , Inspector No. 5 , whom he blames for allowing him to enter the world only to die .
The episode was written by Eric Horsted and directed by Ray Claffey . From June 8 to June 15 , as part of its " Countdown to Futurama " event , Comedy Central Insider , Comedy Central 's news outlet , released various preview materials for the episode , including a storyboard of Bender 's and Hermes ' entry into the Central Bureaucracy and character designs for the war reenactment sequence . " Lethal Inspection " received positive reviews from critics , who viewed the emotional ending to be a return to form that the season had been missing .
= = Plot = =
After a reenactment of the " Sith @-@ al War " , Bender touts his perfection and " immortality " , specifically citing his ability to download a backup copy of himself into a new working body should anything happen to his present one . Bender soon discovers that he suffers from a terminal manufacturing defect : he is built without a backup unit , making him mortal . He is devastated by the revelation of his mortality and of Inspector No. 5 , believing the inspector 's careless error resulted in him being sent out into the world only to die . He becomes determined to find Inspector No. 5 and demand an answer to why he allowed Bender to exist despite his fatal flaw .
Hermes agrees to help Bender in his quest to discover the identity of Inspector No. 5 , which is locked in the Central Bureaucracy . While at the Central Bureaucracy , Hermes logs into the computer system with his ID to look up Inspector No. 5 's records . However , he and Bender find that the electronic record on Inspector No. 5 has been deleted and that the physical file is also missing . Bender calls Mom 's Friendly Robot Company , who created him , and tells her he is defective . Mom attempts to have Bender destroyed to cover up the existence of a defective robot . The two flee from Mom 's Killbots by train and arrive in Tijuana — where Bender was manufactured .
The original manufacturing plant is abandoned , but Bender finds an old directory listing Inspector No. 5 's address . However
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5 – 75 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 13698230 @.@ 2012 @.@ 691235 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2012 ) . " Evaluating ' bioethical approaches ' to human rights " . Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 15 ( 3 ) : 309 – 322 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s10677 @-@ 012 @-@ 9345 @-@ 8 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2010 ) . " Undignified bioethics " . Bioethics 24 ( 5 ) : 234 – 241 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 8519.2009.01781.x. PMID 20002071 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2009 ) . " Do animals have an interest in liberty ? " . Political Studies 57 ( 3 ) : 660 – 679 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9248.2008.00742.x.
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2009 ) . " Ownership and justice for animals " . Utilitas 21 ( 4 ) : 424 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0953820809990203 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2007 ) . " Animal rights and animal experiments : An interest @-@ based approach " . Res Publica 13 ( 3 ) : 293 – 318 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s11158 @-@ 007 @-@ 9037 @-@ 8 .
= = = Chapters = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Inter @-@ species solidarity : Labour rights for animals " . In Garner , Robert ; O 'Sullivan , Siobhan . The Political Turn in Animal Ethics . London : Rowman & Littlefield International .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness ? Specifying the rights of animals " . In Višak , Tatjana ; Garner , Robert . The Ethics of Killing Animals . Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 201 – 14 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199396078 @.@ 003 @.@ 0012 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2014 ) . " Born in chains ? The ethics of animal domestication " . In Gruen , Lori . The Ethics of Captivity . Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 156 – 73 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199977994 @.@ 003 @.@ 0011 .
= Acharya Institute of Technology =
Acharya Institute of Technology , or AIT , is a private co @-@ educational engineering and management college in Bangalore , India , affiliated with the Visvesvaraya Technological University ( VTU ) and accredited by the National Board of Accreditation ( NBA ) . Established in 2000 , it offers eleven undergraduate courses and eight postgraduate courses . AIT includes the NRV School of Architecture , which offers a five @-@ year undergraduate course in architecture and is accredited by the Council of Architecture ( COA ) . The college has links and collaborations with various industries and universities across the world .
It is one of the several institutes run by the JMJ Education Society and features in various ranking lists of top engineering colleges in India published by media agencies and publications like Outlook , Competition Success Review ( CSR ) , Dataquest , NASSCOM , The Week and Electronics For You . In 2009 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 rankings , AIT was ranked among the top five Engineering colleges in Karnataka by the Global Human Resources Development Centre ( GHRDC ) . It features as an AA + institution in the rankings of the Careers 360 magazine . The CSR @-@ GHRDC survey , in 2009 rankings , listed the college as the most promising engineering college in India . The college received the South India 's Excellent Institution Award from A @-@ Plus TV Media Works . The AICTE- CII survey of industry linked engineering institutions , in 2012 , has ranked AIT as No. 2 in the South- Western region comprising the states of Karnataka and Kerela and No. 13 in India .
AIT organises the Acharya Habba , an annual 2 days long inter @-@ collegiate cultural festival that is one of the largest in Bangalore and Karnataka .
The Deccan Herald lists AIT as one of the " notable " colleges to apply the Karnataka Management Aptitude Test ( KMAT ) for admission to postgraduate management courses .
= = History = =
The Acharya Institute of Technology ( AIT ) was established in 2000 by Premnath Reddy , chairman of the Acharya Group of Institutions . The college is managed by the JMJ Education Society , headquartered in Bangalore . AIT offers thirteen Bachelor of Engineering ( BE ) courses , six Master of Technology ( MTech ) courses , Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) , Master of Computer Applications ( MCA ) and a PhD course in Mathematics . All courses are affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological University ( VTU ) . It was the first college under the VTU to start an undergraduate course in Mechatronics in Karnataka .
In 2009 the college constructed a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long road from its campus to the Hessarghatta Main Road . The road was inaugurated by Shivakumara Swamiji of Siddaganga Math in September 2010 . It is named Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road after former Indian President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan .
In 2012 , the institute was granted " Technical Campus " status by the All India Council for Technical Education ( AICTE ) .
On 16 June 2012 , the college hosted India 's first Heavy metal music festival as a part of Bangalore Open Air 2012 backed by Germany 's Wacken Open Air at the college stadium . German Heavy metal bands and Teutonic thrash metal bands like the Kreator and the Suidakra along with an American Power metal band and Indian metal bands namely Kryptos , Eccentric Pendulum , Dying Embrace , 1833 AD , Bevar Sea and Albatross performed in the fest . Although Iced Earth were scheduled to perform at the fest , but backed out due to the denial of Visa by the Indian embassy .
= = Academic profile = =
= = = Admission criteria = = =
AIT admits 50 percent students on the basis of their rank in the Common Entrance Test ( CET ) conducted by the Government of Karnataka and 30 percent students through the Undergraduate Entrance Test of the Consortium of Medical , Engineering and Dental Colleges ( COMEDK ) of Karnataka . It also admits 20 percent students under a management quota without merit requirements and has admitted about 150 foreigners from 25 countries under " PIO Quota " .
There is a lateral entry scheme in place , by which students holding diploma degrees can enter directly into the second year of study in engineering . After completing their graduation , students receive a BE degree from the VTU . Students are admitted to postgraduate courses on the basis of their test scores in the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering , as well as on their Karnataka Postgraduate Common Entrance Test ( PGCET ) and KMAT scores .
= = = Departments and courses = = =
Undergraduate courses
The college offers four @-@ year BE courses in the following subjects . All are recognised by VTU .
Aeronautical Engineering
Automobile Engineering
Biotechnology
Civil Engineering
Computer Science
Construction technology
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Mechatronics Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Mining Engineering
Information Science & Engineering
Postgraduate courses
The college offers the following two @-@ year postgraduate courses , all recognised by the VTU .
MBA
MCA
MTech in Biotechnology
MTech in Computer Networking Engineering
MTech in Computer Science and Engineering
MTech in Digital Communication Engineering
MTech in Machine Design
MTech in Power Systems
Architecture
Acharya 's NRV School of Architecture offers a five @-@ year undergraduate course in architecture ( B.Arch ) , which is accredited by the Council of Architecture ( COA ) .
= = = Faculty = = =
AIT maintains a teacher @-@ student ratio of 1 : 10 . It is the first college in Karnataka to put in effect the Sixth Central Pay Commission recommendations for faculty pay scale .
= = = Research Centers = = =
The Institute receives a " Modernisation and Removal of Obsolescence " grant from the AICTE for research activities and upgraded state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art laboratory facilities . The Visvesvaraya Technological University recognises the college 's departments of Biotechnology , Electronics and Communication Engineering , Mathematics , and Mechanical Engineering as research centers :
= = = Accreditation and Rankings = = =
AIT is accredited by the National Board of Accreditation ( NBA ) . It was the first college of the Visvesvaraya Technological University to start an undergraduate course in Mechatronics in Karnataka . It is one of the seven colleges in Karnataka to be funded by the World Bank and receives endowments from the VTU to carry out research in both its undergraduate and postgraduate departments .
The college is ranked consistently among the top 50 engineering colleges in India by publications and organizations such as Outlook , Competition Success Review ( CSR ) , Dataquest , NASSCOM , The Week and Electronics For You . In 2009 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 rankings , AIT was ranked among the top five engineering colleges in Karnataka by the Global Human Resources Development Centre ( GHRDC ) . It features as an AA + institution in the rankings of the Careers 360 magazine . The CSR @-@ GHRDC survey , in 2009 rankings , listed the college as the most promising engineering college in India . The college received the South India 's Excellent Institution Award from A @-@ Plus TV Media Works .
= = Administration = =
= = = Governing Council = = =
The Governing Council of the college consists of 11 members . The body comprises five members from the JMJ Education Society , one staff representative , one member of the Indian University Grants Commission , one AICTE nominee , one Government of Karnataka nominee , one Department of Technical Education nominee , one university nominee , and one Member Secretary , the Principal .
= = = Academic Council = = =
The Academic Council of the college is headed by the Principal . Student enrollments , academics , assessments and examinations are managed by the respective deans , the Controller of Examinations and appointed faculty members . The college administration is managed by the Director of Administration . The research department is headed by the Director of Research and Development . The placement department is managed by the Principal , the Human Resource Director and one expert in the subject . Each academic department is headed by a head of department .
= = = Proctorial system = = =
Faculty members are appointed as proctors for the students of their departments to monitor their attendance , performance in tests , extracurricular activities and personality development . Each proctor supervises 20 students per semester .
= = Campus = =
Educational facilities
The college has a Central Library with EDUSAT programmes , E @-@ learning facilities and an Online Public Access Catalog ( OPAC ) gateway . It has various collaborations with multinational corporations and has established learning facilities like the Vasundhara Industrial Automation Learning Center , the IBM Software Center of Excellence , the Microsoft IT Academy and the Novell Centre of Excellence . The International Academy for Competency Enhancement provides students and recent graduates with English language skills and technical training to equip them for work in industry .
Entrepreneur Incubation Cell
The college has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with IBM and has established the IBM Entrepreneur Incubation Center on the campus .
Infrastructure
The college provides all @-@ hours Wi @-@ Fi access on campus . It has an auditorium with a capacity of over 500 seats , board rooms , conference and seminar halls . The institute has its own multipurpose stadium , the Smt . Nagarathnama Stadium , with a capacity of over 10 @,@ 000 people . The college has a National Technical Manpower Information System ( NTMIS ) and an ATM outlet operated by Axis Bank . The college operates a campus clinic to provide medical facilities to the students . AIT has been awarded with " Technical Campus " status by AICTE . A striking feature of the architecture of every building is that it is made in the shape of the initials of every department when seen from the top . ( For ex . : M for Mechanical , E for Electrical ) . Have a look at the satellite view to believe us .
Environmental Initiatives
The campus has its own sewage treatment plant , has made use of rain water harvesting and has a four @-@ acre artificial lake .
Hostels and canteens
AIT provides hostel accommodation for both boys and girls . The hostel mess serves North Indian and South Indian . The college has a food court , a cafeteria and a canteen , which serve vegetarian food . The campus also houses a Coffee Day Xpress operated by Coffee Day .
Recreational facilities
The college 's Student Activity Center provides indoor games . The institute also organises horse riding and yoga learning camps on campus for the students .
= = Industry interaction = =
The college has industry collaborations and has signed memoranda of understanding with the Computer Society of India ( CSI ) , Environ Software Pvt Ltd , IBM , Infosys , the Indian Society for Technical Education ( ISTE ) , Keane , Microsoft , Novell , Oracle , SAP Labs , Sun Microsystems , United Technologies , Vasundhara Automation and Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd . , VMware , Wipro and many other leading companies to increase interaction with industry .
= = University twinning programs = =
AIT has twinning programs with foreign universities for student exchange and higher studies . Some of them are Jiujiang University , Shandong University , Ocean University of China and Hefei University in China ; Old Dominion University , Kent State University and Oklahoma State University in the United States ; Thames Valley University in the United Kingdom ; Andalusia Technology Park in Spain ; and Lübeck University of Applied Sciences in Germany . The college also has tie @-@ ups in India , with Mysore University and the Indian Institute of Technology , Bombay .
Indo @-@ German Youth University
The college is a partner of Indo @-@ German Youth university program .
= = Cultural activities = =
Acharya Habba
The college organises the Acharya Habba , an annual inter @-@ collegiate culfest that attracts a crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 students from over 300 colleges across Karnataka .
Ethnic day
Students dress up in their traditional clothes , highlighting the cultural importance of the region they come from .
Freshers ' day
The freshers are welcomed by the seniors of various college departments in an extravagant and cheerful way . The students organise various cultural , extra @-@ curricular and technical activities to greet and encourage the new freshers . Stalls are organised by different departments and clubs of the college to exhibit its facilities , rules and regulations , and achievements .
Bangalore Open Air 2012 - Heavy Metal festival
The college hosted India 's first heavy metal festival on 16 June 2012 as a part of Bangalore Open Air 2012 backed by Germany 's Wacken Open Air at the college stadium . German heavy metal bands and Teutonic thrash metal bands like the Kreator and the Suidakra along with an American Power metal band and Indian metal bands namely Kryptos , Eccentric Pendulum , Dying Embrace , 1833 AD , Bevar Sea and Albatross performed in the fest . Although Iced Earth were scheduled to perform at the fest but backed out due to the denial of Visa by the Indian embassy .
= = Technical activities = =
= = = Technical chapters = = =
Conferences , workshops and training programmes are organised in various technical chapters , including :
Associate Member of the Institution of Engineers ( AMIE ) Chapters
Computer Society of India ( CSI ) Chapters
Center for Social Service and Skill Promotion ( SKIP ) Chapters
Institution of Engineers ( IE ) Chapters
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) Chapters
Indian Society for Technical Education ( ISTE ) Chapters
Science and Technology Entrepreneurs Park ( STEP ) Chapters
= = = Departmental associations and forums = = =
The departments of the college conduct technical and extracurricular departmental forums for students and staff . Some of them are :
= = = Departmental publications = = =
The departments of the college have their own publications to provide broad knowledge and up @-@ to @-@ date information on technology . They include :
= = Student projects = =
Hovercraft
An one @-@ seater hovercraft was designed by a team of mechanical engineering students of AIT as their final year project work . It is 8 @.@ 5 feet long and runs on a Yezdi Roadking 250cc , 16 bhp , two @-@ stroke engine . The engine can accommodate high @-@ load operating conditions and has been designed for low @-@ speed operation . It can carry up to 260 kilograms . The hovercraft is equipped with GPS and the construction costs are lower than usual for this type of vehicle .
Other
A miniature car and a motor bike have been designed by the students of AIT . They are fuel efficient and can run on alternative sources of energy , avoiding the use of fossil fuels .
= = Student counselling and guidance = =
DH @-@ PV edu @-@ counselling
Every year , in collaboration with Indian newspapers Deccan Herald and Prajavani , AIT organises career counselling for students who have just passed their Higher Secondary and university and college admissions examinations .
Jnana Degula
The college co @-@ organises an annual educational fair known as the Jnana Degula in the grounds of Bangalore Palace to help the students make an informed career choice which corresponds to their undergraduate education . The fair attracts various institutions across Karnataka to set up stalls showcasing their colleges and their facilities .
= = Student clubs = =
Some of the student clubs at AIT are :
= = Placements = =
The Training and Placement Cell helps students to find jobs in Indian and multinational companies . It appoints student placement coordinators from every department to manage its activities . The coordinators are guided by placement directors . The placement cell also organises multiple @-@ campus placement drives for government and private colleges located in rural places of Karnataka .
Among the companies that have recruited from the college are ABB , Accenture , American Express , Amazon.com , Aricent , Biocon , BOOKMYSHOW , Bosch , Cisco , Cognizant Technologies , Dell , Dr. Reddy 's Laboratories , Essar , Ford Motors , Flipkart , General Electric , Google India , HCL , Harley Davidson , HP , Hashedin , Hyundai , IBM , Indian Air force , Indian Army , Indian Navy , Infosys , InsZoom , Mahindra & Mahindra , Mercedes Benz , Maruti Suzuki , Mcafee , Michelin , Microsoft , Myntra , Punj Lloyd , Reliance Industries , Rockwell Automation , Sasken , Siemens , Sasken , Snapdeal , Larsen & Toubro , Tata Elxsi , TCS , Tech Mahindra , Volante , Volvo , YAHOO and Wipro .
= = Rankings = =
= = = Ranking list = = =
+ RoI - Return on Investment
= Pennsylvania Route 646 =
Pennsylvania Route 646 ( PA 646 ) is a 19 @.@ 15 miles ( 30 @.@ 82 km ) long state highway located in McKean county in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at PA 59 in Keating Township . The northern terminus is the New York state line in Foster Township . The route continues as New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) in Cattaugarus County .
PA 646 was assigned in the 1928 mass numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania . At that time , it consisted entirely of the PA 346 – state line stretch in Foster Township . The rest of the stretch consisted of PA 59 , now realigned , and PA 746 , now decommissioned . PA 746 was decommissioned in 1946 , and PA 59 was realigned in 1952 , with
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PA 646 being extended onto its current alignment . The route has remained virtually unchanged since the change in 1952 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Ormsby to Rew = = =
PA 646 begins at an intersection with PA 59 in the small borough of Ormsby . The highway , situated around several oil wells , progresses to the northwest through a moderately populated region of residential homes . PA 646 continues on this progression for several miles , parallelling a pipeline running through the Kinzua Valley . After an intersection with a local dirt road , the highway leaves Ormsby and continues into the under @-@ populated forests in Keating Township . The route follows an old railroad grade , entering the small unincorporated place of McKean . When PA 646 turns to the north at a gradual bend , it crosses a second pipeline and enters the community of Cyclone .
Upon entering Cyclone , PA 646 intersects with Pithole Road , which heads to the northeast and into McQuen Hollow , a local mountain range . The route itself heads to the northwest still , passing several residential homes in the area . After an intersection with Boyland Road , the highway turns to the north and leaves Cyclone for the woodlands in Keating Township once again . After leaving Cyclone , PA 646 enters the Bradford Oil Field , which includes the community of Cyclone and runs about two miles east of the Lafayette Township line . The route continues northbound for a couple miles , entering the community of Gifford , situated near the Lafayette Township line . The community is moderately developed , with most of the region contained by residential homes and local dirt roads . The major intersection in Gifford along PA 646 is the one with Alley Gifford and Droney Road . At a fork in the highway with Fairground Road , the highway turns northeastward , looping around on a gradual bend of the Bradford Oil Field .
A short distance after the bend , PA 646 continues to the northeast , entering the community of Aiken , where at another fork in the road , PA 770 begins . PA 646 continues to the northeast through Aiken , an under @-@ developed community of residential homes . A short distance later , the highway crosses the township line into Bradford Township . The route continues for several miles , making a gradual bend in the woodlands into Foster Township . PA 646 continues , making an intersection with Wolf Run Road , which heads southward to the community of Middletown . At that intersection , PA 646 turns northeastward , entering the community of Rew . In Rew , the route becomes moderately developed once again , where it intersects with PA 46 . After intersecting with Rew – Bradford Road , a highway that becomes a dirt road up Pratt Hollow , PA 646 progresses to the north and exits Rew .
= = = Rew to Bells Camp = = =
PA 646 , after crossing out of Rew , enters the dense woodlands once again , where yet another pipeline is crossed . When the highway reaches this pipeline , the alignment of the highway turns , winding along Summit Road along the base of Pratt Hollow . The highway continues northward , winding around several mountains through the Bradford Oil Field , passing a large swamp before entering the small community of Summit . In Summit , PA 646 is partially developed , with most of the population situated at the intersection of PA 646 with PA 246 . The route intersects with a Schimp Lane , a local road , before turning to the north and out of Summit . The route heads northward for a short distance , paralleling a grade right @-@ of @-@ way road , which heads eastward to Walkertown . A short distance later , PA 646 enters a small developed area , where the route intersects with PA 346 .
At the intersection with PA 346 , PA 646 turns off its right @-@ of @-@ way , which continues along a pipeline as a dirt road , and onto a concurrency with the aforementioned touring route . PA 646 and PA 346 head eastward , intersecting with several dirt roads in a light woodland . The two highways continue eastward , entering the community of Red Rock . In Red Rock , most of the highway is unpopulated , until an intersection with Narrow Gauge Road , where most of the residential homes stand . When Narrow Gauge Road intersects with the two highways once again , PA 646 and PA 346 enter the community of Derrick City . In Derrick City , the highways pass along a stretch of residential houses before PA 646 turns off to the north on Olean Road . PA 346 continues ahead along Derrick Road towards Bradford .
After turning on Olean Road , PA 646 turns to the northeast , running along the Pennbrook Run for the entire stretch of highway . Along the highway several residential homes surround , while the road enters the community of Bells Camp . Bells Camp is moderately developed , and is the last designated community along PA 646 . The highway forks off from Bells Camp Road , continuing further to the northeast along Olean Road . When the route turns to the east , PA 646 intersects with a connector street back to Bells Camp Road , which parallels to the north . The highway is undeveloped from this point , intersecting with Fullerton Road , which terminates at Olean Road . The route continues northward , paralleling PA 546 and Knapp Creek , before crossing the state line into New York a distance northwest of Fullerton . The right @-@ of @-@ way continues northward as NY 16 towards Olean .
= = History = =
= = = Designation = = =
When the mass amount of state legislative routes were assigned in Pennsylvania in 1928 , PA 646 consisted of only the stretch from PA 346 in Derrick City to the New York state line . There was no concurrency with PA 346 at that time . The stretch from PA 59 to PA 346 was not state @-@ maintained . The rest of the current PA 646 was an alignment of PA 59 . The entire alignment of PA 646 was paved in 1930 . Also that year , the stretch from PA 59 in Aiken to PA 46 in Rew was designated as PA 746 , a spur off PA 46 .
This set of highways remained intact for over a decade , until 1946 , when PA 746 was decommissioned in favor of extending PA 646 over its alignment . Now PA 646 continued along a concurrency with PA 346 and east of Red Rock , it went southward ( away from PA 346 ) down to PA 59 in Aiken , where it ended . In 1952 , PA 59 was realigned off its Ormbsy – Aiken alignment , and PA 646 was extended to Ormsby , where it ended at PA 59 .
= = = Historic bridges = = =
There were three bridges constructed along PA 646 in 1930 , when the alignment was designated as PA 59 . The three bridges are in Gilmore , and all cross Pennbrook Run . The first one is 32 @.@ 15 feet ( 9 @.@ 80 m ) long , and is a concrete tee beam bridge that handles an average of 957 people daily ( 2004 ) . The bridge is structurally deficient and the cost to replace the bridge would amount to $ 591 @,@ 000 . The second bridge in Gilmore itself is a 40 @.@ 20 feet ( 12 @.@ 25 m ) long concrete slab bridge across Pennbrook Run . This bridge is structurally deficient and would cost $ 656 @,@ 000 to replace it completely .
The final bridge along PA 646 was constructed 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Gilmore over Pennbrook Run . Like the first bridge , it is a tee beam construction with a length of 32 @.@ 15 feet ( 9 @.@ 80 m ) . Like the previous two bridges , this one is also structurally deficient in its structure , having not been replaced since construction in 1930 . To replace the bridge , it would cost $ 408 @,@ 000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in McKean County .
= Battlefield Germany =
Battlefield Germany is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services for the Commodore 64 released in April 1987 . It was also ported to the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum later that year . It is the eighth instalment to the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during a fictional scenario in which the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact engage in a conventional war throughout Europe , mostly centring in West and East Germany .
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and focuses on the player building and training units that are used to attack the opposing side . The game was released for 8 @-@ bit consoles as well as 16 @-@ bit consoles . Battlefield Germany received mixed reviews upon release . Reviewers mainly criticised the tempo of the gameplay and lack of innovation from the original . Some critics , however , praised the graphics and viewed the hard difficulty favourably .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and revolves around a fictional conflict between the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact . The player has the choice of choosing to control either NATO or Warsaw Pact forces at the beginning of the game . The player will begin the game on either side of Europe depending on which side was chosen ; if NATO was picked , the player will start at western European countries ( France , West Germany , Denmark ) whereas if the player sides with the Warsaw Pact , the game will begin in eastern Europe . The map is hexagon @-@ shaped and allows the player to move their units in six directions . Each side has a variety of units ; infantry move at a slower pace than mechanised infantry however armoured units are able to withstand more damage than regular units . The game displays two maps on screen ; the larger , central map displays the current situation whereas a smaller map to the corner of the screen displays a mini @-@ map of Europe , which runs north from Denmark to southern France .
There are seven types of units in the game . Each unit has a set of statistics which is displayed in the interface once selected . The statistics range from combat strength , fatigue , efficiency , supply and movement points . During the game , both sides have the option to request air support that can be used to attack enemy units . If the other side uses their air support , the player will be given a warning of an oncoming air strike and will have the option to retreat . The game has two endings depending on the side chosen . If playing as NATO , the main objective is to stall Soviet forces long enough until American reinforcements arrive . However , if playing as the Warsaw Pact , the objective is to destroy all NATO forces .
= = Setting = =
The events leading up the stand @-@ off between NATO and the Warsaw Pact are detailed in a pre @-@ game text ; Iran declares war on Iraq and subsequently invades the latter nation , whilst Egypt succumbs to a civil war and establishes Islamic law over the country , culminating in an Egyptian invasion of Israel . The events in the Middle East prompt the superpowers of the United States and the British Empire to intervene , leading up to a conventional war in Europe against the Eastern bloc . The game is set in 1989 .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismark and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in what Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the graphics as " wonderful " and the gameplay as " tough " , adding that the game should be aimed at advanced players . Philippa Irving of Crash criticised the graphics as repetitively " dull " , despite admitting that they were " clear enough " visually . Gary Rook of Sinclair User heralded the graphics as " superb " , adding that the game was one of the " best looking " wargames he had ever seen at that time . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games criticised the presentation , stating that the screen was too small and the lack of visual understanding made the game " completely unplayable " . Mark Reed of Computer Gamer praised the graphics as being superior compared to Theatre Europe , heralding it as " much more detailed " . However , Reed criticised the originality of the game and the lack of manual for the ZX Spectrum version .
A reviewer of ZX Computing praised the game 's difficulty , suggesting that it was " recommended " for advanced gamers in the wargame genre . Irving criticised the game 's value for money and playability , stating that £ 12 @.@ 95 was " a lot " of money to spend on a game that the player would most likely dislike . However , Rook heralded the gameplay as " smooth " and " challenging " , contrary to other critics .
= Wappocomo ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
Wappocomo is a late 18th @-@ century Georgian mansion and farm overlooking the South Branch Potomac River north of Romney , Hampshire County , West Virginia , USA . It is located along Cumberland Road ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and the South Branch Valley Railroad .
The original section of the mansion at Wappocomo was built in 1774 by Nicholas Casey ( 1745 – 1833 ) , using bricks that had been used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . The Wappocomo property had been a part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron 's Northern Neck Proprietary . The Parsons family , prominent in Virginia and West Virginia politics in the 18th and 19th centuries , acquired Wappocomo and continue to maintain ownership of the property into the 21st century .
Wappocomo was involved in two slavery @-@ related disputes that caused friction between the governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia . In 1788 , Nicholas Casey purchased a freed slave by the name of John , who had been kidnapped in Pennsylvania and returned into slavery in Virginia . Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin demanded that the Governor of Virginia punish the three Virginia residents responsible for the abduction and re @-@ enslavement of a freedman , however , Virginia 's governor cited the absence of such a clause in the United States Constitution . In August 1855 , a fugitive slave named Jacob Green escaped from Wappocomo with several other slaves to Pennsylvania . Col. Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 62 ) and his nephews went north to pursue the escapees , resulting in the arrest of his nephew , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 93 ) . Parsons ' trial caused a further dispute between the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania over the latter 's refusal to execute the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 .
The mansion at Wappocomo is unique among the historic residences along the South Branch Potomac River , in that its formal façade faces toward the road and the western flanks of South Branch Mountain rather than toward the river . The original 1774 portion of the mansion is a square two @-@ story Georgian @-@ style structure , an architectural style prevalent in Virginia at the time of Wappocomo 's construction . The bricks used to build the 1774 structure were manufactured in England , and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . The interior of the 1774 structure contains a grand stairway in the center hall and all the original handmade woodworking . A stone addition to the mansion with two stories of deep verandas was completed in 1861 . The principal passenger depot for the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad , Wappocomo Station , is located at the farm .
= = History = =
= = = Background and construction = = =
The land on which Wappocomo is located was originally part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron 's Northern Neck Proprietary . The South Branch Survey extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River . Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor , but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale in 1748 , with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres ( 120 ha ) to 400 acres ( 160 ha ) .
Prominent Hampshire County pioneer Peter Casey ( 1715 – 87 ) received the Wappocomo parcel , known as Lot Number 21 of the South Branch Survey , from Lord Fairfax . Casey 's son , Nicholas Casey ( 1745 – 1833 ) , married Grace Foreman ( 1762 – 1796 ) , the daughter of another Hampshire County pioneer and colonial military officer William Foreman . Nicholas Casey inherited Lot Number 21 from his father , and in 1774 , Casey built the present mansion at Wappocomo .
The bricks used in the construction of Casey 's mansion were manufactured in England , and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . These bricks were then transported overland through the Blue Ridge Mountains and Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians in bullock carts . During this time , the mansion was named Wappocomo , which was derived from the Native American toponym " Wappatomaka " for the South Branch Potomac River .
In 1788 , while residing at his Wappocomo residence , Casey purchased a freed slave named John , who had been residing in Washington County , Pennsylvania . Virginia residents Francis McGuire , Baldwin Parsons , and Absalom Wells seized John and transported him to Virginia , where they sold him back into slavery to Casey . Such an act was illegal in Pennsylvania , and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin to demand punishment of the three men by the Governor of Virginia . Virginia 's governor refused , citing the absence of a provision in the United States Constitution calling for such an action . Governor Mifflin petitioned the United States Congress , and a bill was introduced that provided against such an occurrence .
On December 4 , 1789 , Casey was appointed by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of Romney . Casey served as a trustee alongside Isaac Parsons and Andrew Wodrow . Casey and his fellow trustees were given authority by the Virginia General Assembly to settle disputes regarding the town 's land lots and to " open and clear " the town 's " streets and lanes " in accordance with the original survey and plan for Romney .
= = = Parsons family acquisition = = =
Nicholas Casey 's daughter , Mary Catherine Casey ( 1773 – 1846 ) , married James Gregg Parsons ( 1773 – 1847 ) of Hampshire County in 1795 . Parsons was the eldest son of Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) and his wife Mary Ellender Gregg . The Parsons were a prominent family whose ancestors arrived at the Thirteen Colonies from England in 1635 , and relocated to Hampshire County around 1740 . Isaac Parsons represented Hampshire County as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1789 until his death on August 25 , 1796 . By 1778 , Parsons owned 161 acres ( 65 ha ) of Lot Number 16 and all of Lot Number 17 , which was adjacent to the Wappocomo property .
James Gregg Parsons and his wife Catherine inherited Wappocomo from her father , and they raised their 12 children there . Following his wife 's death , Parsons acquired sole ownership in Wappocomo plantation . After his death on January 25 , 1847 , his will , dated November 7 , 1846 and probated February 22 , 1847 , devised Lot Number 21 including Wappocomo ( referred to in the will as the Casey Tract ) to his son Colonel Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 62 ) . On May 18 , 1836 , Col. Parsons married Susan Blue ( 1817 – 89 ) , the daughter of Uriah Blue Jr. and his wife M. Elizabeth Donaldson Blue . Col. Parsons served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1854 to 1857 . James " Big Jim " Parsons , Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) inherited the Collins Tract ( Lot Number 20 ) , which later became Valley View , and his son David C. Parsons ( 1803 – 1860 ) inherited Lot Number 13 . James Gregg Parsons ' sons also inherited the nearby " Jake Sugar Rum Tract , the McGuire Tract , and five town lots in Romney . "
= = = Jacob Green affair = = =
In August 1855 , Jacob Green , a slave owned by Col. Parsons , escaped from Wappocomo farm with four other slaves from neighboring plantations . In October of that year , he returned to Col. Parsons ' plantation in Romney , and persuaded four or five slaves from neighboring farms owned by Parsons family relatives to escape with him to Pennsylvania .
A party of eight to ten men , including Col. Parsons and two of his nephews , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 93 ) and a Mr. Stump , went north in pursuit of the escapees . In the course of the pursuit , they captured two of Stump 's escaped slaves , who were sent back to Hampshire County . With information obtained from the two recaptured slaves , Col. Parsons went to Johnstown , James Parsons III to Hollidaysburg , and Stump to Altoona , where they hoped to intercept Green as he headed west on the Allegheny Portage Railroad and Main Line Canal toward Pittsburgh . James Parsons III intercepted Green at Hollidaysburg , but local abolitionists thwarted his attempt to capture Green , and Parsons was arrested and arraigned for kidnapping .
Upon learning of the arrest of his nephew , Col. Parsons sought the assistance of Charles James Faulkner , a prominent Martinsburg lawyer and United States House Representative from Virginia 's 8th congressional district , and of James Murray Mason , a United States Senator from Virginia . Faulkner and Mason both offered their legal services for James Parsons III 's defense . The Virginia General Assembly pledged its support to Parsons and to Virginia 's slaveowners in defending their constitutional rights and to protect them from prosecution . Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise appointed John Randolph Tucker to attend Parsons ' trial as a " special commissioner " of Virginia . The dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania escalated , and on January 31 , 1856 , an article published in the New York Herald read " Threatened Civil War between Virginia and Pennsylvania . "
Col. Parsons , Faulkner , and Tucker traveled to Hollidaysburg for James Parsons III 's trial . Faulkner provided for Parsons ' legal defense , leading to his acquittal as having acted legally under the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 .
In September 1856 , Faulkner billed Col. Parsons $ 150 for his legal services . Parsons disputed the charge . In a series of articles in the Virginia Argus and
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men 's game meant that she had to learn to play off the back foot , in contrast to women 's cricket , which is generally played off the front foot . After graduating from university in 1997 , she made her international debut for England in 1998 , but batted low in the order for England , having been picked as a wicket @-@ keeper . Intent on improving her batting , she began one @-@ on @-@ one coaching with Mark Lane . At the time , it was unusual for a member of the England women 's team to have individual coaching sessions , and Taylor had to pay for the meetings herself . When they began working together , Lane was critical of her batting ; " She was just average , I would say . " The sessions helped to improve Taylor 's mental approach towards batting as well as making technical changes , though Lane promoted the use of bottom @-@ handed hockey @-@ style shots which came more naturally to Taylor . At her peak , she used her intelligence to help manipulate the field ; in an interview she described that , " when I 'm batting at my best I have a 3D awareness of the shape of the field and where the spaces are . "
= = Recognition = =
Taylor was the first woman to be selected as Wisden 's Cricketer of the Year , in 2009 . The editor of that years almanack , Scyld Berry noted that " there is no element of political correctness or publicity @-@ seeking about her selection , " and that she had been " chosen on merit , for being pre @-@ eminent in her form of the game . " She was short @-@ listed for the ICC Women 's Cricketer of the Year in both 2007 and 2008 , and won the award in 2009 . She was also named as the England and Wales Cricket Board 's Women 's Player of the Year in May 2009 . Continuing on from her success in 2009 , Taylor was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) on the 2010 New Year Honours list . During her career she topped the ICC batting rankings for both ODI and Twenty20 International cricket , and upon her retirement , former Test cricketer Mike Selvey suggested in The Guardian that she was " perhaps the finest batsman the women 's game has seen . "
= Snoring rail =
The snoring rail ( Aramidopsis plateni ) also known as the Celebes rail or Platen 's rail is a large flightless rail , the only member of the genus Aramidopsis . It is an Indonesian endemic found in dense vegetation in wet areas of Sulawesi and nearby Buton . The rail has grey underparts , a white chin , brown wings and a rufous patch on the hindneck . The sexes are similar , but the female has a brighter neck patch and a differently coloured bill and iris . The typical call is the snoring ee @-@ orrrr sound that gives the bird its English name .
Its inaccessible habitat and retiring nature mean that the snoring rail is rarely seen and little is known of its behaviour . Only the adult plumage has been described , and the breeding behaviour is unrecorded . It feeds on small crabs and probably other small prey such as lizards . Although protected under Indonesian law since 1972 , the rail is threatened by habitat loss ( even within nature reserves ) , hunting for food and predation by introduced species ; it is therefore evaluated as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a large and very widespread family , with nearly 150 species . They are small to medium @-@ sized , terrestrial or wetland birds , and their short bodies are often flattened laterally to help them move through dense vegetation . Island species readily become flightless ; of 53 extant or recently extinct taxa restricted to islands , 32 have lost the ability to fly .
The snoring rail was first classified as Rallus plateni by German ornithologist August Wilhelm Heinrich Blasius in 1860 , but was moved to its current monotypic genus Aramidopsis by English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1893 . Following Taylor ( 1998 ) , it was considered to be more similar to the Inaccessible Island and white @-@ throated rails than to members of the Rallus genus , but a 2012 mitochondrial gene study suggests that it should actually be placed in Gallirallus , with Lewin 's rail and the slaty @-@ breasted rail as its closest relatives .
Aramidopsis derives from the genus name of the limpkin , Aramus and the Greek suffix opsis , " resembling " . Although the rail shares the origin of its name with the South American Aramides species , its distinctive bill , thick legs and barred lower belly distinguish it from that group . The species name plateni commemorates Carl Constantin Platen , a German doctor who collected birds and butterflies in the Malay Archipelago and gave Blasius his specimen of the rail . The common name refers to the rail 's distinctive call , and was given to the bird as der Vogel Schnarch ( the snoring bird ) by German entomologist Gerd Heinrich when he rediscovered the species in 1932 .
= = Description = =
The snoring rail is 30 cm ( 12 in ) long and weighs 143 – 160 g ( 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 6 oz ) . It is flightless , with short wings , a very short tail and strong legs and feet . The back and the underparts from the forecrown to the breast are grey , apart from a white chin , and the sides and rear of the neck are deep orange @-@ red . Most of the rest of the upperparts are brown , and the belly , flanks and undertail have white barring . The male has black legs , a yellow iris and a brown and greenish down @-@ curved bill . The female is similar , but has a brighter hindneck colour , less white on the chin , a red iris , a cream and reddish bill and blue @-@ grey legs . Immature and juvenile plumages are undescribed . Visual confusion with sympatric rails is unlikely . The blue @-@ faced rail is similar in size , but is chestnut above and black below , and the buff @-@ banded rail has strongly marked upperparts , breast and head . The slaty @-@ breasted rail is smaller and has barred upperparts .
The call , given frequently , is a short wheez followed by a distinctive snoring ee @-@ orrrr . A deep hmmmm sound has also been recorded .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The snoring rail is an uncommon Indonesian endemic species of lowland and hill forests in northern , north central and southeastern Sulawesi . Another population was found on Buton island in 1995 .
The typical habitat of this species is dense vegetation in wet areas . This may include impenetrable bamboo and liana in forests , rattan in regrown forests , or elephant grass and bushes on the hillsides of the Minahassa Peninsula . Claims of the species occurring in rice fields are believed to be due to confusion with the buff @-@ banded rail . The snoring rail occurs from sea level to 1 @,@ 300 m ( 4 @,@ 300 ft )
= = Behaviour = =
Its inaccessible habitat and sparse distribution means that little is known about this species . A few birds were shot by Platen and another expedition led by Paul Sarasin and his second cousin , Fritz , between 1893 and 1898 , but the rail was then not seen for more than thirty years until Heinrich found it almost at the end of a two @-@ year survey of Sulawesi , then known as Celebes . He described it as " the most priceless catch that I have ever hunted or will hunt " . More than a decade later , Dutch ornithologist Louis Coomans de Ruiter also took a year to find the rail , despite concentrating on known suitable habitat . There were then no documented sightings until birds were observed in 1983 and 1989 . Sight records remain infrequent , and only about ten specimen corpses have been studied .
The snoring rail catches crabs in highland streams , and these crustaceans may be a major dietary item . It also forages in muddy areas , and has been recorded as consuming lizards . Nothing is known of its breeding behaviour other than a report of an adult seen feeding with two chicks in August 1983 , but the original report gives no details of the claimed sighting .
= = Status = =
The snoring rail is restricted to Sulawesi and Buton , and has an estimated population of 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 individuals . Its numbers are thought to be decreasing , and its restricted range and small population mean that the species is classified as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
It may always have been thinly spread , but there has been widespread deforestation within its range resulting in loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat . The rail has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972 , and the large Lore Lindu and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Parks are within its range , but logging and rattan cutting occurs even in these protected areas , and human encroachment is also a problem at Lore Lindu . The rail has been trapped for food in the past , and is sometimes killed by dogs , cats and other introduced predators . A 2007 survey of protected areas of Sulawesi failed to find the rail , suggesting that it is genuinely rare even in reserves .
= Night shark =
The night shark ( Carcharhinus signatus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found in the temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean . An inhabitant of the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope , this shark most commonly occurs at depths of 50 – 600 m ( 160 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) and conducts a diel vertical migration , spending the day in deeper water and moving into shallower waters at night . Off northeastern Brazil , large numbers congregate around seamounts of varying depth . A slender , streamlined species , the night shark typically reaches a length of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . It can be identified by its long pointed snout and large green eyes ( when alive ) , and is dark grayish blue or brown above and white below .
Night sharks are quick , nocturnally active , schooling predators that feed mainly on small bony fishes and squid . Reproduction is viviparous as with the other members of its family ; females mate during the summer and give birth to litters of usually 12 – 18 pups after a gestation period of a year . This deepwater species is not known to pose a danger to humans . It is caught incidentally by commercial tuna and swordfish longline fisheries in the western Atlantic , and also by a targeted longline fishery operating off northeastern Brazil . The night shark is highly valued for its fins , and additionally as a source of meat , liver oil , and fishmeal . However , most sharks caught off northeastern Brazil have been found to contain unsafe concentrations of mercury .
Because of its low reproductive rate and historically documented declines in areas such as the Caribbean , the night shark has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and the American Fisheries Society ( AFS ) . A population assessment has indicated that this species is secure in the waters off the United States , but this may not be true elsewhere .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the night shark was published by Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey in 1868 , as part of a series of papers entitled Repertorio fisico @-@ natural de la isla de Cuba . He based his description on a single set of jaws and gave it the name Hypoprion signatus . In 1973 , Leonard Compagno synonymized the genus Hypoprion with Carcharhinus . No type specimen has been designated for this species . Its common name comes from the fact that it is mostly captured at night .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the night shark extends along the outer continental shelves and upper continental slopes of the Atlantic Ocean , from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Argentina in the west , including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , and from Senegal to northern Namibia in the east . In United States waters , it is relatively common off North Carolina and Florida ( particularly the Florida Straits ) and rarer elsewhere . There are questionable reports of this species off the Pacific coast of Panama .
The night shark is a deepwater species that has been reported from as far down as 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , though it occasionally ventures to within 26 m ( 85 ft ) of the surface . Off the southeastern United States , it is usually caught at a depth range of 50 – 600 m ( 160 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) . Off northeastern Brazil , the night shark is most commonly found near the summits of seamounts ranging from 38 m ( 125 ft ) to 370 m ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) deep . Off West Africa , it occurs at depths of 90 – 285 m ( 295 – 935 ft ) , where the temperature is 11 – 16 ° C ( 52 – 61 ° F ) , the salinity is 36 ppt , and the dissolved oxygen level is 1 @.@ 81 ml / l . Annual variation in Cuban catch rates may indicate a seasonal migration .
= = Description = =
The night shark has a slender build with an elongated , pointed snout . The nares are flanked by moderately developed flaps of skin . The eyes are large , circular , and green in life , with irregularly shaped pupils and a nictitating membrane ( protective third eyelid ) . The mouth lacks conspicuous furrows at the corners and usually bears 15 tooth rows on either side of both jaws , plus 1 – 2 upper and 1 lower symphysial ( jaw midline ) tooth rows . Each upper tooth has a smooth to serrated edge , a narrow cusp becoming more oblique towards the corner of the mouth , and 2 – 5 coarse serrations at the base of the trailing margin . The number and size of serrations on the leading margin of the tooth cusp increase relative to those on the trailing margin as the animal grows older . The lower teeth are upright and smooth @-@ edged . The five pairs of gill slits are rather short .
The pectoral fins are less than a fifth as long as the total body length and taper towards a somewhat rounded tip . The first dorsal fin is relatively small , triangular , and pointed , originating over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is much smaller than the first and originates over or slightly ahead of the anal fin . There is a ridge running between the dorsal fins . The dermal denticles are not tightly packed and overlap each other minimally . Each denticle is diamond @-@ shaped with horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth , the number increasing from 3 in juveniles to 5 – 7 in adults . The coloration is grayish blue or brown above and whitish below , without fin markings . There is a faint band on each side and sometimes small black spots scattered over the back . This species usually grows to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long , but has been recorded reaching a length and weight of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) and 76 @.@ 7 kg ( 169 lb ) respectively .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Fast and energetic , the night shark feeds primarily on small , active bony fishes such as mullet , mackerel , butterfish , sea basses , and flyingfish . Squid and shrimp are also sometimes taken . Most feeding activity occurs at night , hence its common name , with peaks at dawn and dusk . Catch records indicate that this species is usually found in schools and conducts a diel vertical migration , spending the day at a depth of 275 – 366 m ( 902 – 1 @,@ 201 ft ) and moving up to shallower than 183 m ( 600 ft ) at night . Ovulating and gravid females are rarely ever caught , suggesting that during this period they may stop feeding or segregate themselves from others of their species . Potential predators of the night shark include larger sharks . Known parasites include the copepods Kroyeria caseyi , which attach to the gills , Pandarus bicolor and P. smithii , which infest the skin , and the tapeworms Heteronybelinia yamagutii , H. nipponica and Progrillotia dollfusi , which are found in the spiral valve intestine . Another parasite is an undescribed isopod similar to Aega webbii . The common remora ( Remora remora ) may be found attached to this species .
Like other members of its family , the night shark is viviparous : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the depleted yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Adult females have a single functional ovary ( on the right ) and two functional uteruses , which are divided into separate compartments for each embryo . Within the uterus the embryos lie lengthwise with their heads pointing the same direction as their mother . Most information known about the night shark 's life history comes from the subpopulation off northeastern Brazil , and may not hold true in other parts of the species range . Northeastern Brazilian sharks mate throughout the summer , with the males biting at the female 's body and fins as a prelude to copulation .
After a year @-@ long gestation period , females give birth to 4 – 18 ( usually 12 or more ) pups . Embryos at varying stages of development have been found in both February and June , suggesting that the parturition takes place over a span of several months . An important nursery area is believed to exist at the continental shelf break at 34 ° S latitude , near the southern extreme of this species ' range . The newborn young measure 50 – 72 cm ( 20 – 28 in ) long , and add around 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) or 38 % of their body length in their first year . This fast rate of growth serves to shorten the period immediately after birth when the small pups are most vulnerable to predators , a strategy similar to that employed by the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) . By the time the sharks reach adulthood , the growth rate slows to a more modest 8 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) per year . There is no difference in growth rate between sexes . Males mature sexually at a length of 1 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 2 ft ) , corresponding to an age of 8 years , and females at a length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 9 ft ) , corresponding to an age of 10 years . The oldest known individuals are 17 years old ; based on growth curves the maximum lifespan has been estimated at 28 years for males and 30 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
Because of its deepwater habitat , the night shark is not known to pose a danger to humans . This species is prized for its large fins , which are exported for use in shark fin soup , and is also utilized as a source of meat , liver oil , and fishmeal . Traditionally it has comprised a part of the bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries targeting swordfish ( Xiphius gladius ) and tuna in the western Atlantic . Since 1991 , it has also been the focus of a longline fishery operating over seamounts off northeastern Brazil , where large numbers of sharks congregate and are easily captured . Some 90 % of the seamount shark and ray catch in this area now consists of night sharks ; of those approximately 89 % are juveniles . However , a study has found that night sharks from off northeastern Brazil accumulate high levels of mercury within their bodies , likely from their piscivorous diet . Some 92 % of sharks examined contained mercury levels higher than that allowed for marketed carnivorous fish set by the Brazilian legislature , and the average mercury concentration was 1 @.@ 742 mg / kg . Therefore , eating only 0 @.@ 1 kg ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) of night shark meat per day could result in the ingestion of several times the daily mercury content judged safe by the World Health Organization .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the night shark globally as Vulnerable , citing its slow reproductive rate and historical declines under fishing pressure . It has also been listed as Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society ( AFS ) . This species was once a significant part of the Cuban artisanal shark fishery , comprising 60 – 75 % of the catch from 1937 to 1941 , before its numbers dropped substantially in the 1970s . Similarly , the proportion of night sharks in the shark catch of the southeastern U.S. pelagic longline fishery fell from 26 @.@ 1 % from 1981 to 1983 to 0 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 % in 1993 and 1994 ; a comparable decline was observed in catches by south Florida marlin tournaments since the 1970s . Currently , the intense Brazilian targeted fishery is of particular concern , although fishing pressure on the night shark may be relaxing as the fishery is beginning to shift towards swordfish and bigeye tuna ( Thunnus obesus ) . No fishery information on the night shark is available for the eastern Atlantic , leading to an IUCN assessment of Data Deficient for that region .
In 1997 , the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) listed the night shark as a " Species of Concern " , meaning that it merits conservation concern but there is insufficient evidence for listing on the Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) . In 1999 , the NMFS Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) of the Atlantic tunas , swordfish , and sharks was revised to prohibit the retention of 19 species , including the night shark . The prohibition of this species was upheld by Amendment 1 of the FMP , added in 2003 . Night sharks suffer high bycatch mortality on longlines , and prohibited or not some are kept by fishers because of their value and the difficulty of identifying disembodied parts to species . Nevertheless , a 2003 – 2008 NMFS population assessment concluded that night shark population in United States waters has stabilized ( perhaps even increasing ) and no longer merits categorization as a " Species of Concern " , though recommended that the prohibition on retention be maintained as a precautionary measure . This species should also benefit from the imposition of time / area closures in the Florida Straits and on the Charleston Bump . Off Brazil and elsewhere , fishing continues largely unmanaged . IUCN members have urged that Brazil improve catch monitoring and enforcement of existing regulations , declare some critical habitat off @-@ limits , and implement the Brazilian National Plan of Action for Sharks ( NPOA @-@ Sharks ) under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks ( IPOA @-@ Sharks ) .
= Estoy Aquí =
" Estoy Aquí " ( English : " I 'm Here " ) is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , taken from her debut studio album Pies Descalzos . It was released in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written and produced by Shakira and Luis Fernando Ochoa . " Estoy Aquí " is a Latin pop song that lyrically discusses a willingness to correct a failed relationship .
Upon its release , " Estoy Aquí " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . Additionally , it became Shakira 's first recording to attain commercial success . The song peaked at numbers 1 and 2 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . Its performance aided its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Brazil , Colombia , and the United States . Its accompanying music video depicts Shakira performing the track , where she is often pictured with her guitar .
A Portuguese @-@ language translation of the track titled " Estou Aqui " appeared on Shakira 's first remix album The Remixes in 1997 . An English @-@ language version was leaked to
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the internet in 2011 . The song has additionally been performed during six of the seven concert tours Shakira has held to date .
= = Background and composition = =
Shakira released her first major @-@ label studio album Pies Descalzos in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records . Assuming a prominent position in its production , she co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced each of the eleven tracks included on the record . Serviced as the lead single from the project in 1996 , " Estoy Aquí " saw additional songwriting and production from Luis Fernando Ochoa . The track is heavily influenced by Latin pop elements , and makes use of prominent guitar instrumentation . Lyrically , it states a desire to amend a failed relationship . In English , the lyrics " lo que nos pasó no repetirá jamás " and " Estoy aquí queriéndote , ahogándome " translate to " what happened to us will never be repeated " and " I 'm here wanting you , drowning " , respectively . After attaining success with the original Spanish @-@ language version , " Estoy Aquí " was re @-@ recorded in Portuguese as " Estou Aqui " for Shakira 's 1997 remix album The Remixes . An English @-@ language version " I 'm Here " was leaked in early @-@ 2011 , but was not made available for digital download .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Estoy Aquí " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . Carlos Quintana of About.com complimented the track for featuring a " vibrant dancing flavor " , and placed it among his personal favorites from the record . Similarly , Jose F. Promis from Allmusic praised it for serving as an " infectious and melodic " opening track , going on to select the song as an album highlight . The song received a nomination for Pop Song of the Year at the 1997 Lo Nuestro Awards , but lost to " Experiencia Religiosa " by Enrique Iglesias .
" Estoy Aquí " became Shakira 's first recording to attain commercial success . The song peaked at numbers 1 and 2 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . Its commercial performance aided its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Brazil , and the United States . Pies Descalzos was also awarded the " Diamond Prism " award in Colombia .
In 1996 , " Estoy Aquí " was included in the reissue of Pies Descalzos , titled Colección de Oro . In 2005 , it was featured as the opening track for Shakira 's first greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos .
= = Music video = =
" Estoy Aquí " became the first track by Shakira to receive an accompanying music video , which was directed by Simon Brand . The setting depicts a barn during the various weather seasons , and shows Shakira performing the song , accompanied with a guitar in most scenes . The clip was met with a favorable response from her label Sony Music , and was also met with commercial success . Consequentially , executives decided to place additional emphasis on promoting Pies Descalzos if it were to exceed sales of 50 @,@ 000 copies . John Lannert from Billboard positively noted that her voice and appearance " jumps out at you " . In Colombia , it was recognized as the " Best Video " at the Asociación Colombiana de Periodistas del Espectáculo ( ACPE ) Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Shakira has performed " Estoy Aquí " during six of her seven concert tours thus far . She first performed the track in Mexico City during her Tour Pies Descalzos , which ran from 1996 through 1997 . It was also included during the Tour Anfibio and Tour of the Mongoose , held in support of her second and third studio albums Dónde Están los Ladrones ? and Laundry Service , respectively . The song was additionally performed during the Oral Fixation Tour , which became her largest tour to date . In place of its inclusion in The Sun Comes Out World Tour , " Estoy Aquí " was performed in Rio de Janeiro as part of Rock in Rio in 2011 .
In August 1999 , Shakira sang " Estoy Aquí " during an episode of MTV Unplugged in New York City . In February 2000 , the performance was included in the live album of the event . At the 12th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony in 2011 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Aleks Syntek performed a live cover of the song as part of the Latin Grammys tribute to Shakira , where she was honored Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year .
= = Track listings = =
CD single
" Estoy Aquí "
" Te Espero Sentada "
Remix EP
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & House Mix )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & House Radio Edit )
" Estoy Aquí " ( Extended Club Mix )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Radio Edit )
" Estoy Aquí " ( Meme 's Timbalero Dub )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & Tears Mix )
= = Charts = =
= Grilled Cheesus =
" Grilled Cheesus " is the third episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by Brad Falchuk , directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , and premiered on the Fox network on October 5 , 2010 . Prior to its broadcast , series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy predicted the episode would be Glee 's most controversial , as it focuses on religion and what God means to the members of the glee club . When Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) has a heart attack , the glee club rally around his son Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , attempting to support the Hummels through their various faiths . Meanwhile , club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) believes he has found the face of Jesus in a grilled cheese sandwich .
Murphy hoped to produce a balanced depiction of religion , and he , Falchuk and series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan worked to ensure that there was an equality between pro and anti @-@ religious sentiments expressed . The episode features seven cover versions of songs , each of which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the series ' one @-@ week debut high in the US . Critics disagreed over the appropriateness of the musical performances , with some complaining of the tangential relationship between the numbers and religion , and others appreciating that the Glee versions brought new meaning to the songs .
" Grilled Cheesus " was watched by 11 @.@ 20 million US viewers , and was the second most watched scripted show of the week among adults aged 18 – 49 . It received mixed reviews , with Colfer and O 'Malley receiving critical acclaim , and several reviewers praising Glee for successfully balancing opposing viewpoints . However , other reviewers criticized the episode for its lack of subtlety , and Lisa Respers France of CNN denounced " Grilled Cheesus " as an Emmy @-@ submission showpiece for Colfer .
= = Plot = =
Glee club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) believes he has found the face of Jesus in a grilled cheese sandwich , he asks for three prayers to be granted : for the school football team to win a game , for his girlfriend Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) to let him touch her breasts , and for him to be reinstated as quarterback . When his first prayer comes true , he asks the glee club to join him in honoring Jesus through song .
Club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) is devastated when his father Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) suffers a heart attack . His best friend Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) sings Whitney Houston 's " I Look to You " to him , hoping he will find strength in faith . However , Kurt reveals that he is an atheist . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , also an atheist , takes umbrage at the glee club singing religious songs in a public school setting , and has Kurt make a formal complaint . When confronted by guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , Sue admits that as a child , she prayed that God would cure her sister Jean ( Robin Trocki ) , who has Down syndrome . Her prayers went unanswered , leading her to conclude that God simply does not exist .
Mercedes , Rachel and Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) pray for Burt , with Rachel singing " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " from Yentl at his bedside . Kurt is resistant , and later at glee club rehearsal sings The Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , stating that his faith takes the form of love for his father . He accepts an invitation from Mercedes to attend her church , where the choir sing " Bridge over Troubled Water " . At the church service , Mercedes asks the congregation to pray for the Hummels .
Finn 's remaining prayers also come true . Rachel comes to Finn 's house one evening , and in his bedroom she admits that she would prefer to raise her children in the Jewish faith ; she would not be able to have a future with him if he puts his faith in Jesus . Finn agrees that their children would be raised as she chooses , so to confirm her trust and appreciation of him , she allows him to touch the side of her breast as they make out . Later , Finn is also reinstated as quarterback , but it occurs because his replacement Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) is injured during a game , dislocating his shoulder . Finn feels responsible and confesses his guilt to Emma , who tells him it is unlikely God is communicating specifically with him through a grilled cheese sandwich . A despondent Finn doubts his new @-@ found faith , singing R.E.M. ' s " Losing My Religion " .
At Burt 's bedside , Kurt tells his still unconscious father that he feels he should have accepted his friends ' prayers . As Kurt cries , Burt begins to regain consciousness and is able to squeeze his son 's hand . Meanwhile , Sue visits Jean in her residential home and discusses God with her sister . Jean asks Sue if she may pray for her , and Sue accepts . Later , the glee club comes together to sing Joan Osborne 's " One of Us " . Sue watches the performance , but tells Will she will not report him for allowing a religious song . At home , Finn eats the remainder of the grilled cheese sandwich .
= = Production = =
" Grilled Cheesus " is intended to begin a season arc depicting the glee club members rallying around those who are subject to bullying and persecution . For Glee 's second season , Murphy confirmed plans to cast a Christian character on the show , expressing desires to keep Glee a " show about inclusiveness " . In an interview with TV Guide , Murphy said on Christianity , " If we 're trying to form a world of inclusiveness , we 've got to include that point of view as well . " He predicted " Grilled Cheesus " would be the most controversial episode of the series to date , as it depicts the spiritual and emotional importance of God to the characters . Murphy aimed to address religion in a " socially responsible " way , and compared " Grilled Cheesus " to topical Norman Lear shows of the 1970s . He hoped to produce a balanced depiction of the subject matter , and he , along with co @-@ writers Brennan and Falchuk , checked the script to ensure that for every anti @-@ religious sentiment conveyed , there was a pro @-@ religious one to counterbalance it . The episode references several religions apart from Christianity ; Puck and Rachel are both Jewish , Kurt hires an acupuncturist who is a Sikh , and makes a reference to the Flying Spaghetti Monster .
Sue 's philosophical argument with Emma about religion is the scene that Murphy is " most proud to have been involved with in [ his ] entire career . " Explaining Sue 's stance on religion , he stated : " Sue 's an atheist , but I love that she doesn 't want to be . She and [ Kurt ] are both saying to the world , ' Prove us wrong : If God is kindness and love , make me believe in God . ' " Murphy felt it would have been easy to have Kurt sing an anti @-@ religious song , but instead chose to have him sing about his faith in love .
O 'Malley was a recurring cast member throughout Glee 's first season , and was promoted to a series regular starting in season two . He commented that the episode would be an emotional one , developing the father @-@ son relationship further . Recurring characters who appear in this episode include glee club member Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , football player Sam Evans , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , Finn 's mother Carole Hudson ( Romy Rosemont ) , and Sue 's sister Jean Sylvester . An eight @-@ year @-@ old Kurt appears in a series of flashback scenes , including his mother 's funeral , played by child actor Adam Kolkin .
= = Music = =
The episode featured cover versions of Billy Joel 's " Only the Good Die Young " , Whitney Houston 's " I Look to You " , " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " as performed by Barbra Streisand in the musical film Yentl , The Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " as covered by T. V. Carpio in the musical film Across the Universe , R.E.M. ' s " Losing My Religion " , Simon & Garfunkel 's " Bridge over Troubled Water " as covered by Aretha Franklin , and Joan Osborne 's " One of Us " . Monteith said he and series music producer Adam Anders " had a bit of a different idea " about how " Losing My Religion " should be performed . While Anders " always brings the songs in very positive , very upbeat " , he felt the song " was expressing a betrayal " , and with Finn feeling both betrayal and anger , Monteith wanted his performance to reflect that . All songs performed were released as singles , available for download , and " I Want to Hold Your Hand " and " One of Us " are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . All singles charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 . With seven new entries , it marked the series ' one @-@ week debut high in the US . The best performing single was " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , which reached number 21 in Canada and 36 in the US . With 69 @,@ 000 copies sold in the US , it also reached number 15 on the Hot Digital Songs chart .
Zap2it 's Carina Adly MacKenzie commented positively on Michele 's " beautiful " rendition of " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " , however expressed displeasure that Rachel had cried during her solo in three consecutive episodes , suggesting the producers give her a more uplifting song . She praised Salling 's " Only the Good Die Young " , which was selected by Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post as the best performance of the episode , for being the most in @-@ keeping with Glee 's usual tone . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone praised " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , writing that , " the Beatles ' coy flirtation is replaced with a simple , wistful plea that hits just the right note . " She commended Riley 's vocals on " Bridge over Troubled Water " , commenting that Murphy should assign Mercedes more solo performances . Futterman criticized " Losing My Religion " , however , observing that Monteith struggled to reach the notes , resulting in a performance " more awkward than inspired . "
Anthony Benigno of the Daily News commented positively on the arrangement of Monteith 's song , grading the performance " A " . His lowest grade went to " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " , which he gave a " C " . Benigno felt that both Michele and Colfer 's solos were damaged by the fact that the songs ' only link to the episode 's plot were their titles , finding it particularly jarring to hear Kurt singing " I wanna be your man " about his father . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff felt that the music was the worst aspect of the episode , similarly criticizing song selections based on their tangential relationship to religion . He felt that Kurt 's performance was the only number which worked even slightly , commenting , " it genuinely grows out of the moment , although the fact that Kurt is singing it to his dad never stops being kind of weird . " Both Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News and MTV 's Aly Semigran enjoyed that the performance of " I Want to Hold Your Hand " brought new meaning to the song , with Semigran naming it her favourite number of the episode . She felt that " I Look to You " was the episode 's weakest song , preferring Riley 's " more powerful " rendition of " Bridge over Troubled Water " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times expressed disappointment in both of Riley 's songs , which left her " strangely unmoved " . She suggested that , " Mercedes sang admirably , beautifully even , but she didn ’ t seem truly transported by the music ; so we weren 't . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " Grilled Cheesus " was watched by 11 @.@ 20 million American viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Viewership and ratings both decreased from the previous episode , which was watched by 13 @.@ 51 million viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 9 / 17 rating / share . " Grilled Cheesus " was the most watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , and the twenty @-@ second most watched show among all viewers . In Canada , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 99 million viewers and was the eleventh most watched show of the week . It was again down on the previous episode , which was watched by 2 @.@ 46 million viewers , making it the sixth most watched programme of the week . In Australia , " Grilled Cheesus " drew 1 @.@ 029 million viewers , placing eleventh for the night . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 502 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 175 million on E4 , and 327 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly named it as one of his favorite episodes of the series , calling it " not only funny and moving , but incredibly important " , both for its religious element and message of tolerance . Stack praised the performances by Colfer and O 'Malley , as did USA Today 's Robert Bianco , who deemed the episode a " smart , moving , musical exploration of the power and limits of faith and religion in a democratic society " . Bianco commented positively on the way Colfer 's singing was used to " dig beneath the archness and anger in Kurt 's behavior " , calling it " a textbook example of what music can add to drama . " Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald went further in his praise , deeming " Grilled Cheesus " " the perfect blend of music , characterization and plot - and easily the most provocative scripted hour in prime @-@ time of the new season . " Perigard appreciated the fact there were no easy answers presented , with no characters undergoing religious conversions during the course of the episode . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal felt that " Grilled Cheesus " succeeded in balancing opposing viewpoints , resulting in " a nuanced , atypical episode of Glee that was both conflictingly emotional and confidently serious about the topic of religion " , and Semigran similarly commended the episode 's balance , writing that Falchuk " covered both sides of controversial debate with grace , humor , and most importantly , respect . " In an article discussing Glee 's increasingly inconsistent tone , characterizations , and weird moments in the second season , film and television critic Matt Zoller Seitz cited " Grilled Cheesus " as an exception : " an episode built around an earnest , Afterschool Special @-@ style contemplation of faith that improbably turned out to be one of the series ' boldest , silliest , maybe finest hours " .
Robert Canning of IGN felt that " Grilled Cheesus " was too varied tonally , failing to effectively bring together the " true anguish " of Kurt 's storyline and " lunacy " of Finn 's . He rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , signifying a good episode , though his overall opinion was mixed . Canning commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt , yet felt that the religious element gave the episode an after school special vibe and almost became " over @-@ the @-@ top preachy and self @-@ important " . VanDerWerff graded the episode " B- " , commenting that he was uncertain whether he genuinely loved it , or was overlooking flaws because it handled the religious element acceptably . VanDerWerff stated that it would be easy to criticize Glee , but while television as a whole does not do earnestness well , Glee at its best , as in " Grilled Cheesus " , " revels in just how damn earnest it can be " . James Poniewozik of Time wrote that the episode 's premise was " absurdly ambitious " , yet felt it was largely successful in being respectful to both atheism and religion . He criticized the musical numbers for detracting from the plot , but appreciated the focus on Kurt and Burt , also naming theirs one of Glee 's " strongest and most nuanced relationships " .
Lisa Respers France of CNN was dismayed that the episode felt forced , like an Emmy submission showpiece for Colfer . She disliked Kurt 's angry , " overwrought " reaction to his friends ' prayers and the " silly " grilled cheese sandwich subplot , however wished there had been more focus on the " rich , barely tapped vein " of the Sue subplot . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon criticized the episode 's lack of subtlety , feeling that in its attempt to be controversial , Glee became a clichéd after school special . Fallon had been excited to see religion and homosexuality tackled on Glee , but was disappointed that the end result was " completely devoid of humor " , with dialogue " so stilted , wooden , and earnest that the treatment of the subject was largely ineffective and far too easy to make fun of . " Benigno also commented negatively on the lack of subtlety , deeming it Glee 's " biggest flaw " . He commended Lynch 's performance as Sue , however , writing : " It 's outrageous how good she is despite having only three scenes of screen time . "
= North Road ( Manchester ) =
North Road was a football stadium and cricket field in Newton Heath , Manchester , England . It was the first home of Manchester United Football Club – then known as Newton Heath Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway Football Club – from its foundation in 1878 until 1893 , when the club moved to a new ground at Bank Street , Clayton .
Initially the ground consisted only of the pitch , around which an estimated 12 @,@ 000 spectators could congregate . The addition of stands in 1891 increased the capacity to about 15 @,@ 000 . The football club signed its first professional players in 1886 and began to break from its sponsoring railway company , but without the company 's financial support it was unable to afford the rent on the ground and was evicted .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Following the foundation of Newton Heath LYR F.C. , at the request of the employees of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( LYR ) company 's Carriage and Wagon Works , the club needed a pitch to play on . The chosen site was owned by the Manchester Cathedral authorities , but although conveniently sited next to the wagon works it was a " bumpy , stony patch in summer , [ and ] a muddy , heavy swamp in the rainy months " . The railway company agreed to pay a nominal rent to the authorities and to lease the ground to the football club . As it was next to the railway line operated by the LYR , the ground was often clouded in a thick mist of steam from passing trains . Players had to get changed in The Three Crowns public house , a few hundred yards away on Oldham Road , as there were no facilities nearby . There may have been some kind of refreshment offered to supporters at the eastern end of the site .
The first recorded matches at the ground took place in 1880 , two years after the club 's formation , most of them friendlies . The first competitive match held at North Road was a Lancashire Cup first round match against Blackburn Olympic 's reserve team , played on 27 October 1883 , which Newton Heath lost 7 – 2 . Details of the attendance have been lost , but it is assumed that the ground must have been enclosed by then , as an entry fee of 3d ( about £ 1 as of 2016 ) was charged for the match . Football became a professional sport in England in 1885 , and Newton Heath signed their first professional players in the summer of 1886 . The club 's income was insufficient to cover its wage bill , and so the 3d admission charge was extended to all matches played at North Road , later rising to 6d .
= = = Expansion and eviction = = =
The ground originally had a capacity of about 12 @,@ 000 , but club officials decided that was not enough to give them any hope of joining the Football League . Some expansion took place in 1887 , but in 1891 Newton Heath used what little financial reserves they had to purchase two grandstands , each able to hold 1 @,@ 000 spectators . However , this transaction put the club at odds with the railway company , who refused to contribute any finance to the deal . The two organisations began to drift apart from then onwards , and in 1892 the club attempted to raise £ 2 @,@ 000 in share capital to pay off the debts incurred by the expansion of the ground . The split also led the railway company to stop paying the rent due on the ground to the cathedral , who at about the same time decided to increase the rent . Under increasing financial pressure , especially as the cathedral authorities felt it inappropriate for the club to charge admission to the ground , an eviction notice was served on the club in June 1893 . The club 's management had been searching for a new stadium since the first eviction attempt in May the previous year , and they were able to move to a new ground on Bank Street , three miles away in Clayton . It proved impossible though to take the two grandstands to the new ground , and they were sold for £ 100 .
= = = Present = = =
The stadium no longer exists , and North Road has been renamed Northampton Road . After a spell serving as playing fields for locals , Moston Brook High School was opened on the site . A red plaque was attached to one of the school 's walls , marking the location of the old stadium , but it was stolen and not replaced . Following the school 's closure in August 2000 , the site was chosen by the Northwest Regional Development Agency ( NWDA ) as the location of the North Manchester Business Park in 2002 .
= = Other uses = =
Newton Heath LYR Football Club was also founded as a cricket club , and the North Road ground was used by both branches of the club . However , the cricket and football seasons often overlapped , causing conflicts between the two sports . The ground was barely adequate for football , despite the best efforts of groundsmen Charlie and Ned Massey , but its use in the winter made it even less suitable for cricket in
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the summer .
= = Records = =
Although attendance figures were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road , the highest recorded attendance at the ground was approximately 15 @,@ 000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893 . A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889 . A record @-@ low league attendance of approximately 1 @,@ 000 was recorded for Football Alliance matches against Walsall Town Swifts and Birmingham City on 21 April 1890 and 13 December 1890 respectively . However , an attendance of 400 was recorded for a Manchester Cup match against Eccles on 31 January 1885 .
The earliest recorded four @-@ figure attendance at the ground was 3 @,@ 000 for a friendly with West Gorton ( St. Mark 's ) on 12 November 1881 . This was the first recorded meeting of the two sides that eventually became Manchester United and Manchester City .
= Curve @-@ shortening flow =
In mathematics , the curve @-@ shortening flow is a process that modifies a smooth curve in the Euclidean plane by moving its points perpendicularly to the curve at a speed proportional to the curvature . The curve @-@ shortening flow is an example of a geometric flow , and is the one @-@ dimensional case of the mean curvature flow . Other names for the same process include the Euclidean shortening flow , geometric heat flow , and arc length evolution .
As the points of any smooth simple closed curve move in this way , the curve remains simple and smooth . It loses area at a constant rate , and its perimeter decreases as quickly as possible for any continuous curve evolution . If the curve is non @-@ convex , its total absolute curvature decreases monotonically , until it becomes convex . Once convex , the isoperimetric ratio of the curve decreases as the curve converges to a circular shape , before collapsing to a single point of singularity . If two disjoint simple smooth closed curves evolve , they remain disjoint until one of them collapses to a point . The circle is the only simple closed curve that maintains its shape under the curve @-@ shortening flow , but some curves that cross themselves or have infinite length keep their shape , including the grim reaper curve , an infinite curve that translates upwards , and spirals that rotate while remaining the same size and shape .
An approximation to the curve @-@ shortening flow can be computed numerically , by approximating the curve as a polygon and using the finite difference method to calculate the motion of each polygon vertex . Alternative methods include computing a convolution of polygon vertices and then resampling vertices on the resulting curve , or repeatedly applying a median filter to a digital image whose black and white pixels represent the inside and outside of the curve .
The curve @-@ shortening flow was originally studied as a model for annealing of metal sheets . Later , it was applied in image analysis to give a multi @-@ scale representation of shapes . It can also model reaction – diffusion systems , and the behavior of cellular automata . In pure mathematics , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be used to find closed geodesics on Riemannian manifolds , and as a model for the behavior of higher @-@ dimensional flows .
= = Definitions = =
A flow is a process in which the points of a mathematical space continuously change their locations or properties over time . More specifically , in a one @-@ dimensional geometric flow such as the curve @-@ shortening flow , the points undergoing the flow belong to a curve , and what changes is the shape of the curve , its embedding into the Euclidean plane determined by the locations of each of its points . In the curve @-@ shortening flow , each point of a curve moves in the direction of a normal vector to the curve , at a rate proportional to the curvature . For an evolving curve represented by a two @-@ parameter function C ( s , t ) where s parameterizes the arc length along the curve and t parameterizes a time in the evolution of the curve , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be described by the parabolic partial differential equation
<formula>
a form of the heat equation , where κ is the curvature and n is the unit normal vector .
Because the ingredients of this equation , the arc length , curvature , and time , are all unaffected by translations and rotations of the Euclidean plane , it follows that the flow defined by this equation is invariant under translations and rotations ( or more precisely , equivariant ) . If the plane is scaled by a constant dilation factor , the flow remains essentially unchanged , but is slowed down or sped up by the same factor .
= = = Non @-@ smooth curves = = =
In order for the flow to be well defined , the given curve must be sufficiently smooth that it has a continuous curvature . However , once the flow starts , the curve becomes analytic , and remains so until reaching a singularity at which the curvature blows up . For a smooth curve without crossings , the only possible singularity happens when the curve collapses to a point , but immersed curves can have other types of singularity . In such cases , with some care it is possible to continue the flow past these singularities until the whole curve shrinks to a single point .
For a simple closed curve , using an extension of the flow to non @-@ smooth curves based on the level set method , there are only two possibilities . Curves with zero Lebesgue measure ( including all polygons and piecewise @-@ smooth curves ) instantly evolve into smooth curves , after which they evolve as any smooth curve would . However , Osgood curves with nonzero measure instead immediately evolve into a topological annulus with nonzero area and smooth boundaries . The topologist 's sine curve is an example that instantly becomes smooth , despite not even being locally connected ; examples such as this show that the reverse evolution of the curve @-@ shortening flow can take well @-@ behaved curves to complicated singularities in a finite amount of time .
= = = Non @-@ Euclidean surfaces = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow , and many of the results about the curve @-@ shortening flow , can be generalized from the Euclidean plane to any two @-@ dimensional Riemannian manifold . In order to avoid additional types of singularity , it is important for the manifold to be convex at infinity ; this is defined to mean that every compact set has a compact convex hull , as defined using geodesic convexity . The curve @-@ shortening flow cannot cause a curve to depart from its convex hull , so this condition prevents parts of the curve from reaching the boundary of the manifold .
= = = Space curves = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow has also been studied for curves in three @-@ dimensional Euclidean space . The normal vector in this case can be defined ( as in the plane ) as the derivative of the tangent vector with respect to arc length , normalized to be a unit vector ; it is one of the components of the Frenet – Serret frame . It is not well defined at points of zero curvature , but the product of the curvature and the normal vector remains well defined at those points , allowing the curve @-@ shortening flow to be defined . Curves in space may cross each other or themselves according to this flow , and the flow may lead to singularities in the curves ; every singularity is asymptotic to a plane . The curve shortening flow for space curves has been used as a way to define flow past singularities in plane curves .
= = = Beyond curves = = =
It is possible to extend the definition of the flow to more general inputs than curves , for instance by using rectifiable varifolds or the level set method . However , these extended definitions may allow parts of curves to vanish instantaneously or fatten into sets of nonzero area .
A commonly studied variation of the problem involves networks of interior @-@ disjoint smooth curves , with junctions where three or more of the curves meet . When the junctions all have exactly three curves meeting at angles of 2π / 3 ( the same conditions seen in an optimal Steiner tree or two @-@ dimensional foam of soap bubbles ) the flow is well @-@ defined for the short term . However , it may eventually reach a singular state with four or more curves meeting at a junction , and there may be more than one way to continue the flow past such a singularity .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Avoidance principle , radius , and stretch factor = = =
If two disjoint smooth simple closed curves undergo the curve @-@ shortening flow simultaneously , they remain disjoint as the flow progresses . The reason is that , if two smooth curves move in a way that creates a crossing , then at the time of first crossing the curves would necessarily be tangent to each other , without crossing . But , in such a situation , the two curves ' curvatures at the point of tangency would necessarily pull them apart rather than pushing them together into a crossing . For the same reason , a single simple closed curve can never evolve to cross itself .
The avoidance principle implies that any smooth curve eventually either reaches a singularity ( such as a point of infinite curvature ) or collapses to a point . For , if a given smooth curve C is surrounded by a circle , both will remain disjoint until one or the other collapses or reaches a singularity . But the enclosing circle shrinks under the curvature flow , remaining circular , until it collapses , and by the avoidance principle C must remain contained within it . By the same reasoning , the radius of the smallest circle that encloses C must decrease at a rate that is at least as fast as the decrease in radius of a circle undergoing the same flow .
Huisken ( 1998 ) quantifies the avoidance principle for a single curve in terms of the ratio between the arc length ( of the shorter of two arcs ) and Euclidean distance between pairs of points , sometimes called the stretch factor . He shows that the stretch factor is strictly decreasing at each of its local maxima , except for the case of the two ends of a diameter of a circle in which case the stretch factor is constant at π . This monotonicity property implies the avoidance principle , for if the curve would ever touch itself the stretch factor would become infinite at the two touching points .
= = = Length = = =
As a curve undergoes the curve @-@ shortening flow , its length L decreases at a rate given by the formula
<formula>
where the interval is taken over the curve , κ is the curvature , and s is arc length along the curve . The integrand is always non @-@ negative , and for any smooth closed curve there exist arcs within which it is strictly positive , so the length decreases monotonically . More generally , for any evolution of curves whose normal speed is f , the rate of change in length is
<formula>
which can be interpreted as a negated inner product between the given evolution and the curve @-@ shortening flow . Thus , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be described as the gradient flow for length , the flow that ( locally ) decreases the length of the curve as quickly as possible relative to the L2 norm of the flow . This property is the one that gives the curve @-@ shortening flow its name .
= = = Area = = =
For a simple closed curve , the area enclosed by the curve shrinks , at the constant rate of 2π units of area per unit of time , independent of the curve . Therefore , the total time for a curve to shrink to a point is proportional to its area , regardless of its initial shape . Because the area of a curve is reduced at a constant rate , and ( by the isoperimetric inequality ) a circle has the greatest possible area among simple closed curves of a given length , it follows that circles are the slowest curves to collapse to a point under the curve @-@ shortening flow . All other curves take less time to collapse than a circle of the same length .
The constant rate of area reduction is the only conservation law satisfied by the curve @-@ shortening flow . This implies that it is not possible to express the " vanishing point " where the curve eventually collapses as an integral over the curve of any function of its points and their derivatives , because such an expression would lead to a forbidden second conservation law . However , by combining the constant rate of area loss with the avoidance principle , it is possible to prove that the vanishing point always lies within a circle , concentric with the minimum enclosing circle , whose area is the difference in areas between the enclosing circle and the given curve .
= = = Total absolute curvature = = =
The total absolute curvature of a smooth curve is the integral of the absolute value of the curvature along the arc length of the curve ,
<formula>
It can also be expressed as a sum of the angles between the normal vectors at consecutive pairs of inflection points . It is 2π for convex curves and larger for non @-@ convex curves , serving as a measure of non @-@ convexity of a curve .
New inflection points cannot be created by the curve @-@ shortening flow . Each of the angles in the representation of the total absolute curvature as a sum decreases monotonically , except at the instants when two consecutive inflection points reach the same angle or position as each other and are both eliminated . Therefore , the total absolute curvature can never increase as the curve evolves . For convex curves it is constant at 2π and for non @-@ convex curves it decreases monotonically .
= = = Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem = = =
If a smooth simple closed curve undergoes the curve @-@ shortening flow , it remains smoothly embedded without self @-@ intersections . It will eventually become convex , and once it does so it will remain convex . After this time , all points of the curve will move inwards , and the shape of the curve will converge to a circle as the whole curve shrinks to a single point . This behavior is sometimes summarized by saying that every simple closed curve shrinks to a " round point " .
This result is due to Michael Gage , Richard Hamilton , and Matthew Grayson . Gage ( 1983 , 1984 ) proved convergence to a circle for convex curves that contract to a point . More specifically Gage showed that the isoperimetric ratio ( the ratio of squared curve length to area , a number that is 4π for a circle and larger for any other convex curve ) decreases monotonically and quickly . Gage & Hamilton ( 1986 ) proved that all smooth convex curves eventually contract to a point without forming any other singularities , and Grayson ( 1987 ) proved that every non @-@ convex curve will eventually become convex . Andrews & Bryan ( 2011 ) provide a simpler proof of Grayson 's result , based on the monotonicity of the stretch factor .
Similar results can be extended from closed curves to unbounded curves satisfying a local Lipschitz condition . For such curves , if both sides of the curve have infinite area , then the evolved curve remains smooth and singularity @-@ free for all time . However , if one side of an unbounded curve has finite area , and the curve has finite total absolute curvature , then its evolution reaches a singularity in time proportional to the area on the finite @-@ area side of the curve , with unbounded curvature near the singularity . For curves that are graphs of sufficiently well @-@ behaved functions , asymptotic to a ray in each direction , the solution converges in shape to a unique shape that is asymptotic to the same rays . For networks formed by two disjoint rays on the same line , together with two smooth curves connecting the endpoints of the two rays , an analogue of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem holds , under which the region between the two curves becomes convex and then converges to a vesica piscis shape .
= = = Singularities of self @-@ crossing curves = = =
Curves that have self @-@ crossings may reach singularities before contracting to a point . For instance , if a lemniscate ( any smooth immersed curve with a single crossing , resembling a figure 8 or infinity symbol ) has unequal areas in its two lobes , then eventually the smaller lobe will collapse to a point . However , if the two lobes have equal areas , then they will remain equal throughout the evolution of the curve , and the isoperimetric ratio will diverge as the curve collapses to a singularity .
When a locally convex self @-@ crossing curve approaches a singularity as one of its loops shrinks , it either shrinks in a self @-@ similar way or asymptotically approaches the grim reaper curve ( described below ) as it shrinks . When a loop collapses to a singularity , the amount of total absolute curvature that is lost is either at least 2π or exactly π .
= = = On Riemannian manifolds = = =
On a Riemannian manifold , any smooth simple closed curve will remain smooth and simple as it evolves , just as in the Euclidean case . It will either collapse to a point in a finite amount of time , or remain smooth and simple forever . In the latter case , the curve necessarily converges to a closed geodesic of the surface .
Immersed curves on Riemannian manifolds , with finitely many self @-@ crossings , become self @-@ tangent only at a discrete set of times , at each of which they lose a crossing . As a consequence the number of self @-@ crossing points is non @-@ decreasing .
= = = Huisken 's monotonicity formula = = =
According to Huisken 's monotonicity formula , the convolution of an evolving curve with a time @-@ reversed heat kernel is non @-@ increasing . This result can be used to analyze the singularities of the evolution .
= = Specific curves = =
= = = Curves with self @-@ similar evolution = = =
Because every other simple closed curve converges to a circle , the circle is the only simple closed curve that keeps its shape under the curve @-@ shortening flow . However , there are many other examples of curves that are either non @-@ simple ( they include self @-@ crossings ) or non @-@ closed ( they extend to infinity ) and keep their shape . In particular ,
Every line stays unchanged by the curve @-@ shortening flow . Lines are the only curves that are unaffected by the curve @-@ shortening flow , although there exist more complex stable networks of curves , such as the hexagonal tiling of the plane .
The grim reaper curve y = − log cos x moves upwards without changing its shape . In the same way , any curve similar to the grim reaper is translated by the curve @-@ shortening flow , shifted in the direction of the symmetry axis of the curve without changing its shape or orientation . The grim reaper is the only curve with this property . It is also called the hairpin model in the physics literature .
A family of self @-@ crossing closed curves , derived from projections of torus knots , shrink homothetically but remain self @-@ similar under the curve @-@ shortening flow . These have come to be known as the Abresch – Langer curves , after the work of Abresch & Langer ( 1986 ) , although they were mentioned earlier by Mullins ( 1956 ) and rediscovered independently by Epstein & Weinstein ( 198
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7 ) . These curves are locally convex , and therefore can be described by their support functions . Suitably scaled versions of these support functions obey the differential equation
<formula>
which has positive periodic solutions ( corresponding to curves with self @-@ similar evolution ) for any period that is strictly between π and <formula> .
Other curves , including some infinite spirals , remain self @-@ similar with more complicated motions including rotation or combinations of rotation , shrinking or expansion , and translation .
For networks of smooth curves , meeting in threes at junctions with angles of 2π / 3 , the self @-@ similar shrinking solutions include a double bubble surrounding two equal areas , a lens shape ( vesica piscis ) bounded by two congruent arcs of circles together with two collinear rays having their apexes at the corners of the lens , and a " fish @-@ shaped " network bounded by a line segment , two rays , and a convex curve . Any other self @-@ similar shrinking networks involve a larger number of curves . Another family of networks grows homothetically and remains self @-@ similar ; these are tree @-@ like networks of curves , meeting at angles of 2π / 3 at triple junctions , asymptotic to a fan of two or more rays that meet at a common endpoint . The two @-@ ray case of these shapes is an unbounded smooth curve ; for three or more rays the evolution of these shapes may be defined using generalized variants of the curve @-@ shortening flow such as the one for varifolds . A given fan of four or more rays may be asymptotic to more than one different solution of this type , so these solutions do not provide a unique definition for the curve @-@ shortening flow starting from a fan of rays .
= = = Ancient solutions = = =
An ancient solution to a flow problem is a curve whose evolution can be extrapolated backwards for all time , without singularities . All of the self @-@ similar solutions that shrink or stay the same size rather than growing are ancient solutions in this sense ; they can be extrapolated backwards by reversing the self @-@ similarity transformation that they would undergo by the forwards curve @-@ shortening flow . Thus , for instance , the circle , grim reaper , and Abresch – Langer curves are all ancient solutions .
The only closed curves other than the circle and Abresch – Langer curves that form ancient solutions are a class of curves called the Angenent ovals after the work of Angenent ( 1992 ) . These curves may be parameterized by specifying their curvature as a function of the tangent angle using the formula
<formula>
and have as their limiting shape under reverse evolution a pair of grim reaper curves approaching each other from opposite directions . In the Cartesian coordinate system , they may be given by the implicit curve equation
<formula>
In the physics literature , the same shapes are known as the paperclip model .
For more general classes of curves , such as the graphs of functions , a more diverse collection of ancient solutions is known .
= = Numerical approximations = =
In order to compute the curve @-@ shortening flow efficiently , both a continuous curve and the continuous evolution of the curve need to be replaced by a discrete approximation .
= = = Front tracking = = =
Front tracking methods have long been used in fluid dynamics to model and track the motion of boundaries between different materials , of steep gradients in material properties such as weather fronts , or of shock waves within a single material . These methods involve deriving the equations of motion of the boundary , and using them to directly simulate the motion of the boundary , rather than simulating the underlying fluid and treating the boundary as an emergent property of the fluid . The same methods can also be used to simulate the curve @-@ shortening flow , even when the curve undergoing the flow is not a boundary or shock .
In front tracking methods for curve shortening , the curve undergoing the evolution is discretized as a polygon . The finite difference method is used to derive formulas for the approximate normal vector and curvature at each vertex of the polygon , and these values are used to determine how to move each vertex in each time step . In some cases the normal motion of the points is combined with a tangential motion to spread them more uniformly around the curve . Merriman , Bence & Osher ( 1992 ) write that these methods are fast and accurate but that it is much more complicated to extend them to versions of the curve @-@ shortening flow that apply to more complicated inputs than simple closed curves , where it is necessary to deal with singularities and changes of topology .
For most such methods , Cao ( 2003 ) warns that " The conditions of stability cannot be determined easily and the time step must be chosen ad hoc . " Another finite differencing method by Crandall & Lions ( 1996 ) modifies the formula for the curvature at each vertex by adding to it a small term based on the Laplace operator . This modification is called elliptic regularization , and it can be used to help prove the existence of generalized flows as well as in their numerical simulation . Using it , the method of Crandall and Lions can be proven to converge and is the only numerical method listed by Cao that is equipped with bounds on its convergence rate . For an empirical comparison of the forward Euler , backward Euler , and more accurate Crank – Nicolson finite difference methods , see Balažovjech & Mikula ( 2009 ) .
= = = Resampled convolution = = =
Mokhtarian & Mackworth ( 1992 ) suggest a numerical method for computing an approximation to the curve @-@ shortening flow that maintains a discrete approximation to the curve and alternates between two steps :
Resample the current curve by placing new sample points at a uniform spacing , as measured by normalized arc length .
Convolve the locations of the points with a Gaussian function with small standard deviation , in effect replacing each point 's location with a weighted average of the locations of nearby points along the curve , with Gaussian weights . The standard deviation of the Gaussian should be chosen to be small enough that , after this step , the sample points still have nearly @-@ uniform spacing .
As they show , this method converges to the curve @-@ shortening distribution in the limit as the number of sample points grows and the normalized arc length of the convolution radius shrinks .
= = = Median filtering = = =
Merriman , Bence & Osher ( 1992 ) describe a scheme operating on a two @-@ dimensonal square grid – effectively an array of pixels . The curve to be evolved is represented by assigning the value 0 ( black ) to pixels exterior to the curve , and 1 ( white ) to pixels interior to the curve , giving the indicator function for the interior of the curve . This representation is updated by alternating two steps :
Convolve the pixelated image with a heat kernel to simulate its evolution under the heat equation for a short time step . The result is a Gaussian blur of the image , or equivalently the Weierstrass transform of the indicator function , with radius proportional to the square root of the time step .
Set every pixel with numerical value less than 1 / 2 to 0 , and every pixel with numerical value greater than 1 / 2 to 1 , thresholding the image back to its original values in new positions .
In order for this scheme to be accurate , the time step must be large enough to cause the curve to move by at least one pixel even at points of low curvature , but small enough to cause the radius of blurring to be less than the minimum radius of curvature . Therefore , the size of a pixel must be O ( min κ / max κ2 ) , small enough to allow a suitable intermediate time step to be chosen .
The method can be generalized to the evolution of networks of curves , meeting at junctions and dividing the plane into more than three regions , by applying the same method simultaneously to each region . Instead of blurring and thresholding , this method can alternatively be described as applying a median filter with Gaussian weights to each pixel . It is possible to use kernels other than the heat kernel , or to adaptively refine the grid so that it has high resolution near the curve but does not waste time and memory on pixels far from the curve that do not contribute to the outcome . Instead of using only the two values in the pixelated image , a version of this method that uses an image whose pixel values represent the signed distance to the curve can achieve subpixel accuracy and require lower resolution .
= = Applications = =
= = = Annealing metal sheets = = =
An early reference to the curve @-@ shortening flow by William W. Mullins ( 1956 ) motivates it as a model for the physical process of annealing , in which heat treatment causes the boundaries between grains of crystallized metal to shift . Unlike soap films , which are forced by differences in air pressure to become surfaces of constant mean curvature , the grain boundaries in annealing are subject only to local effects , which cause them to move according to the mean curvature flow . The one @-@ dimensional case of this flow , the curve @-@ shortening flow , corresponds to annealing sheets of metal that are thin enough for the grains to become effectively two @-@ dimensional and their boundaries to become one @-@ dimensional .
= = = Shape analysis = = =
In image processing and computer vision , Mokhtarian & Mackworth ( 1992 ) suggest applying the curve @-@ shortening flow to the outline of a shape derived from a digital image , in order to remove noise from the shape and provide a scale space that provides a simplified description of the shape at different levels of resolution . The method of Mokhtarian and Mackworth involves computing the curve @-@ shortening flow , tracking the inflection points of the curve as they progress through the flow , and drawing a graph that plots the positions of the inflection points around the curve against the time parameter . The inflection points will typically be removed from the curve in pairs as the curve becomes convex ( according to the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem ) and the lifetime of a pair of points corresponds to the salience of a feature of the shape . Because of the resampled convolution method that they describe for computing a numerical approximation of the curve @-@ shortening flow , they call their method the resampled curvature scale space . They observe that this scale space is invariant under Euclidean transformations of the given shape , and assert that it uniquely determines the shape and is robust against small variations in the shape . They compare it experimentally against several related alternative definitions of a scale space for shapes , and find that the resampled curvature scale space is less computationally intensive , more robust against nonuniform noise , and less strongly influenced by small @-@ scale shape differences .
= = = Reaction @-@ diffusion = = =
In reaction – diffusion systems modeled by the Allen – Cahn equation , the limiting behavior for fast reaction , slow diffusion , and two or more local minima of energy with the same energy level as each other is for the system to settle into regions of different local minima , with the fronts delimiting boundaries between these regions evolving according to the curve @-@ shortening flow .
= = = Cellular automata = = =
In a cellular automaton , each cell in an infinite grid of cells may have one of a finite set of states , and all cells update their states simultaneously based only on the configuration of a small set of neighboring cells . A Life @-@ like cellular automaton rule is one in which the grid is the infinite square lattice , there are exactly two cell states , the set of neighbors of each cell are the eight neighbors of the Moore neighborhood , and the update rule depends only on the number of neighbors with each of the two states rather than on any more complicated function of those states . In one particular life @-@ like rule , introduced by Gerard Vichniac and called the twisted majority rule or annealing rule , the update rule sets the new value for each cell to be the majority among the nine cells given by it and its eight neighbors , except when these cells are split among four with one state and five with the other state , in which case the new value of the cell is the minority rather than the majority . The detailed dynamics of this rule are complicated , including the existence of small stable structures . However , in the aggregate ( when started with all cells in random states ) it tends to form large regions of cells that are all in the same state as each other , with the boundaries between these regions evolving according to the curve @-@ shortening flow .
= = = Construction of closed geodesics = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow can be used to prove an isoperimetric inequality for surfaces whose Gaussian curvature is a non @-@ increasing function of the distance from the origin , such as the paraboloid . On such a surface , the smooth compact set that has any given area and minimum perimeter for that area is necessarily a circle centered at the origin . The proof applies the curve @-@ shortening flow to two curves , a metric circle and the boundary of any other compact set , and compares the change in perimeter of the two curves as they are both reduced to a point by the flow . The curve @-@ shortening flow can also be used to prove the theorem of the three geodesics , that every smooth Riemannian manifold topologically equivalent to a sphere has three geodesics that form simple closed curves .
= = Related flows = =
Other geometric flows related to the curve @-@ shortening flow include the following ones .
For simulating the behavior of crystals or other anisotropic materials , it is important to have variants of the curve @-@ shortening flow for which the speed of flow depends on the orientation of a curve as well as on its curvature . One way of doing this is to define the energy of a curve to be the integral of a smooth function γ of its normal vectors , and form the gradient flow of this energy , according to which the normal speed at which the curve flows is proportional to an anisotropic analog of the curvature . This flow can be simulated by discretizing the curve as a polygon . In numerical experiments , initial curves appear to converge to the Wulff shape for γ before shrinking to a point . Alternatively , one can let the curve flow with speed a ( θ ) κ + b ( θ ) where κ is the ( usual ) curvature and a and b are smooth functions of the orientation θ . When a ( θ + π )
= a ( θ ) and b ( θ + π ) =
− b ( θ ) ( so that the flow is invariant under point reflection ) , the resulting flow can be shown to obey the avoidance principle and an analog of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem .
The affine curve @-@ shortening flow was first investigated by Alvarez et al . ( 1993 ) and Sapiro & Tannenbaum ( 1993 ) . In this flow , the normal speed of the curve is proportional to the cube root of the curvature . The resulting flow is invariant ( with a corresponding time scaling ) under the affine transformations of the Euclidean plane , a larger symmetry group than the similarity transformations under which the curve @-@ shortening flow is invariant . Under this flow , an analogue of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem applies , under which any simple closed curve eventually becomes convex and then converges to an ellipse as it collapses to a point .
Transforming a curve with equal normal speeds at all points has been called the grassfire transform . Curves evolved in this way will in general develop sharp corners , the trace of which forms the medial axis of the curve . A closely related curve evolution which moves straight segments of a polygonal curve at equal speeds but allows concave corners to move more quickly than unit speed instead forms a different type of topological skeleton of the given curve , its straight skeleton .
For surfaces in higher dimensions , there is more than one definition of curvature , including extrinsic ( embedding @-@ dependent ) measures such as the mean curvature and intrinsic measures such as the Gaussian curvature and Ricci curvature . Correspondingly , there are several ways of defining geometric flows based on curvature , including the mean curvature flow ( in which the normal speed of an embedded surface is its mean curvature ) , the Ricci flow ( an intrinsic flow on the metric of a space based on its Ricci curvature ) and the Willmore flow ( the gradient flow for an energy functional combining the mean curvature and Gaussian curvature ) . The curve @-@ shortening flow is a special case of the mean curvature flow for one @-@ dimensional curves .
Inspired by the curve @-@ shortening flow on smooth curves , researchers have studied methods for flowing polygons so that they stay polygonal , with applications including pattern formation and synchronization in distributed systems of robots . Length @-@ preserving polygonal flows can be used to solve the carpenter 's rule problem .
In computer vision , the active contour model for edge detection and image segmentation is based on curve shortening , and evolves curves based on a combination of their curvature and the features of an image .
= Old Pine Church =
Old Pine Church ( also historically known as Mill Church , Nicholas Church , and Pine Church ) is a mid @-@ 19th century church near Purgitsville , West Virginia . It is among the earliest extant log churches in Hampshire County , along with Capon Chapel and Mount Bethel Church .
The church was constructed in 1838 to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's earliest settlers were of German descent , Old Pine Church may also have been built as a meeting place for Schwarzenau Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . The church is believed to have also been a meeting place for German Methodist settlers . By 1870 , the church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination , and in 1878 , the church 's congregation split into White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church congregations . Both congregations continued to use the church until 1907 .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to perform a restoration of the church . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , due to its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands . "
The church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building sheathed in brown @-@ painted wooden German siding . The original hewn log beams are visible beneath the church , with some bark remaining on the logs . The church 's interior ceiling measures approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 metres ) in height and is clad in pressed metal panels . Several of its pews date from 1857 . In the church 's adjoining cemetery , the earliest extant gravestone dates from 1834 , and several unmarked interment sites may exist from as early as 1759 . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , " Old Pine Church and cemetery is an excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes . "
= = Location = =
Old Pine Church and its cemetery are located along the steeply sloped Old Pine Church Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 220 / 15 ) , approximately 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 kilometres ) south of the unincorporated community of Purgitsville . The church and cemetery are situated on 2 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 93 hectares ) atop a bluff to the west of United States Route 220 , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 metres ) . The property is surrounded by old @-@ growth forests .
The church is in a rural area of southwestern Hampshire County within the Mill Creek valley . Patterson Creek Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of Mill Creek valley , and the forested western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Mill Creek Mountain rise to the valley 's east . The Trough on the South Branch Potomac River is located across Mill Creek Mountain , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of the church .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Old Pine Church 's land tract was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
The church is in the Mill Creek valley . As tensions with Native Americans were beginning to ease , Lord Fairfax sought to entice white settlers to the sparsely settled lands of his Northern Neck Proprietary . The valley was one of the first parts of present @-@ day Hampshire County to be settled by whites , beginning in the mid @-@ 18th century . Settlers were drawn by the valley 's fertility . As the valley 's population grew , the unincorporated community of Purgitsville developed along Mill Creek as a trading post village ; it was named for Henry Purgitt ( or Purgate ) , who acquired 400 acres ( 160 ha ) in the Mill Creek valley on January 7 , 1785 , and received a further land transfer of 137 acres ( 55 ha ) in 1794 . Purgitsville continued to develop throughout the course of the 19th century , during which time it grew to include a small store , a post office , and a blacksmith shop .
= = = Establishment = = =
The dates of the earliest church cannot be verified , but a church building may have been constructed at the site of Old Pine Church as early as around 1814 , and possibly as early as 1792 .
On September 24 , 1838 , William Pomkrotz and his wife , Milly , deeded a tract of land to a group of trustees , charged with constructing " a church or house for public worship for the use and convenience of Ministers and others of the Christians [ sic ] Denominations Whatsoever " . While the deed mentioned an existing meeting house on the site , there is no extant evidence of a prior structure . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , no particular Christian denomination received sole ownership of the edifice , which suggests that the church was intended to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . The church 's earliest resident minister was reportedly Nicholas Leatherman , whose wife , Elizabeth High , was the daughter of George High , one of the church 's original trustees .
= = = Brethren affiliation = = =
Few records of the church 's history exist , possibly because no single denomination or organization took ownership . Several Christian denominations held meetings at Old Pine Church , including the Schwarzenau Brethren ( or German Baptist Brethren ) , which began holding services at the church in the late 19th century . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's settlers were of German descent , the Old Pine Church structure may also have been built as a meeting place for Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . It is believed that Old Pine Church was also used by German Methodists . The Brethren was a Christian denomination of Anabaptist origin that practiced baptism by triune immersion and exercised nonresistance . Triune immersion consists of dipping a new believer into water three times , once for each of the entities of the Holy Trinity . Brethren adherents believed only in the New Testament , and professed no other creeds . The interior of Old Pine Church , which consists of a single common space for all worshippers , also illustrates the building 's connection with the Brethren and the denomination 's beliefs regarding slavery . According to the minutes from the 1782 meeting of the Brethren in Franklin County , Virginia , " It has been unanimously considered that it cannot be permitted in any way by the church that a member should purchase Negroes or keep them as Slaves . " While many residents in Hampshire County prior to the American Civil War were slaveholders , it is thought that Brethren adherents in the county did not own slaves or depend upon slave labor .
The Brethren denomination had been present in the South Branch Potomac River valley from as early as the 1750s although records of early Brethren congregations are not extant , possibly because they were served by itinerant ministers . As early as 1785 , two brothers with the surname of Powers led a Brethren congregation in the area . In Dr. Emmert F. Bittinger 's historical research on the Brethren Church in Hampshire County in his Allegheny Passage ( 1990 ) , it is noted that the Church of the Brethren denomination recognized Old Pine Church as belonging to the larger Beaver Run congregation , which was centered approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Old Pine Church . The Beaver Run congregation was the first organization of the Brethren in Hampshire County . Old Pine Church and its predecessor structures were probably utilized by members of the Beaver Run congregation because the distance between the northern region of the valley and the church on Beaver Run was too great to traverse easily . Thus , Old Pine Church began as a mission of the Beaver Run congregation . Because of its location in the vicinity of the Hardy County boundary line , the district served by the church spanned both counties .
By 1870 , Old Pine Church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination . Around 1870 , the Nicholas congregation of Brethren was worshiping at the church and was led by Dr. Leatherman . According to the Beaver Run Church Book , membership at Old Pine Church was 78 in 1879 and numbered 100 in 1881 . The Beaver Run congregation modified its district 's boundaries in 1879 , which may have resulted in a division of the congregation at Old Pine Church into two factions : White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church . Both churches continued to worship at Old Pine Church at different times . White Pine Church of the Brethren worshiped at the church from the 1870s until the construction of their own church building in 1907 . By 1897 , Old Pine Church remained under collective ownership by several Christian denominations although the Brethren were the church 's largest shareholders . White Pine Church of the Brethren remained listed in the Brethren Conference Minutes as " Pine Church " until 1912 , when members of the church petitioned the Brethren Conference to change their name from " Pine " to " White Pine " .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . A small one @-@ room addition to the church was constructed to the north façade of the building , which served as the boarding room for the school 's teacher . The Old Pine Church also continued to be used for funeral services and reunions .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to restore Old Pine Church : the church 's original windows were repaired and the unpainted weatherboards painted ; a new roof was installed and the original wood floor replaced . The boarding room addition was probably removed ( nothing of it now remains ) and the pressed metal ceiling may have been added .
= = = Current use = = =
As of 2012 , Old Pine Church is still used for community gatherings , funeral services , revival meetings , and an annual church service . Regular church services have not taken place in the church since the middle of the 20th century . The church 's adjacent cemetery also continues to be used for burials . Throughout its existence , Old Pine Church has been known by various names , including " Mill Church " , " Nicholas Church " , and simply " Pine Church " .
In 2008 , the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission embarked upon an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places following a series of surveys of historic properties throughout the county . The county received funding for the surveying and documentation of Hampshire County architecture and history from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Old Pine Church was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register as a result of the county 's initiative . The other seven properties were : Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Springfield Brick House , and Valley View . According to Hampshire County Commission 's compliance officer , Charles Baker , places of worship were not typically selected for inclusion in the register ; Old Pine Church and Capon Chapel were exceptions because both " started out as meeting houses " . Old Pine Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , because of its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands " .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Church exterior = = =
Old Pine Church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building . Its symmetrical front façade faces west and encompasses a main entrance consisting of a double set of four @-@ paneled doors . The main entrance is reached by two concrete steps , on either side of which is a modern metal handrail . Above the entrance is a small wooden sign painted white reading " Old Pine Church " in black lettering . On either side of the doors are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows .
Placed symmetrically in the north and south sides of the church are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows . Between the two windows on the church 's north elevation is an exterior concrete block chimney . The layout of the east @-@ facing rear elevation of the church is also symmetrical , and features three nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , with the center window placed above and between the other two windows . The church 's windows have been repaired using materials consistent with original construction .
At the base of each of the church 's four corners is a large uncut stone pier . Fieldstones span the church 's perimeter foundations , which were added at a later date to discourage intrusion by animals . The original hewn log beams , still retaining bark , can be seen under the church . The church is covered with brown @-@ painted wooden German siding and is crowned by a modern standing @-@ seam metal roof .
Architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi states that the simple form and construction of Old Pine Church are indicative of the early settlers ' access to materials and are an example of the log construction techniques used in the religious architecture of Hampshire County 's earliest settlers . She adds that Old Pine Church is representative of a " simple design and form common to the early ecclesiastical buildings " and an " excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes " .
= = = Church interior = = =
The church 's interior exhibits an open architectural plan . A plain wooden frame pulpit stands against the rear wall , underneath the middle window . The church 's floor consists of pine boards installed during the church 's 1968 restoration .
The church 's ceiling , measuring approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height , is clad in pressed metal panels . A small opening allows for access to the church 's attic . The unadorned window wells measure approximately 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . The interior walls are covered in plasterboard , which remains unfinished .
The church 's small wood @-@ burning stove originally occupied the center of the sanctuary but was moved to the church 's north wall in later years . It continues to serve as the church 's sole source of heat .
Several of the church 's pews date from 1857 and remain in use . The pews , quite simple in form , have a " minimalist appearance " . Each pew consists of a long wooden plank that serves as the seat , with a thin rail supported by three spindles as the backrest . The pews are supported by three arched supports joined to the seat by a mortise and tenon joint and reinforced with nails . The newer pews exhibit identical design elements but are constructed with modern nails and timber . Though most of the pews are arranged against the church 's west elevation with a center aisle , two are along the north elevation and four are along the south elevation . The pulpit is situated at the east elevation . There is an upright piano in the northeastern corner of the church .
= = Cemetery = =
Old Pine Church is surrounded on three sides by a cemetery containing approximately 200 interments , the oldest section of which is located to the immediate east and south of the church building . The earliest remaining gravestone dates from 1834 , but several unmarked interment sites in the surrounding cemetery may date from as early as 1759 . The church 's sign along U.S. Route 220 erroneously lists the date of the cemetery 's
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oss of Norway won three gold medals , coming first in all of the distance speed skating events .
The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2 @,@ 000 athletes . The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time . Canada and the United States , with their many NHL players , were favoured to win the tournament . Neither won any hockey medals however , as the Czech Republic prevailed . Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal . Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing . He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall . Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super @-@ g and the giant slalom . A wave of new world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate .
= = = 2002 to 2010 = = =
The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City , United States , hosting 77 nations and 2 @,@ 399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports . These games were the first to take place since 11 September 2001 , which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack . The opening ceremonies of the games saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day , including the flag that flew at Ground Zero , NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing " God Bless America " , and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members .
German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge , becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics . Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals . Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition . The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal . The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition , yet the Russians were awarded the gold . The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians . The only exception was the French judge , Marie @-@ Reine Le Gougne , who awarded the gold to the Russians . An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated ; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition . The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games . Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1 @,@ 000 metre short @-@ track speed skating event .
The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics . It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games . South Korean athletes won 10 medals , including 6 gold in the short @-@ track speed skating events . Sun @-@ Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun @-@ Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze . In the women 's Cross @-@ Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and , when he saw her dilemma , Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole . In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team , who finished fourth . Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals . In February 2009 Pechstein tested positive for " blood manipulation " and received a two @-@ year suspension , which she appealed . The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team . This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal , which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver .
In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver , thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics . With a population of more than 2 @.@ 5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games . Over 2 @,@ 500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events . The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds . Norwegian cross @-@ country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross @-@ country events on the women 's programme . She finished the Olympics with three golds , a silver and a bronze . The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes . From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 games , a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal @-@ winning nations . In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals . President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games . The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under @-@ performing Russian team , with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries . In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals , three of which were gold . In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty @-@ one , with eleven of them being gold . The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea , Japan and China .
= = = 2014 = = =
Sochi , Russia , was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg , Austria , and Pyeongchang , South Korea . This was the first time since the breakup of the Soviet Union that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics . Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events . The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast . All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana .
The 2014 Winter Olympics , officially the XXII Olympic Winter Games , or the 22nd Winter Olympics , took place from 7 to 23 February 2014 .
= = = Future = = =
On 6 July 2011 , the IOC selected the city of Pyeongchang , South Korea to host the 2018 Winter Olympics .
The host city for the XXIV Olympic Winter Games , also known as the 2022 Winter Olympics , is Beijing , elected on 31 July 2015 , at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur . Beijing will be the first city to host both the summer and winter olympics .
= = Controversy = =
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games . Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials . Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid . These gifts included medical treatment for relatives , a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah . Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $ 2 @,@ 000 . Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since , as president , he was a non @-@ voting member . The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games ( both summer and winter ) since 1988 . For example , the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as " astronomical " . Although nothing strictly illegal had been done , the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support . The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10 . New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership , and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee . Stricter rules for future bids were imposed , with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities .
= = = Host city legacy = = =
According to the IOC , the host city is responsible for , " ... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games , such as sports planning , venues , finance , technology , accommodation , catering , media services etc . , as well as operations during the Games . " Due to the cost of hosting an Olympic Games , most host cities never realise a profit on their investment . For example , the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , cost $ 12 @.@ 5 billion . By comparison the Torino Games of 2006 cost $ 3 @.@ 6 billion to host . The organisers claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag . The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games , and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo , would be a boon to the local economy for years afterward . Nagano 's economy did experience a two @-@ year post @-@ Olympic spurt , but the long @-@ term effects have not materialised as planned . The possibility of heavy debt , coupled with unused sports venues and infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post @-@ Olympic value , is a deterrent to prospective host cities .
To mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives . First it has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games . Secondly , the IOC limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation . This eliminates a large portion of the developing world . Finally , cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a " legacy plan " to their proposal . This requires prospective host cities and the IOC , to plan with a view to the long @-@ term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region .
= = = Doping = = =
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols . They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics . The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder , a West German hockey player , but his team was still allowed to compete . During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures , which undermined the credibility of the tests . It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug @-@ testing protocols . The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( WADA ) in November 1999 .
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping , the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin ( EPO ) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue . The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross @-@ country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood @-@ doping specimens and equipment . This event followed the pre @-@ Olympics suspension of 12 cross @-@ country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin , which is evidence of blood doping .
= = = Commercialisation = = =
Avery Brundage , as president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interests as he felt that the Olympic movement should be completely separate from financial influence . The 1960 Winter Olympics marked the beginning of corporate sponsorship of the Games . Despite Brundage 's strenuous resistance the commercialisation of the Games continued during the 1960s , and revenue generated by corporate sponsorship swelled the IOC 's coffers . By the Grenoble Games , Brundage had become so concerned about the direction of the Winter Olympic Games towards commercialisation that , if it could not be corrected , he felt the Winter Olympics should be abolished . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant that the IOC was unable to gain a share of the financial windfall that was coming to host cities , and had no control over the structuring of sponsorship deals . When Brundage retired the IOC had $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later its accounts had swelled to $ 45 million . This was due to a shift in ideology among IOC members , towards expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights .
Brundage 's concerns proved prophetic . The IOC has charged more for television broadcast rights at each successive Games . At the 1998 Nagano Games American broadcaster CBS paid $ 375 million , whereas the 2006 Turin Games cost NBC $ 613 million to broadcast . The more television companies have paid to televise the Games , the greater their persuasive power has been with the IOC . For example , the television lobby has influenced the Olympic programme by dictating when event finals are held , so that they appear in prime time for television audiences . They have pressured the IOC to include new events , such as snowboarding , that appeal to broader television audiences . This has been done to boost ratings , which were slowly declining until the 2010 Games .
In 1986 the IOC decided to stagger the Summer and Winter Games . Instead of holding both in the same calendar year the committee decided to alternate them every two years , although both Games would still be held on four @-@ year cycles . It was decided that 1992 would be the last year to have both a Winter and Summer Olympic Games . There were two underlying reasons for this change : first was the television lobby 's desire to maximise advertising revenue as it was difficult to sell advertising time for two Games in the same year ; second was the IOC 's desire to gain more control over the revenue generated by the Games . It was decided that staggering the Games would make it easier for corporations to sponsor individual Olympic Games , which would maximise revenue potential . The IOC sought to directly negotiate sponsorship contracts so that they had more control over the Olympic " brand " . The first Winter Olympics to be hosted in this new format were the 1994 Games in Lillehammer .
= = Politics = =
= = = Cold War = = =
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games . It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be . Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics as an opportunity to demonstrate the superiority of their respective political systems . The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured . Irina Rodnina , three @-@ time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating , was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck . Soviet athletes who won gold medals could expect to receive between $ 4 @,@ 000 and $ 8 @,@ 000 depending on the prestige of the sport . A world record was worth an additional $ 1 @,@ 500 . In 1978 the United States Congress responded to these measures by passing legislation that reorganised the United States Olympic Committee . It also approved financial rewards to medal @-@ winning athletes .
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers . The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC . Because of its role in World War II , Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics . In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee , and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games . East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany . In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state , thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics . The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team . The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes . The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host @-@ city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes .
= = = Boycott = = =
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid . Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952 . China was given permission to compete as the " People 's Republic of China " ( PRC ) and to use the PRC flag and anthem . Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name " Republic of China " ( ROC ) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem . The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the " Republic of China " . The IOC renamed the island " Chinese Taipei " and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem , stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to . Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood . When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted . They subsequently left the Olympics in protest , just before the opening ceremonies . Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei . The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal . The agreement remains in place to this day .
= = All @-@ time medal table = =
With reference to the top ten nations and according to official data of the International Olympic Committee .
= = List of Winter Olympic Games = =
Unlike the Summer Olympics , the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games . While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads , the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves .
= Presidio of Santa Barbara =
El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara , also known as the Royal Presidio of Santa Barbara , is a former military installation in Santa Barbara , California , USA . The presidio was built by Spain in 1782 , with the mission of defending the Second Military District in California . In modern times , the Presidio serves as a significant tourist attraction , museum and an active archaeological site as part of El Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historic Park .
The park contains an original adobe structure called El Cuartel , which is the second oldest surviving building in California , only the chapel at Mission San Juan Capistrano , known as " Father Serra 's Church " , is older . The Presidio of Santa Barbara has the distinction of being the last military outpost built by Spain in the New World . The Presidio became a California Historical Landmark in 1958 and was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
= = Contemporary setting = =
The current El Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historic Park site sits between Anacapa and Garden Street on East Canon Perdido Street in downtown Santa Barbara . The main portion of the site is across the street from the Santa Barbara city Post Office , and is about two blocks from city hall , De la Guerra Plaza and two other museums , the Santa Barbara Historical Museum and the Casa de la Guerra .
Only two portions of the original presidio quadrangle survive to this day : the Cañedo Adobe , named for José María Cañedo , the Soldado de Cuera to whom it was deeded in lieu of back pay when the Presidio fell to inactivity , and the remnants of a two @-@ room soldiers quarters , called El Cuartel . The Cañedo Adobe is currently the visitor ’ s center for the state park , and El Cuartel is largely unmodified . The site ’ s operator , the Santa Barbara Trust for Historic Preservation ( SBTHP ) , reconstructed the rest of the site , with the most recent construction — two rooms in the northwest corner of the site — finished in May 2006 . The reconstruction is ongoing , with the construction of two more rooms in the northwest corner beginning in December 2007 .
= = History = =
The site of the Presidio was chosen by Felipe de Neve , the fourth governor of Las Californias . Perceiving that the coast at Santa Barbara was vulnerable to attack , he located a spot near a harbor which was sheltered from severe storms . In addition , there was an ample supply of both building materials and water nearby . Construction began on April 21 , 1782 , and Padre Junípero Serra blessed the site . By the next year , a temporary facility had been completed , and a wheat field planted by the local Chumash Indians of Chief Yanonalit . The early Presidio consisted of mud and brush walls around a quadrangle 330 feet on a side . The post had 61 officers and men in 1783 .
The first comandante , José Francisco Ortega , planned the fortifications and irrigation works . He obtained livestock for the presidio from Mission San Buenaventura , established orchards , and began large @-@ scale farming . In 1784 , Felipe de Goicoechea took over as comandante , supervising construction of the fortifications and living quarters for the soldiers and their families . Two years later , construction of the nearby Mission Santa Barbara began in 1786 . The pueblo or town of Santa Barbara developed around the Presidio , which offered protection for the residents . The chapel in the Presidio was the primary place of worship for the residents of early Santa Barbara , until its destruction by the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake . The mission , located a mile and a half inland , was mainly intended for use by the native Chumash ( Barbareño ) neophytes after their conversion to Catholicism .
The Presidio was built to standard plans for a Spanish colonial military headquarters , using locally available materials , so the buildings forming the outer square were constructed with thick , solid adobe outer walls . The main gate opened into an open parade ground / plaza in the center of the square . The chapel stood at the center of the back of the square , facing the gate across the plaza . While it was never attacked by a strong military force during its sixty years of operation , the Presidio was subject to the assaults of nature . Several devastating earthquakes in the early 19th century destroyed much of the structure .
In 1855 the Presidio Chapel grew into the Apostolic College of Our Lady of Sorrows , which soon became Our Lady of Sorrows Church at the corner of Figueroa and State Streets , and then at the corner of Anacapa and Sola streets in 1929 . However , both still stand separately as vibrant churches of a richly Catholic history .
= = Mexican @-@ American War = =
At the time of the Mexican @-@ American War in Alta California , very little of the fortress remained in usable condition , and on December 27 , 1846 , John C. Frémont ascended San Marcos Pass during rainy weather and came up on the Presidio and the town from behind . The Presidio surrendered without a fight , as the garrison was far south in the Pueblo de Los Angeles . Frémont had heard that the Mexican army was lying in ambush for him at Gaviota Pass , the only other sensible route over the mountains at that time , and had crossed the difficult muddy track on San Marcos Pass to outflank them , but this move turned out not to have been necessary . Mexican General Andrés Pico later surrendered his force to Frémont , recognizing that the war was lost .
= = Preservation = =
In 1963 , the Santa Barbara Trust for Historic Preservation ( SBTHP ) was founded , with the primary mission of restoring the Presidio . In 1966 , the land on which the Presidio is located became a State Historic Park . On December 27 , 2006 , the SBTHP renewed their ongoing agreement with the California State Parks Department to manage the Presidio . Work on the restoration is currently taking place . On November 26 , 1973 the Presidio of Santa Barbara was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places .
= = = Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail = = =
The Presidio of Santa Barbara is one of the designated tour sights of the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail , a National Park Service unit in the United States National Historic Trail and National Millennium Trail programs .
= The Pointy End =
" The Pointy End " is the eighth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . First aired on June 5 , 2011 , the episode was directed by Daniel Minahan and written by George R. R. Martin , the author of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels on which the show is based .
The plot covers the aftermath of Eddard Stark 's capture . While the Lannisters seek to capture his daughters , his son and heir , Robb , raises an army in the North . Meanwhile , Daenerys witnesses a Dothraki raid on a peaceful village , and Jon Snow faces a new threat at the Wall . The episode 's title refers to the sword fighting lesson that Jon gave to Arya before their farewell : " Stick them with the pointy end . "
This episode attracted 3 @.@ 6 million viewers for the night , a series high . It was well received by critics , who praised Martin 's adaptation of his own work as well as the actors ' performances . It was dedicated to Ralph Vicinanza , an executive producer who died of natural causes . The episode garnered an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Costumes for a Series , but lost to The Borgias .
= = Plot = =
Like previous episodes , " The Pointy End " interweaves action in multiple separate locations in and around the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros .
= = = In the Mountains of the Moon = = =
As Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) and Bronn ( Jerome Flynn ) head towards Tywin Lannister 's camp , they are surrounded by one of the barbarian hill tribes of the Vale . Tyrion convinces them to serve as his escorts by promising them gold , weapons and an army to help them seize the Vale of Arryn . Tywin is displeased , but agrees to keep Tyrion 's promises if the hill tribes join the fight against the Starks . The tribesmen agree , but want Tyrion to follow them as insurance , much to Tyrion 's discomfort .
= = = In the Eyrie = = =
Catelyn ( Michelle Fairley ) confronts her sister Lysa ( Kate Dickie ) about the letter Catelyn received regarding events at King 's Landing . Lysa refuses to send troops to help the Starks against the Lannisters because she only cares for the safety of her son Robin ( Lino Facioli ) . A disgusted Catelyn leaves the Eyrie .
= = = In the North = = =
After receiving his sister 's letter ( see below ) , Robb ( Richard Madden ) decides that Cersei is manipulating Sansa . He calls his family 's bannermen to war against the Lannisters , much to Theon Greyjoy 's ( Alfie Allen ) pleasure . After gaining the respect of Stark bannerman Lord " Greatjon " Umber ( Clive Mantle ) and leaving Bran in charge of Winterfell , Robb and his army march south .
= = = In the Riverlands = = =
The Stark forces , having made camp in the Riverlands , are joined by Catelyn . During a council of war at which Robb ponders whether to attack Tywin 's or Jaime 's forces , his men present him with a captured Lannister scout . Robb decides to let him go with a message to Tywin that " winter is coming " for him , but tricks him into thinking Robb is sending his entire army of 20 @,@ 000 men to attack Tywin .
= = = At the Wall = = =
Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) , Sam ( John Bradley ) and their party return to the Wall after finding two frozen corpses . Lord Commander Mormont ( James Cosmo ) recognizes them as Benjen Stark 's fellow rangers and orders their bodies examined . Sam points out that there is no sign of decay on their corpses , even though they have apparently been dead for weeks . Later , Mormont informs Jon about events in the south and warns him to keep his commitment to the Night 's Watch . Jon loses his temper after Ser Alliser Thorne ( Owen Teale ) mocks Eddard Stark 's treason . Enraged , Jon charges at Thorne with a knife but is held back by his companions and confined to his quarters by Mormont .
Later that night , Jon 's direwolf Ghost behaves strangely , prompting Jon to investigate Mormont 's quarters . As Jon enters , he is attacked by one of the dead rangers , returned to life as a wight . The undead monster is immune to Jon 's sword , continuing to attack even after being run through and losing an arm . As Mormont enters , Jon throws a lantern at the wight , setting the wight ablaze and finally destroying it . The next morning , Mormont and the Night 's Watch burn the two bodies , and Sam tells them that he read that corpses touched by the White Walkers are reanimated and can only be killed by fire .
= = = In Lhazar = = =
Khal Drogo 's ( Jason Momoa ) khalasar sacks a Lhazareen village in order to gather funds for the ships they need to invade the Seven Kingdoms . Daenerys Targaryen ( Emilia Clarke ) is dismayed by their brutality , and after seeing Dothraki raiders gather several village women for use as sex slaves , she orders Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) and her bodyguards to claim the women as hers . Challenged in front of Drogo , she defends her actions as her right as khaleesi , and demands that the raiders marry rather than enslave the women they desire . Impressed , Drogo sides with his wife , but the leading raider , Mago , is unimpressed and challenges the Khal to a duel . Mago is swiftly killed by Drogo , but not before inflicting a deep wound . Daenerys worries about the wound , and the Khal reluctantly allows one of the spared villagers , a healer by the name of Mirri Maz Duur ( Mia Soteriou ) , to treat his wounds . This attracts further ire from the Dothraki , who derisively call the woman " maegi " , a witch .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
After Ned Stark ( Sean Bean ) is imprisoned following his failed attempt to arrest Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) and Cersei Lannister ( Lena Headey ) , the Lannisters move against the rest of the Stark household . While Ned 's eldest daughter Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) is detained , Arya ( Maisie Williams ) is able to escape after her fencing teacher Syrio Forel ( Miltos Yerolemou ) holds off the Lannister men . As Arya runs outside looking for her sword , a stable boy tries to detain her for the Queen , but she fatally stabs him before fleeing the castle .
Cersei convinces Sansa that to save her father 's life , she must write a letter to her brother Robb imploring him to come to King 's Landing and swear
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fealty to Joffrey . Later , Joffrey and Cersei hold court , where they reward Janos Slynt , the Captain of the City Watch , with a lordship , while Tywin Lannister ( Charles Dance ) is named the new Hand of the King . Joffrey also relieves Ser Barristan Selmy ( Ian McElhinney ) as Lord Commander of the Kingsguard and gives his post to Jaime Lannister . Selmy is offered a castle and land in recognition of his service , but a furious Selmy , regarding the offer as an insult , throws his sword at Joffrey 's feet and storms out in disgust . Sansa takes the opportunity to publicly plead for her father 's life , and Joffrey agrees to show mercy if Ned will confess to treason and accept him as the rightful king .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by George R. R. Martin , the author of the book A Game of Thrones on which the series is based . Content from this episode also appears in chapters Tyrion VI , Arya IV , Sansa IV , Jon VII , Bran VI , Catelyn VIII , Tyrion VII , Sansa V , the early part of Eddard XV , and Daenerys VII of the novel . Martin has extensive experience in television writing , but it had been a decade since he had produced a teleplay . He said that he found writing this episode very easy because of his familiarity with the characters and the story , and that the hardest part was " getting used to the new screenwriting software that [ he ] had to use . "
Martin delivered the first draft of the script to the show 's executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss on May 1 , 2010 , admitting that it was probably " too long and too expensive . " In fact , one scene that Martin wrote – Robb Stark calling his father 's Northern bannermen , with a montage of eight different castles receiving the summons and riding out – was deemed impossible to film .
The first scenes depicting Tyrion descending with Bronn from the Mountains of the Moon and encountering the clansmen were not written by Martin . Since they were originally intended to be part of episode seven , they were written by that episode 's authors , David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . As often happens in TV production , the scene was moved from one episode to another during editing .
= = = Casting = = =
" The Pointy End " includes the first appearance of two significant recurring characters in the book series : Clive Mantle as the Northern bannerman Lord Jon Umber , known as the Greatjon due to his size , and Ian Gelder as Lord Tywin 's brother and right @-@ hand man Ser Kevan Lannister .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Interior scenes were filmed at The Paint Hall studio , in Belfast , including all the scenes set in the Red Keep and Winterfell . The exterior of the Stark and Lannister war camps were shot on location in the Castle Ward estate , near the village of Strangford . Audley 's Castle in the estate doubled as the ruined remains of one of Moat Cailin 's towers , seen when Catelyn and Rodrik join Robb 's army .
The scenes at the village of the Lamb Men that is sacked by the Dothraki were filmed towards the end of October 2010 in Malta , at the farming town of Manikata . For the exterior of the Red Keep where Arya recovers her sword Needle , San Anton Palace was used .
= = = Dedication = = =
The episode was dedicated to the memory of Ralph Vicinanza . He had been one of the co @-@ executive producers attached to Game of Thrones , and died in his sleep from a cerebral aneurysm on September 25 , 2010 . Vicinanza was the literary agent who handled George R. R. Martin 's foreign language rights , and ( with Vince Gerardis ) one of the co @-@ founders of the management company Created By which aimed at developing feature films and television shows based on the works of Vicinanza 's clients . He was instrumental in bringing Martin 's work to the screen , recommending the books to David Benioff and D.B. Weiss , and leading the negotiations with HBO . He died a few days after HBO greenlighted the series .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers for the first airing , a season high , and by another additional 900 @,@ 000 for the repeat . It therefore obtained a total audience of 3 @.@ 6 million for the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Pointy End " was well received by critics . Among the most enthusiastic was Maureen Ryan from AOL TV , who called it " the best episode yet , " and wrote that she was " extremely impressed with how many moving parts were deployed smoothly and how the hour just flowed . " IGN 's Matt Fowler remarked that this mostly Ned @-@ less episode was very busy ; he enjoyed that Robb got to share the spotlight as viewers witnessed part of his " maturation . "
The episode 's multiple perspectives were commented on : James Hibberd wrote for Entertainment Weekly that " for a show that can often seem disjointed due by having so many storylines unfolding in different locations , this was the most cohesive episode we 've seen yet , as the entire realm was impacted by Ned Stark being arrested for treason . " At HitFix , Alan Sepinwall called it " by far the busiest episode of the series to date , " remarking that it not only moved " pieces around the chess board to set things up for the season 's final two episodes , " but also included " some crackling dialogue , a few good character moments and some of the best action the show has featured to date . " David Sims from the A.V. Club wrote that the episode " masterfully kept us abreast of everything going on , while sticking to the point @-@ of @-@ view style the show has held from the start . " On his blog Cultural Learnings , reviewer Myles McNutt found the episode " filled with moments where much is done with very little . We don 't really spend a sustained period in any one location , with only brief scenes possible to establish some pretty substantial story developments . "
Many critics considered that a great part of the episode 's merits were due to George R. R. Martin 's script . Sepinwall felt that " Martin didn 't get the easiest draw when he wound up having to dramatize the events depicted in ' The Pointy End , ' " but still loved the results . Mo Ryan concluded that anyone who was doubting whether Martin had forgotten about writing television scripts should now put their doubts to rest . The " expert " review from the A.V. Club by Todd VanDerWerff noted " a definite sense of Martin 's hand at work here . Characters that have never quite worked onscreen — like Sansa — suddenly feel much more alive . Characters that have been working — like Tyrion and Arya — get lots of fun stuff to play that never once feels labored . "
were also noted . According to Elio Garcia from westeros.org , " Sophie Turner really shines in her scenes . There are a lot of people out there who judge Sansa very harshly , but you would have to have a heart of stone not to sympathize with her plight in this episode . " Many reviewers agreed with this sentiment , commenting on the transition from a " spoiled brat " to a young , confused , but courageous teenager were noted by several reviewers positively . Time 's reviewer James Poniewozik emphasized the growth of Robb Stark 's character , praising both Martin 's writing and Richard Madden 's acting . Maureen Ryan highlighted the scene where Syrio Forel confronts the Lannister men to allow Arya 's escape , which she considered masterfully staged .
= = = Emmy nomination = = =
Michele Clapton ( costume designer ) and Rachael Webb @-@ Crozier ( costume supervisor ) were nominated for the 2011 Emmy Award for Outstanding Costumes for a Series for " The Pointy End " , but lost to The Borgias .
= Grace Sherwood =
Grace White Sherwood ( c . 1660 – c . 1740 ) , known as the Witch of Pungo , is the last person known to have been convicted of witchcraft in Virginia . A farmer , healer , and midwife , she was accused by her neighbors of transforming herself into a cat , damaging crops and causing the death of livestock . She was charged with witchcraft several times ; at her eventual trial in 1706 , Sherwood was accused of bewitching Elizabeth Hill , causing Hill to miscarry . The court ordered that Sherwood 's guilt or innocence be determined by ducking her in water . If she sank , she was innocent ; if she did not , she was guilty . Sherwood floated to the surface and may have subsequently spent up to eight years in jail before being released .
Sherwood lived in Pungo , Princess Anne County ( today part of Virginia Beach ) , and married James Sherwood , a planter , in 1680 . The couple had three sons : John , James , and Richard . The elder James died in 1701 ; Grace Sherwood inherited his property and never remarried .
Sherwood 's first case was in 1697 ; she was accused of casting a spell on a bull , resulting in its death , but the matter was dismissed by the agreement of both parties . The following year she was accused of witchcraft by two neighbors ; she supposedly bewitched the hogs and cotton crop of one of them . Sherwood sued for slander after each accusation but her lawsuits were unsuccessful and her husband had to pay court costs . In 1706 she was convicted of witchcraft and was incarcerated . Freed from prison by 1714 , she recovered her property from Princess Anne County , after which she lived on her farm until her death in 1740 at the age of about 80 .
On July 10 , 2006 , the 300th anniversary of Sherwood 's conviction , Governor Tim Kaine restored her good name , recognizing that her case was a miscarriage of justice . A statue depicting her was erected near Sentara Bayside Hospital on Independence Boulevard in Virginia Beach , close to the site of the colonial courthouse where she was tried . She is sculpted alongside a raccoon , representing her love of animals , and carrying a basket containing garlic and rosemary , in recognition of her knowledge of herbal healing .
= = Family background = =
Sherwood was born in 1660 to John and Susan White . John White was a carpenter and farmer of Scottish descent ; it is uncertain whether he was born in America . Susan was English by birth ; their daughter Grace was born in Virginia , probably in Pungo .
Grace White married a respected small @-@ farm landowner , James Sherwood , in April 1680 , and they were wed in the Lynnhaven Parish Church . The couple had three sons : John , James , and Richard . John White gave the Sherwoods 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land when they married , and on his death in 1681 left them the remainder of his 145 acres ( 59 ha ) farm . The Sherwood family was poor , and lived in an area inhabited by small landowners or those with no land at all . In addition to farming , Grace Sherwood grew her own herbs , which she used to heal both people and animals . She also acted as a midwife . When James died in 1701 , Grace inherited his property . She did not remarry .
No drawings or paintings of Sherwood exist , but contemporary accounts describe her as attractive and tall and possessing a sense of humor . Sherwood grew medicinal herbs and wore trousers instead of a dress while working on her farm ; both traits were atypical of ladies of that era . This combination of clothing and good looks was said to attract men and upset their wives . Sherwood biographer and advocate Belinda Nash suggests that Sherwood 's neighbors may have been jealous of Sherwood and that the witchcraft tales may have been conjured up in an effort to remove her from , and subsequently to gain , her property . Sherwood was a party to at least a dozen lawsuits , in which she either had to defend against accusations of witchcraft , or in which she filed suits for slander , against her accusers .
= = Witchcraft and Virginia = =
The existence of witches and demonic forces was taken for granted by the American colonists — witchcraft was considered the work of the Devil . Strange behaviors supposedly identified witches to the colonists . As early as 1626 , nineteen years after the founding of the Jamestown colony , a grand jury sat to consider whether Goodwife Joan Wright was a witch — she had supposedly predicted the deaths of three women and had caused illness as revenge for not hiring her as midwife . No record of the outcome is extant . Nevertheless , Virginia did not experience the type of mass hysteria evidenced by the Salem , Massachusetts witch trials in 1692 – 1693 , where 19 people were executed on allegations of sorcery , several years before the first accusations against Sherwood . Ecclesiastical influence in Virginian courts was much less than in those of New England — Virginia 's clergy participated little in witchcraft accusations and trials , unlike their New England counterparts . New England 's Puritans had settled in towns , and community pressure helped contribute to witchcraft convictions . There were few such towns in Virginia , where the population mostly lived on farms and plantations , scattered over a large area .
Virginia 's lay and religious leaders sought to prosecute offenses such as gossip , slander , and fornication , which they felt were a threat to social stability in the new colony . They wished to avoid witchcraft prosecutions , which were divisive . Virginia courts were reluctant to hear accusations of witchcraft and were even more reluctant to convict . Unlike the Salem witch trial courts , where the accused had to prove her innocence , in Virginia courts the accuser carried the burden of proof . Further , Virginia courts generally ignored evidence said to have been obtained by supernatural means , whereas the New England courts were known to convict people based solely on it . Virginia required proof of guilt through either searches for witch 's marks or ducking . Judges and magistrates would dismiss unsubstantiated cases of witchcraft and allow the accusers , who found themselves " under an ill tongue " , to be sued for slander . Frances Pollard of the Virginia Historical Society states : " It was pretty clear that Virginia early on tried to discourage these charges being brought of witchcraft because they were so troublesome . " People 's fears of witchcraft in Virginia were not based on their religious beliefs as much as they were rooted in folklore , although the two often intermingled . The southeastern corner of Virginia around present @-@ day Norfolk and Virginia Beach ( where Pungo is located ) , saw more accusations of witchcraft than other areas . According to Leslie M. Newman , this may have been due to local poverty as there was no cultural elite to restrain such prosecutions .
Although few Virginia records survive from that era , 19 known witchcraft cases were brought there during the 17th century , all but one of which ended in acquittal . The one conviction was a 1656 case of a man convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to 10 stripes and banishment from the county . There were no executions for witchcraft in Virginia . Nonetheless , as late as in 1736 , Virginia 's justices of the peace were reminded that witchcraft was still a crime , and that first offenders could expect to be pilloried and jailed for up to a year . In 1745 , John Craig , a Presbyterian minister in Augusta County , Virginia , made assertions of witchcraft after his child and several of his animals died , and was in response accused of using evil arts to divine who was responsible . Neither he nor those who accused him brought their claims to court to face " unsympathetic magistrates " , though prosecution for witchcraft was still possible in Virginia . The last Virginia witchcraft trial took place in 1802 in Brooke County , which is now in West Virginia . In that case , a couple claimed that a woman was a witch , an accusation ruled slanderous .
The trial by ducking ( immersing the accused , bound , in water , to see if she would float ) appears to have been used only once in Virginia , to try Sherwood . It was believed that , as water was considered pure , it would reject witches , causing them to float , whereas the innocent would sink .
= = Accusations against Sherwood = =
= = = Initial claims of witchcraft = = =
Sherwood was first charged with witchcraft in a court case held in early 1697 , in which Richard Capps alleged that she had used a spell to cause the death of his bull . The court made no decision on this charge ; the Sherwoods then filed a defamation suit against Capps that was discontinued when the parties came to an agreement . In 1698 , Sherwood was accused by her neighbor John Gisburne of enchanting his pigs and cotton crop . No court action followed this accusation , and another action for defamation by the Sherwoods also failed . In the same year Elizabeth Barnes alleged that Sherwood had assumed the form of a black cat , entered Barnes ' home , jumped over her bed , drove and whipped her , and left via the keyhole . Again the allegation was unresolved , and again the subsequent defamation action was lost . For each of the failed actions Sherwood and her husband had to pay court related costs .
According to Richard Beale Davis in his journal article on witchcraft in Virginia , by this time " Princess Anne County had obviously grown tired of Mrs. Sherwood as a general nuisance " . In 1705 , Sherwood was involved in a fight with her neighbor , Elizabeth Hill . Sherwood sued Hill and her husband for assault and battery , and on December 7 , 1705 , was awarded damages of twenty shillings ( 1 pound sterling ) . On January 3 , 1706 , the Hills accused Grace Sherwood of witchcraft , although she failed to answer the charge in court . On February 7 , 1706 , the court ordered her to appear on a charge of having bewitched Elizabeth Hill , causing a miscarriage .
= = = Trial by water = = =
Proceedings resumed in March 1706 ; the Princess Anne County justices sought to empanel two juries , both made up of women . The first was ordered to search Sherwood 's home for waxen or baked figures that might indicate she was a witch . The second was ordered to look for " demon suckling teats " by examining her . In both instances , reluctance on the part of the local residents made it difficult to form a jury and both juries refused to carry out the search . On March 7 , 1706 , Sherwood was examined by a jury of 12 " ancient and knowing women " appointed to look for markings on her body that might be brands of the Devil . They discovered two " marks not like theirs or like those of any other woman " . The forewoman of this jury was the same Elizabeth Barnes who had previously accused Sherwood of witchcraft .
Neither the colonial authorities in Williamsburg nor the local court in Princess Anne were willing to declare Sherwood a witch . Those in Williamsburg considered the charge overly vague , and on April 16 instructed the local court to examine the case more fully . For each court appearance , Sherwood had to travel 16 miles ( 26 km ) from her farm in Pungo to where the court was sitting .
On May 2 , 1706 , the county justices noted that while no particular act of maleficium had been alleged against Sherwood , there was " great cause of suspicion " . Consequently , the Sheriff of Princess Anne County took Sherwood into custody , though Sherwood could give bond for her appearance and good behavior . Maximilian Boush , a warden of Lynnhaven Parish Church , was the prosecutor in Sherwood 's case . On July 5 , 1706 , the justices ordered a trial by ducking to take place , with Sherwood 's consent , but heavy rains caused a postponement until July 10 , as they feared the wet weather might harm her health . Sherwood was taken inside Lynnhaven Parish Church , placed on a stool and ordered to ask for forgiveness for her witchery . She replied , " I be not a witch , I be a healer . "
At about 10 a.m. on July 10 , 1706 , Sherwood was taken down a dirt lane now known as Witchduck Road , to a plantation near the mouth of the Lynnhaven River . News had spread , and the event attracted people from all over the colony , who began to shout " Duck the witch ! " According to the principles of trial by water , if Sherwood floated she would be deemed guilty of witchcraft ; if she did not , she would be innocent . It was not intended that Sherwood drown ; the court had ordered that care be taken to preserve her life .
Five women of Lynnhaven Parish Church examined Sherwood 's naked body on the shoreline for any devices she might have to free herself , and then covered her with a sack . Six of the justices that had ordered the ducking rowed in one boat 200 yards ( 180 m ) out in the river , and in another were the sheriff , the magistrate , and Sherwood . Just before she was pushed off the boat Sherwood is said to have stated , under clear skies , " Before this day be through you will all get a worse ducking than I. " Bound across the body – her right thumb to her left big toe and her left thumb to her right big toe – she was " cast into the river " , and quickly floated to the surface . The sheriff then tied a 13 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) Bible around her neck . This caused her to sink , but she untied herself , and returned to the surface , convincing many spectators she was a witch . As Sherwood was pulled out of the water a downpour reportedly started , drenching the onlookers . Several women who subsequently examined her for additional proof found " two things like titts on her private parts of a black coller [ color ] " . She was jailed pending further proceedings .
= = = Aftermath = = =
What happened to Sherwood after her ducking is unclear as many court records have been lost . She served an unknown time in the jail next to Lynnhaven Parish Church , perhaps as long as seven years and nine months . She was ordered to be detained " to be brought to a future trial " , but no record of another trial exists , so it is possible the charge was dismissed at some point . On September 1 , 1708 , she was ordered to pay Christopher Cocke 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) of tobacco for a reason not indicated in surviving records , but there is no mention of the payment . She appears to have been released some time in or before 1714 , since in that year she paid back taxes on her 145 @-@ acre ( 59 ha ) property — which Virginia Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood helped her to recover from Princess Anne County- on the banks of Muddy Creek off what is now Muddy Creek Road . She lived the remainder of her life quietly until her death in 1740 , aged about 80 . She is believed to have died in August or September 1740 . Her will was proved on October 1 , 1740 ; it noted that she was a widow . She left five shillings each to her sons James and Richard and everything else to her eldest son John .
According to legend , Sherwood 's sons put her body near the fireplace and a wind came down the chimney . Her body disappeared amid the embers , with the only clue being a cloven hoofprint . Sherwood lies in an unmarked grave under some trees in a field close to the intersection of Pungo Ferry Road and Princess Anne Road in Virginia Beach . Stories about the Devil taking her body , unnatural storms , and loitering black cats quickly arose after her death , and local men killed every feline they could find ; this widespread killing of cats might have caused the infestation of rats and mice recorded in Princess Anne County in 1743 . Her home on Muddy Creek stood for over 200 years until burning in the 1990s . The property is now owned by the Federal Government as part of Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge .
= = Legacy = =
Grace Sherwood 's case was little known until Virginia Beach historian and author Louisa Venable Kyle wrote a children 's book about her in 1973 . Called The Witch of Pungo , it is a collection of seven local folk tales written as fiction , although based on historical events . Sherwood 's story was adapted for Cry Witch , a courtroom drama at Colonial Williamsburg , the restored early capital of Virginia .
A statue by California sculptor Robert Cunningham depicting Sherwood with a raccoon and a basket of rosemary was unveiled on April 21 , 2007 , on the site of the present @-@ day Sentara Bayside Hospital , close to the sites of both the colonial courthouse and the ducking point . The raccoon represents Sherwood 's love of animals and the rosemary her knowledge of herbal healing . A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker ( K @-@ 276 ) was erected in 2002 , about 25 yards ( 23 m ) from Sherwood 's statue . The place of her watery test and the adjacent land are named Witch Duck Bay and Witch Duck Point . A portion of Virginia State Route 190 in Virginia Beach , a north – south thoroughfare on its western side which traverses Interstate 264 at exit numbers 14 – 16 , has been named " Witchduck Road " . Other commemorations in Virginia Beach include Sherwood Lane and Witch Point Trail . A local legend in Virginia Beach states that all of the rosemary growing there came from a single plant Sherwood carried in an eggshell from England .
Belinda Nash , in addition to writing a biography of Sherwood , worked tirelessly to get her pardoned . Governor Tim Kaine officially restored Sherwood 's good name on July 10 , 2006 , the 300th anniversary of her conviction . Annual reenactments of the ducking have taken place since 2006 . No one is actually ducked in these events , which embark from a spot across from Ferry Plantation House along Cheswick Lane , which is very close to Witch Duck Bay . According to local residents , a strange moving light , said to be Sherwood 's restless spirit , still appears each July over the spot in Witch Duck Bay where Sherwood was thrown into the water .
In 2014 , a memorial marker was placed at a herb garden of the Old Donation Episcopal Church , Sherwood 's former parish church .
= Mark Satin =
Mark Ivor Satin ( born November 16 , 1946 ) is an American political theorist , author , and newsletter publisher . He is best known for contributing to the development and dissemination of three political perspectives – neopacifism in the 1960s , New Age politics in the 1970s and 1980s , and radical centrism in the 1990s and 2000s . Satin 's work is sometimes seen as building toward a new political ideology , and then it is often labeled " transformational " , " post @-@ liberal " , or " post @-@ Marxist " . One historian calls Satin 's writing " post @-@ hip " .
After emigrating to Canada at the age of 20 to avoid serving in the Vietnam War , Satin co @-@ founded the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme , which helped bring American war resisters to Canada . He also wrote the Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada ( 1968 ) , which sold nearly 100 @,@ 000 copies . After a period that author Marilyn Ferguson describes as Satin 's " anti @-@ ambition experiment " , Satin wrote New Age Politics ( 1978 ) , which identifies an emergent " third force " in North America pursuing such goals as simple living , decentralism , and global responsibility . Satin spread his ideas by co @-@ founding an American political organization , the New World Alliance , and by publishing an international political newsletter , New Options . He also co @-@ drafted the foundational statement of the U.S. Green Party , " Ten Key Values " .
Following a period of political disillusion , spent mainly in law school and practicing business law , Satin launched a new political newsletter and wrote a book , Radical Middle ( 2004 ) . Both projects criticized political partisanship and sought to promote mutual learning and innovative policy syntheses across social and cultural divides . In an interview , Satin contrasts the old radical slogan " Dare to struggle , dare to win " with his radical @-@ middle version , " Dare to synthesize , dare to take it all in " .
Satin has been described as " colorful " and " intense " , and all his initiatives have been controversial . Bringing war resisters to Canada was opposed by many in the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement . New Age Politics was not welcomed by many on the traditional left or right , and Radical Middle dismayed an even broader segment of the American political community . Even Satin 's personal life has generated controversy .
= = Early years = =
Many mid @-@ 1960s American radicals came from small cities in the Midwest and Southwest , as did Satin : he grew up in Moorhead , Minnesota , and Wichita Falls , Texas . His father , who saw combat in World War II , was a college professor and author of a Cold War @-@ era textbook on Western civilization . His mother was a homemaker .
As a youth , Satin was restless and rebellious , and his behavior did not change after leaving for university . In early 1965 , at age 18 , he dropped out of the University of Illinois to work with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Holly Springs , Mississippi . Later that year , he was told to leave Midwestern State University , in Texas , for refusing to sign a loyalty oath to the United States Constitution . In 1966 he became president of a Students for a Democratic Society chapter at the State University of New York at Binghamton , and helped recruit nearly 20 % of the student body to join . One term later he dropped out , then emigrated to Canada to avoid serving in the Vietnam War .
Just before Satin left for Canada , his father told him he was trying to destroy himself . His mother told the Ladies ' Home Journal she could not condone her son 's actions . Satin says he arrived in Canada feeling bewildered and unsupported . According to press accounts , many Vietnam War resisters arrived feeling much the same way .
= = Neopacifism , 1960s = =
= = = Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme = = =
As 1967 began , many American pacifists and radicals did not look favorably on emigration to Canada as a means of resisting the Vietnam War . For some this reflected a core conviction that effective war resistance requires self @-@ sacrifice . For others it was a matter of strategy – emigration was said to be less useful than going to jail or deserting the military , or was said to abet the war by siphoning off the opposition . At first , Students for a Democratic Society and many Quaker draft counselors opposed promoting the Canadian alternative , and Canada 's largest counseling group , the Anti @-@ Draft Programme of the Student Union for Peace Action ( SUPA ) – whose board consisted largely of Quakers and radicals – was sympathetic to such calls for prudence . In January 1967 its spokesman warned an American audience that immigration was difficult and that the Programme was not willing to act as " baby sitters " for Americans after they arrived . He added that he was tired of talking to the press .
When Mark Satin was hired as director of the Programme in April 1967 , he attempted to change its culture . He also tried to change the attitude of the war resistance movement toward emigration . His efforts continued after SUPA collapsed and he co @-@ founded the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme , with largely the same board of directors , in October 1967 . Instead of praising self @-@ sacrifice , he emphasized the importance of self @-@ preservation and self @-@ development to social change . Rather than sympathizing with pacifists ' and radicals ' strategic concerns , he rebutted them , telling The New York Times that massive emigration of draft @-@ age Americans could help end the war , and telling another reporter that going to jail was bad public relations .
Where the Programme once publicized the difficulties of immigration , Satin emphasized the competence of his draft counseling operation , and even told of giving
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2 February . It was an eventful return for Tomlinson , who broke the story of Jim Gannon and Geoff Horsfield 's bust @-@ up on the pre @-@ match coach trip to Aldershot via Twitter . The game itself was also eventful , as Tomlinson gave away a penalty , which he then saved , only to leave the pitch due to a hip injury . Martin regained his first team place after the game , only to be replaced by Tomlinson at half @-@ time during a 2 – 1 loss at home to Oxford United on 12 March , after Martin committed another blunder .
Following the return of Micky Adams as Port Vale manager , Tomlinson held on to his first team place at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , though Martin was used in cup games . Neither Tomlinson or Martin could find the consistency to secure their first team place though ; Tomlinson conceded twelve goals in his first seven games of the season , whilst Martin conceded ten times in his first five games . Assistant manager Mark Grew told the media that " they 've both been disappointing " . On 29 October , Tomlinson was embarrassed to be caught off his line by Oxford United 's Peter Leven , who found the net with a ' sensational 45 @-@ yard strike ' . Adams said " ... in the division , he 's the only player who would have scored that ... [ but ] you have to question the keeper 's starting position . " He was still preferred to Martin though , and only a thigh injury kept him out of two league games in January . He returned to the first team , and was heading for a third consecutive clean sheet on 14 February when he committed an " injury @-@ time howler " to allow Bradford City a share of the points at Valley Parade . On 10 March he spilled a cross to hand Barnet striker Ben May an easy winner at Vale Park . He vowed to improve his consistency , saying " I 'm a pretty confident person and it will take a lot to stop me bouncing back . " At the end of the season he rejected the club 's offer of a new contract , and his departure was announced on 3 July . He said that he was " not particularly worried " about his free agent status , and that he would turn down similar offers from other clubs and wait until as late as the start of the following season until the " right opportunity " came about .
= = = Burton Albion = = =
In September 2012 , Tomlinson signed a four @-@ month contract with Burton Albion , having previously been on trial at Preston North End . He joined the " Brewers " after manager Gary Rowett was dissatisfied with the performances of Ross Atkins and Dean Lyness . After keeping a clean sheet on his debut , in a 1 – 0 win over Rochdale at Spotland on 8 September , assistant manager Kevin Summerfield said that " the biggest difference for me was that we were playing the game in their half and they were defending corners because he [ Tomlinson ] can kick the ball so far up the pitch " . He was aiming for a longer stay at the Pirelli Stadium , but a knee injury sustained in a home draw with former club Port Vale left him sidelined for up to six months . He recovered to full fitness in half that time , and signed a new contract in February to extend his stay at Burton until summer 2014 . Burton reached the play @-@ offs at the end of the 2012 – 13 season , but were defeated 5 – 4 by Bradford City at the semi @-@ final stage . Tomlinson retired in July 2013 after surgeons advised him that scar tissue damage and a tear in his anterior cruciate ligament meant that his left knee was in poor shape and was vulnerable to further damage .
= = = Style of play = = =
A goalkeeper with a flair for shot @-@ stopping , Tomlinson could kick the ball with either foot . Due to his muscular physique , he was given the nickname " the Tank " .
– Barrow manager David Bayliss upon losing Tomlinson to Port Vale in June 2010 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = WWE = = =
= = = = NXT ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
In December 2013 , Tomlinson travelled to the United States to be trained as a professional wrestler on a developmental contract by WWE . He was assigned to the WWE Performance Center , where he took the ring name Hugo Knox . He stated that " Hugo Knox is a lively , high @-@ energy and bubbly guy " with " the smallest polka dot pants possible ! " . He made his in @-@ ring debut for WWE 's developmental territory , NXT , at a live event on 8 November 2014 .
= = Modeling = =
Tomlinson has worked as a professional model , appearing on the front cover of Men 's Health .
= = Career statistics = =
Notes
Stafford Rangers statistics unavailable .
= = Honours = =
with Crewe Alexandra
Football League Second Division runner @-@ up : 2002 – 03
with Barrow
FA Trophy winner : 2010
= USS Wichita ( CA @-@ 45 ) =
USS Wichita ( CA @-@ 45 ) was a unique heavy cruiser of the United States Navy built in the 1930s . The last American cruiser designed to meet the limits of London Naval Treaty , she was originally intended to be a New Orleans @-@ class heavy cruiser , accordingly with the maximum main armament of three triple 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) gun turrets . These were instead placed on an improved hull derived from the Brooklyn @-@ class light cruisers , with increased armoring . This design would go on to form the basis for the later World War II @-@ era heavy cruisers such as the Baltimore @-@ class cruisers . The ship was authorized by the 1929 Cruiser Act , laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in October 1935 , launched in November 1937 , and commissioned into the US Navy in February 1939 .
Following her commissioning , Wichita was assigned to neutrality patrols in the Atlantic . After the United States entered World War II , the ship saw heavy service throughout the conflict . She was first assigned to convoy escort duty on the Murmansk Run in early 1942 , and supported amphibious landings during Operation Torch in November 1942 . During the Naval Battle of Casablanca , Wichita engaged several French coastal batteries and warships , including the battleship Jean Bart. In 1943 , Wichita was transferred to the Pacific Theater , where she remained for the rest of the war . She frequently provided antiaircraft defense for the Fast Carrier Task Force during operations in the central Pacific , including the Battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf in 1944 . During the latter engagement , Wichita assisted in the sinking of the Japanese aircraft carrier Chiyoda .
Wichita was heavily engaged during the invasion of Okinawa , where she provided heavy gunfire support to ground troops ashore . After the Japanese surrender , the ship served as part of the occupation force in Japan and assisted in the repatriation of American military personnel under Operation Magic Carpet . After returning to the United States , she was decommissioned and placed in the mothball fleet in 1946 . She remained in reserve until 1959 , when she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and sold for scrapping in August 1959 .
= = Design = =
In the early 1930s , the Secretary of the Navy , Curtis D. Wilbur , pushed for a new construction program for light and heavy cruisers . Wilbur succeeded in passing the Cruiser Act in 1929 , which authorized several new cruisers . Five heavy cruisers , the last of which was Wichita , were ordered between 1931 and 1934 . Wichita was the last heavy cruiser permitted under the terms of the London Naval Treaty in 1930 , which limited the US to 18 heavy cruisers with a maximum standard displacement of 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 160 t ) . The ship was originally intended to be built to the design of the New Orleans class , but the design was reworked before construction began . Instead , the design for Wichita was based on the Brooklyn class of light cruisers . The Brooklyn design was modified heavily , to give the new ship higher freeboard and better stability , and an increased cruising radius . The secondary battery of eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns was identical in number to the light cruisers , but was arranged to give better fields of fire . The main battery of nine 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns was mounted in a new gun turret design that rectified problems discovered in earlier cruisers .
Wichita was laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 28 October 1935 , and launched on 16 November 1937 . By the time she was completed , in February 1938 , Wichita was nearly over the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit ; as a result , she was completed with only two of the eight 5 @-@ inch guns to keep her under the displacement restriction . When the rest of the 5 @-@ inch guns were installed , it was found that the ship was too top @-@ heavy , and so 200 long tons ( 200 t ) of pig iron had to be added to her bottom to balance the cruiser . Wichita was commissioned into the US Navy on 16 February 1939 . Her first commander was Captain Thaddeus A. Thomson .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Wichita was 600 feet ( 180 m ) long at the waterline and 608 ft 4 in ( 185 @.@ 42 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 61 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 82 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 589 long tons ( 10 @,@ 759 t ) at standard displacement and 13 @,@ 015 long tons ( 13 @,@ 224 t ) at full combat load . The ship had a crew of 929 officers and enlisted men . She was equipped with four seaplanes and a pair of aircraft catapults and a crane for handling the aircraft which were mounted on the stern . Wichita was powered by four Parsons steam turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox oil @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . The propulsion system was rated at 100 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 75 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . She carried 1 @,@ 323 to 1 @,@ 984 long tons ( 1 @,@ 344 to 2 @,@ 016 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a maximum cruising range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
The hull was protected by a waterline armored belt composed of Class A armor that was 6 @.@ 4 in ( 160 mm ) thick amidships . It was reduced to 4 in ( 100 mm ) thick on either end . The belt was backed with .63 in ( 16 mm ) of special treatment steel . The Class A steel was significantly more effective than the Class B armor used in earlier cruisers ; 8 @-@ inch guns had to be within 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) to penetrate the
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belt , as opposed to 16 @,@ 400 yd ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) for the earlier armor . Wichita had a 2 @.@ 25 in ( 57 mm ) thick deck , which was immune to 8 @-@ inch fire inside 22 @,@ 000 yd ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) . The conning tower had 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick sides and a 2 @.@ 25 in thick roof . The ship 's main battery turrets had 8 in ( 200 mm ) thick faces , 3 @.@ 75 in ( 95 mm ) thick sides , 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick rears , and 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick roofs . The turrets were mounted on armored barbettes protected with 7 in ( 180 mm ) of armor plating .
= = = Armament = = =
Wichita was armed with a main battery of nine 8 @-@ inch / 55 Mark 12 guns mounted in three 3 @-@ gun turrets . The guns fired a 335 @-@ pound ( 152 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 760 m / s ) . Maximum elevation of the guns was 41 degrees ; this provided a maximum range of 30 @,@ 050 yd ( 27 @,@ 480 m ) . Rate of fire was approximately one shot every fifteen seconds . The turrets allowed each gun to elevate and fire individually . Her secondary battery consisted of eight 5 @-@ inch / 38 Mark 12 dual @-@ purpose guns , four in single , enclosed Mark 30 high @-@ angle mounts , and four in open mounts . These guns fired 55 lb ( 25 kg ) projectiles at a rate of 20 rounds per minute . Muzzle velocity was 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) ; against aerial targets , the guns had a ceiling of 37 @,@ 200 ft ( 11 @,@ 300 m ) at 85 degrees . At 45 degrees , the guns could engage surface targets at a range of 18 @,@ 200 yd ( 16 @,@ 600 m ) . Wichita was the first cruiser in the US Navy to be equipped with the new 5 @-@ inch / 38 gun .
By August 1945 , the ship had been equipped with numerous smaller guns for close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft defense . Sixteen Bofors 40 mm guns were placed in quadruple mounts , and another eight were in dual mounts . She also carried eighteen Oerlikon 20 mm guns in single mountings . The 40 mm guns had a ceiling of 22 @,@ 800 ft ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at 90 degrees elevation and a maximum rate of fire of 160 rounds per minute . The 20 mm gun had a rate of fire of 465 – 480 rounds per minute ; they had a ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . By the end of the war , the ship was armed with a variety of fire control systems for her guns , including Mark 34 fire control gear and Mark 13 and Mark 28 fire control radars .
= = Service history = =
Wichita departed Philadelphia after her commissioning , bound for Houston , Texas . She arrived on 20 April 1939 and took part in the dedicatory and memorial service at the San Jacinto Battle Monument and War Relic Museum . The ship left Houston on 1 May for her shakedown cruise , during which she visited the Virgin Islands , Cuba , and the Bahamas before she returned to Philadelphia for post @-@ shakedown repairs . On 25 September , a few weeks after the outbreak of World War II in Europe , Wichita was assigned to Cruiser Division 7 in the Atlantic Squadron , based in the Hampton Roads . She conducted her first neutrality patrol on 4 – 9 October . After returning to port , she went into dock at the Norfolk Navy Yard for maintenance , which lasted until 1 December . On 4 December , Wichita steamed to Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , arriving on the 8th . There , Thomson assumed command of the newly formed Caribbean Patrol , which included Wichita and the cruiser Vincennes , and the destroyers Borie , Broome , Lawrence , King , and Truxtun , and Navy patrol squadrons VP @-@ 33 and VP @-@ 51 . Over the course of the next three months , the force conducted a series of training maneuvers in the Caribbean . At the end of February , Wichita returned to Norfolk via Philadelphia , where she participated in further training through May .
Starting in June , Wichita and Quincy conducted a goodwill cruise to South America ; Wichita carried Rear Admiral Andrew C. Pickens , the commander of Cruiser Division 7 . Included in the ports of call were Rio de Janeiro and Santos in Brazil , Buenos Aires , Argentina , and Montevideo , Uruguay . The cruise ended in late September ; the two cruisers arrived in Norfolk on the 24th . Over the next three months , Wichita served as a training ship for Naval Reserve midshipmen and conducted gunnery practices off the Virginia capes . On 7 January 1941 , Wichita departed Hampton Roads for Guantanamo , arriving four days later . She participated in fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean through March and took part in practice amphibious landings at Puerto Rico . She returned to the United States , docking at the New York Navy Yard , on 23 March . Wichita went to sea again on 6 April , bound for Bermuda ; she reached her destination two days later . She then joined the aircraft carrier Ranger and the heavy cruiser Tuscaloosa for a patrol in the North Atlantic , during which the ships sailed to within 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) of Ireland .
Wichita then returned to the New York Navy Yard on 17 May and went into drydock on 21 June . Repairs were completed on 2 July , after which Wichita was transferred to Newport , Rhode Island . She sortied again on 27 July bound for Iceland as part of Task Force 16 under Operation Indigo II , the occupation of Iceland . Wichita arrived in Reykjavík on 6 August , along with the carrier Wasp and the battleship Mississippi . The task force landed a contingent of US Army troops and fighter aircraft to provide air support . The cruiser returned to the United States by 20 August . Wichita returned to Iceland in September , arriving in Reykjavík on 28 September . Two days prior to Wichita 's arrival , the US Navy ordered the units of the Atlantic Fleet to protect all ships engaged in commerce in United States defensive waters . The orders authorized the Navy to patrol , escort merchantmen , and attack any German or Italian naval forces encountered . Wichita was assigned to Task Group 7 @.@ 5 , which was engaged in patrolling Icelandic waters through the end 1941 . On 7 December 1941 , the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , bringing the United States into World War II ; on the day of the attack , Wichita lay at anchor at Hvalfjörður , Iceland .
= = = Atlantic theater = = =
Wichita left port on 5 January 1942 for training and a patrol in the Denmark Strait ; she returned to Hvalfjörður on 10 January . On the 15th , a powerful storm , with sustained winds of 80 knots ( 150 km / h ; 92 mph ) and gusts up to 100 kn ( 190 km / h ; 120 mph ) , hit Iceland . Wichita was damaged by the storm , including a collision with the freighter West Nohno and the British trawler Ebor Wyke . She then ran aground off Hrafneyri Light . The following day , the ship 's crew evaluated her condition ; she had suffered minor damage from the collisions , including some leaks , and damage to the hull from the grounding . Temporary repairs were effected in Iceland to allow Wichita to return to the New York Navy Yard for more thorough repairs . She arrived on 9 February , and repairs lasted until 26 February , when she left port for training maneuvers off Maine in early March .
On 26 March , Wichita , assigned to Task Force 39 , departed the United States to reinforce the British Home Fleet based in Scapa Flow . Task Force 39 , commanded by Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox , Jr . , included Wasp , the battleship Washington , the cruiser Tuscaloosa , and eight destroyers . While en route , Wilcox was swept overboard in a heavy sea and lost . Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen , who flew his flag in Wichita , took command of the task force . After arriving in Scapa Flow , Wichita and the other American ships spent several weeks training with their British counterparts . On 28 April , Wichita departed on her first major operation with the British . She was assigned to the Allied escort for the Arctic convoys QP 11 and PQ 15 . The American component , organized as Task Force 99 , comprised Washington , Wichita , Tuscaloosa , and four destroyers . The British assigned the carrier Victorious , the battleship King George V , a light cruiser , and five destroyers . After successfully escorting the convoys , Wichita returned to Hvalfjörður , arriving on 6 May .
Wichita sortied on 12 May to relieve Tuscaloosa , which was patrolling the Denmark Strait . Wichita returned to Hvalfjörður a week later , before putting to sea as part of another Allied convoy escort protecting one leg of the movement of Murmansk @-@ bound convoy PQ 16 and eastbound QP 12 . She put in to Scapa Flow on 29 May after completing the mission . While in Scapa Flow , King George VI inspected Wichita on 7 June . Wichita left Scapa Flow on 12 June , bound for Hvalfjörður , and arrived 14 June . She then relieved the British cruiser Cumberland on patrol in the Denmark Strait . While on patrol on 17 June , Wichita spotted a German Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 reconnaissance bomber and opened fire , though without result . Three days later , she engaged another Fw 200 , again without success .
After returning to Hvalfjörður , Wichita steamed to Seidisfjord at the end of June , where she joined Tuscaloosa and three destroyers . They were assigned to the escort for the convoy PQ 17 . The convoy escort also included Washington , Victorious , and the battleship Duke of York . The Germans organized a powerful task force , centered on the battleship Tirpitz and three heavy cruisers , to attack the convoy ; the operation was codenamed Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) . Swedish intelligence had meanwhile reported the German departures to the British Admiralty , which ordered the convoy to disperse . Aware that they had been detected , the Germans aborted the operation and turned over the attack to U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe . The scattered vessels could no longer be protected by the convoy escorts , and the Germans sank 21 of the 34 isolated transports . The next day , while south of Spitzbergen , the ships were spotted and shadowed by a pair of Fw 200s . Both Wichita and Tuscaloosa opened fire with their antiaircraft guns , but the Fw 200s escaped without damage .
In late July , Wichita went into drydock at the Royal Navy base in Rosyth , Scotland . Repairs , which included correcting a propeller shaft vibration , lasted from 24 July until 9 August . The repairs to the propeller shaft were ineffective , however , which necessitated a return to the United States . She reached the New York Navy Yard on 22 August for repairs , which lasted until 5 September . She completed a round of post @-@ repair sea trials before conducting gunnery exercises in the Chesapeake Bay . Wichita conducted training off the Virginia Capes for the rest of the month , after which she steamed to Casco Bay in Maine for further maneuvers .
= = = = Operation Torch = = = =
At the end of October , Wichita was assigned to Task Group 34 @.@ 1 , under the command of Rear Admiral H. Kent Hewitt , who flew his flag in Augusta . The Task Group also included the battleship Massachusetts and Tuscaloosa . The ships were assigned to provide gunfire support for Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa . Wichita participated in the Naval Battle of Casablanca , which began early on the morning of 8 November . The ships were tasked with neutralizing the primary French defenses , which included coastal guns on El Hank , several submarines , and the incomplete battleship Jean Bart which lay at anchor in the harbor . Wichita and Tuscaloosa initially engaged the French batteries on El Hank and the French submarine pens , while Massachusetts attacked Jean Bart. French naval forces , led by the cruiser Primauguet , put up a stubborn defense .
In response , the French launched a pair of attacks to break up the American landings . During the first French attack , either Wichita or Tuscaloosa damaged the French destroyer Milan and forced it aground . A second French attack was also defeated ; one of the two cruisers sank the destroyer Fougueux and damaged Frondeur . Wichita , Tuscaloosa , and Massachusetts also engaged Jean Bart. At 11 : 28 , Wichita was hit by a 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) shell , fired by a gun on El Hank . The shell penetrated her deck and exploded below , injuring fourteen men . Hewitt broke off the attack temporarily , but by 13 : 12 , several American warships began firing on French vessels exiting the harbor . Wichita and Tuscaloosa closed on the port to engage the cruisers Primauguet and Gloire , still in the harbor . Heavy fire from El Hank forced the American cruisers to retreat shortly after 15 : 00 . For the remainder of the operations off North Africa , Wichita patrolled between Casablanca and Fedhala . Her part in the amphibious assault complete , Wichita departed the area on 12 November , bound for New York for repairs ; she arrived on 19 November .
= = = Pacific theater = = =
Shortly after repairs were completed , Wichita was transferred to the Pacific theater . She was assigned to Task Force 18 , commanded by Rear Admiral Giffen , and tasked with operations off Guadalcanal . She was joined by the heavy cruisers Louisville and Chicago , the light cruisers Montpelier , Cleveland , and Columbia . In addition , the escort carriers Chenango and Suwannee , and eight destroyers were present in the task group . On the night of 29 January 1943 , the Task Force was steaming off Rennell Island ; wary of the threat from Japanese submarines , which Allied intelligence indicated were likely in the area , Giffen arranged his cruisers and destroyers for anti @-@ submarine defense , not expecting an air attack . The cruisers were aligned in two columns , spaced 2 @,@ 500 yd ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) apart . Wichita , Chicago , and Louisville , in that order , were to starboard , and Montpelier , Cleveland , and Columbia were to port . The six destroyers were in a semicircle 2 mi ( 1 @.@ 7 nmi ; 3 @.@ 2 km ) ahead of the cruiser columns . That evening , the ships came under attack from Japanese torpedo bombers . In the ensuing Battle of Rennell Island , Chicago was hit by several torpedoes and sunk ; Wichita was hit by one torpedo , though it failed to explode .
Wichita then steamed to Efate in the New Hebrides for a training period . She then departed on 7 April , bound for Pearl Harbor and arriving there a week later . On 18 April , she steamed out of Pearl Harbor for Adak , Alaska , again flying Giffen 's flag , for Task Group 52 @.@ 10 . In early May , Wichita was assigned to the amphibious force tasked with liberating the Aleutian Islands from Japanese control . She served as the flagship of the northern covering force , along with the cruisers Louisville and San Francisco and four destroyers . On 6 July , Wichita , three other cruisers , and four destroyers bombarded Japanese positions on the island of Kiska . The bombardment convinced the Japanese that the Americans intended to invade the island in the near future ; they therefore planned an evacuation by July .
On 19 July , a powerful American fleet , including the battleships New Mexico , Idaho , and Mississippi joined Wichita to conduct another attack on Kiska three days later . Five days later , malfunctioning radar equipment led to a battle with radar phantoms ( the " Battle of the Pips " ) ; Wichita , two battleships , and two other cruisers expended over a thousand rounds of ammunition from their main batteries on the empty sea . That same day , the Japanese successfully evacuated the island , which was invaded by American troops two weeks later . The morning after the assumed engagement , Wichita launched a seaplane to reconnoiter the area , but found no evidence of Japanese forces .
Wichita participated in exercises off Hawaii for the remainder of the year . On 16 January 1944 , she departed to take part in the invasion of the Marshall Islands . She was assigned to Task Group 58 @.@ 3 , under the command of Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman . The Task Group included the fleet carrier Bunker Hill , the light carriers Cowpens and Monterey , the fast battleships North Carolina , Massachusetts , Alabama , and South Dakota , and several destroyers . Wichita provided anti @-@ aircraft support for the carriers while they conducted air strikes on Kwajalein and Eniwetok on 29 – 31 January . On 4 February , Wichita arrived at Majuro ; she was transferred to Task Group 58 @.@ 2 . The force departed Majuro on 12 February and conducted Operation Hailstone , a major air strike on the Japanese base at Truk , four days later .
On the night of 16 February , Japanese aircraft launched an attack on the Task Group and torpedoed the carrier Intrepid . Task Unit 58 @.@ 2 @.@ 4 , which included Wichita , was detached to escort Intrepid back to safety and repairs . The ships reached Majuro on 20 February , and departed for Hawaii eight days later . The ships arrived in port on 4 March , and on the 9th , Wichita became the flagship of Cruiser Division 6 . On 15 March , Cruiser Division 6 departed Hawaii to return to Majuro , arriving on 20 March . After arriving , she joined the screen for the Fast Carrier Task Force , which struck Japanese bases on Yap , Woleali , and in the Palaus . Wichita supported strikes on Hollandia in New Guinea on 13 – 22 April . The task force returned to the seas off Truk on 29 April for a second round of airstrikes on the port . While the carriers were striking Truk , Wichita and several cruisers and destroyers shelled Japanese targets on Satawan Island in the Nomol group of the Caroline Islands .
On 4 May , Wichita returned to Majuro for a month of training . In June , she returned to the fleet , which was gathering at Kwajalein in preparations for operations against the Mariana Islands . Wichita was assigned to Task Unit 53 @.@ 10 @.@ 8 , which shelled Saipan on 13 June . The next day , Wichita bombarded Japanese gun positions on Guam , before returning to Saipan later that day . On 17 June , she joined Task Group 58 @.@ 7 ; the force patrolled to the west of the Marianas over the next three days in an attempt to intercept the large Japanese carrier force known to be approaching . On 19 June , the Japanese carriers struck at the American fleet , starting the Battle of the Philippine Sea . Wichita contributed to the antiaircraft screen ; her gunners claimed to have assisted in the destruction of two Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . The ship was detached to cover troop transports and escort carriers off Saipan on 25 June . This duty lasted through the first week of July . Now part of Task Unit 53 @.@ 18 @.@ 1 , Wichita bombarded Japanese positions on Guam on 8 – 12 July , and again starting on 18 July .
Wichita departed Guam on 10 August , bound for Eniwetok . She arrived three days later and remained there until 29 July , when she put to sea to join Task Group 38 @.@ 1 . She screened for the fast carrier task group while they launched airstrikes on Japanese targets in Palau , the Carolines , the Philippines , and Dutch East Indies . On 28 August , TG 38 @.@ 1 raided targets in Palau and Morotai . By mid @-@ September , TG 38 @.@ 1 provided air support for the assault on Morotai ; the operation lasted until 21 September . The following day , the carriers launched an airstrike on Manila in the Philippines . Early on 22 September , Japanese aircraft launched a counterattack . At 07 : 34 , Wichita shot down a bomber approximately 50 yards from her . She shot down another bomber at 07 : 45 . She continued to provide antiaircraft defense for the carriers while they struck Japanese installations on Cebu , Negros , and Coron .
= = = = Operations off the Philippines = = = =
Wichita got underway to support a raid on Okinawa on 2 October . On 10 October , the fleet reached the waters off Okinawa and launched the strike . The following day , the fleet struck Aparri on Luzon . The fleet then raided Formosa , where they targeted Japanese airfields to prepare for the upcoming assault against the Philippines . On 13 October , Japanese bombers attacked the fleet and badly damaged the cruiser Canberra . Wichita took Canberra under tow , though she was relieved by the ocean @-@ going tug Munsee on 15 October . Wichita joined the screen for Canberra ; the squadron was joined by the badly damaged cruiser Houston . The ships were attacked again the following day , and Houston was torpedoed again . Wichita left the damaged ships on 21 October , after they had successfully reached safer waters . Wichita then rejoined the fleet off Luzon , assigned to Task Force 34 under Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee .
Wichita was present during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , which started on 23 October . On 25 October , the Fast Carrier Strike Force had steamed north , to attack the Northern Force commanded by Jisaburō Ozawa . Wichita again screened for the carriers , which sank or damaged several Japanese carriers . Task Force 34 was detached to finish off several of the crippled Japanese ships with gunfire ; Wichita and three other cruisers sank the light carrier Chiyoda and the destroyer Hatsuzuki . Wichita expended twenty @-@ two percent of her armor @-@ piercing rounds at the two ships , which amounted to 148 rounds at Chiyoda and 173 against Hatsuzuki . In the aftermath of the battle , Wichita returned to screening for the carriers off Samar . On 28 October , she provided gunfire support to troops ashore on Leyte . Two days later , she defended against a Japanese airstrike on the fleet .
On 31 October , Wichita left the area , bound for Ulithi , reaching her destination on 2 November . After replenishing her ammunition and stores , she returned to Leyte for several days , until the middle of November . Her crew detected severe vibrations in her No. 4 engine ; the propeller shaft had broken and the propeller was trailing . She was therefore detached on 18 November for repairs in California , via Ulithi . While in Ulithi , divers discovered cracks in a strut for No. 3 propeller shaft ; now only two screws were operational . She reached San Pedro in California on 15 December . She entered the Terminal Island Navy Yard shortly after reaching port . Repairs lasted until 8 February 1945 , and by 28 February , she departed for Pearl Harbor . Wichita arrived in Hawaii on 6 March , before departing five days later for Ulithi .
= = = = Invasion of Okinawa = = = =
Wichita arrived in Ulithi on 20 March , and was assigned to Task Force 54 the next day . She put to sea to take part in the invasion of Okinawa . The ship was placed in Task Unit 54 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 to cover minesweepers off Okinawa on 25 March . On the afternoon of the following day , Wichita bombarded Japanese positions on the island , from 13 : 50 to 16 : 30 . Japanese aircraft attacked the ships early the next morning ; Wichita 's gunners shot down one of the aircraft . Later that day , the ship resumed bombardment duties in preparation for the amphibious invasion . She continued to shell the island through 28 March . The next day , she retired to Kerama Retto to replenish her ammunition . The ship then returned to Okinawa later that day to cover underwater demolition teams as they cleared beach obstacles . Wichita continued to support the demolition teams the next day , as well as shelling targets ashore . On 31 March , Wichita bombarded the sea wall to create a breach in preparation for the landings .
The invasion began on 1 April , and Wichita provided gunfire support to the landing troops on the southern beaches . At around 12 : 00 , she left the firing line to replenish her ammunition . She resumed bombardment the following day and resupplied again on 3 April before covering minesweepers on 4 April . During the night of 4 – 5 April , Wichita shelled the Japanese defenders on Okinawa . The ship was assigned to join Task Group 51 @.@ 19 the next day to bombard Tsugen Shima in company with Tuscaloosa and the battleships Maryland and Arkansas . Japanese aircraft appeared , which forced the cancellation of the mission . Nevertheless , Wichita shelled Japanese shore batteries at Chiyama Shima that evening .
Late on 6 April , an A6M Zero attempted to attack Wichita . The fighter came down through a break in the clouds on Wichita 's port side . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners immediately opened fire ; a burst from one of the 20 mm guns shot away the Zero 's tail . The plane veered away , out of control , and dropped its 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb , which fell approximately 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the ship . The Zero 's wing clipped the deck before the plane crashed into the sea . Eleven men were wounded in the attack , though the ship remained undamaged . The following day , Wichita steamed into Nakagusuku Bay to shell a coastal battery . Shells from the Japanese guns landed close to the ship , but no hits were scored before Wichita neutralized the battery . Over the next two days , the ship continued to bombard Japanese defenses on the island , until she retired to replenish ammunition on 10 April .
Wichita continued to provide gunfire support throughout the rest of the month . On 27 April , a small caliber shell penetrated a fuel oil tank five feet below the waterline . After temporary repairs while still off Okinawa proved unsuccessful , Wichita returned to Kerama Retto where the damage was repaired on 29 – 30 April . Wichita then returned to the gun line . On 12 May , the ship was damaged by friendly fire . A 5 inch round struck the port aircraft catapult ; shell fragments hit the shield of an antiaircraft director , killing one man and injuring eleven others . She departed the area to rest and refit at Leyte , returning to Okinawa on 18 June . Wichita continued to provide gunfire support to the troops on Okinawa through July , as part of Task Unit 2 . On 15 August , the ship 's crew received word that the war with Japan was over . Wichita was awarded 13 battle stars for her service during World War II .
= = = Post @-@ War = = =
Wichita was assigned to the occupying force shortly after the end of the war . She departed Okinawa on 10 September for Nagasaki , arriving the following day as part of Task Group 55 @.@ 7 . Wichita was one of the first major warships to reach Japan ; she was escorted by a destroyer , a pair of destroyer escorts , two minesweepers , and the hospital ship Haven . Wichita was transferred to Sasebo on 25 September for four days before she returned to Nagasaki on 29 September . She returned to Sasebo shortly thereafter , and while she was there , a severe typhoon struck the area on 9 – 11 October . Wichita was not damaged during the storms . While at Sasebo , Wichita 's crew inspected the Japanese ships and harbor installations to ensure Japanese compliance with the terms of surrender .
On 5 November , Wichita was assigned to Operation Magic Carpet , the repatriation of American military personnel . She refueled in Tokyo before departing for San Francisco . The ship reached San Francisco on 24 November , where she went into drydock at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard two days later . Repairs and modifications for further Magic Carpet duty were completed by 1 December . Wichita departed for Hawaii on 6 December , reaching Pearl Harbor on 12 December before proceeding to the Marianas . There , the ship loaded servicemen from Saipan and steamed back to San Francisco , arriving on 12 January 1946 . She left port on 27 January bound for the east coast of the United States ; she transited the Panama Canal on 5 – 9 February and reached Philadelphia on 14 February . There , she was assigned to the Sixteenth Fleet and was placed in reserve on 15 July . Wichita was decommissioned on 3 February 1947 and laid up at Philadelphia . In the late 1940s , the Navy considered converting Wichita into a guided @-@ missile cruiser , but Boston and Canberra were chosen instead . On 1 March 1959 , the ship was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and sold on 14 August to the Union Minerals and Alloys Corp.
= Contra la Corriente ( Marc Anthony album ) =
Contra la Corriente ( Against the Current ) is the third studio album released by American singer Marc Anthony on October 21 , 1997 by RMM Records . The album was produced by Puerto Rican musician Angel " Cucco " Peña , with most of the songs written by Panamanian composer Omar Alfanno . The album was well received by critics who praised the vocals of Anthony as well as the songs . The album produced six singles , four of which peaked on the top ten on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Promoted by a sold @-@ out concert in Madison Square Garden , Contra la Corriente became the first salsa album reach number one on the Top Latin Albums chart and to chart on the Billboard 200 .
Contra la Corriente received a Grammy Award and a Latin Billboard Award , and was named the eighth best album of 1997 by Time magazine . It has sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies as of 2000 . The album received a gold certification for shipping of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was the last album that Marc Anthony recorded under RMM Records before switching over to Columbia Records to record his first self @-@ titled English album .
= = Background = =
Since Anthony 's signing on with RMM Records , his first @-@ two albums had been successful , selling over 600 @,@ 000 copies combined . His second album , Todo a Su Tiempo , was certified gold in the United States and received a Grammy Award nomination . Record producer Sergio George , who was credited for the success Anthony 's earlier albums , was not involved in the production of Contra La Cor
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an advocate for moor preservation . Thought to be rude and irascible , he began a campaign to recognise the ecological importance of the moors . He asserted that the enclosures of the 1800s , when common rights were replaced by private ownership , had been illegal , as was much of the commercial exploitation of his time . He seemed to have a good deal of evidence to support his claims , and took several major utilities to court over acts which he felt were illegal . He won a series of high @-@ profile cases , which he used as publicity to advance the case for conserving the moors . In 1972 , Bunting began direct action , aided by local residents , local naturalists , and students . During the week , the peat extraction company Fisons would cut drains to begin the process of lowering the water table . During the weekends , Bunting 's Beavers , as his team became known , would walk onto the moors and construct dams across the new ditches , to retain the water levels . By the summer , the Beavers appeared to be winning the battle , and their activities were featured on BBC television . Fisons dynamited eighteen of the dams , but the activists were undeterred and began rebuilding them . Finally , Fisons conceded defeat , and negotiated with the Nature Conservancy Council on the future management of the moors in 1974 . The government granted some 4 @,@ 560 acres ( 1 @,@ 845 ha ) Site of Special Scientific Interest status in 1981 . Although this had little immediate effect , it has contributed to subsequent appreciation of the area and its importance as an ecological resource .
= = = Conservation = = =
The first small step towards conservation of the moors occurred in 1971 , when an agreement was reached between the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust and Fisons on the management of 144 acres ( 58 ha ) on Crowle Moor . In 1985 , the Nature Conservancy Council bought 180 acres ( 73 ha ) of Thorne Waste , which had been part of the area worked by a canal network . The Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust purchased a total of 290 acres ( 118 ha ) in 1987 , which included the area they had been managing since 1971 . The first large @-@ scale transfer of land occurred in 1994 , when Fisons gave 2 @,@ 340 acres ( 946 ha ) to English Nature , the successor to the Nature Conservancy Council . The agreement allowed Fisons to lease back the active peat fields from English Nature , and to continue to extract peat until 2025 . However , they agreed to leave a minimum of 20 inches ( 50 cm ) of peat , so that the moors could recover once extraction ceased . Areas that were not being worked were managed for conservation . At this time , English Nature also took control of parts of Hatfield Moors . The areas they managed were designated as the Humberhead Peatlands National Nature Reserve in 1995 , and were extended by another 370 acres ( 150 ha ) in the following year .
Most extraction of peat from the moors had ended by 2004 , after the peat extraction rights , then owned by Scotts , had been bought by the government for £ 17 million . A small @-@ scale operation was still active in 2005 .
Environmentalists continued to campaign for recognition of the ecological value of the moors . In 2002 the government agreed to buy the peat extraction rights from The Scotts Company ( now trading as The Scotts Miracle @-@ Gro Company ) . The agreement was signed in April , before the cutting season began , and no cutting occurred on Thorne Moors after 2001 . Stockpiles of cut peat continued to be removed from the moors until 2005 . Scotts worked with English Nature to return worked areas to a condition where they could start to regenerate , until their involvement with this contract on Thorne Moors ended in March 2006 . Since 2005 , 4 @,@ 020 acres ( 1 @,@ 625 ha ) of Thorne Moors have been designated as a National Nature Reserve . This includes the area bought by the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust , which now manage most of Crowle Moor on behalf of Natural England , the successor to English Nature .
Limbert and Roworth have commented that , unlike other peat areas , such as the Somerset Levels , where recording of the industrial heritage has been systematic , the recording of the industrial archaeology of Thorne and Hatfield Moors has been notably scarce . A guide to the industrial history of South Yorkshire published in 1995 made no mention of peat at all . The canals dug by the Dutch and operated until the 1920s have been mentioned by canal historians such as Charles Hadfield , but have never been investigated systematically . The railways have received a little more attention in the specialist press , and some of the locomotives have been preserved . The history of the workers has been partially recorded through the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Oral History Project . In contrast , the ecology of the moors has been better documented , through the publication of the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Papers , first published by the Doncaster Naturalists Society in 1987 . Since 1989 , the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Conservation Forum have taken over this responsibility . These papers now run to eight volumes , and the forum has also published technical papers on many aspects of the moors .
= = Peat industry = =
By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , there was a small but established peat industry on the moors . George Stovin recorded that labourers dug peat turves in the summer , which were dressed by their wives and children , before being exported by boat through Thorne sluice and the River Don . The product was transported to Gainsborough , Leeds , Lincoln and York . The boats used were double @-@ ended , about 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long , and traveled by canals dug into the peat , the chief of which was called Boating Dyke . Up to forty boats were operating in the 1790s , but competition from coal , which was a more efficient fuel , resulted in a decline , and only eight or nine boats were still operating in the 1820s . Internal canals on the moors had ceased to be used by the 1830s , with turves being transported by cart to Thorne or to the Stainforth and Keadby Canal .
There followed a period when improvement of the moors for agriculture was considered the way to proceed . An entrepreneur named John Gossip bought 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) of moor near Lindholme , and set about warping it with silt from an old river bed near Lindholme Lake . The cost proved excessive , and he installed a stationary steam engine and narrow gauge railway tracks , on which small wagons were pushed by hand , to aid the work . He ran into financial difficulties , however , and the land was repossessed by his backers . The main emphasis of the Thorne Moor Improvement Company , set up in 1848 , was the " draining , warping and otherwise improving " of Thorne Waste , but the railway across the moors proposed by the Great Northern Railway Company , which was to provide transport for the products of the improved land , did not materialise , and little was achieved .
Two drains were built , of which the most successful was the Swinefleet Warping Drain , pioneered by Ralph Creyke and T.H.S. Sotheron , and authorised by an Act of Parliament . Opened in 1821 , poor @-@ quality land was reclaimed for around forty years . The other scheme was Durham 's Warping Drain , to the north of Thorne , which ran westwards to a sluice on the River Don . The drain was completed in 1856 by Makin Durham , but he failed to achieve much reclamation of the peat moors . He died in 1882 , just as ideas to use the peat commercially began to replace the concept of attempting to make the moors suitable for agriculture . The change was brought about by an agricultural depression and the high price of straw for animal bedding .
Peat was more absorbent than straw , and as there were huge numbers of working horses at the time , it was promoted as a replacement for straw . It could also be used for packing of fruit , as a replacement for sandbags , for fertiliser and as potting compost , as well as the manufacture of paraffin , creosote and tar . The owners of Thorne and Hatfield Moors leased their lands to peat companies , whose workers would dig drains , cut the turves , and stack them up to allow them to dry , so that they were ready for sale . The product was in competition with imports from the Netherlands , and the Dutch Griendtsveen Company set up the Griendtsveen Moss Litter Company in 1893 , a holding company which would buy up companies operating in the Netherlands and in the United Kingdom . The works at Moorends kept its ledgers in Dutch and English , and a number of Dutch workers relocated to Thorne . By 1899 , there were some 120 Dutch workers , forming a community of 300 with their wives and children , and there was concern among local people that they would lose their own jobs . Dutch tools and working practices were introduced , and the immigrants cut around 14 miles ( 23 km ) of canals to transport peat to the mill at Moorends . The iron barges used on the canals were 40 feet ( 12 m ) long , and were double ended , as they could not be turned round . A total of twelve were built in the Netherlands , and remained in use until 1922 , when Moorends Mill burnt down . The barges were cut up , and the mill was not rebuilt , although some of the other buildings were used as workhops until 1956 .
= = = Amalgamation = = =
In 1896 , the British Moss Litter Company was formed , from an amalgamation of the Hatfield Chase Peat Moss Litter Company , the Griendtsveen Moss Litter Company , and most of the other companies working on the moors . They gained control of works at Creyke 's Siding and Moorends to the west , Medge Hall to the south , Swinefleet to the east , and Old Goole in the north , together with the mill on Hatfield Moors . Old Goole mill closed in 1902 , although peat was stored there for another twelve years . The new company did not have complete control of the moors , as there were several small independent peat works on Crowle Moor . The company was restructured in 1899 , by winding up the original company and creating a new one with the same name but additional working capital . At the same time , Swinefleet Works was formally purchased , whereas it had been leased by the old company . Sales of peat rose steadily from 39 @,@ 444 tons in 1893 to 74 @,@ 948 tons in 1898 .
Following the end of the First World War , sales of peat began to decline , as working horses were replaced by motor lorries and tractors . The British Moss Litter Company bought up two other companies who were extracting peat in Crowle Moor in 1935 . Most peat was sold as bales , with ' fine ' peat being used by gardeners and the growing of mushrooms and ' litter ' being used for animal bedding , while ' tailings ' were used for floor covering at show @-@ jumping events and for bulking up feed for cows . Around one @-@ fifth was not baled , and was used for various purposes , including the production of firelighters , for health cures at Harrogate baths , and the purifying of gas by gas companies , for which it was mixed with iron ore at Creyke 's Siding . By the late 1940s , it was finding a new market as litter for battery hen houses , and by then around 90 per cent was baled .
The works at Creyke 's Siding was closed in the early 1960s , after fire destroyed much of it , Swinefleet Works was damaged by fire in 1962 , and a fire on the moors at Hatfield destroyed huge stocks of dried peat . Despite this , the agricultural supplies company Fisons bought the operation in February 1963 , and began upgrading the works at Swinefleet and Hatfield . Medge Hall works was in need of new machinery , and did not have good access for lorries , and so was closed in 1966 . By the time a management buyout occurred in July 1994 , Fisons was making £ 3 @.@ 8 million profit annually on a turnover of £ 47 million . The new owners traded as Levington Horticulture , but on 1 January 1998 , were taken over by the American garden products company Scotts .
= = = Transport = = =
Creyke 's Siding and Moorends Works were both located close to the main railway line from Doncaster to Goole ( Hull and Doncaster Branch ) , and were served by sidings . Medge Hall Works was similarly close to the line from Doncaster to Grimsby , and was also served by a siding . Swinefleet Works had their own 3 ft 7 in ( 1 @,@ 093 mm ) gauge tramway , which ran northwards to a wharf on the River Ouse near Swinefleet Clough . The line was around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long , and had a single steam engine , built by Webster , Jackson & Co. of Goole . The Goole and Marshland Light Railway and the Isle of Axholme Light Railway were authorised by Light Railway Orders in 1898 and 1899 , and became the Axholme Joint Railway after a takeover by two larger companies in 1901 . Following discussions , to try to alleviate a level crossing of the tramway and the new railway , a siding was constructed to Swinefleet Works , and the tramway was lifted in 1903 . The railway company also built a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) branch from Epworth in 1909 , in the hope of gaining the peat traffic from Hatfield Works , but they continued to cart their output north to Maud 's Bridge , on the Doncaster to Scunthorpe line . The railway built a loading dock in 1911 , and still did not gain the traffic , but finally in 1913 , agreed to build a siding into the works in exchange for all the peat traffic . Thus all of the British Moss Litter Company 's works could export their produce by rail .
A system of horse @-@ drawn tramways was used to move the peat across the moor from at least the 1890s , since the lines are marked on the 1890 Ordnance Survey maps , and Booth includes a picture of Moorends Works taken in the 1890s , showing both 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) wagons and the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) gauge wooden peat wagons used internally . Rotherham includes an engraving of a peat wagon in his book , consisting of a farm cart , still with its road wheels attached , but with a four @-@ wheeled bogie under each of the axles to allow it to be pulled along the rails by two horses . However , no indication of a date is given . The rails were quite light , at 9 or 12 pounds per yard ( 4 @.@ 5 or 6 @.@ 0 kg / m ) , but were gradually increased to 18 pounds per yard ( 8 @.@ 9 kg / m ) , and by the 1980s , when locomotives were in use , rails of 30 pounds per yard ( 15 kg / m ) were installed . The flat @-@ bottomed rails were initially made of iron , but were later replaced by steel rails . The tracks were referred to locally as trams , rather than tramways .
= = = Locomotives = = =
The first use of powered vehicles on the tramways occurred in 1947 , when one of the fitters at Moorends Works built a machine from a wooden wagon frame and parts from an Austin Swallow car . Although trials were carried out in which peat wagons were towed , it was mainly used to transport personnel around the moors . It had an 8 @-@ horsepower ( 6 @.@ 0 kW ) engine , was later based at Swinefleet Works , and was derelict by 1960 . The first purpose @-@ built locomotive was also based at Swinefleet , and was bought in 1955 . It was probably built by James & Frederick Howard of Bedford , and was a four @-@ wheeled machine , fitted with a petrol engine , which was replaced by a Dorman diesel engine within a year as petrol was rationed at the time , due to the Suez Canal crisis . It was
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in his Republic ) can be ascribed to Crates ' influence .
= = = Other Cynics = = =
There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC , including Onesicritus ( who sailed with Alexander the Great to India ) , and the moral satirists Bion of Borysthenes and Menippus of Gadara . However , with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC , Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline , and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival .
= = Cynicism in the Roman world = =
There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC ; Cicero ( c . 50 BC ) , who was much interested in Greek philosophy , had little to say about Cynicism , except that " it is to be shunned ; for it is opposed to modesty , without which there can be neither right nor honor . " However , by the 1st century AD , Cynicism reappeared with full force . The rise of Imperial Rome , like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier , may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people , which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self @-@ sufficiency and inner @-@ happiness to flourish once again . Cynics could be found throughout the empire , standing on street corners , preaching about virtue . Lucian complained that " every city is filled with such upstarts , particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes , Antisthenes , and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog , " and Aelius Aristides observed that " they frequent the doorways , talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters , making up for their lowly condition by using impudence . " The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius , whom Seneca praised as " a man of consummate wisdom , though he himself denied it , constant to the principles which he professed , of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects . " Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker . In the 2nd century AD , Lucian , whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus , nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher , Demonax , in a dialogue .
Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism , a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse . According to Epictetus , the ideal Cynic " must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things , to show them that they have wandered . " Unfortunately for Epictetus , many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal : " consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables , and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind . "
Unlike Stoicism , which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD , Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century . The emperor , Julian ( ruled 361 – 363 ) , like Epictetus , praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism .
The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century . A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria , he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism .
= = Cynicism and Christianity = =
= = = Jesus as a Jewish Cynic = = =
Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics . Some scholars have argued that the Q document , a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke , has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics . Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus , such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar , have argued that 1st century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions . The city of Gadara , only a day 's walk from Nazareth , was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy , and Mack has described Jesus as a " rather normal Cynic @-@ type figure . " For Crossan , Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel . Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics , and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance .
= = = Cynic influences on early Christianity = = =
Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians , and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the cynics . Some cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities . One cynic , Peregrinus Proteus , lived for a time as a Christian before converting to cynicism , whereas in the 4th century , Maximus of Alexandria , although a Christian , was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle . Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty , although they scorned Cynic shamelessness : Augustine stating that they had , " in violation of the modest instincts of men , boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion , worthy indeed of dogs . " The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics , as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church who in outward appearance , and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age .
= Underwater camouflage =
Underwater camouflage is the set of methods of achieving crypsis — avoidance of observation — that allows otherwise visible aquatic organisms to remain unnoticed by other organisms such as predators or prey .
Camouflage in large bodies of water differs markedly from camouflage on land . The environment is essentially the same on all sides . Light always falls from above , and there is generally no variable background to compare with trees and bushes . Three main camouflage methods predominate in water : transparency , reflection , and counter @-@ illumination . Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean ; counter @-@ illumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres ; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres .
Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage , where additional methods are used by many animals . For example , self @-@ decoration is employed by decorator crabs ; mimesis by animals such as the leafy sea dragon ; countershading by many fish including sharks ; distraction with eyespots by many fish ; active camouflage through ability to change colour rapidly in fish such as the flounder , and cephalopods including octopus , cuttlefish , and squid .
= = Context = =
The ability to camouflage oneself provides a survival advantage in the constant struggle between predators and prey . Natural selection has produced a wide variety of methods of survival in the oceans .
In Ancient Greece , Aristotle commented on the color @-@ changing abilities , both for camouflage and for signalling , of cephalopods including the octopus , in his Historia animalium :
The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it ; it does so also when alarmed .
= = Methods = =
Three main camouflage methods predominate in the oceans : transparency , reflection , and counterillumination . Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean ; counterillumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres ; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres . Most animals of the open sea use at least one of these methods to camouflage themselves . Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage , where additional methods are used by animals in many different groups . These methods of camouflage are described in turn below .
= = = Transparency = = =
Transparency is common , even dominant , in animals of the open sea , especially those that live in relatively shallow waters . It is found in plankton of many species , as well as larger animals such as jellyfish , salps ( floating tunicates ) , and comb jellies . Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent , giving them almost perfect camouflage . However , transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater . Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies , composed mainly of water ; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent . This conveniently makes them buoyant , but it also makes them large for their muscle mass , so they cannot swim fast . Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 per cent transparent . A transparency of 50 per cent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) ; better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water , where the light is brighter and predators can see better . For example , a cod can see prey that are 98 per cent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water . Therefore , transparency is most effective in deeper waters .
Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent , provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light . Familiar examples of transparent body parts are the lens and cornea of the vertebrate eye . The lens is made of the protein crystallin ; the cornea is made of the protein collagen . Other structures cannot be made transparent , notably the retinas or equivalent light @-@ absorbing structures of eyes — they must absorb light to be able to function . The camera @-@ type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque . Finally , some structures are visible for a reason , such as to lure prey . For example , the nematocysts ( stinging cells ) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods . Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae , including coelenterates , siphonophores , salps ( floating tunicates ) , gastropod molluscs , polychaete worms , many shrimplike crustaceans , and fish ; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented , resembling the seabed or shores where they live . Adult comb jellies and jellyfish are mainly transparent , like their watery background . The small Amazon river fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with , Pseudopalaemon gouldingi , are so transparent as to be " almost invisible " ; further , these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled ( disruptively patterned ) according to the local background in the environment .
= = = Reflection = = =
Many fish are covered with highly reflective scales , giving the appearance of silvered mirror glass . Reflection through silvering is widespread or dominant in fish of the open sea , especially those that live in the top 100 metres . Where transparency cannot be achieved , it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal 's body highly reflective . At medium depths at sea , light comes from above , so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side . Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering .
The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally ( side to side ) , leaving the body just millimetres thick , and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil . The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration : stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about ¼ of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection . In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in , only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected , so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage .
In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water , the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths , and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings . A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross @-@ section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin , as they would fail to reflect horizontally . The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors , all oriented vertically . Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish . The cephalopods , including squid , octopus and cuttlefish , have multi @-@ layer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine .
= = = Counter @-@ illumination = = =
Counter @-@ illumination through bioluminescence on the underside ( ventral region ) of the body is found in many species that live in the open ocean down to about 1000 metres . The generated light increases an animal 's brightness when seen from below to match the brightness of the ocean surface ; it is an effective form of active camouflage . It is notably used by some species of squid , such as the midwater squid , Abralia veranyi . These have light @-@ producing organs ( photophores ) scattered all over their undersides , creating a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below . Counter @-@ illumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms , though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling .
= = = Countershading = = =
Top / bottom countershading is common in fish including sharks , marlin , and mackerel , and animals in other groups such as dolphins , turtles and penguins . These animals have dark upper sides to match the ocean depths , and light undersides to avoid appearing dark against the bright sea surface .
= = = Mimesis = = =
Mimesis is practised by animals such as the leafy sea dragon , Phycodurus eques , and the leaf scorpionfish , Taenianotus triacanthus , which resemble parts of plants , and gently rock their bodies as if swayed by a current . In the fish species Novaculichthys taeniourus , the rockmover or dragon wrasse , there is a striking difference in appearance between the adults and the juveniles . A juvenile Rockmover resembles a loose piece of sea weed . It swims in a vertical position with its head pointing downwards , and behaves in a way that perfectly resembles the movement of a piece of seaweed : moving back and forth in the surge , as if it was inanimate .
= = = Self @-@ decoration = = =
Self @-@ decoration is employed by animals in different groups , including decorator crabs , which attach materials from their environment , as well as living organisms , to camouflage themselves . For example , the Japanese hermit crab , Eupagurus constans , has the hydroid Hydractinia sodalis growing all over the shell that it lives in . Another hermit crab , Eupagurus cuanensis , has the aposematic orange sponge Suberites domuncula which is bitter @-@ tasting and not eaten by fish .
Similarly , sea urchins use their tube feet to pick up debris from the bottom and attach it to their upper surfaces . They use shells , rocks , algae and sometimes sea anemones .
= = = Distraction = = =
Many fish have eyespots near their tails to distract attacks away from the vulnerable head and eye . For example , Chaetodon capistratus has both a ( disruptive ) eyestripe to conceal the eye , and a large eyespot near its tail , giving the impression that the head is at the tail end of the body .
= = = Disruption of outlines = = =
Fish such as Dascyllus aruanus have bold disruptive patterns on their sides , breaking up their outlines with strong contrasts . Fish like Heniochus macrolepidotus have similar bands of colour that extend into fins projecting far from the body , distracting attention from the true shape of the fish .
Some fish which mimic seaweeds such as the frogfishes Antennarius marmoratus and Pterophryne tumida have elaborate projections and spines which are combined with complex disruptive coloration . These have the effect of destroying the signature " fish " outline of these animals , as well as helping them to appear as pieces of algae .
= = = Adaptive coloration = = =
A variety of marine animals possess active camouflage through their ability to change colour rapidly . Several bottom @-@ living fish such as the flounder can hide themselves effectively against a variety of backgrounds . Many cephalopods including octopus , cuttlefish , and squid similarly use colour change , in their case both for camouflage and signalling . For example , the big blue octopus , Octopus cyanea , hunts during the day , and can match itself to the colours and textures of its surroundings , both to avoid predators and to enable it to approach prey . It can perfectly resemble a rock or a coral it is hiding beside . When necessary , in order to scare away a potential predator , it can display markings which resemble eyes .
Like all flounders , Peacock flounders , Bothus mancus , have excellent adaptive camouflage . They use cryptic coloration to avoid being detected by both prey and predators . Whenever possible rather than swim , they crawl on their fins along the bottom while constantly changing colours and patterns to match their background . In a study , some flounders demonstrated the ability to change pattern in eight seconds . They were able to match the pattern of checkerboards that they were placed on . Changing pattern is an extremely complex process involving the flounder 's vision and hormones . If one of the fish 's eyes is damaged , or covered by the sand , the flounder has difficulties in matching its pattern to its surroundings . Whenever the fish is hunting or hiding from predators , it buries itself into the sand , leaving only the eyes protruding .
= Sophiatown =
Sophiatown / soʊˈfaɪətaʊn / , also known as Sof 'town or Kofifi , is a suburb of Johannesburg , South Africa . Sophiatown was a legendary black cultural hub that was destroyed under apartheid , rebuilt under the name of Triomf , and in 2006 officially returned to its original name . Sophiatown was one of the oldest black areas in Johannesburg and its destruction represents some of the excesses of South Africa under apartheid . Despite the violence and poverty , it was the epicentre of politics , jazz and blues during the 1940s and 1950s . It produced some of South Africa 's most famous writers , musicians , politicians and artists .
= = History = =
Sophiatown was originally part of the Waterfall farm . Over time it included the neighbouring areas of Martindale and Newclare . It was purchased by a speculator , Hermann Tobiansky , in 1897 . He acquired 237 acres four miles or so west of the centre of Johannesburg . The private leasehold township was surveyed in 1903 and divided into almost 1700 small stands . The township was named after Tobiansky 's wife , Sophia , and some of the streets were named after his children Toby , Gerty , Bertha and Victoria . Before the enactment of the Natives Land Act , 1913 , black South Africans had freehold rights , and they bought properties in the suburb . The distance from the city centre was seen as disadvantageous and after the City of Johannesburg built a sewage plant nearby , the area seemed even less attractive . Because of these and other reasons most of the whites had moved out by 1920 , leaving behind a vibrant multi @-@ racial community . By the late 1940s Sophiatown had a population of nearly 54 000 Black Africans , 3 000 Coloureds , 1 500 Indians and 686 Chinese .
= = = Forced removals = = =
As neighbouring white working @-@ class areas , such as Westdene and Newlands , developed adjacent to Sophiatown , the perception arose that the suburb was too close to white suburbia . From 1944 onwards , the Johannesburg City Council planned to move the black population out of the Western Areas , including Sophiatown . After the election victory of the National Party in 1948 , relocation plans were debated at the level of national politics . Under the Immorality Amendment Act , No 21 of 1950 , people of mixed races could not reside together , which made it possible for the government to segregate the different races .
When the removals scheme was promulgated , Sophiatown residents united to protest against the forced removals , creating the slogan " Ons dak nie , ons phola hier " ( we won 't move ) . Father Trevor Huddleston , Nelson Mandela , Helen Joseph and Ruth First played an important role by becoming involved in the resistance . On 9 February 1955 , 2 000 policemen , armed with handguns , rifles and clubs known as knobkierries , forcefully moved the black families of Sophiatown to Meadowlands , Soweto . Other ethnic groups were also moved : Coloured people moved to Eldorado Park in the south of Johannesburg ; the Indian community moved to Lenasia ; and the Chinese people moved to central Johannesburg . Over the next eight years Sophiatown was flattened and removed from the maps of Johannesburg .
= = = Triomf = = =
After the forced removals and demolition , carried out under the Natives Resettlement Act of 1954 , the area was rezoned for whites only and renamed ' Triomf — Afrikaans for Triumph — by the government . The social engineers of apartheid tried to create a suburb for the white working class . In the end it turned out that Triomf became a suburb mainly for poor white Afrikaners . This just showed how apartheid failed even those it was ideologically designed to benefit .
= = = Restoration of the name Sophiatown = = =
The Johannesburg City Council took the decision in 1997 to re @-@ instate the old name Sophiatown for the suburb . On Saturday , 11 February 2006 , the process finally came to fruition when Mayor Amos Mosondo reverted the name of Triomf back to Sophiatown .
= = Geography and geology = =
Sophiatown is located on one of Johannesburg 's ridges called Melville Koppies . Melville Koppies lies on the Kaapvaal craton , which dates from three billion years ago . The Koppies lie at the base of lithified sediments in the form of conglomerate , quartzite , shale , and siltstone . It represents the first sea shores and shallow beds of an ancient sea . It also forms part of the lowest level of one of the world 's most well known geological features , the Witwatersrand Supergroup . Several fairly narrow layers of gravel , deposited quite late in the sequence , and bearing heavy elements , made the Witwatersrand Supergroup famous . These are the gold @-@ bearing conglomerates of the main reefs . Melville Koppies represents in microcosm most of the features of the Witwatersrand Supergroup . What it does not have is gold @-@ bearing rock . The gold occurs millions of years later , and several kilometres higher up , in the sequence .
The Melville Koppies Nature Reserve is a Johannesburg City Heritage Site . In the last 1 000 years , Iron Age immigrants arrived and remains of their kraal walls can be found in the area .
= = Culture = =
= = = Early life in Sophiatown = = =
Sophiatown , unlike other townships in South Africa , was a freehold township , which meant that it was one of the rare places in South African urban areas where blacks were allowed to own land . This was land that never belonged to the Johannesburg municipality , and so it never developed the form of municipal " matchbox " houses , built row upon row , with the same uniformity and lack of character . The houses were built according to people 's ability to pay , tastes , and cultural background . Some houses were built of brick and had four or more rooms ; some were much smaller . Others were built like homes in the rural areas ; others still were single room shacks put together with corrugated iron and scrap sheet metal . The majority of the families living in Sophiatown were tenants and sub @-@ tenants . Eight or nine people lived in a single room and the houses hid backyards full of shanties built of cardboard and flattened kerosene cans , since many Black property owners in Sophiatown were poor . In order to pay back the mortgages on their properties , they had to take in paying tenants .
Sophiatown residents had a determination to construct a respectable lifestyle in the shadow of a state that was actively hostile to such ambitions . A respectable lifestyle rested on the three pillars of religious devotion , reverence for formal education and a desire for law and order .
People struggled to survive together , and a rich culture based on shebeens ( informal and mostly illegal pubs ) , mbaqanga music and beer @-@ brewing developed . The shebeens were one of the main forms of entertainment . People came to the shebeens not only for skokiaan or baberton ( illegally self @-@ made alcoholic beverages ) , but to talk about their daily worries , their political ideas and their fears and hopes . In these shebeens the politicians tried to influence others and get them to conform to their form of thinking . If one disagreed he immediately became suspect and was classified as a police informer .
These two conflicting images of Sophiatown stand side by side - the romantic vision of a unique community juxtaposed with a seedy and violent township with dangers lurking at every corner .
= = = Arts and literature = = =
The cultural process was somehow intensified in Sophiatown , as in Soho , the Greenwich Village , the Quartier Latin or Kreuzberg . It was akin to what Harlem was to New York in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance and is sometimes referred to as the Sophiatown renaissance .
The musical King Kong , sponsored by the Union of South African Artists , is described as the ultimate achievement and final flowering of Sophiatown multi @-@ racial cultural exploits in the 1950s . King Kong was a Sophiatown legend who gained popularity as a famous boxer , notorious extrovert , a bum and a brawler . The King Kong musical depicted the street life , the illicit shebeens , the violence , and something approximating the music of the township : jazz , penny whistles and the work songs of the black miners . When King Kong premiered in Johannesburg , Miriam Makeba the vocalist of the Manhattan Brothers , played in the female lead role . The musical later went to London 's West End for two years .
One of the boys , Hugh Masekela at St Peter 's School , told Father Huddleston of his discovery of the music of Louis Armstrong . Huddleston found a trumpet for him and as the interest in making music caught on among the other boys , the Huddleston Jazz Band was formed . Hugh Masekela did not stay very long in Sophiatown . He was in the orchestra of King Kong and then made his own international reputation .
Images of Sophiatown were initially built up in literature by a generation of South African writers : Can Themba , Bloke Modisane , Es 'kia Mphahlele , Arthur Maimane , Todd Matshikiza , Nat Nakasa , Casey Motsisi and Lewis Nkosi who all lived in Sophiatown at various stages during the 1950s . They all shared certain elements of a common experience : education at St Peter 's School and Fort Hare University , living in Sophiatown , working for Drum magazine , exile , banning under the Suppression of Communism Act and for many the writing of an autobiography .
Later , images of Sophiatown could be found in Nadine Gordimer 's novels , Miriam Makeba 's ghostwritten autobiography and Trevor Huddleston 's Naught for your comfort .
Marlene van Niekerk 's novel Triomf focuses on the suburb Triomf and recounts the monotonous daily lives of a family of poor white Afrikaners . The book has been turned into a movie also called " Triomf " , which won the Best South African Movie award in 2008 .
= = = Crime and gangsterism = = =
Crime and violence were a reality of urban life and culture in Sophiatown . The poverty , misery , violence and lawlessness of the city led to the growth of many gangs . Sections of society frowned on gangsterism as anti @-@ social behaviour and gangsters like Kortboy and Don Mattera were despised by many as " anti social " .
After the Second World War , there was a large increase in the number of gangs in Sophiatown . Part of the reason for this was that there were about 20 000 African teenagers in the city who were not at school and did not have jobs . Township youths were unable to find jobs easily . Employers were reluctant to employ teenagers as they did not have any work experience , and many of them were not able to read or write . They also considered them to be undisciplined and weak .
In Johannesburg in the 1950s , crime was a day @-@ to @-@ day reality , and Sophiatown was the nucleus of all reef crimes . Gangsters were city @-@ bred and spoke a mixture of Afrikaans and English , known as tsotsitaal . Some of the more well @-@ known gangs in Sophiatown were the Russians , the Americans , the Gestapo , the Berliners and the Vultures . The names the Gestapo and the Berliners reflect their admiration for Hitler , whom they saw as some kind of hero , for taking on the whites of Europe . The best known gang from this period , and also best studied , was the Russians . They were a group of Basotho migrant workers who banded together in the absence of any effective law enforcement by either mine owners or the state . The primary goal of this gang was to protect members from the tsotsis and from other gangs of migrant workers , and to acquire and defend resources they found desirable - most notably women , jobs and the urban space necessary for the parties and staged fights that formed the bulk of their weekend entertainment .
One of the more successful community campaigns emerged in the early 1950s when informal policing initiatives known as the Civic Guards were mobilized to combat rising crime . This attempt to restore law and order attracted widespread support prior to a series of bloody clashes with the migrant criminal society from the poorer enclave of Newclare . This provided the state with an excuse to ban the Guard groups which they eyed with suspicion because of their ANC and Communist Party connections . These supposed arbiters of law and order engaged in a series of brutal street battles with members of the " Russians " gang in the early 1950s .
The representation of gangsters in the literature ( Drum magazine ) went through very different stages during the 1950s and early 1960s . The first representation is characterized by consistent condemnations of crime as an urban phenomenon that threatens the rural identity of tribal blacks . The second is almost a complete turn @-@ around from the first , as gangsters are portrayed as urban survivors who are able to achieve a standard of living normally denied to blacks . The final period is an extended period of nostalgia for the shebeen culture that all but disappeared with the destruction of Sophiatown .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = The Church of Christ the King = = =
One of the few tangible reminders of the old Sophiatown is the Anglican Church of Christ the King in Ray Street . The architect was Frank Flemming , who designed 85 churches throughout South Africa . The church was constructed in 1933 . The bell tower was added in 1936 . So little money was made available for the construction that
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, languages and drama for local primary school children . Also for primary school children is the Tudor Experience Project where students can explore the Tudor past of the school through a number of activities . At the higher end of the school , numerous careers and university seminars are run for sixth form students from the local area , in addition to Oxbridge preparation classes and practice interviews for local sixth form students . The school also runs several more outreach programmes , and as a result of these initiatives was recently awarded the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community / Public Benefit Initiative .
= = Headmasters = =
The post of headmaster ( schoolmaster or just master as it was originally known ) was created following the grant of the Royal Charter in 1552 , with the first appointment made in 1554 . There have been 35 appointments since the creation of the position . Until the re @-@ organisation of the school in 1888 the post was almost exclusively filled by men from a religious background , with the first headmaster being Sir Lawson , a friar from the monastery in Guildford that was dissolved in 1538 . The most notable headmaster was Roger Goad ( 1569 – 1575 ) , who was Provost of Kings College , Cambridge and three times Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University of Cambridge ; he was headmaster during the time when George Abbot ( Archbishop of Canterbury 1611 – 1633 ) was at the school .
= = Former pupils = =
Former pupils of the school are referred to as " Old Guildfordians " and are often referred to as " OGs " in official school correspondence . Since the school 's founding , notable alumni have included the 75th Archbishop of Canterbury , Olympic athletes , the longest serving speaker of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom , several members of the parliament of the United Kingdom , a founding member of the East India Company and the 11th Premier of New Zealand .
= = Old Guildfordians = =
" — " indicates year of leaving is unknown .
= Cyclone Orson =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Orson was the fourth most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Australian region . Forming out of a tropical low on 17 April 1989 , Orson gradually intensified as it tracked towards the west . After attaining Category 5 intensity on 20 April , the storm began to track southward and accelerated . The following day , the cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 904 hPa ( mbar ) . Orson maintained this intensity for nearly two days before making landfall near Dampier . The cyclone rapidly weakened after landfall as it accelerated to the southeast . After moving into the Great Australian Bight on 24 April , the storm dissipated .
Despite Orson 's extreme intensity , damage was relatively minimal as it struck a sparsely populated region of Western Australia . Five people were killed offshore and damages amounted to A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) . The storm damaged a new gas platform that explored a possible oil field , believed to contain nearly 200 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil . The damage delayed the project for nearly two weeks . The most severe impacts took place in Pannawonica , where 70 homes were damaged . Following the storm , cleanup costs reached A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) . Due to the severity of the storm , the name Orson was retired after the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Orson originated out of a tropical low , monitored by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , that formed northwest of Darwin , Australia on 17 April 1989 . The system tracked southwest throughout the day before turning due west and strengthening into a tropical cyclone , at which time it received the name Orson . At this time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began monitoring the storm as Tropical Storm 28S . The forward motion of the storm gradually slowed as it intensified and on 19 April , Orson attained Category 3 status on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , classifying Orson as a severe tropical cyclone . Later that day , as the storm attained Category 4 status , an eye developed . By this time , Orson began to turn towards the southwest and on 20 April , the storm intensified into a Category 5 cyclone with winds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .
The JTWC also reported significant strengthening during the same period . They assessed Orson to have attained an intensity equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on 22 April with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Around this time , the storm tracked directly over the North Rankin gas platform . The platform was in the 40 km ( 25 mi ) wide eye of Orson for roughly 40 minutes . A weather station there recorded a barometric pressure of 904 hPa ( mbar ; 26 @.@ 69 inHg ) and wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) before the station was damaged . This was , at the time , the lowest pressure ever recorded in the Australian region since records began . It was later surpassed by Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda in 1999 when that storm attained a pressure of 900 hPa ( mbar ) . By this time , Cyclone Orson was roughly 555 km ( 345 mi ) in diameter .
Continuing on a southerly track , accelerating ahead of an approaching cold front , Cyclone Orson made landfall , near Dampier , around 4 : 45 am AWST on 23 April ( 2045 UTC 22 April ) . with winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . The JTWC also reported that Orson had weakened , with winds at landfall estimated at 230 km / h ( 145 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Tracking at 28 km / h ( 17 mph ) , the weakening storm passed over Pannawonica . Less than 12 hours after landfall , the storm weakened below Category 3 status . By this time , the JTWC was no longer monitoring the system . Around 5 : 00 am AWST on 24 April ( 2100 UTC 23 April ) , Orson weakened to a tropical low while situated over southern Western Australia . Continuing to accelerate to nearly 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) , the remnants of the storm moved over the Great Australian Bight late on 24 April . Several hours after moving back over water , the storm dissipated .
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . The Bureau of Meteorology 's peak intensity for Orson was 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Orson was 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Cyclone Orson approached the coast of Western Australia , residents were urged to prepare for the storm ; people proceeded to clean up litter , secure outdoor items and make sure their disaster kits were stocked . All 200 personnel from a A $ 1 @.@ 5 billion gas platform off the coast were evacuated ahead of the storm . Since Cyclone Orson made landfall in a sparsely populated region , its effects were relatively light compared to its intensity . More than 20 fishermen were reported missing during the storm .
On 23 April , a rescue mission with three aircraft recovered roughly 20 fisherman , while one was still missing . Offshore , the storm killed four Indonesian fishermen after their ships sank in swells up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) produced by the storm . The North Rankin gas platform sustained minor damage despite wind gusts reaching 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) and waves estimated at 21 m ( 69 ft ) . The large swells also delayed the find of a major oil field that contained more than 200 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil . The waves knocked a drill rig used to find oil out of position ; it would take several days for the drill rig to be repositioned . After an assessment of damage , it was found that the drill rig snapped off and broke the chains of two anchors before drifting nearly 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the platform . The repositioning and cleanup of the drill rig delayed the project by nearly two weeks . The damages from Cyclone Orson increased the total cost of the platform to roughly A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) .
Upon making landfall , Orson produced a storm surge of 3 @.@ 1 m ( 10 ft ) . This came during low tide , having a height of 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) . Severe erosion was recorded along coastal areas , some losing nearly 20 m ( 66 ft ) of rocks . Wind gusts in Dampier reached 183 km / h ( 114 mph ) and a station near where Orson made landfall recorded a wind gust of 211 km / h ( 131 mph ) . Harbour officials stated that several ships were knocked off their moorings and washed up onshore . In Karratha , the local weather radar sustained roughly A $ 900 @,@ 000 ( US $ 760 @,@ 000 ) in damages . A nearby airport was also damaged . The jetty at Point Samson was severely damaged and eventually removed .
The most severe damage took place in the mining town of Pannawonica , where 70 homes were damaged by the storm . Numerous trees and power lines were downed along the storm 's path . Before dissipating , the storm left one additional person missing after contact was lost with his yacht . Later reports confirmed that the missing person drowned during the storm . Twenty people were also injured during the storm , 60 were left homeless and about 1 @,@ 000 were affected . Total damages from the storm were estimated at A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) and repair costs reached A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) . Due to the severity of the storm , the name Orson was retired after the season .
= Common vampire bat =
The common vampire bat ( Desmodus rotundus ) is a small , leaf @-@ nosed bat native to the Americas . It is one of three extant species of vampire bat , the other two being the hairy @-@ legged and the white @-@ winged vampire bats . These species are the only known parasitic mammals . The common vampire bat mainly feeds on the blood of livestock , approaching its prey at night while they are sleeping . It uses its razor @-@ sharp teeth to cut open the skin of its hosts and laps up their blood with its long tongue .
The species is highly polygynous , and dominant adult males defend groups of females . It is one of the most social of bat species with a number of cooperative behaviors such as social grooming and food sharing . Because it feeds on livestock and is a carrier of rabies , the common vampire bat is considered a pest . Its conservation status is categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) because of " its wide distribution , presumed large population tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . "
= = Taxonomy = =
The common vampire bat was first classified as Phyllostoma rotundum by Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire in 1810 . The species received several scientific names before being given its current one — Desmodus rotundus — by Oldfield Thomas in 1901 . It is classified under the subfamily Desmodontinae along with two other species : the hairy @-@ legged vampire bat ( Diphylla ecaudata ) , and the white @-@ winged vampire bat ( Diaemus youngi ) . These three species compose the " true " vampire bats , as opposed to the " false " vampires of the family Megadermatidae and the spectral bat . All three species of Desmodontinae specialize in feeding on the blood of warm @-@ blooded animals . However , the common vampire bat feeds on mammalian blood more than the other two species , which primarily feed on that of birds . The three species resemble each other , but the common vampire bat can be distinguished by its longer thumb . It is the only extant member of its genus , although other fossil species have been described .
= = Physical description = =
The common vampire bat is short @-@ haired , with silver @-@ gray fur on its undersides , demarcated from the darker fur on its back . It has a deeply grooved lower lip , and a flat , leaf @-@ shaped nose . A well @-@ developed , clawed thumb on each wing is used to climb onto prey and to assist the animal in take @-@ off . The bat averages about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long with a wingspan of 18 cm ( 7 in ) . It commonly weighs about 25 @-@ 40 grams ( 2 oz ) , but its weight can drastically increase after a single feeding . The braincase is relatively large , but the snout is reduced to accommodate large incisors and canines . It has the fewest teeth among bats . The upper incisors lack enamel , which keeps them razor @-@ sharp .
While most other bats have almost completely lost the ability to maneuver on land , vampire bats are an exception . They can run using a unique , bounding gait in which the forelimbs are used instead of the hindlimbs to propel forward , as the wings are much more powerful than the legs . This ability likely evolved independently within the bat lineage . Three pads under the thumb function like a sole . It is also capable of leaping in various directions , magnitudes and temporal sequences . When making a jump , the bat pushes up with its pectoral limbs . The hindlimbs keep the body over the pectoral limbs which are stabilized by the thumbs .
Common vampire bats have good eyesight . They are able to distinguish different optical patterns and may use vision for long @-@ range orientation . These bats also have well @-@ developed senses of smell and hearing : the cochlea is highly sensitive to low @-@ frequency acoustics , and the nasal passages are relatively large .
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surviving lemur species .
A number of other mammals , including the cat @-@ like fossa , are endemic to Madagascar . Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island , of which over 60 percent ( including four families and 42 genera ) are endemic . The few families and genera of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species , with over 90 percent of these being endemic ( including one endemic family ) . The island is home to two @-@ thirds of the world 's chameleon species , including the smallest known , and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons .
Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families , 15 genera and over 100 species , primarily inhabiting the island 's freshwater lakes and rivers . Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar , researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species . All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic , as are a majority of the island 's butterflies , scarab beetles , lacewings , spiders and dragonflies .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Madagascar 's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity . Since the arrival of humans around 2 @,@ 350 years ago , Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest . This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ( " fat " ) , a traditional slash @-@ and @-@ burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers . Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique , but for its cultural associations with prosperity , health and venerated ancestral custom ( fomba malagasy ) .
As human population density rose on the island , deforestation accelerated beginning around 1400 years ago . By the 16th century , the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests . More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1000 years ago , a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking , and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century .
According to a conservative estimate , about 40 percent of the island 's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000 , with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent . In addition to traditional agricultural practice , wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests , as well as the state @-@ sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks . Although banned by then @-@ President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009 , the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re @-@ authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana 's ouster .
It is anticipated that all the island 's rainforests , excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern mountain slopes , will have been deforested by 2025 . Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations . Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad , a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s , researchers warned the toad could " wreak havoc on the country 's unique fauna . "
Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar 's endemic species or driven them to extinction . The island 's elephant birds , a family of endemic giant ratites , became extinct in the 17th century or earlier , most probably due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food . Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island , while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and , among some populations , increased the rate of lemur hunting for food .
A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since the 2009 coup has had dire consequences for the island 's wildlife : 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction , the highest proportion of any mammalian group . Of these , 23 species were classified as critically endangered . By contrast , a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction .
In 2003 Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision , an initiative to more than triple the island 's protected natural areas to over 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) or 10 percent of Madagascar 's land surface . As of 2011 , areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves ( Réserves Naturelles Intégrales ) , 21 Wildlife Reserves ( Réserves Spéciales ) and 21 National Parks ( Parcs Nationaux ) . In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana . These parks are Marojejy , Masoala , Ranomafana , Zahamena , Andohahela and Andringitra . Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments . To raise public awareness of Madagascar 's environmental challenges , the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled " Madagascar ! " in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York .
= = History = =
= = = Early period = = =
The settlement of Madagascar is a subject of ongoing research and debate . Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BC . Traditionally , archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD , while others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 AD . In either case , these dates make Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans .
Early settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo . Upon arrival , early settlers practiced slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation . The first settlers encountered Madagascar 's abundance of megafauna , including giant lemurs , elephant birds , giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction . By 600 AD groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands . Arab traders first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries . A wave of Bantu @-@ speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000 AD . They introduced the zebu , a type of long @-@ horned humped cattle , which they kept in large herds .
By 1600 , irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom , and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later . The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever @-@ increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century . The oral histories of the Merina people , who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1000 years ago , describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave , the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries . Today , the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany ( ancestral masters of the land ) by many traditional Malagasy communities .
= = = Arab and European contacts = = =
Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement . The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs , who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script ( used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ) , Arab astrology , and other cultural elements . European contact began in 1500 , when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island . The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century .
From about 1774 to 1824 , Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders , particularly those involved in the trans @-@ Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island , among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island , some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century . Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast . The Kingdom of Imerina , located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo , emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo .
= = = Kingdom of Madagascar ( 1540 – 1897 ) = = =
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century , the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons . Following almost a century of warring and famine , Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) . From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities . His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor , King Radama I ( 1810 – 28 ) , who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar .
Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance . Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools , transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible , and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island .
Radama 's successor , Queen Ranavalona I ( 1828 – 61 ) , responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory . Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes , including theft , Christianity and especially witchcraft , for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory . Between 1828 and 1861 , the tangena ordeal caused about 3 @,@ 000 deaths annually .
Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy , and Joseph @-@ François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader , with whom then @-@ Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter . Succeeding his mother , Radama II ( 1861 – 63 ) attempted to relax the queen 's stringent policies , but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony ( 1852 – 1865 ) and an alliance of Andriana ( noble ) and Hova ( commoner ) courtiers , who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch .
Following the coup , the courtiers offered Radama 's queen Rasoherina ( 1863 – 68 ) the opportunity to rule , if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister — a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them . Queen Rasoherina accepted , first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony , then later deposing him and wedding his brother , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony ( 1864 – 95 ) , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II ( 1868 – 83 ) and Queen Ranavalona III ( 1883 – 97 ) in succession .
Over the course of Rainilaiarivony 's 31 @-@ year tenure as prime minister , numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government . Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory . Army organization was improved , and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers . Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity , declared the official religion of the court in 1869 , was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace . Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European @-@ style courts were established in the capital city . In his joint role as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions .
= = = French colonisation ( 1897 – 1960 ) = = =
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected , France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco @-@ Hova War . At the end of the war , Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana ( Diego Suarez ) to France and paid 560 @,@ 000 francs to Lambert 's heirs . In 1890 , the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island , but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar . To force capitulation , the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast , and Mahajanga on the west coast , in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively .
A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo , losing many men to malaria and other diseases . Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Upon reaching the city in September 1895 , the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery , causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender . France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year , dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria . A two @-@ year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897 .
Under colonial rule , plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops . Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500 @,@ 000 slaves were freed ; many remained in their former masters ' homes as servants or as sharecroppers ; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today . Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum . Additional schools were built , particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached . Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills .
The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo . Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s , Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar plan on the basis of earlier proposals from Poland and elsewhere in Europe that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe 's Jews . During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy government and the British .
The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement , leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947 . This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre ( Overseas Reform Act ) , and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence . The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958 , as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960 .
= = = Independent state ( since 1960 ) = = =
Since regaining independence , Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution . The First Republic ( 1960 – 72 ) , under the leadership of French @-@ appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France . Many high @-@ level technical positions were filled by French expatriates , and French teachers , textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country . Popular resentment over Tsiranana 's tolerance for this " neo @-@ colonial " arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972 .
Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army , was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year , but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975 . Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him , was assassinated six days into his tenure . General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee : Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the socialist @-@ Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993 .
This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity . These policies , coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar 's economy and a sharp decline in living standards , and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979 . The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency , anti @-@ corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund , World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation 's broken economy .
Ratsiraka 's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally . Within two months , a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy ( 1993 – 96 ) , who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic ( 1992 – 2010 ) . The new Madagascar constitution established a multi @-@ party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly . The new constitution also emphasized human rights , social and political freedoms , and free trade . Zafy 's term , however , was marred by economic decline , allegations of corruption , and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers . He was consequently impeached in 1996 , and an interim president , Norbert Ratsirahonana , was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election . Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001 .
The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Marc Ravalomanana , eventually emerged victorious , caused a seven @-@ month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka . The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana 's progressive economic and political policies , which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism , facilitated foreign direct investment , and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally . National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration . In the later half of his second term , Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption .
Opposition leader and then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d 'état . In March 2009 , Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections . In 2010 , a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic , which sustained the democratic , multi @-@ party structure established in the previous constitution . Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which the international community deemed fair and transparent .
= = Government = =
= = = Structure = = =
Madagascar is a semi @-@ presidential representative democratic multi @-@ party republic , wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister , who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers . According to the constitution , executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet , the Senate and the National Assembly , although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role . The constitution establishes independent executive , legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five @-@ year terms .
The public directly elects the president and the 127 members of the National Assembly to five @-@ year terms . The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 . All 33 members of the Senate serve six @-@ year terms , with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president . After taking power , Rajoelina dissolved both the National Assembly and the Senate , leaving the nation without a constitutional legislative body .
At the local level , the island 's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council . Provinces are further sub @-@ divided into regions and communes . The judiciary is modeled on the French system , with a High Constitutional Court , High Court of Justice , Supreme Court , Court of Appeals , criminal tribunals , and tribunals of first instance . The courts , which adhere to civil law , lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system , often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons .
Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar . It is located in the highlands region , near the geographic center of the island . King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga . As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar , Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island . In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration . The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960 . In 2011 , the capital 's population was estimated at 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The next largest cities are Antsirabe ( 500 @,@ 000 ) , Toamasina ( 450 @,@ 000 ) and Mahajanga ( 400 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = Politics = = =
Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960 , the island 's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests , several disputed elections , an impeachment , two military coups and one assassination . The island 's recurrent political crises are often prolonged , with detrimental effects on the local economy , international relations and Malagasy living standards . The eight @-@ month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana , following the 2001 presidential elections , cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure , such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson .
A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent , with more than 170 people killed . Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century . The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence .
Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity , which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union . Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election , but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14 @-@ month hiatus . Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina . Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court
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with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military . Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar , including France , the United Kingdom , the United States , China and India .
Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child . Religious , ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law . Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law , although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations . Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards , although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems . Ravalomanana 's 2004 creation of BIANCO , an anti @-@ corruption bureau , resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo 's lower @-@ level bureaucrats in particular , although high @-@ level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau .
= = = Security = = =
The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava , Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island 's first standing armies by the 16th century , initially equipped with spears but later with muskets , cannons and other firearms . By the early 19th century , the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30 @,@ 000 . French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then @-@ Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy 's army . Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers , the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo . Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897 .
The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces , which comprises an army , navy and air force , was restored with independence from France in 1960 . Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders , but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest . Under the socialist Second Republic , Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender , a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991 . The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the Interior and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis , as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections , when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate . This tradition was broken in 2009 , when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina , then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power .
The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force , paramilitary force ( gendarmerie ) and the secret police . The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level . However , in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces , with most lacking local @-@ level headquarters for either corps . Traditional community tribunals , called dina , are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak . Historically , security has been relatively high across the island . Violent crime rates are low , and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft , although child prostitution , human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing . Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force , producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions ( faritra ) . The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts , 1 @,@ 579 communes , and 17 @,@ 485 fokontany .
= = Economy = =
During Madagascar 's First Republic , France heavily influenced Madagascar 's economic planning and policy and served as its key trading partner . Key products were cultivated and distributed nationally through producers ' and consumers ' cooperatives . Government initiatives such as a rural development program and state farms were established to boost production of commodities such as rice , coffee , cattle , silk and palm oil . Popular dissatisfaction over these policies was a key factor in launching the socialist @-@ Marxist Second Republic , in which the formerly private bank and insurance industries were nationalized ; state monopolies were established for such industries as textiles , cotton and power ; and import – export trade and shipping were brought under state control . Madagascar 's economy quickly deteriorated as exports fell , industrial production dropped by 75 percent , inflation spiked and government debt increased ; the rural population was soon reduced to living at subsistence levels . Over 50 percent of the nation 's export revenue was spent on debt servicing .
The IMF forced Madagascar 's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state @-@ controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s . The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance . Conditions for the resumption of aid were not met under Zafy , who tried unsuccessfully to attract other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy 's impeachment . The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar 's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration . Having met a set of stringent economic , governance and human rights criteria , Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005 .
Madagascar 's GDP in 2009 was estimated at 8 @.@ 6 billion USD , with a per capita GDP of $ 438 . Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day . The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011 , while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP . Madagascar 's sources of growth are tourism , agriculture and the extractive industries . Tourism focuses on the niche eco @-@ tourism market , capitalizing on Madagascar 's unique biodiversity , unspoiled natural habitats , national parks and lemur species . An estimated 365 @,@ 000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008 , but the sector has declined as a result of the political crisis with 180 @,@ 000 tourists visiting in 2010 .
= = = Natural resources and trade = = =
Madagascar 's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources . Agriculture ( including raffia ) , fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy . Madagascar is the world 's principal supplier of vanilla , cloves and ylang @-@ ylang . Other key agricultural resources include coffee , lychees and shrimp . Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi @-@ precious stones , and Madagascar currently provides half of the world 's supply of sapphires , which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s .
Madagascar has one of the world 's largest reserves of ilmenite ( titanium ore ) , as well as important reserves of chromite , coal , iron , cobalt , copper and nickel . Several major projects are underway in the mining , oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy . These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near Tôlanaro by Rio Tinto , extraction of nickel near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International , and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil .
Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009 . Most of the country 's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry , fish and shellfish , vanilla , cloves and other foodstuffs . France is Madagascar 's main trading partner , although the United States , Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the country . The Madagascar @-@ U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003 , as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets . Imports of such items as foodstuffs , fuel , capital goods , vehicles , consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP . The main sources of Madagascar 's imports include France , China , Iran , Mauritius and Hong Kong .
= = = Infrastructure and media = = =
In 2010 , Madagascar had approximately 7 @,@ 617 km ( 4 @,@ 730 mi ) of paved roads , 854 km ( 530 mi ) of railways and 432 km ( 270 mi ) of navigable waterways . The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved , with many becoming impassable in the rainy season . Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo , with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district .
There are several rail lines . Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina , Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail , and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara . The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina . Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used due to their remoteness . The island 's newest port at Ehoala , constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto , will come under state control upon completion of the company 's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038 . Air Madagascar services the island 's many small regional airports , which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts .
Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider , Jirama , which is unable to service the entire population . As of 2009 , only 6 @.@ 8 percent of Madagascar 's fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama , while 9 @.@ 5 percent had access to its electricity services . 56 % of Madagascar 's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants with the remaining 44 % provided by diesel engine generators . Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island . Approximately 30 percent of the districts are able to access the nations ' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines .
Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international , national and local news . Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island . Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting . In addition to the state television channel , a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar . Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves , including the media groups MBS ( owned by Ravalomanana ) and Viva ( owned by Rajoelina ) , contributing to political polarization in reporting .
The media has historically come under varying degrees of pressure over time to censor their criticism of the government . Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed and media outlets are periodically forced to close . Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 due to the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism . Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade , with an estimated 352 @,@ 00
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, entitled Crew Expendable , features the original crew of the Nostromo and involves the player controlling Ripley , Dallas or Parker attempting to flush the alien creature from the air vents and into the ship 's airlock . The second mission , Last Survivor , is set during the film 's finale and involves the player controlling Ripley as she tries to activate the Nostromo 's self @-@ destruct sequence and reach the escape shuttle . Unlike the first mission , the second mission is only available for players who pre @-@ ordered the game at certain retailers . Upon release , five additional downloadable content packs for the game were periodically released between October 2014 and March 2015 . These packs expand the game 's Survivor Mode with new characters , challenges , maps , and other features . A collection featuring the game and all the downloadable content packs was released for Linux , OS X , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in late 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for Alien : Isolation was divided but generally positive , with review scores ranging from IGN 's 5 @.@ 9 out of 10 to PC Gamer 's 93 out of 100 . Josh Harmon of Electronic Gaming Monthly felt that Alien : Isolation " succeeds as a genuine effort to capture the spirit of the film franchise in playable form , rather than a lazy attempt to use it as an easy backdrop for a cash @-@ in with an ill @-@ fitting genre . " Writing for GameSpot , Kevin VanOrd credited the game for its tense and frightening gameplay , stating that " when all mechanics are working as intended , alien @-@ evasion is dread distilled into its purest , simplest form . " However , he criticized the game 's " trial and error " progression and frustrating distances between save points . Jeff Marchiafava of Game Informer stated similar pros , but criticized the story and poor acting from the voice actors .
The game 's visuals and atmosphere were highlighted positively . Polygon editor Arthur Gies felt that Alien : Isolation is " a beautiful game , full of deep shadows and mystery around every corner , " while Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer praised the lighting and unusually compelling environment design . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey gave high marks to the game 's retro @-@ futuristic art direction and sound design , commenting : " From wisps of smoke that billow out of air vents to clouds of white mist that obscure your vision when you rewire an area 's life @-@ support systems in order to aid your stealthy objectives , Isolation certainly looks and sounds like a part of the Alien universe . " Similarly , PC Gamer reviewer Andy Kelly said that the game 's art design sets Alien : Isolation apart from the likes of System Shock or Dead Space and creates a " convincing science @-@ fiction world , with machines and environments that are functional and utilitarian , rather than overtly futuristic . "
The story and characters were generally criticized , with Game Informer stating that " Amanda exhibits little growth or personality , other than concern for her fellow humans and a desire to not die gruesomely . " Similarly , Blake Peterson of Game Revolution noted that none of characters are fully developed . According to him , " we never spend enough time with them to build the emotional bond necessary for their inevitable deaths to mean anything . " GameTrailers said that most of the computer terminals found in the game contain unoriginal logs to describe predictable events . Nevertheless , he remarked that reading reports from different computer terminals " grounds Sevastopol in an appreciable way . "
Writing for GamesRadar , David Houghton highlighted the alien 's advanced artificial intelligence , stating that " progress becomes a case of ' if ' and ' how ' , not ' when ' . Movement is measured in inches and feet rather than metres , and simply remaining alive becomes more exhilarating than any objective achieved . " Peterson praised the gameplay for being tense , scary and effective , commenting that Alien : Isolation is " a solid , incredibly striking example of the [ survival horror ] genre that uses its first person perspective to greater personalize the horror . " PC Gamer credited the crafting system for giving the game " a lot of unexpected depth " , allowing players to outsmart enemies in multiple ways . The game 's Survivor Mode was praised by Chris Carter of Destructoid , who felt it offered players different feelings and experiences each time they played it .
Although the gameplay was praised by several reviewers , some found the game to be unnecessarily long , repetitive and unforgiving . In a mixed review , McCaffrey felt that the game does not offer many options of survival , requiring players to spend most of their time hiding in lockers " staring at the motion tracker " . Polygon criticized the overexposure to the alien creature , turning Alien : Isolation into an irritating experience . As Gies explained , " Every time I thought I heard the monster , every blip on my motion tracker , was a cause for a tightness in my chest at first . By the 300th time I dived under a table or into a locker , I wasn 't scared anymore — I was annoyed . " Despite the criticism , Alien : Isolation was considered a " brave " title due to its difficult and unforgiving gameplay , a feature that is uncommon in games with large development costs . As of January 2015 , Alien : Isolation has sold over one million copies worldwide according to Sega . As of March 2015 , the game has sold over 2 @.@ 1 million copies in Europe and the US .
= = = Accolades = = =
Alien : Isolation received several year @-@ end awards , including PC Gamer 's Game of the Year 2014 , Audio Achievement at the 11th British Academy Games Awards , Best Audio at the 15th Game Developers Choice Awards , and four awards at the 14th National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers . The game also appeared on several year @-@ end lists of the best games of 2014 . It was ranked 1st in The Daily Telegraph 's the 25 best video games of 2014 , 2nd in Empire 's the 10 Best Games Of The Year , 2nd in Time 's Top 10 Video Games of 2014 , 4th in The Guardian 's Top 25 Games of 2014 , 3rd in Reader 's top 50 games of 2014 by Eurogamer , and in Daily Mirror 's the 10 best games of 2014 . In 2015 , Alien : Isolation was ranked 7th in Kotaku 's list of the 10 Best Horror Games .
= = Possible sequel = =
In October 2015 , Creative Assembly studio director Tim Heaton stated that , while Sega was disappointed with the sales of the game , a sequel was " not out of the question " and that " there was more to be said . " However , he also highlighted significant obstacles in creating a sequel , commenting : " Spending very significant amounts of money , and getting close to break @-@ even or just about in the black ? That ’ s not where Sega wants to be , when we have a brilliant portfolio of other games that do great business . " Sega later confirmed that a sequel is still being considered , but the question of whether or not a sequel would be profitable will eventually decide the fate of the project .
= SS Winfield Scott =
SS Winfield Scott was a sidewheel steamer that transported passengers and cargo between San Francisco , California and Panama in the early 1850s , during the California Gold Rush . After entering a heavy fog off the coast of Southern California on the evening of December 1 , 1853 , the ship crashed into Middle Anacapa Island . All 450 passengers and crew survived , but the ship was lost .
Winfield Scott has been the object of numerous salvage operations since the crash , and currently rests underwater as part of the Channel Islands National Park and Marine Sanctuary . The Winfield Scott wreck site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = History = =
= = = California Gold Rush = = =
The discovery of gold at Sutter 's Mill in 1848 brought thousands of people to California in search of fortune until the late 1850s . Since neither the Panama Canal nor the First Transcontinental Railroad had been constructed , people emigrating to California from the Eastern United States had three main routes of passage . They could travel over land , which was expensive and dangerous , or they could sail the roughly 14 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) route around South America . This was more attractive to some but no less dangerous , due in part to the rough waters of the Drake Passage . In addition to the inherent dangers of either route , the journey often took as long as six months to complete .
The third route involved traversing the jungles of the Isthmus of Panama , then departing via the southern coast of Panama . While this cut the length of the sea journey in half , ships to ferry passengers from Panama to San Francisco were not commonplace . As a result , many had to wait months to complete the second half of their journey . To fill this growing need for swift passage from Panama to California , shipbuilding activities increased dramatically .
= = = Construction and service = = =
Winfield Scott ( originally to be named Placer ) was constructed by the shipbuilding company Westervelt and MacKay of New York , and was completed in March 1850 . The ship was named for the celebrated United States Army general Winfield Scott ( the stern was built with a bust in his likeness ) , and she was launched on 27 October 1850 . An announcement in the October 20 edition of the New York Herald stated that " We understand that no expense has been spared to secure strength , safety and speed ... " Her hull was wooden with double iron bracing and was made from White oak , Live oak , Locust , Redcedar and Georgia yellow pine .
The steamer , owned by Davis , Brooks and Company , initially transported passengers on the New York @-@ New Orleans route . In 1852 , the ship 's ownership was transferred to the New York and San Francisco Steamship Company Line , and she arrived in San Francisco on April 28 , 1852 . Once there , she began taking gold seekers , nicknamed argonauts , on the Panama Route ( between San Francisco and Panama ) . After the demise of the New York and San Francisco Steamship Company Line ( which had been renamed as the New York and California Steamship Company in May 1853 ) , the ship 's ownership was again transferred on July 8 , 1853 , this time to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company .
= = = Last voyage = = =
Winfield Scott , bound for Panama , departed from San Francisco on the morning of 1 December 1853 . In addition to her complement of passengers and crew , the ship was transporting a shipment of gold bullion worth an estimated US $ 2 million . The ship 's progress was slowed in the afternoon when repairs had to be made to a leaking boiler , but she had resumed course at full speed . Later that evening , Captain Simon F. Blunt navigated the ship into the Santa Barbara Channel in an effort to save time . Captain Blunt knew the channel well , having helped survey the area a few years previously .
At approximately 11 PM , the ship encountered a heavy fog , and ran aground into Middle Anacapa Island ( approximately 400 miles from port ) . Her speed at the time of the wreck was estimated at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She struck the island bow first , and when Capt. Blunt attempted to back away the stern was struck , removing the ship 's rudder . With the ship taking on massive amounts of water and unable to steer , all aboard , perhaps as many as 500 people , began scrambling for land . The ship was completely evacuated in approximately two hours , and the survivors spent the first night camped on a pinnacle of rock that measured 50 by 25 yards ( 46 by 23 m ) . The next day they moved to a larger piece of land on the island .
One of the passengers , Asa Cyrus Call , recalled " a terrible jar and crashing of timbers ... I hurried out on deck , where my attention was fixed on a wall of towering cliffs , the tops of which were hidden by the fog and darkness and appeared about to fall and crush us . All round was the loud booming of angry breakers surging about invisible rocks . "
On 2 December , the steamship SS California , returning to San Francisco from Panama , was alerted to the presence of the wreck survivors by the smoke of a gun they had fired . California rescued the women and children , as well as Winfield Scott 's complement of gold bullion . On 9 December California returned to rescue the remaining passengers . The crew stayed behind to recover as much of the mail and passenger luggage as possible . Winfield Scott , however , had sustained too much damage and was left in the waters of the channel .
= = Wreckage and salvage = =
The remains of Winfield Scott are located under 25 – 30 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) of water in the Channel Islands National Park and Marine Sanctuary . The wreckage site was verified in 1981 and was registered with the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 . The site is protected by California and United States law , which prohibits divers from removing any part of the wreckage .
A salvage operation was undertaken in 1894 , utilizing San Pedro . Much of the iron machinery , as well as hundreds of copper bolts , were recovered . An additional salvage operation during World War II recovered additional iron and brass for the war effort .
The remaining wreckage is considered important from an historical perspective , as it represents a tangible example of mid @-@ 19th century shipbuilding . Although much of the wooden hull has long since disintegrated , some of the machinery is still relatively intact .
Between 1853 and 1980 , more than 140 shipwrecks were documented in the Channel Islands National Park Marine Sanctuary . As of December 2000 , twenty sites had been located . The prevailing currents and weather conditions of the area make it a dangerous place for navigation .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Light beacon = = =
Shortly after the wreck , the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey recommended that a permanent lighthouse facility be built on Anacapa Island . Due to a lack of funding , the installation ( an unmanned acetylene beacon on a fifty @-@ foot tower ) was not constructed until 1912 . The tower was replaced by a lighthouse in 1932 .
= = = Impact on local ecosystem = = =
One possible lingering effect of the Winfield Scott 's wreck was the introduction of black rats to the ecosystem of the Channel Islands . While the wreck is one possible source for the arrival of rats on Anacapa , another is the later construction of a lighthouse . The first mention of rats on the island is in 1907 .
The black rats were a major disruption to the local wildlife on Anacapa Island and are still a problem on San Miguel Island . The black rats were successfully eradicated from Anacapa Island by 2003 , with a controversial program that involved an aerial application of the rodenticide brodifacoum , the first such eradication in the United States . The program cost nearly $ 1 million .
= Photography in Denmark =
Photography in Denmark has developed from strong participation and interest in the very beginnings of the art in 1839 to the success of a considerable number of Danes in the world of photography today . Pioneers such as Mads Alstrup and Georg Emil Hansen paved the way for a rapidly growing profession during the last half of the 19th century while both artistic and press photographers have made internationally recognized contributions . Although Denmark was slow to accept photography as an art form , Danish photographers are now increasingly active , participating in key exhibitions around the world .
Among Denmark 's most successful contemporary photographers are Jacob Aue Sobol , who gained recognition for captivating portraits of his Greenlandic girlfriend , and Per Bak Jensen , who introduced a new perspective to modern landscape photography . Press photography has prospered too under award @-@ winning contributors such as Jan Grarup and Claus Bjørn Larsen , who have covered wars and conflicts of global importance over the past 20 years .
= = History = =
= = = Daguerreotypes = = =
Christian Tuxen Falbe , a Danish marine officer , was in Paris in January 1839 on behalf of Crown Prince Frederik when Louis Daguerre revealed the art of daguerreotyping . Falbe informed the Crown Prince of a visit to Daguerre where he had seen some of the very earliest daguerreotypes , explaining how impressed he had been by the new process and how important he thought it would be for art and science in Denmark . Shortly afterwards , he returned to Copenhagen with a camera and a couple of his own daguerreotypes for the Crown Prince who , believing them to be of scientific importance , deposited them with Hans Christian Ørsted , one of Denmark 's most prominent scientists . As a result of Ørsted 's own interest in photography , the new art took on rapidly : the daguerreotypist Mads Alstrup ( 1809 – 76 ) opened Copenhagen 's first photographic studio in 1842 ; and by 1850 there were over a hundred studios in Copenhagen and many more in the provinces .
The oldest photograph on record in Denmark is credited to Peter Faber ( 1810 – 1877 ) , a songwriter and a pioneer in telegraphy . His daguerreotype of Ulfeldts Plads is in the Copenhagen City Museum . The image of the square is in fact reversed left to right , as was normal for daguerreotypes unless a mirror was used together with the camera . Careful analysis of the photograph suggests that it dates back to July 1840 . The exposure time of about 15 minutes in sunlight explains why the only figure to be seen is a man sleeping at the foot of the Pillar of Shame towards the left of the picture .
Its status in the history of Danish photography is rivalled by a portrait of Bertel Thorvaldsen sitting at an easel outside his studio in the garden of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at Charlottenborg Palace in Copenhagen . This daguerrotype was taken by the French photographer Aymard Charles Théodore Neubourg , who visited Copenhagen in the summer of 1840 . An examination of the circumstances under which it was taken reveals that the date was Sunday , 26 July 1840 . It has also been noticed that Thorvaldsen is making the horn sign with what apparently is his left hand although , as a result of the daguerrotype mirror effect , it is actually his right hand . This has been ascribed to the anxiety he must have experienced while facing the new mechanical device which could reveal even the slightest detail .
Several Danes are remembered for their contributions to daguerreotypy . While in Paris in 1848 , Anton Melbye ( 1818 – 1875 ) , a marine artist , learnt from Daguerre . Rudolph Striegler , Johan Emilius Bogh and Johan Ludvig Ussing were among those who began to specialize in portrait photography opening studios in Copenhagen and the provinces .
Georg Emil Hansen ( 1833 – 1891 ) from Næstved came from a family of photographers . When his father , Carl Christian Hansen , opened a studio in Copenhagen , he decided to open one of his own . He became one of the most respected photographers of his day , with Christian IX of Denmark and the Danish Royal Family as customers in the early 1860s . He also excelled in adopting new techniques . He was the first to use paper prints and to make full @-@ length portrait enlargements . He received awards for his exhibitions in London ( 1862 ) and Berlin ( 1865 ) . In 1867 , together with his brother , Niels Christian Hansen , and two other photographers , he set up a photographic firm which later became Hansen , Schou & Weller , suppliers to the royal Danish court .
= = = Carte de visite photography = = =
The technique of carte de visite photography was brought to Denmark by Rudolph Striegler in 1860 . It spread rapidly and by the 1870s provided a cheap and attractive alternative to portrait painting for photographers such as Ludvig Grundtvig ( 1836 – 1901 ) and Adolph Lønborg ( 1835 – 1916 ) in Copenhagen , and Heinrich Tønnies ( 1856 – 1903 ) who opened a studio in Aalborg .
Heinrich Tønnies ( 1825 – 1903 ) remains to date one of the premier CDV photographers of Denmark . In June 1856 he began his photographic career as a partner under C. Fritsche in Aalborg and by December of the same year he bought his partner 's share of the business and struck out with a studio under his own name . By 1861 , Tönnies ' business boomed requiring a larger studio and the hiring of assistants , and by 1870 he became a Danish citizen . Ultimately , his family business spanned three @-@ generations and 75 years . The breadth of his photographic products included : Daguerreotypes , calotypes , pannotypes , photo @-@ lithography , stereoscopy , ambrotypes , CDVs , and medallions . It is believed that he produced no less than 75 @,@ 000 CDVs , many ordered in relation to a large wave of emigration from Nordjylland to North America . Owing to the poverty of Denmark 's Vendsyssel region , local demands for inexpensive CDVs persisted in Aalborg right up until World War I , making Tönnies ' studio one of the last to produce CDVs in Denmark .
Pietro Boyesen ( 1819 – 1882 ) was a Danish photographer who spent most of his professional life in Rome . Boyesen had a talent for composition and characterization . In contrast to the boring studio portraits which were so common at the time , Boyesen would have his subjects pose outdoors in intimate Roman settings . By playing with the subjects clothes and their relationship to the surroundings , Boyesen would produce works presenting a
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Province and northeast Río Negro Province to 70 % in Tierra del Fuego Province ; the region has one of the highest percentages of cloud cover in Argentina . In general , mountainous areas are the cloudiest , and coastal areas are cloudier than inland areas . Northern areas are sunnier ( 50 % possible sunshine ) than the southern parts of the region such as western Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces ( less than 40 % possible sunshine ) . The southernmost islands receive some of the lowest average annual sunshine hours in the world .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Malvinas Current and the high altitude . For example , in Tierra del Fuego temperatures are colder than at equal latitudes in the northern hemisphere in Europe since they are influenced by the cold Malvinas Current rather than the warm North Atlantic Current . A characteristic of the temperature pattern is the NW – SE distribution of isotherms due to the presence of the Andes .
The warmest areas are in northern parts of Río Negro and Neuquén Provinces where mean annual temperatures range from 13 to 15 ° C ( 55 to 59 ° F ) , while the coldest are in western Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces where mean annual temperatures range from 5 to 8 ° C ( 41 to 46 ° F ) . On the Patagonian plateaus , mean annual temperatures range from 8 to 10 ° C ( 46 to 50 ° F ) which decreases towards the west . The daily and annual range of temperatures on these plateaus is very high . The Atlantic Ocean moderates the climate of coastal areas resulting in a lower annual and daily range of temperatures . Towards the south , where land masses are narrow , the Pacific Ocean influences coastal areas in addition to the Atlantic Ocean , ensuring that the cold is neither prolonged nor intense . At higher altitudes in the Andes , stretching from Neuquén Province to Tierra del Fuego Province , mean annual temperatures are below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Generally , mean annual temperatures vary more with altitude than with latitude since the temperature gradient for latitude is relatively moderate owing to ocean currents . Summers have a less uniform distribution of temperature , and in the months December to January mean temperatures range from 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in northern Río Negro Province and eastern parts of Neuquén Province to 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) in Tierra del Fuego . Winters have a more uniform temperature distribution . In July , mean temperatures are above 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) in all of extra – Andean Patagonia , ranging from 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) in the north to around 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) in Ushuaia .
Being exposed to strong westerly winds can decrease the perception of temperature ( wind chill ) , particularly in summer . The wind lowers the perception of the mean annual temperature by 4 @.@ 2 ° C ( 7 @.@ 6 ° F ) throughout the region . The annual range of temperatures in Patagonia is lower than in areas in the Northern Hemisphere at the same latitude owing to the maritime influences of the sea . In Patagonia , the annual range of temperatures ranges from 16 ° C ( 29 ° F ) in the north and decreases progressively southwards to 4 ° C ( 7 ° F ) on the southernmost islands . This contrasts with an annual range of more than 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) in North America at latitudes above 50oN . Absolute maximum temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in the northern Río Negro Province and Neuquén Province , while in much of the region , they can exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Further south in Tierra del Fuego Province , absolute maximum temperatures do not exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , while in the southernmost islands , they do not exceed 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Absolute minimum temperatures are more than − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) in coastal areas , while in the central Patagonian plateaus , they can reach below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Books = =
= SM UB @-@ 6 =
SM UB @-@ 6 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine was interned after running aground in neutral Dutch waters , and was scuttled by her crew at Hellevoetsluis .
UB @-@ 6 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 6 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 tonnes ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 6 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in March 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 6 in April .
UB @-@ 6 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank HMS Recruit , the first warship credited to the flotilla in May 1915 . Through September 1916 , the U @-@ boat accounted for fourteen additional ships sunk , two ships damaged , and one ship seized as a prize . On 12 March 1917 , UB @-@ 6 ran aground near the Maas River in the Netherlands due to a navigational error by her commander ; the submarine and crew were interned by the neutral country and taken to Hellevoetsluis . Six days later , UB @-@ 6 was scuttled by her crew , which remained interned for the rest of the war . The wreck of UB @-@ 6 was ceded to France in 1919 and broken up at Brest in July 1921 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 6 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 6 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 22 November . As built , UB @-@ 6 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 6 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 6 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Deck gun . UB @-@ 6 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 6 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , UB @-@ 6 was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 6 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 6 was assembled and launched sometime in March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 6 on 8 April under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Erich Haecker , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . On 19 April , UB @-@ 6 joined the other UB I boats then comprising the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 6 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
The UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla were initially limited to patrols in the Hoofden , the southern portion of the North Sea between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . Although UB @-@ 4 had made both the first sortie and sunk the first ship of the flotilla in April , UB @-@ 6 sank the first warship credited to the flotilla . On 1 May , Haecker spotted two old Royal Navy destroyers , Brazen and Recruit , about 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) southwest of the Galloper light vessel . Just before noon , Haecker launched a torpedo that hit Recruit and split the 335 @-@ tonne ( 330 @-@ long @-@ ton ) displacement ship in half , killing 34 men ; 26 men were rescued . One month later , on 1 June , UB @-@ 6 sank what would be her largest ship , the British cargo ship Saidieh , of 3 @,@ 303 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Saidieh was en route to Hull from Alexandria with a load of onions and cottonseed when UB @-@ 6 sank her at the mouth of the Thames ; eight crewmen lost their lives in the attack .
In late June , Korvettenkapitän Karl Bartenbach , head of the Flanders Flotilla , used UB @-@ 6 to test a theory that British defenses in the Straits of Dover — anti @-@ submarine nets and mines — were not insurmountable . On the evening of 21 June , UB @-@ 6 departed Zeebrugge for a round @-@ trip to Boulogne . UB @-@ 6 sailed past Dunkirk on the surface and made Boulogne in the early morning of the 22nd , having to crash dive once during the voyage when discovered by a British destroyer . UB @-@ 6 immediately made the return trip and arrived safely at Zeebrugge later the same day . Three other UB I boats , UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 5 , and UB @-@ 10 , soon followed with patrols in the Channel , but bad weather and fog hampered the boats and none had any success . Even though no ships were sunk during these forays into the English Channel , by successfully completing their voyages , the submarines helped further prove the feasibility of defeating the British countermeasures in the Straits of Dover .
On 12 July , while patrolling between 18 and 23 nautical miles ( 33 and 43 km ; 21 and 26 mi ) off Lowestoft , UB @-@ 6 attacked five British fishing vessels , sinking four of them . All four of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 6 , and sunk with explosives . Two weeks later , UB @-@ 6 torpedoed and sank the 406 @-@ ton Firth 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) from the Aldborough Napes Buoy . UB @-@ 6 sank the 57 @-@ ton Leander , another smack , on 11 August .
Germany 's submarine offensive was suspended on 18 September by the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , in response to American demands after the sinking of the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . It would be five months before UB @-@ 6 would sink another ship .
In mid @-@ November , Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt.z.S. ) Ernst Voigt succeeded Haecker as commander of UB @-@ 6 ; it was the first U @-@ boat command for the 25 @-
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