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. Chicago 's zoning committee also approved the tower on April 26 and , on May 9 , 2007 , the Chicago City Council approved the final design of the Chicago Spire .
= = = Marketing = = =
By June 2008 , Shelbourne had sold more than 350 of the 1 @,@ 193 units — more than half of those to foreign investors in markets where certain United States Securities and Exchange Commission regulations do not apply . Shelbourne announced on September 30 , 2008 that the building 's penthouse had been sold to Beanie Babies manufacturer Ty Warner . Kelleher offered to rent out units at a guaranteed 7 @.@ 5 % return to spur sales . The approach is common outside the United States where the tower was marketed more heavily and was meant to spur sales of the smallest units , which are the most likely to be purchased as rental property investments by foreigners .
= = = Financial crisis and suspension of construction = = =
By October 2008 , the late @-@ 2000s recession was beginning to affect the project . Construction was suspended and the tower 's architect , Santiago Calatrava , placed an $ 11 @.@ 34 million lien on the construction site , stating that Kelleher had not yet paid him for his work . Within a few months Anglo Irish Bank , the primary lender for the project , was on the brink of financial collapse . The bank 's stocks had lost nearly all of their value and Anglo Irish Bank was facing nationalization . Due to the bank 's dire financial situation , Shelbourne Development was forced to suspend construction , and would eventually have to pay back the $ 69 @.@ 5 million ( USD ) it had already borrowed .
Additional litigation and liens threatened the project by autumn 2009 . The owner of the NBC Tower in Chicago sued to evict Shelbourne Development from their sales office , where extensive modeling of Chicago Spire units had been installed . The lawsuit alleged that Shelbourne was behind $ 316 @,@ 000 ( USD ) in lease payments . In addition to this and other liens listed on the property , Bank of America filed a lawsuit against Shelbourne Development for $ 4 @.@ 92 million ( USD ) . The lawsuit was an attempt to collect that sum on two unpaid loans used for initial construction at the Chicago Spire site .
After these setbacks , the AFL @-@ CIO and Kelleher announced in late 2009 that they were discussing the potential for a $ 170 million ( USD ) land loan that would retire Kelleher 's loan from Anglo Irish Bank , pay off the outstanding liens , and restart work in exchange for making the construction a completely union job . Due to the lack of construction and the sluggish economy , Chicago unions were desperate to find work for their employees as they faced near 30 % unemployment . Construction of the Chicago Spire would have provided approximately 900 full @-@ time jobs to union members for four years if construction had resumed . In addition to the $ 194 million ( USD ) that Kelleher has invested personally in the project already , backup financing of an unspecified amount and from an unknown source in the form of mezzanine capital and bridge loans has been guaranteed and would have kicked in automatically if the $ 170 million ( USD ) AFL @-@ CIO loan had been secured .
But within weeks of the official announcement that Kelleher was searching for union bailouts , four major labor union investment funds declined to offer Shelbourne Development any loans . Kelleher continued to search for financing . Shelbourne Development faced eviction from its offices on the 50th floor of 111 South Wacker Drive on which Shelbourne owed $ 27 @,@ 600 in unpaid rent . Earlier in the year , the spire 's Chicago sales office had been ejected from the nearby NBC Tower .
In October 2010 Anglo Irish Bank Corp. filed a $ 77 million foreclosure lawsuit against Kelleher , claiming that loans made to Kelleher ’ s development company had been in default for a year . The bank was expected to take possession of the site . By the end of the year , courts handed control of the site to a receiver , leaving the project ( at the time ) dead . In addition , two Chicago firms purchased the tax lien certificates on the property .
= = = Failure of reorganization plan and end of project = = =
In 2013 , with the Chicago Spire site for sale by Ireland 's National Asset Management Agency ( NAMA ) , interest resumed , drawing in at least a half @-@ dozen offers for the property . Under the involuntary bankruptcy ruling in October 2013 , Shelbourne had until the end of March 2014 to obtain approval of a reorganization plan , and was considering a bid to take back control of the property , reigniting hope that the skyscraper might actually be built .
In February 2014 , Shelbourne sought court approval to take up an offer of up to $ 135 million from Atlas Apartment Holdings intended to underpin the project 's emergence from bankruptcy , with a deadline of August 31 , 2014 for having a court @-@ approved reorganization plan . At a hearing on March 11 , 2014 , Shelbourne announced that it had reached agreement on a repayment plan with the project 's creditors , including Related Midwest , which had bought up much of the project 's debt . Assuming the project finds funding to satisfy that agreement , Atlas said that the building would be built and that Atlas would control the project , but that Kelleher would still be the developer , with the intention of building the same building planned prior to suspension of construction .
However , on October 31 , 2014 , the developer failed to make a required payment to Related Midwest and Related filed suit to compel Shelbourne to turn over the deed to the property . On 4 November 2014 , Garrett Kelleher signed over the property location at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive to Related Midwest . President Curt Bailey said that Related Midwest would not build the Spire .
= = Location = =
The skyscraper was being constructed at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive , on Chicago 's waterfront west of Navy Pier and northeast of the Loop , in the Streeterville neighborhood of the Near North Side community area . The site is at the junction of Lake Michigan and the Chicago River , and is bordered by the Ogden Slip of the Chicago River to the north , North Lake Shore Drive to the east , the Chicago River to the south , and existing residential property to the west . The site was originally zoned for two 35- to 50 @-@ story buildings . Originally , it was to be sold by a joint venture of LR Development Company of Chicago and JER Partners of Virginia for $ 64 million to Christopher Carley of the Fordham Company . After numerous short @-@ term extensions , and later Carley 's failure to obtain financing , Kelleher of Shelbourne Development purchased the land instead and pledged to finance the rest of the project .
= = = DuSable Park = = =
When the project was first announced , the Fordham Company pledged almost $ 500 @,@ 000 to assist in the development of the city 's proposed DuSable Park , which would adjoin the property of the Chicago Spire . DuSable Park would cover 3 @.@ 24 acres ( 1 @.@ 31 ha ) and a $ 11 @.@ 4 million budget was planned for its renovation . On March 26 , 2007 , Shelbourne pledged to pay $ 6 million toward the development of the park , making up the deficit left over from the city 's own initial pledge of $ 6 million and far exceeding the Fordham Co 's initial offer . In May 2007 Shelbourne 's pledge jumped to $ 9 @.@ 6 million . Soil tests performed in December 2000 on the soil of the proposed park showed contamination of radioactive thorium . Thorium was used by the Lindsay Light Company , which operated a location nearby . After the closing of the location in the 1930s , contaminated soil was dumped on the location of the proposed park . In March 2003 , the Chicago Park District stated that the thorium clean @-@ up on that land was incomplete . Hazards of contamination can be avoided by laying a minimum of 6 inches ( 15 cm ) of concrete over any affected soil , an approach that would be more feasible for the site of the Chicago Spire than for the adjacent park .
In 2012 the Chicago Park District received funding from the EPA for remediation of the site , bagging the radioactive soil and shipping it to a Superfund site . By Summer 2013 the Park District website reported the remediation had been completed by September 2012
= = Architecture = =
As with many of his designs , Calatrava was inspired by themes and designs in nature for the tall , twisting skyscraper . He likened the structure to an imaginary smoke spiral coming from a campfire near the Chicago River lit by Native Americans indigenous to the area , and also related the building 's newly designed pinnacle to the " graceful " and " rotating forms " of a snail shell .
Standing at 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , the Chicago Spire would have further transformed the always @-@ growing Chicago skyline . Plans for the tower included 1 @,@ 193 condominiums with each of the building 's 150 stories rotated 2 @.@ 4 degrees from the one below it for a total 360 degree rotation . In February 2008 , prices for the condominiums were announced as ranging from $ 750 @,@ 000 to $ 40 million USD . For supplemental structural support , each floor was to be surrounded by cantilevered corners and four concave sides . Similar to the Willis Tower ( formerly Sears Tower ) and John Hancock Center observation decks , the Chicago Spire design included a community room on the top floor offering residents a view of four U.S. states . The design for the soaring four story lobby of the skyscraper included translucent glass walls framed by arching , steel @-@ reinforced concrete vaults . The building has been described as a giant " drill bit " by the public and others in the media have likened it to a " tall twisting tree " and a " blade of grass " .
The curved design offered two major benefits to the structure of the building . First , curved designs , such as that found in Calatrava 's Turning Torso in Malmö , Sweden , tend to add to the strength of a structure . A similar principle has been used in the past with curved stadium roofs . In addition to structural support , the curved face of the exterior would minimize wind forces . In rectangular buildings , a fluid wind flow puts pressure on the windward face of the building ; while air moves around it , a suction is applied to the leeward face . This often causes a sway in tall buildings usually counteracted , at least partially , by stiffening the structure or by using a dynamic wind damper . Since the curved design of the Chicago Spire would not completely negate wind forces , a tapering concrete core and twelve shear walls radiating from it were planned to counteract the remaining wind load .
Additionally , the Chicago Spire was designed with world @-@ class sustainable engineering practices to meet Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold recognition . Sustainable features included recycled rainwater , river water used for cooling , ornithologically @-@ sensitive glass to protect migratory birds , intelligent building and management systems , waste storage and recycling management , and monitored outdoor air delivery .
= = Construction = =
Following the city approval , it was announced that construction of the Chicago Spire was to begin in summer 2007 , with caisson work scheduled to begin as early as June 2007 . DuSable Park was designated as a staging area for the construction of the tower . The sales center for the Chicago Spire opened on January 14 , 2008 .
On September 19 , 2008 , a spokeswoman for the developer announced that construction was continuing on the building , but that the pace of construction would be slowed until the financial markets recovered from the subprime mortgage crisis . Kelleher promised that he still had financial backing , although analysts questioned the ability of the project to survive the current economic decline . A contractor to build the building 's superstructure had not yet been named . The October 1 , 2008 edition of The Wall Street Journal said that the building foundation was complete and the above ground construction would not continue until the markets recover .
= = = Underground phase = = =
Crane parts and construction equipment arrived at the site on June 25 , 2007 . The following day Shelbourne Development officially announced the first construction contract . In preparation for construction , 34 concrete and steel caissons were drilled 120 feet ( 37 m ) into bedrock underground ; this was completed June 25 , 2008 . A cofferdam with a 104 feet ( 32 m ) diameter and 78 feet ( 24 m ) depth was installed to create a work environment and would have later acted as a foundation for the building 's core . Utility upgrades were planned for the surrounding neighborhood .
= = = Images = = =
= Fizeau – Foucault apparatus =
Fizeau – Foucault apparatus is a term sometimes used to refer to two types of instrument historically used to measure the speed of light . The conflation of the two instrument types arises in part because Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault had originally been friends and collaborators . They worked together on such projects as using the Daguerreotype process to take images of the Sun between 1843 and 1845 and characterizing absorption bands in the infrared spectrum of sunlight in 1847 .
In 1834 , Charles Wheatstone developed a method of using a rapidly rotating mirror to study transient phenomena , and applied this method to measure the velocity of electricity in a wire and the duration of an electric spark . He communicated to François Arago the idea that his method could be adapted to a study of the speed of light . Arago expanded upon Wheatstone 's concept in an 1838 publication , emphasizing the possibility that a test of the relative speed of light in air versus water could be used to distinguish between the particle and wave theories of light .
In 1845 , Arago suggested to Fizeau and Foucault that they attempt to measure the speed of light . Sometime in 1849 , however , it appears that the two had a falling out , and they parted ways pursuing separate means of performing this experiment . In 1848 − 49 , Fizeau used , not a rotating mirror , but a toothed wheel apparatus to perform an absolute measurement of the speed of light in air . In 1850 , Fizeau and Foucault both used rotating mirror devices to perform relative measures of the speed of light in air versus water . Foucault used a scaled @-@ up version of the rotating mirror apparatus to perform an absolute measurement of the speed of light in 1862 . Subsequent experiments performed by Marie Alfred Cornu in 1872 – 76 and by Albert A. Michelson in 1877 – 1931 used improved versions of the toothed wheel and rotating mirror experiments to make steadily more accurate estimates of the speed of light .
= = Fizeau 's determination of the speed of light = =
In 1848 – 49 , Hippolyte Fizeau determined the speed of light between an intense light source and a mirror about 8 km distant . The light source was interrupted by a rotating cogwheel with 720 notches that could be rotated at a variable speed of up to hundreds of times a second . ( Figure 1 ) Fizeau adjusted the rotation speed of the cogwheel until light passing through one notch of the cogwheel would be completely eclipsed by the adjacent tooth . Spinning the cogwheel at 3 , 5 and 7 times this basic rotation rate also resulted in eclipsing of the reflected light by the cogwheel teeth next in line . Given the rotational speed of the wheel and the distance between the wheel and the mirror , Fizeau was able to calculate a value of 313000 km / s for the speed of light . It was difficult for Fizeau to visually estimate the intensity minimum of the light being blocked by the adjacent teeth , and his value for light 's speed was about 5 % too high .
The early @-@ to @-@ mid 1800s were a period of intense debate on the particle @-@ versus @-@ wave nature of light . Although the observation of the Arago spot in 1819 may seem to have settled the matter definitively in favor of Fresnel 's wave theory of light , various concerns continued to appear to be addressed more satisfactorily by Newton 's corpuscular theory . Arago had suggested in 1838 that a differential comparison of the speed of light in air versus water would serve to prove or disprove the wave nature of light . In 1850 , racing against Foucault to establish this point , Fizeau engaged L.F.C. Breguet to build a rotary @-@ mirror apparatus in which he split a beam of light into two beams , passing one through water while the other traveled through air . Beaten by Foucault by a mere seven weeks , he confirmed that the speed of light was greater as it traveled through air , validating the wave theory of light .
= = Foucault 's determination of the speed of light = =
In 1850 and in 1862 , Léon Foucault made improved determinations of the speed of light substituting a rotating mirror for Fizeau 's toothed wheel . ( Figure 2 ) The apparatus involves light from slit S reflecting off a rotating mirror R , forming an image of the slit on the distant stationary mirror M , which is then reflected back to reform an image of the original slit . If mirror R is stationary , then the slit image will reform at S regardless of the mirror 's tilt . The situation is different , however , if R is in rapid rotation .
As the rotating mirror R will have moved slightly in the time it takes for the light to bounce from R to M and back , the light will be deflected away from the original source by a small angle .
As seen in Figure 3 , the displaced image of the source ( slit ) is at an angle 2θ from the source direction .
Guided by similar motivations as his former partner , Foucault in 1850 was more interested in settling the particle @-@ versus @-@ wave debate than in determining an accurate absolute value for the speed of light . Foucault measured the differential speed of light versus water by inserting a tube filled with water between the rotating mirror and the distant mirror . His experimental results , announced shortly before Fizeau announced his results on the same topic , were viewed as " driving the last nail in the coffin " of Newton 's corpuscle theory of light when it showed that light travels more slowly through water than through air . Newton had explained refraction as a pull of the medium upon the light , implying an increased speed of light in the medium . The corpuscular theory of light went into abeyance , completely overshadowed by wave theory . This state of affairs lasted until 1905 , when Einstein presented heuristic arguments that under various circumstances , such as when considering the photoelectric effect , light exhibits behaviors indicative of a particle nature .
In contrast to his 1850 measurement , Foucault 's 1862 measurement was aimed at obtaining an accurate absolute value for the speed of light , since his concern was to deduce an improved value for the astronomical unit . At the time , Foucault was working at the Paris Observatory under Urbain le Verrier . It was le Verrier 's belief , based on extensive celestial mechanics calculations , that the consensus value for the speed of light was perhaps 4 % too high . Technical limitations prevented Foucault from separating mirrors R and M by more than about 20 meters . Despite this limited path length , Foucault was able to measure the displacement of the slit image ( less than 1 mm ) with considerable accuracy . In addition , unlike the case with Fizeau 's experiment ( which required gauging the rotation rate of an adjustable @-@ speed toothed wheel ) , he could spin the mirror at a constant , chronometrically determined speed . Foucault 's measurement confirmed le Verrier 's estimate . His 1862 figure for the speed of light ( 298000 km / s ) was within 0 @.@ 6 % of the modern value .
= = Cornu 's refinement of the Fizeau experiment = =
At the behest of the Paris Observatory under le Verrier , Marie Alfred Cornu repeated Fizeau 's 1848 toothed wheel measurement in a series of experiments in 1872 – 76 . The goal was to obtain a value for the speed of light accurate to one part in a thousand . Cornu 's equipment allowed him to monitor high orders of extinction , up to the 21st order . Instead of estimating the intensity minimum of the light being blocked by the adjacent teeth , a relatively inaccurate procedure , Cornu made pairs of observations on either side of the intensity minima , averaging the values obtained with the wheel spun clockwise and counterclockwise . An electric circuit recorded the wheel rotations on a chronograph chart which enabled precise rate comparisons against the observatory clock , and a telegraph key arrangement allowed Cornu to mark on this same chart the precise moments when he judged that an extinction had been entered or exited . His final experiment was run over a path nearly three times as long as that used by Fizeau , and yielded a figure of 300400 km / s that is within 0 @.@ 2 % of the modern value .
= = Michelson 's refinement of the Foucault experiment = =
It was seen in Figure 2 that Foucault placed the rotating mirror R as close as possible to lens L so as to maximize the distance between R and the slit S. As R rotates , an enlarged image of slit S sweeps across the face of the distant mirror M. The greater the distance RM , the more quickly that the image sweeps across mirror M and the less light is reflected back . Foucault could not increase the RM distance in his folded optical arrangement beyond about 20 meters without the image of the slit becoming too dim to accurately measure .
Between 1877 and 1931 , Albert A. Michelson made multiple measurements of the speed of light . His 1877 – 79 measurements were performed under the auspices of Simon Newcomb , who was also working on measuring the speed of light . Michelson 's setup incorporated several refinements on Foucault 's original arrangement . As seen in Figure 5 , Michelson placed the rotating mirror R near the principal focus of lens L ( i.e. the focal point given incident parallel rays of light ) . If the rotating mirror R were exactly at the principal focus , the moving image of the slit would remain upon the distant plane mirror M ( equal in diameter to lens L ) as long as the axis of the pencil of light remained on the lens , this being true regardless of the RM distance . Michelson was thus able to increase the RM distance to nearly 2000 feet . To achieve a reasonable value for the RS distance , Michelson used an extremely long focal length lens ( 150 feet ) and compromised on the design by placing R about 15 feet closer to L than the principal focus . This allowed an RS distance of between 28 @.@ 5 to 33 @.@ 3 feet . He used carefully calibrated tuning forks to monitor the rotation rate of the air @-@ turbine @-@ powered mirror R , and he would typically measure displacements of the slit image on the order of 115 mm . His 1879 figure for the speed of light , 299944 ± 51 km / s , was within about 0 @.@ 05 % of the modern value . His 1926 repeat of the experiment incorporated still further refinements such as the use of polygonal prism @-@ shaped rotating mirrors ( enabling a brighter image ) having from eight through sixteen facets and a 22 mile baseline surveyed to fractional parts @-@ per @-@ million accuracy . His figure of 299 @,@ 796 ± 4 km / s was only about 4 km / s higher than the current accepted value . Michelson 's final 1931 attempt to measure the speed of light in vacuum was interrupted by his death . Although his experiment was completed posthumously by F. G. Pease and F. Pearson , various factors militated against a measurement of highest accuracy , including an earthquake which disturbed the baseline measurement .
= = = Relative speed of light measurements = = =
" Sur un système d 'expériences à l 'aide duquel la théorie de l 'émission et celle des ondes seront soumises à des épreuves décisives . " by F. Arago ( 1838 )
Sur les vitesses relatives de la lumière dans l 'air et dans l 'eau / par Léon Foucault ( 1853 )
" Sur l 'Experience relative a la vitesse comparative de la lumiere dans l 'air et dans l 'eau . " by H. Fizeau and L. Breguet ( 1850 )
= = = Absolute speed of light measurements = = =
Sur une experience relative a la vitesse de propagation de la lumière by H. Fizeau ( 1849 )
Mesure de la vitesse de la lumière ; Étude optique des surfaces / mémoires de Léon Foucault ( 1913 )
Détermination de la vitesse de la lumière : d 'après des expériences exécutées en 1874 entre l 'Observatoire et Montlhéry , by M. A. Cornu ( 1876 )
= = = Classroom demonstrations = = =
Speed of Light ( The Foucault Method )
A modern Fizeau experiment for education and outreach purposes
Measuring the Speed of Light ( video , Foucault method ) BYU Physics & Astronomy
= Long Distance ( Ivy album ) =
Long Distance is the third studio album by American band Ivy . It was released on November 8 , 2000 in Japan , while the US version was released on July 10 , 2001 by Nettwerk . Noted as a departure from Ivy 's previous studio album Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , the album took influence from new wave , but maintained Ivy 's signature blend of indie pop and indie rock music . Ivy collaborated with long @-@ time producer Peter Nashel for two of the album 's tracks , while the rest was completely produced and written by members Andy Chase and Adam Schlesinger .
Long Distance received positive reviews upon release , and is noted for its different new wave sound compared to Ivy 's previous works , Apartment Life and Realistic ( 1995 ) . Many critics favored Ivy 's new approach , although some found it less interesting compared to the material on Apartment Life . Commercially , the album fared well in both Japan and the United States , but did not peak on any significant record chart .
Four singles were released from the album . " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " , " Disappointed " and " I Think of You " were all commercially unsuccessful , while the album 's third single , " Edge of the Ocean " , appeared in numerous films and television programs and is often considered the band 's signature song . The songs " Undertow " and " Worry About You " were also used in the media , and the latter was used as the theme song for the ABC miniseries Kingdom Hospital . Promotional music videos were created for both " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " and " Edge of the Ocean " .
= = Development = =
Shortly after the release of Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , Ivy began work on a new studio album ; however , the band was dropped by their label , Epic Records , shortly after the reissue of Apartment Life was released . After the end of the contract with Epic , and lead singer Dominique Durand 's pregnancy , the New York City studio where Ivy regularly recorded music burned down . In order to forget about these events , Ivy resumed recording sessions , where they began incorporating influences from new wave . Member Adam Schlesinger detailed the album 's exploration of different genres :
" The first songs [ we ] recorded were jangly and simple and straight @-@ ahead . We started gravitating toward the groovier , slightly more melancholy stuff . It works well with Dominique 's voice . "
According to Schlesinger , Ivy then signed with Nettwerk because " their roster was similar to Ivy across the board " . After being released prematurely in Japan on November 8 , 2000 , the album was a quick success . Nettwerk 's head of marketing , Marie Scheibert , stated that Long Distance became one of Amazon.com 's top imports . The album was released in the United States on July 10 , 2001 , eight months later . During recording sessions , Durand , Schlesinger and fellow band member Andy Chase decided " to go one @-@ hundred percent " on one of the tracks , which would later become " Edge of the Ocean " . Ivy stated that the song , which would later be released as the album 's third single , was created in hopes that it would " mean the difference between making our next album or not " . Along with " Edge of the Ocean " , the trio starting writing songs that were " less atmospheric " that those on Apartment Life , but contained more " infectious melodies " , which the band preferred .
= = Composition = =
= = = Songs = = =
Long Distance opens with " Undertow " , a track featuring " pastoral tones " layered with " a lifting guitar frame " ; Tom Topkoff of Hybrid Magazine noted that Durand 's vocals have " aged like a fine wine " . The single " Disappointed " , the " fast @-@ paced " second track , consists of a " taut rhythm and slinky guitars " that " provide a sleekly sexy backdrop for Durand 's wistful vocals " . Its sound was compared to Ivy 's previous tracks on Realistic ( 1995 ) and Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , particularly the songs " No Guarantee " and " I Get the Message " . The next song , " Edge of the Ocean " , is an indie pop and trip hop song , and has been called a " captivating and escapist tune " . Since its release , it has been commonly referred to as one of Ivy 's signature songs , including by Ivy themselves . " Blame It on Yourself " is a " memorable " track , with instrumentation provided by distorted guitars . The fifth track , " While We 're in Love " , is a trip hop @-@ inspired track , with the singer and her partner realizing , " We know it won 't last forever / Because we 're not meant to be together " . " While We 're in Love " uses keyboards that add a groovy feeling to " fill out the sound more than ever before " .
The album 's lead single , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " , uses 1960s @-@ style horns with " jangly guitars " to reintroduce Ivy 's signature indie pop style into the album . It has a " sassy brass and lifting melody " , accompanied by electric guitars to create an " atmospheric " mood . According to Tom Topkoff of Hybrid Magazine , " Worry About You " is Ivy 's " furthest departure from their tried and true practice " . The composition is relatively ambient , with " Portishead styled ethereal @-@ dub characteristics " . The album 's eighth song , " Let 's Stay Inside " , uses keyboard and acoustic guitar instrumentation to provide a " comforting " feeling ; " bossa nova @-@ tinged " , it results in an " intimate approach " . " Midnight Sun " and " I Think of You " both used violins and organs to achieve a sense of effortlessness , with the former 's instrumentation headed by Ivy 's longtime partner James Iha .
The next track , " Hideaway " , is another " escapist tune " , featuring " Durand 's sensually emotive vocals " . The album 's 12th track , " One More Last Kiss " , contains longing lyrics discussing Durand 's final moments with a lover . Its composition consists of guitar passages similar to the majority of the album . A cover of The Blow Monkeys ' " Digging Your Scene " concludes the standard edition of the album , with its production sounding " natural " , as if it was an original Ivy track . The Japanese edition of the album featured a bonus track , " It 's All in Your Mind " , which remains unreleased in the United States , and softly repeats the song 's title throughout .
= = Promotion = =
While Ivy did not
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that his observations could be explained by frost and possibly vegetation . Based on the amount of sunlight scattered by the Martian atmosphere , he set an upper limit of 1 / 15 the thickness of the Earth 's atmosphere . This restricted the surface pressure to no greater than 2 @.@ 4 kPa ( 24 mbar ) . Using infrared spectrometry , in 1947 the Dutch @-@ American astronomer Gerard Kuiper detected carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere . He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth . However , because he overestimated the surface pressure on Mars , Kuiper concluded erroneously that the ice caps could not be composed of frozen carbon dioxide . In 1948 , American meteorologist Seymour L. Hess determined that the formation of the thin Martian clouds would only require 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) of water precipitation and a vapor pressure of 0 @.@ 1 kPa ( 1 @.@ 0 mbar ) .
The first standard nomenclature for Martian albedo features was introduced by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) when in 1960 they adopted 128 names from the 1929 map of Antoniadi named La Planète Mars . The Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( WGPSN ) was established by the IAU in 1973 to standardize the naming scheme for Mars and other bodies .
= = Remote sensing = =
The International Planetary Patrol Program was formed in 1969 as a consortium to continually monitor planetary changes . This worldwide group focused on observing dust storms on Mars . Their images allow Martian seasonal patterns to be studied globally , and they showed that most Martian dust storms occur when the planet is closest to the Sun .
Since the 1960s , robotic spacecraft have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface in extensive detail . In addition , remote sensing of Mars from Earth by ground @-@ based and orbiting telescopes has continued across much of the electromagnetic spectrum . These include infrared observations to determine the composition of the surface , ultraviolet and submillimeter observation of the atmospheric composition , and radio measurements of wind velocities .
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) has been used to perform systematic studies of Mars and has taken the highest resolution images of Mars ever captured from Earth . This telescope can produce useful images of the planet when it is at an angular distance of at least 50 ° from the Sun . The HST can take images of a hemisphere , which yields views of entire weather systems . Earth @-@ based telescopes equipped with charge @-@ coupled devices can produce useful images of Mars , allowing for regular monitoring of the planet 's weather during oppositions .
X @-@ ray emission from Mars was first observed by astronomers in 2001 using the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , and in 2003 it was shown to have two components . The first component is caused by X @-@ rays from the Sun scattering off the upper Martian atmosphere ; the second comes from interactions between ions that result in an exchange of charges . The emission from the latter source has been observed out to eight times the radius of Mars by the XMM @-@ Newton orbiting observatory .
In 1983 , the analysis of the shergottite , nakhlite , and chassignite ( SNC ) group of meteorites showed that they may have originated on Mars . The Allan Hills 84001 meteorite , discovered in Antarctica in 1984 , is believed to have originated on Mars but it has an entirely different composition than the SNC group . In 1996 , it was announced that this meteorite might contain evidence for microscopic fossils of Martian bacteria . However , this finding remains controversial . Chemical analysis of the Martian meteorites found on Earth suggests that the ambient near @-@ surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below the freezing point of water ( 0 C ° ) for much of the last four billion years .
= Tirunelveli =
Tirunelveli pronunciation ) , also known as Nellai and historically ( during British rule ) as Tinnevelly , is a city in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is the administrative headquarters of the Tirunelveli District . It is the sixth @-@ largest municipal corporation in the state ( after Chennai , Madurai , Coimbatore , Tiruchirappalli , Salem ) . Tirunelveli is located 700 km ( 430 mi ) southwest of the state capital , Chennai and 58 km ( 36 mi ) away from Thoothukudi .
The city is located on the west bank of the Thamirabarani River ; its twin city Palayamkottai is on the east bank . Tirunelveli is believed to be an ancient settlement ; it has been ruled at different times by the Early Pandyas , the Medieval and Later Cholas , the later Pandyas , the Ma 'bar and Tirunelveli sultanates , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Madurai Nayaks , Chanda Sahib , the Carnatic kingdom and the British . The Polygar War , involving Palaiyakkarars led by Veerapandiya Kattabomman and forces of the British East India Company , was waged on the city 's outskirts from 1797 to 1801 . Tirunelveli has a number of historical monuments , the Nellaiappar Temple being the most prominent .
Industries in Tirunelveli include administrative services , agricultural trading , tourism , banking , agricultural machinery and educational services . The city is an educational hub of southern Tamil Nadu , with institutions such as Tirunelveli Medical College , the Veterinary College and Research Institution , Tirunelveli Law College and the Government College of Engineering . Tirunelveli is administered by a municipal corporation , established in 1994 by the Municipal Corporation Act . The city covers an area of 169 @.@ 9 km2 ( 65 @.@ 6 sq mi ) , and had a population of 473 @,@ 637 in 2011 . Tirunelveli is well @-@ connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu .
= = Etymology = =
Tirunelveli was known in Sambandar 's seventh @-@ century Saiva canonical work Tevaram as Thirunelveli . Nellaiappar temple inscriptions indicate that Shiva ( as Vrihivritesvara ) descended in the form of a hedge and roof to save the paddy crop of a devotee . In Hindu legend , the place was known as Venuvana ( " forest of bamboo " ) due to the presence of bamboo in the temple under which the deity is believed to have appeared . The early Pandyas named the city Thenpandiyanadu , the Cholas Mudikonda Cholamandalam and the Nayaks Tirunelveli Seemai ; it was known as Tinnelvelly by the British , and Thirunelveli after independence . The word Tirunelveli is derived from three Tamil words : thiru , nel and veli , meaning " sacred paddy hedge " .
= = History = =
The history of Tirunelveli was researched by Robert Caldwell ( 1814 – 91 ) , a Christian missionary who visited the area . Tirunelveli was under the rule of Pandya kings as their secondary capital ; Madurai was the empire 's primary capital . The Pandya dynasty in the region dates to several centuries before the Christian era from inscriptions by Ashoka ( 304 – 232 BCE ) and mention in the Mahavamsa , the Brihat @-@ Samhita and the writings of Megasthenes ( 350 – 290 CE ) . The province came under the rule of Cholas under Rajendra Chola I in 1064 CE ; however , it is unclear whether he conquered the region or obtained it voluntarily . Tirunelveli remained under control of the Cholas until the early 13th century , when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital .
The Nellaiappar temple was the royal shrine of the later Pandyas during the 13th and 14th centuries , and the city benefited from dams constructed with royal patronage during the period . After the death of Kulasekara Pandian ( 1268 – 1308 ) , the region was occupied by Vijayangara rulers and Marava chieftains ( palayakarars , or poligars ) during the 16th century . The Maravars occupied the western foothills and the Telugas , and the Kannadigas settled in the black @-@ soil @-@ rich eastern portion . Tirunelveli was the subsidiary capital of the Madurai Nayaks ; under Viswanatha Nayak ( 1529 – 64 ) , the city was rebuilt about 1560 . Inscriptions from the Nellaiappar temple indicate generous contributions to the temple . Nayak rule ended in 1736 , and the region was captured by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 ) during the mid @-@ 18th century .
In 1743 Nizam @-@ ul @-@ mulk , lieutenant of the Deccan Plateau , displaced most of the Marathas from the region and Tirunelveli came under the rule of the Nawabs of Arcot . The original power lay in the hands of the polygars , who were originally military chiefs of the Nayaks . The city was the chief commercial town during the Nawab and Nayak era . The city was known as Nellai Cheemai , with Cheemai meaning " a developed foreign town " . The polygars built forts in the hills , had 30 @,@ 000 troops and waged war among themselves . In 1755 , the British government sent a mission under Major Heron and Mahfuz Khan which restored some order and bestowed the city to Mahfuz Khan . The poligars waged war against Mahfuz Khan seven miles from Tirunelveli , but were defeated . The failure of Mahfuz Khan led the East India Company to send Muhammed Yusuf for help . Khan became ruler , rebelled in 1763 and was hanged in 1764 . In 1758 , British troops under Colonel Fullarton reduced the polygar stronghold under Veerapandiya Kattabomman . In 1797 , the first Polygar war broke out between the British ( under Major Bannerman ) and the polygars ( headed by Kattabomman ) . Some polygars ( such as the head of Ettaiyapuram ) aided the British ; Kattabomman was defeated and hanged in his home province of Panchalaguruchi . Two years later , another rebellion became known as the Second Polygar War . Panchalankuruchi fell to the British , after stiff resistance . The Carnatic region came under British rule following a treaty with the Nawab of Carnatic .
After acquiring Tirunelveli from the Nawab of Arcot in 1801 , the British anglicised its name to " Tinnevelly " and made it the headquarters of Tinnelvelli District . The administrative and military headquarters was located in Palayamkottai ( anglicised as " Palankottah " ) , from which attacks against the polygars were launched . After independence both cities reverted to their original names , and Tirunelveli remained the capital of Tirunelveli district . A separate Thoothukudi district was split off in 1986 . And now 30 April 2015 by BJP government it 's known to be said as the one of the 100 smart cities of India
= = Geography and climate = =
Tirunelveli is located at 8 @.@ 73 ° N 77 @.@ 7 ° E / 8 @.@ 73 ; 77 @.@ 7 , and its average elevation is 47 metres ( 154 ft ) . It is located at the southernmost tip of the Deccan plateau . The Tamirabarani River divides the city into the Tirunelveli quarter and the Palayamkottai area . The river ( with its tributaries , such as the Chittar ) is the major source of irrigation , and is fed by the northeast and southwest monsoons . The major lakes in the city are Nainar Lake and Udayarpetti Lake . The area around the Tamirabarani River and the Chittar has five streams : Kodagan , Palayan , Tirunelveli , Marudur East and Marudur West , and the Chittar feeds fifteen other channels . The soil is friable , red and sandy .
The climate of Tirunelveli is generally hot and humid . The average temperature during summer ( March to June ) ranges from 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) to 41 ° C ( 106 ° F ) , and 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) during the rest of the year . The average annual rainfall is 680 millimetres ( 27 in ) . Maximum precipitation occurs during the northeast monsoon ( October – December ) . Since the economy of the district is primarily based on agriculture , flooding of the Tamarabarani River or a fluctuation in monsoon rain has an immediate impact on the local economy . The primary crops grown in the region are paddy and cotton . Pineapples were introduced during the 16th century , chilly and tobacco during the late 16th and potatoes during the early 17th centuries . The most common tree is the palmyra palm , a raw material in cottage industries . Other trees grown in the region are teak , wild jack , manjakadambu , venteak , vengai , pillaimaruthu , karimaruthu and bamboo . Livestock of the city and district comprises cattle , buffalo , goats , sheep and other animals in smaller numbers .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Tirunelveli had a population of 473 @,@ 637 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 027 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 46 @,@ 624 were under the age of six , constituting 23 @,@ 894 males and 22 @,@ 730 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 13 @.@ 17 % and .32 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the city was 81 @.@ 49 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The city had a total of 120 @,@ 466 households . There were a total of 182 @,@ 471 workers , comprising 2 @,@ 088 cultivators , 5 @,@ 515 main agricultural labourers , 18 @,@ 914 in house hold industries , 142 @,@ 435 other workers , 13 @,@ 519 marginal workers , 166 marginal cultivators , 913 marginal agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 828 marginal workers in household industries and 10 @,@ 612 other marginal workers .
According to provisional data from the 2011 census the Tirunelveli urban agglomeration had a population of 498 @,@ 984 , with 246 @,@ 710 males and 252 @,@ 274 females . The overall sex ratio in the city was 1023 , and the child sex ratio was 957 . Tirunelveli had a literacy rate of 91 percent , with male literacy 95 percent and female literacy 87 percent . A total of 42 @,@ 756 of the city 's population was under age six .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Tirunelveli had 69 @.@ 0 % Hindus , 20 @.@ 02 % Muslims , 10 @.@ 59 % Christians , 0 @.@ 01 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 02 % Jains and 0 @.@ 35 % following other religions .
The city covers an area of 108 @.@ 65 square kilometres ( 41 @.@ 95 sq mi ) . The population density of the city in the 2001 census was 3 @,@ 781 persons per square kilometre , compared with 2 @,@ 218 persons per square kilometre in 1971 . Hindus form the majority of the urban population , followed by Muslims and Christians . Tamil is the main language spoken in the city , but the use of English is relatively common ; English is the medium of instruction in most educational institutions and offices in the service sector . The Tamil dialect spoken in this region is distinct , and is widely spoken throughout Tamil Nadu .
= = Economy = =
Inscriptions from the eighth to the 14th centuries ( during the rule of the Pandyas , Cholas and later Tenkasi Pandyas ) indicate the growth of Tirunelveli as a centre of economic growth which developed around the Nellaiappar temple . The drier parts of the province also flourished during the rule of the Vijayanagara kings . From 1550 until the early modern era , migration to the city from other parts of the state was common and the urban regions became hubs of manufacturing and commerce . Tirunelveli was a strategic point , connecting the eastern and western parts of the peninsula , as well as a trading centre . Records of sea and overland trade between 1700 and 1850 indicate close trading connections with Sri Lanka and Kerala . During the 1840s , cotton produced in the region was in demand for British mills . The chief exports during British rule were cotton , jaggery , chillies , tobacco , palmyra fibre , salt , dried saltwater fish and cattle .
Occupations in Tirunelveli include service @-@ sector activities such as administration , agricultural trading , tourism , banking , agro @-@ machinery and educational services . In 1991 , the Tirunelveli region ranked second in the number of women workers . Service sectors such as tourism have developed , due to a growth in religious tourism . Tirunelveli has beedi and cement factories , tobacco companies , workshops for steel @-@ based products and mills for cotton textiles , spinning and weaving ; there are also small @-@ scale industries , such as tanneries and brick kilns . The agricultural areas , hand @-@ woven clothes and household industries contribute to the economic growth of the city . Food @-@ processing industries have developed since the late 1990s ; at the district level , it is the foremost industrial segment . Industries involving rice @-@ making , blue @-@ jelly metal manufacturing and jem power generating are located on the outskirts of the city . The major agricultural produce in the region is paddy and cotton . Beedi production during the 1990s earned an annual revenue of ₹ 190 billion and a foreign exchange of ₹ 8 billion across the three districts of Tirunelveli , Tiruchirapalli and Vellore .
Tirunelveli is a major area for wind @-@ power generation . Most wind @-@ power @-@ generation units in Tamil Nadu are located in Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts . In 2005 they contributed 2036 @.@ 9 MW to the state power @-@ generation capacity . Many private , multinational wind companies are located on the outskirts of the city . In June 2007 the Tata Group signed a memorandum of understanding with the state government to open a titanium dioxide plant , with an estimated value of ₹ 25 billion , in Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi Districts . However , the state government put the project on hold after increasing protests against it .
= = Administration and politics = =
The Tirunelveli Corporation was established in 1866 during British rule . It became a municipal corporation in 1994 , bringing the Palayamkottai and Melapalayam municipalities , the Thatchanallur town panchayat and eleven other village panchayats within the city limits . The municipal corporation has four zones : Tirunelveli , Thatchanallur , Palayamkottai and Melapalayam . The corporation has 55 wards , with an elected councillor for each ward . The corporation has six departments : general administration and personnel , engineering , revenue , public health , city planning and information technology ( IT ) . All departments are under the control of a municipal commissioner . Legislative power is vested in a body of 55 members , one from each ward . The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson , assisted by a deputy . Tirunelveli city is district headquarters for the Tirunelveli district .
The city is part of the Tirunelveli assembly constituency , electing a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly every five years . Since the 1977 elections , the assembly seat was held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) for three terms ( following the 1989 , 1996 and 2006 elections and the All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam ( AIADMK ) for six terms following the 1977 , 1980 , 1984 , 1991 , 2001 and 2011 elections . The current MLA is Nainar Nagendran , ex @-@ minister and a leader of AIADMK .
Tirunelveli is a part of the Tirunelveli Lok Sabha constituency , with ten assembly constituencies : Tirunelveli , Vasudevanallur ( SC ) , Sankarankoil ( SC ) , Kalayanallur , Nanguneri , Ambasamudram , Tenkasi , Alangulam , Radhapuram and Palayamkottai . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is K.R.P. Prabakaran of the AIADMK . Since 1957 , the Tirunelveli parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress for four terms : 1957 – 1961 , 1962 – 67 , 2004 – 09 and 2009 @-@ 14 . The Swantantra Party and the CPI won once each , from 1967 – 71 and 1971 – 77 respectively . The DMK won the seat twice : 1980 – 84 and 1996 – 98 . The ADMK won the seat seven times : 1977 – 80 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 , 1991 – 96 , 1998 , 1999 – 2004 and 2014 elections .
Order in the city is maintained by the Tirunelveli division of the Tamil Nadu Police , headed by a commissioner . There are units for prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and a special branch operating at the district level , each headed by a deputy superintendent of police .
= = Transport = =
Tirunelveli has an extensive transport network and is well @-@ connected to other major cities by road , rail and air . The corporation maintains a total of 763 @.@ 3 km ( 474 @.@ 3 mi ) of roads . The city has 134 @.@ 88 km ( 83 @.@ 81 mi ) of concrete roads , 375 @.@ 51 km ( 233 @.@ 33 mi ) of BT roads , 94 @.@ 291 km ( 58 @.@ 590 mi ) of water @-@ bound macadam roads , 76 @.@ 31 km ( 47 @.@ 42 mi ) of unpaved roads and 82 @.@ 3 km ( 51 @.@ 1 mi ) of highways . Twenty @-@ two kilometres ( fourteen miles ) of highway are maintained by the State Highways Department and thirty kilometres ( nineteen miles ) by the National Highways Department . In 1844 a bridge was built by Colonel Horsley across the Tamirabarani River , connecting Tirunelveli to Palayamkottai . The city is located on NH 7 , 150 km ( 93 mi ) south of Madurai and 91 km ( 57 mi ) north of Kanyakumari . NH 7A , an extension of NH 7 , connects Palayamkottai with Tuticorin Port . Tirunelveli is also connected by major highways to Kollam , Tiruchendur , Rajapalayam , Sankarankovil , Ambasamudram and Nazareth .
The main bus stand ( popularly known as the New Bus Stand ) , opened in 2003 , is located in Veinthaankulam and there is regular bus service to and from the city . Other bus stands ( for intracity service ) are the Junction and Palay bus stands . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation has daily service to a number of cities , and the corporation operates a computerised reservation centre in the main bus stand . It also operates local buses serving the city and neighbouring villages . The State Express Transport Corporation has intercity service to Bangalore , Chennai , Kanyakumari and other cities .
Tirunelveli Junction railway station is one of the oldest railway stations in India . The line from Tirunelveli to Sengottai was opened in 1903 ; the connection to Quilon , which was completed later , was the most important trade route to Travancore province in British India . The city is connected to major cities in all four directions : Madurai and Sankarankovil to the north , Nagercoil to the south , Sengottai and Kollam to the west and Tiruchendur to the east . Tirunelveli is also connected to major Indian cities with daily service to Chennai , Coimbatore , Tiruchirappalli , Madurai , Salem , Kanyakumari , Mumbai , Guruvayur , Howrah , Delhi and Trivandrum . There is passenger service to Madurai , Tiruchendur , Tiruchirapalli and Kollam .
The nearest airport to Tirunelveli is Tuticorin Airport ( TCR ) at Vaagaikulam in Thoothukkudi District , 22 km ( 14 mi ) east of the city , which offers daily flights to Chennai . The nearest international airports are Madurai International Airport , 150 km ( 93 mi ) away and Thiruvananthapuram International Airport ( TRV ) , about 130 km ( 81 mi ) away .
= = Culture = =
Nellaiappar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva in the form of Nellaiappar . The deity is revered in the verses of Tevaram , a seventh @-@ century Saiva work by Sambandar . The temple was greatly expanded during the 16th @-@ century Nayak period and has a number of architectural attractions , including musical pillars . The temple has several festivals , the foremost an annual festival when the temple chariot is brought around the streets near the temple . It is one of the Pancha Sabhai temples , the five royal courts of Nataraja ( the dancing form of Shiva ) , where he performed a cosmic dance . The Nataraja shrine in the temple represents copper , and features many copper sculptures . Tirunelveli has its fair share of temples , dating back to ancient times . It also prides itself as being the site where the Nellaiappar Temple is located , the state ’ s largest Shiva Temple
Tirunelveli is also known for halwa , a sweet made of wheat , sugar and ghee . It originated during the mid @-@ 1800s at Lakshmi Vilas Stores , which still exist . The art of sweet @-@ making spread to other parts of Tamil Nadu , such as Nagercoil , Srivilliputhur and Thoothukudi . Tirunelveli halwa was popularised by Irutuk
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adai Halwa , a shop opened in 1900 which sells the sweets only during twilight .
Tirunelveli has a number of cinemas which predominantly play Tamil movies . It is among the 40 cities in India with FM radio stations . Tirunelveli 's stations are Tirunelveli Vanoli Nilayam ( All India Radio , from the Government of India ) , Suryan FM ( operated by Sun Network on 93 @.@ 5 MHz ) and Hello FM ( operated by the Malai Malar Group on 106 @.@ 4 MHz ) .
A number of state- and national @-@ level sports events are sponsored in Tirunelveli annually . The VOC grounds ( in central Palayamkottai ) and the Anna Stadium ( on St. Thomas Road ) are popular venues in the city , and some events are held at scholastic sports facilities . As in India generally , the most popular sport is cricket . Also popular are football , volleyball , swimming and hockey , played on facilities provided by the Tirunelveli Division of the Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu .
The Government Exhibition , an annual event at Exhibition Grounds , attracts thousands of visitors from in and around Tirunelveli . Near the city are regional tourist attractions such as the Manimuthar and Papanasam Dams , the Ariakulam and Koonthakulam Bird Sanctuaries , Manjolai and Upper Kodaiyar .
= = Education = =
During the 1790s , Tamil Christians established a number of schools in Tirunelveli . The missionary educational system included primary and boarding schools , seminaries , industrial schools , orphanages and colleges . The first boarding school for girls was opened in 1821 , but its efforts were hampered by the emphasis on Christian education . Thomas Munro ( 1761 – 1827 CE ) of the British East India Company established a two @-@ tier school system : district schools , teaching law , and sub @-@ district schools teaching vernacular languages in the Madras Presidency . Tirunelveli had four sub @-@ district schools : two teaching Tamil and one each for Telugu and Persian .
Tirunelveli has 80 schools : 29 higher secondary schools , 12 high schools , 22 middle schools and 17 primary schools ; the city corporation operates 33 of these schools . The city has eight arts and science colleges and six professional colleges . The Manonmaniam Sundaranar University is named for poet Manonmaniam Sundaranar , who wrote " Tamil Thai Vazhthu " the state anthem . Most Christian schools and colleges in the city are located in the Palayamkottai area .
Anna University of Technology Tirunelveli was established in 2007 , offering a variety of engineering and technology courses for undergraduate and graduate students . Tirunelveli Medical College , Veterinary College and Research Institution and the Government College of Engineering , Tirunelveli are professional colleges operated by the government of Tamil Nadu . The Jesuit St. Xavier 's College , and St. John 's College ( operated by the Church of South India diocese ) , MDT Hindu College , Sadakathulla Appa College and Sarah Tucker College are notable arts colleges .
The Indian Institute of Geomagnetism ( IIG ) operates a regional unit , the Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory , conducting research in geomagnetism and atmospheric and space sciences . The city has a District Science Centre ( a satellite unit of Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum , Bangalore ) with permanent exhibitions , science shows , interactive self @-@ guided tours , a mini @-@ planetarium and sky observation .
Tirunelveli and the district have a high rate of child labour . The drop in female school attendance between ages 15 and 19 is almost four times greater than that in the rest of Tamil Nadu .
= = Utilities = =
Electric service to Tirunelveli is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . The city is headquarters for the Tirunelveli region of the four @-@ division TNEB and , with its suburbs , forms the Tirunelveli Electricity Distribution Circle . A chief distribution engineer is stationed at regional headquarters . Water supply is provided by the Tirunelveli City Corporation from the Tamirabarani River , throughout the city .
About 100 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city daily in door @-@ to @-@ door collection ; source segregation and disposal is performed by the sanitary department of the Tirunelveli Municipal Corporation . The underground drainage system was constituted in 1998 , covering 22 percent of the corporation area . The remaining system for disposal of sewage is through septic tanks and public conveniences . The corporation maintains a total of 184 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 114 @.@ 8 mi ) of stormwater drains , 27 percent of the total road length . The clinics operated by the corporation provide primary health care to the urban poor through family @-@ welfare and immunisation programs . In addition , there are private hospitals and clinics providing health care to citizens .
Tirunelveli is part of the Tirunelveli Telecom District of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet @-@ services provider . Both Global System for Mobile Communications ( GSM ) and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services are available . In addition to telecommunications , BSNL also provides broadband internet service . Tirunelveli is one of a few cities in India where BSNL 's Caller Line Identification ( CLI ) -based internet service , Netone , is available . The city has a Passport Seva Kendra , a public @-@ private @-@ sector collaboration , which accepts passport applications from the Tirunelveli region for the passport office in Madurai .
= 1998 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1998 Atlantic hurricane season was one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricane seasons that featured the highest number of storm @-@ related fatalities in over 200 years . It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Alex , developed on July 27 , and the season 's final storm , Hurricane Nicole , became extratropical on December 1 . The strongest storm , Mitch , was tied with Hurricane Dean for the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded . Mitch is also the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history . The system dropped tremendous amounts of rainfall in Central America , causing 19 @,@ 000 confirmed deaths and at least $ 6 @.@ 2 billion ( 1998 USD ) in damage . The season was the first to feature a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale since Hurricane Andrew in the 1992 season .
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land . Hurricane Bonnie made landfall in southeastern North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane in late August , killing five people and causing about $ 1 billion in damage . Hurricane Earl caused $ 79 million in damage and three deaths after making landfall in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane . The two deadliest and destructive hurricanes of the season , Hurricane Georges and Mitch , caused $ 5 @.@ 9 billion in damage and $ 6 @.@ 2 billion in damage , respectively . Hurricane Georges was an intense Category 4 hurricane that moved through many of the Caribbean Islands , causing significant damage before making landfall near Biloxi , Mississippi . Hurricane Mitch was a very powerful and destructive late @-@ season hurricane that affected much of Central America before making landfall in Florida as a tropical storm . The significant amount of rainfall that Mitch produced across Central America caused significant damage and killed at least 11 @,@ 000 people , making the system the second deadliest hurricane in recorded history , behind only the Great Hurricane of 1780 .
= = Season outlooks = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) ' s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center 's , William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , as well as Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a particular year . As stated by NOAA and CSU , an average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 – 2010 contains roughly 12 tropical storms , 6 hurricanes , 3 major hurricanes , and an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) Index of 66 – 103 units . NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above @-@ average , average , of below @-@ average based on the cumulative ACE Index ; however , the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a hurricane season is considered occasionally as well .
CSU began issuing outlooks in December 1997 and initially predicted 9 named storms , 5 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes would occur in the upcoming season . Later , in April 1998 , CSU released a forecast calling for 10 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricane . The predictions by CSU in June and August 1998 remained the same as the forecast in April . Additionally , forecasters at CSU predicted that the El Niño event that began in 1997 would dissipate either before or shortly after the 1998 season began . The WRC predicted 8 named storms and 5 hurricanes in early 1998 , but did not include a forecast for the number of major hurricanes .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1998 , with the first tropical cyclone developing on July 27 . It was an above average season in which 14 tropical cyclones formed . All fourteen depressions attained tropical storm status and ten of these became a hurricane . Three hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The dissipation of an El Niño in April and the development of a La Niña by June was attributed to the above average activity . Three hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused at least 19 @,@ 618 deaths and nearly $ 17 @.@ 6 billion in damage . Hurricane Danielle also caused damage , although it never made landfall . The last storm of the season , Hurricane Nicole , dissipated on December 1 , which was the day after the official season ending on November 30 .
Activity in the season began slowly , with the first tropical cyclone not forming until July 27 . It did not become Tropical Storm Alex until July 29 , which was an abnormally late first named storm for an Atlantic hurricane season . After being dormant for about two weeks , Hurricane Bonnie developed on August 19 . Thereafter , tropical cyclogenesis became more frequent , with an additional three storms by the end of August . September was the most active month , coinciding with the climatological peak of the season . Six tropical cyclones formed in that month , four of which reached hurricane intensity . Four hurricanes were active on September 26 , with Georges over the Straits of Florida , Ivan in the North Atlantic , Jeanne was located near Cape Verde , and Karl was situated over the Central Atlantic . This was the first such occurrence since August 22 in 1893 . However , three hurricanes also co @-@ existed in the Atlantic on September 11 in 1961 , with a possible fourth . Following a busy September , activity began slowing , starting in October , when only two tropical cyclones developed . However , both storms became a hurricane , with the second cyclone , Hurricane Mitch , become the most intense , deadliest , and costliest storm of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 182 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alex = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on July 26 and rapidly developed a surface circulation by the following day . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression One formed at 1200 UTC on July 27 , while centered about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Initially , minimal change in structure or convection occurred . However , after an increase in deep convection and satellite intensity estimates of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Alex early on July 29 . Under the influence of a deep @-@ layer ridge , the storm tracked west to west @-@ northwestward at 12 to 17 mph ( 19 to 27 km / h ) . A mid- to upper @-@ level trough located north and west of Alex generated vertical wind shear starting on July 30 , allowing for minimal intensification .
Later on July 30 , a burst in deep convection resulted in slight strengthening of the storm . At 0000 UTC on July 31 , Alex attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Vertical wind shear prevented Alex from strengthening further and instead caused it to weaken later that day . By August 1 , the low @-@ level circulation became exposed to the south of the remaining deep convection . Later that day , Alex curved northwestward and avoided any threat to the Lesser Antilles . At 1800 UTC on August 1 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression . Early on the following day , Alex was considered dissipated after a reconnaissance aircraft failed to locate a closed low @-@ level circulation .
= = = Hurricane Bonnie = = =
Tropical Depression Two developed from a tropical wave at 1200 UTC on August 19 , while located well east of the Lesser Antilles . After tracking west @-@ northwestward for 24 hours , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie . While at tropical storm intensity , Bonnie passed north of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands on August 21 . Early on the following day , a hurricane hunter aircraft indicated that the storm strengthened into a hurricane . Bonnie curved north @-@ northwestward on August 23 , shortly before it peaked with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The storm weakened slightly before making landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) early on August 27 . The storm briefly weakened to a tropical storm later on August 27 , though it re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane as it was re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic . Colder waters weakened Bonnie to a tropical storm by late on August 28 . The storm then accelerated east @-@ northeastward offshore New England and Atlantic Canada , before becoming an extratropical cyclone on August 30 .
In South Carolina , strong winds were reported , particularly in Charleston , Georgetown , and Horry Counties . Many trees and power lines were downed in the area ; there was also structural damage . The storm caused two deaths and about $ 25 million in losses in South Carolina . Strong winds lashed Eastern North Carolina , downing numerous trees and power lines , which left about 500 @,@ 000 people without electricity . One person was killed in Barco when a tree fell on a house . In North Carolina alone , damage reached at least $ 240 million . Erosion was also severe , with numerous docks , piers , and bulkheads either damaged or destroyed ; many protective dunes constructed after Hurricane Fran in 1996 were ruined . In Virginia , strong winds in the eastern portions of the state caused some structural damage and downed trees and power lines , leaving about 750 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Damage in Virginia reached approximately $ 95 million . Two other fatalities were reported , one in Rehoboth Beach , Delaware and the other at Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Later in its duration , Bonnie brought rough seas , strong winds , and light rainfall to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia , but caused little damage . Overall , there were five deaths and at least $ 720 million in damage , while other sources claimed that losses reached $ 1 billion .
= = = Tropical Storm Charley = = =
An area of disturbed weather developed into Tropical Depression Three at 0600 UTC on August 21 , while located about 305 miles ( 490 km ) east @-@ southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The depression moved generally northwestward throughout its duration . Based on data from oil platforms in the northern Gulf of Mexico , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley at 1800 UTC on August 21 . The storm intensified further , with reconnaissance aircraft reporting sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on August 22 . Shortly thereafter , Charley weakened and only four hours later , it made landfall near Port Aransas , Texas with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Late on August 22 , the system weakened to a tropical depression . Charley persisted as a tropical cyclone for about 24 hours longer , before dissipating near Del Rio , Texas .
Heavy rainfall was reported throughout southern Texas . Del Rio recorded 17 inches ( 432 mm ) of precipitation in a 24 ‑ hour period , a record for the city . Charley was also responsible for serious local flooding in Val Verde County , Texas , where collectively about 2 @,@ 000 houses , mobile homes , and apartments were destroyed . In that county alone , damage was estimated at $ 40 million . Throughout Texas , losses reached about $ 50 million and 13 deaths were confirmed , with an additional 6 people listed as missing . Flooding also occurred in northern Mexico , especially in the state of Coahuila . Ciudad Acuña was inundated with up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water , which damaged about 450 houses in
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the city ; seven deaths were also reported in the area .
= = = Hurricane Danielle = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 21 . Convection quickly organized and by 0600 UTC on August 24 , Tropical Depression Four developed while located about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Favorable conditions allowed strengthening , with an upgrade to Tropical Storm Danielle later that day . The storm sharply intensified and became a hurricane on August 25 . Strengthening continued , with Danielle peaking with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on August 26 . However , the storm oscillated in intensity for several days , ranging from a minimal Category 1 to a strong Category 2 hurricane , due to differing atmospheric conditions . While passing north of the Lesser Antilles , Danielle dropped heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing street flooding and damaging at least one home . Damage in Puerto Rico totaled to $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Additionally , Danielle crossed seas in the wake of Hurricane Bonnie , also contributing to weakening . After tracking west @-@ northwest for several days , an anticyclone curved the storm to the northeast while it was located northeast of the Bahamas on August 31 . By early on September 2 , Danielle weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , as it was passing northwest of Bermuda . Danielle produced tropical storm force winds on the island . Thereafter , the storm continued to slowly weaken and lose tropical characteristics . At 0000 UTC on September 4 , Danielle transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland . The remnant extratropical cyclone reached the British Isles on September 6 , before merging with an extratropical low pressure area two days later . Offshore Newfoundland , rogue waves were reported , though the only effects on land were light rainfall . The remnant extratropical storm associated with Danielle lashed the United Kingdom with large waves . Severe beach erosion and coastal flooding occurred , causing evacuations in Cornwall , England .
= = = Hurricane Earl = = =
Tropical Depression Five developed from a tropical wave in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC on August 31 , while located about midway between Mérida , Yucatán and Tampico , Tamaulipas . The depression is estimated to have strengthened into Tropical Storm Earl six hours later , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans , Louisiana . The storm headed north @-@ northeastward and was difficult to track , due to multiple centers on satellite imagery . Earl slowly curved east @-@ northeastward and continued strengthening , with reconnaissance aircraft data indicating that the storm reached hurricane intensity at 1200 UTC on September 2 . It briefly became a Category 2 hurricane about six hours later and peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . However , the storm weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane early on September 3 , before landfall near Panama City , Florida with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Earl rapidly weakened to a tropical storm about six hours later and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Georgia late on September 3 .
Prodigious precipitation fell during its transit of northern Florida , with 16 @.@ 36 inches ( 415 mm ) near of Panama City . In Gulf County , 300 homes were damaged by high winds and floodwaters . At Port St. Joe , storm surge inundated 14 businesses . Storm surge in Franklin County damaged 136 homes and 15 businesses and led to a brief closure of the St. George Causeway . In Wakulla County , 216 homes and businesses were damaged by high winds and flooding . Severe flooding in coastal Taylor County caused significant damage in nine communities , with 66 structures impacted . Five homes were destroyed and 39 others were damaged by flooding in Dixie County . On September 3 , the strongest tornado spawned by Earl in Florida touched down in Citrus County , where it destroyed 8 homes and damaged 24 others . There were 3 fatalities and about $ 76 million in damage in Florida . In other states , heavy rainfall and tornadoes resulted in severe localized damage , particularly in Alabama , Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina . A third storm @-@ related fatality occurred in Saint Helena , South Carolina caused by a tornado . Overall , Earl caused 3 deaths and about $ 79 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Frances = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on September 8 , while located about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . The depression moved south @-@ southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances on September 9 . Frances then executed a small cyclonic loop , moving westward , southward , and then northeastward . By September 10 , the storm moved quickly northward . After re @-@ curving northwestward , Frances peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on September 11 , but later then weakened slightly . At 0600 UTC , the storm made landfall near Corpus Christi , Texas with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Frances slowly weakened inland and continued northwestward . Early on September 12 , it curved northward , while weakening to a tropical depression . The storm degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure at 1800 UTC on September 13 , while located over northeastern Texas .
Early in its duration , Frances interacted with Tropical Storm Javier in the eastern Pacific , resulting in torrential rainfall over Mexico , peaking at 44 @.@ 06 inches ( 1 @,@ 119 mm ) in Escuintla , Chiapas . Roughly 800 @,@ 000 people in Chiapas were directly affected by the flooding . About 36 rivers in the region exceed their banks . Damage was estimated at $ 63 million and at least 229 deaths were confirmed . Severe flooding was also reported in the United States , particularly in Louisiana and Texas . Rainfall from the storm in the United States peaked at 22 @.@ 39 inches ( 569 mm ) in Terrytown , Louisiana . Flooding was worst in Calcasieu Parish , where over 20 homes in the Deatonville area reported water damage . Tides in Cameron Parish were the highest since Hurricane Carla , causing significant coastal flooding . In Texas , flooding was particularly severe in the eastern portions of the state . More than 1 @,@ 400 homes and businesses in the Houston area alone were either damaged or destroyed by the floods . In the United States , there was about $ 500 million in damage , as well as two fatalities in Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Georges = = =
Tropical Depression Seven developed from a tropical wave on September 15 , while located south of Cape Verde . It tracked west @-@ northwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Georges on September 16 . Favorable conditions such as warm sea surface temperature and good upper @-@ level outflow allowed the storm to rapidly deepen . By September 20 , Georges peaked as a 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane . However , it weakened due to increasing vertical wind shear and winds were 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) when the storm made landfall in Antigua , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and Puerto Rico on September 21 . Georges made another landfall in the Dominican Republic with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on September 22 . It weakened significantly over Hispaniola , and late on September 23 , Georges struck eastern Cuba with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The storm tracked inland near the north coast of Cuba , retaining hurricane @-@ force winds . On September 25 , the storm struck Key West with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . After heading northwestward for three days , Georges struck Biloxi at the same intensity . Georges quickly weakened to a tropical depression on September 29 , by which time it turned eastward through the Southeastern United States . By October 1 , it dissipated close to the Atlantic Ocean near the Florida @-@ Georgia border .
About 2 @,@ 125 homes were either damaged or destroyed in Antigua and Barbuda , with property losses reaching $ 160 million ; there were also 3 deaths . Roughly 60 % of structures on Saint Kitts were damaged , as were 35 % of structures in Nevis . Five deaths and $ 445 million in damage were reported in Saint Kitts and Nevis . Strong winds and heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico left 96 % of the island without electricity , impacted at least 100 @,@ 610 homes , wiped out more than two @-@ thirds of crops , and caused 8 deaths and $ 2 billion in losses . Heavy precipitation in Dominican Republic caused mudslides , which left about 155 @,@ 000 homeless and damaged buildings and road infrastructure . Additionally , it destroyed 55 % of crops , caused at least 380 deaths , and left about $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in losses . The situation was similar in Haiti , where mudslides left 167 @,@ 332 people homeless , at least 80 % of certain crops ruined , 209 persons dead , and about $ 179 million in damage . In Cuba , mudslides and strong winds damaged 60 @,@ 475 homes , of which 3 @,@ 481 were completely destroyed . Additionally 1 @,@ 117 businesses were damaged , of which 12 were destroyed . Extensive crops losses also occurred . Six deaths and $ 305 @.@ 8 million in damage were reported in Cuba .
Hurricane @-@ force winds in the Florida Keys damaged 1 @,@ 536 houses and destroyed 173 homes . In the Florida Panhandle , flooding was extensive because of rainfall up to 38 @.@ 46 inches ( 977 mm ) . Many residents were isolated and 132 roads were closed due to flooding . In Alabama , 251 houses , 16 apartment buildings , and 70 businesses experienced significant impacts at Gulf Shore . About 50 houses were destroyed and another 40 were left uninhabitable on Dauphin Island , Alabama . One fatality was reported in Mobile when a woman was driving and slid off the road into a creek . Mississippi bore the brunt of the storm in the United States . Along the coast of Mississippi , more than 1 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . One of the worst impacted areas inland was Stone County , where 54 homes had minor damage , 26 suffered major damage and 5 were destroyed . Winds also left 230 @,@ 000 people without electricity . In the state of Mississippi alone , there was approximately $ 665 million in losses . In Louisiana , the storm caused three indirect deaths , while strong winds and storm surge impacted at least 70 homes , destroyed 85 fishing camps , and left 160 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Overall , Georges caused at least 615 deaths and roughly $ 9 @.@ 72 billion in losses .
= = = Tropical Storm Hermine = = =
A tropical wave crossed the Africa coast and entered the Atlantic Ocean on September 5 . It tracked westward for several days , until curving northwestward in the Caribbean Sea near the coast of South America . By September 16 , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 17 . The depression executed a cyclonic loop , first heading west @-@ southwest , then south , before curving northeast and finally northward . By September 19 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Hermine . The storm continued north @-@ northeastward until it made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 0500 UTC on September 20 . Hermine rapidly weakened inland and dissipated in Mississippi late on September 20 .
The outer bands of Hermine dropped heavy rainfall throughout Florida . Several traffic accidents occurred as a result , with one man dying after losing control of his vehicle on U.S. Route 441 . Effects overall in Louisiana were minimal , mostly minor flooding . At Lake Catouatchie , a man went to untangle debris in his boat propeller and attempted to swim after the boat , but instead drowned . Hermine spawned two tornadoes in Mississippi , one of which destroyed two mobile homes , damaged seven cars , and caused one injury . Locally heavy rainfall left parts of Mississippi Highway 27 and U.S. Route 11 in Alabama under water , stranding several motorists . The remnants of Hermine produced more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain in Charleston , South Carolina , leaving more than 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water in some neighborhoods . Overall , the storm caused 2 deaths and $ 85 @,@ 000 in damage .
= = = Hurricane Ivan = = =
A tropical wave developed over western Africa near the Prime meridian on September 14 . Two days later , residual cloudiness and sounding data from Dakar , Senegal , indicated that the system entered the Atlantic Ocean . After the system quickly developed deep convection and improved significantly in organization , it was classified as Tropical Depression Nine starting at 0000 UTC on September 19 , while located approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . The depression initially tracked west to west @-@ southwestward with slow intensification , due to vertical wind shear . By September 20 , an elongated trough turned the depression northwestward . Later that day , the depression strengthened enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Ivan .
On September 21 , Ivan re @-@ curved northward , while still in the far eastern Atlantic . While heading north @-@ northwestward on September 23 , the storm briefly weakened , but quickly re @-@ strengthened and became a hurricane later that day . Two days later , Ivan began slowly turning northeastward . At 0600 UTC on September 26 , Ivan attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . As it was tracking east @-@ northeastward , Ivan briefly posed a threat to the Azores , though tropical storm or hurricane @-@ force winds did not impact the archipelago . Shortly thereafter , colder sea surface temperatures weakened Ivan to a tropical storm by early on September 27 . Six hours later , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while northeast of the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Jeanne = = =
Between September 19 and September 20 , a slow @-@ moving tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa . By the following day , an increase in deep convection allowed it to be classified as Tropical Depression Ten . Forming about 160 miles ( 260 km ) west of Guinea @-@ Bissau , it was the easternmost tropical cyclone development in the Atlantic basin since Tropical Storm Christine in 1973 . Due to light wind shear , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Jeanne by 1800 UTC on September 21 . Further significant intensification occurred and Jeanne became a hurricane about 24 hours later . Late on September 23 , the storm became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . At 1800 UTC on September 24 , Jeanne attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
After peaking as a moderate Category 2 hurricane , an increase in vertical wind shear slowly weakened the storm . Around that time , Jeanne began curving northwestward . By late on September 25 , the storm was downgraded
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back to a Category 1 hurricane . Three days later , a trough forced Jeanne to accelerate toward the north @-@ northeast . It re @-@ strengthened slightly on September 28 , though the storm began weakening again . Late on September 29 , Jeanne was downgraded to a tropical storm . Shortly before weakening further to a tropical depression on October 1 , a wind gust of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) was reported on Horta in the Azores . The storm then passed through the Azores , but lost tropical characteristics by 1200 UTC on October 1 . The remnant extratropical cyclone struck Portugal on October 4 and became unidentifiable over Spain later that day .
= = = Hurricane Karl = = =
A non @-@ tropical low pressure system was first noted on the coast of the Carolinas on September 21 . Deep convection became better organized , and on September 23 , the system was designated as Tropical Depression Eleven while located near Bermuda . Initially , the depression moved quickly towards the east , ahead of a frontal boundary moving off the East Coast of the United States . Early on September 24 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karl . At the time , the storm began curved east @-@ southeastward and slowed in forward speed . By later that day , westerly and northwesterly wind shear caused the center to become partially exposed from the deep convection . Despite this , Karl strengthened into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 25 .
In response to a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough , Karl accelerated towards the northeast . Shortly after developing a well @-@ defined eye , the storm reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 27 . However , wind shear caused Karl to begin weakening . Later on September 27 , satellite imagery indicated that the cyclone was beginning to lose tropical characteristics . Deep convective activity was limited to the north and northwest of the center , and the low @-@ level center became separated from the center of the cloud circulation . Karl weakened to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on September 28 , while located near the Azores . Later that day , the storm became extratropical over cooler waters , when the center of circulation became separated from the deep convection . The extratropical remnants were last noted south of Ireland on September 29 .
= = = Hurricane Lisa = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 29 . The system soon became unidentifiable within the Intertropical Convergence Zone , preventing quick development . However , by October 3 , the system became more distinguishable and better @-@ defined , with a low @-@ level circulation forming on October 4 . It was reported that Tropical Depression Twelve formed at 0000 UTC on October 5 , while located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . Although strong wind shear kept the depression disorganized , it was able to intensify into Tropical Storm Lisa about six hours later . Because of unfavorable conditions , further intensification was deemed unlikely . Lisa initially tracked northwestward , though by October 6 , an upper @-@ level low pressure system caused the storm to turn northeastward .
A baroclinic trough within the westerlies transitioned into a deep low , causing Lisa to accelerate starting on October 7 . Despite winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at a buoy and an improved appearance on satellite imagery , no strengthening was predicted . By October 8 , convection persisted near the center and banding features developed . Lisa further accelerated , with forward speed reaching over 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on October 9 . Later that day , a deep low to the west and a strong high pressure system to the east caused Lisa to turn northward . At 1200 UTC on October 9 , Lisa unexpectedly strengthened into a hurricane , simultaneously peaking with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later that day , the storm began merging with an extratropical frontal system and eventually became unidentifiable by early on October 10 .
= = = Hurricane Mitch = = =
Tropical Depression Thirteen was spawned by a tropical wave on October 22 , while located offshore Colombia in the Caribbean Sea . Later that day , the depression became Tropical Storm Mitch , and within two days it intensified into a hurricane . While curving westward , the storm rapidly deepened , reaching its peak as a Category 5 hurricane with winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) late on October 26 . Mitch weakened significantly while turning to the south , and on October 29 it moved ashore with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) east of La Ceiba , Honduras . It quickly weakened to a tropical storm , but did deteriorate into a tropical depression until October 31 while over Central America . Mitch degenerated into a low pressure area on November 2 near the border of Mexico and Guatemala , although it was re @-@ designated a tropical storm on November 3 , after emerging into the Bay of Campeche . After turning to the northeast , the storm struck the city of Campeche early on November 4 , and Mitch briefly weakened into a tropical depression over the Yucatán Peninsula . The storm re @-@ intensified after reaching the Gulf of Mexico again , and Mitch made its final landfall near Naples , Florida with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on November 5 . Shortly thereafter the storm became extratropical near the northern Bahamas , which lasted several more days while crossing the Atlantic Ocean .
Heavy rainfall in Jamaica flooded numerous houses and caused three fatalities from mudslides . Strong winds , rough seas , and large amounts of precipitation resulted in minor effects in Cuba and the Cayman Islands . Offshore Honduras , the Fantome sank , drowning all 31 people on board . In Honduras , the large and slow @-@ moving storm dropped 35 @.@ 89 inches ( 912 mm ) of rain , causing the destruction of at least 70 % of the country 's crops and an estimated 70 @-@ 80 % of road infrastructure . About 25 villages were completely dismantled , while about 33 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 50 @,@ 000 were damaged . Damage totaled about $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in Honduras and at least 14 @,@ 600 fatalities were reported . In Nicaragua , rainfall totals may have reached 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . Over 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) of roads required replacement or repairs , while effects to agriculture were significant . Almost 24 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed and an additional 17 @,@ 600 were damaged . About 3 @,@ 800 deaths and $ 1 billion in damage were reported in Nicaragua . In Costa Rica , the storm impacted 2 @,@ 135 homes , of which 241 were destroyed . Extensive road infrastructure and crop damage was also reported . There were 7 people killed and $ 92 million in damage in Costa Rica .
The storm caused flooding as far south as Panama , where three fatalities occurred . Flash flooding and landslides in El Salvador damaged more than 10 @,@ 000 homes , 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of roadway , and caused heavy losses to crops and livestock . Damage totaled $ 400 million and 240 deaths were confirmed . Effects were similar but slightly more significant in Guatemala , where 6 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed and an additional 20 @,@ 000 were impacted to some degree . Additionally , 840 miles ( 1 @,@ 350 km ) of roads were affected , with nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) of it being major highways . Crop damage in Guatemala alone was nearly $ 500 million . It was reported that 268 deaths and $ 748 million in losses occurred in Guatemala . The storm caused relatively minor effects in Mexico and Belize , with 9 and 11 fatalities in both countries , respectively . Mitch brought tropical storm winds to South Florida and rainfall up to 11 @.@ 20 inches ( 284 mm ) . In the Florida Keys , several buildings that were damaged by Georges were destroyed by Mitch . Tornadoes in the state spawned by Mitch damaged or destroyed 645 houses . The storm caused two fatalities and $ 40 million in damage in Florida . Overall , Mitch caused $ 6 @.@ 2 billion in losses and at least 18 @,@ 974 people were left dead .
= = = Hurricane Nicole = = =
An intense frontal low that persisted near the Canary Islands gradually acquired tropical characteristics and a low @-@ level circulation . Tropical Depression Fourteen developed at 0000 UTC on November 24 , while located about 615 miles ( 990 km ) west @-@ southwest of La Palma , Canary Islands . Due to light wind shear , Nicole was able to strengthen swiftly while tracking west @-@ southwestward , reaching winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) later that day . However , on November 25 , wind shear increased , causing the storm to weaken . By 1200 UTC on November 26 , Nicole was downgraded to a tropical depression . The low @-@ level circulation became almost entirely devoid of deep convection . As a result , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Nicole at 1500 UTC on November 26 and did not forecast re @-@ development . However , post @-@ analysis indicates that Nicole remained a tropical cyclone .
At 1500 UTC on November 27 , the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories after Nicole unexpectedly " regenerated " . Deep convection began re @-@ developing and about three hours later , Nicole was upgraded back to a tropical storm . Under the influence of a cold front , Nicole curved northeastward starting on November 27 . While crossing sea surface temperatures that were 2 to 3 ° F ( 3 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 ° C ) above normal , the storm began to significantly intensify . After development of an eye and increasing satellite intensity estimates , Nicole was upgraded to a hurricane early on November 30 . Twenty @-@ four hours later , Nicole attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . However , Nicole weakened to a tropical storm later on December 1 , while also losing tropical characteristics . By 1800 UTC on December 1 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located northwest of the Azores .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the North Atlantic in 1998 . Names that were not used are marked in gray . This is the same list used in the 1992 season with the exception of Alex , which replaced Andrew . The names Alex , Lisa , Mitch , and Nicole were used for the first time this year . The World Meteorological Organization retired the names Mitch and Georges from their rotating lists , they were replaced by Matthew and Gaston for the 2004 season . The remaining names that were not retired were re @-@ used in 2004 .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season . It mentions all of the season 's storms and their names , landfall ( s ) , peak intensities , damages ( in millions ) , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( e.g. a traffic accident or landslide ) , but are still related to that storm . The damage and death totals in this list include impacts when the storm was a precursor wave or post @-@ tropical low , and all of the damage figures are in 1998 USD .
= Mycena atkinsoniana =
Mycena atkinsoniana is a species of agaric fungus in the Mycenaceae family . It is one of the so @-@ called " bleeding mycenas " that will ooze yellow to orange juice when injured . Other distinguishing features include the upper stem surface that is decorated with tiny purplish @-@ brown fibers , and the gills , which are pale yellow with maroon edges . The reddish @-@ brown caps are smooth with a grooved margin , and up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide . Mycena atkinsoniana is known from the United States and Canada , where it grows scattered or in groups on leaf litter in forests during the summer and autumn . It was originally described from collections associated with beech , but it is also frequently found under eastern North American oaks .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in 1935 as Mycena fagicola by American mycologist Alexander H. Smith , based on specimens that he collected the previous year in Cross Village , Michigan . The naming , however , was illegitimate , as it had been previously used by Camille Grognot ( as Mycena fagicola Grogn. apud Roumeguère published in 1885 ) , so Smith changed the specific epithet to atkinsoniana in his 1947 monograph on North American Mycena species . Smith credited George Francis Atkinson with one of the early collections of the fungus in his 1935 species description . Mycena specialist Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus agreed with Smith 's decision to change the epithet , concluding that although Grognot 's name was a nomen nudum ( written without an adequate description ) , he conceded that " the possibility cannot be excluded that one day some overlooked 19th century booklet or exsiccatum will turn up containing a description " .
= = Description = =
The cap is 1 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) broad , initially obtuse to convex , later becoming broadly umbonate . Eventually the cap flattens , sometimes with the disc ( the central region of the cap ) slightly depressed . The cap margin initially touches the stem ; as it expands it becomes somewhat wavy . The extreme margin is marked by small lines , grooves or ridges when the cap is moist . The cap is initially covered with white powdery granules , but this later sloughs off to leave a smooth surface . The disc is brownish when young , but soon develops reddish tones ; older specimens are bay to Isabella , with lighter @-@ colored margins . The flesh is buff @-@ colored , and oozes an orange @-@ yellow juice when cut . The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem . They have a close to moderately crowded spacing , with between 23 and 26 gills reaching the stem . The gills are narrow to moderately broad , chamoisee when young , somewhat darker in age , with edges that are maroon , and either crenulate ( finely scalloped ) or even . The stem is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , 2 – 3 mm thick , and more or less equal in width throughout . The stem base is rooted among the leaves and debris , and the base is covered with short stiff hairs pressed flat against the surface . Its surface is covered sparsely with minute purplish brown fibrils . The stem is dull reddish brown overall , but the color fades near the top . When mushroom tissue is cut or injured , it oozes a dull reddish @-@ brown juice or , in old specimens , a dull orange juice . M. atkinsoniana mushrooms have no distinctive taste or odor .
The spores are narrowly to broadly ellipsoid , amyloid ( staining black to blue @-@ black in Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 28 – 30 by 6 – 7 μm . Cheilocystidia are plentiful , and arranged so as to form a sterile band on the edge of the gill . Measuring , they are narrowly fusoid ( tapered at each end ) , smooth , and have dark reddish contents . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) similar in appearance to the cheilocystidia but far less abundant . Gill tissue is yellowish to very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown when stained with iodine . The tissue of the cap consists of several layers . The outer surface comprises a thin cuticle made of narrow hyphae filled with dark @-@ reddish material . Underlying this layer this is a region of vesiculose ( swollen like a bladder ) cells , while the remainder of the cap tissue consists of narrower woolly hyphae . Both layers of tissue beneath the cuticle will stain very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine ; the stem tissue , in contrast , stains dark vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " bleeding " will distinguish Mycena atkinsoniana from most other Mycena species commonly encountered . The common and widely distributed M. sanguinolenta is another " bleeder " , but it is smaller than M. atkinsonia , with a cap diameter ranging from 3 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) . Additionally , it has distantly spaced gills and a stem that is the same color as the cap , and a dark red juice . M. atkinsoniana is also similar in stature to M. pelianthina ( a non @-@ bleeding species ) , but several field characteristics distinguish M. pelianthina , including a radish @-@ like odor and taste , a purplish to lilac @-@ colored cap , and purple @-@ gray gills with dark purple edges .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fungus is saprobic , and so derives nutrients from breaking down dead plant material , such as leaves , bark , needles , and twigs , that has fallen to the ground . Fruit bodies are usually found growing in groups or scattered on leaf litter in beech and beech @-@ hemlock forests during the summer and autumn , although it has been recorded growing on lawns . It is also often found under eastern North American oaks . The distribution includes the US states Connecticut , New York , Ohio , Michigan , and Vermont . It has also been collected in Quebec , Canada .
= For Your Eyes Only ( short story collection ) =
For Your Eyes Only is a collection of short stories by the British author Ian Fleming , featuring the fictional British Secret Service agent Commander James Bond . It was first published by Jonathan Cape on 11 April 1960 . It marked a change of format for Fleming , who had previously written James Bond stories only as full @-@ length novels .
The collection contains five short stories : " From a View to a Kill " , " For Your Eyes Only " , " Quantum of Solace " , " Risico " and " The Hildebrand Rarity " . Four of the stories were adaptations of plots for a television series that was never filmed , while the fifth Fleming had written previously but not published . Fleming undertook some minor experiments with the format , including a story written as an homage to W. Somerset Maugham , an author he greatly admired .
Elements from the stories have been used in a number of the Eon Productions James Bond film series , including the 1981 film , For Your Eyes Only , starring Roger Moore as James Bond . The film used some elements and characters from the short stories " For Your Eyes Only " and " Risico " . " From a View to a Kill " also gave part of its title ( but no characters or plot elements ) to the fourteenth Bond film , A View to a Kill ( 1985 ) . Plot elements from " The Hildebrand Rarity " were used in the sixteenth Bond film , Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) , and the twenty @-@ fourth Bond film Spectre references the title . " Quantum of Solace " was used as the title for the twenty @-@ second Bond film .
= = Plots = =
= = = " From a View to a Kill " = = =
Bond investigates the murder of a motorcycle dispatch @-@ rider and the theft of his top @-@ secret documents by a motorcycle @-@ riding assassin . The rider was en route from SHAPE , the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe , then located in Versailles , to his base , Station F , in Saint @-@ Germain in France . Since Bond is already in Paris , his superior , M , sends him to assist in the investigation in any way he can . Bond disguises himself as a dispatch @-@ rider and follows the same journey to Station F as the previous rider : as expected , the assassin attempts to kill Bond . Bond , however , is ready and kills the assassin . He then uncovers the assassin 's hidden base of operations .
= = = " For Your Eyes Only " = = =
" For Your Eyes Only " begins with the murder of the Havelocks , a British couple in Jamaica who have refused to sell their estate to Herr von Hammerstein , a former Gestapo officer who is the chief of counterintelligence for the Cuban secret service . They are killed by two Cuban hitmen at the direction of their leader , Major Gonzales ; all three work for von Hammerstein . The Havelocks turn out to be close friends of M , who served as the groom 's best man during their wedding in 1925 . M subsequently gives Bond a voluntary assignment , unconnected to sanctioned Secret Service duties , to travel to Vermont via Canada , find von Hammerstein at his rented estate at Echo Lake and assassinate him as a warning to future criminals who might think to target British citizens . When Bond arrives on the scene , he finds the Havelocks ' daughter , Judy , who intends to carry out her own mission of revenge with a bow and arrow . Judy kills von Hammerstein by shooting him in the back with an arrow from 100 yards ( 91 m ) away at the exact moment that he dives into a lake . A shoot @-@ out then occurs between Bond and Gonzales and the two Cuban gunmen . Bond kills all of them and returns to Canada with Judy , who has been wounded during the gunfight .
= = = " Quantum of Solace " = = =
After completing a mission in the Bahamas , Bond is in Nassau and attends a dinner party at Government House . When the other guests have left , Bond remarks that if he ever marries , he imagines it would be nice to marry an air hostess . The Governor then tells Bond the story of a relationship between a former civil servant , Philip Masters and air hostess Rhoda Llewellyn . After meeting aboard a flight to London , the couple married , and went to live in Bermuda , but after a time Rhoda began a long open affair with the eldest son of a rich Bermudian family . As a result , Masters ' work deteriorated , and he suffered a nervous breakdown . After recovering , he was given a break from Bermuda by the governor and sent on an assignment to Washington . Upon his return Masters was determined to end his marriage and he divided their home into two sections , half to each of them and refused to have anything to do with his wife in private — although they continued to appear as a couple in public . He eventually returned to the UK alone , leaving Rhoda with unpaid debts and stranded in Bermuda — a cruel act which he would have been incapable of carrying out just a few months earlier . The governor explains his point to Bond : when the " Quantum of Solace " drops to zero , humanity and consideration of one human for another is gone and the relationship is finished . Despite the success of Masters ' plan to take revenge on his unfaithful wife , he never recovered emotionally . After a time , Rhoda married a rich Canadian . The governor then reveals that the dinner companions whom Bond found dull were in fact Rhoda and her rich Canadian husband .
= = = " Risico " = = =
Bond is sent by M to investigate a drug @-@ smuggling operation based in Italy that is sending narcotics to England . M instructs Bond to get in touch with a CIA informant , Kristatos , who in turn tells Bond that a man named Enrico Colombo is behind the racket . When Bond sets out to find more information on Colombo , he is captured and brought aboard Colombo 's ship , the Colombina . Colombo informs Bond that Kristatos is actually the one in charge of the drug smuggling operation , and that Kristatos is backed by the Russians . Colombo agrees to help Bond by providing information about things " as long as none of it comes back to Italy " ; Bond agrees to help Colombo eliminate Kristatos . Bond , Colombo , and his men sail the Colombina to Santa Maria when Kristatos 's men are loading another shipment of drugs , they attack Kristatos 's ship and adjacent warehouse and discover Kristatos lurking near the warehouse , preparing to detonate a bomb . Kristatos tries to escape , but is killed by Bond .
= = = " The Hildebrand Rarity " = = =
Bond is on an assignment in the Seychelles Islands ; through Fidele Barbey , his influential and well @-@ connected local contact , he meets an uncouth American millionaire named Milton Krest , who challenges the two to aid him in the search for a rare fish , The Hildebrand Rarity . Bond , Barbey , Krest and his English wife , Elizabeth , set off aboard the Wavekrest in search of the fish . During the journey , Bond learns that Milton verbally and physically abuses everyone around him , especially his wife — whom he punishes with the use of a stingray tail he dubs " The Corrector " . Krest finds the Hildebrand Rarity and kills it — along with many other fish — by pouring poison into the water . After finding and killing the Hildebrand Rarity , the Wavekrest sets sail for port . Along the way Krest gets very drunk , insults Bond and Barbey and tells his wife he will beat her again with the stingray tail . Later that night , Bond hears Krest choking ; investigating , Bond finds that Krest has been murdered — apparently by having the rare fish stuffed down his throat . So as not to be entangled in a murder investigation , Bond throws Krest overboard and cleans up the scene of the crime , making it look as though Krest fell overboard after one of the ropes holding his hammock broke : Bond suspects both Barbey and Mrs. Krest , but is unsure which is responsible . However , when Mrs. Krest invites Bond to sail with her to Mombasa — his next destination — aboard the Wavekrest , he accepts her invitation with reservations .
= = Characters and themes = =
Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson notes that two of the stories ( " Quantum of Solace " and " The Hildebrand Rarity " ) are experimental for Fleming , whilst the remaining three are straightforward Bond adventures . In the two experimental stories Bond is given something of a more human side , with " Quantum of Solace " evidencing Bond 's reaction to the Governor 's story by showing a compassionate side , as he sees the real life of Philip Masters and Rhoda Llewellyn as being more dramatic than his recent mission ; the forthcoming trip he has to make to the CIA , he now sees as " dull and unexciting " . In " The Hildebrand Rarity " , Bond is also shown with a humanitarian side , with feelings for the plight of Liz at the hands of her husband and for the use of the poison on the fish by Milton Krest .
An aspect of Bond 's relationship with M is shown in " For Your Eyes Only " , with Bond taking the decision from M 's shoulders about what should happen to the murderers of M 's friends , the Havelocks ; the scene also shows the reader about the weight of command and M 's indecision as to what path to follow . The daughter of M 's friends , Judy Havelock , is a tough and resourceful character , according to Benson , although after she has revenged her parents ' death and is wounded , softens and allows Bond to take up his usual role of protector .
In the " Risico " story , academic Christoph Lindner identifies the character of Enrico Colombo as an example of those characters who have morals closer to those of the traditional villains , but who act on the side of good in support of Bond ; others of this type include Darko Kerim ( From Russia , with Love ) , Tiger Tanaka ( You Only Live Twice ) and Marc @-@ Ange Draco ( On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ) .
World War II again makes an appearance in the stories : in For Your Eyes Only , Von Hammerstein is a former Gestapo officer , whilst the RCMP officer , Colonel Johns , served with the British under Montgomery in the Eighth Army . In " The Hildebrand Rarity " Milton Krest is of German descent and " Risico " sees both Enrico Colombo and Aristotle Kristatos as having fought for the British in the war .
Justice and revenge are themes that run through two of the stories . In " For Your Eyes Only " the idea of revenge is looked at from a number of angles : Bond 's , M 's and Judy Havelock 's and each has a different interpretation . Bond 's approach to killing is also dissected in " For Your Eyes Only " whilst the morality of killing is a theme in " The Hildebrand Rarity " .
= = Background = =
In the summer of 1958 , CBS television commissioned Fleming to write episodes of a television show based on the James Bond character . This deal came about after the success of the 1954 television adaptation of Casino Royale as an episode of the CBS television series Climax ! . Fleming agreed to the deal , and began to write outlines for the series ; however , CBS later dropped the idea . In January and February 1959 Fleming adapted four of these television plots into short stories at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica and added a fifth story he had written in the summer of 1958 . Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that at the time Fleming was writing both the television scripts , and the short story collection , " Ian 's mood of weariness and self @-@ doubt was beginning to affect his writing " and this can be seen in Bond 's internal monologue of thoughts .
" From a View to a Kill "
" From a View to a Kill " was initially intended to be the backstory for Hugo Drax , the villain of the novel Moonraker . The story would have taken place during World War II , and featured Drax as the motorcycle assassin who crashes his bike and is taken to an American field hospital . Later , the hospital is bombed , leaving Drax with amnesia and a disfigured face . The story was one that Fleming had drawn up for the television series . The SHAPE head of security , Colonel Schreiber , was designed to be the antithesis of Bond , with greying hair , the air of a bank manager , desk with silver framed photographs of his family and a single white rose ; the description shows Fleming using colour to show Schreiber 's lack of colour and personality . The idea of the underground hideout was inspired by Fleming 's brother Peter 's band of Auxiliary Units who dug tunnel networks in Britain in 1940 as part of a resistance movement in advance of a German invasion . The original name for the story was " The Rough with the Smooth " , which was also the original title of the books , before For Your Eyes Only was chosen for publication .
" For Your Eyes Only "
The story was originally entitled Man 's Work and was set in Vermont , where Fleming had spent a number of summers at his friend Ivar Bryce 's Black Hollow Farm , which became the model for von Hammerstein 's hideaway , Echo Lake . The name of the villain of the story , Von Hammerstein was taken from General Baron Kurt von Hammerstein @-@ Equord ( 1878 – 1943 ) , one of Hitler 's opponents . Fleming also considered calling the story " Death Leaves an Echo " and based the story on " Rough Justice " , which was to be episode three of the television series .
" Quantum of Solace "
" Quantum of Solace " was based on a story told to Fleming by his neighbour and lover Blanche Blackwell about a real @-@ life police inspector , who Fleming turned into the civil servant , Philip Masters . As thanks for the story , Fleming bought Blackwell a Cartier watch . Fleming wrote the story in the style of W Somerset Maugham and this was Fleming 's homage to a writer he greatly admired . The story takes its structure - an agent 's private conversation with a high @-@ ranking diplomat about socially unequal romance - from Maugham 's short story " His Excellency " . " Quantum of Solace " was first published in Modern Woman 's Magazine of November 1959 .
" Risico "
In 1958 Fleming holidayed with his wife Ann in Venice and at the Lido peninsula ; Fleming was a great admirer of Thomas Mann 's work Death in Venice , which was based on the Lido and the Flemings visited it for that reason , using the location as the backdrop for " Risico " . For the love interest in the story , Lisl , Fleming used the name of an ex @-@ girlfriend from Kitzbühel in Austria , where he had travelled in the 1930s . For the name of Colombo , Fleming borrowed the surname of Gioacchino Colombo , the Ferrari engine designer .
" The Hildebrand Rarity "
In April 1958 Fleming flew to the Seychelles via Bombay to report for The Sunday Times on a treasure hunt ; although the hunt was not as exciting as he hoped , Fleming used many of the details of the island for " The Hildebrand Rarity " . Fleming combined the backdrop of the Seychelles with his experience he and Blanche Blackwell had undergone when they had visited Pedro Keys , two islands off Jamaica , and watched two scientists do something similar with poison to obtain samples . For the villain of the story , an abusive American millionaire , Fleming used the name Milton Krest : Milton was the code name of a Greek sea captain who ferried British soldiers and agents through German patrols and who received the Distinguished Service Order and an MBE , whilst Krest was the name of tonic and ginger beer Fleming drank in Seychelles . " The Hildebrand Rarity " was first published in Playboy in March 1960 .
= = Release and reception = =
For Your Eyes Only was published on 11 April 1960 in the UK as a hardcover edition by publishers Jonathan Cape ; it was 252 pages long and cost fifteen shillings . The subtitle , Five Secret Occasions in the Life of James Bond , was added for publication ; 21 @,@ 712 copies were printed and quickly sold out . For Your Eyes Only was published in the US in August 1960 by Viking Press and the subtitle was changed to Five Secret Exploits of James Bond ; in later editions , it was dropped altogether .
Artist Richard Chopping once again provided the cover art for the book . On 18 March 1959 Fleming had written to Chopping about the cover he had undertaken for Goldfinger , saying that : " The new jacket is quite as big a success as the first one and I do think [ Jonathan ] Cape have made a splendid job of it " . Moving on to For Your Eyes Only , Fleming said " I am busily scratching my head
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of the Lemurés . They are a people without emotion and thus have no true conflict amongst themselves , but there are a few who tend to go against the will of their people ; such as Llyud . But overtime , as Auraliths were being destroyed , the Aegyl regained their emotions , with some feeling mostly rage on the sky pirates who terrorized them and Ivalice for its sins against them . Their race departed from Ivalice when Lemurés crumbled .
The Feol Viera ( フォル ・ ヴィエラ , Foru Viera ) is a sub @-@ race of the Viera , characterized by light blond hair and shorter ears than standard Viera . They are the descendants of the Aegyl chief Feolthanos who fell in love with a full @-@ blood Viera . The Feol were from birth treated as exiles by their full blood kin , cast out of the Wood to take refuge at Roda Volcano , where none dare enter . Since they have no wings , Feolthanos left the airship Galbana and the Auracite in the hopes that one day they come to him . His inheritance was received by Mydia / Judge of Wings , who decimated all that remained of his progeny to ensure that her people would never learn the truth behind their patriarch .
Lastly , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift features two other races :
The Gria ( グリア , Guria ) are a winged , humanoid race in Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift . The Gria are born with dragon @-@ like wings and horns , and excel at physical combat . All Gria featured in the game are female , but it is never stated whether all members are female or if males exist .
The Revgaji are a subspecies of the above @-@ mentioned Rev race . Their features are not as feline but they do share the pointed ears . Cid and Lezaford are members of this race .
= = = Mythos = = =
Within Final Fantasy Tactics , legends revolve around the Zodiac Brave Story , which deals with twelve knights who used the power of Zodiac Stones — magical stones engraved with symbols of the twelve Zodiac constellations — to fight against a demon summoned by an ambitious king to control Ivalice . This myth was twisted by the Glabados Church , as explained in the game 's backstory , by including St. Ajora as the leader of the Zodiac Braves .
The " Lucavi " are demons linked to the twelve Zodiac Stones who seek to gain control of Ivalice by resurrecting their defeated leader , the High Seraph , Ultima . Any person who holds a Zodiac Stone may make a contract with the Lucavian demon associated with it , and in doing so , become one with that demon . During the events of the game , the Lucavi manipulate the Glabados Church into controlling the War of the Lions to ensure enough bloodshed for Ultima 's resurrection . A thirteenth Lucavi , associated with the sun constellation Ophiuchus , can also be found in a side @-@ quest . Some of the Lucavi reappear as Totema in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , while a sub @-@ boss , Gukko , becomes a " Rukavi " before his final encounter with the party , with an appearance similar to that of a vampire @-@ type enemy . They also reappear in Final Fantasy XII as summoned Espers — with backstories that describe how they became known as Lucavi . It is also revealed that they were creations of the Occuria from Final Fantasy XII . In the new translation of the PSP version of Final Fantasy Tactics , the Zodiac Stones are also referred to as Auracite — the same stone used to summon the Yarhi and Scions ( the Lucavi ) in Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings .
Final Fantasy XII also introduces the " Occuria " , immortal beings who have no visible faces , only a pair of glowing yellow eyes seen under their floating shell @-@ like armor , surrounded by an aquamarine aura . The Occuria can become selectively invisible , and are also capable of possession , shape @-@ shifting and image projection . Referred to by some as gods , but unknown to the main religions in Ivalice , the Occuria race played a central role in the history of Ivalice , controlling all major events , such as the rise of the Dynast @-@ King Raithwall . Though peace fostered in Ivalice in the four @-@ hundred year rule after Raithwall , the Occurian Venat , apparently disgusted with its kind 's manipulations , rebelled and gave the secret of Nethicite to the Archadia 's Dr. Cid and Vayne to overthrow the Occuria and make mankind the masters of their own fate . The events of the game eventually provoke the end the " Age of Stones " ( the Occuria 's control over Ivalice ) . In Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , the Occuria were revealed to have played a part in the sealing of the Purvama Lemurés long ago , which by the present time became a land of legend that many Sky Pirates sought for its Auracite .
Revenant Wings also introduced beings known as the " Yarhi " . Also known as " Espers " to those on Ivalice , they are powerful entities created from anima , spiritual energy . Through certain elements , such as Auracite or Mist , the Yarhi can assume physical form until they are defeated in battle . They are summoned by the wielders of Auracite and obey their every command . Fourteen such Yarhi appeared in Final Fantasy XII ; the first thirteen being the Lucavi from Final Fantasy Tactics which are referred as the " Scions of darkness " , magical beings created by Occuria with great strength and intelligence . Led by Ultima , they eventually rebelled for various reasons and engaged themselves in a war dubbed the Thousand Year War against the gods ; but they were eventually defeated . Consequently , the gods bound their existence with the Glyph of the Beast , trapping them within the Mist . Any who controls the Glyph in turn controls the Scion , allowing them to operate as summoned creatures . The Fourteenth is the legendary swordsman Gilgamesh , who collects the swords of those he defeats in battle . While most fight , few like Cu Sith and the Sahaguin Namingway offer aid in other ways . Also , the viera job " Summoner " can call and use the powers of mythological gods like Kirin , Shiva , and many others .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy Tactics sold 824 @,@ 671 copies in Japan in the first half of 1997 . Since then , the total number of copies sold in Japan has reached approximately 1 @,@ 350 @,@ 000 . In the United States it reached an estimated sale of 750 @,@ 000 units as of year 2004 . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game had shipped 2 @.@ 27 million copies worldwide , with 1 @.@ 36 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 910 @,@ 000 abroad . Final Fantasy Tactics Advance sold over 440 @,@ 000 copies during its year of release in Japan , with nearly 225 @,@ 000 units being sold in its first week alone . By August 6 , 2004 , more than 1 million units of the game were sold in North America and Europe together . The War of the Lions reached the top of Japanese gaming charts , and sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in the first month of release in the United States . The game was the 53rd best @-@ selling game of 2007 in Japan at 301 @,@ 796 copies according to Famitsu magazine . The Ultimate Hits edition sold an additional 19 @,@ 488 copies in Japan . Square Enix reports that as of May 31 , 2009 , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift has sold 670 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , with 310 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan , 240 @,@ 000 copies in North America , and 120 @,@ 000 copies in Europe .
Editorials from the gaming website RPGamer.com outlined several similarities between the Catholic Church and the Church of Glabados portrayed in Final Fantasy Tactics . One editorial noted that it was a controversial move by the developers , as if the church institution " in fact worships a demon , and is evil from its god on down " . However , another editorial mentions that such controversies failed to recognize the church in question is the medieval Roman Catholic Church , and that historically such institution is known for its flaws in the past .
The Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII is considered a Japanese take on the Star Wars galaxy by a GameSpot reviewer ( in turn , Star Wars was considered an American take on Japanese jidaigeki samurai films , specifically Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress ) . Even with the established fantasy setting , the airships and air battles gives the world a science @-@ fiction feel . Adding to the " galaxy far , far away " mood is the mingling of different races within large cities and the political unrest between the rebellion and the Empire . Because the characters primarily traverse on foot , the world of Final Fantasy XII feels vast , and reviewers enjoyed sightseeing because of the impressive visuals .
Eurogamer praised the " beautiful architecture and interaction of the various races " in Final Fantasy XII and noted that there was a " melancholy feeling " to " wandering the barren wastes " of Ivalice . In their review of Final Fantasy Tactics , IGN called the battle areas " extremely well designed and detailed to perfection " , singling out the churches as especially beautiful . GameSpot was similarly impressed with the wide varieties of " beautiful " terrains to be seen in Ivalice , from swamps to castles to " anything else you can think of " . PSXExtreme praised the feel of Lea Monde in Vagrant Story , calling it " excellently lit " in a style that brought out the " dark and moody " feeling of the game . They went on to say that the game 's " great visual presentation will go down in the books as one of the best looking [ PlayStation ] games " .
= Westcott railway station =
Westcott railway station was a small station built to serve the village of Westcott , Buckinghamshire and nearby buildings attached to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor . It was built by the Duke of Buckingham in 1871 as part of a short horse @-@ drawn tramway to allow for the transport of goods from and around his extensive estates in Buckinghamshire and to connect the Duke 's estates to the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway at Quainton Road . A lobbying campaign by residents of the town of Brill led to the tramway being converted for passenger use and extended to Brill railway station in 1872 , becoming known as the Brill Tramway .
Cheaply built and ungraded , and using poor quality locomotives , services on the line were very slow , initially limited to 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) . In the 1890s it was planned to extend the tramway to Oxford , but the scheme was abandoned . Instead , the operation of the line was taken over by the Metropolitan Railway in 1899 .
Following the 1933 transfer of the Metropolitan Railway to public ownership to become the Metropolitan line of London Transport , Westcott station became a part of the London Underground , despite being over 40 miles ( 60 km ) from central London . The management of London Transport believed it very unlikely that the line could ever be made viable , and Westcott station was closed , along with the rest of the line , from 30 November 1935 . The station building and its associated house are the only significant buildings from the Brill Tramway to survive other than the former junction station at Quainton Road .
= = Brill Tramway = =
On 23 September 1868 the small Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) opened , linking the Great Western Railway 's station at Aylesbury to the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction . On 1 September 1894 London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street commenced on 1 January 1897 .
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , had long had an interest in railways , and had served as Chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 to 1861 . In the early 1870s he decided to build a light railway to carry freight from his estates in Buckinghamshire to the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . The first stage of the line , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , and opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers to avoid horses tripping on the sleepers .
Lobbying from the nearby town of Brill for the introduction of passenger services on the line led to an extension from Wotton to Brill railway station , at the foot of Brill Hill 3 ⁄ 4 of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the hilltop town of Brill itself , in the summer of 1872 and the introduction of two mixed trains each day in each direction , at which time the line was renamed the Brill Tramway . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives for the line , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced .
The Duke died in 1889 , and in 1894 the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford . The MR leased the Brill Tramway from 1 December 1899 , although the line continued to be owned by the O & ATC .
= = Services and facilities = =
Westcott station was the second station from Quainton Road , about 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Quainton Road . The station consisted of a single platform with a small wooden station building , and was immediately south of the village of Westcott , which at the time of the railway 's opening had a population of about 150 . Initially named " Westcott Siding " , the station was renamed " Westcott " shortly after opening . The station was initially built with a single low wooden platform , primarily intended for loading and unloading freight . After the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the MR introduced a single Brown Marshall passenger carriage on the line ; at this time , a short section of platform was raised to conventional height to allow access to the higher doors on the new carriage .
Limited by poor quality locomotives and the bumpy , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , trains ran very slowly in the area ; in 1882 trains took 20 minutes to travel the short distance from Quainton Road to Westcott , and 50 minutes from Westcott to Brill .
From 1872 to 1894 Westcott station was served by two passenger trains per day in each direction , and from 1895 to 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day in each direction until closure in 1935 . Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad reduced journey times from Westcott to Quainton Road and Brill to 13 minutes and 28 minutes respectively .
Passenger trains generally served the station only on weekdays , although between 1903 and 1922 trains also ran on Sundays . While the village of Westcott was small , the proximity of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor made Westcott one of the busier stations on the branch in terms of passenger and goods traffic .
Despite the low frequency of service and relatively low numbers of people using the station , Westcott station was staffed ; the single employee 's responsibilities included maintaining the oil lamps on the platform and working a nearby level crossing gate . As with all employees on the line , staff at the station were contractually obliged to " devote themselves exclusively to the service , attend regularly during the appointed hours and to refrain from using improper language , cursing or swearing " . The single member of staff was provided with a house immediately adjacent to the station ; built by the Duke of Buckingham , the house bears the inscription " B & C " ( Buckingham & Chandos ) .
A small gasworks a short distance to the south of Westcott station opened in 1889 to provide power to Waddesdon Manor and to other buildings on the Rothschild 's estate . A short spur line was built from Westcott station to the gasworks , running immediately parallel to the road south from Westcott village . In 1926 the gasworks closed and was replaced by an electrical generator elsewhere on the Waddesdon Manor grounds , and the track of the spur was removed .
= = Closure = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , along with London 's other underground railways aside from the small Waterloo & City Railway , was taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . As a consequence , despite it being 43 miles ( 69 km ) from the City of London , Westcott station became part of the London Underground network . The Brill Tramway was by this time losing significant sums of money . Goods traffic had dwindled , and unlike other areas served by the former Metropolitan Railway , passenger numbers were low ; in 1932 Westcott
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station saw only 1 @,@ 560 passengers and had made only £ 27 ( about £ 1 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts .
Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , saw the lines beyond Aylesbury to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved simply by closing the Brill Tramway . As a consequence , the LPTB decided to abandon all passenger services beyond Aylesbury . The Brill Tramway was closed on 1 December 1935 , with the last trains running on 30 November .
= = After closure = =
Upon the withdrawal of London Transport services the lease expired and the railway and stations reverted to the control of the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction . The cheapest of the 53 lots sold were the Westcott station sign and the oil lamps from the Westcott level crossing , both of which sold for one shilling . The railway house at Westcott was also sold , fetching £ 305 ( about £ 18 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) .
Metropolitan line trains ceased to run north of Aylesbury from 6 July 1936 . London and North Eastern Railway services ( British Rail from 1948 ) continued to run from London 's Marylebone station over the line to Verney Junction via Quainton Road until March 1963 . No trace of the line at Westcott remains , but the station building remains in place in the back garden of the former station house , now a private residence , and carries an exact replica of its original " Westcott " station sign . Aside from the junction station at Quainton Road , now preserved as the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre , the two buildings at Westcott are the only significant buildings associated with the Brill Tramway to have survived .
= Hurricane Kate ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Kate was the final in a series of tropical cyclones to impact the United States during 1985 and the latest in any calendar year to strike the country at hurricane intensity on record . The eleventh named storm , seventh hurricane , and third major hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Kate originated from the interaction of an upper @-@ level trough and tropical wave northeast of Puerto Rico on November 15 . Though the system tracked erratically during the first hours of its existence , the intensification of a region of high pressure to the cyclone 's north caused Kate to turn westward . A favorable atmospheric pattern allowed the newly developed system to intensify to hurricane intensity on November 16 , and further to Category 2 intensity three days later . Kate made its first landfall on the northern coast of Cuba at this intensity prior to emerging as a slightly weaker storm during the evening hours of November 19 . Once clear of land , it began to strengthen quickly , becoming a Category 3 and reaching its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) the following day . On November 21 , a cold front moving across the Mississippi Valley resulted in a north and eventual northeast turn of the cyclone , and Kate came ashore near Mexico Beach , Florida , as a minimal Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued as the cyclone moved along the Southeast United States coastline , and Kate transitioned to an extratropical cyclone on November 23 , a day after exiting the coastline of North Carolina .
The threat of Hurricane Kate in Cuba prompted the evacuation of 360 @,@ 000 people . Heavy rainfall in Cuba caused numerous mudslides and flooding , killing 10 people and leading to severe agriculture damage . Wind gusts over hurricane intensity resulted in widespread power outages , significant building damage , and major crop damage . Damage totaled roughly $ 400 million , making it the most damaging hurricane to strike the island in many decades . In preparation of the system , many hurricane watches and warnings were put into effect . Hundreds of thousands of residents were evacuated , and the governor of Florida declared a state of emergency for six counties in Florida ; this was later relinquished following the relatively minor impacts of Kate . In addition , many shelters were opened . When Kate struck the Florida Panhandle , it became the first hurricane to make landfall in that location since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . Storm surge and flooding rains destroyed much of the oyster industry , causing many people to lose their jobs in the weeks after the storm . Gusts over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) contributed to downed trees and building damage , while a combination of the wind and rain led to downed power poles . Across the remainder of the Southeast United States , several inches of rainfall led to flash flooding , damage to roadways , and major tree damage . Overall , Kate resulted in 15 fatalities and $ 700 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Before the formation of Hurricane Kate , a ridge was located across the southeastern United States for much of the autumn of 1985 ; concurrently , a major trough persisted across the western portion of the country . As a result , weather conditions across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic Ocean in November were more typical of the pattern in late September , including sea surface temperatures of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . On November 13 , a weak tropical wave began interacting with a trough to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles . It gradually organized due to the favorable conditions , and on November 15 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the area indicated the development of a tropical cyclone . As gale force winds were already present , the system was immediately declared Tropical Storm Kate , about 240 miles ( 385 km ) northeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
With a ridge to its north , Kate tracked westward after developing , and an upper @-@ level low developed to the southwest of the storm . The combination of the two provided favorable outflow , allowing Kate to quickly intensify . On November 16 , the storm attained hurricane status while moving through the southeastern Bahamas . After continued strengthening , Kate made landfall at 0600 UTC on November 19 over north @-@ central Cuba with a well @-@ defined eye . When it moved ashore , Kate had a pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) and winds of about 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The hurricane maintained its well @-@ defined eye while moving across northern Cuba , and about 12 hours after making landfall , it emerged into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico just east of Havana . Over the next 24 hours , Kate re @-@ intensified off the southwest coast of Florida as it passed about 85 mi ( 135 km ) southwest of Key West . On November 20 , the Hurricane Hunters observed winds as strong as 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , and a buoy recorded a gust of 136 mph ( 219 km / h ) ; this was the highest recorded wind gust from a buoy in the Gulf of Mexico until Hurricane Lili in 2002 . Based on these observations , it was estimated that Kate attained peak winds of about 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) around 1200 UTC on November 20 .
Hurricane Kate maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours . On November 21 , a cold front moving through the Mississippi Valley deflected the hurricane to the north and northeast . The combination of cooler waters and wind shear from the front weakened Kate to an intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by the time the hurricane struck Crooked Island near Mexico Beach , Florida late on November 21 . After landfall , Kate continued to the northeast , crossing into Georgia and weakened into a tropical storm . Kate emerged from North Carolina into the Atlantic Ocean late on November 22 . Encountering even colder waters and continued shear , the storm weakened further while turning to the east @-@ southeast . On November 23 , Kate transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the west of Bermuda , terminating at 1800 UTC that day .
Until 2011 , Kate 's was considered the second @-@ latest hurricane landfall in the United States , behind only a cyclone in 1925 that struck on December 1 ; however , a systematic reanalysis indicated the 1925 system was only a tropical storm . In turn , Kate took the record . With Kate 's landfall , the 1985 season had six hurricanes that struck the United States , only one short of the record seven in 1886 .
= = Preparations = =
By November 18 , a hurricane warning was in effect for the southeast and central Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . Flood warnings were issued for northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . In preparation for the hurricane 's arrival , officials forced 360 @,@ 000 people to evacuate in north @-@ central Cuba .
While Kate was moving through the Bahamas , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a hurricane warning from Jupiter to Fort Myers , Florida , including the Florida Keys . Then @-@ Governor of Florida Bob Graham declared a state of emergency for six counties in South Florida . However , it was reversed following the relatively minor effects in South Florida . Officials recommended evacuation of the Florida Keys , leading to heavy traffic on the Overseas Highway and prompting the Red Cross to open 12 shelters . Three shelters were opened in Key West , but only 500 sought individuals utilized them during the storm . Most residents chose to endure the storm in their homes . In Fort Lauderdale , schools were closed and residents of mobile homes were required to leave .
Shortly after the storm reached its peak intensity on November 20 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Grand Isle , Louisiana , to Cedar Key , Florida . Later that day , a portion of the watch area was upgraded to a warning from Bay St. Louis , Mississippi to St. Marks , Florida . About 20 @,@ 000 employees on oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico were evacuated , many by helicopter . The USS Lexington left port from Naval Air Station Pensacola to ride out the storm in open waters , and aircraft in the region were flown inland . About 100 @,@ 000 people along the Florida Panhandle were told to leave their houses after Governor Bob Graham issued evacuation orders in 13 counties . About 2 @,@ 000 people stayed in 34 shelters in Panama City . Roads in the region suffered traffic jams from the large volume of evacuees . Portions of the Florida Gulf Coast were threatened by Hurricane Elena earlier in the season , and some evacuees of that storm intended not to leave during Kate due to the poor shelter conditions they had experienced . Governor Graham activated 300 members of the Florida National Guard to prevent looting and to assist in evacuations . One person died from a stress @-@ induced heart attack in Chipley after evacuating . Outside of Florida , about 2 @,@ 200 people fled Grand Isle , Louisiana .
After Kate moved ashore , the NHC issued gale warnings along the East Coast of the United States from St. Augustine , Florida to Chincoteague , Virginia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean and Turks and Caicos Islands = = =
Early in its duration , Hurricane Kate sank one boat near Puerto Rico and disabled three others . The crew of five on the sunken boat were rescued after 17 hours . Several homes in northern Puerto Rico were damaged , forcing hundreds to evacuate . Flooding was also reported in Dominican Republic , including around the capital Santo Domingo .
Heavy rainfall and winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were reported in the Turks and Caicos Islands . In Jamaica , heavy precipitation caused mudslides , which in turn blocked 23 major and minor roads and destroyed many bridges , culverts , and drains . Flooding in general caused severe damage to agriculture , especially in Clarendon , Manchester , Saint Ann , Saint Elizabeth , and Trelawny Parishes . Seven fatalities were reported , while the cost to repair damage was approximately $ 3 million ( 1985 USD ) .
As Kate moved across northern Cuba , it produced strong winds that peaked at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in Sagua La Grande . Wind gusts peaked at 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) in Varadero , and winds in the capital of Havana reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . In Havana , high winds caused power outages and destroyed buildings . Waves of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) affected the city 's waterfront . Outside of Havana , the hurricane damaged sugar mills and much of the sugar cane crop ; throughout the island , the winds destroyed 3 @,@ 653 miles2 ( 9461 km2 ) of sugar cane and 34 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 37 @,@ 000 tons ) of sugar . The storm also destroyed 141 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 139 @,@ 000 long tons ; 155 @,@ 000 short tons ) of bananas and 87 @,@ 078 tonnes ( 85 @,@ 703 long tons ; 95 @,@ 987 short tons ) of other fruits and vegetables . Across the island , Kate damaged 88 @,@ 207 houses and destroyed 4 @,@ 382 others , affecting 476 @,@ 891 people . Many public buildings , including schools , were damaged . Throughout the country , Kate killed 10 people and injured about 50 people . Damage was estimated at $ 400 million , which was the highest total from all landfalling hurricanes from 1903 to 1998 , unadjusted for inflation .
= = = Florida = = =
As Kate passed to the southwest of Key West , the storm produced winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) there , with unofficial wind gusts of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . Rainfall totals in southwest Florida were generally around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , although Key West reported 2 @.@ 08 in ( 53 mm ) of precipitation . High winds downed trees and power lines , leaving areas between Key West and Big Pine Key without power . Electrical outages contributed to a mobile home being destroyed by fire , and one person died through electrocution . Above @-@ normal tides caused minor flooding and erosion along the Florida Keys . Two people died after their boat capsized in the lower Keys .
Kate was the first hurricane to make landfall in the Florida Panhandle since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . In the region , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 8 @.@ 32 in ( 211 mm ) in Panama City . While Kate moved ashore , it produced an 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) storm surge at Cape San Blas , causing beach and dune erosion in Gulf County . Storm surge flooding left 150 houses uninhabitable in Wakulla County . The hurricane damaged a bridge to St. George Island that had been rebuilt after Hurricane Elena , and large portions of U.S. Routes 90 and 98 were washed out or damaged . Just two months after Elena ravaged the Apalachicola Bay shellfish harvesting industry , Hurricane Kate destroyed remaining oyster beds , leaving many oystermen in the area without jobs .
Strong winds buffeted the Florida Panhandle , accompanied by one tornado and several funnel clouds . In Panama City , wind gusts reached 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , damaging two houses , a motel , and a fishing pier . The winds were strong enough to remove the roof of a two @-@ story federal building . Sustained winds blew 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) at Cape San Blas , with gusts up to 108 mph ( 174 km / h ) . Across the area , Kate severely damaged 242 buildings , mostly in Franklin County , where the storm ranked as the most devastating of the late 1900s . The storm compromised about 5 @.@ 4 mi ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) of roads in the county , and throughout the region many roads were washed out . The intense winds brought down numerous trees , some of them onto adjacent structures . One fallen tree struck a car , killing one person and injuring another . The winds also downed power poles and lines . About 90 percent of Florida 's capital city Tallahassee , or about 80 @,@ 000 people , lost power , and along the coast from Panama City to Apalachicola , the storm left about 30 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without electricity . Overall , the hurricane destroyed 325 homes along the panhandle , and about 500 buildings were severely damaged .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Light rainfall of around 1 in ( 25 mm ) from the hurricane extended into southeastern Alabama . Rainfall was much heavier in Georgia , peaking at 7 @.@ 73 in ( 196 mm ) in Bainbridge . Portions of southwestern Georgia experienced heavy damage from flash flooding and winds , and several secondary roads were washed out . Gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) downed thousands of trees , and one fallen tree killed a man west of Thomasville . The cotton , soybean , and pecan crops suffered heavy losses , estimated at around $ 50 million . Property and utility damage was also assessed at $ 50 million , and damage from flash flooding was estimated at $ 1 million . There were scattered power outages in southern Georgia , affecting fewer than 3 @,@ 000 customers by Georgia Power Company 's estimation . While Kate was moving across southeastern Georgia , it produced a 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) wind gust in Savannah . The city also reported 1 @.@ 73 in ( 44 mm ) of rainfall .
Further northeast , Charleston , South Carolina reported a wind gust of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The highest rainfall total in the state was 6 @.@ 56 in ( 167 mm ) in Hampton . The rains caused flash flooding that washed out secondary roads and a bridge . The storm knocked tree limbs onto power lines , which left about 48 @,@ 000 people without power . In Beaufort , trees fell onto four cars and a mobile home , and high waves sunk a boat . In Wilmington , North Carolina , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 99 in ( 51 mm ) of precipitation . Rains across the state caused generally minor flooding , although several cars were swept off roadways . Rising floodwaters prompted the evacuation of a nursing home in Kannapolis . Rainfall extended northward into Virginia . Damage throughout the United States was estimated at $ 300 million .
As an extratropical cyclone , Kate moved north of Bermuda and produced wind gusts of 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) on the island .
= = Aftermath = =
In the month after Hurricane Kate struck the island , the government of Cuba issued a request to the United Nations ( UN ) World Food Council for international assistance . In response , various UN member nations collectively provided $ 60 @,@ 000 for pesticides ; $ 250 @,@ 000 for herbicides , fungicides , and potato seeds ; and $ 1 @.@ 381 million in cooking oils and beans to fulfill the dietary needs of over 475 @,@ 000 people for 60 days . The Soviet Union also donated about $ 15 million worth of rice and wheat flour .
Hurricane Kate delayed a runoff mayoral election in Key West by two weeks . Shortly after the storm , the police departments of both Leon and Jackson Counties ordered a nightly curfew . Two disaster relief centers were opened in Franklin County , one in Apalachicola and the other in Eastpoint . On December 3 , 1985 , then @-@ President of the United States Ronald Reagan declared seven Florida counties as disaster areas , making them eligible to receive federal aid .
Due to the widespread power outages along the Florida Panhandle , electrical companies enlisted extra workers to repair downed lines . Officials had put a curfew in place for Tallahassee due to power outages created by the hurricane , and the curfew was lifted on November 24 after power was gradually restored and roads were cleared of debris . Police officers in the city arrested 20 people for violating curfew or creating unrest .
Some sections of coastline already suffering from severe erosion lost additional swaths of beach to a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) storm surge and strong waves . Many fishermen before and after the storm encountered diminished fish catches after the hurricane .
= Kauri gum =
Kauri gum is a fossilized resin detracted from kauri trees ( Agathis australis ) , which is made into crafts such as jewellery . Kauri forests once covered much of the North Island of New Zealand , before Māori and European settlers caused deforestation , causing several areas to revert to sand dunes , scrubs , and swamps . Even afterward , ancient kauri fields continued to provide a source for the gum and the remaining forests .
Kauri gum formed when resin from a kauri trees leaked out through fractures or cracks in the bark , hardening with the exposure to air . Lumps commonly fell to the ground and became covered with soil and forest litter , eventually fossilising . Other lumps formed as branches forked or trees were damaged , which released the resin .
= = Uses = =
The Māori had many uses for the gum , which they called kapia . Fresh gum was used as a type of chewing gum ( older gum was softened by soaking and mixing with juice of the puha thistle ) . Highly flammable , the gum was also used as a fire @-@ starter , or bound in flax to act as a torch . Burnt and mixed with animal fat , it made a dark pigment for moko tattooing . Kauri gum was also crafted into jewellery , keepsakes , and small decorative items . Like amber , kauri gum sometimes includes insects and plant material .
Kauri gum was used commercially in varnish , and can be considered a type of copal ( the name given to resin used in such a way ) . Kauri gum was found to be particularly good for this , and from the mid @-@ 1840s was exported to London and America . Tentative exports had begun a few years earlier , however , for use in marine glue and as fire @-@ kindlers ; gum had even made up part of an export cargo to Australia in 1814 .
Since the kauri gum was found to mix more easily with linseed oil , at lower temperatures , than other resins , by the 1890s , 70 percent of all oil varnishes made in England used kauri gum . It was used to a limited extent in paints during the late 19th century , and from 1910 was used extensively in the manufacture of linoleum . From the 1930s , the market for gum dropped as synthetic alternatives were found , but there remained niche uses for the gum in jewellery and specialist high @-@ grade varnish for violins .
Kauri gum was Auckland 's main export in the second half of the 19th
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and the International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC ) and now cover unit symbols and names , prefix symbols and names , how quantity symbols should be written and used and how the values of quantities should be expressed . Both ISO and the IEC have published rules for the presentation of SI units that are generally compatible with those published in the SI Brochure . As of August 2013 ISO and IEC were in the process of merging their standards for quantities and units into a single set of compatible documents identified as the ISO / IEC 80000 Standard . The rules covering printing of quantities and units are part of ISO 80000 @-@ 1 : 2009 .
= = = Unit names = = =
Names of units follow the grammatical rules associated with common nouns : in English and in French they start with a lowercase letter ( e.g. , newton , hertz , pascal ) , even when the symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter . This also applies to " degrees Celsius " , since " degree " is the unit . In German , however , the names of units , as with all German nouns , start with capital letters . The spelling of unit names is a matter for the guardians of the language concerned – the official British and American spellings for certain SI units differ – British English , as well as Australian , Canadian and New Zealand English , uses the spelling deca- , metre , and litre whereas American English uses the spelling deka- , meter , and liter , respectively .
Likewise , the plural forms of units follow the grammar of the language concerned : in English , the normal rules of English grammar are used , e.g. " henries " is the plural of " henry " . However , the units lux , hertz , and siemens have irregular plurals in that they remain the same in both their singular and plural form .
In English , when unit names are combined to denote multiplication of the units concerned , they are separated with a hyphen or a space ( e.g. newton @-@ metre or newton metre ) . The plural is formed by converting the last unit name to the plural form ( e.g. ten newton @-@ metres ) .
= = = Unit names as adjectives = = =
In English , a space is recommended between the number and the unit symbol when used as an adjective , e.g. " a 25 kg sphere " .
The normal rules of English apply to unit names , where a hyphen is incorporated into the adjectival sense , e.g. " a 25 @-@ kilogram sphere " .
= = = Chinese and Japanese = = =
Chinese uses traditional logograms for writing the unit names , while in Japanese unit names are written in the phonetic katakana script ; in both cases , symbols are also written using the internationally recognised Latin and Greek characters .
Chinese
The basic Chinese units are metre ( 米 mǐ ) , litre ( 升 shēng ) , gram ( 克 kè ) , and second ( 秒 miǎo ) , while others include watt ( 瓦 wǎ ) . Prefixes include deci- ( 分 fēn ) , centi- ( 厘 lí ) , milli- ( 毫 háo ) , micro- ( 微 wēi ) , kilo- ( 千 qiān ) , and mega- ( 兆 zhào ) . These are combined to form disyllabic characters , such as 厘米 límǐ " centimetre " or 千瓦 qiānwǎ " kilowatt " . In the 19th century , various compound characters were also used , similar to Japanese , either imported or formed on the same principles , such as 瓩 for 千瓦 qiānwǎ ( kilowatt ) or 糎 for 厘米 . These are generally not used today , but are occasionally found in older or technical writing .
Some units have different names in Taiwan . Meter ( 公尺 ) , centimeter ( 公分 ) , liter ( 公升 ) , kilogram ( 公斤 ) , gram ( 公克 ) and hectare ( 公頃 ) have the prefix " 公 " , which means " universal " . The prefixes " 兆 " , " 分 " and " 厘 " are not commonly used , and the use of " 千 " is limited to kilowatt ( 千瓦 ) .
Japanese
A set of characters representing various metric units was created in Japan in the late 19th century . Characters , same as the Chinese , exist for three base units : the metre ( 米 ) , litre ( 升 ) and gram ( 瓦 ) . These were combined with a set of six prefix characters – kilo- ( 千 ) , hecto- ( 百 ) , deca- ( 十 ) , deci- ( 分 ) , centi- ( 厘 ) and milli- ( 毛 ) – to form an additional 18 single @-@ character units . The seven length units ( kilometre to millimetre ) , for example , are 粁 , 粨 , 籵 , 米 , 粉 , 糎 and 粍 . These characters , however , are not in common use today ; instead , units are written in katakana , the Japanese syllabary used for foreign borrowings , such as キロメートル ( kiromētoru ) for kilometre , but are also written in standard prefixes such as " km " for kilometre . A few Sino @-@ Japanese words for these units remain in use in Japanese , most significantly " 平米 " ( heibei ) for " square metre " , but otherwise borrowed pronunciations are used .
These characters are examples of the rare phenomenon of single @-@ character loan words – a foreign word represented by a single Japanese character – and form the plurality of such words . Similar characters were also coined for other units , such as British units , though these also have fallen out of use ; see Single character gairaigo : Metric units and Single character gairaigo : Other units for a full list .
= = = Unit symbols and the values of quantities = = =
Although the writing of unit names is language @-@ specific , the writing of unit symbols and the values of quantities is consistent across all languages and therefore the SI Brochure has specific rules in respect of writing them . The guideline produced by the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) clarifies language @-@ specific areas in respect of American English that were left open by the SI Brochure , but is otherwise identical to the SI Brochure .
= = = = General rules = = = =
General rules for writing SI units and quantities apply to text that is either handwritten or produced using an automated process :
The value of a quantity is written as a number followed by a space ( representing a multiplication sign ) and a unit symbol ; e.g. , 2 @.@ 21 kg , 7 @.@ 3 × 102 m2 , 22 K. This rule explicitly includes the percent sign ( % ) and the symbol for degrees of temperature ( ° C ) . Exceptions are the symbols for plane angular degrees , minutes , and seconds ( ° , ′ , and ″ ) , which are placed immediately after the number with no intervening space .
Symbols are mathematical entities , not abbreviations , and as such do not have an appended period / full stop ( . ) , unless the rules of grammar demand one for another reason , such as denoting the end of a sentence .
A prefix is part of the unit , and its symbol is prepended to the unit symbol without a separator ( e.g. , k in km , M in MPa , G in GHz ) . Compound prefixes are not allowed .
Symbols for derived units formed by multiplication are joined with a centre dot ( · ) or a non @-@ breaking space ; e.g. , N · m or N m .
Symbols for derived units formed by division are joined with a solidus ( / ) , or given as a negative exponent . E.g. , the " metre per second " can be written m / s , m s − 1 , m · s − 1 , or m / s . Only one solidus should be used ; e.g. , kg / ( m · s2 ) and kg · m − 1 · s − 2 are acceptable , but kg / m / s2 is ambiguous and unacceptable .
The first letter of symbols for units derived from the name of a person is written in upper case ; otherwise , they are written in lower case . E.g. , the unit of pressure is named after Blaise Pascal , so its symbol is written " Pa " , but the symbol for mole is written " mol " . Thus , " T " is the symbol for tesla , a measure of magnetic field strength , and " t " the symbol for tonne , a measure of mass . Since 1979 , the litre may exceptionally be written using either an uppercase " L " or a lowercase " l " , a decision prompted by the similarity of the lowercase letter " l " to the numeral " 1 " , especially with certain typefaces or English @-@ style handwriting . The American NIST recommends that within the United States " L " be used rather than " l " .
Symbols of units do not have a plural form ; e.g. , 25 kg , not 25 kgs .
Uppercase and lowercase prefixes are not interchangeable . E.g. , the quantities 1 mW and 1 MW represent two different quantities ; the former is the typical power requirement of a hearing aid ( 1 milliwatt or 0 @.@ 001 watts ) , and the latter the typical power requirement of a suburban train ( 1 megawatt or 1000000 watts ) .
The 10th resolution of CGPM in 2003 declared that " the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line . " In practice , the decimal point is used in English @-@ speaking countries and most of Asia , and the comma in most of Latin America and in continental European languages .
Spaces should be used as a thousands separator ( 1000000 ) in contrast to commas or periods ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or 1 @.@ 000 @.@ 000 ) to reduce confusion resulting from the variation between these forms in different countries .
Any line @-@ break inside a number , inside a compound unit , or between number and unit should be avoided . Where this is not possible , line breaks should coincide with thousands separators .
Since the value of " billion " and " trillion " can vary from language to language , the dimensionless terms " ppb " ( parts per billion ) and " ppt " ( parts per trillion ) should be avoided . No alternative is suggested in the SI Brochure .
= = = = Printing SI symbols = = = =
Further rules are specified in respect of production of text using printing presses , word processors , typewriters and the like .
Symbols are written in upright ( Roman ) type ( m for metres , s for seconds ) , so as to differentiate from the italic type used for quantities ( m for mass , s for displacement ) . By consensus of international standards bodies , this rule is applied independent of the font used for surrounding text .
In Chinese , Japanese , and Korean language computing ( CJK ) , some of the commonly used units , prefix – unit combinations , or unit – exponent combinations have been allocated predefined single characters taking up a full square . Unicode includes these in its CJK Compatibility and letter @-@ like symbols sub @-@ ranges for back compatibility , without necessarily recommending future usage . These are summarised in Unicode symbols . The cursive ℓ , a letter @-@ like symbol , has been used in a number of countries in addition to China and Japan as a symbol for the litre , but this is not currently recommended by any standards body .
In print , the space used as a thousands separator ( commonly called a thin space ) is typically narrower than that used between words .
= = Realisation of units = =
Metrologists carefully distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realisation . The definition of each base unit of the SI is drawn up so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis on which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be made . The realisation of the definition of a unit is the procedure by which the definition may be used to establish the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as the unit . A description of the mise en pratique of the base units is given in an electronic appendix to the SI Brochure .
The published mise en pratique is not the only way in which a base unit can be determined : the SI Brochure states that " any method consistent with the laws of physics could be used to realise any SI unit . " In the current ( 2016 ) exercise to overhaul the definitions of the base units , various consultative committees of the CIPM have required that more than one mise en pratique shall be developed for determining the value of each unit . In particular :
At least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values having a relative standard uncertainty in the determination of the kilogram of no more than 5 × 10 − 8 and at least one of these values should be better than 2 × 10 − 8 . Both the Watt balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled .
When the kelvin is being determined , the relative uncertainty of the Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 10 − 6 and that these values be corroborated by other measurements .
= = Post @-@ 1960 changes = =
The preamble to the Metre Convention read " Desiring the international uniformity and precision in standards of weight and measure , have resolved to conclude a convention ... " . Changing technology has led to an evolution of the definitions and standards that has followed two principal strands – changes to SI itself and clarification of how to use units of measure that are not part of SI , but are still nevertheless used on a worldwide basis .
= = = Changes to the SI = = =
Since 1960 the CGPM has made a number of changes to SI . These include :
The 13th CGPM ( 1967 ) renamed the " degree Kelvin " ( symbol ° K ) to the " kelvin " ( symbol K )
The 14th CGPM ( 1971 ) added the mole ( symbol mol ) to the list of base units .
The 14th GCPM ( 1971 ) added the pascal ( symbol Pa ) for pressure and the siemens ( symbol S ) for electrical conductance to the list of named derived units .
The 15th CGPM ( 1975 ) added the becquerel ( symbol Bq ) for " activity referred to a radionuclide " and the gray ( symbol Gy ) for ionizing radiation to the list of named derived units
In order to distinguish between " absorbed dose " and " dose equivalent " , the 16th CGPM ( 1979 ) added the sievert ( symbol Sv ) to the list of named derived units as the unit of dose equivalent .
The 16th CGPM ( 1979 ) clarified that in a break with convention either the letter " L " or the letter " l " may be used as a symbol for the litre .
The 21st CGPM ( 1999 ) added the katal ( symbol kat ) for catalytic activity to the list of named derived units .
In its original form ( 1960 ) , the SI defined prefixes for values ranging from pico- ( symbol p ) having a value of 10 − 12 to tera- ( symbol T ) having a value of 1012 . The list was extended at the 12th CGPM ( 1964 ) , at the 15th CGPM ( 1975 ) and at the 19th CGPM ( 1991 ) to give the current range of prefixes .
In addition , advantage was taken of developments in technology to redefine many of the base units enabling the use of higher precision techniques .
= = = Retention of non @-@ SI units = = =
Although , in theory , SI can be used for any physical measurement , it is recognised that some non @-@ SI units still appear in the scientific , technical and commercial literature , and will continue to be used for many years to come . In addition , certain other units are so deeply embedded in the history and culture of the human race that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future . The CIPM has catalogued such units and included them in the SI Brochure so that they can be used consistently .
The first such group comprises the units of time and of angles and certain legacy non @-@ SI metric units . Most of mankind has used the day and its subdivisions as a basis of time with the result that the second , minute , hour and day , unlike the foot or the pound , were the same regardless of where it was being measured . The second has been catalogued as an SI unit , its multiples as units of measure that may be used alongside the SI . The measurement of angles has likewise had a long history of consistent use – the radian , being 1 / 2π of a revolution , has mathematical niceties , but it is cumbersome for navigation , hence the retention of the degree , minute and second of arc . The tonne , litre and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units , having been given unique symbols .
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena such as the speed of light , the mass of a proton ( approximately one dalton ) , the charge of an electron and the like . These too have been catalogued in the SI Brochure with consistent symbols , but with the caveat that their physical values need to be measured .
In the interests of standardising health @-@ related units of measure used in the nuclear industry , the 12th CGPM ( 1964 ) accepted the continued use of the curie ( symbol Ci ) as a non @-@ SI unit of activity for radionuclides ; the becquerel , sievert and gray were adopted in later years . Similarly , the millimetre of mercury ( symbol mmHg ) was retained for measuring blood pressure .
= = Global adoption = =
SI has become the world 's most widely used system of measurement , used in both everyday commerce and science . The change to SI had little effect on everyday life in countries that used the metric system – the metre , kilogram , litre and second remained unchanged as did the way in which they were used – most of the changes only affected measurements in the workplace . The CGPM has a role of recommending changes , but no formal role in the enforcement of such changes — another inter @-@ governmental organisation , the International Organization of Legal Metrology ( OIML ) provides a forum for harmonisation of national standards and legislation in respect of metrology .
Both the degree and rate of adoption of SI varied from country to country — countries that had not adopted the metric system by 1960 and subsequently adopted SI did so directly as part of their metrication programs while others migrated from the CGS system of units to SI . In 1960 , the world 's largest economy was that of the United States , followed by the United Kingdom , West Germany , France , Japan , China and India . The United States and the United Kingdom were non @-@ metric , France and Germany had been using the metric system for about a century , and China had been using the metric system for 35 years , while India and Japan had adopted the metric system within the preceding five years . Other non @-@ metric countries were those where the United Kingdom or the United States had considerable influence . These differences are brought out in the examples below :
= = = United Kingdom and the former British Empire = = =
Even though the use of metric units was legalised for trade in the UK in 1864 , the UK had signed the Metre Convention in 1884 and the UK Parliament had defined the yard and the pound in terms of the metre and the kilogram in 1897 , the UK continued to use the imperial system of measure and to export the imperial system of units to the Empire . In 1932 , the system of Imperial Preference was set up at the Ottawa Conference . Although Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1948 and South Africa in 1961 , both continued their close economic ties with the Commonwealth .
When the SI standard was published in 1960 , the only major Commonwealth country to have adopted the metric system was India . In 1863 , the first reading of a bill that would have made the metric system compulsory passed its first reading in the House of Commons by 110 votes to 75 . The bill , however , failed to make the statute book because of lack of parliamentary time . In 1965 , after this and similar false starts the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system . The rationale behind the request was that 80 % of British exports were to countries that used the metric system or that were considering changing to the metric system . The Board of Trade , on behalf of the Government , agreed to support a ten @-@ year metrication programme . The government agreed to a voluntary policy requiring minimal legislation and costs to be borne where they fell . SI would be used from the outset . The rest of the Commonwealth , South Africa and Ireland followed within a few years ; in some countries such as South Africa and Australia metrication was mandatory rather than voluntary .
By 1980 all apart from the United Kingdom , Canada and Ireland had effectively completed their programs . In the United Kingdom the breakdown of voluntary metrication in the mid @-@ 1970s coincided with the United Kingdom 's obligations as part of the EEC to adopt the metric system , resulting in legislation to force metrication in certain areas and the Eurosceptic movement adopting an anti @-@ metrication stance and the United Kingdom seeking a number of derogations from the relevant EEC directives . Once the metrication of most consumer goods was completed in 2000 , aspects of British life , especially in government , commerce and industry used SI . Although imperial units are widely encountered in unregulated areas such as the press and everyday speech , SI or units approved for use alongside SI are used in most areas where units of measure are regulated . High @-@ profile exceptions include the sale of draught beer , the sale of milk in returnable containers , and United Kingdom road signs . Irish road signs ( road distances and speeds ) were converted to metric units during the first decade of the 21st century ; otherwise , the situation in Ireland is similar to that in the United Kingdom .
Canada has adopted it for most purposes , but imperial units are still legally permitted and remain in common use throughout a few sectors of Canadian society , particularly in the buildings , trades and railways sectors .
= = = European Union = = =
In 1960 , all the largest industrialised nations that had an established history of using the metric system were members of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) .
In 1972 , in order to harmonise units of measure as part of a programme to facilitate trade between member states , the EEC issued directive 71 / 354 / EEC . This directive catalogued units of measure that could be used for " economic , public health , public safety and administrative purposes " and also provided instructions for a transition from the existing units of measure that were in use . The directive replicated the CGPM SI recommendations and in addition pre @-@ empted some of the additions whose use had been recommended by the CIPM in 1969 , but had not been ratified by the CGPM . The directive also catalogued units of measure whose status would be reviewed by the end of 1977 ( mainly coherent CGS units of measure ) and also catalogued units of measure that were to be phased out by the end of 1977 , including the use of obsolete names for the sale of timber such as the stere , the use of units of force and pressure that made use of the acceleration due to gravity , the use of non @-@ coherent units of power such as the Pferdestärke ( PS ) , the use of the calorie as a measure of energy and the stilb as a measure of luminance . The directive was silent in respect of units that were specific to one or two countries including the pond , pfund , livre ( Dutch , German and French synonyms for 500 g ) , thereby effectively prohibiting their use as well .
When the directive was revisited during 1977 , some of the older units that were being reviewed ( such as millimetre of mercury for blood pressure ) were retained but others were phased out , thereby broadly aligning the allowable units with SI . The directive was however overhauled to accommodate British and Irish interests in retaining the imperial system in certain circumstances . It was reissued as directive 80 / 181 / EEC . During subsequent revisions , the directive has reflected changes in the definition of SI . The directive also formalised the use of supplementary units , which in 1979 were permitted for a period of ten years . The cut @-@ off date for the use of supplementary units was extended a number of times and in 2009 was extended indefinitely .
= = = India = = =
India was one of the last countries to start a metrication programme before the advent of SI . When it became independent in 1947 , both imperial and native units of measure were in use . Its metrication programme started in 1956 with the passing of the Standards of Weights and Measures Act . Part of the act fixed the value of the seer ( a legacy unit of mass ) to 0 @.@ 9331 kg exactly ; elsewhere the Act declared that from 1960 all non @-@ metric units of measure were to be illegal .
Four years after the Indian Government announced its metrication programme , SI was published . The result was that the initial metrication programme was a conversion to the CGS system of units and the subsequent adoption of SI has been haphazard . Fifty years later , many of the country 's schoolbooks still use CGS or imperial units . Originally the Indian Government had planned to replace all units of measure with metric units by 1960 . In 1976 a new Weights and Measures Act replaced the 1956 Act which , amongst other things , required that all weighing devices be approved before being released onto the market place . However , in 2012 , it was reported that traditional units were still encountered in small manufacturing establishments and in the marketplace alongside CGS , SI and imperial measures ,
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particularly in the poorer areas .
The use of the Indian numbering system of crores ( 10000000 ) and lakhs ( 100000 ) , which do not map onto the SI system of prefixes , is widespread and is often found alongside or in place of the western numbering system .
= = = United States = = =
Even though Congress set up a framework for the use of the metric system in the nineteenth century , the United States continues to use US customary units , based on English measure passed by parliament under the reign of Queen Anne in 1706 , for most purposes apart from science and medicine . In Puerto Rico , metric units are widely used due to the vast majority of the population having Spanish heritage .
On 10 February 1964 , the National Bureau of Standards ( now the National Institute of Standards and Technology ) issued a statement that it was to use SI except where this would have an obvious detrimental effect . In 1968 Congress authorised the U.S. Metric Study the emphasis of which was to examine the feasibility of adopting SI . The first volume was delivered in 1970 . The study recommended that the United States adopt the International System of units , and in 1975 Congress passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 which established a national policy of coordinating and planning for the increased use of the metric measurement system in the United States . Metrication was voluntary and to be coordinated by the United States Metric Board ( USMB ) .
Efforts during the Ford and Carter administrations to force metrication were seized on by many newspaper editorialists as being dictatorial . Public response included resistance , apathy , and sometimes ridicule . The underlying reasons for this response include a relative uniformity of weights and measures ( though , notably , US liquid measure differed by about 20 % from British Imperial measure , which was adopted throughout the British Empire in 1824 ) inherited from the United Kingdom in 1776 , a homogeneous economy and the influence of business groups and populists in Congress caused the country to look at the short @-@ term costs associated with the change @-@ over , particularly those that would be borne by the consumer rather than long @-@ term benefits of efficiency and international trade . The Metrication Board was disbanded under President Ronald Reagan 's direction in 1982 .
The 1988 Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act removed international trade barriers and amended the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 , designating the metric system as " the Preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce " . The legislation stated that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry , especially small business , as it voluntarily converts to the metric system of measurement . Exceptions were made for the highway and construction industries ; the Department of Transportation planned to require metric units by 2000 , but this plan was cancelled by the 1998 highway bill TEA21 . However , the US military uses the metric system widely , partly because of the need to work with armed services from other nations . Although overall responsibility for labelling requirements of consumer goods lies with Congress and is therefore covered by federal law , details of labelling requirements for certain commodities are controlled by state law or by other authorities such as the Food and Drug Administration , Environmental Protection Agency and Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau . The federal Fair Packaging and Labeling Act ( FPLA ) , originally passed in 1964 , was amended in 1992 to require consumer goods directly under its jurisdiction to be labelled in both customary and metric units . Some industries are engaged in efforts to amend this law to allow manufacturers to use only metric labelling . The National Conference on Weights and Measures has developed the Uniform Packaging and Labeling Regulations ( UPLR ) which provides a standard approach to those sections of packaging law that are under state control . Acceptance of the UPLR varies from state to state – fourteen states accept it by merely citing it in their legislation .
During the first decade of the 21st century , the EU directive 80 / 181 / EEC had required that dual unit labelling of goods sold within the EU cease by the end of 2009 . This was backed up by requests from other nations including Japan and New Zealand to permit metric @-@ only labelling as an aid to trade with those countries . Opinion in the United States was split – a bill to permit metric @-@ only labelling at the federal level was to have been introduced in 2005 but significant opposition from the Food Marketing Institute , representing US grocers , has delayed the introduction of the bill . During a routine decennial review of the directive in 2008 , the EU postponed the sunset clause for dual units indefinitely .
Meanwhile , in 1999 the UPLR was amended to permit metric @-@ only labelling and automatically became law in those states that accept UPLR " as is " . By 1 January 2009 , 48 out of 50 states permit metric @-@ only labelling , either through UPLR or through their own legislation . As of February 2013 the use of metric ( and therefore SI ) units in the United States does not follow any pattern . Dual @-@ unit labelling on consumer goods is mandatory . Some consumer goods such as soft drinks are sold in metric quantities , but milk is sold in customary units . The engineering industry is equally split . The automotive industry is largely metric , but aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner were designed using customary units .
= = Redefinition of units = =
After the metre was redefined in 1960 , the kilogram remained the only SI base unit that relied on a specific physical artifact , the international prototype of the kilogram ( IPK ) , for its definition and thus the only unit that was still subject to periodic comparisons of national standard kilograms with the IPK . After the 1996 – 1998 recalibration , a clear divergence between the various prototype kilograms was observed .
At its 23rd meeting , held in 2007 , the CGPM recommended that the CIPM should continue to investigate methods to provide exact fixed values for physical constants of nature that could then be used in the definitions of units of measure in place of the IPK , thus enabling the transition from explicit unit definitions to explicit constant definitions .
At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom , in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI Brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The proposals that the CCU put forward were :
In addition to the speed of light , four constants of nature – the Planck constant , an elementary charge , the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro number – be defined to have exact values .
The International prototype kilogram be retired
The current definitions of the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole be revised .
The wording of the definitions of all the base units be both tightened up and changed to reflect the change in emphasis from explicit unit to explicit constant definitions .
The CIPM meeting of October 2010 reviewed progress towards establishing fixed values for the constants but found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " .
At the 24th CGPM meeting , held in October 2011 , the CIPM sponsored a resolution in which the requisite definition changes were agreed to in principle and in which the conditions required to be met before the redefinitions could be implemented were restated .
By November 2014 the conditions set out at the 23rd meeting of the CGPM for the unit redefinitions had still not been met , and the 25th meeting of the CGPM , held in November 2014 , adopted a similar resolution encouraging further work towards establishing fixed values for the fundamental constants .
The redefinitions are expected to be adopted at the 26th CGPM in the fall of 2018 . The CODATA task group on fundamental constants has announced special submission deadlines for data to compute the values that will be announced at this event .
= Drowned World Tour =
Drowned World Tour was the fifth concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna in support of her seventh and eighth studio albums Ray of Light and Music . It was also her first tour in eight years , following The Girlie Show World Tour in 1993 . The tour was supposed to start in 1999 , but was delayed until 2001 as Madonna gave birth to her son , got married to Guy Ritchie , was working on Music , and was busy filming The Next Best Thing . When the tour was decided , Madonna appointed Jamie King as choreographer and the tour was planned in a short timespan of three months , including signing up the dancers , musicians and technicians . Designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier was the costume designer who designed the costumes in such way that they indicated different phases of Madonna 's career . The poster and logo for the tour included references to Kabbalah , which Madonna studied .
The show was divided into five segments , namely Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish , and Ghetto . The setlist consisted mainly of songs from the last two studio albums released at that point , with two pre @-@ 1990s song added . The first segment displayed high @-@ energy performances with Madonna wearing a kilt and dominatrix style costumes . In the geisha segment performances Madonna wore a kimono and later performed airborne martial arts . Acoustic songs were performed in the country segment which featured Madonna in cowboy costumes . The Latin segment featured flamenco dancing and the last segment featured ghetto @-@ themed performances . Drowned World Tour was critically appreciated from contemporary critics who complimented her ability to re @-@ invent continuously .
The tour was a commercial success . It went on to become the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of 2001 by a solo artist . She grossed more than US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) , selling out summer shows and eventually playing in front of 730 @,@ 000 fans throughout the United States and Europe . It received Major Tour of the Year and Most Creative Stage Production awards nominations at the 2001 Pollstar awards , but lost them to U2 . The concert was broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 . A DVD titled Drowned World Tour 2001 was released in November 2001 .
= = Background = =
After the release of her seventh studio album Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , Madonna stated in a live interview with Larry King on January 19 , 1999 that " I am going to do a movie in April ; The Next Best Thing , and then I am going to rehearse to go on tour . And then I 'll probably play up until the millennium , New Year 's Eve . " The tour was delayed until 2001 , as she had , in her own words , " been distracted by having children and filming movies " . She also began a serious relationship with Guy Ritchie in 1999 . By 2000 , she had become pregnant with her son Rocco Ritchie , released her eighth studio album Music that year , and married Ritchie in December 2000 .
When Madonna finally decided to go on the tour , time was short and she had to prepare the show within three months . Auditioning for the dancers started around March 2001 . Jamie King was signed up as the creative director and the choreographer of the show . King said in an interview that the tour " was so hectic that I suffered from depressions and fell considerably ill . " Rehearsals continued for thirteen hours a day , five days a week , with more and more dancers joining for the show . In the end , ten dancers and two backup singers were used . Madonna had her guitarist Monte Pittman teach her to play the instrument , and she played both acoustic and electric guitar live in the show . French house music expert Stuart Price , who had worked with Madonna on remixes of her album Music , was signed as bassist and keyboards player . Clair Brothers Audio support was roped in for providing a mixture of high @-@ tech techno sound and fusion of acoustic and trance . Madonna clarified : " I don 't see the point of doing a show unless you offer something that is going to mind @-@ boggle the senses . It 's not enough to get on stage and sing a song . It 's all about theatre and drama and surprises and suspenses . "
The Drowned World Tour was originally scheduled to begin with two shows in the Kölnarena in Cologne , Germany but both concerts had to be canceled due to technical difficulties . As a result , 35 @,@ 000 tickets were refunded . Her show of August 3 at the Continental Airlines Arena in New Jersey was also cancelled , this time due to illness . Therefore , total tour dates numbered forty @-@ seven instead of fifty .
= = Development = =
The tour was divided into five segments , namely Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish and Ghetto . Each segment represented a phase of Madonna 's career . Madonna 's publicist Liz rosenberg announced that the tour was designed as the grandest spectacle amongst all the other Madonna tours . Designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier was signed up to create the costumes for the tour . He came up with the concept of creating the costumes of the tour as a fusion of punk and Scottish fashions . Other costumes designed by Gaultier had geisha , cowboy and Spanish themes in them . Other designers associated with the tour included Dean and Dan Caten , creaters of the DSquared2 fashion line . The dresses developed included a torn shirt and zippered black pants , indicating the early days of her career , and leather chapped jeans and ghetto fabulous costumes , indicating the phase of her career at that point of time . Black wigs and white makeup would demonstrate the Ray of Light and the geisha themes . A hybrid of clothes from the music video of the Madonna song " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) and the 1996 Madonna starring musical Evita were also created . The setlist for the show consisted mainly of songs from the last two studio albums Ray of Light and Music . Among her pre @-@ 1990s hits , only " Holiday " and " La Isla Bonita " were added to the set list . Dave Kob , FOH engineer for the tour , commented that ,
" The show is extremely technical , extremely fast @-@ paced , and the variety of music is amazing . [ ... ] It goes from screaming heavy metal to techno dance , to Country and Western ; there 's even a flamenco hootenanny where everyone comes down front , beats on logs and plays acoustic guitars and pennywhistles . Then it goes back to ' Holiday ' which is an old dance number . It keeps you steppin ' . Madonna sings everything live . She 's been that way from the beginning of her career , even with all the athletic dancing . She 's a hard worker and she expects everybody else to work as hard or harder . I respect that . "
The stage was as huge as a tennis court and was made movable . Above the stage was a vast electrical grid , composed of truss sections , chain motors , cabling and the control devices that linked electronically or mechanically with the performances happening below . Four gigantic video monitors formed the backdrop of the stage . Other equipment included a mechanical bull and equipment for aerial movements . The sets were built in sections by three companies . A permanent crew of around hundred was hired . Monitor mixing was handled by four monitor engineers , with two of them for Madonna 's monitors . Blake Suib , one of the engineers , commented that Madonna was a perfectionist and she knew when a sound , coming from the speakers , sounded bad or good during rehearsals . By the suggestion of music director Pat Leonard , they tried out using 14 kHz of sound frequency in their live speakers , which was unusual to use at that point of time . Also they came up with the idea of using isolated amplifiers to pick up the sound of the instruments individually . Suib commented that " the creative process of coming up with new ideas , implementing them , and then soberly evaluating their results was time @-@ consuming but worth it . " The poster and the logo for the tour was developed by Chase Design Group . They wanted to make the logo as much aesthetic as possible . They developed a custom icon and logo type to convey the unique and ethereal qualities of Madonna 's show , which was described by the group 's founder Margo Chase as " a multilayered musical and spiritual journey through diverse worlds . " Chase commented that since " Madonna is a student of Kabbalah , she requested that we include references to that body of knowledge . " The resulting logo and poster included both Arabic and Hebrew references . A number of designs were prepared by Chase and the one ultimately chosen by Madonna made it to the main poster of the show , which featured Madonna 's face @-@ shot from the " What It Feels Like for a Girl " video shots .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show was divided into five sections : Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish and Ghetto . It began with a dramatic performance of " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " ; Madonna entered amidst billows of dry ice , dressed in a sleeveless black top , crossover top with one net sleeve , jeans with zips and bondage straps , a studded dog collar and a tartan kilt . She performed the song standing on the middle platform of the stage . Afterwards a chaotic cyberpunk @-@ themed performance of " Impressive Instant " started , with dancers in gas masks and headlights . She then played guitar for " Candy Perfume Girl " , leading to the performance of " Beautiful Stranger " featuring a lost stage technician . Backdrops displayed scenes from the movie Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and psychedelic fluorescent whirls . The first section finished with " Ray of Light " where Madonna danced energetically across the stage .
The second segment opened with a video interlude of " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " and had nearly naked dancers hanging upside down from the ceiling . As the video ended , the dancers stood in front of the stage opening their mouth which was lit from inside . Madonna appeared on the stage wearing a short black wig and a hand @-@ painted kimono with fifty @-@ two @-@ feet long sleevespan , to sing " Frozen " . The backdrops display silhouettes of burning trees against racing , blood @-@ red clouds . A short intro of " Open Your Heart " lead to " Nobody 's Perfect " where Madonna was portrayed to be sacrificed for her sins . This was followed by " Mer Girl " which turned into the fast @-@ action , ninja / samurai martial arts battle performance of " Sky Fits Heaven " , transforming back into the slow @-@ tempo " Mer Girl " . This section was inspired by the Chinese film Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon ( 2000 ) . Madonna 's battered and bruised face is shown in the backdrops as she emerged with a shotgun from the battle on stage and shot her dancer . As Madonna disappeared into the floor , a violent , sexually explicit Japanese animation dance remix interlude of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " was shown , featuring footage from the Japanese anime film Perfect Blue ( 1997 ) .
Madonna appeared as a cowgirl , wearing a stars and stripes vest , for an acoustic guitar performance of " I Deserve It " and dedicated it to her then husband Guy Ritchie . This was followed by line dancing with her dancers dressed as cowboys during " Don 't Tell Me " where she accessorized herself with a raccoon 's tail . For " Human Nature " , she rode a mechanical bull . After the performance , she addressed the audience in a mocking southern accent and sang a macabre themed song titled " The Funny Song " . The next song was " Secret " , which featured scenes of riverside baptism , Sufi dervish ceremonies and Buddhist prayers in the backdrops . She finished off the segment with " Gone " , which was replaced with " You 'll See " on some select U.S. venues . Dancers started the Evita tango interlude of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " . A number of candles were lit along the side of the stage . Madonna appeared in a half @-@ dress and performed the Spanish version of " What it Feels Like For a Girl " titled " Lo Que Siente La Mujer " . She finished the segment with an acoustic version of " La Isla Bonita " accompanied by flamenco dancing .
Madonna appeared on stage , in a halter D & G T @-@ shirt that read " Mother " on the front and "
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F * cker " on the back and a fur coat , singing a mash @-@ up of Stardust 's " Music Sounds Better With You " and " Holiday " . She and her entourage finished the show with a ghetto @-@ themed " Music " , introduced by Ali G , as her music video images flashed onscreen behind her . The song was mashed up with Kraftwerk 's song " Trans @-@ Europe Express " . The phrase " The End " appeared on the backdrops , and signified the show was over .
Several changes were made to the final shows in Los Angeles after the September 11 attacks : Madonna wore an American flag kilt during the show 's opening segment as a display of patriotism , the closing of " Mer Girl " ( part II ) was altered to remove the staged shooting of a character ; Madonna instead put the gun down , hugged him and they left the stage together . The macabre cannibalism @-@ themed " Funny Song " was removed . Additionally , as a surprise for Madonna at the final concert date , her husband at the time , Guy Ritchie , appeared as the lost technician at the end of " Beautiful Stranger " , the Samurai during " Sky Fits Heaven " wore Los Angeles Lakers jerseys . Also , all of the dancers joined in for the final dance section of " Holiday " , which usually only featured Madonna and her two backing singers . During the New York City performance of " Secret " , she dedicated the song to its inhabitants .
= = Critical reception = =
The tour received positive reviews and critical acclaim . Cory Moss from MTV wrote that " music might make the world go round , but costumes and theatrics make it more fun . Nobody knows this better than the Material Girl . " Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH commented that " you 'd struggle to find a better show than Drowned World and you 'd find it difficult to find a mainstream artist who can command near @-@ universal respect for anything like as long as this fine lady . One could almost judge the artist by what was left out [ ... ] she displayed that temptress quality which has beguiled us for nearly two decades and that , combined with her exquisite music , is why Madonna is so special . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine wrote : " Though her Cowgirl image is easily her least significant incarnation to date , Drowned World proves that Madonna is still unmatched in her ability to lift cultural iconography into the mainstream . [ ... ] Those who thought Madonna hung up her handcuffs along with the notorious Sex book should look again closely . With its themes of chaos , dominance , and , ultimately , celebration , Madonna 's Drowned World explores her ever @-@ fervid intrigue with both imposed and pious restraint . "
Simon Price from The Independent said that the tour " is a triumph of hydraulics , bungee rope acrobatics and cutting @-@ edge choreography . " However , he felt that the setlist consisting of mainly current songs implied that Madonna was doing " a paranoid attempt to frame herself as part of the present and not the past ? The irony here is that , given the ever @-@ decreasing spirals of pop revivalism , in order to be truly contemporary , rather than eschewing her past , Madonna would need to be ripping herself off circa 1984 . " John McAlley from Entertainment Weekly commented that the music was " loud , energetic , well @-@ sung , and perhaps a little too often beside the point " and that " [ it ] struggle [ d ] to rise above its [ the show 's ] theatrics . " He added that one will be " awed by Madonna 's palpable life force and intelligence . [ ... ] There are plenty of reasons to bow at this artist 's feat . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that " through the concert , Madonna made a display of arrogance , tossing off profanities , striking tough postures and glaring more often than she smiled . She represents self @-@ love backed by plenty of gym time and a whole troupe of devoted flunkies , all laboring to delight an audience she only seems to disdain . Music makes the people come together , she sang in the finale – together , that is , if Madonna is clearly in charge . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian felt that " with its perfect dance routines , special effects , devoted audience and hint of bullish arrogance , the Drowned World show befits the world 's most famous woman . "
= = Commercial response = =
Tour dates were limited to cities in Europe and North America . This decision caused some resentment among fans in other parts of the world . Drowned World became the first ( and only ) Madonna tour to skip over Canada completely . For many weeks prior to the launch of the tour dates , Arthur Fogel from Live Nation himself attempted to book dates in Toronto at the Air Canada Centre between the Sunrise , Atlanta , and Detroit dates , though no free bookings were available . In the end no dates were scheduled in Toronto , to the disappointment of many Canadian fans . Ticket sales were swift in London on April 25 , as Madonna sold out her dates at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in record time – six shows in six hours . Madonna made history with the fastest @-@ selling show ever at Earl 's Court , as 97 @,@ 000 tickets were sold .
The first show sold out in just fifteen minutes , and the online ticket website took one million hits in the first ten minutes while thirty million attempts were made to phone Madonna hotlines . All dates of Madonna 's Drowned World Tour sold out within minutes of going on sale . After the tour was over , industry reports presented that it earned US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) in total , from forty @-@ seven summer sold @-@ out shows and eventually played in front of 730 @,@ 000 people throughout North America and Europe , averaging at $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( $ 2 @.@ 14 million in 2016 dollars ) per show . Drowned World Tour became the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of 2001 by a solo artist , as well as the fourth highest @-@ grossing among all , behind U2 , N Sync and the Backstreet Boys . Drowned World received the Major Tour of the Year and Most Creative Stage Production awards nominations at the 2001 Pollstar awards , but lost them to U2 .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
The concert was broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 . Known as Madonna Live ! – Drowned World Tour 2001 , the broadcast was announced by Nancy Geller , senior vice president of HBO Original Programming . She commented , " It 's a thrill for us to have Madonna back , because we know it is going to be a spectacular show , with that combination of her amazing talent and extravagant style which only Madonna can bring . " It was produced by Marty Callner and directed by Hamish Hamilton . " Gone " was performed for the television broadcast and DVD release . The broadcast won the Best TV Concert category at the 2002 AOL TV Viewer Awards .
The Drowned World Tour 2001 DVD was released in all regions on November 13 , 2001 . Three audio tracks were made available : a DTS track , a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track , and a Dolby Digital 2 @.@ 0 Stereo track . A photo gallery was included as a bonus feature . Like the original airing of the show , the DVD received very good reviews . The photographs used on the DVD packaging were taken by Madonna 's friend Rosie O 'Donnell . The DVD was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
= = Set list = =
" Drowned World / Substitute for Love " ( contains elements of " Music " , " Human Nature " " Ray of Light " and " Impressive Instant " )
" Impressive Instant "
" Candy Perfume Girl "
" Beautiful Stranger " ( contains elements of " Soul Bossa Nova ( Dim 's Space @-@ A @-@ Nova ) " )
" Ray of Light " ( ends with a reprise of " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " )
" Paradise ( Not for Me ) " ( Video Interlude )
" Frozen " ( Stereo MC 's Remix )
" Open Your Heart Swell "
" Nobody 's Perfect "
Medley :
" Mer Girl " ( Part I )
" Sky Fits Heaven "
" Mer Girl " ( Part II )
" What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( Remix ) ( Video Interlude )
" I Deserve It "
" Don 't Tell Me "
" Human Nature "
" The Funny Song "
" Secret "
" Gone "
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " ( Instrumental Interlude )
" Lo Que Siente La Mujer " ( Spanish Version of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " )
" La Isla Bonita "
" Holiday " ( contains elements from " Fate " and " Music Sounds Better with You " )
" Music " ( contains elements from " Trans @-@ Europe Express " )
The set list and the samples used in each performance is as per the track listing present in the Drowned World Tour 2001 live video release .
Additional notes
" Gone " was replaced by " You 'll See " in some U.S. shows .
" The Funny Song " was not performed during the Los Angeles shows after the September 11 attacks .
= = Shows = =
= = Cancelled shows = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Main
Conception – Madonna
Creative Director – Jamie King
Video Director – Dago Gonzalez
Musical Direction – Stuart Price
Costume Design – Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier , Dean and Dan Caten of D @-@ Squared , Dolce & Gabbana , Donatella Versace , Catherine Malandrino
Choreographer – Alex Magno
Band
Keyboards – Marcus Brown , Stuart Price
Drums – Steve Sidelnyk
Guitar – Monte Pittman , Stuart Price
Bass – Raymond Hudson
Percussion – Ron Powell
Backing vocals – Niki Haris , Donna De Lory
Head Dancer – Christian Vincent
Dancers – Ruthy Inchaustegui , Nito Larioza , Tamara Levinson , Anthony Jay Rodriguez , Jamal Story , Kemba Shannon , Eko Supriyanto , Jull Weber , Addie Yungmee
Technology Director and Additional Keyboards – Mike McKnight
= Mat Latos =
Mathew Adam Latos ( / ˈleɪtoʊs / LAY @-@ tohs ; born December 9 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher who is in the Washington Nationals organization . He has played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the San Diego Padres from 2009 through 2011 , the Cincinnati Reds from 2012 through 2014 , and the Miami Marlins , Los Angeles Dodgers and Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in 2015 and Chicago White Sox in 20
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16 .
Born in Alexandria , Virginia , Latos ' family moved to Florida when he was young . He played baseball at Coconut Creek High School , where he became one of the best high school players in the state . Highly regarded for his talent before the 2006 MLB draft , he fell to the 11th round due to questions about his maturity . After pitching at Broward College for a season , the San Diego Padres signed him for a $ 1 @.@ 25 million bonus . He debuted for the Padres in 2009 , and established himself in their starting rotation . The Reds traded four players , including three prospects , to acquire Latos before the 2012 season . The Marlins traded for Latos before the 2015 season and then traded him to the Dodgers in July 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Latos is the only child born to Lisa and Rich Latos . He is originally from Alexandria , Virginia . When Latos was 12 years old , his grandfather insisted that he play in a baseball tournament rather than stay at his bedside the day he died .
= = High school and college = =
Latos attended Coconut Creek High School in Coconut Creek , Florida , despite being recruited to attend high schools with more prestigious baseball programs . He was named the ace starting pitcher of the Coconut Creek baseball team 's as a freshman . That year , he pitched to a 3 – 4 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 68 earned run average ( ERA ) , with 41 strikeouts and 26 walks in 39 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His fastball reached 88 to 89 miles per hour ( 142 – 143 km / h ) . He improved his fastball command and velocity as a sophomore , reaching 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) and his statistics improved to a 5 – 2 record , a 1 @.@ 23 ERA , 89 strikeouts , and 21 walks in 68 innings .
Heading into his junior year , Latos improved his training regimen and diet . He pitched to a 7 – 4 record with a 0 @.@ 76 ERA as a junior with 128 strikeouts and 17 walks in 83 innings . Eleven of his thirteen starts were complete games . Coconut Creek reached the regional quarterfinals , and Latos was named an Aflac All @-@ American and All @-@ Broward County by the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel and Miami Herald . By his senior year , Latos could throw his fastball as high as 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) . He was an honorable mention by the Florida Sports Writers Association for the All @-@ State team . As a senior , Latos had a 7 – 3 record with 110 strikeouts and a 0 @.@ 64 ERA in 69 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He appeared in the Broward County Athletics Association All @-@ Star Game , and was named South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel 's player of the year .
Latos committed to attend the University of Oklahoma to play college baseball for the Oklahoma Sooners baseball team . However , many scouts expected Latos to be a first @-@ round pick in the 2006 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . SchoolSports.com ranked Latos the fifth best high school pitcher available in the 2006 Major League Baseball draft . The San Diego Padres selected Latos in the 11th round ( 333rd overall ) . He fell in the draft since his personality made him difficult to handle in high school , as he was considered immature , and often yelled at teammates who made errors and reacted poorly when the umpire made a call he disagreed with .
After the draft , Latos demanded a $ 3 million signing bonus from the Padres . When the Padres did not meet his demands , Latos enrolled at Broward College , a junior college , to pitch for their baseball team . As the Padres retained the right to sign Latos until the start of the 2007 MLB draft , the Padres sent scout Joe Bochy to observe every start Latos made . Latos had a 10 – 3 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 03 ERA . Feeling that Latos was worth the gamble , the Padres paid Latos $ 1 @.@ 25 million a few days before he would have re @-@ entered the draft in 2007 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Latos started his professional career in minor league baseball with the Eugene Emeralds , the Padres ' Class A @-@ Short Season affiliate in the Northwest League , in 2007 . Pitching in 16 games for Eugene , Latos had a 1 – 4 record and a 3 @.@ 83 ERA . In 2008 , Latos started the season with the Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class A Midwest League , but missed playing time during the season due to abdominal and shoulder injuries .
The Padres invited Latos to spring training in 2009 , but he suffered a minor ankle sprain that limited his appearances . Latos started the 2009 season in Fort Wayne , and allowed only one run in four starts . He was then promoted to the San Antonio Missions of the Class AA Texas League . At San Antonio , Latos had a 5 – 1 win – loss record , and threw five perfect innings in his last start for San Antonio on July 9 . Between Fort Wayne and San Antonio , Latos had an 8 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 38 ERA , 73 strikeouts , and a .168 batting average against ( BAA ) . The Padres named Latos their Padres Minor League Pitcher of the Month for May . Latos was selected to play in the 2009 All @-@ Star Futures Game , and threw one scoreless inning .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
The Padres promoted Latos to make his major league debut on July 19 , 2009 , against the Colorado Rockies . In his major league debut , Latos pitched four innings , allowing three hits and two runs while striking out four , while throwing 75 pitches . He recorded his first major league win on July 24 . Latos became the first pitcher in Padres history to win four of his first five career starts . Latos made ten starts for the Padres in 2009 , pitching to a 4 – 5 record and a 4 @.@ 68 ERA . Latos irritated his veteran teammates with his " know @-@ it @-@ all " and abrasive personality .
Latos changed his attitude by the 2010 season , and became willing to take advice from his teammates . On May 13 , 2010 , Latos threw a complete game shutout against the division foe San Francisco Giants . The only hit he allowed was an infield single . The Padres won the game 1 – 0 . After posting a 5 @.@ 47 ERA through May 1 , Latos lowered his ERA down to 2 @.@ 45 right before the All Star Break , also leading the league in BAA and WHIP ( .193 and 0 @.@ 97 respectively ) . On September 7 , 2010 , Latos set a major league record with a seven – inning , 10 – strikeout performance in a win against the Dodgers . The victory was Latos ' 15th consecutive start logging at least five innings and allowing two or fewer earned runs , which was at the time the longest streak in modern baseball history ( since 1900 ) according to the Elias Sports Bureau . The record would be broken by Félix Hernández , who recorded 17 such straight outings during the 2014 season . Previously the mark had been set by Greg Maddux ( 1993 – 94 ) and Mike Scott ( 1986 ) , who had such streaks lasting 14 starts . On the season , Latos pitched to a 14 – 10 win – loss record in 31 games started , with a 2 @.@ 92 ( ERA ) , 1 @.@ 08 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) , and 189 strikeouts in 184 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He placed eighth in voting for the National League Cy Young Award .
However , Latos lost his last five starts of the 2010 season , culminating with a 3 – 0 loss to the San Francisco Giants on October 3 that , combined with an Atlanta Braves win , eliminated the Padres from playoff contention . The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune attributed his struggles at the end of the year to fatigue , as his 189 2 ⁄ 3 innings for the season were 66 2 ⁄ 3 more than he pitched in 2009 .
Latos started 2011 on the disabled list due to a spring training shoulder injury . He lost his first four starts of the season , extending his losing streak to nine consecutive starts dating back to 2010 . The streak tied the longest streak in Padres history , held by Andy Benes and Dennis Rasmussen . Latos had a no @-@ decision in his next start after the bullpen blew a save opportunity , preventing him from earning a win . He lost another decision for a 10 @-@ game losing streak that was one less than the club record held by Gary Ross . Latos won on May 15 against the Colorado Rockies to end his losing streak . He ended the 2011 season with a 9 – 14 record and a 3 @.@ 47 ERA .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
After the 2011 season , the Cincinnati Reds were looking for another frontline starter to pair with Johnny Cueto in their starting rotation . On December 17 , 2011 , the Padres traded Latos to the Reds in exchange for prospects Yonder Alonso , Yasmani Grandal , and Brad Boxberger , along with veteran starting pitcher Edinson Vólquez .
In the last week of June 2012 , Latos pitched two complete games . He was named the National League Player of the Week for the week ending July 1 . Latos finished the 2012 season with a 14 – 4 win – loss record a 3 @.@ 48 ERA . The Reds reached the playoffs , and faced the San Francisco Giants in the 2012 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) . On October 11 , 2012 , Latos gave up a grand slam to Buster Posey in a 6 @-@ run top of the fifth inning in the elimination game of the NLDS . Latos took the loss in this game , as the Reds were eliminated .
The Reds signed Latos to a two @-@ year contract worth $ 11 @.@ 5 million for the 2013 and 2014 seasons . Latos had a 21 @-@ game streak without a loss , extending from August 2012 to June 2013 . He finished the 2013 season with a 14 – 7 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 16 ERA in 210 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Though he suffered an abdominal strain on June 30 , he continued to pitch without missing any starts . He revealed the injury after a poor outing against the Pittsburgh Pirates in September . The Reds reached the 2013 National League Wild Card Game , opposing Pittsburgh . Reds ' manager Dusty Baker wanted to start Latos for that game , but a bone spur in his elbow prevented him from being available . Baker chose Cueto as his starter . The Reds lost the game , ending their season .
Latos had surgery to remove bone chips from his elbow during the offseason . During spring training in 2014 , Latos tore cartilage in his left knee , which was repaired with surgery . His knee had not fully recovered in time for Opening Day of the 2014 season , which he started on the disabled list . He began a rehabilitation assignment with the Louisville Bats of the Class AAA International League on May 26 , and made his 2014 season debut with the Reds on June 14 . Latos said that he came back at " 80 – 90 percent " effectiveness due to his desire to help his team , but experienced setbacks with his knee during the season . He averaged 90 @.@ 7 miles per hour ( 146 @.@ 0 km / h ) on his fastball , down from 92 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 148 @.@ 9 km / h ) during the 2013 season . His last start came on September 7 , as he suffered a bone bruise on the elbow of his pitching arm . His 2014 season ended with a 5 – 5 record and a 3 @.@ 25 ERA in 16 starts .
= = = Miami Marlins = = =
With the goal of reducing their payroll , and with Latos eligible for free agency after the 2015 season , the Reds traded Latos to the Miami Marlins in exchange for Anthony DeSclafani and Chad Wallach during the 2014 Winter Meetings . Latos sought a $ 10 @.@ 4 million salary for the 2015 season in salary arbitration , but the arbiters sided with the Marlins , who proposed a salary of $ 9 @.@ 4 million .
Latos had 90 cubic centimeters of fluid drained from his left knee during spring training . He allowed seven runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in his first start for Miami , and struggled through knee pain through May . He went on the disabled list after his May 21 start to rest his knee , and returned in mid @-@ June . Latos missed a start in July after a foul ball struck him in his foot while he was sitting in the dugout .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers and Angels = = =
On July 30 , 2015 , in a three @-@ team trade , the Los Angeles Dodgers acquired Latos , Michael Morse , Bronson Arroyo , Alex Wood , Jim Johnson , Luis Avilán , and José Peraza , while the Marlins acquired minor league pitchers Victor Araujo , Jake Brigham , and Kevin Guzman , while the Atlanta Braves received Héctor Olivera , Paco Rodriguez , minor league pitcher Zachary Bird , and a competitive balance draft pick for the 2016 MLB draft . He made five starts and one relief appearance for the Dodgers and was 0 – 3 while allowing 19 runs in 24 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He lost his starting job due to his poor performance and was designated for assignment on September 17 . The Dodgers released Latos on September 25 .
On September 28 , 2015 , Latos signed a contract with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim that would allow him to pitch the last week of the season for them . Latos was not eligible to pitch for the Angels in the postseason . He made his first appearance for the Angels as a relief pitcher on September 29 .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
Latos signed a one @-@ year contract worth $ 3 million with the Chicago White Sox prior to the 2016 season . Latos pitched to a 0 @.@ 74 ERA in his first four starts for the White Sox , but then struggled , allowing 29 earned runs in his next 36 innings pitched since April 30 . After acquiring James Shields , the White Sox designated Latos for assignment on June 9 .
= = Pitching style = =
Latos throws five pitches . He throws a four @-@ seam fastball ( 91 to 96 miles per hour ( 146 to 154 km / h ) ) , a two @-@ seam fastball ( 90 to 94 miles per hour ( 145 to 151 km / h ) ) , a slider ( 84 to 87 miles per hour ( 135 to 140 km / h ) ) , a curveball ( 78 to 82 miles per hour ( 126 to 132 km / h ) ) , and a changeup ( 82 to 85 miles per hour ( 132 to 137 km / h ) ) . He mostly relies on his four @-@ seamer and slider against right @-@ handed hitters while adding considerable variety against lefties . The 42 % whiff rate on his slider is one of the best among major league starters .
Latos is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall and uses an over @-@ the @-@ top delivery . Latos has one of the highest delivery points in baseball . Latos has compiled good strikeout totals in his career as a starter , finishing in the NL 's top 10 in strikeouts per 9 innings pitched rate twice .
= = Personal = =
Latos married in 2010 . He and his wife , Dallas , met through her then @-@ roommate and Mat 's friend , a minor league baseball player , who were dating . Mat and Dallas participated in the NOH8 Campaign in 2013 . The couple own a cat , named Cat Latos . They purchased a home in Indian Hill , Ohio , in 2013 . They had their first child , a son named Landon Marshall Latos , in August 2014 .
Latos honors his grandfather by writing his initials on the pitching mound and with a tattoo of his grandfather 's initials . He enjoys drawing , especially airbrushing , and stated a desire to work on tattoos . Latos has many tattoos , and was described by Tim Sullivan of the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune as " the righthanded tattoo canvas . "
= Central Valley Project =
The Central Valley Project ( CVP ) is a federal water management project in the U.S. state of California under the supervision of the United States Bureau of Reclamation . It was devised in 1933 in order to provide irrigation and municipal water to much of California 's Central Valley — by regulating and storing water in reservoirs in the water @-@ rich northern half of the state , and transporting it to the water @-@ poor San Joaquin Valley and its surroundings by means of a series of canals , aqueducts and
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process . Whiskeytown Lake ( formed by Clair . A Hill Whiskeytown Dam ) in turn provides water to the Spring Creek Tunnel , which travels into the lowermost extreme of Spring Creek , a stream that flows into Keswick Reservoir , generating another 180 MW of electricity . From there the water from the Trinity River empties into Keswick Reservoir and the Sacramento River . In 1963 , the Spring Creek Debris Dam was constructed just upstream of the outlet of the Spring Creek Tunnel , to prevent acid mine drainage from the Iron Mountain Mine from continuing downstream and contaminating the river .
= = = American River = = =
The American River Division is located in north @-@ central California , on the east side of the Great Central Valley . Its structures use the water of the American River , which drains off the Sierra Nevada and flows into the Sacramento River . The division is further divided into three units : the Folsom , Sly Park and Auburn @-@ Folsom South . The American River Division stores water in the American River watershed , to both provide water supply for local settlements , and supply it to the rest of the system . The dams also are an important flood control measure . Hydroelectricity is generated at Folsom and Nimbus dams , and marketed to the Western Area Power Administration .
The Folsom Unit consists of Folsom Dam , its primary water storage component , and Nimbus Dam , which serves as its downstream forebay . The Folsom Dam is located on the American River , and stores 1 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water in its reservoir , Folsom Lake . Folsom Lake covers 11 @,@ 550 acres ( 4 @,@ 670 ha ) and is located inside the Folsom Lake State Recreational Area . Eight additional earthfill saddle dams are required to keep the reservoir from overflowing . The dam also generates 200 MW from three generators . About 7 mi ( 11 km ) downstream of Folsom Dam is the Nimbus Dam , forming Lake Natoma . The dam generates 7 @.@ 7 MW from two Kaplan turbines on the north side of the river . The Nimbus Fish Hatchery is located downstream of Nimbus Dam , to compensate for the two dams ' destruction of American River spawning grounds .
The Sly Park Unit includes Sly Park Dam , Jenkinson Lake , the Camp Creek Diversion Dam , and two diversion tunnels . The Sly Park Dam and its similarilly @-@ sized auxiliary dam form Jenkinson Lake , which covers 650 acres ( 260 ha ) . Jenkinson Lake feeds the Camino Conduit , a 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) aqueduct . The Camp Creek Diversion Dam diverts some water from Camp Creek into Jenkinson Lake .
The third unit is the Auburn @-@ Folsom South Unit , consisting of several dams on American River tributaries . These include Sugar Pine Dam and Pipeline ( supplying water to Foresthill ) , and the uncompleted Folsom South Canal . The primary component of the unit , concrete thin @-@ arch Auburn Dam , was to be located on the North Fork of the American , but was never built because of the significant risk of earthquakes in the area , and general public opposition to the project . However , the high Foresthill Bridge , built as part of the preliminary work for Auburn Dam , still stands . County Line Dam , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Folsom Dam , was also never built .
= = Facilities in the San Joaquin Valley = =
= = = Delta and canal system = = =
One of the most important parts of the CVP 's San Joaquin Valley water system is the series of aqueducts and pumping plants that take water from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta and send it southwards to supply farms and cities . The Delta Cross Channel intercepts Sacramento River water as it travels westwards towards Suisun Bay and diverts it south through a series of man @-@ made channels , the Mokelumne River , and other natural sloughs , marshes and distributaries . From there , the water travels to the C.W. Bill Jones Pumping Plant , which raises water into the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal , which in turn travels 117 miles ( 188 km ) southwards to Mendota Pool on the San Joaquin River , supplying water to other CVP reservoirs about midway . A facility exists at the entrance of the pump plant in order to catch fish that would otherwise end up in the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal . A second canal , the Contra Costa Canal , captures freshwater near the central part of the delta , taking it 48 miles ( 77 km ) southwards , distributing water to the Clayton and Ygnacio Canals in the process , and supplying water to Contra Loma Dam , eventually terminating at Martinez Reservoir .
= = = San Joaquin River = = =
The CVP also has several dams on the San Joaquin River — which has far less average flow than the Sacramento — in order to divert its water to southern Central Valley aqueducts . The Friant Dam , completed in 1942 , is the largest component of the Friant Division of the CVP . The dam crosses the San Joaquin River where it spills out of the Sierra Nevada , forming Millerton Lake , which provides water storage for San Joaquin Valley irrigators as well as providing a diversion point for a pair of canals , the Friant @-@ Kern Canal and the Madera Canal . The Friant @-@ Kern Canal sends water southwards through the Tulare Lake area to its terminus at Bakersfield on the Kern River , supplying irrigation water to Tulare , Fresno , and Kern counties . The Madera Canal takes water northwards to Madera County , emptying into the Chowchilla River .
= = = Stanislaus River = = =
On the Stanislaus River , a major tributary of the San Joaquin , lies the relatively independent East Side Division and New Melones Unit of the CVP . The sole component of the division / unit is New Melones Dam , forming New Melones Lake , which , when filled to capacity , holds nearly 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water , about equal to the storage capacity of Trinity Lake . The dam functions to store water during dry periods and release it downstream into the northern San Joaquin Valley according to water demand . The dam generates 279 MW of power with a peaking capacity of 300 MW .
= = = Offstream storage and aqueducts = = =
The CVP has a significant amount of facilities for storing and transporting water on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley , in the foothills of the California Coast Ranges . The West San Joaquin Division and San Luis Unit consist of several major facilities that are shared with the federal California State Water Project ( SWP ) . San Luis Dam ( or B.F. Sisk Dam ) is the largest storage facility , holding 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water . Although called an offstream storage reservoir by BoR , the reservoir floods part of the San Luis Creek valley . San Luis Creek , however , is not the primary water source for the reservoir . Downstream of San Luis Reservoir is O 'Neill Forebay , which is intersected by the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal , a separate CVP facility . Water is pumped from the canal into the Forebay and uphill into San Luis Reservoir , which functions as an additional water source during dry periods .
Water released from San Luis and O 'Neill reservoirs feeds into the San Luis Canal , the federally built section of the California Aqueduct , which carries both CVP and SWP water . The San Luis Canal terminates at Kettleman City , where it connects with the state @-@ built section of the California Aqueduct . With a capacity of 13 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 370 m3 / s ) , it is one of the largest irrigation canals in the United States . The Coalinga or Pleasant Valley Canal branches off the San Luis Canal towards the Coalinga area . A pair of separate dams , Los Baños Detenton Dam and Little Panoche Detention Dam , provide flood control in the Los Baños area . The San Luis Drain was a separate project by BoR in an attempt to keep contaminated irrigation drainage water out of the San Joaquin River , emptying into Kesterson Reservoir where the water would evaporate or seep into the ground . Because of environmental concerns , the system was never completed .
The CVP also operates a San Felipe Division to supply water to 63 @,@ 500 acres ( 25 @,@ 700 ha ) of land in the Santa Clara Valley west of the Coast Ranges . San Justo Dam stores water diverted from San Luis Reservoir through the Pacheco Tunnel and Hollister Conduit , which travel through the Diablo Range . A separate canal , the Santa Clara Tunnel and Conduit , carries water to the Santa Clara Valley .
= = Controversy = =
Once , profuse runs of anadromous fish — salmon , steelhead , and others — migrated up the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers to spawn in great numbers . The construction of CVP dams on the two rivers and many of their major tributaries — namely Friant Dam and Shasta Dam — mostly ended the once @-@ bountiful Central Valley salmon run . From north to south , the Sacramento upriver of Shasta Dam , the American upriver of Folsom Dam , the Stanislaus upriver of New Melones Dam , and the San Joaquin upriver of Mendota — have become inaccessible to migrating salmon . In three of these cases , it is because the dams are too high and their reservoirs too large for fish to bypass via fish ladders . The San Joaquin River , however , had a different fate . Almost 60 mi ( 97 km ) of the river is dry because of diversions from Friant Dam and Millerton Lake . Even downstream of Mendota , where the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal gives the river a new surge of water from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta , irrigation runoff water , contaminated with pesticides and fertilizer , has caused the river to become heavily polluted . To make matters worse , efforts by the California Department of Fish and Game to route the San Joaquin salmon run into the Merced River in the 1950s failed , because the salmon did not realize the Merced as their " home stream " .
Not only on the San Joaquin River have CVP facilities wreaked environmental havoc . On the Sacramento River , Red Bluff Diversion Dam in Tehama County , while not as large or as impacting as Friant Dam , was once a barrier to the migration of anadromous fish . The original fish passage facilities of the dam continually experienced problems from the beginning of operation in 1966 , and introduced species that prey on young smolt often gather at the base of the dam , which reduced the population of outmigrating juvenile salmon into the Pacific . The Red Bluff Diversion Dam has since been replaced with a fish screen and pumping plant , thus allowing unimpaired passage through Red Bluff . Further upstream , Keswick and Shasta Dams form total barriers to fish migration . Even out of the Central Valley watershed , the CVP 's diversion of water from the Trinity River from Lewiston Dam into Whiskeytown Lake has significantly hurt the Klamath River tributary 's salmon run . Over three @-@ quarters of the river 's flow is diverted through the Clear Creek Tunnel and away from the Trinity River , causing the river below the dam to become warm , silty , shallow and slow @-@ flowing , attributes that hurt young salmon . Furthermore , the Trinity Dam forms a blockade that prevents salmon from reaching about 109 miles ( 175 km ) of upriver spawning grounds . In the early years of the 21st century , the Bureau of Reclamation finally began to steadily increase the water flow downstream from Lewiston Dam . While providing less water for the CVP altogether , the new flow regime allows operations to meet the line drawn by Reclamation itself in 1952 stating that at least 48 % of the river 's natural flow must be left untouched in order for Trinity River salmon to survive . The lack of flow in the Trinity up to then was also a violation of the authorization that Congress made over the operation of the dam . The " ... legislation required that enough be left in the Trinity for in @-@ basin needs , including preservation of the salmon fishery . "
In the early years of the 21st century , the Bureau of Reclamation studied the feasibility of raising Shasta Dam . One of the proposed heights was 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) greater than its current size , thus increasing the storage capacity of Shasta Lake by 636 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 784 @,@ 000 dam3 ) . The agency also proposed a smaller raise of 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) that would add 290 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 360 @,@ 000 dam3 ) . Previously , a 200 ft ( 61 m ) raise of the dam , increasing storage to 13 @,@ 890 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 17 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 dam3 ) , was considered , but deemed uneconomical . When Shasta Dam was first built , it was actually planned to be two hundred feet higher than it is now , but Reclamation stopped construction at its present height because of a shortage of materials and workers during World War II . The raising of the dam would further regulate and store more Sacramento River water for dry periods , thus benefiting the entire operations of the CVP , and also generating additional power . However , the proposed height increase was fought over for many reasons . Raising the dam would cost several hundred million dollars and raise the price of irrigation water from Shasta Lake . It would drown most of the remaining land belonging to the Winnemem Wintu tribe — 90 percent of whose land already lies beneath the surface of the lake — and flood several miles of the McCloud River , protected under National Wild and Scenic River status . Buildings , bridges , roads and other structures would have to be relocated . The added capacity of the reservoir would change flow fluctuations in the lower Sacramento River , and native fish populations , especially salmon , would suffer with the subsequent changes to the ecology of the river .
New Melones Dam has come under even greater controversy than Shasta Dam , mainly because of the project 's conflicts with federal and state limits and its impact on the watershed of the Stanislaus River . The original Melones Dam , submerged underneath New Melones Lake ( hence the name New Melones Dam ) is the source of one of these problems . The disused Melones Dam blocks cold water at the bottom of the lake from reaching the river , especially in dry years when the surface of the lake is closer to the crest of the old dam . This results in the river below the dam attaining a much higher temperature than usual , hurting native fish and wildlife . To solve this problem , Reclamation shuts off operations of the dam 's hydroelectric power plant when water levels are drastically low , but this results in power shortages . Originally , after the dam was constructed , the State of California put filling the reservoir on hold because of enormous public opposition to what was being inundated : the limestone canyon behind the dam , the deepest of its kind in the United States , contained hundreds of archaeological and historic sites and one of California 's best and most popular whitewater rafting runs . Thus the reservoir extended only to Parrot 's Ferry Bridge , 9 mi ( 14 km ) below its maximum upriver limit , until the El Niño event of 1982 @-@ 1983 , which filled it to capacity within weeks and even forced Reclamation to open the emergency spillways , prompting the state and federal governments to repeal the limits they had imposed on the reservoir . Furthermore , the project allows a far smaller sustainable water yield than originally expected , and Reclamation calls the dam " a case study of all that can go wrong with a project " .
In response to these environmental problems , Congress passed in 1992 the Central Valley Project Improvement Act ( CVPIA ) , Title 34 of Public Law 102 @-@ 575 , to change water management practices in the CVP in order to lessen the ecological impact on the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers . Actions mandated included the release of more water to supply rivers and wetlands , funding for habitat restoration work ( especially for anadromous fish spawning gravels ) , water temperature control , water conservation , fish passage , increasing the service area of the CVP 's canals , and other items .
= Balans ( song ) =
" Balans " ( pronounced " balance " ) is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her eponymous and second studio album , Alesta ( 2016 ) . Released on 2 March 2016 through Global Records , the track features the vocal collaboration of Swedish @-@ Congolese singer @-@ songwriter Mohombi . " Balans " was produced by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , while the writing process was handled by the latter two in collaboration with Mohombi and Breyan Isaac .
A dance @-@ pop song incorporating tropical music and latin music influences into its sound , the recording was compared by critics to the works of fellow Romanian female singer Inna . An official music video for " Balans " was shot by Anton San and was uploaded on 9 March 2016 onto YouTube in order to accompany the single 's release . It portrays both Stan and Mohombi being present at a party held in a hall filled halfway by water . Following its release , the song received a mixed review by RnB Junkie ; they commended the collaboration , but criticized its lack of innovation and formulaic production . Commercially , the song peaked in Japan and Russia .
= = Background and reception = =
" Balans " , the third single released from Stan 's debut record , Alesta ( 2016 ) , was written by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , Mohombi and Breyan Isaac , while production was handled by both Barac and Botezan . The artwork used to commercialize the track in Japan was a photograph picked up from the photo shooting for her album , while the international cover sees Stan and Mohombi sporting the outfits from the official music video . The track is an up @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song , which includes musical elements of tropical music and latin music .
Upon its release , the recording received a mixed review from Italian publication Rnb Junkie writer Umberto Olivio , who commended that the song resembles the works of fellow Romanian female singer Inna . He went on into praising Stan 's collaboration with Mohombi , but also saying that the " formula " for the recording was " nothing innovative " , with him describing the track as " quite obvious " . Olivio as well named " the level of palatability " of the tune " a lot weaker than the other songs from Alesta " , and denied the possible success of the track in mainstream clubs .
= = Promotion and music video = =
Stan included " Balans " on the setlist for her Japanese one @-@ week concert tours that promoted the release of her studio album , Alesta , in that territory . Stan performed an acoustic version of the song on Romanian radio station Pro FM . After this , she had also performed a live acoustic version of " Be the One " by English recording artist Dua Lipa .
An accompanying music video for " Balans " was directed by Anton San and released onto Stan 's YouTube channel on 2 March 2016 ; by May 2016 , the clip amassed over one million views . The clip was filmed in an abandoned warehouse or a polygon where the inside temperature was of 6 ° C. About the video , Stan particularly confessed that " [ it ] is very dinamic and colored , the way that the life of a pop artist looks like . " The clip commences with Stan standing on a pickup , with fellow background dancers being present inside the car . Following their leaving , she looks from above at a partying crowd in a hall , which appears to be halfway filled with water , while sporting pink and red clothing . Subsequently , Stan is displayed dressing a pink fur coat and pants , while walking in the surroundings and finally discovering Mohombi . Following this , he provides his singing part when flirting with Stan , with her dancing around him . Following this , the crowd is once again shown dancing together to the song , and the clip closes with Stan being left alone in the room . Scenes interspersed through the main video show her posing in front of a blue wall or her lying atop the pickup car , with her head being placed on a golden purse . Italian publication RnB Junk writer , Umberto Olivio , criticized the clip for not having a plot and for being " unrealistic " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alesta .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Camus Cross =
The Camus Cross , otherwise known as the Camuston or Camustane Cross , is an Early Medieval Scottish standing stone located on the Panmure Estate near Carnoustie in Angus , Scotland . First recorded in the 15th century in a legal document describing the boundaries between Camuston and the barony of Downie , and described in the 17th century by Robert Maule , it is a freestanding cross , rare in Eastern Scotland .
The cross is thought to date from the tenth century , and exhibits distinctive Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission influences , in common with several other monuments in the area . Tradition and folk etymology suggest that the cross marked the burial site of Camus , leader of the Norse army purportedly defeated by King Malcolm II at the apocryphal Battle of Barry . The name of the stone is likely to derive from the extinct village of Camuston , which has a Celtic toponymy .
= = Location = =
The Camus Cross is in the Downie Hills , approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) northwest of Carnoustie in Angus , Scotland . It is situated at the centre of a 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) long avenue leading east @-@ north @-@ east through Camuston Wood from the Panmure Testimonial to the Craigton to Carnoustie road , at ( grid reference NO519379 ) . The avenue is part of Panmure Estate and leads , beyond the road , to the former site of Panmure House .
= = Description = =
The freestanding cross is carved from Old Red Sandstone and stands 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high , approximately 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) wide at the base , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) wide at the arms , and approximately 0 @.@ 2 metres ( 0 @.@ 66 ft ) thick . It stands on a low earth mound , 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide ( east to west ) , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) wide ( north to south ) and 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high , in the centre of the Camuston Wood avenue , facing east to west . All faces and sides are sculpted . The cross has suffered significant weathering , most notably on the west face , which has obscured some of the designs .
The stone bears no idiomatic Pictish symbols and , under J Romilly Allen and Joseph Anderson 's classification system , it is a class III stone . Intact freestanding crosses of this age are comparatively rare , perhaps due to their vulnerability to damage , and the only ones in Eastern Scotland are the Camus Cross and the Dupplin Cross in Strathearn . Fragmentary remains of other crosses include heads found at Forteviot , St Vigeans and Strathmartine and shaft fragments found at Monifieth , Abernethy , Carpow and Invermay , as well as some socketed stones where crosses once stood .
The western face is divided into three sections . The uppermost section is almost completely weathered . The antiquarian Alexander Gordon , who described the stone in 1726 in his Itinerarium Septentrionale , records this panel as holding a crucifixion scene , with the figure of a man at the right hand side and the left side completely defaced . Below this is a depiction of a centaur holding a bow , with the lowest panel having a symmetrical floral scroll design .
The eastern face is usually interpreted as a depiction of Christ flanked by angels above the four evangelists , although Robert Maule , in the earliest description of the stone , described the scene as Moses giving out the Law .
The carving on the Camus Cross shows distinct similarities with those on the Brechin Hogback stone and point to an Irish Ecclesiastical influence . The foliar designs on the north and south edges , originally seen as Ringerike @-@ like ( and hence , Scandinavian in origin ) , consist of tendrils and volutes with " wave @-@ crest " thickening . These features bear closest similarity with Irish insular art of the late tenth century , and the treatment of the symmetrical foliar scroll design on the lower portion of the west face is diagnostically Irish . The full @-@ face figures on the east face are of an identical type to those on the Brechin Hogback . In the case of the Brechin Hogback , the figures are carrying objects that are characteristic of early medieval Irish monasticism .
= = History = =
The Camus Cross is currently thought to be a late Pictish / early Gaelic era monument , dating from the 10th century . The earliest record of it is in a legal document of 1481 , describing the boundary of the lands of Camuston , owned by Sir Thomas Maule , and the barony of Downy , owned by the Earl of Crawford . The boundary was described as running " a magna cruce lapidea de Cambiston " ( ' from the great stone cross of Camuston ' ) . It was mentioned in the context of the Battle of Barry in Hector Boece 's Historia Gentis Scotorum in 1527 , and first described in detail by the antiquarian Robert Maule , who erected it at its present position in 1620 , after moving it six feet to centralise it within the Camuston Wood avenue .
The croce standis southe and northe , sa the bread syd thear of the ane to the east and the wther to the west ; that syd quhilk lowkes to the east is dewydit be mwllers of steane in thre stages ; the firs and hiest part quharof is the portrait of ane man , rudlie vroght in reasit work , at the southe arme quharof as apperis , the figure of ane fowle , to the quhilk the handis neir ; the second sectione or stage hes tua pourtraits of men lyk to the first , vithe the forme of ane quadrat or four noket breist plat on thear breist , lyk wnto that quhar withe Moses is painted , in the quhilk wes ingrawen the nems of the tuel tribes of Israel , and lykuayes the lawest and thrid rank efter the sam maner . On thear heads thay heawe clos bonnets twrnand hard thearto , quhilk appeirandly is Moses representine the lawe befor the cominge of Christ , and thearfor ar set towardis the east as representine the begininge and infancie of the world ; then on the west syd in the first rank and hiest is the Crucifix. opposit to Moses , signifiinge the latter dayes to approche and the declyninge age . In the second rank wnder the Crucifix ane man on hors bak , lyand bak owir , drawand ane bowe , the head of the arrowe wery grytm that it semes rather to be ane bolt then arrowe , albeit the bowe dois rather appeir to be ane hand bow nor cros bowe . In the lawest and thrid rank tehar is only the draught of ane floure , weil done , wpone aa rud ane stone . On the southe and northe sydes of the sam , quhar the croce is mor narrowe , ane prettie work efter the forme that browdinsters do vse [ ... ]
Camus was the supposed leader of a Norse expeditionary force defeated by the armies of King Malcolm II at the Battle of Barry . Tradition , popularised in the sixteenth century by historian Hector Boece , states that Camus fled the battle scene when defeat was imminent , and was caught and slain at the point where the cross now stands . The battle , and its main protagonists , including Camus , are now known to be historically inauthentic .
The name of the cross is likely to derive from the village of Camuston . No trace of this village can be seen today , and it had ceased to exist by the time of the first Ordnance Survey map , published in 1888 , but surveyed in 1857 to 1859 . Its former location is indicated in the 1794 map by Ainslie , about half a mile to the east of the cross . Camuston can be found with earlier spelling variations , for example , ' Cambistown ' as it is called in documents from 1425 and 1426 , and has a Celtic rather than Scandinavian etymology .
A burial disinterred in 1598 , near
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ed Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian ( 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 ) . This bold queen sortie , to snatch a pawn at the expense of development , had been considered dubious , but Fischer succeeded in proving its soundness . Out of ten tournament and match games as Black in the Poisoned Pawn , Fischer scored 70 % , winning five , drawing four , and losing only one : the 11th game of his 1972 match against Spassky . Following Fischer 's use , the Poisoned Pawn Variation became a respected line , utilized by many of the world 's leading players .
On the white side of the Sicilian , Fischer made advances to the theory of the line beginning 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 ( or e6 ) 6.Bc4 , which has sometimes been named after him . In 1961 , prompted by a loss the year before to Spassky , Fischer wrote an article entitled " A Bust to the King 's Gambit " for the first issue of the American Chess Quarterly , in which he stated , " In my opinion , the King 's Gambit is busted . It loses by force . " Fischer recommended 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 d6 , which has since become known as the Fischer Defense , as a refutation to the King 's Gambit . Fischer later played the King 's Gambit as White in three tournament games , winning them all .
= = = Endgame = = =
Fischer had excellent endgame technique . International Master Jeremy Silman listed him as one of the five best endgame players ( along with Emanuel Lasker , Akiba Rubinstein , José Capablanca , and Vasily Smyslov ) , calling Fischer a " master of bishop endings " . The endgame of a rook , bishop , and pawns against a rook , knight , and pawns has sometimes been called the " Fischer Endgame " because of several instructive wins by Fischer ( with the bishop ) , including three against Mark Taimanov in 1970 and 1971 .
= = = Fischer clock = = =
In 1988 , Fischer filed for U.S. Patent 4 @,@ 884 @,@ 255 for a new type of chess clock , which gave each player a fixed period at the start of the game and then added a small increment after each completed move . Used in the 1992 rematch between Fischer and Spassky , the " Fischer clock " soon became standard in most major chess tournaments .
= = = Fischerandom Chess = = =
Fischer heavily disparaged chess as it was currently being played ( at the highest levels ) . As a result , on June 19 , 1996 , in Buenos Aires , Argentina , Fischer announced and advocated a variant of chess called Fischerandom Chess ( later known as Chess960 ) . The goal of Fischerandom Chess was to ensure that a game between two players is a contest between their understandings of chess , rather than their abilities to memorize opening lines or prepare opening strategies .
In a 2006 Icelandic Radio interview , Fischer explained his reasons for advocating Fischerandom Chess :
In chess so much depends on opening theory , so the champions before the last century did not know as much as I do and other players do about opening theory . So if you just brought them back from the dead they wouldn ’ t do well . They ’ d get bad openings . You cannot compare the playing strength , you can only talk about natural ability . Memorisation is enormously powerful . Some kid of fourteen today , or even younger , could get an opening advantage against Capablanca , and especially against the players of the previous century , like Morphy and Steinitz . Maybe they would still be able to outplay the young kid of today . Or maybe not , because nowadays when you get the opening advantage not only do you get the opening advantage , you know how to play , they have so many examples of what to do from this position ... and that is why I don ’ t like chess any more ... It is all just memorization and prearrangement ...
= = = Legacy = = =
Kasparov calls Fischer " perhaps the most mythologically shrouded figure in chess " . Some leading players and some of Fischer 's biographers have ranked him as the greatest player who ever lived . Other writers have said that he was arguably the greatest player ever , without reaching a definitive conclusion . Leonard Barden wrote , " Most experts place him the second or third best ever , behind Kasparov but probably ahead of Karpov . "
Some grandmasters compared Fischer 's play to that of a computer ; a player without noticeable weaknesses .
Although international ratings were just introduced in 1970 , Chessmetrics ( a website that uses algorithms to rank performances retrospectively and uniformly throughout chess history ) determined that Fischer 's peak rating was 2895 in October 1971 — the highest in history . His one @-@ year peak ( 1971 ) average was 2881 , the highest of all time . His three @-@ year peak average was 2867 , from January 1971 to December 1973 — the second highest ever , just behind Garry Kasparov . Fischer was ranked as the number one player in the world for a total of 109 different months , running ( not consecutively ) from February 1964 until July 1974 .
Fischer 's great rival Mikhail Tal praised him as " the greatest genius to have descended from the chess heavens " . American grandmaster Arthur Bisguier wrote " Robert James Fischer is one of the few people in any sphere of endeavour who has been accorded the accolade of being called a legend in his own time . " Former World Champion Tigran Petrosian stated that Fischer put more time into chess than the entire Soviet team .
Biographers David Edmonds and John Eidinow wrote :
Faced with Fischer 's extraordinary coolness , his opponents [ sic ] assurance would begin to disintegrate . A Fischer move , which at first glances looked weak , would be reassessed . It must have a deep master plan behind it , undetectable by mere mortals ( more often than not they were right , it did ) . The U.S. grandmaster Robert Byrne labeled the phenomenon " Fischer @-@ fear " . Grandmasters would wilt , their suits would crumple , sweat would glisten on their brows , panic would overwhelm their nervous systems . Errors would creep in . Calculations would go awry . There was talk among grandmasters that Fischer hypnotized his opponents , that he undermined their intellectual powers with a dark , mystic , insidious force .
Kasparov wrote that Fischer " became the detonator of an avalanche of new chess ideas , a revolutionary whose revolution is still in progress " . In January 2009 , reigning World Champion Viswanathan Anand described him as " the greatest chess player who ever lived " . Serbian grandmaster Ljubomir Ljubojević called Fischer , " A man without frontiers . He didn 't divide the East and the West , he brought them together in their admiration of him . "
German grandmaster Karsten Müller wrote :
Fischer , who had taken the highest crown almost singlehandedly from the mighty , almost invincible Soviet chess empire , shook the whole world , not only the chess world , to its core . He started a chess boom not only in the United States and in the Western hemisphere , but worldwide . Teaching chess or playing chess as a career had truly become a respectable profession . After Bobby , the game was simply not the same .
Fischer was a charter inductee into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in Washington , D.C. in 1985 . After routing Taimanov , Larsen , and Petrosian in 1971 , Fischer achieved a then @-@ record Elo rating of 2785 . After beating Spassky by the score 12 ½ – 8 ½ in their 1972 match , his rating dropped to 2780 .
St. Louis philanthropist Rex Sinquefield offered a $ 64 @,@ 000 Fischer Memorial Prize for any player who could win all nine of their games at the 2009 U.S. Chess Championship . By the fifth day of the championship , all 24 participants became ineligible for the prize , having drawn or lost at least one game .
= = = Head @-@ to @-@ head record versus selected grandmasters = = =
( Rapid , blitz and blindfold games not included ; listed as + wins − losses = draws . ) Players who have been World Champions in boldface
= = = Internet Bobby Fischer theory = = =
In 2001 , Nigel Short wrote in The Sunday Telegraph chess column that he believed he had been secretly playing Fischer on ICC in speed chess matches . Fischer denied ownership of the account .
National Masters R.O. Mitchell and Lionel Davis both claimed to have played Fischer on ICC , with Mitchell providing his alleged conversation with the supposed Fischer . Chessbase.com did a study where they concluded that the user was more likely a hoax , and not the real Bobby Fischer .
= = In popular culture = =
The musical Chess , with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson , tells the story of two chess champions , referred to only as " The American " and " The Russian " . The musical is loosely based on the 1972 World Championship match between Fischer and Spassky .
During the 1972 Fischer – Spassky match , the Soviet bard Vladimir Vysotsky wrote an ironic two @-@ song cycle " Honor of the Chess Crown " . The first song is about a rank @-@ and @-@ file Soviet worker 's preparation for the match with Fischer ; the second is about the game . Many expressions from the songs have become catchphrases in Russian culture .
Bobby Fischer is referred to in the chorus of the song " Cosby Sweater " by Australian hip hop band Hilltop Hoods . Another Australian band , Lazy Susan , released a song " Bobby Fischer " on their 2001 album Long Lost .
Matthew Good , in his song " Invasion 1 " from the 1997 Underdogs album , sings : " Drops off the face of the earth - Bobby is my hero for that " in reference to Fischer 's reclusion .
In 2015 the Comedy Central program Drunk History portrayed Bobby Fischer on Season 3 , Episode 6 .
= = = In film = = =
The 1993 film Searching for Bobby Fischer uses Fischer 's name in the title , even though the film is about the life of chess prodigy Joshua Waitzkin . Outside of the United States , it was released as Innocent Moves . The title refers to the search for Fischer 's successor after his disappearance from competitive chess . The author feels that his son could be that successor . Fischer never saw the film and complained bitterly that it was an invasion of his privacy by using his name without his permission . Fischer never received any compensation from the film , calling it " a monumental swindle " .
In April 2009 , the film Me and Bobby Fischer , about Bobby Fischer 's last years as his old friend Saemundur Palsson gets him out of jail in Japan and helps him settle in Iceland , was premiered in Iceland . The film was produced by Friðrik Guðmundsson with music by Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson , Björk Guðmundsdóttir and Einar Arnaldur Melax .
In October 2009 , the biographical film Bobby Fischer Live was released , with Damien Chapa directing and starring as Fischer .
In 2011 , documentary film @-@ maker Liz Garbus released Bobby Fischer Against the World , which explores the life of Fischer , with interviews from Garry Kasparov , Anthony Saidy , and others .
On September 16 , 2015 the American biographical film Pawn Sacrifice was released , starring Tobey Maguire as Fischer , Liev Schreiber as Boris Spassky , Lily Rabe as Joan Fischer , and Peter Sarsgaard as William Lombardy .
= = Writings = =
Bobby Fischer 's Games of Chess ( Simon and Schuster , New York , 1959 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 923891 @-@ 46 @-@ 3 . An early collection of 34 lightly annotated games , including " The Game of the Century " against Donald Byrne .
" A Bust to the King 's Gambit " ( American Chess Quarterly , Vol . 1 , No. 1 ( Summer 1961 ) , pp. 3 – 9 ) .
" The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " ( Sports Illustrated magazine , 20 August 1962 ) . This is the controversial article in which Fischer asserted that several of the Soviet players in the 1962 Curaçao Candidates ' tournament had colluded with one another to prevent him [ Fischer ] from winning the tournament .
" The Ten Greatest Masters in History " ( Chessworld , Vol . 1 , No. 1 ( January – February 1964 ) , pp. 56 – 61 ) . An article in which Fischer named Paul Morphy , Howard Staunton , Wilhelm Steinitz , Siegbert Tarrasch , Mikhail Chigorin , Alexander Alekhine , José Raúl Capablanca , Boris Spassky , Mikhail Tal , and Samuel Reshevsky as the greatest players of all time . Fischer 's criteria for inclusion on his list was his own subjective appreciation of their games rather than their achievements .
" Checkmate " column from December 1966 to December 1969 in Boys ' Life , later assumed by Larry Evans .
My 60 Memorable Games ( Simon and Schuster , New York , 1969 , and Faber and Faber , London , 1969 ; Batsford 2008 ( algebraic notation ) ) . Studied by Kasparov at a young age ; " A classic of painstaking and objective analysis that modestly includes three of his losses . "
I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse ! ( 1982 ) a self @-@ published " essay in a fourteen @-@ page booklet " on Fischer 's time in a Pasadena jail — he was " booked for vagrancy " .
= = = Under Fischer 's name = = =
Numerous books list Fischer as a co @-@ author or endorser . One such book is Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess , co @-@ authored by Donn Mosenfelder and Stuart Margulies .
= = Tournament and match summaries = =
= = = Tournaments = = =
= = = Matches = = =
= = = Team events = = =
= = Notable games = =
Donald Byrne – Fischer , New York 1956 , Grünfeld , 5.Bf4 ( D92 ) , 0 – 1 " The Game of the Century " . Chess magazine called this " a game of great depth and brilliancy " .
Svetozar Gligoric – Fischer , Bled 1961 , King 's Indian Defense : Orthodox Variation . Classical System Misc . Lines ( E98 ) , ½ – ½
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.e4 d6 5.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 6.Be2 e5 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 8.d5 Ne7 9.Ne1 Nd7 10.Nd3 f5 11.exf5 Nxf5 12.f3 Nf6 13.Nf2 Nd4 14.Nfe4 Nh5 15.Bg5 Qd7 16.g3 h6 17.Be3 c5 18.Bxd4 exd4 19.Nb5 a6 20.Nbxd6 d3 21.Qxd3 Bd4 + 22.Kg2 Nxg3 ( see diagram ) 23.Nxc8 Nxf1 24.Nb6 Qc7 25.Rxf1 Qxb6 26.b4 Qxb4 27.Rb1 Qa5 28.Nxc5 Qxc5 29.Qxg6 + Bg7 30.Rxb7 Qd4 31.Bd3 Rf4 32.Qe6 + Kh8 33.Qg6 ½ – ½
Robert Byrne – Fischer , 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship , Neo @-@ Grünfeld , 0 – 1 annotated From an almost symmetrical position , Fischer beats a strong grandmaster in just 21 moves — " a game that was immediately recognized as an all @-@ time classic " .
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.g3 c6 4.Bg2 d5 5.cxd5 cxd5 6.Nc3 Bg7 7.e3 0 @-@ 0 8.Nge2 Nc6 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 b6 10.b3 Ba6 11.Ba3 Re8 12.Qd2 e5 13.dxe5 Nxe5 14.Rfd1 Nd3 15.Qc2 Nxf2 16.Kxf2 Ng4 + 17.Kg1 Nxe3 18.Qd2 ( see diagram ) Nxg2 19.Kxg2 d4 20.Nxd4 Bb7 + 21.Kf1 Qd7 0 – 1
Fischer – Svetozar Gligorić , Havana Olympiad 1966 , Spanish Game : Exchange . Gligoric Variation ( C69 ) , 1 @-@ 0 Fischer revived the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez in this tournament and some later events ; it is still important in opening theory .
Fischer – Mark Taimanov , Vancouver Candidates Final 1971 , 4th match game , Sicilian Defense : Paulsen . Bastrikov Variation ( B47 ) , 1 – 0 Fischer 's patient and accurate handling of bishop vs. knight , first in the rook and minor piece endgame , and then after rooks were exchanged , has become a staple of endgame instructional literature .
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Qc7 5.Nc3 e6 6.g3 a6 7.Bg2 Nf6 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nxd4 9.Qxd4 Bc5 10.Bf4 d6 11.Qd2 h6 12.Rad1 e5 13.Be3 Bg4 14.Bxc5 dxc5 15.f3 Be6 16.f4 Rd8 17.Nd5 Bxd5 18.exd5 e4 19.Rfe1 Rxd5 20.Rxe4 + Kd8 21.Qe2 Rxd1 + 22.Qxd1 + Qd7 23.Qxd7 + Kxd7 ( see diagram ) 24.Re5 b6 25.Bf1 a5 26.Bc4 Rf8 27.Kg2 Kd6 28.Kf3 Nd7 29.Re3 Nb8 30.Rd3 + Kc7 31.c3 Nc6 32.Re3 Kd6 33.a4 Ne7 34.h3 Nc6 35.h4 h5 36.Rd3 + Kc7 37.Rd5 f5 38.Rd2 Rf6 39.Re2 Kd7 40.Re3 g6 41.Bb5 Rd6 42.Ke2 Kd8 43.Rd3 Kc7 44.Rxd6 Kxd6 45.Kd3 Ne7 46.Be8 Kd5 47.Bf7 + Kd6 48.Kc4 Kc6 49.Be8 + Kb7 50.Kb5 Nc8 51.Bc6 + Kc7 52.Bd5 Ne7 53.Bf7 Kb7 54.Bb3 Ka7 55.Bd1 Kb7 56.Bf3 + Kc7 57.Ka6 Ng8 58.Bd5 Ne7 59.Bc4 Nc6 60.Bf7 Ne7 61.Be8 Kd8 62.Bxg6 Nxg6 63.Kxb6 Kd7 64.Kxc5 Ne7 65.b4 axb4 66.cxb4 Nc8 67.a5 Nd6 68.b5 Ne4 + 69.Kb6 Kc8 70.Kc6 Kb8 71.b6 1 – 0
Fischer – Tigran Petrosian , Buenos Aires Candidates Final 1971 , 7th match game , Sicilian Defense : Kan . Modern Variation ( B42 ) , 1 – 0 This game includes " 22.Nxd7 + ! ! " which is " perhaps Fischer 's most famous and instructive move and is still being cited today " .
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4
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6 , 2006 , a Guinness World Record . The economy has also suffered due to investment in more than 20 @,@ 000 surplus properties . Israeli tourists , commonly arriving via cruise ship , have also declined sharply by about 85 % from 2009 to 2011 due in part to strained relations between Turkey and Israel .
= = Media = =
Alanya has 10 local daily newspapers . One of these is Yeni Alanya , which includes the news and lifestyles magazine Orange and is available in English , German and Turkish . Two native German language newspapers are published in Alanya , the Aktuelle Türkei Rundschau and Alanya Bote for the community of German speaking residents and visitors . A monthly magazine Hello Alanya published in Alanya for foreigners , appearing in English and Dutch . The free regional newspaper , Riviera News , is printed in English and is widely available in Alanya .
Five radio stations broadcast from the city . Alanya FM Radyo broadcasts on 106 @.@ 0 FM and is partnered with Radio Flash , on 94 @.@ 0 FM , both broadcasting popular music . Other stations include Alanya RadyoTime on 92 @.@ 3 FM , which broadcasts a variety of Turkish music , news , and talk programming . Two television stations are local to Alanya , Kanal Alanya , and Alanya Televizyonu , abbreviated ATV , which is partnered with Alanya RadyoTime .
= = Transportation = =
The D 400 Highway , the Alanya – Mersin Route , connects Alanya from the east and west , encircling it , and linking through the city center via Atatürk Bulvarı . The D695 , the Ankara – Akşehir Route , runs north – south and reaches the sea 41 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of the city near Side , connecting with the D400 . Antalya Airport is 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) away and connects internationally . The new Antalya Gazipaşa Airport , first begun in 1992 , is only 14 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) from the city , and was expected to have its first regular domestic flights on May 22 , 2010 , although international flights were not expected before the start of the 2011 tourist season . No train routes go to Alanya or Antalya Province , and there are no train stations in the district .
There are bus and dolmuş systems out of Alanya 's two bus depots , but buses are usually limited to the major roads , and inside the city transportation is by car , taxi , or foot , as many roads in the old town are closed to vehicle traffic . The harbor includes cruise ship piers , and also seasonal ferries and hydrofoils depart for Kyrenia in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Cruise ships docking at Alanya have increased 50 % in 2013 , with 53 estimated to have brought 56 @,@ 000 passengers the end of the year . Further west of the city is the Alanya Marina , which started services in 2008 while still under construction , completing its expansion in 2010 . The 85 @-@ km2 ( 33 @-@ sq @-@ mi ) marina allowed Alanya to participate in the 2008 Eastern Mediterranean Yacht Rally . The city is also investing in a community bicycle program with 150 bicycles and twenty terminals .
= = Sports = =
Alanya is home to a woman 's basketball team , Alanya Belediye , which started in the first division but was relegated after the 2002 season . The city hosts a Süper Lig soccer team , Alanyaspor . The club was founded in 1948 , and play home games at Milli Egemenlik Stadium . It played in the Second League between 1988 @-@ 1997 and 2014 @-@ 2016 . The club finally promoted to top level in 2015 @-@ 16 season . In 2007 , the city began constructing a new soccer facility with the intention of hosting winter competitions between major teams . The public Alanya Municipality Sports Facility is located adjacent to Milli Egemenlik Stadium , which is one of thirteen facilities .
Alanya 's waterfront location makes it suitable for certain events , and is perhaps most famous for its annual triathlon , part of the International Triathlon Union series , which has been held every October since 1990 . Marathon swimming competitions have also been connected to the triathlon since 1992 . Building on the triathlon 's success , Alanya hosted a modern pentathlon in 2009 . Alanya is also the regular host of The Turkish Open , part of the Nestea European Beach Volleyball championship tour , which takes place in May . In 2007 , the Turkish Volleyball Federation persuaded the European Volleyball Confederation to build a beach volleyball training facility in Alanya , and make it the exclusive " center of beach volleyball in Europe " .
The city is also a frequent host to national events , such as the annual beach handball tournament . Alanya is the traditional finish site of the seven @-@ day Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , though organizers reversed the route in 2012 , and started the event in Alanya instead . Other cycling events include the Alanya International Mountain Bike Race . Additionally , the European Cycling Union had its 2010 European road cycling championship and 2010 ordinary congress meeting in Alanya .
= = Sister cities = =
Since making agreements with Talsi , Trakai , and Keszthely in 2006 , Borås in 2007 , and Rovaniemi , Špindlerův Mlýn , and Moscow in 2009 , Alanya increased its number of sister cities to twelve , ten of which are located within the European Union . In 2005 Alanya applied with Sister Cities International for an additional sister city from the United States . The most significant tie is with the city of Nea Ionia , where many of Alanya 's Christians were resettled in 1923 after the Treaty of Lausanne . Soccer teams from sister cities Wodzisław Śląski and Schwechat have also come to train and scrimmage in Alanya . Wodzisław , Schwechat , Gladbeck , Fushun , and Alanya form a " family " in that most are partnered with the others . During the annual Tourism and Culture Festival , Alanya dedicates the year to focus on one country , and has involved sister cities , such as Trakai when 2009 was declared the " Year of Lithuania , " and Talsi , which was the focus of the 12th annual Tourism Parade in 2012 .
= Hu Die =
Hu Die ( Chinese : 胡蝶 ; Wade – Giles : Hu Tieh ; 1907 or 1908 – April 23 , 1989 ) , also known by her English name Butterfly Wu , was one of the most popular Chinese actresses during the 1920s and 1930s . She starred in The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple , which started a craze for martial arts films , Sing @-@ Song Girl Red Peony , China 's first sound film , and what is considered her best film , Twin Sisters . She was voted China 's first " Movie Queen " in 1933 , and won the Best Actress Award at the 1960 Asian Film Festival for her performance in Rear Door .
= = Early life = =
Hu Die was born Hu Ruihua ( Chinese : 胡瑞华 ; Wade – Giles : Hu Jui @-@ hua ) in Shanghai in 1907 or 1908 , and moved to Guangzhou ( Canton ) when she was nine . Her father then became the general inspector of the Beijing – Fengtian Railway , and she spent much of her adolescence in northern cities including Beijing , Tianjin and Yingkou , and learned to speak perfect Mandarin , which later proved to be a great advantage when the Chinese cinema transitioned from silent films to talkies .
In 1924 , Hu Ruihua moved back to Shanghai with her family . When China ( Zhonghua ) Film School , the country 's first film actor training school , opened , she was the first student to enroll . She adopted the professional name " Hu Die " , meaning " butterfly " , and Butterfly Wu in English ( Wu is the Shanghainese pronunciation of Hu ) .
= = Early career = =
Hu Die played her first role in the film Success , as a supporting actress . She played her first major role in the film Autumn Stirs Resentments ( Qiu Shan Yuan ) , and fell in love with her co @-@ star Lin Xuehuai . The relationship did not work out , and the local newspapers were filled with rumours when they broke off their engagement .
In 1926 , Hu Die had her big break when she was signed by Tianyi ( Unique ) Film Company , one of the major studios of Shanghai , headed by Runje Shaw ( Shao Zuiweng ) . Tianyi catered to the tastes of the common people with rapid production of films . Hu Die starred in 15 films within the two years she worked for Tianyi . Many of them , such as The Traumatic Romance of Liang and Zhu ( 1926 ) and Lady Meng Jiang ( 1927 ) , were popular , but not considered artistically worthy .
= = Mingxing Studio = =
In 1928 , Hu Die declined to renew her contract with Tianyi , and signed with the rival Mingxing ( Star ) Film Company , led by the shrewd businessman and director Zhang Shichuan , and the talented writer Zheng Zhengqiu . She had a salary of $ 1 @,@ 000 a month , a large sum at the time . Her first film with Mingxing was Tower in the White Clouds ( 1928 ) . She befriended her co @-@ star Ruan Lingyu ; the two women would become China 's biggest film stars of the 1930s . Her role as Red Girl in the film The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple ( 1928 ) propelled her to stardom . The film was such a success that the studio made 17 sequels of the same name between 1928 and 1931 . It started a craze for martial arts films , but also attracted criticism from intellectuals when children neglected their schoolwork to study martial arts or devote themselves to martial arts fiction .
In 1931 , Hu Die starred in Sing @-@ Song Girl Red Peony ( dir . Zhang Shichuan ) , the first Chinese sound film ( although it was sound @-@ on @-@ disc , not sound @-@ on @-@ film ) . Compared with other silent @-@ era film stars , who were mostly southerners with poor Mandarin , Hu Die made the transition to sound with ease . She appeared in more sound films and was able to sing in The Flower of Freedom , a real sound film of much higher quality .
Hu Die starred in Twin Sisters ( Zimei Hua , dir . Zheng Zhengqiu ) in 1934 , in which she skilfully played the double role of twin sisters with very different personalities . The film was not only extremely popular but also won critical acclaim . It is generally considered her best film .
= = Mukden Incident = =
On 18 September 1931 , Hu Die arrived in Tianjin en route to Beijing , where Mingxing was planning to shoot the film Marriage of Tears and Laughter , an adaptation of the novel by Zhang Henshui . On the same day , the Japanese engineered the Mukden Incident , and used it as pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria . Zhang Xueliang , the " young marshal " who was the head of the northeastern army , ordered his soldiers to retreat rather than fight the Japanese . There was rumour that on the evening that the Japanese took Mukden , Marshal Zhang was dancing with Hu Die in Beijing , a serious charge which threatened to damage her reputation . Hu Die had to purchase space on Shen Bao , Shanghai 's biggest newspaper , to dispel the rumour , which she believed was started by the Japanese media in order to discredit Zhang Xueliang . Her account was corroborated by other Mingxing actors and employees . Years later , memoirs of people close to Zhang Xueliang indicated that he had never met Hu Die in his life , and Zhang was ordered by Chiang Kai @-@ shek not to resist the much stronger enemy .
= = Movie Queen = =
In 1933 , the newspaper Star Daily ( 明星日报 ) conducted China 's first public poll for the most popular movie stars . Fans across the country , as well as some from Japan , participated in the poll , and the results were unveiled in a public ceremony on 28 February . Hu Die was the runaway winner with 21 @,@ 334 votes , more than twice as many as the first runner @-@ up Chen Yumei , and almost three times the votes her friend Ruan Lingyu received . She was crowned China 's first " Movie Queen " .
= = European tour = =
In February 1935 , Hu Die was invited to join a Chinese delegation to participate in the Moscow International Film Festival in the Soviet Union . She was the only film star in the delegation , which mainly comprised influential men of the industry . She arrived too late for the festival , but received a warm welcome , and her films Twin Sisters and Orchid in a Remote Valley ( Konggu Lan ) were shown in Moscow and Leningrad . From Moscow she went on to tour Germany , France , England , Switzerland and Italy , receiving significant public attention and VIP treatment from the Europeans , to whom Chinese film stars were novelties . She took many notes and photographs , and published a travelogue after returning to China .
= = Marriage = =
In 1931 , a cousin introduced Hu Die to Pan Yousheng ( 潘有声 ) , a young employee of a Shanghai trading firm . Hu Die was careful about her personal life and their relationship progressed slowly until autumn 1935 , when they announced their impending marriage . Their wedding was the most important social event in Shanghai of that year . Famous film stars served as bridesmaids and groomsmen , and child stars were their flower girls and page boys . Hu Die was ready to retire from the film industry , as was customary at the time after an actress ' marriage , but with her husband 's support , she signed a contract with Mingxing to make one film per year . She only made one more film under the new contract , before the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War broke out , and the hard @-@ fought Battle of Shanghai completely destroyed Mingxing and other Shanghai studios in 1937 .
= = Sino @-@ Japanese War = =
As the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied Shanghai and much of east China , Hu Die and Pan Yousheng fled to British Hong Kong . Hu Die gave birth to a daughter and a boy during this time . Pan worked for a trading firm in Hong Kong , while she also made two films . After the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 , Hong Kong also fell to the Japanese . The Japanese pressured her to make a documentary film entitled Hu Die Touring Tokyo for their war propaganda , but Hu Die refused to become a collaborator , and secretly escaped to inland Chongqing , the war @-@ time capital of the Republic of China resistance . It was a long and circuitous journey through a war zone . She entrusted her belongings to the underground , and casually walked out of her Hong Kong home one day . Resistance partisans guided her through the New Territories to Guangdong province . She stayed in Shaoguan for a year and a half before leaving for Guilin in Guangxi , and did not reach Chongqing until the end of 1943 .
Soon after arriving in Chongqing , Hu Die starred in the film The Road to Nation Building to aid the war effort . While she was filming on location in Guilin , the Japanese launched a major offensive in the area . The film crew lost all their equipment , and had to join the tens of thousands of refugees fleeing the war front on foot . The Road to Nation Building was Hu Die 's only unfinished film , and she later described the incident as " the most tragic moment of my life " .
While in Chongqing , Hu Die became connected with the powerful spy master Dai Li . She had been previously introduced to Dai Li in Shanghai by her colleague Xu Lai , who was married to a close friend of Dai Li 's . According to the memoir of Dai Li 's lieutenant Shen Zui , Hu Die became Dai Li 's mistress during the period .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
Hu Die returned to Shanghai after the surrender of Japan in 1945 . Dai Li was killed in a plane crash in March 1946 . In the midst of the Chinese Civil War , Hu Die again moved with her husband to Hong Kong in 1946 . Pan Yousheng started a company making thermoses with the brand Butterfly , and she actively promoted her namesake product in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia . They lived a few happy years together , until Pan died soon after being diagnosed with liver cancer in 1958 .
After her husband 's death , Hu Die returned to the film industry in 1959 , now taking roles as older women , which took her some time to adjust to . She made
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ce met Roosevelt at the Union League Club of Chicago , of which the former had become a member in 1891 . His ambivalent attitude towards government was a common one of the general public during the Progressive Era . However , Boyce 's Republican credentials and monetary contributions earned him an invitation to the presidential inauguration and ball of newly elected successor to " T.R. " , the 27th President , William Howard Taft in March 1909 .
= = Expeditions = =
Boyce financed an expedition of the explorer Frederick Schwatka to Alaska in 1896 . Schwatka discovered gold near Nome and Boyce reported this success in his newspapers , which led him to finance other Schwatka expeditions as well as those of other adventurers , including a failed expedition to the Yukon River in 1898 . Boyce soon began to carry out his own expeditions . When the United States entered the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Boyce set sail for Cuban waters aboard the ship Three Friends . The nature of the activities of Boyce and this ship are unknown .
In March 1909 , Boyce embarked on a two @-@ month trip to Europe , which included a visit to his daughters , who were in Rome . On returning to America , Boyce organized a photographic expedition to Africa with the innovative aerial photographer George R. Lawrence . Boyce met with safari organizers and outfitters and provisioned his expedition in London and Naples . His son Benjamin and Lawrence 's son Raymond were part of the expedition . Cartoonist John T. McCutcheon joined the expedition while they were sailing from Naples to Africa . The group disembarked at Mombasa , Kenya , and was in Nairobi by September . After hiring local porters and guides , the entire expedition totaled about 400 people , about three @-@ fourths of whom were servants . It required 15 train cars to move the people and equipment to the area the expedition was going to explore near Kijabi and Lake Victoria . The expedition was a failure because a telephoto lens was neither brought nor subsequently procured , the hot air balloons were not suitable for the conditions on the plains of East Africa , and the cameras were so large and noisy to move into position that the animals were scared away . The members of the expedition had to resort to buying photographs of big game animals from shops in cities such as Nairobi . The expedition did manage to successfully hunt several species of big game animals .
In December 1910 , Boyce led a nine @-@ month , 50 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 80 @,@ 000 km ) expedition to South America that was extensively reported in his newspapers . In late January 1915 , Boyce sailed to England because of his concern over World War I. He received permission from the American Legation in Switzerland to travel into Germany and Austria for six weeks to report on the industrial and commercial effects of the war on those countries . He sent extensive reports to his newspapers and returned home around April – May .
In late 1922 , Boyce departed on another expedition to Africa , this time for six months . Morocco reminded him of the Dakotas , Kansas , Texas , Florida , and Arizona . In Egypt he visited the tomb of Tutankhamun , which had been discovered just a few months earlier . His expedition then went to Luxor and sailed up the Nile River to Edfu , where the houses had no roofs and while he was there it rained and hailed for the first time in decades . Boyce stated that between his two expeditions to Africa , he had shot at least one of every game animal .
= = Scouting = =
As Boyce 's interest in philanthropy grew , he turned to his childhood experiences in the outdoors as a resource , but could not find a way to channel his charitable ideas and dreams until a fateful stop to England while en route to what became the failed photographic expedition to Africa . Events in London on the way to and from this expedition would lead to the founding of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) , one of many civic and professional organizations formed during the Progressive Era to fill the void of citizens who had become distended from their rural roots . Many youth organizations such as the Woodcraft Indians and Sons of Daniel Boone formed in America in the early 1900s focusing on outdoor character @-@ building activities . The writings and adventures of Theodore Roosevelt contributed to these movements , with their outdoor , nature , and pioneer themes . By the time of his 1922 expedition to Africa , Boyce was so well respected in Scouting that French Boy Scouts in Algeria saluted him and offered to escort him along a trail when they found out he was the founder of BSA and LSA in America .
= = = Unknown Scout legend = = =
According to legend , Boyce was lost on a foggy street in London in 1909 when an unknown Scout came to his aid , guiding him back to his destination . The boy then refused Boyce 's tip , explaining that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout . Soon thereafter , Boyce met with Robert Baden @-@ Powell , who was the head of the Boy Scout Association at that time . Boyce returned to America , and , four months later , founded the Boy Scouts of America on February 8 , 1910 . He intended to base the program around American Indian lore . This version of the legend has been printed in numerous BSA handbooks and magazines . There are several variations of it , including ones that claim Boyce knew about Scouting before this encounter and that the Unknown Scout took him to Scout headquarters .
In actuality , Boyce stopped in London en route to a safari in British East Africa . It is true that an unknown Scout helped him and refused a tip . But this Scout only helped him cross a street ; he did not take him to the Scout headquarters and Boyce never met Baden @-@ Powell . Upon Boyce 's request , the unknown Scout did give him the address of the Scout headquarters , where Boyce went and picked up a copy of Scouting For Boys and other printed material on Scouting . He read this while on safari and was so impressed that instead of making his return to America an around @-@ the @-@ world trip via San Francisco , he returned to the Scout headquarters in London . He volunteered to organize Scouting in America and was told that he could use their manual . While Boyce 's original account does not mention fog , a 1928 account says there was fog . Climatologists report no fog on that day in London .
= = = Boy Scouts of America = = =
The Boy Scouts of America was incorporated on February 8 , 1910 , but it struggled from shortages of cash and leadership in the beginning . Boyce personally donated $ 1 @,@ 000 a month to keep the organization running on the condition that boys of all races and creeds be included , which was at odds with his own expressed belief in the superiority of whites . He was not interested in directing the organization , and turned over the running of the organization to Edgar M. Robinson of the YMCA , who proceeded to recruit the permanent executive board of the BSA . The much @-@ needed leadership and management arrived when the Sons of Daniel Boone and Woodcraft Indians merged with the BSA .
Boyce felt that Scouting 's emphasis on outdoor activity was crucial in producing the type of leaders that America needed because youth reared in cities had too much done for them , whereas those from the country had to learn to do things for themselves . Scouting was focused on teaching self @-@ reliance , citizenship , resourcefulness , patriotism , obedience , cheerfulness , courage , and courtesy in order " to make men " .
= = = Lone Scouts of America = = =
Boyce clashed with James E. West , the BSA 's Chief Scout Executive , over a program for boys who lived too far from town to join a troop . Boyce offered to publish a magazine for the BSA , as long as it was published in Chicago . The National Executive Board of the BSA turned this offer down and shortly thereafter Boyce ceased being active in administrative activities of the BSA , though he remained a staunch supporter of the program . As a result of this and his desire to serve boys who had limited opportunities as he himself did when he was young , Boyce started a new Scouting @-@ related venture : the Lone Scouts of America ( LSA ) on January 9 , 1915 . Reliance on Native American themes gave LSA a distinct Native American flavor : Lone Scouts could form small groups known as " tribes " , the tribe 's treasurer was known as the " wampum @-@ bearer " , and LSA taught boys to respect the environment . Boyce 's annual contribution to the LSA grew to $ 100 @,@ 000 . In both the BSA and the LSA , Boyce was a manager and had little direct contact with the Boy Scouts . Upon his return from reporting on World War I , Boyce immediately began expanding the LSA by starting Lone Scout magazine and hiring Frank Allan Morgan , a noted Chicago Scoutmaster , to lead the LSA . By November 1915 , the LSA had over 30 @,@ 000 members . Warren conferred upon Boyce the title Chief Totem . Youths could join the LSA simply by mailing in some coupons and five cents . By 1916 , the BSA and the LSA were in direct competition for members . In the summer of 1917 , during his annual Dakota hunt , the Gros Ventres Indian tribe made Boyce an honorary chief with the name " Big Cloud " during a three @-@ day ceremony . With America at war , Boyce agreed to the creation of a Lone Scout uniform in late 1917 . Though he had a uniform made for himself , he stipulated that no Lone Scout was required to purchase one .
Boyce felt that Lone Scout was the best magazine he had ever done . Lone Scout was so popular that it could not handle all the material that was submitted , so many local and regional Tribe Papers were started . By 1922 , Boyce 's newspaper business was suffering and Lone Scout was losing money — it switched from a weekly to a monthly . Boyce 's racial prejudice was revealed when the racial tensions in Chicago increased in the 1920s . The LSA issued a formal proclamation in late 1920 that it would only accept whites and in 1922 changed the masthead of Lone Scout from " A Real Boys ' Magazine " to " The White Boys Magazine " .
The fortunes of the LSA had begun to decline by 1920 when Boyce hired the first professional editor for Lone Scout , George N. Madison . Madison discovered that the LSA 's membership roster was wildly inaccurate : it was full of duplications and inactive members . The reported 490 @,@ 000 Lone Scouts in 1922 was a vastly inflated number . Boyce finally accepted West 's annual offer to merge with the BSA in April 1924 , with the merger formalized on June 16 , 1924 . Some Lone Scouts did not transfer to the BSA , but the BSA continued Lone Scouting as a separate division for another decade , gradually losing its unique programs . Present day Lone Scouts use the standard Cub Scouting and Boy Scouting programs and activities , but are not part of a pack or troop on a regular basis because of factors such as distance , weather , time , disability or other difficulties .
= = Legacy = =
Benjamin Boyce died in 1928 of a heart embolism . His father did not arrive home until after his son 's death . Boyce was so saddened over his son 's death that his own health suffered . One of Boyce 's last efforts was to publish his son 's letters from his South Seas expeditions : Dear Dad Letters from New Guinea . Boyce died from bronchial pneumonia on June 11 , 1929 , in Chicago and was buried in his adopted hometown of Ottawa , Illinois , on June 13 , 1929 , in the Ottawa Avenue Cemetery , with West delivering the eulogy . Boy Scouts maintained an honor guard with an American flag in a heavy rainstorm in two @-@ hour shifts at his Ottawa home and 32 Boy Scouts were chosen as honorary pallbearers . BSA officials sent his widow a telegram that said the entire American nation owed him a debt of gratitude . A statue that commemorates his contribution to the Boy Scouts of America was placed near his grave on June 21 , 1941 , which West dedicated .
Boyce was recognized with the Silver Buffalo Award in 1926 , the first year it was awarded , for his efforts in starting the BSA . He was the third recipient , after Baden @-@ Powell and the Unknown Scout . During the BSA 's 50th anniversary in 1960 , 15 @,@ 000 Scouts and several of Boyce 's descendants gathered in Ottawa for a Boyce Memorial weekend . Illinois governor William Stratton delivered the key address and Bridge Street was renamed Boyce Memorial Drive . In 1985 , about 2 @,@ 500 Scouts attended a 75th anniversary pilgrimage in Ottawa , attended by his last surviving child , Virginia , and the Union League of Chicago named Boyce its first Hall of Fame member . Boyce had been a member from 1891 until he died . On December 6 , 1997 , a Scouting museum opened in Ottawa . The W. D. Boyce Council of the BSA is named in his honor . A Pennsylvania State Historical Marker located on Boyce Campus of Community College of Allegheny County in Monroeville , Pennsylvania , recognizes his achievements to Scouting . Not far from the marker is a county park , Boyce Park , that was named for him . A medallion of Boyce is near the White House as part of the The Extra Mile – Points of Light Volunteer Pathway . In 2005 , the BSA introduced the William D. Boyce New Unit Organization Award , presented to the organizer of any new Scouting unit .
= = Works = =
Boyce , William D. ( 1883 ) . Lisbon and Her Industries . Lisbon , Dakota : Clipper Steam Printing and Publishing .
Boyce , William D. ( 1894 ) . A Strike . Chicago : Lakeside Press , R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1912 ) . Illustrated South America . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated United States Colonies and Dependencies . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co . , also in four volumes :
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Alaska and the Panama Canal . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Hawaiian Islands and Porto Rico . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Philippine Islands . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated United States Dependencies . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1922 ) . Illustrated Australia and New Zealand . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1925 ) . Illustrated Africa , North , Tropical , South . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
= Bill Lange =
William Alexander " Bill " Lange ( / ˈlæŋ / ; June 6 , 1871 – July 23 , 1950 ) , also known as " Little Eva " , was an American Major League Baseball center fielder , who played his entire seven @-@ year career for the Chicago Colts and Orphans from 1893 to 1899 . During his time in the Majors , he once led the National League in stolen bases , and was among the seasonal leaders in several other offensive categories including home runs , and batting average .
Lange was noted for having a combination of great speed and power , especially for his size . His 6 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) , 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) frame was considered large for his era . He is best known for retiring from baseball during the prime of his career to get married , as his future father @-@ in @-@ law forbade his daughter to marry a baseball player . Despite the short @-@ lived marriage , he refused all offers to return as a player .
He became a successful businessman after his retirement from baseball . In addition to his success in real estate and insurance , he became a leading figure in Major League Baseball 's efforts to generate interest in the game worldwide . He was enlisted by the leading baseball figures of the day to assist in establishing leagues in several European countries , that could eventually compete against American teams , while also scouting for undiscovered talent .
= = Early life = =
Born in the Presidio District of San Francisco , California , he ran away from home while still in grammar school to live with his brother in Port Townsend , Washington . It was from there that he moved up to play Minor League Baseball for the Seattle Reds of the Northwestern Baseball League in the early 1890s . When the Northwestern League folded , Lange return the Bay area to play for the Oakland Colonels of the California League . He played one season for the Colonels , then was signed by the Chicago Colts of the National League .
= = Major League career = =
Lange made his Major League debut on April 27 , 1893 for the Colts , and enjoyed a successful inaugural Major League season . He scored 92 times , hit eight home runs , had 88 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , while also finishing seventh in stolen bases with 47 , and batted .281 . This was the only time he batted under .300 during his Major League career . In the field that season , he played at second base , in right field and center field . He did not start playing center field exclusively until the following season . Lange continued his success in 1894 by raising his batting average to .328 and finishing fifth in the league with 65 stolen bases .
Lange achieved his highest league rankings in 1895 . His .389 batting average was fifth in the league and is still the top individual season average in Chicago Cubs 's history . He also finished second in the league in stolen bases with 67 , fifth in home runs with 10 , fifth in on @-@ base percentage with .456 , hit 16 triples , scored 120 runs , and batted in 98 RBIs .
Lange had several notable moments during the 1896 season . On July 4 , he stole five bases in one game against the Louisville Colonels , although it was two stolen bases short of the record of seven set by George Gore and Billy Hamilton . During a game on August 31 , he entered baseball lore with a feat that he never actually performed . The game was scoreless in the bottom of the 10th inning when Lange made a diving catch in center field to keep the game scoreless . Later in the inning , Chicago 's first baseman , George Decker attempted to field a thrown ball from third baseman Barry McCormick , but it bounced off and broke his wrist instead . In an effort to get Decker to the hospital adjacent the ballpark , his teammates knocked down several wooden slats of the outfield fence to expedite his journey . However , the two events were confused and it became legend that Lange had crashed through the fence making that acrobatic catch in tenth . Lange finished the season with a .326 batting average , while also stealing 84 bases , second in the league , and finished eighth in league with 16 triples .
His success continued into the 1897 season , as he batted .340 , scored 119 runs , and led the league in stolen bases for the only time in his career . His production dropped his last two seasons in the Majors as his runs scored fell to 79 in 1898 and 81 in 1899 , although he still kept his batting averages of .319 and .325 respectively .
While he was very popular , his career as a baseball player was not without controversy . He was ejected from a game on at least two occasions , one of which occurred on May 23 , 1897 when he had an on @-@ field fight with Washington Senators second baseman John O 'Brien . On September 16 , 1899 , in a game against the Brooklyn Superbas , umpire Ed Swartwood called the game because of darkness with Brooklyn up by two runs . Lange , and other Chicago player surrounded Swartwood and proceeded to " knock him around " , with Lange notably " tweaking " the umpire 's ear .
= = Retirement = =
Lange finished his career on October 15 , 1899 , having announced a few days earlier his intention to retire after the season . His team played a doubleheader that day , winning 7 – 0 against the St. Louis Perfectos , then losing to the Louisville Colonels later that day in a game shortened by darkness .
He retired from
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the game at age 28 , during the prime of his career , so he could marry a woman whose father forbade her to marry a baseball player . In the eyes of the 19th century public , baseball players were popular , but were often looked upon as low class . Lange 's future wife was from his hometown of San Francisco , and her family was very well @-@ to @-@ do . Also , with the prospect of entering into the world of real estate and insurance , he could make much more money than he did as a ball player . Though the marriage ended in a divorce a short time later , he would not take any offers to return to Major League Baseball , despite Chicago 's salary offer of $ 3 @,@ 500 that would have made him the highest paid player in the league . Although his career lasted only seven years , he finished as the decade leader among 1890s Chicago players in batting average , on @-@ base percentage , slugging percentage , and stolen bases .
= = Post @-@ career = =
Lange became successful in both real estate and insurance in his hometown of San Francisco after he retired from baseball . Lange is also credited in several sources , as being the person who discovered future Chicago Cubs first baseman , manager , and Hall of Famer , Frank Chance , after having watched him play for the local Fresno , California team during the off @-@ season of 1897 . Lange had recommended Chance to the team owner , Jim Hart , but Hart disputed this claim , saying that Henry Harris had recommended Chance to him while Harris was an owner of a San Francisco team in the fall of 1897 .
In 1907 , the California State League , a minor league , was declared by organized baseball to be an " outlaw " league . Organized baseball accused the league of harboring players from the Majors Leagues who had violated the reserve clause to join a number of their teams . The league had become a rival to the already established Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , who , after being an " outlaw " league themselves , had signed the National Agreement with organized baseball , agreeing that they would not harbor blacklisted or banned players from the Major Leagues . A national commission decided that the best way to deal with this situation was to dissolve this outlaw league . They did this by lifting the blacklist on any player already in the State League , which would create competition among all known leagues , for these players . This commission enlisted Lange , who used his influence with the sports editors in the local area to speed up the process . The attempt worked as the PCL successfully lured the Sacramento , California team into joining their league , with many of the players soon to follow .
Later , John McGraw of the New York Giants enlisted Lange as his chief European baseball scout , hoping to discover any hidden talent in that untapped market . In 1919 , Ban Johnson , the American League president enlisted Lange as his chief organizer of baseball teams in Europe , mainly in England , France , Belgium , and Italy . Johnson 's plan was for Lange to evaluate talent and establish an International Baseball League that could compete against the American League pennant winning team in an effort to generate greater interest in the game . Lange became part of the board of directors at the YMCA , which helped fund the expedition . Additionally , Washington Senators owner Clark Griffith donated $ 40 @,@ 000 worth of equipment to assist in supplying the new league .
Lange died at the age of 79 in his hometown of San Francisco , and is interred at the Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma , California . Two of his nephews played Major League ball as well , Ren , and George " Highpockets " Kelly . George later gained induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 .
= New York State Route 141 =
New York State Route 141 ( NY 141 ) is a north – south state highway in Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 3 @.@ 49 miles ( 5 @.@ 62 km ) from an interchange with NY 9A in the hamlet of Hawthorne to an intersection with NY 117 in the village of Pleasantville . The route has a very short overlap with NY 100 west of Hawthorne and connects to the southbound direction of the Taconic State Parkway by way of a partial interchange in Hawthorne . Most of NY 141 is a two @-@ lane road that serves residential and commercial areas ; however , the southwesternmost 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) is a four @-@ lane divided highway .
NY 141 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , extending from Hawthorne to Pleasantville as it does today . At one time , the route extended as far south as the hamlet of Eastview 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 02 km ) southwest of Hawthorne .
= = Route description = =
NY 141 begins at a trumpet interchange with NY 9A on the western edge of the hamlet of Hawthorne , located within the town of Mount Pleasant . This junction also serves as the south end of NY 9A 's overlaps with NY 100 . NY 141 initially heads to the northeast as an independent route , following the two ramps not carrying either direction of NY 100 . After just 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) , all four ramps merge into a four @-@ lane divided highway , creating a short overlap between NY 141 and NY 100 . The divided highway ends at Brighton Avenue , the first road that it intersects . NY 100 splits from NY 141 here , following Brighton Avenue southward while NY 141 heads southeastward along the two @-@ lane Broadway , passing through a lightly developed commercial area . After one block , the route intersects Bradhurst Avenue , here a state @-@ maintained street serving as a one @-@ block spur of NY 100 .
Just east of Bradhurst Avenue , NY 141 connects to the Taconic State Parkway by way of a partial interchange . The junction has only two connections ; the first links NY 141 to the southbound parkway , while the second leads from the northbound direction of the parkway to NY 141 via West Cross Street . Continuing eastward , the highway passes under the parkway and enters the commercial center of Hawthorne . Here , NY 141 crosses over the Metro @-@ North Railroad before turning northward onto Elwood Avenue . Over the next 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , NY 141 closely parallels the railroad 's Harlem Line , serving its Hawthorne station as the road heads north . After three blocks , the road and railroad turn to the northeast and begin to run alongside the Saw Mill River Parkway . Elwood Avenue ends shortly after the curve , giving way to Commerce Street .
As Commerce Street , NY 141 continues to head to the northeast , passing by a line of businesses in an otherwise residential area between the hamlets of Hawthorne and Thornwood . The route eventually enters the latter 's central business district , where the Saw Mill Parkway and the Harlem Line turn northwestward toward the center of the nearby village of Pleasantville . NY 141 continues on a northern track , however , becoming known as Broadway again as it heads through mostly residential areas on its way into the eastern portion of Pleasantville . It retains the Broadway name to a junction with Bedford Road , from where the route continues as Bedford Road for two blocks before ending at an intersection with NY 117 . Westbound NY 117 enters from the west on Manville Road , while NY 117 east turns north to follow Bedford Road .
= = History = =
The alignment of NY 141 between Fort Washington Avenue in Hawthorne and the Pleasantville village line was constructed up to state highway standards during the early 20th century . Designated State Highway 1308 ( SH 1308 ) , August 31 , 1915 , the State of New York let a contract to upgrade the 2 @.@ 14 miles ( 3 @.@ 44 km ) alignment with new pavement . The alignment would have 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of pavement on 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) of right @-@ of @-@ way . Construction was completed in 1918 , and the state accepted the alignment into the state highway system on March 15 .
NY 141 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It originally followed Marble Avenue from Thornwood to Pleasantville ; however , it was realigned in the 1940s to follow Broadway between Thornwood and NY 117 , then routed on Bedford Road , in Pleasantville . In the late 1930s , NY 141 was extended southwestward to Eastview by way of modern NY 9A and the now @-@ dismantled Old Saw Mill River Road . This change was reverted on January 1 , 1949 when most of the highway became part of a realigned NY 9A . On September 1 , 1980 , NY 141 was extended two blocks northward after NY 117 was rerouted to follow Manville Road through Pleasantville .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= USS Philippine Sea ( CV @-@ 47 ) =
USS Philippine Sea ( CV / CVA / CVS @-@ 47 , AVT @-@ 11 ) was one of 24 Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers of the United States Navy , and the first ship to be named for the Battle of the Philippine Sea . She was launched on 5 September 1945 , after the end of World War II and sponsored by the wife of the Governor of Kentucky .
During her career , Philippine Sea served first in the Atlantic Ocean and saw several deployments to the Mediterranean Sea as well as a trip to Antarctica as a part of Operation Highjump . Sent to the Korean Peninsula at the outbreak of the Korean War , she sent aircraft in support of United Nations ground troops , first during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter and then during the Inchon Landings and the Second Battle of Seoul . She subsequently supported UN troops during the surprise Chinese attack and the Chosin Reservoir Campaign . Philippine Sea saw three tours to Korea during the war , receiving nine battle stars for her service .
For the remainder of her service , she operated primarily out of San Diego and San Francisco , seeing several deployments to the Far East and being redesignated an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier . She was decommissioned on 28 December 1958 and sold for scrap in 1970 .
= = Construction = =
Philippine Sea was the last of
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the 24 Essex @-@ class ships to be completed , among the largest and most numerous capital ships produced for World War II . CV @-@ 47 was ordered simultaneously to Valley Forge and Iwo Jima in June 1943 .
The ship was one of the " long @-@ hull " designs of the class , which had begun production after March 1943 . This " long hull " variant involved lengthening the bow above the waterline into a " clipper " form . The increased rake and flare provided deck space for two quadruple 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) mounts ; these units also had the flight deck slightly shortened forward to provide better arcs of fire . Of the Essex @-@ class ships laid down after 1942 , only Bon Homme Richard followed the original " short hull " design . The later ships have been variously referred to as the " long @-@ bow units " , the " long @-@ hull group " , or the " Ticonderoga class " . However , the U.S. Navy never maintained any institutional distinction between the long @-@ hull and short @-@ hull members of the Essex class , and applied postwar refits and upgrades to both groups equally . The ship was powered by eight 600 psi Babcock & Wilcox boilers , and Westinghouse geared steam turbines that developed 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower that turned four propellers . Like other Essex @-@ class carriers , she had a maximum speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship 's cost is estimated at $ 68 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to $ 78 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
Like other " long @-@ hull " Essex @-@ class carriers , Philippine Sea had a displacement of 27 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 700 long tons ; 29 @,@ 900 short tons ) . She had an overall length of 888 feet ( 271 m ) , a beam of 93 feet ( 28 m ) and a draft of 39 feet ( 12 m ) . The ship was powered by 150 @,@ 000 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) steam turbines with a designed range of 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) . While Essex @-@ class carriers typically had a designed maximum speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) , Philippine Sea only made 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) on sea trials . The ship had a total crew complement of 3 @,@ 310 . Like other Essex @-@ class ships , she was armed with twelve 38 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) dual purpose guns arrayed in four twin and four single mountings , as well as 8 quadruple Bofors 40 mm guns and a variable number of Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . Unlike her sisters , however , Philippine Sea substituted additional Bofors guns for the Oerlikons with forty @-@ four 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns arrayed in 10 quadruple and two double mounts .
The keel of CV @-@ 47 was laid down 19 August 1944 at the Bethlehem Steel Company in Quincy , Massachusetts . Originally , the ship was to be named USS Wright in honor of the Wright brothers , but following the 19 June 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea , the Navy decided that the ship be named after the battle , and on 13 February 1945 , she was renamed . Construction on the ship continued throughout the summer of 1945 , but Philippine Sea was not completed at the time of V @-@ E Day . The ship was launched on 5 September 1945 , only days after V @-@ J Day and the end of World War II . She was christened by the wife of Governor of Kentucky Albert " Happy " Chandler .
= = Service history = =
Philippine Sea commissioned on 11 May 1946 , when Rear Admiral Morton Deyo placed the ship under the command of Captain Delbert Strother Cornwell at the Boston Navy Yard in South Boston , Massachusetts . The ship remained drydocked at the yard for two weeks before sailing for Naval Air Station Quonset Point on 13 June . However , a shortage of men following the post @-@ World War II demobilization forced her to remain at reduced operational status until 23 September when she embarked for sea trials .
Returning from trials on 27 September , the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 20 , which flew two squadrons of Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter aircraft as well as a squadron each of Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers and Grumman TBM @-@ 3E Avenger torpedo bombers , about 90 aircraft total . She left port 30 September and commenced training en route to Norfolk , Virginia . CVG @-@ 20 Commander Robert M. Milner made the first takeoff from the carrier on 1 October aboard a Bearcat . Philippine Sea departed Norfolk Naval Shipyard 12 October for Cuban waters where she conducted an abbreviated shakedown cruise and training exercises for CVG @-@ 20 's Grumman F8F Bearcats and Curtiss SB2C Helldivers until 20 November .
Following these trials , Philippine Sea was assigned to Operation Highjump . She returned to Quonset and disembarked CVG @-@ 20 before sailing for Boston for repairs and alterations . She then headed to Norfolk where Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd boarded her and she took on six Douglas R4D @-@ 5 Skytrain transports , two Stinson OY @-@ 1 Sentinel liaison aircraft , and a Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 helicopter along with cargo , spare parts , skis and Task Force 68 personnel . She left Norfolk 29 December and stood out of Hampton Roads 2 January 1947 en route to Antarctica . Philippine Sea passed through the Panama Canal 8 January and cleared Balboa by 10 January . By 12 January the ship had crossed the equator in an elaborate ceremony , but on 22 January its HO3S @-@ 1 was lost due to pilot error , though the crew was recovered . Two days later , it met the remaining ships of Task Force 68 . The ship arrived on station on 29 January , 660 miles ( 1 @,@ 060 km ) from Little America , and launched its R4Ds in the next few days to explore the Arctic . Commander William M. Hawkes and Byrd both disembarked from Philippine Sea aboard the aircraft to begin their expedition . After her aircraft departed , Philippine Sea returned to Quonset , passing through Balboa again on 22 February and arriving back in port on 27 February .
In late March , the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 9 , which flew two squadrons of Gruman F8F Bearcats and Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters as well as a squadron each of SB2C Helldivers and TBM Avengers , and a detachment of HO3S helicopters for a total of about 100 aircraft . She completed her shakedown cruise at Guantanamo Bay until late May . She continued sea trials in the area until 1 July when she arrived at Gravesend Bay , New Jersey for refit . She was refitted for most of the year at New York Naval Shipyard and Bayonne , New Jersey through 15 November 1947 before conducting trials and training around Quonset and Guantanamo Bay through February 1948 . That month , she became flagship of Carrier Division Four led by Rear Admiral Ralph E. Jennings , who established his command aboard her on 4 February . On 20 February she departed for her first deployment in the Mediterranean Sea as part of Vice Admiral Forrest Sherman 's 6th Fleet . Here she logged 8 @,@ 534 flight hours , including 85 hours of night operations . She returned to Quonset 26 June and for repairs to her catapult machinery . She spent the remainder of the year as a part of the Operational Development Force testing new carrier aircraft doctrine , and her pilots logged 750 hours in 670 carrier controlled approach tests and 314 successful landings . On 22 October she was sent to the North Atlantic to conduct cold @-@ weather landing tests and tested problem landing scenarios along the Arctic Circle until 23 November 1948 .
In January 1949 , Philippine Sea returned to Carrier Division Four under Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark and embarked Carrier Air Group 7 for another tour in the Mediterranean , which had a similar fighter complement . She sailed 4 January with the aircraft carrier Midway and supporting ships . There , she conducted joint exercises with carriers of the British fleet . She returned in late May and began an overhaul at the Boston Naval Shipyard . That fall , the ship returned to the Caribbean to shake down with its new upgrades , this time with Carrier Air Group 1 . For the rest of the year , she continued fleet exercises in the North Atlantic and testing for new jet engine powered fighter aircraft to test their abilities to operate on aircraft carriers .
Operating again from her base at Quonset Point , Philippine Sea spent early 1950 qualifying new carrier pilots . During February and most of March , she took part in more fleet exercises throughout the Atlantic . During April and May 1950 she conducted demonstration cruises for guests of the Secretary of the Navy , the Armed Forces Industrial College , Air War College , and the Armed Forces Staff College . On 24 May 1950 , Philippine Sea sailed from Norfolk through the Panama Canal , arriving at her new home port of San Diego to join the Pacific Fleet . She was replaced in the Atlantic Fleet by Oriskany . She was scheduled to begin a tour in the Far East in October 1950 before she was called to combat duty .
= = = Korean War = = =
With the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 , Philippine Sea was ordered to Naval Base Pearl Harbor . She sailed for Hawaiian waters on 5 July with Carrier Air Group 11 embarked , flying four squadrons of Vought F4U Corsair fighter @-@ bombers . The ship departed for Japan on 24 July . Leaving Pearl Harbor , Philippine Sea sailed at full speed for the Western Pacific , reaching Okinawa on 4 August . During this time , she took command of Carrier Division One . She was the third aircraft carrier to arrive in Korea , as her sister ship Valley Forge as well as HMS Triumph had arrived in July . By the time Philippine Sea arrived in Korea , the UN forces had established superiority in the air and sea .
Philippine Sea arrived in Korean waters on 1 August , and became flagship of Task Force 77 on 5 August . She immediately began launching air strikes against strategic targets , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter began and United Nations and United States Army forces fought a defensive battle against the North Korean Korean People 's Army . Her first strikes were against Iri , Mokpo , and Kunsan . The strikes were at first planned to target North Korean lines of communication but the intensity of the battle at Pusan Perimeter forced the carrier to fly primarily close air support missions for troops on the front lines . They also hit targets of opportunity , such as North Korean boats , bridges and dams spotted during missions . As many as 140 sorties a day were launched from the carrier . Except for brief rests to re @-@ arm , refuel , or repair , Philippine Sea was in action continuously . She was put in a rotation of continuous action with Valley Forge to assure at least one was launching aircraft at all times . Following the beginning of The Great Naktong Offensive on 31 August , the two carriers launched 263 sorties to prevent the North Koreans from overrunning Pusan Perimeter . The ship sent sorties to defend Masan during the Battle of Masan , in spite of being 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the area . The ship steamed to the southern tip of the Peninsula at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) on 1 September to support the Masan area more easily during the North Korean attacks .
With the other carriers of Task Force 77 , Philippine Sea targeted rail and communication centers around North Korean @-@ controlled Seoul to Wonsan in September . The strikes were part of a deception plan to draw North Korean attention away from the UN force massing for an attack on Inchon . Stationed in the Yellow Sea , she sent numerous air attacks on Inchon and Wolmi @-@ do in preparation for Operation Chromite . The day of the operation , 15 September , Philippine Sea dispatched planes far inland to destroy North Korean positions and prevent reinforcements from countering the Inchon landings . Following the initial assault , she continued to provide close air support for the thrust inland to recapture Seoul . During this time , she was joined by Boxer . They were part of a massive invasion force of some 230 ships and hundreds of aircraft .
= = = = F9F @-@ 2 Miracle Landing = = = =
On 17 September 1950 a pair of Grumman F9F @-@ 2 Panthers launched from the deck of Philippine Sea . VF @-@ 112 Ensign Edward D. Jackson Jr. was leading a section dispatched to strafe an airfield near North Korea 's capital , Pyongyang . Flying on his wing was Ensign Dayl E. Crow . The airfield turned out to be little more than a grass strip littered with burned and shattered Soviet @-@ built war machines . After strafing a locomotive and setting it ablaze , the jets turned north and started down the Han River . Soon , Jackson spotted about 75 river boats . When they starting receiving small arms fire from " passengers " on the vessels , Crow followed Jackson down as they made a low strafing pass , splintering many of the small craft with 20 mm cannon fire . After the pass both attackers started to climb from 50 feet ( 15 m ) AGL . Jackson then flew through an aerial booby trap : steel cables strung across the Han to " clothesline " low flying planes . The Panther ripped through the cables like twine , but the whipsawing cable strands caught the starboard wing , shredded the wingtip tank and snapped across the canopy , punching out the windscreen and side windows . The impact knocked Jackson unconscious with severe facial injuries . Crow , flying just astern noticed something wrong , then saw the crushed wing tank and shattered canopy , its inner surface misted with blood . After 20 seconds Jackson regained consciousness and found himself blinded by shards of Plexiglas and blood . Crow was able to guide his leader towards the Yellow Sea , but Jackson was fading in and out of consciousness . With only the left flap down due to damage to the right wing the Panther approached the ship and with the help of LSO Lt.j.g. " Les " Bruestle and Crow the blind pilot trapped the # 4 wire on the first attempt . Jackson survived with 36 stitches and an emergency blood transfusion .
In November 1950 when China surprised the United Nations ground troops with an unexpected counterattack from the Yalu River by the People 's Liberation Army , Philippine Sea planes saw heavy action . The US Navy had sent Valley Forge and several other ships away from Korea , expecting the conflict to end , and so the unprepared forces remaining in the area were heavily engaged . Throughout the long retreat from the Yalu River , the four carriers ' Panthers , Skyraiders and Corsairs provided close air support for the trapped X Corps at Chosin Reservoir . Though the increasingly cold weather proved a problem for Philippine Sea , the ship continued to support the troops as they tried to evacuate from the reservoir and then cleared the path for their retreat to Hungnam . The carriers provided support with hundreds of aircraft sorties as 150 @,@ 000 UN troops and civilians were evacuated , and then destroyed the port . During this support , Valley Forge and Philippine Sea were tightly clustered with Leyte and Princeton and commanders worried that they would be a target for air attack by North Korean MiG @-@ 15 fighters , prompting a large screen of 32 destroyers .
For the rest of 1950 and early 1951 , she launched numerous attacks against Chinese forces around the 38th Parallel hoping to slow their advance as UN troops retreated . With only brief stops for repair and rest , the carrier continued numerous sorties against Chinese targets . On 25 February , command of Task Force 77 was transferred to Valley Forge . During this time , the cold weather hampered operations and blizzards occasionally shut them down completely . Putting into Yokosuka Naval Base , Japan , in late March 1951 for repair and refit , Philippine Sea exchanged Air Group 11 for Carrier Air Group 2 from Valley Forge , a group which consisted mostly of Vought F4U Corsair fighter @-@ bombers . The same date as the transfer on 28 March , Philippine Sea became flagship of Vice Admiral H. M. Martin , the commander of the 7th Fleet .
Returning to the Sea of Japan in April , Philippine Sea led Task Force 77 as well as other ships of the 7th Fleet through the Strait of Formosa to the South China Sea . From the Formosa Strait , planes flew in parades over Formosa as part of a show of support for the newly formed nation of Taiwan , in an effort to boost morale of the nation . She steamed back to Korea three days later , in time to lend close air support to UN forces throughout early 1951 as they faced repeated offensives by the Chinese .
Philippine Sea completed her first deployment to Korea and arrived at San Francisco on 9 June 1951 . It conducted refits , repairs and patrol operations along the West Coast continued for the remainder of the year . On 19 December , she was the site of a test for an emergency nuclear weapon assembly , the first such test involving a nuclear weapon aboard a US Navy ship . The ship departed from San Diego on 31 December 1951 . Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 8 January 1952 , Philippine Sea continued on to Yokosuka for a second deployment to Korea , arriving 20 January 1952 with Carrier Air Group 11 , which flew five squadrons of the F4U Corsair , about 100 aircraft . During this tour , the front lines in Korea had largely stabilized , and instead the ship directed its aircraft against strategic targets , including the 23 June attack on the Sui @-@ ho Dam in conjunction with Boxer , Princeton , and Bon Homme Richard , and sending aircraft against targets in Pyongyang .
Philippine Sea returned to San Diego in August 1952 . Her designation was changed to CVA , denoting an " attack aircraft carrier " in October . With five more Corsair squadrons of Carrier Air Group 9 embarked , she began a third cruise to the Far East early in December 1952 with about 100 aircraft . In this third tour in Korea , Philippine Sea focused primarily on interdiction attacks against rail and communication lines in North Korea , hoping to limit supplies to the front lines . The North Korean offensive , begun at the same time truce talks began at Panmunjom , marked the beginning of a series of " round the clock " air sorties designed to weaken North Korean and Chinese front line troops and support UN troops when under attack . This mission continued until an armistice was signed in the summer of 1953 , resulting in the de jure cessation of open warfare .
= = = Post @-@ Korea = = =
Following the end of her tour in Korea , the ship arrived in Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda , California on 14 August 1953 to offload Air Group 9 , then entered drydock at Hunters Point in San Francisco for overhaul . On 9 January 1954 , Philippine Sea once more began training off the coast of San Diego . She then steamed west on 12 March , for her fourth tour in the Far East . She operated out of U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay near Olongapo , The Philippines . She was part of Carrier Division 3 and operated alongside Hornet around French Indochina .
The most significant event of the tour occurred in late July 1954 . Chinese airplanes had shot down a Douglas DC @-@ 4 passenger aircraft operated by Cathay Pacific Airways near Hainan Island off the Chinese coast . The Chinese military had believed it to be
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ery signed a three @-@ year deal with the Senators worth $ 9 @.@ 5 million .
Emery began his NHL career in 2005 – 06 by setting a record for wins to start a career , winning his first 9 games , moving ahead of Bob Froese , who started the 1982 – 83 season with eight wins while playing for the Philadelphia Flyers . In March of the same season , Emery won 12 games , tying Bernie Parent 's 1974 record for the most wins in a month .
At the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season , Emery had won nine @-@ straight games during the regular season as the back @-@ up to Dominik Hašek . When Hašek injured his groin during the 2006 Winter Olympics , Emery became the team 's de facto starter , with Mike Morrison , claimed off of waivers from the Edmonton Oilers , as Emery 's backup . Emery would be the starting goaltender for the rest of the season , leading the Senators to the second round of the 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs .
After the 2005 – 06 season , the Senators opted not to bring back Hašek , instead acquiring Martin Gerber to compete with Emery for the starter position . Gerber was the starter at the beginning of the season , but due to his poor play , Emery replaced him in mid @-@ November . On February 10 , 2007 , Emery was suspended three games from the NHL for striking Montreal Canadiens forward Maxim Lapierre with his stick on his face after Lapierre crashed into Emery 's net .
Twelve days later , after his suspension had ended , Emery was involved in a mêlée between the Senators and the Buffalo Sabres . He and Sabres goaltender Martin Biron left their creases to fight each other . After the first fight was finished , Sabres ' enforcer Andrew Peters grabbed Emery and a second fight ensued . Both goaltenders received game misconducts , and Emery had the rare feat ( for a goaltender ) of receiving two five @-@ minute majors for fighting in the same incident . In total , Emery received 22 penalty minutes ( two five @-@ minute majors for fighting , a two @-@ minute minor for leaving the crease and the 10 @-@ minute game misconduct ) for this altercation . After the altercation , fans and media have dubbed him " Sugar Ray " in reference to retired boxer Sugar Ray Robinson and Emery 's reputation as a fighter . Then @-@ teammate Brian McGrattan opined that if Emery were a position player and not a goalie , he would likely rank among the top five fighters in the NHL .
Prior to the 2007 playoffs , Emery and the Senators won 5 – 2 against Montreal on March 30 , 2007 , which was his 100th NHL game . Emery 's strong play in the season continued in the playoffs , as the Senators defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins , New Jersey Devils and Buffalo Sabres each in five @-@ game series en route to their first Stanley Cup Final appearance since the team returned to the NHL in 1992 , where the Senators ultimately lost to the Anaheim Ducks in five games . He became a restricted free agent after the end of the season and filed for salary arbitration , later agreeing to a three @-@ year deal with the Senators worth $ 9 @.@ 5 million before the hearings were held .
By the pre @-@ season of the 2007 – 08 campaign , Emery was injured for a lengthy time due to a wrist injury that limited him to just 40 minutes of the pre @-@ season and forced him to miss several games early in the Senators ' season .
On April 18 , 2008 , Murray announced to the media in an end @-@ of @-@ season press conference that Emery would not return to the Senators for the 2008 – 09 season . On June 20 , 2008 , Emery was waived by the Senators , and cleared them three days later ; as a result , he became a free agent .
= = = Atlant Moscow ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
Emery signed a one @-@ year , $ 2 million contract with Atlant Moscow Oblast of the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) on July 9 , 2008 . As a foreign goaltender , Emery was only allowed to play in 65 % of his team 's 56 regular season games due to rules that encourage the development of Russian goaltenders . He split duties for the season with former Colorado Avalanche goaltender Vitaly Kolesnik and completed the season as a top goaltender in the KHL with a .926 save percentage & 1 @.@ 86 GAA .
= = = Philadelphia Flyers ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
On June 10 , 2009 , the Philadelphia Flyers announced that they had agreed to terms on a one @-@ year contract worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million with Emery . After a successful training camp , he marked his return to the NHL with a 2 – 0 shutout victory against the Carolina Hurricanes in the first game of the season . In his second regular season game with the Flyers , against the New Jersey Devils , he stopped 24 of 26 shots in a 5 – 2 victory .
On December 8 , Emery was placed on injured reserve to have surgery on a torn muscle in his abdomen . Originally expected to miss about six weeks , the prognosis changed when it was discovered that he had avascular necrosis . In March 2010 , Flyers General Manager Paul Holmgren announced that Emery would be out for remainder of the season due to the diagnosis and that a bone graft would be done to alleviate his hip issues .
Doctors were able to catch the disease early on before it spread , unlike the case of baseball and American football player Bo Jackson . As a result , in April , doctors announced an extremely successful surgery . Jackson spoke out about Emery , speculating that they were the only two athletes to come back after the disease . Jackson added , " I take my hat off [ to him ] . I want him to know I am in his corner . It 's a lot of hard work . To come back and play , it takes a very , very special and driven person . He 's got a different makeup to want to do all the little things he needs to compete on a professional level . " Unlike Jackson , who required numerous hip replacements , Emery had the benefit of advancements in modern medicine , undergoing a very specialized and complex procedure that involved removing 13 centimetres from his right fibula , and then grafting it to the femur to re @-@ introduce a proper blood supply to the area . Holmgren said that while the surgery went better than expected , he did not know exactly how long Emery 's recovery would take .
On July 1 , Emery became an unrestricted free agent as his injury deemed him unable to play until he recuperates . In August , he was given the go ahead to begin the grueling and tedious workout and rehabilitation process . In November 2010 , TSN visited Emery during an on @-@ ice workout and were surprised to see him get down into the butterfly position and play for the first time since surgery . Emery stated that he did not " care if [ he could ] walk in seven years , " and he " just [ wanted ] to play . " To the surprise of his doctors and trainers , Emery has been doing better than expected . In January 2011 , Emery began skating with an OHL team , taking shots and training with Eric Lindros , working with personal trainer Matt Nichol and goalie coach Eli Wilson . According to Wilson , Emery was " as sharp and ready now as he was the summer before Ottawa 's Stanley Cup Final run . "
In March 2011 , Emery 's injury and undefeated return to the NHL with the Anaheim Ducks garnered much media attention and fascination , with a special segment featured on CBC 's Hockey Night in Canada . Remarkably , Emery currently has 13 centimetres of bone missing from his leg . This later garnered him a nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy .
= = = Anaheim Ducks ( 2011 ) = = =
On February 7 , 2011 , Emery signed a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract with the Anaheim Ducks , allowing him to the standard two @-@ week conditioning AHL stint . Three other NHL teams showed interest in signing Emery . He was then assigned to the Syracuse Crunch to begin conditioning . Emery went on to play a total of five games for the Crunch in their 2010 – 11 season , posting a 4 – 1 – 0 , 1 @.@ 98 GAA and .943 save percentage .
On February 23 , 2011 , upon completion of his conditioning stint , Emery was called to the Anaheim Ducks . Emery made his Anaheim Ducks debut on March 11 , 2011 , against the Phoenix Coyotes when he replaced goaltender Dan Ellis making it his first NHL appearance since he last played in March 2010 with the Flyers .
Emery went on to win six straight starts to open his Anaheim career , falling one shy of matching the Ducks record for consecutive wins by a goaltender , to Guy Hebert .
In the week of March 14 , Emery was honored with NHL 's Second Star of the Week after going 2 – 0 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 99 GAA and .968 save percentage .
Emery led the Ducks into the playoffs , finishing tied for fourth in the League and posting a 7 – 2 – 0 record with 2 @.@ 28 GAA and .926 save percentage in 10 regular season NHL appearances .
In April , Emery 's remarkable comeback was recognized when the Anaheim chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association ( PHWA ) named Ray Emery as their nominee for the 2011 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy . The NHL also nominated Emery for the Masterton , making him one of three finalists .
= = = Chicago Blackhawks ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
On July 27 , 2011 , Emery signed a tryout contract with the Chicago Blackhawks . He was then signed to a one @-@ year contract for the 2011 – 12 season on October 3 .
By the end of season , Emery compiled a 15 – 9 – 4 record and 2 @.@ 81 GAA in 34 regular @-@ season appearances , posting a 10 – 0 – 3 record and 2 @.@ 15 GAA in 16 appearances at Chicago 's United Center . Emery was again nominated , this time by the Chicago Blackhawks , for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , honoring dedication and perseverance .
In April 2012 , the Blackhawks signed Emery to a one @-@ year extension worth $ 1 @.@ 15 million to continue into the 2012 – 13 season .
In March 2013 , Emery made NHL history becoming the first goaltender to ever start a season with 10 straight wins , going 10 – 0 – 0 . Emery improved his NHL record , with 11 straight wins , going 11 – 0 – 0 against the Colorado Avalanche on March 18 . Emery surpassed his own record making NHL history yet again , going 12 – 0 – 0 in a shutout win against the Calgary Flames which happened to be his 200th NHL start On April 10 , Emery made franchise history recording his third shutout in the last five games helping him third overall in the NHL for GAA , posting a 1 @.@ 90 and seventh in save percentage at .924 with a 15 – 1 – 0 record . Emery proved his previous injuries were no longer an issue , posting career highs .
In April 2013 , Emery won the award for the NHL 's best combined GAA , the 2013 William M. Jennings Trophy awarded to the goaltender who give up the fewest goals in the season , along with teammate Corey Crawford . Emery finished the season with a 1 @.@ 94 GAA and a .922 save percentage . His 17 wins included 12 @-@ straight to start the year , the best such streak in NHL history . Emery won his first Stanley Cup when the Blackhawks defeated the Boston Bruins in six games during the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals .
= = = Return to Philadelphia ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 5 , 2013 , Emery signed a one @-@ year deal with the Philadelphia Flyers worth $ 1 @.@ 65 million to serve as the backup to starting goaltender Steve Mason . On July 1 , 2014 , he re @-@ signed for another year in the same role for $ 1 million .
= = = 2015 @-@ 2016 = = =
On September 8 , 2015 , the Tampa Bay Lightning announced that Emery would be attending training camp on a PTO ( professional tryout ) . Following the conclusion of camp he was released from this PTO on September 27 . In October & November 2015 , Emery trained with the Ontario Reign of the AHL , affiliate to the Los Angeles Kings It was announced on December 18 , 2015 , that Emery had signed a professional tryout agreement with the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , who are associated with the Toronto Maple Leafs . Emery has been credited with his leadership & mentoring abilities , on January 24 , 2016 , upon goaltender Corey Crawford recording his league leading seventh shutout of the season with the Chicago Blackhawks after a win against the Blues , Crawford credited Emery for turning around his work habits . Crawford cited his focus & preparation before a game & during practice to Emery 's work habits , stating " As a goalie , I 've never seen a guy be so focused and ready for a game , " Crawford said . " I was kind of doing the opposite — being nonchalant and doing other stuff and not having a routine . You get in that physical routine that just makes you ready mentally . You trick yourself into knowing that it 's game time and time to play . " Kyle Dubas , assistant GM of the Toronto Marlies cited Emery for his mentorship towards the team . On February 5 , 2016 , Emery signed with Adler Mannheim of the German elite league Deutsche Eishockey Liga for the remainder of the season , thus ending his professional tryout with the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) On March 29 , 2016 , he signed a tryout contract with the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and on April 1 , 2016 , the Philadelphia Flyers announced signing Emery for the remainder of the season
= = Personal life = =
In June 2010 , Emery began dating Canadian singer Keshia Chanté .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
= Richard D 'Oyly Carte =
Richard D 'Oyly Carte ( 3 May 1844 – 3 April 1901 ) was an English talent agent , theatrical impresario , composer and hotelier during the latter half of the Victorian era . Rising from humble beginnings , Carte built two of London 's theatres and a hotel empire , while also establishing an opera company that ran continuously for over a hundred years and a management agency representing some of the most important artists of the day .
Carte started his career working for his father , Richard Carte , in the music publishing and musical instrument manufacturing business . As a young man , he conducted and composed music , but he soon turned to promoting the entertainment careers of others through his management agency . Carte believed that a school of wholesome , well @-@ crafted , family @-@ friendly , English comic opera could be as popular as the risqué French works dominating the London musical stage in the 1870s . To that end , he brought together the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan and , together with his wife Helen Carte , he nurtured their collaboration on a series of thirteen Savoy operas . He founded the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company and built the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Savoy Theatre to host the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Carte also built the Savoy Hotel in London , and acquired other luxury hotels . In addition , he erected the Palace Theatre , London , which he had intended to be the home of a new school of English grand opera , although this ambition was not realised beyond the production of a single grand opera by Sullivan , Ivanhoe . Nevertheless , his partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , and his careful management of their operas and relationship , created a series of works whose success was unprecedented in the history of musical theatre . His opera company , later operated by Helen and then by his son , Rupert , and granddaughter , Bridget , promoted those works for over a century , and they are still performed regularly today .
= = Early life = =
Carte was born in Greek Street in the West End of London on 3 May 1844 . He was the eldest of six children . His father , Richard Carte ( originally Cart ; 1808 – 1891 ) , was a flautist , and his mother was the former Eliza Jones ( 1814 – 1885 ) ; they had eloped , to the disappointment of her father , Thomas Jones , a clergyman . His siblings were Blanch ( 1846 – 1935 ) , Viola ( 1848 – 1925 ) , Rose ( b . 1854 ) , Henry ( 1856 – 1926 ) and Eliza ( 1860 – 1941 ) . Carte was of Welsh and Norman ancestry ; D 'Oyly is a Norman French name which " was a forename ( not part of a double surname ) " . To supplement his income as a performer , Carte 's father joined the firm of Rudall , Rose & Co . , musical instrument makers and music publishers , in 1850 . After he became a partner in the business , it changed its name to Rudall , Rose , Carte and Co. and later to Rudall , Carte & Co .
Carte was brought up in Dartmouth Park Road . His cultured mother exposed her family to art , music and poetry , and young Carte studied the violin and then the flute at an early age . The family spoke French at home two days a week , and his parents often took their children to the theatre . He was educated at University College School , which he left in 1860 . In 1861 , he achieved First Class level in the matriculation examination and then attended University College , London . However , he left later that year to work in his father 's business , along with his brother , Henry . He studied music during this time and composed some pieces , which he dedicated to the actress Kate Terry . He also acted in amateur theatricals .
= = Career = =
Between 1868 and 1877 , Carte wrote and published the music for a number of his own songs and instrumental works , as well as several comic operas : Doctor Ambrosias – His Secret , at St. George 's Hall ( 1868 ) ; Marie , with librettist E. Spencer Mott , at London 's Opera Comique in 1871 ; and Happy Hampstead , with librettist Frank Desprez , which debuted on an 1876 provincial tour and then played at the Royalty Theatre in 1877 . On tour in 1871 , Carte conducted Cox and Box by composer Arthur Sullivan and dramatist F. C. Burnand , in tandem with English adaptations of two Offenbach pieces , called Rose of Auvergne and Breaking the Spell , in which Carte 's client Selina Dolaro appeared . Carte 's musical talent would be helpful later in his career , as he was able to audition singers himself from the pianoforte .
During the late 1860s and early 1870s , from within his father 's firm in Charing Cross and , by late 1874 , from a nearby address in Craig 's Court , Carte began to build an operatic , concert and lecture management agency . His two hundred clients eventually included Charles Gounod , Jacques Offenbach , Adelina Patti , Mario , Clara Schumann , Antoinette Sterling , Edward Lloyd , Mr. and Mrs. German Reed , George Grossmith , Matthew Arnold , James McNeill Whistler and Oscar Wilde . Hesketh Pearson said of Carte : " His acute business sense was aided by a frank and agreeable manner .... He took what other people thought were risks , but he felt were certainties . He knew everyone worth knowing ... and his practical judgement was as sure as his sense of artistry . "
= = = Founding his opera company = = =
In 1874 , Carte leased the Opera Comique , a small theatre off the Strand , where he presented a Brussels company in the British premiere of the operetta Giroflé @-@ Giroflà by Charles Lecocq , followed by The Broken Branch , an English adaptation of Gaston Serpette 's La branche cassée . Carte announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for the latter : " It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light Opera . " The Observer reported , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte is not only a skilful manager , but a trained musician , and he appears to have grasped the fact that the public are beginning to become weary of what is known as a genuine opera bouffe , and are ready to welcome a musical entertainment of a higher order , such as a musician might produce with satisfaction " .
Carte later said it was " the scheme of my life " to found a school of high @-@ quality , family @-@ friendly English comic opera , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas that dominated the London musical stage at that time . His experience in writing operettas , however , had convinced him that his own creative talents were inadequate for the task . He later wrote to dramatist W. S. Gilbert , " I envy your position but I could never attain it . If I could be an author like you I would certainly not be a manager . I am simply the tradesman who sells your works of art . " Furthermore , in 1874 Carte did not yet have the resources to make his idea into reality , and after his season at the Opera Comique , he terminated his lease . In the same year , he arranged for his client , Offenbach , to collaborate with H. B. Farnie to write a new operetta on the theme of Dick Whittington and His Cat , which played during the Christmas season at the Alhambra Theatre .
In 1875 , Carte became the business manager of the Royalty Theatre , under the direction of his client , the popular singing actress Madame Selina Dolaro . There he programmed Offenbach 's La Périchole . To fill out the evening ( as long programmes were the fashion in Victorian theatre ) , he needed another piece . He remembered a libretto for a one @-@ act comic opera that W. S. Gilbert had written and shown to him in 1873 , called Trial by Jury . Meanwhile , Sullivan 's popular 1867 opera , Cox and Box , had been revived at the Gaiety Theatre in 1874 , and Carte had already asked him to write a piece for the Royalty . Carte knew that Gilbert had worked with Sullivan to create Thespis in 1871 , and he now suggested that Sullivan could write the music for Trial by Jury . Because Gilbert and Sullivan shared his vision of increasing the quality and respectability of English musical theatre , and so broadening its audience through the promotion of well @-@ crafted English light operas , Carte gave them wider authority as director and music director than was customary at that time . Trial by Jury , a comic treatment of an English courtroom , was an unexpected hit , outrunning La Périchole , and becoming the first step in Carte 's scheme to establish a new genre of English comic opera .
Carte managed the first tour of Trial by Jury , which stopped at the Theatre Royal in Dublin , Ireland , in September 1875 . While there , he met a young Scottish actress , Susan Couper Black , who used the stage name Helen Lenoir . She became fascinated by his vision for establishing a company to promote English comic opera and gave up her next engagement to join his theatrical organisation as his secretary . Well @-@ educated , with an organisational ability , business acumen , focus on detail and diplomatic skills that surpassed even Carte 's , Lenoir gradually became intensely involved in all of his business affairs . Carte and Lenoir married in 1888 , three years after the death of his first wife .
Even after the initial production of Trial by Jury , however , Carte continued to produce continental operetta , touring in the summer of 1876 with a repertoire consisting of English adaptations of French opera bouffe ( Offenbach ’ s La Périchole , and La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein , Lecocq 's La fille de Madame Angot and Léon Vasseur 's La Timbale d 'argent ) , paired with two one @-@ act English after @-@ pieces ( Happy Hampstead and Trial by Jury ) . Carte acted as the musical director of this travelling company that included W.H. Denny .
Encouraged by the success of Trial by Jury , Carte made attempts in 1875 – 76 to raise money for either a revival of Thespis or a new piece . A year later , he finally found four backers and formed the " Comedy Opera Company " to produce the future works of Gilbert and Sullivan , along with the works of other British author / composer teams . This allowed Carte to lease the Opera Comique and to give Gilbert and Sullivan firm terms for a new opera . By this time , Helen Lenoir had been promoted from Carte 's secretary to his assistant . The first comic opera produced by the new company was Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer in 1877 , with a plot involving a tradesmanlike London magician and his patented love potion . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte were able to select their own cast , instead of using the players under contract to the theatre where the work was produced , as had been the case with their earlier works . They chose talented actors , few of whom were well @-@ known stars , and Carte 's agency provided many of the artists . The reception of the piece showed that Carte had been right : there was a promising future in family @-@ friendly English comic opera .
The Sorcerer was followed by H.M.S. Pinafore in 1878 . Business for the new opera was slow at first . Carte 's investors in the Comedy Opera Company advocated cutting their losses and closing the show . After promotional efforts by Carte and Sullivan , who included some of the Pinafore music in several promenade concerts at Covent Garden , Pinafore became a hit . Carte persuaded Gilbert and Sullivan that when their original agreement with the Comedy Opera Company expired in July 1879 , a business partnership among the three of them would be to their advantage . The three each put up £ 1 @,@ 000 and formed a new partnership under the name " Mr Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's Opera Company " . Under the partnership agreement , once the expenses of mounting the productions had been deducted , each of the three men was entitled to one third of the profits .
On 31 July 1879 , the last day of their agreement with Carte , the directors of the Comedy Opera Company attempted to repossess the Pinafore set by force during a performance , causing a celebrated fracas . Carte 's stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery and props . The Comedy Opera Company opened a rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore in London , but it was not as popular as the D 'Oyly Carte production and soon closed . Legal action over the ownership of the rights ended in victory for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan . From 1 August 1879 , the new company , later called the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , became the sole authorised producer of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan .
= = = Early opera successes ; property interests = = =
H.M.S. Pinafore was so successful that Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces . The opera ran for 571 performances in London , the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history up to that time . Over 150 unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone , but because American law then offered no copyright protection to foreigners , Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to demand royalties from , or to control the artistic content of , these productions .
To try to counter this copyright piracy and make some money from the popularity of their opera in America , Carte travelled to New York with the authors and the company to present an " authentic " production of Pinafore there , beginning in December 1879 , as well as American tours . Carte 's assistant , Helen Lenoir , who became his wife in 1888 , made fifteen visits to America in the 1880s and 1890s to promote Carte 's interests , superintending arrangements for American productions and tours of each of the new Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Beginning with Pinafore , Carte licensed the J. C. Williamson company to produce the works in Australia and New Zealand .
In an effort to head off unauthorised American productions of their next opera , The Pirates of Penzance , Carte and his partners opened it in New York on 31 December 1879 , prior to its 1880 London premiere . They hoped to forestall further " piracy " by establishing the authorised production and tours in America before others could copy it and by delaying publication of the score and libretto . They did succeed in keeping for themselves the direct profits of the venture , but they tried without success for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas . Pirates was an immediate hit in New York , and later London , becoming one of the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan operas . To secure the British copyright , there was a perfunctory performance the afternoon before the New York premiere , at the Royal Bijou Theatre , Paignton , Devon , organised by Helen Lenoir .
The next Gilbert and Sullivan opera , Patience , opened at the Opera Comique in April 1881 and was another big success , usurping Pinafore 's position as the longest running piece in the series with the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history . Patience satirised the self @-@ indulgent aesthetic movement of the 1870s and ' 80s in England . To popularise the opera in America , in 1882 Carte sent one of the artistes under his management , the young poet Oscar Wilde , on a lecture tour to explain to Americans what the aesthetic movement was about . Carte told an interviewer at that time that he had fifteen theatrical companies and performers touring simultaneously in Europe , America and Australia .
Carte had been planning to build a new theatre for several years to promote English comic opera and , in particular , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . With profits from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and his concert and lecture agency , he bought property along the Strand in 1880 with frontage onto the Thames Embankment , where he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 . Carte chose the name in honour of the Savoy Palace , which had been built on the site in the thirteenth century by Peter , Count of Savoy . It later passed to John of Gaunt but was destroyed in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 . The Savoy Theatre was a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility , setting a new standard for technology , comfort and decor . It was the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights and seated nearly 1 @,@ 300 people ( compared to the Opera Comique 's 862 ) .
Patience was the first production at the new theatre , transferring there on 10 October 1881 . The first generator proved too small to power the whole building , and though the entire front of house was electrically lit , the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881 . At that performance , Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of the new technology . The Times concluded that the theatre " is admirably adapted for its purpose , its acoustic qualities are excellent , and all reasonable demands of comfort and taste are complied with . " Carte and his manager , George Edwardes ( later famous as manager of the Gaiety Theatre ) , introduced several innovations at the theatre including free programme booklets , the orderly " queue " system with numbered tickets for the pit and gallery ( an American idea ) , tea served at the interval and a policy of no tipping for cloakroom or other services . Daily expenses at the theatre were about half the possible takings from ticket sales . The last eight of Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas were premiered at the Savoy , and all of their operas came to be known as Savoy operas .
The Savoy Hotel , designed by the architect Thomas Edward Collcutt , opened in 1889 . Financed by profits from The Mikado , it was the first hotel lit by electric lights and the first with electric lifts . In the 1890s , under its famous manager , César Ritz , and chef Auguste Escoffier , it became a well @-@ known luxury hotel and would generate more income and contribute more to the D 'Oyly Carte fortunes than any other enterprise , including the opera companies . Carte later acquired and refurbished Claridge 's ( 1893 ) , The Grand Hotel in Rome ( 1896 ) , Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand ( 1898 ) and The Berkeley ( 1900 ) .
= = = Peak years for the opera company = = =
During the years when the Gilbert and Sullivan operas were being written , Richard D 'Oyly Carte also produced operas and plays by other writing teams , as well as other works to fill the Savoy Theatre in between new operas . Many of these were companion pieces to the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , as the Victorian audiences preferred long evenings in the theatre . Some , however , were new full @-@ length pieces either for the Savoy or for Carte 's touring companies , which toured the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , and these new works , extensively . Carte and Lenoir also continued to run his management agency . As an example of their level of activity , an 1881 souvenir programme commemorating the 250th performance of Patience in London and its 100th performance in New York states that , in addition to these two productions of Patience , Carte was simultaneously producing many other projects . These included two companies touring with Patience , two touring with other Gilbert and Sullivan operas , one touring with the operetta Olivette ( co @-@ produced with Charles Wyndham ) , one with Claude Duval in America , a production of Youth running at a New York theatre , a lecture tour by Archibald Forbes (
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. The piece , though a financial success , was a relative disappointment after the extraordinary run of The Mikado . When Ruddigore closed after nine months , Carte mounted revivals of earlier Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy for almost a year . After another attempt by Gilbert to persuade Sullivan to set a " lozenge plot " , Gilbert met his collaborator half way by writing a serio @-@ comic plot for The Yeomen of the Guard , which premiered in October 1888 . The opera ran for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . This was a happy time for Carte , with a long @-@ running opera , new marriage and new hotel and opera house under construction . When Carte asked his partners for a new work , Sullivan again expressed reluctance to write another comic opera , asking if Gilbert would write a " dramatic work on a larger musical scale " . Gilbert declined but offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted : the two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan could work on a grand opera that Carte would produce at a new theatre he was planning to build to present British grand opera . The new comic opera was The Gondoliers , which opened in December 1889 and became one of the partnership 's greatest successes .
During these years , Carte was not just the manager of the theatre . He was a full participant in the producing partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , involved in casting and finding designers ; in charge of publicity ; directing and hiring designers for the non @-@ Gilbert works , including the many companion pieces ( sometimes with the help of assistants ) ; and casting , directing and rehearsing the touring companies , among other duties . According to Henry Lytton , " Mr. Carte was a great stage manager . He could take in the details of a scene with one sweep of his eagle eye and say unerringly just what was wrong . " The quality of Carte 's productions created a national and international taste for them , and he sent touring companies throughout the British provinces , to America ( generally managed by Helen ) , Europe and elsewhere . Queen Victoria honoured the company by calling for a Royal Command Performance of The Gondoliers at Windsor Castle in 1891 . Following the libretto closely , she noticed additions to the text made by some of the actors and asked Carte to explain why this was done . Carte replied that they " are what we call ' gags ' " . The queen answered that she had always understood that " gags were things that were put by authority into people 's mouths . " Carte rejoined , " These gags , Your Majesty , are things people put into their own mouths without authority . " George Bernard Shaw , writing in The World in October 1893 , stated :
Those who are old enough to compare the Savoy performances with those of the dark ages , taking into account the pictorial treatment of the fabrics and colors on the stage , the cultivation and intelligence of the choristers , the quality of the orchestra , and the degree of artistic good breeding , so to speak , expected from the principals , best know how great an advance has been made by Mr. D 'Oyly Carte .
= = = End of the partnership and last years = = =
On 22 April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert discovered that maintenance expenses for the theatre , including a new £ 500 carpet for the front lobby of the theatre , were being charged to the partnership instead of borne by Carte . Gilbert angrily confronted Carte , but Carte refused to reconsider the accounts . Even though the amount of the charge was not great , Gilbert felt that it was a moral issue involving Carte 's integrity , and he could not look past it . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " Matters deteriorated further , and Gilbert brought a lawsuit . Sullivan sided with Carte , who was building the Royal English Opera House , the inaugural production of which was to be Sullivan 's forthcoming grand opera . Gilbert won the dispute and felt vindicated , but his actions had been hurtful to his partners , and the partnership disbanded .
Carte 's first production at the Royal English Opera House was of Sullivan 's only grand opera , Ivanhoe , which opened in January 1891 . It played for an initial run of 155 performances , a record for an opera , but no other operas shared the new opera house with it . Instead , Ivanhoe was presented every night with alternating casts . When Ivanhoe finally closed in July , Carte had no new work ready to play at the opera house , and so it had to close . The opera house re @-@ opened in November 1891 with André Messager 's La Basoche at first alternating in repertory with Ivanhoe , and then La Basoche played alone , closing in January 1892 . Carte again had no new opera to present at the house , and the venture soon failed . Sir Henry Wood , who had been répétiteur for the production , recalled in his autobiography , " If D 'Oyly Carte had had a repertory of six operas instead of only one , I believe he would have established English opera in London for all time . Towards the end of the run of Ivanhoe I was already preparing The Flying Dutchman with Eugène Oudin in the name part . He would have been superb . However , plans were altered and the Dutchman was shelved . " Carte leased the theatre to Sarah Bernhardt for a season and finally abandoned the project . He sold the opera house at a loss to producer Augustus Harris . It was then converted into a music hall , the Palace Theatre of Varieties , and later became the Palace Theatre .
Because of the carpet quarrel , Gilbert had vowed to write no more for the Savoy . When The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Carte needed new authors and composers to write works for the Savoy Theatre . He turned to old friends George Dance , Frank Desprez and Edward Solomon for his next piece , The Nautch Girl , which ran for a satisfying 200 performances in 1891 – 92 . Carte then revived Solomon and Sydney Grundy 's The Vicar of Bray , which ran through the summer of 1892 . Next came Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall , which held the stage until April 1893 . While Carte presented new pieces and revivals at the Savoy , his touring companies continued to play throughout Britain and in America . In 1894 , for example , Carte had four companies touring Britain and one playing in America .
Gilbert 's aggressive , though successful , legal action had embittered Carte and Sullivan , but the partnership had been so profitable that Carte and his wife eventually sought to reunite the author and composer . After several attempts by the Cartes , the reconciliation finally came through the efforts of Tom Chappell , who published the sheet music to their operas . In 1893 , Gilbert and Sullivan produced their penultimate collaboration , Utopia , Limited . While Utopia was being prepared , Carte produced Jane Annie , by J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle , with music by Ernest Ford . Despite the popularity of Barrie and Conan Doyle , the show was a flop , closing after only 51 performances .
Utopia was Carte 's most expensive production to date , but it ran for a comparatively disappointing 245 performances , until June 1894 . Carte then played first Mirette , composed by André Messager , then The Chieftain , by F. C. Burnand and Sullivan . These ran for 102 and 97 performances , respectively . The company then toured the London suburbs , and the theatre was dark during the summer of 1895 , reopening in November for a revival of The Mikado . This was followed in 1896 by The Grand Duke , which ran for 123 performances and was Gilbert and Sullivan 's only financial failure . The Gondoliers turned out to be Gilbert and Sullivan 's last big hit , and after The Grand Duke , the two men never collaborated again . At the Savoy , Carte produced His Majesty ( 1897 ) , The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein ( 1897 ) , The Beauty Stone ( 1898 ) and The Lucky Star ( 1899 ) , as well as revivals of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Though the 1890s brought Carte more disappointments than hits in the theatre , his hotel business prospered and grew . He acquired Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand and Claridge 's Hotel , both of which he entirely rebuilt . There was one grave setback , in 1897 , when he had to dismiss his manager , Ritz , and his star chef , Escoffier , for financial misconduct . Carte 's choice as successor to Ritz was George Reeves @-@ Smith , manager and part @-@ owner of the Berkeley Hotel . To secure his services , Carte bought the Berkeley in 1900 and promoted Reeves @-@ Smith to be managing director of the whole Savoy Group . Carte had used the same method , a year earlier , to secure a new maître d 'hôtel . He was determined to engage M. Joseph , proprietor of the Marivaux Restaurant in Paris , then at the height of its fame . Carte was seriously ill , but he insisted on being carried to the boat @-@ train . In Paris he bought the Marivaux and returned with Joseph to the Savoy .
Throughout the later 1890s , Carte 's health was in decline , and Helen assumed more and more of the responsibilities for the opera company . She profitably managed the theatre and the provincial touring companies . In 1894 , Carte had hired his son , Rupert , as an assistant . While Carte was ill , in 1897 , Rupert assisted Mrs. Carte and W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy . The Savoy put on a number of shows for comparatively short runs during this period , including Sullivan 's The Beauty Stone , which ran for only 50 performances , in 1898 . In 1899 , Carte finally had a new success with Sullivan and Basil Hood 's The Rose of Persia , which ran for 213 performances . Neither Carte nor Sullivan lived to see the production of the next piece by Hood , The Emerald Isle , for which Edward German completed Sullivan 's unfinished score .
= = Personal life = =
Carte was married twice . His first wife was Blanche Julia Prowse ( 1853 – 1885 ) , the daughter of William Prowse , a piano manufacturer , music publisher and booking agent . As a teenager , she had participated in amateur theatricals with Carte . They married in 1870 and had two sons , Lucas ( 1872 – 1907 ) and Rupert . Blanche died of pneumonia in 1885 , and in 1888 , Carte married his assistant , Helen . Their wedding took place in the Savoy Chapel , with Arthur Sullivan as the best man . Rupert received training in an accounting firm and then became his father 's assistant in 1894 . Lucas , who was not involved in the family businesses , became a barrister . He was appointed Private Secretary to Lord Chief Justice Charles Russell in 1899 in connection with the Venezuelan boundary arbitration in Paris . There he contracted tuberculosis and later died of that disease at the age of 34 .
Carte 's London house was at the Adelphi , not far from the Savoy . Passionate about the visual arts as well as the performing arts , Carte invited his friend , the artist James McNeill Whistler , to decorate the house . Whistler had the entire billiard room painted the colour of the billiard cloth , and elsewhere painted his favourite yellow with his own hand . Equally enthusiastic for technological innovation , Carte installed a lift , the first in a private house in England . Around 1890 , he bought a small island in the River Thames , between Weybridge and Shepperton , called Folly Eyot , which he renamed D 'Oyly Carte Island . He wanted to use the island as an annex to his new Savoy Hotel , but the local authorities refused to grant him a drinks licence for the property . Instead , he built Eyot House , a large house and garden on the island , that he used as a residence . In later years , Carte displayed his macabre sense of humour by keeping a crocodile on the island .
= = Death and legacy = =
Carte died at his London home from dropsy and heart disease in 1901 , just short of his 57th birthday . He is buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew 's church in Fairlight , East Sussex , near his parents ' graves . A memorial service was held at the Chapel Royal of the Savoy , where a memorial stained glass window was later dedicated to him . He left an estate valued at £ 250 @,@ 000 .
Carte was instrumental in bringing the British theatre from its low status in the mid @-@ Victorian age to a position of respectable eminence , with knighthoods for actors , such as Henry Irving , and for dramatists , including Gilbert . George Bernard Shaw wrote of Carte 's theatrical legacy , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte founded a new school of English comic opera ; raised operatic inscenation to the rank of a fine art ; and finally built a new English Opera House and made a magnificent effort to do for English grand opera what he had done for comic opera . " In Carte 's obituary , The Times noted , " By his refined taste he raised the reputation of the mise en scène of the Savoy operas to a very high pitch . He set a high standard " . Beyond this , however , Carte 's influence , through the production of the Savoy operas , heavily influenced the course of the development of modern musical theatre .
Carte was also a prime mover in making hotels respectable and respected : in the words of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography : " Led by the prince of Wales [ the Savoy ] became the meeting place for London high society and the nouveaux riches of the British empire .... [ The ] food and the ambience lured people from the clubs to dine in public and give great parties there . It allowed ladies , hitherto fearful of dining in public , to be seen in full regalia in the Savoy dining and supper rooms . "
Carte left the theatre , opera company , hotels and his other business interests to Helen . Her London and touring companies continued to present the Savoy Operas in Britain and overseas . In 1901 she leased the Savoy Theatre to William Greet , overseeing his management of a revival of Iolanthe and several new comic operas . Rupert became chairman of the Savoy Hotel by 1903 , which Helen continued to own . In late 1906 , Helen staged a Gilbert and Sullivan repertory season at the Savoy Theatre . The season , and the following one , which were both directed by Gilbert , earned excellent reviews and sold well , revitalising the company . After the second repertory season concluded in 1909 , however , the company did not perform in London again until 1919 , only touring throughout Britain during that time .
At her death in 1913 , Helen passed the family businesses to Carte 's son , Rupert . He maintained the hotel business , disposing of the Grand Hotel in Rome , but expanding the group in London . The Savoy Group remained under the control of the Carte family and its associates until 1994 . Carte 's hotels have remained among the most prestigious in London , with the London Evening Standard calling the Savoy " London 's most famous hotel " in 2009 .
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte refreshed the opera company 's productions and added London seasons , beginning in 1919 , as well as provincial and foreign tours . In 1948 Rupert died , leaving a strong company to his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . However , the rising costs of mounting professional light opera without any government support eventually became too much for the company . Bridget was forced to close the company in 1982 . Nevertheless , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English @-@ speaking world and beyond , and Carte 's vision of wholesome light operas that celebrate Great Britain endures .
= = Compositions = =
= = = Operettas = = =
Dr. Ambrosius – His Secret ( 1868 )
Marie ( 1871 ) , with librettist E. Spencer Mott
Happy Hampstead ( 1876 ) , with librettist Frank Desprez ( Carte wrote the music for this short piece under the pen name " Mark Lynne " ) .
= = = Songs = = =
Carte 's Parlour songs include :
" Come Back to Me " , words and music by Carte .
" Diamond Eyes " , words by L. H. F. du Terraux .
" The Maiden 's Watch " , words by Amy Thornton , composed for and sung by Adelaide Newton
" The Mountain Boy " , sung by Florence Lancia
" Pourquoi ? " Chansonette , dedicated to Selina Dolaro
" Questions " , words by Desprez
" The Setting Sun " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Stars of the Summer Night " , Serenade , with poetry by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
" Twilight " , Canzonet
" Waiting " , words by Adelaide Procter .
" Wake , Sweet Bird " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Why so pale and wan , fond lover "
= New York State Route 86 =
New York State Route 86 ( NY 86 ) is a 39 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 62 @.@ 94 km ) long state highway located within Adirondack Park in northern New York , in the United States , linking Franklin County to Essex County . The western terminus of the route is at NY 30 in the hamlet of Paul Smiths . The eastern terminus is at NY 9N in Jay . Although largely a two @-@ lane road , NY 86 is one of only two east – west highways in the High Peaks area of the Adirondack Park ( the other being NY 73 ) , providing a major link between hamlets and tourist destinations .
NY 86 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , largely replacing a realigned NY 3 . North of Saranac Lake , NY 86 initially followed modern NY 186 before being rerouted onto its modern alignment . The portion of NY 86 north of Harrietstown was once NY 192 .
= = Route description = =
NY 86 begins at NY 30 in Paul Smiths , Franklin County . The route heads east through the town of Brighton , providing mountain views of Adirondack Park . After passing through the tiny communities of Easy Street and Gabriels and traversing the southern edge of Paul Smiths College , NY 86 turns south to serve Harrietstown , where it meets NY 186 at the hamlet of the same name . NY 86 continues southward to Saranac Lake , the largest community on NY 86 in Franklin County . Moving through Saranac Lake , the business and tourism anchor for the area , NY 86 is well marked , but follows local roads to an intersection with NY 3 in the village center . The routes briefly overlap before splitting at the northern edge of Lake Flower .
East of NY 3 , NY 86 becomes the primary lakeside roadway as it follows the northern and eastern extents of Lake Flower into Essex County . Roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) into the county , NY 86 leaves the lakeshore and turns northeastward toward the small hamlet of Ray Brook . Farther east , the highway travels through the Clifford R. Pettis Memorial Forest before arriving in the village of Lake Placid as Saranac Avenue .
NY 86 proceeds eastward through the village , coming within view of Lake Placid before turning south onto Main Street at the western shore of Mirror Lake . As Main , NY 86 runs through the village and along Mirror Lake as the major tourist thoroughfare , passing numerous businesses and the sites of the 1936 and 1980 Winter Olympics . At the southern edge of the village , Route 86 intersects the western terminus of NY 73 .
Outside of Lake Placid , NY 86 enters the town of Wilmington , home of the Olympic Ski Center at Whiteface Mountain . Through Wilmington , the road largely follows the Ausable River northeastward , providing scenic views as it heads through " Wilmington Notch , " noted for trout fishing . At an intersection with the eastern terminus of NY 431 in the hamlet of Wilmington , NY 86 turns eastward and crosses into the town of Jay , where it terminates at NY 9N at the town 's village green .
Route 86 runs adjacent to the west branch of the Ausable River through a stretch that Trout Unlimited 's Guide to America 's 100 Best Trout Streams describes as one of the finest river fishing spots in the United States .
= = History = =
What is now NY 86 from Paul Smiths to Jay via Saranac Lake and Lake Placid was originally part of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , an auto trail extending across the North American continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , NY 3 was assigned to the entirety of the highway within New York .
NY 3 remained in place up to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was rerouted onto its modern alignment through the North Country . The portion of former NY 3 from Harrietstown to Jay , as well as a section of former NY 10 ( modern NY 186 ) from Harrietstown to Lake Clear , was redesignated as NY 86 . North of Harrietstown , the former alignment of NY 3 became NY 408 from Harrietstown to Gabriels and the western half of NY 192 from Gabriels to Paul Smiths . NY 408 was co @-@ designated as part of NY 365 c . 1932 , and ultimately supplanted by NY 365 c . 1938 . NY 365 was rerouted in the mid @-@ 1940s , leaving the Harrietstown – Gabriels roadway unnumbered .
In the early 1950s , NY 365 's old routing between Harrietstown and Gabriels was designated as NY 192A , a spur route of NY 192 . NY 192A was removed from the state highway system on January 7 , 1980 , when NY 192 was rerouted east of Gabriels to follow NY 192A . On March 28 , 1989 , NY 192 was eliminated in much the same way as its spur route as NY 86 was rerouted to follow NY 192 through Gabriels to Paul Smiths . NY 86 's former routing past the Adirondack Regional Airport became NY 186 .
= = NY 86A = =
NY 86A was a spur route connecting NY 86 in Lake Placid to NY 9N in Keene . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and replaced by an extended NY 73 in the mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
= The Climb ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" The Climb " is a song performed by American singer Miley Cyrus , for the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song was written by Jessi Alexander and Jon Mabe , and produced by John Shanks . It was released on March 12 , 2009 , as the lead single of the film 's soundtrack by Walt Disney Records . The song is a power ballad with lyrics that describe life as a difficult but rewarding journey . It is styled as a country pop ballad , and was Cyrus ' first solo song to be released to country radio . The instrumentation includes piano , guitar and violins .
The song received a nomination for the Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media at the 52nd Grammy Awards . However , the song was withdrawn from consideration by Walt Disney Records because it had not been written specifically for a movie as the category 's eligibility rules required . The song became a top ten single on charts in Australia , Canada , Norway and the United States . In the United States , it peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and became the eighth best selling digital single of 2009 . Five months after its release , the single was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Matthew Rolston , and depicts scenes of Cyrus climbing a mountain or singing , intercut with clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie . Cyrus promoted the song with several live performances . The first , at the Kids Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event on January 19 , 2009 , was the first time the song had ever been publicly heard . Cyrus also performed the song as the closing number of her Wonder World Tour . The song was also performed during the Gypsy Heart Tour . " The Climb " has been covered by several artists and was the most popular choice of song among auditioners for the ninth season of the American singing contest , American Idol , with Hollie Cavanagh performing it in the top 6 of the eleventh season . Simon Cowell , creator of the British television talent show The X Factor , chose " The Climb " to be the debut single of the winner of the competition 's sixth series . Winner Joe McElderry 's cover , released on December 14 , 2009 by Syco Music , was produced by Quiz & Larossi and topped the Irish Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background = =
" The Climb " was not intentionally written for the 2009 musical film Hannah Montana : The Movie . Co @-@ writer Jessi Alexander conceived the song 's melody while driving to the home of songwriting partner Jon Mabe . Once she arrived , she and Mabe developed a song about overcoming life 's obstacles inspired by their personal struggles in the music industry . Alexander referred to the process as a form of " therapy " and recalled ,
" I was just driving to work one day . It 's just a typical day , nothing really special about that day . And I just had this melody in my head . And I couldn 't get to my co @-@ writer Jon Mabe or my guitar fast enough because I just wanted to play what I was hearing . And , you know , we just kinda put it down pretty fast and didn 't really think anything about it . The lyrics kinda started to come , I think for both of us , being kinda underdogs in the business . My co @-@ writer was a songplugger , just turned songwriter , and I 'd had record deals and ups and downs in the music business . I think for both of us , we just came from a place of , you know , ' it 's not a race ' . "
The song they created was titled " It 's the Climb " and was written in third person . Alexander described the original song as " more spiritual " than the version that was released , and said it contained lines about prayer . However , she claimed she knew it was pop and suitable for The Walt Disney Company .
Before reaching Cyrus , the song had been rejected by several country artists . It was eventually picked up by Peter Chelsom , director of Hannah Montana : The Movie , who gave it to Cyrus to record for the film . Chelsom found what would become " The Climb " while visiting Nashville , Tennessee , during a quest to find eleven new songs for Hannah Montana : The Movie . After hearing Alexander 's music , Chelsom asked her to submit songs for consideration . Alexander recorded " It 's the Climb " on a CD and gave it to him . Several weeks later , Chelsom called to say that " the song was gonna be an integral part of the movie " . However , he wanted Mabe and Alexander to rework some of the song 's content and to change the song from third person to first person . Alexander felt the changes amounted to a " substantial amount of the song " and commented , " For me , when you change something from third person to first person , it can change the whole meaning of a line . " She and Mabe " wrestl [ ed ] over taking words out " and how much they could change while maintaining the song 's integrity . After a number of drafts , Mabe and Alexander finally created a version they felt was " perfect for the movie " .
Upon receiving the final draft , filmmakers told the songwriters , " This is perfect for Miley , it ’ s gonna change her life , gonna change your life . " Chelsom commented that the song " turned up " the film 's music level by tapping into Cyrus 's newfound vocal range . As with the other songs featured in Hannah Montana : The Movie , the song is " tightly woven into the fabric of the story and the characters " . In the film , Cyrus plays Miley Stewart , a character with a secret double life as superstar Hannah Montana . Keeping this secret causes trouble between Miley and many of the other characters in the film , and leaves Miley confused and contrite . She expresses her emotions by writing " The Climb " . According to film producer Alfred Gough , " The song is her journey , the lessons she 's learned in the movie . It 's an epic [ ... ] power ballad that encapsulates Miley 's journey and the message of the film . "
" The Climb " was chosen as the lead single from the soundtrack due to its country elements , which introduced Cyrus to listeners beyond her usual pop audience . The song is Cyrus 's first solo effort marketed directly to country radio , though she had previously recorded and released a country duet with her father , Billy Ray Cyrus , which was titled " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " , in 2007 . Warren Truitt of About.com referred to the song as " Miley 's serious attempt to break into the contemporary country world . " " The Climb " was leaked to the Internet on February 4 , 2009 , two days prior to its official release for airplay . In October 2009 , it was re @-@ released to countries outside the United States in the international version of Cyrus ' extended play , The Time of Our Lives .
= = Composition = =
" The Climb " is a country pop power ballad that incorporates soft rock and pop rock styles and lasts three minutes and 55 seconds . However , at two minutes and forty @-@ five seconds , a " sudden , spiky burst of violins " enters the song , and the song switches to full power . Todd Martens , co @-@ editor of The Los Angeles Times music column , says Cyrus uses " a raspy voice [ that ] brings a bit of country grit " to the song . " The Climb " is set in common time at a moderate tempo of 80 beats per minute . The song is sung in the key of E major and Cyrus 's vocals span one and a half octaves , from E3 to C # 5 . The song uses a standard issue ballad arrangement with the chord progression , E5 — Asus2 — F ♯ 7sus .
According to music reviewer Fraser McAlpine of the BBC , the song 's lyrics assert that life should be viewed as " a journey which is difficult but rewarding " . Both Martens and McAlpine took special interest in the line " It 's always gonna be an uphill battle / Sometimes I 'm gonna have to lose " . Martens interpreted the line as an acknowledgment by the singer of her own mistakes in life , while McAlpine wrote , " In this song which is about plugging away at things , the writers have slipped in [ ... ] that the occasional setback isn 't the end of the world . "
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reception for the song was generally positive . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC felt the song 's lyrics were generic , but complimented Cyrus vocals : " Miley acquits herself well vocally — there are moments where her voice sounds a tad strained , but it 's good to hear her on a track that 's a little more subdued and with less frantic production than the uptempo , sassy pop songs we 're used to . " Michael Menachem of Billboard magazine called the song " one of the year 's strongest ballads " . Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe praised " The Climb " for being a " pretty liberation anthem " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said , " On tunes like [ ... ] ' The Climb ' , the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Tennessee native turns up her homegrown inflections , but a few elongated r 's won 't exactly shut out her huge pop audience . " Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times believed that " The Climb " was " buried in cheese " and described it as " pre @-@ Valentine 's Day gooeyness " . However , Martens said , " ' The Climb ' is the rare Miley ballad that 's on par with some of her more spunky teen pop . "
Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " the best songs that Cyrus sings on the soundtrack have her own name on them " . She also made musical comparisons to Shania Twain and described the song as " natural , [ ... ] down to earth and grown @-@ up " . While reviewing The Time of Our Lives , Michael Hann of The Guardian called " The Climb " a " one rather superior ballad " , compared to " When I Look at You " and " Obsessed " . Hann said the song was added to the extended play in order to " add some ball
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120 passengers per hour . The facade is covered in Russian larch ; the focus on wood as a dominant material was common for Norwegian architecture the 1990s , and is also seen at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen ( opened in 1998 ) and for the venues of the 1994 Winter Olympics . The terminal was designed by Alta @-@ based architect Solveig Thorsen and is shaped like an aircraft wing , similar to the terminal building at Gardermoen . There is a single gate at the airport , which prior to the installation of security control was 17 steps from the entrance .
The airport resides at an elevation of 149 meters ( 489 ft ) above mean sea level . The runway is designated 03 – 21 , with an asphalt surface measuring 1 @,@ 000 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 by 98 ft ) . SCAT @-@ I , a Global Positioning System @-@ based landing system , is under deployment . It is possible to extend the runway to 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) if desirable in the future . The tarmac has space for three simultaneous aircraft . The airport is located ten minutes ' drive ( 7 km / 4 mi ) from the town center . There are taxis , paid parking and car rental available , but no bus service .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
All services from the airport are operated by Widerøe with 39 @-@ seat Dash @-@ 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . All routes , though not necessarily direct , fly to either Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , Hammerfest Airport or Tromsø Airport . The routes from Båtsfjord are operated on a public service obligation with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The airport served 12 @,@ 363 passengers , 2 @,@ 494 aircraft movements and handled 3 tons of cargo in 2012 . The airport operated with a deficit of NOK 20 million in 2012 .
= Maryland Route 16 =
Maryland Route 16 ( MD 16 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 51 @.@ 06 miles ( 82 @.@ 17 km ) from Taylors Island east to the Delaware state line in Hickman , where the highway continues as Delaware Route 16 ( DE 16 ) . MD 16 connects Cambridge with several communities in northern Dorchester County and southwestern Caroline , including East New Market and Preston . The state highway runs concurrently with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) near Cambridge , MD 331 between East New Market and Preston , and both MD 404 and MD 313 near Andersontown . MD 16 was constructed between Church Creek and Preston as one of the original state roads in the early and mid @-@ 1910s . The highway was extended in both directions in the late 1910s : north to what was to be designated MD 313 near Denton and west to Taylors Island . MD 16 was extended through Andersontown to the Delaware state line in the early 1930s . MD 16 's bypass of Cambridge was constructed in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MD 16 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Dailsville Road at the western city limit of Cambridge east to US 50 in Cambridge . The highway is also a part of the main National Highway System along its concurrencies with US 50 near Cambridge and MD 404 near Denton .
= = = Dorchester County = = =
MD 16 begins on Taylors Island a short distance west of the bridge over Slaughter Creek to the mainland . The roadway continues west as county @-@ maintained Hoopers Neck Road , which provides access to the historic Ridgeton Farm , Grace Episcopal Church Complex , and Bethlehem Methodist Episcopal Church . MD 16 heads northeast from the island as two @-@ lane Taylors Island Road . The state highway crosses Parsons Creek and passes through the hamlets of Madison and Woolford on its way to the town of Church Creek , where MD 16 intersects MD 335 ( Golden Hill Road ) . MD 16 continues northeast as Church Creek Road toward Cambridge , where the state highway intersects MD 341 ( Race Street ) , which is the old alignment of MD 16 , just beyond Cambridge @-@ South Dorchester High School along the southern edge of the city . MD 16 continues east and intersects the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad , then curves north to US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) . The state highway joins US 50 in a concurrency along the four @-@ lane divided highway . US 50 and MD 16 intersect Bucktown Road , which leads southeast to Cambridge @-@ Dorchester Airport , and both ends of MD 750 ( Old Route 50 ) before reaching the eastern end of the concurrency in the community of Whitehall , also known as Mount Holly .
MD 16 heads northeast from US 50 as two @-@ lane Mount Holly Road . As the state highway approaches East New Market , the western terminus of MD 14 ( Secretary Road ) heads north toward Secretary and MD 392 ( East New Market Bypass ) heads northeast toward Hurlock . MD 16 turns north into the town , where the highway passes through the East New Market Historic District as Main Street . The stat just west of the town of La Plata east to US 301 in La Plata.e highway intersects MD 14 ( Railroad Avenue ) before leaving town as East New Market Ellwood Road . MD 16 crosses the Warwick River and Cabin Creek before meeting MD 331 ( Waddells Corner Road ) at Waddells Corner . MD 16 joins MD 331 in a concurrency that crosses Gravel Creek and passes Beulah Road , the old alignment of MD 16 and MD 331 through Ellwood . After an at @-@ grade crossing of the Preston Branch of the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad , the two state highways intersect MD 318 ( Preston Road ) and continue northwest as Preston Road , which passes near the Jacob and Hannah Leverton House before crossing Hunting Creek into Caroline County .
= = = Caroline County = = =
The MD 16 – MD 331 concurrency continues northwest through Linchester , where the highway passes both ends of MD 817 ( Linchester Road ) , which provides access to the historic Linchester Mill . The state highways continue through the town of Preston as Main Street . Unsigned MD 324 ( Maple Avenue ) heads south from MD 16 and MD 331 before the two highways split on the west side of town . MD 16 heads north as Harmony Road through the hamlet of Grove and intersects MD 578 ( Bethlehem Road ) in the community of Harmony . The state highway crosses Fowling Creek and Robins Creek and passes through the hamlet of Two Johns , which is also known as Bureau .
As MD 16 passes to the west of Williston Lake , an impoundment of Mill Creek , the highway closely parallels its old alignment , MD 617 . The state highway passes through the Williston Mill Historic District just east of the community of Williston , which contains the historic homes Potter Hall and Memory Lane . MD 16 continues northeast until reaching an intersection with MD 404 and MD 313 ( Shore Highway ) south of Denton . MD 16 turns southeast onto Shore Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway that reduces to two lanes east of the intersection , to form a triple state highway concurrency . The three state highways continue east to Andersontown , where MD 313 heads south as Federalsburg Highway . A short distance to the east , MD 404 continues straight southeast while MD 16 turns northeast onto Greenwood Road . Shortly thereafter , MD 16 reaches its eastern terminus at the Delaware state line in Hickman . The highway continues east as DE 16 ( Hickman Road ) toward Greenwood .
= = History = =
The portion of MD 16 between Church Creek and East New Market via Cambridge was chosen as one of the original state roads by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The portion of the highway between Bureau and the western junction with MD 313 and MD 404 south of Denton was also included in the planned state road system ; that piece of highway was the first part of modern MD 16 completed in 1910 . MD 16 was completed from Mount Holly to East New Market in 1911 , from Cambridge to Mount Holly in 1913 , from East New Market to Preston via Linchester in 1914 , and from Church Creek to Cambridge in 1915 . The gap in the state highway within East New Market was closed in 1917 . The segment of highway between Preston and Grove was surfaced by 1915 . MD 16 between Grove and Bureau was under construction by 1919 and finished around 1920 . The state highway was constructed from the bridge to Taylor 's Island to Church Creek between 1917 and 1919 .
When numbers were assigned to state highways in Maryland in 1927 , MD 16 had a concurrency with US 213 between Waddell 's Corner and Preston . Greenwood Road from MD 404 in Andersontown to the Delaware state line was built between 1930 and 1933 , concurrent with the completion of the connecting section of MD 404 . MD 16 was extended north and east through Andersontown to the Delaware state line by 1939 , giving the state highway additional concurrencies with MD 313 and MD 404 . Also in 1939 , US 213 between Easton and Vienna was transferred to a new route via Cambridge ; the old portion of US 213 was designated MD 331 and the new section of US 213 became concurrent with MD 16 between Cambridge and Mount Holly . Within Cambridge , MD 16 followed Race Street north to Washington Street , which the highway followed east toward Mount Holly .
The next changes in MD 16 occurred in the 1950s . MD 16 was extended west across Slaughter Creek to Taylors Island when a new bridge was completed in 1950 . MD 313 was moved to its present alignment between Federalsburg and Denton in 1954 ; as a result , MD 16 became the sole route from Bureau to MD 404 south of Denton and part of a triple concurrency from there to Andersontown . US 50 , which had replaced US 213 from Ocean City to Wye Mills in 1949 , was expanded to a divided highway along its concurrency with MD 16 by 1955 . MD 331 and MD 16 were realigned around Ellwood and Linchester around 1960 . MD 16 was relocated to bypass Cambridge in 1967 ; the state highway 's old route through the city was transferred to newly designated MD 341 and an extension of MD 343 east to US
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and a number of singles and splits . A posthumous live album was also released in 2006 . The band was also the subject of the short film Blue is Beautiful by James Schneider , later repackaged as part of In Film / On Video in 2006 .
While the Make @-@ Up released both " live " and " studio " records , their recordings were all created with an eye to spontaneity . Most studio songs were cut as they occurred to the group at that moment . Therefore , the Make @-@ Up 's studio records were in a sense , quite " live " .
The Make @-@ Up 's first release in 1995 was " Blue is Beautiful " , a 7 @-@ inch single released on the band 's own Black Gemini Records – a label which only released a handful of the Make @-@ Up 's releases , many of which used a characteristically simple single @-@ color album sleeve . Their second and third releases were also 7 @-@ inch singles : a split with the Meta @-@ Matics , again on Black Gemini , and another split with Slant 6 on Time Bomb Records .
The band 's first full @-@ length studio album , Destination : Love - Live ! At Cold Rice , was released in 1996 . The album was touted as a live release , though it was actually recorded in a studio with " live " sounds added into the mix later . In 1997 , the band released two more albums less than a month apart : After Dark , a live @-@ recording from London , and Sound Verite , a studio album . The two albums shared a number of tracks , recorded either live or in @-@ studio . The same year the Make @-@ Up released " Free Arthur Lee , " a 7 @-@ inch single promoting the release from jail of Love singer Arthur Lee , who was incarcerated in 1996 . Also in 1997 , the Make @-@ Up were the subject of James Schneider 's fictionalized tour @-@ documentary Blue is Beautiful .
The following year , The Make @-@ Up released their fourth studio album , In Mass Mind , as well as a split 7 @-@ inch with Scottish band Lungleg . In 1999 , the Make @-@ Up released I Want Some , a compilation album of previous singles and B @-@ sides . A month later , the band released what would be their fifth and final studio album Save Yourself .
A posthumous live album , Untouchable Sound , was released in 2006 by Drag City and Sea Note . The album included the addition of Alex Minoff on guitar . The same year , Dischord Records released In Film / On Video , a DVD collection of live performances , music videos , and Blue is Beautiful .
= = Politics = =
As the Make @-@ Up 's frontman and mouthpiece , Ian Svenonius often contextualized the band 's music in terms of larger socio @-@ political themes . Svenonius typically described the band and its gospel attitude in Marxist and socialist terms , in opposition of what he saw as the capitalist , bourgeois , machismo paradigm of rock and roll . This political position was typically presented during live performances and interviews with Svenonius , rather than in the music itself or its lyrics . Svenonius compared the Make @-@ Up 's ideology to the Situationist International group of the 1950s and 1960s , since both presented a critique of the modern , capitalist lifestyle , specifically of capitalism 's effect on popular and consumable culture , such as rock and roll and pop music . When asked if , in line with the title of The Nation of Ulysses ' 1991 album 13 @-@ Point Program to Destroy America , he still hoped to " destroy America " , Svenonius responded simply : " Of course " . This aversion to American culture was crystallized through their self @-@ style musical genre " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh , " a belief system through which they advocated to their audience to " get theirs " and to " off the pigs in all their forms " .
The Make @-@ Up 's aversion to capitalist American culture was echoed in the 1998 short film Blue is Beautiful , in which the band starred . The film follows the band 's fictionalized escape from America as " cultural refugees " , where they are hunted by mysterious government agencies and find refuge in coffeehouses and underground night clubs . Much like the assumed personae and personalities of all of Svenonius ' bands and projects , a make @-@ believe mythos and back @-@ story surrounds the Make @-@ Up , primarily based on the band 's gospel approach and its pseudo @-@ political , socialist aesthetics . The political identity of the Make @-@ Up was ideologically and semantically similar to Svenonius ' other bands and projects , all of which culminate in his collection of essays , The Psychic Soviet , published through Drag City Press in 2006 .
= = Musical ideology and style = =
The Make @-@ Up intended to create ad @-@ lib performances in order to re @-@ energize what they saw as the stale , bland , and formal ritual of rock and roll . Appropriating gospel music 's use of the congregate as a " fifth member " , the Make @-@ Up incorporated audience participation through call and response vocals , lyrical " discussion " techniques , and destruction of the fourth wall by physical transgression .
Discussing the appropriation of the form of gospel music ( as opposed to its content ) , Svenonius said :
One concern of the group was to keep their music " stripped down " and minimal . This was indicative of the Make @-@ Up 's aversion to letting communication be upstaged by technology . Svenonius explained that " the problem is that the high creatures are the server mechanisms of the technology and the system they have created , meaning that we 're dictated to as much by cars . We 've turned the world into a parking lot . Similarly we use musical technology that we create , and it finds a use for itself " .
Due to the Make @-@ Up 's consideration of the audience and the special techniques they applied to performing , their live shows exhibited a convergence of soul , surf , and punk – an example of which is their single " I Want Some " from their 1999 album of the same name . Citing the Make @-@ Up 's soul influences , one reviewer stated " If you didn 't know it , you 'd swear that the four members of The Make Up had stolen the soul from James Brown himself " . The Make @-@ Up were also highly influenced by bubblegum music , particularly the French variety called Yé @-@ yé . The factory style of production Yé @-@ yé music had utilized interested the group , who were interested in expanding the labor force involved in the production of pop music , a movement which they saw as in opposition to the rock and roll trend ( begun by The Beatles ) toward self @-@ sufficiency and " downsizing " labor . Through the synthesis of these two disparate and contradictory forms – gospel and Yé @-@ yé – the Make @-@ Up devised a hybrid style they called " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh " . Live interpretations of this style can be found on the Make @-@ Up 's two full @-@ length live releases , After Dark and Untouchable Sound , including " They Live by Night , " a song recorded both in studio and live , on Destination : Love - Live ! and Untouchable Sound respectively .
= = Live performances = =
The Make @-@ Up 's gospel attitude was related to utilization of the audience as a group member , which Svenonius likened to the rise of the 90s dance music scene : " We 're not interested in countering it . It makes sense to me that techno , rave and dance music should go over in the face of rock and roll because it 's democratic for everybody to express themselves . Whereas a lot of rock and roll isn 't even entertaining at all , let alone allowing people the voice for expression . That 's what the Make @-@ Up has come to remedy . We want to be at once entertaining and inclusive in terms of using the gospel form to sort of breathe life into the old Frankenstein monster " . Svenonius would often interact with the audience in a number of ways , including call and response lyrics , direct address , and leaving the stage and going out into the crowd .
Despite the band 's " gospel " and " ad @-@ libbed " approach to recording , the Make @-@ Up 's live performances were often quite structured , as opposed to the typical " jam session " . Svenonius explained that " there 's a skeleton that we create and the form of our shows is unchanging - there 's an intro , an outro , a middle break . It 's very vaudevillian in form " . The Make @-@ Up always wore matching uniforms on stage . Like most of the Make @-@ Up 's identity , the uniforms were an ideological statement , meant to " [ destroy ] individualism . Instead of there being this person [ or ] this member , and them having their separate personalities , or having them as separate entities . We 're trying to create a unification . A one @-@ ness . That 's basically what it is : they 're uniforms " .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Destination : Love - Live ! at Cold Rice ( Dischord ) ( 1996 )
Sound Verite ( K Records ) ( 1997 )
In Mass Mind ( Dischord ) ( 1998 )
Save Yourself ( K Records ) ( 1999 )
= = = Compilations = = =
I Want Some ( singles compilation ) ( K Records - 1999 , M 'lady 's Records - re @-@ issued 2012 )
= = = Live albums = = =
After Dark ( Dischord ) ( 1997 )
Untouchable Sound ( Drag City / Sea Note ) ( 2006 )
= = = DVD / video = = =
Blue is Beautiful ( included on In Film / On Video ) ( Dischord ) ( 1998 )
In Film / On Video ( Dischord ) ( 2006 )
= 1924 – 25 Nelson F.C. season =
The 1924 – 25 season was the 44th in the history of Nelson Football Club , and their fourth as a professional team in the Football League . The campaign saw the team return to the Third Division North , having finished in the relegation zone of the Second Division in 1923 – 24 . Despite losing only one match all season at Seedhill , Nelson 's home ground , the team struggled in away matches . Nelson ended the campaign on 53 points , with a record of 23 wins , 7 draws and 12 losses , and finished as runners @-@ up to Darlington in the league table . Nelson reached the Sixth Qualifying Round of the FA Cup , beating non @-@ League Winsford United before being knocked out of the competition by Coventry City . The team progressed past the first round of the Lancashire Senior Cup with a win against Wigan Borough , but were defeated in the following round by Blackburn Rovers .
A total of 23 different players were used by Nelson during their 44 competitive matches , less than half of whom had played for the club in previous campaigns . Goalkeeper Harry Abbott and half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood were the two ever @-@ presents for Nelson during 1924 – 25 . Centre forward Joe Eddleston scored 26 goals in 43 games to become the team 's top goalscorer for the fourth consecutive season . Two Nelson records were set during the campaign , although one was later broken ; the seven @-@ goal winning margin against Crewe Alexandra was never bettered in Football League matches , while the attendance of 13 @,@ 500 for the visit of Darlington in April 1925 was the largest ever seen at Seedhill at that time .
= = Background = =
The 1924 – 25 season marked Nelson 's return to the Football League Third Division North following their relegation from the Second Division at the end of the previous campaign . It was the club 's fourth season in the Football League , having previously competed in the Central League . Former Scotland international defender David Wilson retired from his player @-@ manager role in the summer of 1924 in order to take up the managerial post full @-@ time . Thomas Jacques , who had played for Nelson during their inaugural season in the Football League , was hired as the assistant coach and groundsman . Unlike the previous summer , when Nelson had embarked on a pre @-@ season tour of Spain , the team did not play any friendly matches during the build @-@ up to the campaign . The club strip remained unchanged from the previous season ; a blue jersey , white shorts and black socks with white and blue trim .
While there were several changed to the playing staff , the core of the team that had played in the Second Division remained intact . Centre forward Joe Eddleston , Nelson 's top goalscorer in each of the previous three seasons , was retained along with captain Clem Rigg , Welsh half @-@ back Jack Newnes and goalkeeper Harry Abbott . The two most senior squad members , David Wilson and goalkeeper Joseph Birds , retired from professional football aged 40 and 36 respectively . Inside forward Dick Crawshaw , who had been the team 's second @-@ highest scorer in 1923 – 24 with five goals , moved to Stalybridge Celtic . Scottish forward Mike McCulloch ended his two @-@ year association with the club by joining Chesterfield on a free transfer , while half @-@ back Leigh Collins signed for New Brighton . Other players , including William Lammus and Ernest Gillibrand , left Nelson having failed to establish themselves in the first @-@ team during their time with the club . Manager Wilson spent a total of £ 750 ( £ 35 @,@ 000 as of 2011 ) on new players in the summer of 1924 . Billy Bottrill and Bill Ellerington arrived from Middlesbrough , while Barrow full @-@ back James Phizacklea was signed to bolster the defensive line . Several young players were acquired from local non @-@ League football during the close season , including Ambrose Harris from Briercliffe and Billy Harper , formerly of Feniscowles . The Nelson squad was considered by the local newspaper to be stronger than the one which had won the Third Division North two seasons earlier .
= = = Transfers = = =
= = Football League Third Division North = =
Nelson began their league campaign on 30 August 1924 with an away match at Southport , who had ended the previous season in seventh position . New signings Billy Bottrill , Bill Ellerington and Joseph O 'Beirne went straight into the starting line @-@ up but they could not prevent Southport winning by a single goal from Jack Barber , giving them their first ever League win against Nelson . A week later , Nelson played their first home game of the season , in which James Phizacklea made his debut for the club . A crowd of around 6 @,@ 000 saw Ashington beaten 4 – 0 thanks to goals from Bottrill , Joe Eddleston , Jack Newnes and Sid Hoad . Three days later , Eddleston scored twice as Doncaster Rovers were defeated by three goals to nil in the first midweek match of the campaign . However , Nelson could not continue their winning streak as they lost 0 – 2 against Accrington Stanley at Peel Park in the following fixture . On 16 September , Nelson achieved their biggest victory in the Football League at that time with a 7 – 1 win over Durham City at Seedhill . The game saw Eddleston score his first hat @-@ trick since the 3 – 0 victory away at Rochdale in January 1923 , and O 'Beirne and Eddie Cameron score their first goals of the season . Four days later , Nelson suffered their third consecutive defeat away from home , losing 0 – 3 to Barrow at Holker Street . The team continued their good home form the following week with a narrow win against Lincoln City . Nelson named the same team for the seventh game in succession for the trip to Tranmere Rovers on 4 October , but the side were beaten for the fourth straight away match thanks to goals from Dixie Dean and Jimmy Moreton .
A week later Eddleston took his tally of goals to eight , scoring twice as Nelson overcame Walsall 2 – 1 at Seedhill . He scored again in the next match as the team gained their first point of the season away from home , drawing 1 – 1 at Wigan Borough , who had been Nelson 's first ever opponents in the Football League over three years previously . Half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood scored his first goal of the campaign in the 2 – 1 win against Halifax Town . Eddie Cameron also scored for the home side , and Walter Moore made his senior debut in the match . November began badly for Nelson as they suffered their heaviest defeat of the season , a 0 – 5 loss away at New Brighton . Allan Mathieson and Joe Wilcox scored two goals each as New Brighton won the first ever competitive meeting between the two sides . Nelson moved up to sixth place in the league following the next match , a 1 – 0 win at home to Grimsby Town . However , the team continued their poor form away from Seedhill , losing 1 – 3 to table @-@ topping Darlington on 15 November . Seven days later , Bottrill scored the only goal of the match as Nelson beat Rochdale to record their eighth consecutive home win .
In the first game of December , Nelson failed to win at Seedhill for the first time in the season . Despite a tenth goal of the campaign from Eddleston and a penalty kick scored by captain Clem Rigg , the team could only draw with Bradford Park Avenue . After a two @-@ week break from League football because of the FA Cup , Nelson returned to action with a 4 – 1 home win over Rotherham County in the only match ever played between the two sides at Seedhill . On Christmas Day , half @-@ back Ambrose Harris made his first appearance for Nelson as the side beat Chesterfield 1 – 0 thanks to Bill Ellerington 's first goal for the club . The same team was defeated by the same scoreline the following day in the reverse fixture at Saltergate . Inside forward Arthur Wolstenholme scored the only goal of the match as Nelson recorded their first away victory of the season in the final fixture of 1924 .
Nelson started the new year with a 1 – 1 draw at Ashington ; Ellerington scored for the second time in three matches but it was cancelled out by a goal from Bill Watson . A week later , half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood netted his first of the season as the team secured another 1 – 1 draw away at Wrexham 's Racecourse Ground . In the first home match of the new year , on 17 January 1925 , Nelson atoned for their defeat to Accrington Stanley earlier in the season with a 4 – 1 win thanks to two goals from Eddleston , one from Chadwick , and a first goal in almost three months for Cameron . Clem Rigg scored two penalties the following week as the side beat Barrow to move above Bradford Park Avenue into fifth position in the Third Division North . On 7 February Nelson won their third consecutive home fixture , beating Tranmere Rovers by four goals to one . Left @-@ half Herbert Butterworth made his senior debut for the club against Tranmere , despite signing from Wolverhampton Wanderers almost two years previously , while Chadwick scored twice in one game for the first time . A trip to Walsall seven days later brought a first away victory of 1925 for the team as goals from Chadwick and Hoad gave Nelson a 2 – 1 win , which elevated them to third place in the league . A narrow win against Wigan Borough at Seedhill on 21 February lifted Nelson further up the table into second position , behind only Darlington . The team ended a successful February with a fourth victory of the month , beating Halifax Town 4 – 2 before a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 spectators at The Shay .
Nelson carried their good form into March ; Bottrill scored for the first time in over two months to help the team defeat New Brighton by five clear goals . This seventh straight win closed the gap between Nelson and Darlington to five points , with the league leaders having played three more matches . In an attempt to push for the title the Nelson directors invested in two new players in March ; inside forward John Stevenson arrived from Second Division side Bury for a fee of £ 500 , while Fred Laycock joined Nelson from Barrow . However , the team suffered their first loss of 1925 in of the following match away at Grimsby Town as goals from Joe Cooper and Frank McKenna gave the home side a 2 – 0 win . This was followed by another defeat four days later ; a goal on debut for Stevenson could not prevent Lincoln City winning by two goals to one . On 21 March Nelson returned to winning ways with a 2 – 0 defeat of Hartlepools United at Seedhill , and later the same week Eddleston scored his second hat @-@ trick of the campaign as struggling Hartlepools were beaten 4 – 2 in the reverse fixture . A first goal in Nelson colours for Laycock secured a third successive win away at Rochdale on 28 March .
A then @-@ record crowd of 13 @,@ 500 descended on Seedhill for the visit of Darlington on 4 April , but the top two teams in the division could not be separated as the game finished in a 1 – 1 draw . Nelson remained second in the table going into the Easter period , during which teams played four matches in the space of five days . The first of these games ended in a 2 – 1 defeat away at Crewe Alexandra , despite Newnes ' first goal since September . John Stevenson then scored his second Nelson goal the following day in a 1 – 1 draw with Bradford Park Avenue . On 13 April , the team avenged their loss to Crewe with a comprehensive 7 – 0 victory at Seedhill , their biggest winning margin in the Football League . Joe Eddleston opened the scoring and went on to net his third hat @-@ trick of the season , taking his tally of goals to 25 , a total that would never be beaten during Nelson 's time in the League . The other goals were added by Laycock , who scored twice , Chadwick and Cameron , who netted his last goal for Nelson . However , the team then took just three out of an available ten points at the end of the season , ending their hopes of returning to the Second Division . Following a 1 – 1 draw at Doncaster Rovers , Nelson suffered their first and only home defeat of the season , losing 4 – 2 to Wrexham . On 21 September the team achieved their final win of the campaign , beating Southport 2 – 1 thanks to two goals from Laycock . The 1924 – 25 season ended with consecutive away losses at Durham City and bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ league Rotherham County , leaving Nelson with second in the Third Division North on 53 points , ahead of third @-@ placed New Brighton on goal average .
= = = Match results = = =
Key
Results
= = = Final league position = = =
= = Other first @-@ team matches = =
Nelson 's first match outside the league in the 1924 – 25 season came in the Lancashire Senior Cup . The team entered the competition in the First round , and were drawn against Wigan Borough at Seedhill . Nelson progressed to the next stage of the cup with a comprehensive 4 – 0 win and were handed another home tie in the second round , against First Division side Blackburn Rovers . A 2 – 1 win for the away team ended Nelson 's participation in the cup for the season .
Nelson entered the FA Cup , the foremost cup competition in England , in the Fifth Qualifying Round along with all the other teams in the Third Division North . For their first match , played on 29 November 1924 , the team was drawn to play Winsford United of the Cheshire County League at Seedhill . Nelson won the first ever meeting between the two clubs 4 – 1 with goals from Braidwood , Eddleston , O 'Beirne and Wolstenholme , to progress to the Sixth Qualifying Round for the first time in three years . In the next round Nelson were again given a home tie , against Second Division outfit Coventry City , who would be relegated to the Third Division North at the end of the 1924 – 25 campaign . Nelson made only one change from the side that had defeated Winsford , with Eddie Cameron replacing Arthur Wolstenholme . In front of a crowd of 7 @,@ 000 spectators , one of the highest attendances at Seedhill of the season , Coventry won 1 – 0 to progress to the first round proper of the competition .
= = = Match results = = =
Results
= = Player details = =
Nelson used a total of 23 players during the 1924 – 25 season and there were 13 different goalscorers . There were also four squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 2 – 3 – 5 formation ( the standard formation at the time ) throughout the campaign , with two full @-@ backs , three half @-@ backs , two outside forwards , two inside forwards and a centre forward . Two players , goalkeeper Harry Abbott and half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood , appeared in all 44 Third Division and FA Cup matches . Joe Eddleston missed just one game , the defeat against Durham City on 29 April , while Welsh international Jack Newnes made 42 appearances in the season . Two players played only once during the season ; Fred Smith deputised for Edgar Chadwick at inside @-@ left in the win against Southport on 21 April , and Allan Bottrill appeared in the final match of the season in place of Eddleston . Neither ever played another senior match for the club .
The team scored a total of 88 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Eddleston , with 26 goals , followed by Chadwick , who scored 10 goals in 20 outings . Billy Bottrill netted eight times during his first season as a Nelson player , while Fred Laycock scored seven despite only playing for the last two months of the campaign . Club captain Clem Rigg was the highest @-@ scoring defender , netting four penalties .
= = = Statistics = = =
Key to positions
Statistics
= Nathan F. Cobb =
The Nathan F. Cobb was a three @-@ masted schooner named after the shipbuilder and founder of Cobb ’ s Salvaging Company whose many rescues of stranded ships help lead to the formation of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service . Despite its namesake 's history of shipwreck rescues , the Nathan F. Cobb capsized in heavy seas on 1 December 1896 en route from Brunswick , Georgia to New York with a cargo of timber and cross ties . The cook and a shipmate drowned when they were swept overboard in violent seas . The crew righted the vessel by removing the three masts and they drifted for four days until they became grounded on
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of 1896 vintage , HMS Canopus . Intended to stiffen the British cruisers in the area , in fact her slow speed meant that she was left behind at the disastrous Battle of Coronel . Canopus redeemed herself at the Battle of the Falkland Islands , but only when grounded to act as a harbour @-@ defence vessel ; she fired at extreme range ( 13 @,@ 500 yards ) on the German cruiser SMS Gneisenau , and while the only hit was from an inert practice shell which had been left loaded from the previous night ( the ' live ' shells of the salvo broke up on contact with water ; one inert shell ricocheted into one of Gneisenau 's funnels ) , this certainly deterred Gneisenau from a potentially damaging raid on a British squadron which was still taking on coal . The subsequent battle was decided by the two Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers which had been dispatched after Coronel . This appears to have been the only meaningful engagement of an enemy ship by a British pre @-@ dreadnought .
In the Black Sea five Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts saw brief action against the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz during the Battle of Cape Sarych in November 1914 .
The principle that disposable pre @-@ dreadnoughts could be used where no modern ship could be risked was affirmed by British , French and German navies in subsidiary theatres of war . The German navy used its pre @-@ dreadnoughts frequently in the Baltic campaign . However , the largest number of pre @-@ dreadnoughts was engaged at the Gallipoli campaign . Twelve British and French pre @-@ dreadnoughts formed the bulk of the force which attempted to ' force the Dardanelles ' in March 1915 . The role of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts was to support the brand @-@ new dreadnought HMS Queen Elizabeth engaging the Turkish shore defences . Three of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts were sunk by mines , and several more badly damaged . However , it was not the damage to the pre @-@ dreadnoughts which led to the operation being called off . The two battlecruisers were also damaged ; since Queen Elizabeth could not be risked in the minefield , and the pre @-@ dreadnoughts would be unable to deal with the Turkish battlecruiser lurking on the other side of the straits , the operation had failed . Pre @-@ dreadnoughts were also used to support the Gallipoli landings , with the loss of three more : HMS Goliath , HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic .
A squadron of German pre @-@ dreadnoughts was present at the Battle of Jutland in 1916 ; German sailors called them the " five minute ships " , which was the amount of time they were expected to survive in a pitched battle . In spite of their limitations , the pre @-@ dreadnought squadron played a useful role . As the German fleet disengaged from the battle , the pre @-@ dreadnoughts risked themselves by turning on the British battlefleet as dark set . Nevertheless , only one of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts was sunk : SMS Pommern went down in the confused night action as the battlefleets disengaged .
Following the November 1918 Armistice , the U.S. Navy converted fifteen older battleships , eight armoured cruisers and two larger protected cruisers for temporary service as transports . These ships made one to six trans @-@ Atlantic round @-@ trips each , bringing home a total of more than 145 @,@ 000 passengers .
= = = World War II = = =
After World War I , most battleships , dreadnought and pre @-@ dreadnought alike , were disarmed under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . Largely this meant the ships being broken up for scrap ; others were destroyed in target practice or relegated to training and supply duties . One , Mikasa , was given a special exemption to the Washington Treaty and was maintained as a museum and memorial ship .
Germany , which lost most of her fleet under the terms of the Versailles treaty , was allowed to keep eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts ( of which only six could be in active service at any one time ) which were counted as armoured coast @-@ defence ships ; two of these were still in use at the beginning of World War II . One of these , Schleswig @-@ Holstein , shelled the Polish Westerplatte peninsula during the opening of the German invasion of Poland . Schleswig @-@ Holstein served for most of the War as a training ship ; she was sunk while under refit in December 1944 , and broken up in situ in January 1945 . The other , Schlesien , was mined and then scuttled in March 1945 .
A number of the inactive or disarmed pre @-@ dreadnoughts were nevertheless sunk in action during World War II , such as the Greek pre @-@ dreadnoughts Kilkis and Lemnos , bought from the U.S. Navy in 1914 . While neither of the ships was in active service , they were both sunk by German divebombers after the German invasion in 1941 . In the Pacific , the U.S. Navy submarine USS Salmon sank the disarmed Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought Asahi in May 1942 . A veteran of Tsushima , she was serving as a repair ship .
= = = Post World War II = = =
No pre @-@ dreadnoughts served post – World War II as armed ships , the last serving pre @-@ dreadnought was the former SMS Hessen , which was used as a target ship by the Soviet union into the early 1960s as the Tsel . The hulk of the ex @-@ USS Oregon ( BB @-@ 3 ) was used until 1956 , after which she was scrapped .
= = Lone survivor = =
The only pre @-@ dreadnought preserved today is the Japanese Navy 's flagship at the Battle of Tsushima , the Mikasa , which is now located in Yokosuka , where it has been a museum ship since 1925 . Two smaller cruisers from a similar period are also preserved , the USS Olympia , and the Russian cruiser Aurora — itself a survivor of the Battle of Tsushima against the IJN .
= Squeeze ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Squeeze " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on September 24 , 1993 . " Squeeze " was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong and directed by Harry Longstreet , with Michael Katleman directing additional footage . The episode featured the first of two guest appearances by Doug Hutchison as the mutant serial killer Eugene Victor Tooms , a role he would reprise in " Tooms " . " Squeeze " is the first " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode of The X @-@ Files , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' overarching mythology .
The show 's main characters are FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a series of ritualistic killings by somebody seemingly capable of squeezing his body through impossibly narrow gaps . The agents deduce that their suspect may be a genetic mutant who has been killing in sprees for ninety years .
Production of " Squeeze " was problematic ; creative differences between Longstreet and the crew led to him being replaced as director , while some missing scenes needed to be shot after the initial filming . Because of this turbulence , the completion of the episode relied on post @-@ production techniques . However , " Squeeze " has received positive reviews from critics , mostly focusing on Hutchison 's performance and the resonance of his character . The episode has subsequently been described by The Star as " the episode that really sold The X @-@ Files idea to the masses " . Academics have examined " Squeeze " for its portrayal of the politics of law enforcement , highlighting the tension — evident throughout the series — between the agents ' desire to find the truth and their duty to secure criminal convictions .
= = Plot = =
In Baltimore , businessman George Usher arrives at his office building . He is watched from a storm drain by someone who then sneaks into the building by climbing through the elevator shaft into the ventilation system , and kills Usher by removing his liver . The investigation into Usher 's murder — the latest of three such killings — is assigned to careerist FBI agent Tom Colton ( Donal Logue ) , who turns to academy colleague Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) for help .
The case baffles Colton , as the only common elements in the murders are the lack of entry points and the apparent removal of the victims ' livers with bare hands . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) looks over the case and notes their similarity to earlier murder sprees that occurred in 1933 and 1963 . At the crime scene , Mulder notices an elongated fingerprint on the air vent , which he also finds to be similar to some documented in the X @-@ Files . He concludes that because five murders occurred during the earlier sprees , the investigators should expect two more .
Because Scully believes that the killer will return to the scenes of his earlier crimes , she and Mulder wait in the parking garage of Usher 's office building . There , they catch a man named Eugene Victor Tooms ( Doug Hutchison ) climbing through the air vents . Tooms is given a polygraph test , which includes questions written by Mulder linking him to murders dating as far back as 1903 . After Tooms passes the test easily , Colton dismisses Mulder 's queries as being ridiculous and lets Tooms go . However , Mulder later digitally elongates and narrows Tooms ' fingerprints to show Scully that they match the prints at the crime scene . Mulder believes that Tooms is able to stretch and squeeze his body through narrow spaces . That night , Tooms demonstrates this by squeezing down a chimney to claim another victim .
Mulder and Scully find no documentation on Tooms ' life . They visit Frank Briggs ( Henry Beckman ) , a former detective , who recounts his experiences of the investigation into the 1933 murders . Briggs brings out old photographs of Tooms — who has not aged in sixty years — and gives them the address of Tooms ' former apartment building . There , Mulder and Scully find a " nest " constructed out of newspaper and bile in the building 's crawl space , as well as several trophy items taken from past victims . Mulder suspects that Tooms is a mutant who can hibernate for thirty years at a time after consuming five human livers . As the two leave , Tooms , who is hiding in the rafters , stealthily takes the necklace Scully is wearing as a new trophy .
Mulder and Scully put the apartment under surveillance , but Colton has them taken off the job . Mulder finds Scully 's necklace in Tooms ' apartment and tries to call his partner , but her phone line has been cut . Tooms breaks into her apartment through a tiny air vent to kill her , but Mulder rushes there and apprehends him first . Tooms is put in an institution for the criminally insane where he begins to build another nest using newspaper . At the institution , Scully informs Mulder that medical tests on Tooms show an abnormal skeletal and muscle system , and a rapidly declining metabolism . When Tooms is given food through a slot in the door , he stares at the thin slot and grins .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Coming after two episodes focused on the series ' " mythology " , or fictional history , " Squeeze " helped establish that the show could cover other paranormal subjects , and was the first " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode of The X @-@ Files . Series creator Chris Carter thought that the show could not sustain its momentum unless it branched out from the previously UFO @-@ centered plots . Co @-@ writers Glen Morgan and James Wong were inspired to write the episode when they looked at a ventilation shaft outside of their office and thought about whether someone could crawl inside it . Although the episode has parallels with the second Kolchak film , The Night Strangler ( 1973 ) , which featured a man who commits murders every 21 years , Morgan and Wong have stated they were inspired by the serial killers Jack the Ripper and Richard Ramirez . After eating foie gras during a trip to France , Carter proposed the idea that the villain should consume human livers . Morgan noted that the writers settled on the liver because it was " funnier " than any other organ . The idea to have Tooms use a nest for hibernation came from Morgan and Wong ; they liked that if the agents were unable to catch Tooms , he could return after weeks of dormancy .
Actor Doug Hutchison was 33 when he auditioned for the part of Tooms , but the producers initially considered him too young for the role ; Glen Morgan thought that Hutchinson " looks twelve years old " . However Hutchison impressed the writers with his ability to suddenly transition into attacking behavior , which convinced them to hire him . He related that his portrayal of Tooms was inspired by the " stillness " of Anthony Hopkins ' acting in The Silence of the Lambs .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode 's establishing exterior shots , and those of Tooms ' house , were filmed around Hastings Street in Vancouver . When filming the first shot of Tooms ' eyes glowing from a storm drain , the production crew arrived too late to secure the street for filming , and a nearby construction crew were temporarily drafted to guard the area . The ventilation system through which the first victim is attacked at night was meant to be of a multistory car park . However , to avoid a costly tenting operation to simulate night @-@ time , a replica of the necessary parts of the ventilation system was built in a lower level of the car park . Exterior shots of Scully 's apartment were also filmed in Vancouver , at the same location used in the pilot episode . However , this location 's use was later discontinued owing to the limited range of shots it afforded ; most reverse angles would show a large car park across the street .
Wong was disappointed with director Harry Longstreet , claiming he did not have respect for the script . Longstreet had failed to film one of the script 's scenes , and had not obtained additional camera coverage for the scenes which had been filmed . As a result , Wong and another director , Michael Katleman , re @-@ shot several scenes for additional coverage to complete the episode , and filmed the omitted scene and some inserts . Hutchison also had difficulty with Longstreet 's directing ; he found the acting instructions he was given " ridiculous " . Morgan said that the episode 's production was problematic , feeling that " Squeeze " " was truly saved in postproduction " . Duchovny also found issue with Longstreet 's direction , and disagreed with the director 's take on how Fox Mulder should be portrayed . Describing their different opinions , Duchovny noted " the director wanted me to be mad about this horrible serial killer . I was like , ' No , this is an amazing discovery ! He 's not morally culpable , because he 's genetically driven . ' I judge no one " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
For the shot in which Tooms slides through a chimney , the producers hired a contortionist who could squeeze through small spaces . They filmed the shot with the camera standing below the contortionist . The chimney , which was " more like a belt than a pipe " , was made to look much narrower than it actually was . Using computer @-@ generated imagery , they were able to produce and elongate shots of the contortionist 's fingers . Producer R. W. Goodwin believed that the contortionist — known only as " Pepper " — would only have limited success in fitting down the chimney set and would work mostly as a photo double . However , he was able to fit entirely inside the chimney ; the production crew only needed to add some sound effects " of bones snapping and cracking " .
The scene in which Tooms enters Scully 's home was initially filmed in Hutchison 's absence . The crew shot his entrance later , using a larger blue screen set . These shots were digitally merged so that Tooms would appear to emerge from a much smaller hatch than was filmed . The effect was kept to a minimum ; Hutchison 's footage was not " squeezed " too much , as both Carter and visual effects supervisor Mat Beck have stated their belief that " less is more : just a hint of the supernatural is all that is required " .
= = Themes = =
Although it did not directly impact the ongoing storyline of The X @-@ Files , " Squeeze " introduced key thematic elements to the series . " Squeeze " has been described as " the episode where Dana Scully must publicly pick a side " . She had previously confronted military officials in " Deep Throat " , and has " carefully worded " her reports to protect her partner Mulder from ridicule , but an encounter with former colleague Tom Colton forces her to openly choose between Mulder and the politics of careerism . These developments with Colton " [ tether ] another thread between her career and the rest of the FBI " , highlighting a sense of " exasperation and derision " from her colleagues , whose mindsets represent " institutionally acceptable " models of reality .
This hostility suggests that the series ' problems are " not epistemological ; they are political " — the agents , Scully in particular , have to balance a search for " the truth " with the need to secure criminal convictions in their cases . This balancing act " between investigating to discover the truth and gathering evidence to support a court case " has been compared to the perceived stance of the FBI during the series ' tenure . The bureau had at this time seen itself as a law enforcement agency responsible for amassing evidence to prosecute criminal cases . There is a disparity between this approach and public perception of the FBI 's role as an organization investigating an objective and apolitical truth ; this led to public frustration " because [ people ] incorrectly believe that a courtroom is designed to discover the truth " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Squeeze " premiered on the Fox network on September 24 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 3 , 1994 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 8 million households and 11 @.@ 1 million viewers . " Squeeze " earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 , with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode .
Glen Morgan was very pleased with Hutchison 's performance , describing him as an " ace in the hole " and calling his work " outstanding " . Morgan went on to write " Tooms " , another first season episode in which the character returns . The Vince Gilligan @-@ penned second season episode " Soft Light " would also make reference to the character . Hutchison wrote a prequel to " Squeeze " titled " Dark He Was and Golden @-@ Eyed " and sent it to Carter , but the script was returned unread for legal reasons . " Squeeze " has been described as the first episode of The X @-@ Files to branch out into horror , which came to be one of the defining genres of The X @-@ Files . The plot of " Squeeze " was adapted as a novel for young adults in 1996 by Ellen Steiber . The episode also inspired " Folding Man " , a first season episode of the television series Sanctuary .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Squeeze " was rated B + ; it was called " an important episode " , and Hutchison 's portrayal of Tooms was described as " profoundly creepy " . However , Thomas Sutcliffe of The Independent was more critical , deriding the premise as " entirely ludicrous " , and sarcastically described Mulder 's deduction of Tooms ' abilities as " clearly another triumph for the deductive method " . An article in the Vancouver Sun listed " Squeeze " as one of the best stand @-@ alone episodes of the show , saying , " The X @-@ Files became known for its creepy , monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episodes , and Squeeze was the one that started it all " , and that , together with " Tooms " , it " remains one of the scariest things ever seen on television " . Connie Ogle from PopMatters listed Tooms amongst the greatest monsters of the series .
Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , rated it an A − , and described Hutchison 's role as " the part that would launch [ him ] as a go @-@ to character actor for creep parts " . Phipps felt the climactic scene in which Tooms infiltrates Scully 's home is " the scene that makes the episode " , noting that there was " a real sense of peril " despite it being clear that Scully , a lead character , was not going to come to harm . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , note that the episode 's premise is the first in the series " not to rely upon accepted urban legends " . It conveys its " absurd " plot through suggestion , leaving any special @-@ effects sequences of Tooms ' abilities until the audience is " already suitably adjusted to the absurdity " . However , Shearman and Pearson found the monologue likening the crimes committed by Tooms to the Holocaust , given by the retired detective Briggs , to be " not only unnecessary but tasteless to boot " . They rated the episode four stars out of five . Mumtaj Begum , writing for Malaysia 's The Star , described " Squeeze " as " the episode that really sold The X @-@ Files idea to the masses " , and called it " simply brilliant " .
The character of Eugene Tooms has also attracted positive criticism . In a guest column for Entertainment Weekly 's 1000th issue , author Neil Gaiman listed Tooms as one of his favorite monsters , while UGO Networks listed the character in a countdown of the " Best TV Serial Killers " , and described Hutchison 's acting as " uber @-@ creepy " . IGN 's Christine Seghers listed Hutchison as the fourth @-@ best guest star of the series in a top @-@ ten countdown , complimented his " brilliantly perverse " performance , and wrote : " Even when he doesn 't appear to be doing anything , Hutchinson [ sic ] can still make your skin crawl with his dead , shark @-@ like stare " .
= Little Girl in the Big Ten =
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 12 , 2002 . In the episode , Lisa befriends two college students at a gym and attends college with them . Meanwhile , after being bitten by a mosquito from a Chinese @-@ made toy , Bart is infected with the " panda virus " and is placed in a plastic bubble to prevent others from infection .
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " was directed Lauren MacMullan and written by Jon Vitti . The episode 's main plot was pitched by Vitti , who suggested an episode in which Lisa meets girls who thought she was a college student . The subplot was pitched by the Simpsons writing staff , who wanted it to be completely different from the main story . The episode features former three @-@ time U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky as himself . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 8 million viewers and finished in 40th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its home video release on August 24 , 2010 , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Lisa finds herself unable to do any sports in PE class , taught by Brunella Pommelhorst , and finds herself failing physical education . She then signs up to do gymnastics with Coach Lugash . There , she receives encouragement from the ghost of John F. Kennedy in a vision . With boosted self @-@ confidence , and her large head which gives her perfect balance , Lisa passes with flying colors . Lisa also meets two girls and becomes friends with them , but with their fractals and parking permits , she realizes they are college students " with small gymnast bodies ! " They give Lisa a ride home , and she acts like a college student to keep their friendship . The two girls invite her to a poetry reading by Robert Pinsky soon after . Lisa begins to wear a beret to help her fit in better .
Meanwhile , Bart gets bitten by a Chinese mosquito that was in his Krusty @-@ saurus toy , and becomes infected with " Panda virus " . To prevent others from getting sick , Dr. Hibbert puts Bart in a plastic bubble . Bart has trouble adapting to life in the bubble even though Hibbert emphasized just how " normal " it would feel ; he has trouble eating and Homer gives him a bath by filling up the bubble with the hose and rolling Bart around outside of the house . Lisa is able to keep up her double life , attending a poetry reading by former Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky at night and attending her second grade class during the day . While going to Springfield University , she is tracked by Milhouse , Martin , and Database when Milhouse saw Lisa ride away . At a lecture about Itchy & Scratchy cartoons , Milhouse blows Lisa 's cover and she is no longer welcome by her college friends .
Lisa tries to convince Homer and Marge that college suits her , but they refuse to listen , saying that college is no place for her . Lisa is also ridiculed by Groundskeeper Willie and all of her friends at school , saying that she is too " college for them " . In the meantime , Bart gets used to his bubble , as it brings him a lot of popularity . Bart tells Lisa what she should do to get her friends back : she has to pull a prank on Principal Skinner . The next day , Chalmers is dedicating the Seymour Skinner parking annex . While Martin takes pictures of Skinner posing next to a giant chocolate cake in his dress polyester , Bart rolls Lisa ( inside his bubble ) to the edge of the school 's roof . He then pushes her over the edge , splattering the cake all over Skinner . Lisa gets her friends back , while Bart goes paranoid after being outside of his bubble for the first time in days . He stays in an air vent , but gets sucked in .
= = Production = =
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " was written by producer Jon Vitti and directed by Lauren MacMullan . The idea for the episode was pitched by Vitti , who suggested an episode in which Lisa meets girls who thought she was a college student . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 12 , 2002 . Jean thought the idea was " brilliant " , and the subplot involving Bart in a " germ @-@ free " plastic bubble was conceived by the writers wanting to make " the most different subplot from [ ... ] an intellectual college plot " they could think of . A scene in the episode shows Lisa talking to Bart on the branch of a tree in their garden . Bart says the line " You can 't believe what that sunset looks like to me " , to which Lisa replies " That 's not a sunset , that 's a bird on fire . " Originally , Lisa 's line read " [ ... ] that 's a plane on fire , " however , after the September 11 attacks , the line was considered offensive and was changed . " [ ... ] since we work so far ahead we usually do these things that are sort of timeless stories , " Jean said , " but every once in a while there 's something that turns out to be ironic in a bad way , then we have to change it . "
The Itchy & Scratchy cartoon " Butter Off Dead " was , according to Jean , " completely improv [ ise ] d " by director MacMullan . Usually , the episodes are too " narrow " for there to be any room for improvisation , but MacMullan was an exception , since her improvisations " always turned out great " . The writers came up with the cartoons title and its " template " , however " the way the death proceeded and the different digestion [ s ] " were " All Lauren [ MacMullan ] " . The sequence in which Pinsky is reading the poem was " very hard to do " , since the animators did not have access to computers at the time . One of the audience members in the scene was designed after staff writer Matt Warburton .
The episode features former poet laureate Robert Pinsky as himself . Pinsky was chosen to guest star because the writers wanted an intellectual reference for Lisa , and because they knew that Pinsky was a fan of the show , having read an article of The Time in which Pinsky stated that he " admired the writing " of The Simpsons . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Pinsky stated that he flew to the Simpsons recording studios in Los Angeles on September 10 , 2001 , and , following the September 11 attacks , was " stranded " there for four days , since no planes were flying following the attacks . Pinsky enjoyed his stay however ; " Ian [ Maxtone @-@ Graham ] and The Simpsons people were very nice to me , " he said . " ... One of the things they did for me is they invited me to a table @-@ read of another episode [ ... ] Thursday the 13th [ ... ] I remember everybody laughed like hell [ ... ] It felt really good . People just went to work and everybody laughed a lot . "
Pinsky stated that he felt " really inept " when recording his dialogue . He said : " Amongst my friends I 'm funny . In that context of Dan Castellaneta ... I would say it was like a disaster movie , and I was that character played by Susan Hayward . " The poem Pinsky reads in the episode was picked by the Simpsons writing staff , " The poem has two jokes in it , " Pinsky said , " and when I say jokes I don 't mean witty remarks . It 's more like an optician , the pope and a zebra go into the bar and then there 's a punch line at the end . " He stated that the poem was " an elegy for a friend of mine who liked jokes " . He added that his appearance on the show gave him " a lot more prestige " when visiting high schools and colleges . The episode also features Karl Wiedergott as the professor at the Springfield University .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's subplot was based on the 1976 made @-@ for @-@ TV movie The Boy in the Plastic Bubble ( Lenny also addresses as Bart as Bubble Boy in one scene , which was the name of the film 's 2001 remake ) in which a boy born with an improperly functioning immune system lives out his life in incubator @-@ like conditions . In one of Lisa 's college courses , the students are watching an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon title " Butter Off Dead " . The lecture was a reference to college courses which include The Simpsons episodes in their teachings . The gate to Springfield University was based " loosely " on the ivy gate at Harvard University . The episode also parodies the British anarcho @-@ punk band Chumbawamba , with Homer singing his own version of their song " Tubthumping " .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on May 12 , 2002 , " Little Girl in the Big Ten " received a 6 @.@ 4 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode finished in 40th place in the ratings for the week of May 6 – 12 , 2002 , making it the most watched program of the network tied with Malcolm in the Middle and Boston Public . On August 24 , 2010 ,
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ondiste Sylvette Allart . Archer and Hearn credit " Sleeping Astronauts " as " one of the most enchanting pieces Gray ever wrote " , and state that the soundtrack , which has not yet received a commercial release , evokes a " traditional Hollywood feel " that is in contrast to the 2069 setting of Doppelgänger .
The inspiration for the title sequence , set inside the secret laboratory of Dr Hassler , was the espionage theme embodied by the character : in what Archer and Hearn describe as an imitation of the style of 1960s James Bond films , a miniature camera is seen to be concealed inside Hassler 's artificial eye .
= = Distribution = =
When production on Doppelgänger ended in October 1968 , all 30 episodes of Joe 90 had been completed and the Andersons ' upcoming television series , The Secret Service , had entered pre @-@ production . The final cut was given a mediocre reception by Universal Pictures executives , causing the film 's release to be postponed for a year . It received an A certificate from the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) on 26 March 1969 , dispelling rumours of an X rating and fulfilling the Andersons ' objective that Doppelgänger be suitable for children accompanied by adults . To secure an A certificate , brief cuts were made to shots of contraceptive pills , shortening the running time from the original 104 minutes .
Doppelgänger opened at the Odeon Cinema in London 's Leicester Square on 8 October 1969 , having premiered on 27 August in the United States . On 1 November , it debuted in Detroit , Michigan , commencing a second round of presentations in American cinemas . The film received a disappointing box office reception on general release .
British distributors Rank released the film under its original name in the UK and the rest of Europe . The title Journey to the Far Side of the Sun was adopted in the United States and Australia , since it had been determined by Universal that the audiences of these countries might not understand the meaning of the term " doppelganger " . Simon Archer and Stan Nicholls , authors of Gerry Anderson : The Authorised Biography , concede that Journey to the Far Side of the Sun – which has superseded Doppelgänger as the more popular title – provides a clearer explanation of the plot , but argue that it lacks the " intrigue and even poetic quality of Doppelgänger " .
= = = TV broadcasts = = =
Two prints of Doppelgänger in its original 35 mm format , for UK release , are known to exist . One is retained by the British Film Institute ( BFI ) , the other by Fanderson , the official fan society dedicated to the Gerry Anderson productions . The original prints of Doppelgänger position Ian Hendry before Roy Thinnes in the opening credits ; in the Journey to the Far Side of the Sun format , Thinnes is billed before Hendry . Certain UK prints alter the final scene featuring the old Jason Webb with the addition of a short voice @-@ over from Thinnes in character as Ross , who is heard speaking a line that he says to Webb earlier in the film : " Jason , we were right . There are definitely two identical planets . "
In the UK , Doppelgänger has been aired on TV under the title Journey to the Far Side of the Sun and has been formatted accordingly . Broadcasts have often contained inverted picture due to a mistake made in transferring the original print to videotape . Prior to a screening in the 1980s , a telecine operator viewed the print and , being unfamiliar with the premise of the film , concluded that the scenes set on the parallel Earth had been reversed in error . An additional " flop @-@ over " edit restored the image to normal , which became the standard for all broadcasts but compromised the plot : if Doppelgänger is screened in this modified form , the viewer is led to conclude that the parallel Ross has landed on the non @-@ reversed , normal Earth .
= = = Home video releases = = =
Previously available in laserdisc format , Doppelgänger was released on NTSC Region 1 DVD in both 1998 and – in digitally @-@ remastered form – 2008 . The 2008 release included PAL Region 2 but was titled Journey to the Far Side of the Sun rather than Doppelgänger . No additional material is present on the Region 1 releases ; the Region 2 version includes a film trailer . While the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) has certified the film G since its original release , before the 2008 DVD release the BBFC re @-@ rated Doppelgänger PG ( from the original A ) for " mild violence and language " . A Blu @-@ ray version was released in Region A in April 2015 as Journey to the Far Side of the Sun .
= = Reception = =
Since its original release , Doppelgänger has had a mixed critical reception in both the UK and the US , although Archer and Nicholls argue that it has acquired cult status . Gary Gerani , co @-@ writer of Pumpkinhead ( 1988 ) , ranks the film 81st in his book Top 100 Sci @-@ Fi Movies , praising Doppelgänger as a " fine example of speculative fantasy in the late ' 60s " . He expresses satisfaction with Thinnes ' and Wymark 's performances , the characterisation ( and the themes entailed , including adultery , infertility and corruption ) and the " Fourth of July @-@ style " special effects , calling the film " enigmatic " .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
In a review published in The Times in October 1969 , John Russell Taylor praised the concept of the film as " quite ingenious " but suggested that the title and pre @-@ release marketing had revealed too much of the plot for the film to sustain the interest of its audience . Commenting in New York magazine in November , Judith Crist introduced Doppelgänger as " a science @-@ fiction film that comes up with a fascinating premise three @-@ quarters of the way along and does nothing with it . " She praised the production as being " nicely gadget @-@ ridden " and raising questions on the conflict between politics and science , but criticised the editing . Variety magazine cited a confusing plot , and related the crash of the Dove module to the coherence of the scriptwriting in its declaration that , " Astronauts take a pill to induce a three @-@ week sleep during their flight . Thereafter the script falls to pieces in as many parts as their craft . "
In his 1975 work A Pictorial History of Science Fiction Films , Jeff Rovin stated that the film was " confusing but colourful " , and commended it for its " superb special effects " . Although it was argued to be better than average for the genre in The Miami News in September 1969 and The Montreal Gazette in April 1972 , a December 1969 edition of the Pittsburgh Press dismissed it as " a churned out science @-@ fiction yarn ... Let 's hope there 's only one movie like this one " , and ranked it among the worst films of the year . The The Montreal Gazette review maintained that , although the quality deteriorates towards the end of the film , " until then it 's a reasonably diverting futuristic melodrama . "
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
In a 2008 review for Den of Geek , Martin Anderson praised Robert Parrish 's direction and Derek Meddings ' effects . However , the dialogue , described as " robust and prosaic " , was said to sit " ill @-@ at @-@ ease with the metaphysical ponderings " . Anderson also expressed concern about the editing , stating that every effects shot precedes another shot " with that ' Hornby ' factor , slowing up the narrative unnecessarily " . Doppelgänger is awarded a rating of three stars out of five , and is summarised as " an interesting journey with many rewards " . Glenn Erickson , commenting in 2008 on the website DVD Talk , argued that Doppelgänger " takes an okay premise but does next to nothing with it . We see 100 minutes of bad drama and good special effects , and then the script opts for frustration and meaningless mystery . " He complained of unappealing cinematography , comparing it to the premise of Thunderbirds in so far as " people stand and talk a lot " , while defining the script as being composed of " at least 60 percent hardware @-@ talk and exposition ... How people move about – airplane , parachute , centrifuge – is more important than what they 're doing . "
On the subject of effects , Erickson asserted that sequences such as the " thuddingly generic , drama @-@ challenged main rocket launch " detract from the human factor of the film . Other design elements were criticised : viewing the costumes as dated , Erickson added that " the actors are defeated by the Barbie doll house surroundings " , and suggested that the visuals of Doppelgänger match an ethos of " the future will be a shopping mall " . Despite judging Doppelgänger " good " ( a rating higher than " fair " but lower than " excellent " ) , Erickson argued that the opportunities presented by the parallel Earth concept were squandered in the determination to turn the production into " an excuse to show cool rocket toys " .
Doppelgänger is given a rating of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five in a negative review published on the Film4 website , which praises the effects work and costume design but criticises the scenes with the character of Dr Hassler for their irrelevance to the main plot , and the subtext of the Rosses ' troubled marriage as an unnecessary diversion from the narrative . Although Ross and Kane 's mission through space is described as a " brief , trippy light show " , the review questions the originality of having a parallel Earth as the focus , and the depth of the script 's vision : " Anderson 's has to be the cheapest alternate Earth ever . Whereas audiences might expect a world where the Roman Empire never fell or the Nazis won World War II , here the shocking discovery is that people write backwards . That 's it . " Doppelgänger is only recommended for fans of the Anderson productions , and is considered " an occasionally interesting failure " .
Gary Westfahl of the webzine SF Site asserts that the use of a near @-@ perfect parallel Earth is uninspired , referring to the setting as " the most boring and unimaginative alien world imaginable " . Among other reviews , TV Guide magazine describes Doppelgänger as a " strange , little film " with an " overwritten script " , and considers the subplot concerning Dr Hassler 's treachery to be distracting . It awards a rating of two stars out of four . To Chris Bentley , writer of episode guides on the Anderson productions , Doppelgänger is a " stylish and thought @-@ provoking science @-@ fiction thriller " .
Sylvia Anderson suggested that American audiences , who were less familiar with the Supermarionation productions of Century 21 , were more enthusiastic . She explained , " It was all too easy to compare our real actors with our puppet characters and descriptions such as ' wooden ' , ' expressionless ' , ' no strings attached ' and ' puppet @-@ like ' were cheap shots some of the UK critics could not resist ... Typecasting is the lazy man 's friend , and boy , were we typecast in Britain . " On Doppelgänger , she said in 1992 , " I saw it on TV a couple of years ago and I was very pleased with it . I thought it came over quite well . "
= = = Interpretation = = =
Archer and Nicholls cite among possible causes of the commercial failure of Doppelgänger its " quirky , offbeat nature " and the loss of public interest in space exploration after the Apollo 11 mission . The subject of the July 1969 Moon landing dominated a contemporary review in The Milwaukee Journal , in which Bennett F. Waxse noted comparisons with Doppelgänger : " ... the spacemen find a few bugs in their ' LM ' and crash on the planet . And do they ever have their hands full in getting back to Earth ! " Writing that the proliferation of technical dialogue hampers the acting , he concluded , " ... the makers of this space exploiter may get lots of mileage at the box office , but Neil , Buzz and Mike did it better on TV . "
It has also been suggested that the 1968 releases of 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Planet of the Apes established an unattainable standard for other films of the science @-@ fiction genre . Erickson argues that the film is inferior to 2001 for its depiction of a realistic " working future " in which humans remain attached to commercialism . Comparing the visual style of Doppelgänger to that used by film director Stanley Kubrick , he notes similarities in the use of close @-@ up eye shots and various " psychedelic " images , regretting that " all these borrowings are fluff without any deeper meaning . " Film4 's review describes the final scenes featuring the character of Jason Webb as " hell @-@ bent on recreating the enigmatic finale of 2001 by using a mirror , a wheelchair and a tartan blanket . "
Martin Anderson discusses connections between Doppelgänger and other science @-@ fiction films of the 1960s and 1970s , such as Solaris , acknowledging a " lyrical " tone in the dialogue . Ultimately , however , Doppelgänger " doesn 't bear comparison with Kubrick or [ Solaris director Andrei ] Tarkovsky . " Comparing Doppelgänger to 2001 , Rovin writes that the effects of the former " [ occasionally ] outshine " those of the latter . " He goes onto state that the film " attempts to kindle a profundity similar to that of [ 2001 ] in its abstract philosophising about the dichotomy of dual worlds , but fails with a combination of meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes science fiction and quasi @-@ profound themes . " He suggests that it is " neither a kid 's film nor a cult film " , but rules that " the elements that comprise the finished effort are more than individually successful . "
Erickson contrasts perceived failures on the part of the script with the efforts of Nigel Kneale for the 1958 BBC serial Quatermass and the Pit and the 1964 film adaptation of the 1901 H.G. Wells novel The First Men in the Moon . Both Douglas Pratt and the Institute of Contemporary Arts ( ICA ) in London liken the concept of the alternative Earth to the plot of " The Parallel " , a 1963 episode of the American television series The Twilight Zone : in the episode , an astronaut returns to Earth to find that his world has undergone many changes – some trivial , some drastic – and concludes that he has arrived in a parallel universe . Critic S. T. Joshi compares the theme of duplication in Doppelgänger to the premise of Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) , in which characters ' fears that their relatives have been abducted and replaced with alien impostors are vindicated with the appearance of the Pod People , an extraterrestrial species with the power to create doppelgangers that are nearly indistinguishable from humans .
= = = Legacy = = =
Despite the polarised critical reception and commercial failure of Doppelgänger , Lew Grade offered the Andersons further opportunities to film in live action . Their first television series not based on puppetry was UFO , which premièred in the UK in 1970 . Doppelgänger is considered an immediate precursor to UFO , and has also been described as a " trial run " for the Andersons ' second live @-@ action series , Space : 1999 . UFO featured actors , costumes , props , locations and music that had previously appeared in Doppelgänger . Of the film 's cast , Ed Bishop , Keith Alexander , Cy Grant , Martin King and Jeremy Wilkin had previously had an association with the Andersons : all had provided voices for Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons except Alexander , who had voiced characters for the penultimate Supermarionation series , Joe 90 . With 11 other cast members , all but Grant and King appeared in at least one episode of UFO , in which Bishop had in the lead role of Commander Ed Straker .
Special effects elements from Doppelgänger that were recycled for UFO included the scale models of Phoenix and Dove . Futuristic cars ( which consultants from the Ford corporation based on the chassis of the Zephyr Zodiac ) and jeeps ( adapted from British Leyland Mini Mokes ) were also re @-@ used . Neptune House , one of the filming locations for Doppelgänger , became the face of the Harlington @-@ Straker Film Studios where the SHADO Organisation is headquartered . Tracks from Barry Gray 's score that were recycled for UFO included " Sleeping Astronauts " and " Strange Planet " , the latter serving as the ending theme music . The teleprinter images that served as the focus of the film 's titles formed a creative element that was imitated in the opening titles of UFO .
In a retrospective of Anderson 's career published on the IGN website , it is stated that the discussion of politics and economics in Doppelgänger contrast with the conventions of 1960s science fiction . Furthermore , such aspects are reflected in the atmosphere of UFO in so far as the characters " were constantly having to deal with the pressures of having to show progress under the scrutiny of accountants and elected officials , much the same way NASA was starting to in the US . " Commenting on the parallels between the film and the television series , Martin Anderson makes another connection to Kubrick : turning his attention to the scripting , he argues , " the most interesting common ground between the two projects remains the bleak ending ( s ) and the slight flirtation with the acid @-@ induced imagery and mind fucks of 2001 . "
= Lam Tin =
Lam Tin is an area in the Kwun Tong District in southeastern New Kowloon , Hong Kong . Lam Tin is primarily a residential area but also hosts a major transport interchange and several shopping attractions . Lam Tin was once a large field in the vicinity of Kowloon Bay . During the Song dynasty , it was a site of salt production . Since the 1980s a number of housing estates were constructed in Lam Tin .
A high @-@ density residential district built on a coastal knoll , Lam Tin hosts residential housing estates , transport infrastructure , mass @-@ transit facilities , shopping centres , recreational areas and many other buildings and structures . It is home to 130 @,@ 000 residents , making up a fifth of Kwun Tong District 's population .
= = Geographical location = =
In common speech , the name Lam Tin in the past usually included the areas of Lei Yue Mun and Yau Tong . However , new infrastructure and housing estates that were built there are not now considered part of Lam Tin . Conventional boundaries of Lam Tin : west to Laguna City , southeast to Kwong Tin Estate , north to the entrance of Tseung Kwan O Tunnel , southwest to Victoria Harbour .
= = = Geography = = =
Lam Tin is overlooked to the east by Black Hill , or Ng Kwai Shan . The rock below this locality is Hong Kong Granite from the Cretaceous period . Most granite rock in Lam Tin is medium @-@ grained . The granite in Lam Tin is of the Lion Rock suite . Farther towards the shore , a small area of land to the west of Cha Kwo Ling was reclaimed .
= = = Politics = = =
The entire Lam Tin area is located in Kwun Tong District . Politically , Lam Tin is the name of a constituency of Kwun Tong District , which includes the area of the former Lam Tin Estate . However , in common speech , the name Lam Tin usually refers to a larger area which includes nine constituencies of Kwun Tong District .
Constituencies of the Kwun Tong District Council within the Lam Tin area
J14 Hing Tin ( 興田 )
J15 Tak Tin ( 德田 )
J16 Lam Tin ( 藍田 )
J17 Kwong Tak ( 廣德 )
J18 Ping Tin ( 平田 )
J19 Hong Pak ( 康柏 )
J21 Yau Tong Sze Shan West ( 油塘四山西 )
J22 Lai Kong ( 麗港 )
J23 King Tin ( 景田 )
= = History = =
Located along the coast of southern China , Lam Tin was first settled around the 9th century BC by the Nanyue people . The Qin dynasty conquered the Nanyue in the late 3rd century BC as part of their unification of China . Since then , the land presently known as Lam Tin became identified as part of China .
Lam Tin , called Ham Tin Shan ( 鹹田山 ) at that time , literally meaning " salty field hill " , had been part of Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields ( 九龍灣鹽田 , also known as Guanfuchang 官富場 ) under the management of Dongguan County or Xin 'an County in different dynasties . The salt @-@ fields were first officially operated by the Song dynasty in 1163 .
The Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields were rich in salt , and this brought wealth to the residents near the bay . Gradually , Ham Tin Shan became villages . Because of the region 's shoreline location , agricultural activities started with the plantation of high @-@ salinity crops . With a quarry found in So Mo Ping ( now Sau Mau Ping ) , the region gradually became a small fishing , farming and quarrying town .
In 1662 , the Kangxi Emperor moved all residents along southern China coastline inland by 50 Chinese miles and abandoned the salt @-@ fields in hopes of weakening the pirate Zheng Chenggong 's power through cutting his support from coastline residents . Although the residents were allowed to return in 1669 , after the Kangxi Emperor discovered that the migration brought great economic harm , the salt industry in Ham Tin never prospered again .
In 1841 , the British Empire acquired Hong Kong . The western half of the Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields becoming part of British Hong Kong in 1860 and the eastern half in 1898 . In the 20th century , the salt @-@ fields were abandoned for reclamation to facilitate the building of Kai Tak Airport . To reflect this change in land usage , Ham Tin was renamed Lam Tin of similar pronunciation because the village no longer produced salt . The name Lam Tin came from Lantian , Shaanxi , which came from a phrase " 藍田生玉 " , literally " produced from the blue fields is jade " . The name Lam Tin was officially endorsed on 1 September 1970 .
The colonial government built Lam Tin Estate in the 1960s to settle low @-@ income residents during the influx of population from mainland China after the Korean War . Gradually , Lam Tin became a common term to Hongkongers describing the areas around Lam Tin Estate . The dragon emblem painted on Block 15 of Lam Tin Estate was a symbol of Lam Tin 's unity until the building 's demolition in 1998 . The land of Lam Tin Estate was absorbed into Ping Tin Estate , Kai Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate and Kwong Tin Estate .
With the building of three major transport structures in the late 20th century – the Kwun Tong Bypass , the Eastern Harbour Crossing , and the MTR – Lam Tin became even more interconnected with the rest of Hong Kong , spurring a population surge in the district and becoming a major transport interchange .
= = Infrastructure = =
Lam Tin is known as one of the most important transport interchange centres in Hong Kong . It is a frequently visited bus @-@ bus and rail @-@ bus interchange station in East Kowloon .
When the British arrived , most Lam Tin residents travelled on foot or by boat to nearby villages such as Ma Tau Wai . Over the years , the government built roads , tunnels and railways in Lam Tin to facilitate transport between Lam Tin and other districts , making Lam Tin a bridge between different areas of Eastern Hong Kong .
= = = Highway and road surface = = =
The first road was Lei Yue Mun Road , which succeeded Kwun Tong Road and ran between Kwun Tong and Lei Yue Mun . Cha Kwo Ling Road was later built to tap traffic to Cha Kwo Ling . However , the roads had insufficient capacity to effectively serve the district . Both Lei Yue Mun Road and Kwun Tong Road were widened and became segments of today 's Route 7 .
The first road that carried commuters into and out of Lam Tin was Kai Tin Road . It was built in the 1960s to facilitate major road transports . The construction of Kai Tin Road required the blasting of Lam Tin Hill , which attracted much attention to nearby residents . Owing to its method of construction , Kai Tin Road became a direct outlet from the hill .
Built together with Kai Tin Road were Ping Tin Street , On Tin Street and Tak Tin Street , which all served Lam Tin Estate . Later Ping Tin and Tak Tin became names of new residential areas after Lam Tin Estate was demolished .
In 1989 Eastern Harbour Crossing was completed . Kwun Tong Bypass was completed in 1991 . To construct an interchange for both roads , the intersection between Lei Yue Mun Road and Kai Tin Road was rebuilt into a flyover @-@ roundabout . This made Lam Tin a bridge between the Eastern Harbour Crossing and the Kwun Tong Bypass of Route 2 , with Lei Yue Mun Interchange as the exit point .
In 1990 Tseung Kwan O Tunnel was built with its southern entrance in Lam Tin , adding a convenient and direct route to Tseung Kwan O. Junk Bay Chinese Permanent Cemetery was built in the same year . Despite being located in Tseung Kwan O , the cemetery 's only motor @-@ enabled exit is located in Lam Tin . As a result , Lam Tin becomes crowded with people tending graves during the various festivals .
The 1990 and 1992 construction of Sceneway Garden and Laguna City , respectively , increased the traffic congestion in the Lam Tin area , mainly near Sai Tso Wan . One of the new arteries built to relieve the problem is Wai Fat Road , a four @-@ lane dual carriageway which serves as an interchange between Route 2 and Route 7 and an outlet from Kwun Tong Bypass to Kwun Tong Industrial Area .
Pik Wan Road and Lin Tak Road were also built in 1992 to facilitate transport to newly built areas higher up Lam Tin Hill . Because it hangs off a precipice and carries only two @-@ lanes , Lin Tak Road was surrounded by both questions of convenience and concerns about its safety .
As part of the 2001 construction of Ocean Shores in Tseung Kwan O , a segment of the former Po Lam Road South was rebuilt and extended to meet Pik Wan Road near Kwong Tin Estate . The reconstructed road was renamed O King Road and became the first road connection to modern Tiu Keng Leng .
= = = MTR = = =
Between 1979 and 1989 , the Kwun Tong Line of the MTR terminated at Kwun Tong Station . A storage railroad depot that developed behind the station , consisting of three parallel and interchanged tracks , terminating at Kwun Tong Law Court , eventually became part of the passenger railway after the later extension of Kwun Tong Line .
In 1984 , the government decided to build a second railway tunnel and a second road tunnel to alleviate traffic congestion in the Cross Harbour Tunnel resulting in Eastern Harbour Crossing , the first railway @-@ road tunnel in Hong Kong . The tunnel enabled Kwun Tong Line 's extension to Quarry Bay , with an additional stop , Lam Tin , built in the middle . The new MTR station , opened on 8 November 1989 , caused an influx of population into Lam Tin .
Built at the same was Lam Tin Bus Terminus , located on the opposite side of Lei Yue Mun Road and housing platforms for franchised buses , minibuses , taxis and cross @-@ border buses . It is also connected to Sceneway Plaza by staircases and escalators
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. Following the construction of these new facilities , Lam Tin gradually became a major transport interchange in Hong Kong .
As part of the Tseung Kwan O Line project , Kwun Tong line was briefly extended to North Point on 27 September 2001 but soon diverted to Tiu Keng Leng when the Tseung Kwan O Line opened on 18 August 2002 . Now , Lam Tin is on the Kwun Tong Line , the third station from the terminus station of Tiu Keng Leng at Rennie 's Mill .
= = = Franchised buses = = =
The first bus terminus built in Lam Tin was then called Lam Tin Bus Terminus , which is today 's Tak Tin Bus Terminus . It is built on the slope of Lam Tin Hill , in the north part of Lam Tin Estate , to serve the neighbourhood 's residents . Buses ran from Kwun Tong to the bus terminus through Lei Yue Mun Road , then turned left and ascended the hill along Kai Tin Road , Ping Tin Street , On Tin Street and Tak Tin Street .
Between 1989 to 1994 , Lam Tin MTR Station , Laguna City and Pik Wan Road were built . To serve these newly populated areas , three new bus termini were constructed : Lam Tin MTR Bus Terminus , now commonly named Lam Tin Bus Terminus as shown on the wall painting of the terminus ; Laguna City Bus Terminus , which took up routes originally terminating at Kwun Tong Ferry ; and Kwong Tin Bus Terminus , with new routes initiated to serve exclusively Lam Tin and the area nearby .
To disambiguate the names of the termini from one another , the original Lam Tin Bus Terminus was renamed Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus , and " Lam Tin Bus Terminus " now usually refers to Lam Tin MTR Bus Terminus . After reconstruction of Lam Tin Estate , Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus was surrounded by Tak Tin Estate . As a result , the terminus got a common name " Tak Tin Bus Terminus " .
The area near Ping Tin Street became Ping Tin Estate after the reconstruction . A space underneath the buildings was reserved for a new bus terminus . On 6 July 2003 , Ping Tin Bus Terminus was opened and overtook most of the routes from Tak Tin Bus Terminus .
= = = = Bus termini and routes in Lam Tin = = = =
There are five bus terminals in Lam Tin , namely :
Lam Tin Bus Terminus ( with the full name Lam Tin MTR Station Bus Terminus ) with routes A22 , 42C , 61R , 89D , 89P , 93M , 216M , 258D , 277E , 277P , 277X
Laguna City Bus Terminus with routes 40 , 219X , 621
Ping Tin Bus Terminus with routes 15 , 15A , 15P , 38 , 74S , 88X , 603 , 603P , 603S , 889
Tak Tin Bus Terminus ( with the official name Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus ) with route E22
Kwong Tin Bus Terminus ( with the full name Lam Tin ( Kwong Tin Estate ) Bus Terminus ) with routes 14B , 15X , 16 , 215P , 215X
Excluding the bus routes mentioned above , the following routes also stop in Lam Tin , but not terminating : 14 , 14X , 16M , E22P , E22X , 62X , 259D , 601 , 601P , 606 , 606A , 606X , 619 , 619P , N619 , 641 , 671 , 690 , 690P , 694 .
= = = Surface transport = = =
Surrounded by hills , Lam Tin does not have direct access to the Victoria Harbour . However , merchant ships and ferries dock at Kwun Tong Pier and Lei Yue Mun Pier , which are both within 15 minutes ' walk from Lam Tin , and provide surface transport for Lam Tin residents . Another reason for Lam Tin 's absence of an outlet to the Harbour is the presence of an Eastern Harbour Crossing entrance inside the district , whose buses and MTR overtook ferries for cross @-@ harbour transport .
= = Residence = =
The first modern housing estate in Lam Tin was Lam Tin Estate . The estate was built in the 1960s and the 1970s to settle the influx of mainland immigrants . The late 1980s saw the district 's first private residential buildings . Various facilities built during the 1990s made Lam Tin a compact residential area , however Lam Tin Estate was demolished in the 1990s and was redeveloped into Ping Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate and Kai Tin Estate .
Most of the residents in Lam Tin are Chinese , but due to an influx of Japanese immigrants during the 1990s , people of Japanese descent have become common in Lam Tin , particularly in Sceneway Garden and Laguna City , which now features a Japanese kindergarten .
= = = Lam Tin Estate = = =
Lam Tin Estate consisted of tower blocks numbered 1 to 24 . Blocks 1 to 14 of Lam Tin Estate were built between 1962 and 1965 as type 4 public housing buildings ( 第四型公屋 ) ; the other 10 towers were built between 1969 and 1975 as type 6 public housing buildings ( 第六型公屋 ) . There was no Block 9 , leaving the number of buildings in Lam Tin Estate at 23 .
The Chinese dragon , which has symbolised unity of Chinese people since it was the first national emblem of unified China , is painted in multicolour on Block 15 's south and north facing walls because it was the 500th public housing building in Hong Kong . Block 15 's distinctive imagery made it a recognisable symbol of Lam Tin and the district 's unity . After demolition and reconstruction , Block 15 became part of Ping Tin Estate .
Building structure of Lam Tin Estate 's blocks is standardised by the government . As types 3 , 4 and 6 buildings , the 23 towers of Lam Tin Estate were shaped as cuboids and resembled candy @-@ boxes standing on a knoll . Most buildings were 16 @-@ storeys high and housed about 800 units . Each building had an estimated capacity of 3 @,@ 000 residents and an approximate space allocation at 30 ft ² per person . Bathrooms and kitchens were combined into one compartment , as were living rooms and bedrooms . Lifts only reached some of the floors . To access the other floors , one needed to exit the lift at a level nearby and hike upstairs or downstairs . On the ground floor beneath the buildings were a variety of shops which served the residents . Although densely packed , the living environment of Lam Tin Estate fostered close relationships in the neighbourhood .
Owing to the ageing of buildings , the reconstruction of Lam Tin Estate was announced in September 1995 as part of an urban renewal project . Demolition started in 1997 and was completed in 2002 . After reconstruction , Lam Tin Estate became Kai Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate , Ping Tin Estate and Hong Yat Court .
= = = Laguna City and Sceneway Garden = = =
Laguna City and Sceneway Garden were the earliest large @-@ scale private @-@ housing estates built in Lam Tin . Both were built by Cheung Kong Holdings and completed in the early 1990s .
In the late 1980s , Cheung Kong acquired two pieces of land in Lam Tin , one being a former Shell oil depot , the other above the newly built Lam Tin MTR Station and bus terminus , and developed them into Laguna City and Sceneway Garden respectively . Laguna City was completed in 1991 and Sceneway Garden was completed in 1992 .
Sceneway Garden is built on the podium above Lam Tin Station . The podium was built in a valley between Cha Kwo Ling and Lam Tin Hill , which hosted a waste @-@ car dump @-@ site before its construction . It has a total of 17 towers and a gross floor area of 280 @,@ 760 m ² . There are altogether 4112 flats housing approximately 20 @,@ 000 people . It also has two carparks , one for residents and one for visitors . Built together with Sceneway Garden was Sceneway Plaza , which is a major shopping mall in southeastern Kowloon .
Laguna City is built along Lam Tin 's waterfront taking over the land from the former oil depot . Part of Laguna City is built on reclaimed land . Laguna City consists of four phases , totalling 38 towers upon its 1991 completion . Built together with Laguna City was Laguna Park , which was completed in 1994 and then handed over to Urban Council . Laguna Park has a total area of 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Phases 1 , 2 and 4 of Laguna City are managed by the same company , while phase 3 has an independent management authority . Similarly , phases 1 , 2 and 4 share the same owners ' committee , whereas phase 3 has its own .
= = = List of villages and housing estates in Lam Tin = = =
In addition , Ko Chun Court and Ko Yee Estate in Yau Tong and Ma Yau Tong Village in Tiu Keng Leng are sometimes considered part of Lam Tin .
= = Facilities = =
Being a compact residential area , Lam Tin has various facilities to satisfy its residents ' daily needs . These include shopping malls , recreational facilities , water and other supplies . Furthermore , during the 1970s and 1980s , Lam Tin hosted landfills .
= = = Shopping = = =
To meet the daily demands of its residents , Lam Tin hosts a number of shopping malls and markets . Most residential estates host individual shopping malls , and some of them have wet markets in addition to malls . These include :
= = = Schools = = =
To serve its residents , Lam Tin has a number of schools . They include kindergartens , primary schools and secondary schools . Some schools in Lam Tin are subsidised , others are private .
List of schools in Lam Tin
= = = Recreation = = =
Lam Tin has a number of public parks , recreation grounds and indoor sports centres for its residents ' use , including Lam Tin Park and Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground . It is also home to part of the Wilson Trail . There are also a few government indoor activity centres , including Lam Tin West Community Centre , Lam Tin South Indoor Sports Ground and Lam Tin Complex , as well as a number of private recreational facilities .
Lam Tin Park was built along Black Hill in 1991 to serve the needs of the fast @-@ growing community . It consists mainly of hiking trails and walkways , with a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football pitch and a children 's playground . It also serves as an entrance to the Wilson Trail . The whole of Lam Tin and Victoria Harbour can be viewed from the lookout point at the peak of Lam Tin Park .
Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground was built between 1995 and 2004 over the former Sai Tso Wan Landfill . During the construction , the former landfill underwent a series of restoration works . A final capping layer was added to prevent leakage ; a landfill gas control system was used to deploy methane from the decomposed rubbish as fuel , and a leachate management system was built to collect leachate for further processing . The recreation ground started its operation on 30 April 2004 .
The Lam Tin Complex on 1 Hing Ting Street was built between 2009 to 2013 . The facilities of the complex includes two indoor swimming pools ( 25x25 and 25x10 metres respectively ) , the Kwun Tong Music Centre , a self @-@ study room , rooftop gardens , and the new two @-@ floor Lam Tin Public Library , which relocated from smaller premises in Tak Tin Estate .
Besides recreation grounds , Lam Tin also hosts Stage 3 of Wilson Trail . The section starts at Exit A of Lam Tin MTR Station , runs east along Kai Tin Road and Lei Yue Mun Road , up Black Hill along the road towards Junk Bay Chinese Permanent Cemetery , west along the Black Hill , and finally leaves Lam Tin near Ma Yau Tong towards the section 's terminus at Tseng Lan Shue .
= = = Supplies = = =
Lam Tin has an underground network of safe water , town gas and domestic electricity supplies . Electricity in the area is served by China Light and Power . Town gas in the area is served by the Towngas Company .
The entire Lam Tin area is served by both tap water and flushing sea water supplies . The tap water is piped either from surface water or Dongjiang River into two service reservoirs and then pumped to individual households . The two service reservoirs that serve Lam Tin are Lam Tin Low Level Fresh Water Service Reservoir and Lam Tin High Level Service Reservoir . Built together with Lam Tin Estate , the low level reservoir is covered with a concrete @-@ surfaced football field . The reservoir is now located between Kai Tin Estate and Tak Tin Estate . The high level reservoir , on the other hand , is farther away from residential estates . It is located near Lam Tin Park , on the slope of Black Hill .
= = = Waste disposal = = =
From 1978 to 1981 , Sai Tso Wan Landfill ( 晒草灣堆填區 ) served East Kowloon . Approximately 1 @.@ 6 million tonnes of domestic waste and commercial waste were dumped in the site during its four @-@ year operation . The disposed waste stacked up to 65 metres high . After its closure in 1981 , it was sealed with soil and planted over with Grasslands and trees . Sin Fat Road , which runs up the hill and hosts Sceneway Garden Minibus Terminus , was constructed . Sai Tso Wan Landfill was later rebuilt into Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground .
An area in Ma Yau Tong near today 's Lam Tin Park was known as Ma Yau Tong Central Landfill ( 馬游塘中堆填區 ) . The area measured 10 @.@ 87 hectares , and operated until 1986 when it became the last urban landfill to be closed , after which it was sealed and converted to government @-@ owned grassland .
Since the total closure of urban landfills in 1986 , rubbish from Lam Tin is first transferred to a treatment plant in Kowloon Bay where it is compressed , and then to South East New Territories Landfill ( 新界東南堆填區 ) where it is disposed of .
= = = Publications = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= Succession ( 30 Rock ) =
" Succession " is the thirteenth episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fourth episode overall . It was written by Andrew Guest and one of the seasons ' co @-@ executive producers , John Riggi ; it was directed by Gail Mancuso . It first aired on April 24 , 2008 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Will Arnett , Marceline Hugot , Chris Parnell , Brian Stack , Tom Toner and Rip Torn .
In this episode Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and Devon Banks ' ( Will Arnett ) race to be the new CEO of General Electric comes to an end ; in a parody of Amadeus , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) gets the idea to make a pornographic video game with Frank ( Judah Friedlander ) playing Salieri to his Mozart , and Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) prepares to become the new Head of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming . In keeping with the Amadeus parody , the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( a favorite of Jeff Richmond , the show 's regular composer ) is used to score much of the episode .
= = Plot = =
Jack meets with retiring corporate head Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , who discloses that he has chosen Jack over his soon @-@ to @-@ be son @-@ in @-@ law Devon to run the company . Jack is overjoyed and chooses Liz to replace himself as Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming . Liz accepts when she learns of the higher salary and tells her staff " Suck it monkeys , I 'm going corporate . " Meanwhile , Devon returns with intent to sabotage Jack , but Liz attempts to make Devon look bad by forcibly making out with him in front of a security camera .
At this time , Tracy begins to feel he is an embarrassment to his son . Hoping to make his family proud , Tracy searches for a legacy and decides to produce the world 's first pornographic video game . Despite Frank 's skepticism , Tracy has some success in designing the game by conquering the uncanny valley , a scale on which the strangeness of special effects are measured .
A depressed Devon becomes resigned to the fact that Jack will receive the promotion . Don Geiss , however , goes into a diabetic coma , despite the efforts of Dr. Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) , before he can announce his decision . Devon denies knowing that Geiss had chosen Jack as his successor . The next day , Devon appears in Jack 's office , revealing he has convinced the board to put Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) , his fiancée , in charge , with Devon acting as the power behind the throne . He then kicks Jack out of his office .
= = Production = =
Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live fourteen times , the second highest number of episodes of any host of the series .
= = Reception = =
" Succession " was viewed by an average of 5 @.@ 5 million American viewers upon its original broadcast . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 8 refers to 2 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode also ranked first place among males aged 18 – 34 against episodes of CSI and Grey 's Anatomy .
The episode received some positive feedback from critics . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad described " Succession " as " a great episode " with " a lot of great lines " . Sassone compared the episode to a soap opera , and hoped that the pornographic video game storyline would be continued . Robert Canning of IGN complimented Devon 's appearances on 30 Rock , and felt that " Succession " would be the first episode in a new story arc , which was a good thing . He rated the episode an 8 out of 10 . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger praised the episode as " fabulous " . Sepinwall noted that " Succession " included an " inspired riff on Amadeus " , and compared Tracy and Frank when they were working on a pornographic video game to Mozart and Salieri . Less positively , he commented on the " one @-@ note @-@ ness of Will Arnett as Devon Banks " , and did not like the Baby Mama ad that was displayed on screen during the " Mozart montage " .
= Władysław IV Vasa =
Władysław IV Vasa ( Polish : Władysław IV Waza ; Russian : Владислав IV Ваза , tr . Vladislav IV Vaza ; Latin : Vladislaus IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV Vasa ; Lithuanian : Vladislovas Vaza ; 9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648 ) was a Polish prince from the Royal House of Vasa . He reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 8 November 1632 to his death in 1648 .
Władysław IV was the son of Sigismund III Vasa ( Polish : Zygmunt III Waza ) and his wife , Anna of Austria ( also known as Anna of Habsburg ) . In 1610 the teen @-@ aged Władysław was elected Tsar of Russia by the Seven Boyars , but did not assume the Russian throne due to his father 's opposition and a popular uprising in Russia . Nevertheless , until 1634 he used the title of Grand Duke of Muscovy .
Elected king of Poland in 1632 , Władysław was fairly successful in defending the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth against invasion , most notably in the Smolensk War of 1632 – 34 , in which he participated personally . He supported religious tolerance and carried out military reforms , such as the founding of the Commonwealth Navy . He was also a renowned patron of the arts and music . He failed , however , to realize his dreams of regaining the Swedish crown , gaining fame by conquering the Ottoman Empire , strengthening royal power , and reforming the Commonwealth .
He died without a legitimate male heir and was succeeded to the
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Polish throne by his half @-@ brother , John II Casimir Vasa ( Jan Kazimierz Waza ) . Władysław 's death marked the end of relative stability in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , as conflicts and tensions that had been growing over several decades came to a head with devastating consequences , notably the largest of the Cossack uprisings – the Khmelnytsky Uprising ( 1648 ) — and the Swedish invasion ( " the Deluge " , 1655 – 60 ) .
= = Royal titles = =
In Latin : " Vladislaus Quartus Dei gratia rex Poloniae , magnus dux Lithuaniae , Russiae , Prussiae , Masoviae , Samogitiae , Livoniaeque , necnon Suecorum , Gothorum Vandalorumque haereditarius rex , electus magnus dux Moschoviae . "
In English : " Władysław IV , by grace of God the King of Poland , Grand Duke of Lithuania , Ruthenia , Prussia , Masovia , Samogitia , Livonia , and hereditary King of the Swedes , Goths and Vandals , elected Grand Duke of Muscovy . "
In 1632 Władysław Zygmunt Waza – Jagiellon was elected King of Poland . By paternal inheritance , he legally succeeded as King of Sweden . His titles were the longest of any Polish king ever .
= = Life = =
Władysław IV 's father , Sigismund III Vasa , grandson of Sweden 's King Gustav I , had succeeded his father to the Swedish throne in 1592 , only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle , subsequently King Charles IX . This resulted in a long @-@ standing feud , with the Polish kings of the House of Vasa claiming the Swedish throne . This led to the Polish – Swedish War of 1600 – 29 and later to the Deluge of 1655 .
= = = Childhood = = =
The marriage of Anne of Austria to Sigismund III was a traditional , politically motivated marriage , intended to tie the young House of Vasa to the prestigious Habsburgs . Władysław was born 9 June 1595 at the King 's summer residence in Łobzów , near Kraków , a few months after the main Wawel Castle had been consumed by fire .
Władysław 's mother died on 10 February 1598 , less than three years after giving birth to him . He was raised by one of her former ladies of the court , Urszula Meierin . Urszula eventually became a powerful player at the royal court , with much influence . Władysław 's Hofmeister was Michał Konarski , a Polish @-@ Prussian noble . Around early 17th century Urszula lost much of her influence , as Władysław gained new teachers and mentors , such as priests Gabriel Prowancjusz , Andrzej Szołdrski and Marek Łętkowski , and in the military matters , Zygmunt Kazanowski . Much of his curriculum was likely designed by priest Piotr Skarga , much respected by Sigmismund III . Władysław studied for several years in the Kraków Academy , and for two years , in Rome .
At the age of 10 Władysław received his own prince court . Władysław formed a friendship with Adam Kazanowski and his brother , Stanisław . It is reported that young Władysław was interested in arts ; later this led to him becoming an important patron of arts . He spoke and wrote in German , Italian and Latin . Władysław was liked by szlachta ( Polish nobility ) , however his father 's plans to secure him the throne of Poland ( vivente rege ) were unpopular and eventually crushed in the Zebrzydowski Rebellion ( rokosz ) .
= = = Tsar = = =
With the intensification of the Polish intervention in Muscovy , in 1609 , the royal family moved to their residence in Vilnius , capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . There he witnessed the fire of Vilnius , an event which even required the royal family to evacuate their residence in the Vilnius Castle . Shortly afterwords , that year , Władysław , aged 15 , was elected Tsar by Muscovy 's aristocracy council of Seven boyars , who overthrew tsar Vasily Shuysky during the Polish @-@ Muscovite War and Muscovy 's Time of Troubles . His election was ruined by his father , Sigismund , who aimed to convert Muscovy 's population from Orthodox religion to Catholicism . Sigismund refused to agree to the boyar 's request to send prince Władysław to Moscow and his conversion to Orthodoxy . Instead , Sigismund proposed that he should reign as a regent in Muscovy instead . This unrealistic proposal led to a resumption of hostilities . Briefly , beginning in 1610 , Władysław struck Muscovite silver and gold coins ( Kopek ) in the Russian mints in Moscow and Novgorod with his titulary Tsar and Grand Prince Vladislav Zigimontovych of all Russia .
Władysław tried to regain the tsar 's throne himself , organizing a campaign in 1616 . Despite some military victories , he was unable to capture Moscow . The Commonwealth gained some disputed territories in the Truce of Deulino , but Władysław was never able to reign in Russia ; the throne during this time was instead held by tsar Michael Romanov . He held on to the title , without any real power , until 1634 . Likely , the failure of this campaign showed Władysław the limits of royal power in Poland , as major factors for the failure included significant autonomy of the military commanders , which did not see Władysław as their superior , and lack of funds for the army , as the Polish parliament ( sejm ) refused to subsidize the war .
= = = Prince = = =
Before he was elected king of the Commonwealth , Władysław fought in many campaigns , seeking personal glory . After his final campaign against Russians in 1617 – 1618 ( the end of Dymitriads ) , in 1619 he went to Silesia , looking for an opportunity to aid the Habsburgs in their struggle against the Czech Hussites in the Thirty Years ' War . That opportunity never came , but from that point onward , Władysław had a good relationship with George William , Elector of Brandenburg .
The following year Władysław took part in the second phase of the Polish – Ottoman War , a consequence of the long series of struggles between Poland and the Ottomans over Moldavia . In 1621 Władysław was one of the Polish commanders at the Battle of Chocim ; reportedly he was struck ill , but despite that , he proved a voice of reason , convincing other Polish commanders there to stay and fight . His advice was correct , and the battle eventually ended with a peace treaty that returned the status quo from before the Ottoman invasion . This peace treaty also gave Władysław an international reputation as a " defender of Christian faith " , and increased his popularity in the Commonwealth itself .
In 1623 , while near Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , he witnessed the arrogant attitude of Gustavus Adolphus , whose navy took opportunity of its sea superiority to demand concessions from Gdańsk ( Commonwealth had no navy ) . In 1624 king Sigismund decided that time has come for Władysław to travel , like many of his peers , to Western Europe . For security reasons , Władysław traveled under a fake name , Snopkowski ( from Polish Snopek , meaning sheaf , as seen in the Vasa 's coat of arms ) . In his voyage ( 1624 – 1625 ) he was accompanied by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł and other , less notable courtiers . First , he travelled to Wrocław ( Breslau ) , then Munich , where he met Maximilian I , Elector of Bavaria . In Brussels he met Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain ; in Antwerp , Rubens . Near Breda he met Ambrosio Spinola . It was during his stay with Spinola that he was impressed by the Western military techniques ; this was later to be reflected when he became king : military matters were always important to him . While not a military genius , and surpassed by his contemporary , Commonwealth hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski , Władysław was known as a fairly skillful commander on his own . In Rome , he was welcomed by Pope Urban VIII , who congratulated him on his fighting against the Ottomans . During his stay in Florence he was impressed by opera , and decided to bring this form of art to the Commonwealth , where it was previously unknown . In Genoa and Venice he was impressed by the local shipyards , and in Pisa he witnessed a specially organized mock naval battle , experiences which resulted in his later attempt to create the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy .
After returning to Poland , in 1626 he fought against the Swedes in the last phase of the Polish – Swedish War , where in 1626 he took part in the battle of Gniew . His involvement in this conflict , which lasted till the Truce of Altmark in 1629 , was rather limited , and he spent much time in other parts of the country . During that period and afterward , he lobbied for support of his candidature for the Polish throne , as his father , Sigismund , was getting more advanced in his age , and the succession to the Polish throne did not occur through inheritance but rather , through the process of royal elections . While Władysław , and his father Sigismund , tried to ensure Władysław 's election during Sigismund 's life , this was not a popular option for the nobility , and it repeatedly failed , up to and including at the sejm of 1631 . The sudden heart attack that Sigismund suffered on 23 April 1632 , and his death in the morning hours of 30 April , forced the issue to be taken up again .
= = = King = = =
The election sejm of 1632 eventually concluded in the election of Władysław ; he had no serious other contenders . The decision on who would be the Commonwealth 's next king was reached on 8 November , but as the pacta conventa were not yet ready , the official announcement was delayed until 13 November . In the pacta conventa , Władysław pledged himself to fund a military school and equipment ; to find a way to fund a naval fleet ; to maintain current alliances ; not to raise armies , give offices or military ranks to foreigners , negotiate peace treaties or declare war without the Sejm 's approval ; not to take a wife without the Senate 's approval ; to convince his brothers to take an oath to the Commonwealth ; and to transfer the profits from the Royal Mint to the Royal Treasury rather than to a private treasury . When the election result had been announced by the Crown Grand Marshal , Łukasz Opaliński , the nobility ( szlachta ) , who had taken part in the election , began festivities in honor of the new king , which lasted three hours . Władysław was crowned in the Wawel Cathedral , in Kraków on 6 February in the following year .
= = = = Military campaigns = = = =
In an attempt to take advantage of the confusion expected after the death of the Polish king , Tsar Michael of Russia ordered an attack on the Commonwealth . A Muscovite army crossed the Commonwealth eastern frontier in October 1632 and laid siege to Smolensk ( which was ceded to Poland by Russia in 1618 , at the end of the Dymitriad wars ) . In the war against Russia in 1632 – 1634 ( the Smolensk War ) , Władysław succeeded in breaking the siege in September 1633 and then in turn surrounded the Russian army under Mikhail Shein , which was then forced to surrender on 1 March 1634 . It was during that campaign that Władysław started the modernisation program of the Commonwealth army , emphasising the usage of modern infantry and artillery . Władysław proved to be a good tactician , and his innovations in the use of artillery and fortifications based on Western ideas greatly contributed to the eventual Polish – Lithuanian success . King Władysław wanted to continue the war or , because the Polish – Swedish Treaty of Altmark would soon be expiring , ally with the Russians to strike against Sweden . However , the Sejm wanted no more conflict . As Stanisław Łubieński , the Bishop of Płock , wrote two weeks after Shein 's surrender : " Our happiness is in remaining within our borders , guaranteeing health and well @-@ being . " The resulting Peace of Polyanov ( Treaty of Polanów ) , favourable to Poland , confirmed the pre @-@ war territorial status quo . Muscovy also agreed to pay 20 @,@ 000 rubles in exchange for Wladyslaw 's renunciation of all claims to the tsardom and return of the royal insignia , which were in the Commonwealth possession since the Dymitriads .
Following the Smolensk campaign , the Commonwealth was threatened by another attack by the Ottoman Empire . During the wars against Ottomans in 1633 – 1634 Władysław moved the Commonwealth army south of the Muscovy border , where under the command of hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski it forced the Turks to renew a peace treaty . In the resulting treaty , both countries agreed again to curb the border raids by Cossacks and the Tatars , and the Ottomans confirmed that the Commonwealth to be an independent power , and had not to pay tribute to the Empire .
After the southern campaign , the Commonwealth had to deal with a threat from the north , as the armistice , ending the Polish – Swedish War ( 1600 – 1629 ) was expiring . The majority of Polish nobles preferred to solve the problem through negotiations , unwilling to pay taxes for a new war , provided that Sweden was open to negotiations and concessions ( in particular , to retreat from the occupied Polish coastal territories ) . Władysław himself was hoping for a war , which could yield some more significant territorial gains , and even managed to gather a sizeable army , with navy elements , near the disputed territories . Sweden , weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years ' War , was however open to a peaceful solution . Władysław could not go against the decision of the Sejm and Senate , and agreed to support the treaty . Thus both sides agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf ( Sztumska Wieś ) on 12 September 1635 , favourable to the Commonwealth , which regained the Prussian territories , and called for a reduction of the Swedish tolls on the maritime trade .
= = = = Politics = = = =
In the three months between his election and coronation , Władysław sounded the waters regarding the possibility of a peaceful succession to the Swedish throne , following the recent death of Gustavus Adolphus , but this , as well as his proposal to mediate between Sweden and its enemies , was rejected , primarily by the Swedish chancellor and head of the regency council , Axel Oxenstierna .
Władysław IV owed nominal allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece . His relationship with the Habsburgs was relatively strong ; although he was not above carrying some negotiations with their enemies , like France , he refused Cardinal Richelieu 's 1635 proposal of an alliance and a full @-@ out war against them , despite potential lure of territorial gains in Silesia . He realized that such a move would cause much unrest in a heavily Catholic Commonwealth , that he likely lacked the authority and power to push such a change of policy through the Sejm , and that the resulting conflict would be very difficult . From 1636 onward , for the next few years , Władysław strengthened his ties with the Habsburgs .
In the meantime , Władysław still tried to take a leading role in European politics , and negotiate a peaceful settlement to the Thirty Years ' War , a settlement which he hoped would ease his way into regaining the Swedish crown . Following the armistice of Stuhmsdorf , Władysław came to increasingly realize that his prospects for regaining the Swedish throne were dim . In the years 1636 – 1638 he proposed several reforms to strengthen his and his dynasty 's power in the Commonwealth . His first plan was an attempt to secure a hereditary province within the country , which would not be threatened by the possible power shift following a future royal election ; this , however , did not gain sufficient support in the Sejm . Next , Władysław attempted to create an order of chivalry , similar to the Order of the Golden Fleece , but this plan was scuttled down as well , with the szlachta and the magnates seeing this as an attempt to create a royal , loyalist elite , and traditionally opposing anything that could lead to the reduction of their extensive power . Popular vote and opposition also resulted in the failure of the plan to raise taxes from trade tariffs ; here it was not only the nobility but even the merchants and burghers from towns , like Gdańsk ( Danzig ) who were able to muster enough support ( including from foreign powers ) to stop the king 's reforms . In fact , the defeat of his plans was so total , that he was forced to make certain conciliatory gestures to the nobility , as the Sejm passed several laws constraining his authority ( such as to hire foreign troops ) , further indicating the limits of royal power in the Commonwealth .
= = = = Marriages = = = =
Early in his reign , there were plans regarding a marriage of Władysław and Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia , Princess Palatine ( daughter of Frederick V , Elector Palatine ) . This was however unpopular , both with Catholic nobles and the Catholic Church , and when it became clear to Władysław that this would not convince the Swedes to elect him to their throne , this plan , with quiet support from Władysław himself , was dropped .
Ferdinand II , Holy Roman Emperor 's proposal of marriage between Władysław and Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria ( sister of future Ferdinand III , Holy Roman Emperor ) arrived in Warsaw somewhere during spring 1636 . In June that year , Władysław sent Jerzy Ossoliński to the Imperial Court , to work on improving the Imperial @-@ Commonwealth relations . The king 's trusted confessor , father Walerian Magni ( of Franciscan religious order ) , and voivode Kasper Doenhoff arrived in Regensburg ( Polish : Ratyzbona ) on 26 October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations . The Archduchess ' dowry was agreed for 100 @,@ 000 złoty 's , the Emperor also promised
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fortune would come to anyone who spotted a Panamanian golden frog . Some believed when one of these frogs died , it would turn into a golden talisman known as a huaca . Today , despite being extinct in the wild , Panamanian golden frogs remain an important cultural symbol and are illustrated on decorative cloth molas made by the Kuna people . They also appear as part of the inlaid design on a new overpass in Panama City , on T @-@ shirts , and even on lottery tickets .
= Shrewsbury =
Shrewsbury ( / ˈʃroʊzbri / or / ˈʃruːzbri / ) is the county town of Shropshire , England . It is on the River Severn and has a population of approximately 72 @,@ 000 .
Shrewsbury is a market town whose centre has a largely unaltered medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings , including several examples of timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries . Shrewsbury Castle , a red sandstone fortification , and Shrewsbury Abbey , a former Benedictine monastery , were founded in 1074 and 1083 respectively by the Norman Earl of Shrewsbury , Roger de Montgomery . The town has historically been a centre for the wool trade and brewing . Horticulture remains popular , and the Shrewsbury Flower Show is one of the largest horticultural events in England .
Located 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of the Welsh border , Shrewsbury serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid @-@ Wales , with a retail output of over £ 299 million per year and light industry and distribution centres , such as Battlefield Enterprise Park , on the outskirts . The A5 and A49 trunk roads cross near to the town , and five railway lines meet at Shrewsbury railway station .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The town was the early capital of the Kingdom of Powys , known to the ancient Britons as Pengwern , signifying " the alder hill " ; and in Old English as Scrobbesburh ( dative Scrobbesbyrig ) , which may mean either " Scrobb 's fort " or " the fortified place in the bushes " . This name gradually evolved in three directions , into Sciropscire , which became Shropshire ; into Sloppesberie , which became Salop / Salopia ( an alternative name for both town and county ) , and into Schrosberie , which eventually became the town 's name , Shrewsbury . Its later Welsh name Amwythig means " fortified place " .
Over the ages , the geographically important town has been the site of many conflicts , particularly between the English and Welsh . The Angles , under King Offa of Mercia , took possession in 778 .
Nearby is the village of Wroxeter , 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south @-@ east . This was once the site of Viroconium , the fourth largest cantonal capital in Roman Britain . As Caer Guricon it is a possible alternative for the Dark Age seat of the Kingdom of Powys . The importance of the Shrewsbury area in the Roman era was recently underlined with the discovery of the Shrewsbury Hoard in 2009 .
= = = Medieval = = =
Shrewsbury 's known history commences in the Early Middle Ages , having been founded c . 800 AD . It is believed that Anglo @-@ Saxon Shrewsbury was most probably a settlement fortified through the use of earthworks comprising a ditch and rampart , which were then shored up with a wooden stockade . There is evidence to show that by the beginning of the 900s , Shrewsbury was home to a mint .
The Welsh besieged it in 1069 , but were repelled by William the Conqueror . Roger de Montgomery was given the town as a gift from William , and built Shrewsbury Castle in 1074 , taking the title of Earl . He founded Shrewsbury Abbey as a Benedictine monastery in 1083 . The 3rd Earl , Robert of Bellême , was deposed in 1102 and the title forfeited , in consequence of rebelling against Henry I and joining the Duke of Normandy 's invasion of English in 1101 . In 1138 , King Stephen successfully besieged the castle held by William FitzAlan for the Empress Maud during the period known as the Anarchy .
It was in the late Middle Ages ( 14th and 15th centuries ) when the town was at its height of commercial importance . This was mainly due to the wool trade , a major industry at the time , with the rest of Britain and Europe , especially with the River Severn and Watling Street as trading routes . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company dominated the trade in Welsh wool for many years .
In 1403 the Battle of Shrewsbury was fought a few miles north of the town centre , at Battlefield ; it was fought between King Henry IV and Henry Hotspur Percy , with the King emerging victorious , an event celebrated in William Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part 1 , Act 5 .
= = = Early Modern = = =
Shrewsbury 's monastic gathering was disbanded with the Dissolution of the Monasteries and as such the Abbey was closed in 1540 . However , it is believed that Henry VIII thereafter intended to make Shrewsbury a cathedral city after the formation of the Church of England , but the citizens of the town declined the offer . Despite this , Shrewsbury thrived throughout the 16th and 17th centuries ; largely due to the town 's fortuitous location , which allowed it to control the Welsh wool trade . As a resultant a number of grand edifices , including the Ireland 's Mansion ( built 1575 ) and Draper 's Hall ( 1658 ) , were constructed . It was also in this period that Edward VI gave permission for the foundation of a free school , which was later to become Shrewsbury School .
During the English Civil War , the town was a Royalist stronghold and only fell to Parliament forces after they were let in by a parliamentarian sympathiser at the St Mary 's Water Gate ( now also known as Traitor 's Gate ) . After Thomas Mytton captured Shrewsbury in February 1645 ; in following with the ordnance of no quarter ; a dozen Irish prisoners were selected to be killed after picking lots . This prompted Prince Rupert to respond by executing Parliamentarian prisoners in Oswestry . Shrewsbury Unitarian Church was founded in 1662 . By the 18th century Shrewsbury had become an important market town and stop off for stagecoaches travelling between London and Holyhead on their way to Ireland ; this led to the establishment of a number of coaching inns , many of which , such as the Lion Hotel , are extant to this day .
Local soldier and statesman Robert Clive was Shrewsbury 's MP from 1762 until his death in 1774 . Clive also served once as the town 's mayor in 1762 .
St Chad 's Church collapsed in 1788 after attempts to expand the crypt compromised the structural integrity of the tower above ; it was , however , rebuilt just four years later as a large neo @-@ classical round church in a new location close to the Quarry Park .
In the period directly after Napoleon 's surrender after Waterloo ( 18 June 1815 ) , the town 's own 53rd ( Shropshire ) Regiment of Foot was sent to guard him in his exile on St Helena . A locket containing a lock of the emperor 's hair ( presented to an officer of the 53rd ) remains to this day in the collections of the Shropshire Regimental Museum at Shrewsbury Castle .
= = = Late Modern = = =
Shrewsbury has also played a part in Western intellectual history , by being the town where the naturalist Charles Darwin was born and brought up . The town is also home to the Ditherington Flax Mill , the world 's first iron @-@ framed building , which is commonly regarded as " the grandfather of the skyscraper " . Its importance was officially recognised in the 1950s , resulting in it becoming a Grade I listed building . Shrewsbury in the Industrial Revolution was also on the Shrewsbury Canal , which linked it with the Shropshire Canal and the rest of the canal network of Great Britain . Despite this , Shrewsbury escaped much of the industrialisation taking place in 19th century Britain due to its isolation from other large manufacturing towns and ports .
The town suffered very little from the bombing runs in the Second World War that did damage to many English locations . The worst case in Shrewsbury , was in 1940 , a woman and her two grandchildren were killed when a cottage was destroyed on Ellesmere Road , the only local air raid deaths . Therefore , many of its ancient buildings remain intact and there was little redevelopment in the 1960s and 1970s , which arguably destroyed the character of many historic towns in the UK . However , a large area of half timbered houses and businesses was destroyed to make way for the Raven Meadows multi @-@ story car park , and other historic buildings were demolished to make way for the brutalist architectural style of the 1960s . The town was saved from a new ' inner ring road ' due to its challenging geography .
From the late 1990s the town experienced severe flooding problems from the Severn and Rea Brook . In the autumn of 2000 large swathes of the town were underwater , notably Frankwell , which flooded three times in six weeks . The Frankwell flood defences were completed in 2003 , along with the new offices of the borough council . More recently , such as in 2005 and 2007 , flooding has been less severe , and the defences have generally held back floodwaters from the town centre areas . However , the town car parks are often left to be flooded in the winter , which reduces trade in the town , most evidenced in the run up to Christmas in 2007 .
In 2000 and again in 2002 , Shrewsbury unsuccessfully applied for city status .
Shrewsbury won the West Midlands Capital of Enterprise award in 2004 . The town has two large expanding business parks , Shrewsbury Business Park by the A5 in the southeast and Battlefield Enterprise Park in the north . There are many residential developments currently under construction in the town to cater for the increasing numbers of people wishing to live in the town , which is a popular place to commute to Telford , Wolverhampton and Birmingham from .
A 2005 report on prison population found that HM Prison Shrewsbury was the most overcrowded in England and Wales . The prison , which was also known as the Dana , was closed in 2013 and then sold by the Ministry of Justice to private property developers in 2014 .
In 2009 Shrewsbury Town Council was formed and the town 's traditional coat of arms was returned to everyday use .
= = Geography = =
Shrewsbury is about 14 miles ( 23 km ) west of Telford , 43 miles ( 69 km ) west of Birmingham and the West Midlands Conurbation , and about 153 miles ( 246 km ) north @-@ west of the capital , London . More locally , the town is to the east of Welshpool , with Bridgnorth and Kidderminster to the south @-@ east . The border with Wales is 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the west . The town centre is partially built on a hill whose elevation is , at its highest , 246 feet ( 75 m ) above sea level . The longest river in the UK , the River Severn , flows through the town , forming a meander around its centre . The town is subject to flooding from the river .
The town is near Haughmond Hill , a site where Precambrian rocks , some of the oldest rocks in the county can be found , and the town itself is sited on an area of largely Carboniferous rocks . A fault , the Hodnet Fault , starts approximately at the town , and runs as far as Market Drayton .
= = = Suburbs and metropolitan area = = =
There are a number of suburbs and surrounding villages . The River Severn separates the western , southern and eastern suburbs from the town centre and northern suburbs . An example of a large neighbouring village that has effectively become part of the metropolitan area is Bayston Hill , which grew considerably in the latter half of the 20th century and is now separated from the Meole Brace suburb by only a few fields and the A5 by @-@ pass . It remains , however , a separate entity to the town , with its own parish council , etc . Bayston Hill lies 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of the town centre of Shrewsbury and on the A49 and near to the A5 . The smaller village of Battlefield , north of the town , is considered a suburb of the metropolitan area . It is covered by the parish of Shrewsbury .
= = Shrewsbury Stores = =
M & S @-@ One Half Was Originally Littlewoods
H & M @-@ Formerly Woolworths
Subway
Wilko
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Shrewsbury is similar to that of the rest of Shropshire , generally moderate . Rainfall averages 76 to 100 cm ( 30 to 39 in ) , influenced by being in the rainshadow of the Cambrian Mountains from warm , moist frontal systems of the Atlantic Ocean , which bring generally light precipitation in autumn and spring . The nearest weather station is at Shawbury , about 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) north @-@ west of Shrewsbury town centre . The local topography , being that of a low @-@ lying plain surrounded by higher ground to the west , south and east gives the Shrewsbury area its own microclimate – the absolute maximum at Shawbury of 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) and absolute minimum of − 25 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 13 @.@ 4 ° F ) represents the largest temperature range of any individual weather station in the British Isles – although the maximum range of average temperatures tends to peak to the south east of the Shrewsbury area , particularly in the south east midlands , inland East Anglia and inland south east England .
In an average year , the warmest day is 28 @.@ 4 ° C ( 83 @.@ 1 ° F ) , giving a total of 8 @.@ 9 days of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above . The absolute maximum of 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) was recorded in August 1990 .
Conversely , the coldest night of the year typically falls to − 9 @.@ 6 ° C ( 14 @.@ 7 ° F ) – in total 61 @.@ 7 air frosts are recorded in an average year . The absolute minimum of − 25 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 13 @.@ 4 ° F ) was recorded in 1981 .
Annual average rainfall averages around 650 mm , with over 1 mm falling on 124 days of the year .
= = Government = =
The Borough of Shrewsbury 's first Charter was granted by King Henry I allowing the collection of rents . King Richard I granted another early charter in 1189 and from that time the town ’ s regional importance and influence increased , as well as its autonomy from the county of Shropshire . Further charters were granted in 1199 ( King John ) , 1495 ( Henry VII ) , 1638 ( Charles I ) and 1685 ( James II ) . In 1974 a charter from the Queen incorporated the Borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham , under the auspices of which the town remained until 2009 .
Shrewsbury is the administrative centre for the new Shropshire Council , the unitary authority covering most of Shropshire ( but excluding the Borough of Telford and Wrekin , a separate unitary authority area ) . Shropshire Council have their headquarters at the Shirehall , on Abbey Foregate , whilst the Guildhall , on Frankwell Quay , is partly utilised by the council as one of its many offices and customer service points around the county .
Shrewsbury is in the Shrewsbury and Atcham constituency and is the only large settlement in the constituency . At the most recent general election , in 2015 , Daniel Kawczynski of the Conservative Party was elected with a majority of 9 @,@ 565 . Previous MPs for Shrewsbury have included 19th century Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli .
Shrewsbury has been twinned with Zutphen , Netherlands since 1977 . The Royal Navy submarine HMS Talent is affiliated with Shrewsbury and the town also served as the administrative headquarters of the British Army 's regional 143 ( West Midlands ) Brigade whose administrative HQ was based at Copthorne Barracks , until 2014 .
= = = Town Council = = =
Shrewsbury was until 2009 an unparished area and had no town or parish council ( s ) , instead the Mayor of Shrewsbury and Atcham was also the mayor of the town . However , as part of wider changes to local governance in Shropshire , the town was parished on 13 May 2008 , with a single parish created covering the entire town and previously unparished area . Shrewsbury is the second most populous civil parish in England ( only Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare has a greater population ) with a population of approximately 72 @,@ 000 . The area of the parish is 3 @,@ 799 hectares ( 9 @,@ 390 acres ) .
The town council , which is the parish council , first convened on 1 April 2009 , and its chair is the Mayor of Shrewsbury . For the interim period before the first elections , the existing county councillors who represented electoral divisions covering Shrewsbury were the town councillors . On 4 June 2009 , the first election was held to the town council , with councillors elected from 17 single @-@ member wards coterminous with Shropshire Council electoral divisions .
The political make @-@ up of the town council , as of the 2013 local elections , sees Labour as the largest party with 7 seats , and the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats both on 5 . The current Mayor of Shrewsbury is Liberal Democrat councillor Miles Kenny .
The town council has its headquarters and meeting place at The Guildhall , which was the headquarters of the former Shrewsbury and Atcham borough council .
= = = = Coat of arms = = = =
The coat of arms of the former Shrewsbury Borough Council , and now the Town Council , depicts three loggerheads , with the motto Floreat Salopia , a Latin phrase that can be translated to " May Shrewsbury Flourish " . The coat of arms of the ( now abolished ) Shrewsbury and Atcham Borough Council was Shrewsbury 's shield with the addition of Atcham Bridge running above the loggerheads . Shrewsbury Town F.C. historically used the loggerheads , but from 1986 till 1992 had a Celtic shrew and from 2007 to 2015 had a badge depicting a lion rather than a loggerhead . A new loggerheads badge embedded in a circular shape returned for 2015 @-@ 16 season . ( A loggerhead , in heraldry , means a leopard 's head – its naming derived from the carving of such faces on the ends of logs , including battering rams ) . The flag of Shropshire , and other county crests etc . , also uses the three loggerheads .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the population of the town of Shrewsbury was 67 @,@ 126 . The same census put the population of the wider ( and now abolished ) borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham at 95 @,@ 850 . In 1981 the population of the town was 57 @,@ 731 and in 1991 the population of the town was 64 @,@ 219 . Shrewsbury is Shropshire 's second largest town , after Telford .
The 2001 census also indicates that the population of the town consists of 51 @.@ 1 % females , and 48 @.@ 9 % males , which echoes the trend of Shrewsbury and Atcham borough , and that of Shropshire as a whole . According to the same census , the ethnic composition of the town is largely white , at 98 @.@ 5 % of the total population . The next largest ethnic group is mixed race , at 0 @.@ 5 % of the town 's population . 0 @.@ 4 % of the population is Indian , Pakistani or Bangladeshi , and 0 @.@ 1 % of the population is South Asian or British Asian . A further 0 @.@ 1 % is Black , Caribbean or African .
= = = Historical population = = =
The population figures below are for the borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham , which existed only between 1974 and 2009 , and covered a much wider area than the town .
In 2011 , the actual town and parish of Shrewsbury had a population of 71 @,@ 715 .
In 2011 , 6 @.@ 1 % of Shrewsbury 's population was non white British compared with 4 @.@ 6 % for the surrounding district .
= = Economy = =
Throughout the Medieval period , Shrewsbury was a centre for the wool trade , and used its position on the River Severn to transport goods across England via the canal system . Unlike many other towns in this period , Shrewsbury never became a centre for heavy industry . By the early 1900s , the town became focused on transport services and the general service and professional sector , owing to its position on the A5 road , part of the strategic route to North Wales .
The town is the location of the town and county councils , and a number of retail complexes , both in and out of the town centre , and these provide significant employment . Four in five jobs in the town are in the service industry . Within this sector , the largest employers are the administration and distribution sectors , which includes retail , food and accommodation .
Shrewsbury is home to four shopping centres . The principal centres comprise the Darwin and Pride Hill shopping centres , which house many high street retailers such as Marks & Spencer , H & M , Next , and Boots . Riverside provides further retail accommodation for stores including Wilkinson . A plan to redevelop Riverside and integrate a new development with the Darwin and Pride Hill centres was granted planning permission in April 2012 . The project is dubbed " New Riverside " . The Parade Shopping Centre is a fourth centre exclusively housing independent retailers . There are also two retail warehouse clusters : at Meole Brace Retail Park to the south , and at Sundorne Retail Park to the north . Major supermarkets in the town are the environmentally friendly Tesco Extra at Harlescott , Morrisons on Whitchurch Road , Asda on Old Potts Way , Sainsbury 's at Meole Brace , and most recently a Waitrose on Oteley Road .
The visitor economy of Shrewsbury and Atcham was worth about £ 115 million in 2001 , with about 2 @,@ 500 people employed directly in the visitor industry and 3 @,@ 400 indirectly . There were about 3 @.@ 1 million visitors – both day visitors and staying visitors – to the borough in 2001 , with 88 % being day visitors and 12 % being staying visitors ; staying visitors accounted for 42 % of spending . Shrewsbury 's position of being the only sizable town for a large area , especially to the west in Mid @-@ Wales , allows it to attract a large retail base beyond that of its resident population . This is not only evident in the retail sector , but also in the healthcare sector , where the Royal Shrewsbury Hospital has the only A & E department westwards until Aberystwyth , about 75 miles ( 121 km ) away .
Although a less prominent brewing centre than at Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent , beer made in Shrewsbury was celebrated as early as about 1400 when bard Iolo Goch praised the supply of " Crwg Amwythig " dispensed at the Sycharth palace of Owain Glyndwr . In 1900 there were eight breweries in the town , chief among them being Southam 's and Trouncer 's , which also had their own maltings and owned many local public houses , as well as five other maltsters , but the conventional brewing industry gradually closed after takeovers in the 1960s , and the last maltings , at Ditherington , in 1986 . A real ale brewery was established in the town in 1995 . The Salopian Brewery is based in the Old Dairy in Mytton Oak Road , and produces cask ale and bottle conditioned beers . It has a production of 80 barrels a week and mainly serves the pubs in and around Shrewsbury .
In terms of social and economic deprivation , according to the Overall Index of Multiple Deprivation of 2004 , one Super Output Area ( SOA ) in the town is in the bottom 15 % of all areas nationally . This area is in the ward of Harlescott . A further four SOAs fall into the bottom 30 % nationally , these being in the wards of Monkmoor , Sundorne , Battlefield and Heathgates and Meole Brace . The most affluent areas of the town are generally to the south and west , around the grounds of Shrewsbury School , and the Copthorne area .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Landmarks = = =
The historic town centre still retains its medieval street pattern and many narrow streets and passages . Some of the passages , especially those that pass through buildings from one street to the next , are called " shuts " ( the word deriving from " to shoot through " from one street to another ) . Many specialist shops , traditional pubs and local restaurants can be found in the hidden corners , squares and lanes of Shrewsbury . Many of the street names have also remained unchanged for centuries and there are some more unusual names , such as Butcher Row , Longden Coleham , Dogpole , Mardol , Frankwell , Roushill , Grope Lane , Gullet Passage , Murivance , the Dana , Portobello , Bear Steps , Shoplatch and Bellstone .
The public library , in the pre @-@ 1882 Shrewsbury School building , is on Castle Hill . Above the main entrance are two statues bearing the Greek inscriptions " Philomathes " and " Polymathes " . These portray the virtues " Lover of learning " and " Much learning " to convey the lesson that it is good to gain knowledge through a love of learning .
In the centre of the town lies the Quarry . This 29 acre ( 120 @,@ 000 m ² ) riverside park attracts thousands of people throughout the year and is enjoyed as a place of recreation . Shrewsbury has traditionally been known as the " Town of Flowers " , a moniker incorporated into many of the signs on entrance to the town via major roads , although this was replaced in 2007 with ' the birthplace of Charles Darwin ' .
The British Army 's Light Infantry has been associated with Shrewsbury since the 17th century when the first regiments were formed and many more regiments have been raised at Shrewsbury before being deployed all over the world from the American Revolutionary War to the current conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan . Today , after several major reorganisations , the Light Infantry now forms part of the regiment known simply as the Rifles . Shrewsbury 's Copthorne Barracks , spiritual home of the Light Division , still houses the Headquarters of the British Army 's 143 ( West Midlands ) Brigade , while that of the 5th Division disbanded in April 2012 as part of the reorganisation of the Army 's Support Command .
Between 1962 and 1992 there was a hardened nuclear bunker , built for No 16 Group Royal Observer Corps Shrewsbury , who provided the field force of the United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation and would have sounded the four @-@ minute warning alarm in the event of war and warned the population of Shrewsbury in the event of approaching radioactive fallout . The building was manned by up to 120 volunteers who trained on a weekly basis and wore a Royal Air Force style uniform . After the breakup of the communist bloc in 1989 , the Royal Observer Corps was disbanded between September 1991 and December 1995 . However , the nuclear bunker still stands just inside Holywell Street near the Abbey as a lasting reminder of the Cold War , but is now converted and used as a veterinary practice .
The tourist information centre is situated in the Shrewsbury Museum & Art Gallery in what used to be the old Music Hall theatre in the town square . The three main museums are Shrewsbury Museum & Art Gallery , Shrewsbury Castle ( which houses
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and reception = =
Apple Records released The Beatles on 22 November 1968 , with " Long , Long , Long " appearing as the final track on side three of the double LP . The sequencing ensured that the song provided what author Mark Hertsgaard terms " a calm landing pad " after McCartney 's heavy rock @-@ styled " Helter Skelter " . Shortly after the album 's release , Harrison spent time with Dylan and the Band in Woodstock , in upstate New York . In addition to co @-@ writing " I 'd Have You Anytime " with Dylan , Harrison further established his independence from the Beatles during this visit , which music critic John Harris views as the foundation for his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass .
Among contemporary reviews of The Beatles , Alan Walsh of Melody Maker admired the song as " a gentle , lilting track " while , less impressed , Record Mirror considered it " not a strong tune " , with drums " monopolising the sound " . In his review for The Times , William Mann described " Long , Long , Long " as " a melting love song in slow waltz tempo " and rated it the equal of the nine best , " superbly inventive " compositions credited to Lennon – McCartney .
Recalling the release in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner said that in departing from the overtly Indian style of his previous compositions for the Beatles , Harrison had provided " a quartet of more conventionally accessible pop songs that many felt were among the finest on the [ White Album ] " . While acknowledging Harrison 's limitations as a singer compared with Lennon and McCartney , Schaffner added : " but when he tones his voice down to an ethereal near @-@ whisper , as in ' Long Long Long , ' he can evoke as well as anyone the magic and the mystery of what [ music journalist ] Jonathan Cott has called ' the music of deep silence . ' "
= = Retrospective assessment and legacy = =
AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine views " Long , Long , Long " as " haunting " and , along with its composer 's three other White Album tracks – " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Savoy Truffle " and " Piggies " – evidence that Harrison 's songwriting " deserved wider exposure " than his typical quota of two songs on each Beatles LP . Less impressed with Harrison 's other contributions to the album , Ian MacDonald welcomes " Long , Long , Long " with the words : " at last – the real George . " MacDonald considers it to be " Harrison 's finest moment on The Beatles : simple , direct , and , in its sighing , self @-@ annihilating coda , devastatingly expressive " . Conversely , although he acknowledges its effectiveness in following " Helter Skelter " , Tim Riley identifies " Long , Long , Long " as the weakest of the four Harrison songs , which are otherwise all " essentials " and " regain [ ed ] the promise " shown by his three compositions on the Beatles ' Revolver album . Author Jonathan Gould praises the track as a " dark beautiful ballad " and a " breakthrough " for Harrison as a vocalist and composer , since it represents " the first time he ever allowed himself to sound humbled by his emotions in a song " . Music critic Chris Ingham , writing for Rough Guides , similarly includes it among " a new phase " of Harrison compositions , along with " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " , in which " warmth and sweetness " replaced the dissonant qualities of his Indian @-@ inspired melodies .
In a 1998 review , the NME described " Long , Long , Long " as " redemptive " and " one of many hidden delights " on The Beatles , in addition to citing it as an example of how , even when relations within the band were at their most disharmonious , " the Beatles ' riches were manifold " . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot deemed the song to be " quintessential Harrison , summarizing the impending exhaustion of the Beatles and the era they defined , while pointing the way toward the spiritual heights achieved by his solo debut masterpiece , All Things Must Pass " . In his obituary of the former Beatle , for Rock 's Backpages , Mat Snow included " Long , Long , Long " among his favourite Harrison compositions , saying : " for my money the music of George Harrison is most compelling when dwelling in those strange shadows of elusive regret and longing , even fear ... " David Quantick of Uncut admires the track as " a yearning , beautiful song ... an oasis of calm and faith " .
" Long , Long , Long " was ranked 80th in Mojo magazine 's 2006 list " The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs " , where musician Colin Newman described it as " achingly beautiful " and " like the album in microcosm ... A lament for a long @-@ lost love which ends with a ghostly freakout . " In a similar list , in 2011 , Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 98 . Conversely , in 2012 , readers of The Daily Telegraph voted " Long , Long , Long " as the fifth worst Beatles track . The following year , Mojo listed it at number 9 in a poll to determine " the ultimate list of connoisseurs ' Beatles ' songs " , as defined by any track not included on the band 's greatest @-@ hits compilations 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 .
= = Cover versions = =
In 1987 , Daniel Amos vocalist Terry Scott Taylor recorded what Trouser Press admired as a " first @-@ rate cover " of " Long , Long , Long " for his album A Briefing for the Ascent . Conversely , Sean Carruthers of AllMusic considers singer Tom Hooper 's 2002 cover to be a version that " manages to drain the life " out of the composition . Elliott Smith included " Long , Long , Long " in his live performances . His biographer Benjamin Nugent writes that the song appealed to Smith amid his struggles with depression and drug addiction , as " a ballad about trying to get rid of self @-@ imposed suffering and returning to a place where you can relate to other people " .
A recording by Tanya Donelly appeared on her 2006 album This Hungry Life and later on a CD accompanying Uncut 's feature article on Harrison 's career , in the August 2008 issue of the magazine . My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James opened his 2009 EP of Harrison compositions , Tribute To , with the song – a cover that Drowned in Sound praised as " not only the standout moment , but also one of the most beautiful and arresting songs of the year " . Having recorded the EP within days of Harrison 's death in November 2001 , James said he decided to release it eight years later partly as a result of attending the David Lynch Foundation 's Transcendental Meditation awareness concert , " Change Begins Within " , where " [ Harrison ] ' s name came up a lot ... his spirit was very big at that event . "
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – double @-@ tracked lead vocal , acoustic guitars
Paul McCartney – harmony vocal , Hammond organ , bass guitar
Ringo Starr – drums
Chris Thomas – piano
= Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter =
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 75th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and series creator Tina Fey . The episode was directed by series producer Don Scardino . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on April 22 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Elizabeth Banks , Will Ferrell , Steve Hely , Julianne Moore , and Ariel Shafir .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Fey ) starts making an effort to date by attending singles events with her friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) feels forced to choose between his high school sweetheart , Nancy Donovan ( Moore ) , and news anchor Avery Jessup ( Banks ) . Meanwhile , a racist comment sparks an office @-@ wide debate on affirmative action and leaves James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) with a big decision to make regarding his future at the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) .
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 216 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . Kay Cannon and Tina Fey were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work in this episode .
= = Plot = =
On the weekend of Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) 51st birthday , his advances with CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) are called into question when he learns that his high school sweetheart , Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , has finally been divorced from her husband . Jack spends evenings having dinner and wine with both , against Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) suggestion that it is a bad idea . He compares Nancy to actor Lee Marvin , after watching a movie marathon starring Marvin , and Avery to baseball player Derek Jeter , after he spends time with Avery at Jeter 's home . He is moved by the thoughtful birthday gifts both women give him . Jack is torn between the easygoing , middle @-@ class Nancy and his successful , wealthy counterpart Avery , and does not know whom to choose .
Meanwhile , Liz attends singles activities at the YMCA and her friend , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , joins her as her wingman . Nancy accompanies Liz to one of the activities , and is concerned when Liz speaks critically of everyone there and rebuffs a man whom Nancy has drawn into conversation . Nancy encourages Liz to focus not on the negative , but on what she does want from a man . Liz tries to follow Nancy 's advice the next day at a dodgeball game , and she tells a man ( Ariel Shafir ) , whom she hit in the face during a previous dodgeball game , what traits she wants from a man . However , the man does not speak English , and a disappointed Liz hits him with another ball .
Finally , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) learns he may have been hired as a writer on TGS with Tracy Jordan because of affirmative action and quits . Liz — the show 's head writer — is reluctant to rehire him until TGS producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) reveals to Liz that she is also a beneficiary of affirmative action , having attended college on a Title IX scholarship and having her project The Glrlie Show picked up as a mid @-@ season replacement for a misogynistic show that received complaints . When Toofer returns , he demands that no one call him " Toofer " anymore , but when everyone comes up with more insulting nicknames , he gives up .
= = Production = =
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and series creator Tina Fey . This was Cannon and Fey 's fourth script collaboration , having written the episodes " Black Tie " , " Somebody to Love " , and " Christmas Special " , for season one , season two , and season three , respectively . " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , as the seventeenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 75th overall episode of the series .
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was filmed on February 8 , 2010 . In November 2009 , it was announced that actress Julianne Moore would guest star on 30 Rock as a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy . She made her debut as the character Nancy Donovan in the December 10 , 2009 , episode " Secret Santa " , and later guest starred in the episode " Winter Madness " . In December 2009 , it was confirmed that actress Elizabeth Banks would guest star , and in the February 11 , 2010 , episode " Anna Howard Shaw Day " she made her debut as Avery Jessup , a CNBC correspondent . Banks later guest starred in the episode " Future Husband " . 30 Rock writer and producer Steve Hely appeared in this episode as a man who ignores Jenna Maroney . Keith Powell , who plays Toofer Spurlock , was asked about his reaction towards his storyline in the " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " script , in which he said " They kind of warned me about that one – I thought it was a really fun thing because Affirmative Action has permeated corporate culture . It didn 't freak me out that much " .
Comedian actor Will Ferrell had a brief appearance in " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . In a scene , Pete reveals to Liz that the only reason The Girlie Show — before being renamed to TGS with Tracy Jordan — was green @-@ lighted by NBC was due to criticism from women 's groups after the network aired the action drama Bitch Hunter . In a clip , Ferell , as the character Shane Hunter , is seen with a gun , and entering a woman 's bathroom , and shouting " Happy birthday , bitches ! " . 30 Rock writer Jack Burditt and former co @-@ chairman of NBC Entertainment and Universal Media Studios Ben Silverman are credited as executive producers of Bitch Hunter . Ferrell has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Ferrell would later appear as Shane Hunter in the May 6 , 2010 , 30 Rock episode " The Moms " .
= = Cultural references = =
Jenna tells Liz that she wants to accompany her to her singles activities as her wingman since she is up for a role in National Lampoon 's Van Wilder 's Wingman , Incorporated , a reference to the National Lampoon 's Van Wilder film series . Avery and Jack attend a gala opening at a museum , and upon seeing the decorations and well dressed patrons , Avery remarks that " You always know you 're at the right party when it feels like the Riddler is about to attack " , the Riddler is a comic book villain who leaves behind riddles , puzzles , and word games so that they can be solved . While posing for pictures at the gala , a photographer mistakes Avery for stand @-@ up comedian Chelsea Handler , which has been based on real life experience for Elizabeth Banks , who portrays Avery , as she has been mistaken for Handler . When Liz tells Jack that he cannot date both Avery and Nancy at the same time , she says " Mrs. Doubtfire shimself could not do this " , a reference to actor Robin Williams ' role in the movie Mrs. Doubtfire , in which he plays two roles , one as a man and the other as a woman named Mrs. Doubtfire .
During their dinner , Avery tells Jack some day he will be as great as a man as former U.S. President Ronald Reagan , to which Jack replies " I do like jelly beans " , a reference to Reagan 's real @-@ life love of the candy . During one scene of " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tells the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff " I know you 're all secretly mad , because we finally have a black Disney princess " , which is a reference to the 2009 Disney animated film The Princess and the Frog in which the princess character , Tiana , is the first black princess in the Disney Princess franchise . In her speech , Liz says that she wants to be with a man who " will just shut their mouth " when watching the ABC show Lost .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was watched by 4 @.@ 216 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It achieved a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Floyd " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 252 million American viewers . In the 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot on April 22 , in which this episode aired out of its usual timeslot , 30 Rock was outperformed by CBS ' reality show Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains , Fox 's crime drama Bones , and ABC 's FlashForward . Nonetheless , " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " outperformed The CW 's supernatural @-@ fantasy horror program The Vampire Diaries , which drew 3 @.@ 155 million viewers . Kay Cannon and Tina Fey received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work on " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost it to Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics .
IGN contributor Robert Canning reported that " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was a " stellar episode that was hitting all the right beats " , and commented that " [ e ] ven the tired , formulaic structure of Jack 's two women scenario was given some great new lines " from Fey and Cannon , who developed the script . He opined that if the episode centered only around Jack 's two women dilemma it " would have been just fine . " Canning appreciated Elizabeth Banks ' and Julianne Moore 's appearances , writing that the two " exhibited the charms that have made them welcome additions to this season " . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating . Jane Boursaw of AOL 's TV Squad said that the Toofer story was " funny , without being ( too ) offensive . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said that he enjoyed " just about every minute " of this episode , and praised Liz 's speech citing it as the " crowning moment " from " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . Rabin also liked the Toofer quitting storyline writing that it " could easily have gone nowhere but the show made it both funny and surprisingly thoughtful by using it as a springboard to discuss Affirmative Action and our society 's defiantly uneven playing field . " Time contributor James Poniewozik noted that this episode was stronger than " Khonani " , which aired the same day of the week as this episode . Sean Gandert of Paste wrote that Toofer 's plot was not " given more than a few minutes of screen time [ but ] it also doesn 't wear out its welcome ... The show doesn 't address race , gender , or affirmative action in a particularly enlightened manner , but who cares , it 's funny . " TV Guide 's Adam Mersel wrote that he found the most enjoyment in Liz 's story , writing that he found it " endearing " . In regards to Jack 's plot , Mersel said that Jack is able to play off Nancy and Avery so well that " I am going back and forth on whether or not to scold the NBC boss or give him a pat on the back . Avery and Nancy both have their shining moments , but I feel that he must choose quite soon , or he will be loosing [ sic ] both . "
Will Ferrell 's ten second cameo was well @-@ received , with Canning concluding , " ... the cherry on the top was discovering that The Girlie Show was only picked up to offset the complaints raised by the series Bitch Hunter . The ten @-@ second clip of this series , with a cameo from Will Ferrell , was phenomenal and I hope the web will soon produce more clips . "
= MS West Grama =
MS West Grama , sometimes spelled as West Gramma , was a diesel @-@ powered cargo ship of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) that was sunk as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion . Prior to her diesel conversion , she was known as SS West Grama . In 1919 , she was briefly taken up by the United States Navy under the name USS West Grama ( ID @-@ 3794 ) .
SS West Grama was built as a steam @-@ powered cargo ship in 1918 for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , a predecessor of the USMC . She was part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 9th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) of the United States Navy as USS West Grama ( ID @-@ 3794 ) in January 1919 . She became the first American @-@ flagged vessel to enter Bulgarian waters when she delivered a load of wheat flour to Varna in early 1919 . After her one overseas trip for the Navy , she was decommissioned in June 1919 and returned to the USSB .
SS West Grama sailed between Genoa and New York early in her civilian career . In 1927 , West Grama was outfitted with a diesel engine that replaced her original steam engine as part of a pilot program by the USSB . After her conversion , she sailed primarily between East Coast ports and South America . By the late 1930s , she had been laid up , but was reactivated for merchant service during World War II . She sailed primarily in the Caribbean until March 1944 when she sailed from the United States for the final time . She was scuttled in June as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Omaha Beach during the Normandy invasion , earning a battle star in the process .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the west coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Grama , the ninth of some 40 West ships built by the Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Los Angeles . West Grama ( Los Angeles Shipbuilding yard number 9 ) was one of three Los Angeles Shipbuilding ships launched on 4 July 1918 , and was completed in December .
West Grama was 5 @,@ 445 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull that displaced 12 @,@ 225 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) . Her hold was 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep and she had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 028 DWT . West Grama 's power plant , as built , consisted of a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine driving a single screw propeller , which moved the ship at up to 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
= = Military career = =
West Grama was taken over by the U.S. Navy on 9 January 1919 at San Pedro , California , and was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) the same day with Lieutenant Commander Eugene McCarthy , USNRF , in command . West Grama headed north to San Francisco to take on a load of wheat flour for delivery to Europe . After undergoing boiler repairs at Union Iron Works , she departed San Francisco for Norfolk , Virginia , on 28 January . West Grama transited the Panama Canal on 14 February and got underway again on 19 February , after a four @-@ day layover in the Canal Zone .
On 25 February , a half @-@ submerged ship was spotted some 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) east @-@ northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . Upon investigation , it was determined to be the wreck of the American schooner Nettie Shipman , but , with no signs of life aboard the hulk , West Grama continued on to Virginia , where she arrived three days later .
After general repairs and fuel replenishment , West Grama got underway for the Mediterranean on 13 March . Touching at Gibraltar , she next headed to Constantinople , Turkey , to unload part of her cargo , and then proceeded into the Black Sea . She arrived at Varna , Bulgaria , to unload the remainder of the flour , and , in the process , became the first American @-@ flagged vessel to enter Bulgarian waters . After departure from Varna , West Grama returned to the United States via Gibraltar . She carried a mixed load of 13 depth charges and 218 long tons ( 221 t ) of general cargo . In early June , during her return voyage , West Grama was disabled by some unspecified problem while west of Bermuda . The U.S. Navy cargo ship Eastport , en route from New Orleans to Cardiff , assisted West Grama , and the Navy dispatched the icebreaker Rogday from Boston to aid West Grama . It 's not known what assistance was provided or if West Grama was even able to proceed on her own , but she arrived at Norfolk on 11 June . Five days later , West Grama was decommissioned and returned to the USSB for civilian service .
= = Civilian career = =
After her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , West Grama sailed on a Genoa – Gibraltar – New York route through 1920 . In April 1920 , West Grama carried some 52 passengers from Genoa and Gibraltar to New York . There is no mention in sources of the ship 's activities over the next seven years , but in June 1927 , the Los Angeles Times reported that West Grama had been selected for a $ 400 @,@ 000 conversion from steam @-@ power to diesel @-@ power . By late November , the conversion , undergoing at the Fore River Shipyard near Boston , was nearly complete . The new engine was a McIntosh & Seymour double @-@ acting diesel , the first of its type built in America . On 8 December , during successful sea trials of West Grama 's new diesel power plant , a malfunction in a steam boiler used to heat the crew quarters caused minor damage to the ship .
Allocated to the American Republics Line for service to the east coast of South America , West Grama sailed for Buenos Aires , Argentina , where she had arrived by late January 1928 , and back to New York by late March . In October 1929 , West Grama was reportedly assigned to the new Pacific – South Africa Line by the USSB , an around @-@ the @-@ world venture under the management of J. J. Moore & Company . The Pacific – South Africa Line — the world 's only all @-@ diesel around @-@ the @-@ world service , as described by the Los Angeles Times — sailed from Los Angeles to South Africa via the Straits of Magellan , across the Indian Ocean to Japan and China , across the Pacific to San Francisco , and back to Los Angeles . It 's not clear how long , if at all , West Grama sailed for this line . In July 1929 , a report in The New York Times shows that West Grama was still in South American service , sailing to Santos , Brazil .
Sources are not clear as to all of West Grama 's movements over the next years . Hints can be gleaned from contemporary news accounts . In March 1930 , the Los Angeles Times reported that West Grama was en route from Balboa to San Francisco . The New York Times reported West Grama 's arrival from Portland , Oregon in September , her departure for Fremantle , Western Australia in October 1933 , and her arrival from Baltimore in March the following year . After these mentions , West Grama disappears from contemporary news accounts , and by 1939 , West Grama had been laid up in a reserve fleet .
= = World War II = =
In December 1940 , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) , a successor to the USSB , announced that it was seeking bids for the sale of 24 ships from its reserve fleet , including West Grama . In January 1941 , the USMC announced that a consortium of Commonwealth shipping lines had been the high bidders for 19 of the 20 ships still offered . The highest bid for West Grama was $ 80 @,@ 000 , but it is not clear if the bid was , in fact , accepted ; by November , West Grama was sailing between Antofagasta , Chile , and New York , but remained under the American flag . From July 1942 through February 1944 , West Grama sailed between the United States and Caribbean ports , frequently traveling in convoys . The ship 's recorded movements show her calling at Cristóbal , Guantánamo Bay , Trinidad , Key West , and Pilottown , Louisiana . In mid @-@ February 1944 , West Grama sailed from Key West to New York , and from there , on to Boston .
= = Final voyage = =
West Grama had been selected to become one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Though the specific modifications performed on West Grama are not revealed in sources , modifications for other ships do appear . In November 1944 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Grama , had been loaded with " tons of sand and cement " and had been rigged with explosive charges before departing the port . Further , existing antiaircraft weapons had been moved higher up on the ship and supplemented by additional guns . An account by Cesar Poropat , chief engineer aboard West Honaker , another blockship dispatched from Boston , mentions that shipyard workers proceeded to cut holes in "
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the conversion of a disused manor house into the Furness Abbey Hotel ( 1847 ) , and to arrange the remodelling of Hornby Castle ( 1847 – 52 ) . In 1849 – 50 they planned the rebuilding and enlargement of the Charity School for Girls in Middle Street , Lancaster , followed in 1851 by the National School for Boys in St Leonard 's Gate . The practice then made plans for a new building at Giggleswick School , and new premises for Lancaster Grammar School in Moor Lane , but by then Sharpe was on the point of withdrawing from the practice , and it is likely that most of the designs were prepared by Paley .
= = Architectural historian = =
Sharpe studied and wrote about ecclesiastical architecture throughout his adult life , both sketching and measuring historical churches and ruins . This resulted in a systematic series of published drawings in twelve parts between 1845 and 1847 entitled Architectural Parallels , containing measured drawings of abbey churches in the early Gothic style , and reissued as a single work in 1848 . Sharpe intended to produce a further version with text , but this never transpired . Also in 1848 a Supplement to Architectural Parallels , was published , containing yet more detailed drawings . Simultaneously , Sharpe had produced the two @-@ volume work Decorated Windows , the first volume being published in 1845 , and the second in 1849 . The work , which was praised by the art critic John Ruskin in The Stones of Venice , consisted largely of drawings by Sharpe 's pupils – Paley , Austin , and R. J. Withers – with text by Sharpe describing and analysing the tracery of Gothic windows .
In 1851 Sharpe published a monograph entitled The Seven Periods of English Architecture , a small book of about 50 pages suggesting a new scheme for classifying the styles of English ecclesiastical architecture " from the Heptarchy to the Reformation " . It was intended to replace the scheme then in use , which had been proposed in 1817 by Thomas Rickman . Rickman had divided English architecture into " four distinct periods , or styles " which he termed " Norman " , " Early English " , " Decorated English " , and " Perpendicular English " . The Norman style lasting until about 1189 , was characterised by its arches usually being semicircular , although sometimes pointed ; the ornamentation was " bold and rude " . The Early English style , continuing to about 1307 , was distinguished by its pointed arches and long narrow windows without mullions . He called the characteristic ornamentation " toothed " because it resembled the teeth of the shark . The following period , the Decorated English lasted until 1377 , or possibly 10 – 15 years later , was characterised by large windows with pointed arches containing mullions , and with tracery " in flowing lines forming circles , arches and other figures " . There was much ornamentation , carved very delicately . The final period identified by Rickman , the Perpendicular English , lasted until as long as 1630 or 1640 . This was distinguished by the mullions and the " ornamental panellings " running in perpendicular lines . The ornamentation was in many cases " so crowded as to destroy the beauty of the design " . The carving was again " very delicately executed " .
In his classification , Sharpe first identified two main classes , according to whether the arches were " circular " or " pointed " . The class characterised by the circular arch was the Romanesque class ; that by the pointed arch was the Gothic . He divided the Romanesque class into two periods by date rather than by stylistic differences , the dividing date being 1066 ; this divided the " Saxon " from the " Norman " stage . Whereas Rickman allowed pointed arches when they occurred in the same building as round arches in his Norman period , Sharpe separated buildings that contained both types of arches into a separate intermediate style , the " Transitional " . When it came to the Gothic class , Sharpe identified four styles , in contrast to Rickman 's three , using the windows to differentiate between them . The earliest style was characterised by windows resembling a lancet " in its length , breadth , and principal proportions " . These windows might be single , or in groups of two , three , five , or seven . This style he termed the " Lancet Period " . During the next period , tracery appeared in the windows , and originally consisted of simple geometric forms , in particular the circle . This period he called the " Geometrical Period " . Later the tracery became more complex , including the ogee curve ; the characteristic feature being the " sinuosity of form " in the windows and elsewhere . This Sharpe termed the " Curvilinear Period " . Finally , the transom appeared in the windows , and the curved line in the tracery became replaced by straight lines , an " angularity of form " , and a " square edge was preferred " . This style he named the " Rectilinear Period " . The approximate dates Sharpe gave for his periods were , following 1066 , the Norman Period up to 1145 , the Transitional Period to 1190 , the Lancet Period to 1245 , the Geometrical Period to 1315 , the Curvilinear Period to 1360 , and the Rectilinear Period to 1550 .
In comparing the two classifications , Sharpe divides Rickman 's Norman period into two , the Norman and the Transitional periods . Then Rickman has three Gothic periods in contrast to Sharpe 's four . Comparing the descriptions of the styles and , approximately , the dates , Sharpe 's Lancet Period corresponds generally with Rickman 's Early English ; and Sharpe 's Rectilinear Period with Rickman 's Perpendicular English . This leaves Rickman 's Decorated English style divided into two periods by Sharpe according to the complexity of the tracery , the Geometrical and the Curvilinear Periods . Following the publication of the monograph , Sharpe read a paper to the Royal Institute of British Architects describing his system . The monograph and the paper led to " a bitter controversy " . The debate between Sharpe and his followers on one side and supporters of Rickman 's scheme on the other was published as a series of letters to the journal The Builder until the editor called a halt to the correspondence .
In the same year as Sharpe 's short book , An Essay on the Origin and Development of Window Tracery in England , a much larger work on essentially the same subject , was published by the distinguished historian Edward Augustus Freeman , which proposed the terms " Flowing " and " Flamboyant " ( the later already in use in France ) where Sharpe used " Curvilinear " . Although Rickman 's scheme remains in general use , despite recognition of its deficiencies , Sharpe 's terms " Geometrical " and " Curvilinear " are very often used in addition to distinguish styles or phases within Rickman 's " Decorated " . They were used by Francis Bond in his 1905 book Gothic Architecture in England , and are used in various recent works including the Pevsner Architectural Guides .
In 1869 Sharpe joined the Architectural Association , established in 1847 " by a group of dissatisfied young architects ... to provide a self @-@ directed , independent education at a time when there was no formal training available " . He then proposed and organised a series of six annual expeditions to study and draw buildings in different areas , which took place between 1870 and 1875 . In 1870 the expedition was to Lincoln , Sleaford , and Spalding ; in 1871 to Ely , Lynn , and Boston ; the following year to Stamford , Oundle , Wellingborough , and Northampton ; and in 1873 to Grantham , Newark , Southwell , Ashbourne , and Lichfield . The final two expeditions were to France : in 1874 to the northern part of the country , visiting places around Paris including Soissons , Laon , Rheims , and Chartres ; the following year it was to the Charente district of southwest France , including Angoulême . In 1876 Sharpe gave a lecture on this expedition in London , linking the architecture of the region with Byzantine architecture elsewhere . Following Sharpe 's death in 1877 the Association complied with his wish that the expeditions should be continued ; and in 1882 it published Charente : In Memory of Edmund Sharpe , 1875 .
Having been a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects since 1848 , Sharpe was awarded its Royal Gold Medal in 1875 . This was presented to him by Sir George Gilbert Scott , largely in recognition of his writings . In addition to those recorded above they include : The Architectural History of St Mary 's Church , New Shoreham ( 1861 ) , An Account of the Churches visited during the Lincoln Excursion of the Architectural Association ( 1871 ) , The Mouldings of the Six Periods of British Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation ( 1871 – 74 ) , The Ornamentation of the Transitional Period of British Architecture AD 1145 – 90 ( 1871 ) , The Ornamentation of the Transitional Period in Central Germany ( 1877 ) , and The Churches of the Nene Valley , Northamptonshire ( published posthumously in 1880 ) . Other writings by Sharpe were published in The Builder and The Architect . He also delivered papers to the Architectural Association , and to the Royal Institute of British Architects . Among other subjects , he argued for restraint in the use of colour in the decoration of churches , in the painting of walls and the stonework , and in the stained glass . He was very critical of recent restorations of medieval churches , which had been a major occupation of architects during the previous 20 years , and was particularly caustic about the removal of whitewash from the interior of churches , and the damage thus caused to the underlying stonework . Between January 1874 and February 1875 Sharpe published The Architecture of the Cistercians , which dealt in considerable detail with the design and functions of Cistercian monasteries built in the 12th and 13th centuries in Britain and in Europe , most of which he had visited . In addition , Sharpe attended several meetings of the Archaeological Institute , and was a Vice @-@ President of the British Archaeological Association .
= = Railway developer and engineer = =
= = = England = = =
While Sharpe was designing churches , he was augmenting his income by working as a sub @-@ contractor in building railways . These were the lines between Lancaster and Preston , Lancaster and Skipton , and between Liverpool and Southport . He first became involved with the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway in 1838 , two years after Joseph Locke was appointed as engineer for the line . Sharpe submitted a tender to supply the masonry work for the " Lancaster Contract " , the northern section of the line ;
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of Germany , the black @-@ red @-@ gold tricolour became the flag of a reunified Germany . In 1998 , the Foundation for the Reappraisal of the SED Dictatorship was formed . The duty of this organisation , directly responsible to the federal government , is to examine the consequences of the former East German regime . As its logo , the foundation used an East German flag with the Communist coat of arms cut out .
The old black @-@ white @-@ red tricolour of the German Empire is still used by monarchists and those members of German royalty who long for the peaceful reintroduction of a German democratic monarchy . This use of the old flag is almost completely overshadowed by its prevalent use by the far right ; since the swastika is illegal in Germany , the far right have been forced to forego any Nazi flags and instead use the old tricolour , which the Nazis themselves banned in 1935 . The ban of Nazi symbols in Germany and some other countries is the main reason why many computer games related to World War II released in Germany and some other countries do not feature the Nazi flag , sometimes replacing it with the anachronistic flag of pre @-@ 1933 Weimar Germany or the modern tricolour .
In Germany , the use of the flag and other national symbols has been relatively low for most of the time since the Second World War — a reaction against the widespread use of flags by the Nazi Party and against the nationalistic furore of the Nazis in general . The flag is used primarily by official authorities on special occasions or by citizens during international sporting events . In some states ( e.g. Bavaria , Schleswig @-@ Holstein ) or sub @-@ state historical regions ( e.g. Baden , Franconia ) residents may prefer the use of regional flags instead of the national flag .
During the 2006 FIFA World Cup , which took place in Germany , public use of the national flag increased dramatically . Although this explosion in the flag 's popularity was initially greeted by many Germans with a mixture of surprise and apprehension , the decades @-@ old fear that German flag @-@ waving and national pride was inextricably associated with its Nazi past was dismissed by the end of the tournament by Germans and non @-@ Germans alike .
= = Similar Flags = =
= Butterfly ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Butterfly is the sixth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on September 16 , 1997 , by Columbia Records . The album contained both hip @-@ hop and urban adult contemporary sounds , as well as some softer and more contemporary melodies . Throughout the project , Carey worked with Walter Afanasieff , with whom she had written and produced most of the material from her previous albums . She also worked with many famed hip @-@ hop producers and rappers , such as Sean " Puffy " Combs , Kamaal Fareed , Missy Elliott and the Trackmasters . With the latter acts producing most of the album , Butterfly deviated from the contemporary sound of Carey 's older work , and was hailed as a defining album of the 1990s and of pop and R & B music .
With Butterfly , Carey continued the transition that began with previous album , Daydream ( 1995 ) , which pushed her further into the R & B and hip @-@ hop market and away from the R & B and pop background of her previous work . During her marriage to Tommy Mottola , Carey had little control over the creative and artistic steps she took on her albums ; however , after their divorce mid @-@ way through the album 's conception , she was able to reflect her creative maturity and evolution in the album 's writing and recording . Carey wrote in the booklet of her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) , that she considers Butterfly her magnum opus and a turning point in both her life and career .
Upon release , Butterfly garnered critical acclaim from contemporary music critics , many of whom embraced Carey 's musical transition . Reviewers complimented the album for its mature sound and production and commended Carey 's musical direction , calling the work a " transitional album , one that makes her a rarity of the 90s . " Though released during Carey 's heavily publicized conflict with Sony Music , the album became a commercial success , topping the albums chart in many countries , including Australia , Canada , Japan and the Netherlands . On the Billboard 200 , it debuted at number one , spending one week atop the chart . It was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and received the Million Award in Japan .
Five singles were released from the album ; two worldwide commercial releases , and three limited promotional singles . " Honey , " the record 's lead single , topped the charts in the US and Canada and reached the top five in New Zealand , Spain and the United Kingdom . The album 's fifth single , " My All , " became a top ten hit throughout Europe and topped the charts in the US . To promote Butterfly , Carey embarked on the Butterfly World Tour , which visited Australia , Japan and Taiwan , with one show in the United States . Butterfly was nominated for three Grammy Awards at the 40th annual ceremony , though it did not win any .
= = Background = =
Carey began working on Butterfly in January 1997 . During the album 's development in mid @-@ 1997 Carey separated from her husband , music executive Tommy Mottola , who had guided her career since 1988 . Carey 's increasing control over her own career had led to speculation in the press over the future of the couple , and they later divorced . Throughout the development of the album , in a departure from her previous style , Carey worked with various rappers and hip @-@ hop producers , including Sean " Puffy " Combs , Kamaal Fareed , Missy Elliott and Jean Claude Oliver and Samuel Barnes from Trackmasters . Critics saw Carey 's new production team as a form of revenge on Mottola and Sony Music . Carey denied taking a radically new direction , and insisted that the musical style of her new album was of her own choosing . Nevertheless , Carey resented the control that Sony , whose president was Mottola , exercised over her music , preventing her making music about which she was passionate . In contrast , Sony were concerned Carey , their best @-@ selling act , could jeopardize her future success through her actions .
The pressure of the separation and constant press attention began to take its toll of Carey . Growing creative differences with producer Walter Afanasieff ended their working relationship , after collaborating on most of Carey 's previous output . The breaking point came after a heated argument during a long recording session , over the album 's musical direction . Carey also faced media criticism over her choice of producers and several newspapers linked Carey romantically to several rappers , suggesting these relationships influenced her decisions . However , Carey denied the allegations , stating she had only slept with her husband .
= = Writing and composition = =
With a variety of writers and producers and its new musical direction for Carey , the album was always likely to be a commercial success . Carey and Combs wrote the lead single , " Honey . " Combs believed this to be a good song but was uncertain how successful it would be as a release owing to its heavy hip @-@ hop influence . The remix for " Honey " featured rapping lead vocals from Da Brat , The LOX and Mase , and some verses were rapped by Combs himself . The track was very different from Carey 's previous recordings , and was described by author Chris Nickson as " street Hip @-@ Hop music , with a booming bass . " The song 's melody was driven by Q @-@ Tip 's drum programming and Stevie J 's keyboard notes . Combs 's production gave the song a " light and airy " effect , further distancing it from Carey 's contemporary sound . " Honey " featured musical samples from Treacherous Three 's " The Body Rock , " and " Hey DJ " from the World 's Famous Supreme Team . The track used both hip @-@ hop and R & B with traces of pop music and was described as a " [ song with a ] catchy chorus , combining hip @-@ hop and pop into something that simply wasn 't going to be denied by anyone , and offering a powerful start to a record . "
The album 's second single , " Butterfly , " was one of the ballads Carey wrote with Afanasieff . Carey described the song as the " favorite ballad she had ever written " , one that was more personal than her previous work as the emotions conveyed through the song allude at just how meaningful the lyrics are to her . Carey solely wrote the lyrics while Afanasieff , who composed the music with Dan Shea , handled the song 's instrumentals , and added a few personal R & B touches . Another ballad Carey wrote with Afanasieff was " My All " , written as a contrast to the album 's general hip @-@ hop flavor . Carey described the song as having " a lush sound and intense styling " . It featured guitar arpeggios , which were synthetically created using sampling and keyboard notes . " The Roof , " Butterfly 's European single , incorporated fragments from Mobb Deep 's " Shook Ones ( Part II ) " , and was produced by Carey , Poke & Tone and Cory Rooney .
" Fourth of July , " one of the album 's slower ballads , was also written solely by Carey and Afanasieff but was not released as a single . The song was perceived to have jazz influences and was compared to some of Carey 's older work such as " Vanishing " and " The Wind . " The next two tracks on the record , " Breakdown " and " Babydoll , " were described as " the album 's backbone , its real declaration of independence " by Nickson . " Breakdown " was written by Carey and Puffy and included rap verses from Wish and Krayzie Bone from Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . Author Chris Nickson wrote that " ' Breakdown ' showed Mariah treading forcefully into territory that was new for her and making it her own . " For " Babydoll , " Carey teamed up with Elliott . The track was recorded in Atlanta , where Elliott resided , and included background vocals from Carey 's long @-@ time friend , Trey Lorenz . " Babydoll " was described as " a vocally driven piece , " with strong jazz harmony provided by Cory Rooney . Other songs that incorporated R & B influence into ballads were " Whenever You Call " and " Close My Eyes , " which were personally important to Carey due to their lyrical content . While both were similar ballads to Carey 's previous work , Nickson said :
" While up to the standard of anything Mariah had ever done before , [ they ] suffered in comparison . But even here you could hear the new Mariah in the spareness of the arrangements and the way it was her voice , rather than any instrument , that controlled the song . She 'd grown to the point where having less behind her really proved to be more , for the song and for her . It was notable , too , that like the other ballads on the record , these two leaned very much towards R & B. "
Carey wrote the song " Fly Away ( Butterfly reprise ) " with famed house music producer David Morales . When imagining the concept for " Butterfly , " Carey intended the song to be a house music record , but after writing it , made it into a ballad . Carey expressed a desire to feature her concept both on the house record , in addition to the ballad that would become " Butterfly . " Morales took Carey 's lyrics , concept and melody and added a house beat to it . For the album , Carey recorded a version of Prince 's " The Beautiful Ones " , featuring Dru Hill 's lead singer Sisqó . The song was one of the last recorded tracks and was the only non @-@ original song on Butterfly . The final song on the album was " Outside , " a ballad that was written by Carey , Afanasieff and Rooney , about Carey 's experience being biracial . Richard Harrington from The Washington Post described the album 's subtle inclusion of both pop and R & B genres :
" There are two Mariah Careys on Butterfly . One is the pop @-@ oriented , ballad @-@ leaning traditionalist who works very effectively with her longtime professional partner , composer @-@ producer Walter Afanasieff . The other is a self @-@ styled hip @-@ hop fanatic who worked with Ol ' Dirty Bastard on her last album and teams up here with several of that genre 's movers and shakers , most notably Sean " Puffy " Combs , the godfather of hip @-@ hop soul and the hottest producer in pop music today "
= = Critical reception = =
Butterfly garnered critical acclaim from music critics . Nathan Brackett , senior editor of Rolling Stone and author of The Rolling Stone Album Guide , praised the album 's producers and Carey 's " more controlled " vocals . Brackett noticed a connection between much of Carey 's lyrics and her separation from Mottola . Jon Pareles , editor of The New York Times called Butterfly " a new turn " in Carey 's career . He wrote , " Carey has sold tens of millions of albums by being the girl next door with the startling vocal range ... but for most of " Butterfly " Carey turned her voice into an airy whisper , as if she would rather charm listeners " compared to over @-@ powering them . Aside from commenting on its deviance from Carey 's previous work , he noted songs in which Carey alludes to her failed marriage to Mottola , such as " Butterfly " and " Close My Eyes " which were both released on the album following the divorce with lyrics about letting love go and life struggles . Additionally he wrote , " Since Carey writes her own lyrics , fans might expect a glimpse of marital discord or pride in her new @-@ found autonomy . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave Butterfly a B- in his review . Browne wrote : " In Breakdown , [ Carey ] demonstrates she can match the staccato , lite @-@ reggae phrasing of her guests , two members of Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony . " He described an increased intimacy in the music but noted the arrangement made it difficult to hear the lyrics Carey was singing . " Butterfly is undeniably pleasant , with little of the all @-@ conquering bombast usually associated with Carey . But it 's also the last thing anyone would have expected from her : blandly self @-@ effacing . "
In a retrospective review of the album , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic appreciated the new direction of Carey 's music , commenting on the increased urban feel of the work . He described the record as " a collection of hit singles surrounded by classy filler " and " while [ the songs ] are all well @-@ crafted , many of them blend together upon initial listening " . However , he noted an increased control in her voice which led him to describe some of the ballads such as ' Butterfly ' and ' Breakdown ' as among her best work . He said Butterfly was one of Carey 's best records and she was " continuing to improve and refine her music , which makes her a rarity among her ' 90s peers . " Rich Juzwiak from Slant Magazine awarded the album a score of four and a half out of five stars , calling it " elegant " and praising Carey 's mature vocals . Juzwiak particularly praised " Breakdown " , which he called one of the album 's best tracks . Of Carey 's vocals , he wrote , " The relatively high and thin register that she sings in when not belting ( and that 's often ) could be the most important of Butterfly 's changes , as it marks the first time that Mariah the vocalist seems consistently real . She 's utterly soulful . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave Butterfly a " dud " rating , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought " .
= = Chart performance = =
Butterfly sold 236 @,@ 000 copies in the first week after its release and entered the Billboard 200 at number one . It maintained that position for one week and remained in the top twenty for 21 weeks ; it stayed in the chart for 55 weeks , including one re @-@ entry . The album achieved its highest weekly sales in the 14th and 15th weeks of its release , when it was number eight in the chart , peaking at 283 @,@ 000 sales in the 15th week . It also peaked at number three on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . In the United States , Butterfly was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of five million copies . Nielsen SoundScan estimates the album 's sales at 3 @,@ 807 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In Canada , the album debuted at number one and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies of the album . Butterfly debuted at number one in Australia , and received a double @-@ platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , indicating shipments of 140 @,@ 000 units .
In Europe , Butterfly peaked within the top @-@ five in several European countries . It received a platinum certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of well one million copies throughout Europe . In the United Kingdom , Butterfly peaked at number two , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album peaked at number six , where it was certified double @-@ gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . Sales of Butterfly in France are estimated at 292 @,@ 000 .
As with many of Carey 's previous records , Butterfly became a large success in Asia . In Japan , the record debuted at number one on the album charts . The album was certified the Million Award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) , denoting shipments of one million copies . In Hong Kong , Butterfly finished as one of the twenty best @-@ selling foreign albums of 1997 , receiving a platinum certification by IFPI .
= = Singles = =
Five singles were released from Butterfly ; some featured as airplay @-@ only singles , while others were released only in certain territories . " Honey " was released as the album 's first single on August 26 , 1997 . The song became Carey 's twelfth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the chart in Canada , while reaching the top @-@ five in New Zealand , Spain and the United Kingdom . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of one million units in the United States , and received a gold certification in Australia . " Honey " was well @-@ received , with critics complimenting its catchy sound and clever fusion of pop and R & B sounds. the title track served as the album 's second single , but it was released as an " airplay @-@ only " single due to Carey 's conflict with Sony . Though not being released commercially by her label , " Butterfly " reached number sixteen on the Hot 100 Airplay , as well as the top @-@ twenty in New Zealand .
" Breakdown " was the third single released from Butterfly . The song received a limited release throughout certain countries , such as the United States , where it peaked at number four on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . Aside from the US , " Breakdown " achieved a steady peak of number four on the New Zealand singles chart , in addition to entering the top @-@ forty in Australia . While not one of Carey 's best @-@ known hits , " Breakdown " remains one of her most praised songs , receiving acclaim for assisting Carey 's transition into the R & B market . In his review for the album , Rich Juzwiak from Slant magazine wrote the following :
" The song of Carey 's career , where the lyrical strokes are as broad and obvious as they are naked . Mariah the chanter flawlessly adapts to their singsong style , largely boxing her multi @-@ octave range into a sly , hypnotic melody so that when she really wails at the end , you really feel it . Carey lunges toward musical maturity by embracing , not shunning hip @-@ hop . This is the height of her elegance and maybe hip @-@ hop @-@ soul 's , too . "
While " Breakdown " served as the album 's third single in the United States , New Zealand and Australia , " The Roof " was released in Europe . It performed weakly on the charts , peaking at number 96 in the United Kingdom , and faring only slightly better in the Netherlands , where it peaked at number 63 . While not commercially released in the US , the song 's music video received heavy rotation on MTV and Vh1 , due to the record 's popularity . " My All " was chosen as the album 's fifth and final single . The song was the most commercially successful song on Butterfly , becoming Carey 's thirteenth chart topper in the US , and reaching the top @-@ ten throughout Europe . In France , " My All " peaked at number six , and was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . In the United States , the song finished at number seventeen , on the Billboard Year @-@ End chart , remaining Carey 's highest charting single of 1998 .
= = Promotion = =
To promote Butterfly , Carey made many live appearances . On November 12 , 1997 , on The Oprah Winfrey Show , Carey was interviewed about her split from Mottola and sang a live rendition of " Butterfly " and her hit " Hero " . Carey also featured as a musical guest on September 21 , 1997 on Saturday Night Live , performing " Butterfly " again , as well as the Spanish @-@ inspired " My All " . She made two appearances on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show ; she performed " My All " and on her return visit , sang " Close My Eyes " live for the first time . Carey also gave performances at awards shows , singing " My All " at the 1998 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards and " Honey " at the 1998 World Music Awards . In Europe , Carey made several promotional television appearances . In the United Kingdom , Carey performed " My All " and " Honey " on the Des O 'Connor Show and Top of the Pops . In Germany , she sang " Butterfly " on Wetten , dass .. ? and performed on Japanese television .
Originally , Carey had not planned to tour , after receiving mixed reviews in the US for her Music Box Tour . However , after the album 's release , many fans requested Carey to tour , especially in Asia and Australia . Therefore , Carey embarked on the Butterfly World Tour ; her third head @-@ lining tour and most extensive to date . The tour included eleven shows , four in Japan 's largest stadium , Tokyo Dome , one in Taiwan , five in Australia and one in the United States . All 200 @,@ 000 tickets for her Japanese shows sold out within one hour ; the other ten shows also sold out . As part of her performance at the 50 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity Aloha Stadium in Hawaii , Carey filmed a concert video , Around the World . The video was a compilation DVD which included parts of Carey 's shows in Japan , Australia and Hawaii . The tour was a critical and commercial success . Both fans and critics praised the quality of the show and Carey 's vocals .
= = Accolades = =
Butterfly , recognised by critics as one of Carey 's best albums at that point in her career , received several awards and was nominated for others . At the Billboard Music Awards , Carey received an honorary award , recognizing her achievement of earning " The Most Number @-@ one Singles Ever by a Female Solo Artist in History " . " Honey " was nominated at the 1998 Grammy Awards for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song , while " Butterfly " was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Butterfly won a Japan Gold Disc Award in the " International Pop Album of the Year " category . For Butterfly , Carey won the American Music Award for Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist in 1998 . Additionally , the album won the BMI Pop Award for " Songwriter of the Year " and the " Songwriter " awards for " Honey , " " Butterfly " and " My All . " At the Soul Train Music Awards in 1998 , Carey won the awards for the Aretha Franklin " Entertainer of the Year " and " Soul Train Lady of Soul " , which were presented to her by Chris Tucker and Patti Labelle .
Butterfly was nominated at the 1998 NAACP Image Awards , in the " Outstanding Female Artist " category . At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , Carey was named the " Songwriter of the Year , " and received the " Song of the Year
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reflecting his lifelong passion for those stories and his academic career in Germanic philology . The Hobbit is no exception to this ; the work shows influences from northern European literature , myths and languages and the strong influence of Norse mythology , especially from the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda . Examples include the names of some characters , such as Fili , Kili , Oin , Gloin , Bifur , Bofur , Bombur , Dori , Nori , Dwalin , Balin , Dain , Nain , Thorin Oakenshield and Gandalf ( deriving from the Old Norse names Fíli , Kíli , Oin , Glói , Bivör , Bávörr , Bömburr , Dori , Nóri , Dvalinn , Bláin , Dain , Nain , Þorin Eikinskialdi and Gandálfr ) . But whilst their names are from Old Norse , the characters of the dwarves are more directly taken from fairy tales such as Snow White and Snow @-@ White and Rose @-@ Red as collected by the Brothers Grimm . The latter of these tales may have also influenced the character of Beorn .
Tolkien 's use of descriptive personal and place names such as Misty Mountains and Bag End echoes the descriptive names used in Old Norse sagas . The names of the dwarf @-@ friendly ravens are also derived from Old Norse for ' raven ' and ' rook ' , but their characters are unlike the typical war @-@ carrion from Old Norse and Old English literature . Tolkien , however , is not simply skimming historical sources for effect : linguistic styles , especially the relationship between the modern and ancient , has been seen to be one of the major themes explored by the story . Another characteristic of The Hobbit found in Old Norse sagas is maps accompanying the text of the story . Several of the author 's illustrations ( including the dwarven map , the frontispiece and the dust jacket ) make use of Anglo @-@ Saxon runes , an English extension of the Germanic runic alphabets .
Themes found in Old English literature , and specifically in the poem Beowulf , have a heavy presence in defining the ancient world Bilbo stepped into . Tolkien , an accomplished Beowulf scholar , claims the poem to be among his " most valued sources " in writing The Hobbit . Tolkien is credited with being the first critic to expound on Beowulf as a literary work with value beyond merely historical , and his 1936 lecture Beowulf : the Monsters and the Critics is still required in some Old English courses . The Beowulf poem contains several elements that Tolkien borrowed for The Hobbit , including a monstrous , intelligent dragon . Certain descriptions in The Hobbit seem to have been lifted straight out of Beowulf with some minor rewording , such as when each dragon stretches out its neck to sniff for intruders . Likewise , Tolkien 's descriptions of the lair as accessed through a secret passage mirror those in Beowulf . Other specific plot elements and features in The Hobbit that show similarities to Beowulf include the title thief as Bilbo is called by Gollum and later by Smaug , and Smaug 's personality which leads to the destruction of Lake @-@ town . Tolkien refines parts of Beowulf 's plot that he appears to have found less than satisfactorily described , such as details about the cup @-@ thief and the dragon 's intellect and personality .
Another influence from Old English sources is the appearance of named blades of renown , adorned in runes . It is in the use of his elf @-@ blade that we see Bilbo finally taking his first independent heroic action . By his naming the blade " Sting " we see Bilbo 's acceptance of the kinds of cultural and linguistic practices found in Beowulf , signifying his entrance into the ancient world in which he found himself . This progression culminates in Bilbo stealing a cup from the dragon 's hoard , rousing him to wrath — an incident directly mirroring Beowulf , and an action entirely determined by traditional narrative patterns . As Tolkien wrote , " The episode of the theft arose naturally ( and almost inevitably ) from the circumstances . It is difficult to think of any other way of conducting the story at this point . I fancy the author of Beowulf would say much the same . "
The name of the wizard Radagast is widely recognized to be taken from the name of the Slavic deity Rodegast .
The representation of the dwarves in The Hobbit was influenced by his own selective reading of medieval texts regarding the Jewish people and their history . The dwarves ' characteristics of being dispossessed of their ancient homeland at the Lonely Mountain , and living among other groups whilst retaining their own culture are all derived from the medieval image of Jews , whilst their warlike nature stems from accounts in the Hebrew Bible . The Dwarven calendar invented for The Hobbit reflects the Jewish calendar in beginning in late autumn . And although Tolkien denied allegory , the dwarves taking Bilbo out of his complacent existence has been seen as an eloquent metaphor for the " impoverishment of Western society without Jews . "
= = = Publication = = =
George Allen & Unwin Ltd. of London published the first edition of The Hobbit on 21 September 1937 with a print run of 1 @,@ 500 copies , which sold out by December because of enthusiastic reviews . This first printing was illustrated in black and white by Tolkien , who designed the dust jacket as well . Houghton Mifflin of Boston and New York reset type for an American edition , to be released early in 1938 , in which four of the illustrations would be colour plates . Allen & Unwin decided to incorporate the colour illustrations into their second printing , released at the end of 1937 . Despite the book 's popularity , paper rationing brought on by wartime conditions and not ending until 1949 meant that the Allen & Unwin edition of the book was often unavailable during this period .
Subsequent editions in English were published in 1951 , 1966 , 1978 and 1995 . The novel has been reprinted frequently by many publishers . In addition , The Hobbit has been translated into over forty languages , with more than one published version for some languages .
= = = = Revisions = = = =
In December 1937 , The Hobbit 's publisher , Stanley Unwin , asked Tolkien for a sequel . In response Tolkien provided drafts for The Silmarillion , but the editors rejected them , believing that the public wanted " more about hobbits " . Tolkien subsequently began work on The New Hobbit , which would eventually become The Lord of the Rings , a course that would not only change the context of the original story , but lead to substantial changes to the character of Gollum .
In the first edition of The Hobbit , Gollum willingly bets his magic ring on the outcome of the riddle @-@ game , and he and Bilbo part amicably . In the second edition edits , to reflect the new concept of the ring and its corrupting abilities , Tolkien made Gollum more aggressive towards Bilbo and distraught at losing the ring . The encounter ends with Gollum 's curse , " Thief ! Thief , Thief , Baggins ! We hates it , we hates it , we hates it forever ! " This presages Gollum 's portrayal in The Lord of the Rings .
Tolkien sent this revised version of the chapter " Riddles in the Dark " to Unwin as an example of the kinds of changes needed to bring the book into conformity with The Lord of the Rings , but he heard nothing back for years . When he was sent galley proofs of a new edition , Tolkien was surprised to find the sample text had been incorporated . In The Lord of the Rings , the original version of the riddle game is explained as a " lie " made up by Bilbo under the harmful influence of the Ring , whereas the revised version contains the " true " account . The revised text became the second edition , published in 1951 in both the UK and the US .
Tolkien began a new version in 1960 , attempting to adjust the tone of The Hobbit to its sequel . He abandoned the new revision at chapter three after he received criticism that it " just wasn 't The Hobbit " , implying it had lost much of its light @-@ hearted tone and quick pace .
After an unauthorized paperback edition of The Lord of the Rings appeared from Ace Books in 1965 , Houghton Mifflin and Ballantine asked Tolkien to refresh the text of The Hobbit to renew the US copyright . This text became the 1966 third edition . Tolkien took the opportunity to align the narrative even more closely to The Lord of the Rings and to cosmological developments from his still unpublished Quenta Silmarillion as it stood at that time . These small edits included , for example , changing the phrase " elves that are now called Gnomes " from the first and second editions on page 63 , to " High Elves of the West , my kin " in the third edition . Tolkien had used " gnome " in his earlier writing to refer to the second kindred of the High Elves — the Noldor ( or " Deep Elves " ) — thinking " gnome " , derived from the Greek gnosis ( knowledge ) , was a good name for the wisest of the elves . However , because of its common denotation of a garden gnome , derived from the 16th @-@ century Paracelsus , Tolkien abandoned the term .
= = = = Posthumous editions = = = =
Since the author 's death , two editions of The Hobbit have been published with commentary on the creation , emendation and development of the text . In The Annotated Hobbit Douglas Anderson provides the entire text of the published book , alongside commentary and illustrations . Later editions added the text of The Quest of Erebor . Anderson 's commentary shows many of the sources Tolkien brought together in preparing the text , and chronicles in detail the changes Tolkien made to the various published editions . Alongside the annotations , the text is illustrated by pictures from many of the translated editions , including images by Tove Jansson . The edition also presents a number of little @-@ known texts such as the 1923 version of Tolkien 's poem " Iumonna Gold Galdre Bewunden " .
With The History of The Hobbit , published in two parts in 2007 , John Rateliff provides the full text of the earliest and intermediary drafts of the book , alongside commentary that shows relationships to Tolkien 's scholarly and creative works , both contemporary and later . Rateliff moreover provides the abandoned 1960s retelling and previously unpublished illustrations by Tolkien . The book keeps Rateliff 's commentary separate from Tolkien 's text , allowing the reader to read the original drafts as contained stories .
= = = Illustration and design = = =
Tolkien 's correspondence and publisher 's records show that he was involved in the design and illustration of the entire book . All elements were the subject of considerable correspondence and fussing over by Tolkien . Rayner Unwin , in his publishing memoir , comments : " In 1937 alone Tolkien wrote 26 letters to George Allen & Unwin ... detailed , fluent , often pungent , but infinitely polite and exasperatingly precise ... I doubt any author today , however famous , would get such scrupulous attention . "
Even the maps , of which Tolkien originally proposed five , were considered and debated . He wished Thror 's map to be tipped in ( that is , glued in after the book has been bound ) at first mention in the text , and with the moon @-@ letters ( Anglo @-@ Saxon runes ) on the reverse so they could be seen when held up to the light . In the end the cost , as well as the shading of the maps , which would be difficult to reproduce , resulted in the final design of two maps as endpapers , Thror 's map , and the Map of Wilderland , both printed in black and red on the paper 's cream background .
Originally Allen & Unwin planned to illustrate the book only with the endpaper maps , but Tolkien 's first tendered sketches so charmed the publisher 's staff that they opted to include them without raising the book 's price despite the extra cost . Thus encouraged , Tolkien supplied a second batch of illustrations . The publisher accepted all of these as well , giving the first edition ten black @-@ and @-@ white illustrations plus the two endpaper maps . The illustrated scenes were : The Hill : Hobbiton @-@ across @-@ the @-@ Water , The Trolls , The Mountain Path , The Misty Mountains looking West from the Eyrie towards Goblin Gate , Beorn 's Hall , Mirkwood , The Elvenking 's Gate , Lake Town , The Front Gate , and The Hall at Bag @-@ End . All but one of the illustrations were a full page , and one , the Mirkwood illustration , required a separate plate .
Satisfied with his skills , the publishers asked Tolkien to design a dust jacket . This project , too , became the subject of many iterations and much correspondence , with Tolkien always writing disparagingly of his own ability to draw . The runic inscription around the edges of the illustration are a phonetic transliteration of English , giving the title of the book and details of the author and publisher . The original jacket design contained several shades of various colours , but Tolkien redrew it several times using fewer colours each time . His final design consisted of four colours . The publishers , mindful of the cost , removed the red from the sun to end up with only black , blue , and green ink on white stock .
The publisher 's production staff designed a binding , but Tolkien objected to several elements . Through several iterations , the final design ended up as mostly the author 's . The spine shows Anglo Saxon runes : two " þ " ( Thráin and Thrór ) and one " D " ( Door ) . The front and back covers were mirror images of each other , with an elongated dragon characteristic of Tolkien 's style stamped along the lower edge , and with a sketch of the Misty Mountains stamped along the upper edge .
Once illustrations were approved for the book , Tolkien proposed colour plates as well . The publisher would not relent on this , so Tolkien pinned his hopes on the American edition to be published about six months later . Houghton Mifflin rewarded these hopes with the replacement of the frontispiece ( The Hill : Hobbiton @-@ across @-@ the Water ) in colour and the addition of new colour plates : Rivendell , Bilbo Woke Up with the Early Sun in His Eyes , Bilbo comes to the Huts of the Raft @-@ elves and a Conversation with Smaug , which features a dwarvish curse written in Tolkien 's invented script Tengwar , and signed with two " þ " ( " Th " ) runes . The additional illustrations proved so appealing that George Allen & Unwin adopted the colour plates as well for their second printing , with exception of Bilbo Woke Up with the Early Sun in His Eyes .
Different editions have been illustrated in diverse ways . Many follow the original scheme at least loosely , but many others are illustrated by other artists , especially the many translated editions . Some cheaper editions , particularly paperback , are not illustrated except with the maps . " The Children 's Book Club " edition of 1942 includes the black @-@ and @-@ white pictures but no maps , an anomaly .
Tolkien 's use of runes , both as decorative devices and as magical signs within the story , has been cited as a major cause for the popularization of runes within " New Age " and esoteric literature , stemming from Tolkien 's popularity with the elements of counter @-@ culture in the 1970s .
= = Genre = =
The Hobbit takes cues from narrative models of children 's literature , as shown by its omniscient narrator and characters that young children can relate to , such as the small , food @-@ obsessed , and morally ambiguous Bilbo . The text emphasizes the relationship between time and narrative progress and it openly distinguishes " safe " from " dangerous " in its geography . Both are key elements of works intended for children , as is the " home @-@ away @-@ home " ( or there and back again ) plot structure typical of the Bildungsroman . While Tolkien later claimed to dislike the aspect of the narrative voice addressing the reader directly , the narrative voice contributes significantly to the success of the novel . Emer O 'Sullivan , in her Comparative Children 's Literature , notes The Hobbit as one of a handful of children 's books that has been accepted into mainstream literature , alongside Jostein Gaarder 's Sophie 's World ( 1991 ) and J. K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series ( 1997 – 2007 ) .
Tolkien intended The Hobbit as a " fairy @-@ story " and wrote it in a tone suited to addressing children although he said later that the book was not specifically written for children but had rather been created out of his interest in mythology and legend . Many of the initial reviews refer to the work as a fairy story . However , according to Jack Zipes writing in " The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales " , Bilbo is an atypical character for a fairy tale . The work is much longer than Tolkien 's ideal proposed in his essay On Fairy @-@ Stories . Many fairy tale motifs , such as the repetition of similar events seen in the dwarves ' arrival at Bilbo 's and Beorn 's homes , and folklore themes , such as trolls turning to stone , are to be found in the story .
The book is popularly called ( and often marketed as ) a fantasy novel , but like Peter Pan and Wendy by J. M. Barrie and The Princess and the Goblin by George MacDonald , both of which influenced Tolkien and contain fantasy elements , it is primarily identified as being children 's literature . The two genres are not mutually exclusive , so some definitions of high fantasy include works for children by authors such as L. Frank Baum and Lloyd Alexander alongside the works of Gene Wolfe and Jonathan Swift , which are more often considered adult literature . The Hobbit has been called " the most popular of all twentieth @-@ century fantasies written for children . " Chance , however , considers the book to be a children 's novel only in the sense that it appeals to the child in an adult reader . Sullivan credits the first publication of The Hobbit as an important step in the development of high fantasy , and further credits the 1960s paperback debuts of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings as essential to the creation of a mass market for fiction of this kind as well as the fantasy genre 's current status .
= = Style = =
Tolkien 's prose is unpretentious and straightforward , taking as given the existence of his imaginary world and describing its details in a matter @-@ of @-@ fact way , while often introducing the new and fantastic in an almost casual manner . This down @-@ to @-@ earth style , also found in later fantasy such as Richard Adams ' Watership Down and Peter Beagle 's The Last Unicorn , accepts readers into the fictional world , rather than cajoling or attempting to convince them of its reality . While The Hobbit is written in a simple , friendly language , each of its characters has a unique voice . The narrator , who occasionally interrupts the narrative flow with asides ( a device common to both children 's and Anglo @-@ Saxon literature ) , has his own linguistic style separate from those of the main characters .
The basic form of the story is that of a quest , told in episodes . For the most part of the book , each chapter introduces a different denizen of the Wilderland , some helpful and friendly towards the protagonists , and others threatening or dangerous . However the general tone is kept light @-@ hearted , being interspersed with songs and humour . One example of the use of song to maintain tone is when Thorin and Company are kidnapped by goblins , who , when marching them into the underworld , sing :
Clap ! Snap ! the black crack !
Grip , grab ! Pinch , nab !
And down down to Goblin @-@ town
You go , my lad !
This onomatopoeic singing undercuts the dangerous scene with a sense of humour . Tolkien achieves balance of humour and danger through other means as well , as seen in the foolishness and Cockney dialect of the trolls and in the drunkenness of the elven captors . The general form — that of a journey into strange lands , told in a light @-@ hearted mood and interspersed with songs — may be following the model of The Icelandic Journals by William Morris , an important literary influence on Tolkien .
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Themes = = =
The evolution and maturation of the protagonist , Bilbo Baggins , is central to the story . This journey of maturation , where Bilbo gains a clear sense of identity and confidence in the outside world , may be seen as a Bildungsroman rather than a traditional quest . The Jungian concept of individuation is also reflected through this theme of growing maturity and capability , with the author contrasting Bilbo 's personal growth against the arrested development of the dwarves . Thus , while Gandalf exerts a parental influence over Bilbo early on , it is Bilbo who gradually takes over leadership of the party , a fact the dwarves could not bear to acknowledge . The analogue of the " underworld " and the hero returning from it with a boon ( such as the ring , or Elvish blades ) that benefits his society is seen to fit the mythic archetypes regarding initiation and male coming @-@ of @-@ age as described by Joseph Campbell . Chance compares the development and growth of Bilbo against other characters to the concepts of just kingship versus sinful kingship derived from the Ancrene Wisse ( which Tolkien had written on in 1929 ) and a Christian understanding of Beowulf .
The overcoming of greed and selfishness has been seen as the central moral of the story . Whilst greed is a recurring theme in the novel , with many of the episodes stemming from one or more of the characters ' simple desire for food ( be it trolls eating dwarves or dwarves eating Wood @-@ elf fare ) or a desire for beautiful objects , such as gold and jewels , it is only by the Arkenstone 's influence upon Thorin that greed , and its attendant vices " coveting " and " malignancy " , come fully to the fore in the story and provide the moral crux of the tale . Bilbo steals the Arkenstone — a most ancient relic of the dwarves — and attempts to ransom it to Thorin for peace . However , Thorin turns on the Hobbit as a traitor , disregarding all the promises and " at your services " he had previously bestowed . In the end Bilbo gives up the precious stone and most of his share of the treasure to help those in greater need . Tolkien also explores the motif of jewels that inspire intense greed that corrupts those who covet them in the Silmarillion , and there are connections between the words " Arkenstone " and " Silmaril " in Tolkien 's invented etymologies .
The Hobbit employs themes of animism . An important concept in anthropology and child development , animism is the idea that all things — including inanimate objects and natural events , such as storms or purses , as well as living things like animals and plants — possess human @-@ like intelligence . John D. Rateliff calls this the " Doctor Dolittle Theme " in The History of the Hobbit , and cites the multitude of talking animals as indicative of this theme . These talking creatures include ravens , a thrush , spiders and the dragon Smaug , alongside the anthropomorphic goblins and elves . Patrick Curry notes that animism is also found in Tolkien 's other works , and mentions the " roots of mountains " and " feet of trees " in The Hobbit as a linguistic shifting in level from the inanimate to animate . Tolkien saw the idea of animism as closely linked to the emergence of human language and myth : " ... The first men to talk of ' trees and stars ' saw things very differently . To them , the world was alive with mythological beings ... To them the whole of creation was ' myth @-@ woven and elf @-@ patterned ' . "
= = = Interpretation = = =
As in plot and setting , Tolkien brings his literary theories to bear in forming characters and their interactions . He portrays Bilbo as a modern anachronism exploring an essentially antique world . Bilbo is able to negotiate and interact within this antique world because language and tradition make connections between the two worlds . For example , Gollum 's riddles are taken from old historical sources , while those of Bilbo come from modern nursery books . It is the form of the riddle game , familiar to both , which allows Gollum and Bilbo to engage each other , rather than the content of the riddles themselves . This idea of a superficial contrast between characters ' individual linguistic style , tone and sphere of interest , leading to an understanding of the deeper unity between the ancient and modern , is a recurring theme in The Hobbit .
Smaug is the main antagonist . In many ways the Smaug episode reflects and references the dragon of Be
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. Countering a presentist interpretation are those who say this approach misses out on much of the original 's value as a children 's book and as a work of high fantasy in its own right , and that it disregards the book 's influence on these genres . Commentators such as Paul Kocher , John D. Rateliff and C. W. Sullivan encourage readers to treat the works separately , both because The Hobbit was conceived , published , and received independently of the later work , and also to prevent the reader from having false expectations of tone and style dashed .
= = Legacy = =
= = = The Lord of the Rings = = =
While The Hobbit has been adapted and elaborated upon in many ways , its sequel The Lord of the Rings is often claimed to be its greatest legacy . The plots share the same basic structure progressing in the same sequence : the stories begin at Bag End , the home of Bilbo Baggins ; Bilbo hosts a party that sets the novel 's main plot into motion ; Gandalf sends the protagonist into a quest eastward ; Elrond offers a haven and advice ; the adventurers escape dangerous creatures underground ( Goblin Town / Moria ) ; they engage another group of elves ( The Elvenking ’ s realm / Lothlórien ) ; they traverse a desolate region ( Desolation of Smaug / the Dead Marshes ) ; they are received and nourished by a small settlement of men ( Lake @-@ town / Ithilien ) ; they fight in a massive battle ( The Battle of Five Armies / Battle of Pelennor Fields ) ; their journey climaxes within an infamous mountain peak ( Lonely Mountain / Mount Doom ) ; a descendant of kings is restored to his ancestral throne ( Bard / Aragorn ) ; and the questing party returns home to find it in a deteriorated condition ( having possessions auctioned off / the scouring of the Shire ) .
The Lord of the Rings contains several more supporting scenes , and has a more sophisticated plot structure , following the paths of multiple characters . Tolkien wrote the later story in much less humorous tones and infused it with more complex moral and philosophical themes . The differences between the two stories can cause difficulties when readers , expecting them to be similar , find that they are not . Many of the thematic and stylistic differences arose because Tolkien wrote The Hobbit as a story for children , and The Lord of the Rings for the same audience , who had subsequently grown up since its publication . Further , Tolkien 's concept of Middle @-@ earth was to continually change and slowly evolve throughout his life and writings .
= = = In education = = =
The style and themes of the book have been seen to help stretch young readers ' literacy skills , preparing them to approach the works of Dickens and Shakespeare . By contrast , offering advanced younger readers modern teenage @-@ oriented fiction may not exercise their reading skills , while the material may contain themes more suited to adolescents . As one of several books that have been recommended for 11- to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys to encourage literacy in that demographic , The Hobbit is promoted as " the original and still the best fantasy ever written . "
Several teaching guides and books of study notes have been published to help teachers and students gain the most from the book . The Hobbit introduces literary concepts , notably allegory , to young readers , as the work has been seen to have allegorical aspects reflecting the life and times of the author . Meanwhile , the author himself rejected an allegorical reading of his work . This tension can help introduce readers to readerly and writerly interpretations , to tenets of New Criticism , and critical tools from Freudian analysis , such as sublimation , in approaching literary works .
Another approach to critique taken in the classroom has been to propose the insignificance of female characters in the story as sexist . While Bilbo may be seen as a literary symbol of small folk of any gender , a gender @-@ conscious approach can help students establish notions of a " socially symbolic text " where meaning is generated by tendentious readings of a given work . By this interpretation , it is ironic that the first authorized adaptation was a stage production in a girls ' school .
= = = Adaptations = = =
The first authorized adaptation of The Hobbit appeared in March 1953 , a stage production by St. Margaret 's School , Edinburgh . The Hobbit has since been adapted for other media many times .
The first motion picture adaptation of The Hobbit , a 12 @-@ minute film of cartoon stills , was commissioned from Gene Deitch by William L. Snyder in 1966 , as related by Deitch himself . This film was publicly screened in New York City . In 1969 ( over 30 years after first publication ) , Tolkien sold the film and merchandising rights to The Hobbit to United Artists under an agreement stipulating a lump sum payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 plus a 7 @.@ 5 % royalty after costs , payable to Allen & Unwin and the author . In 1976 ( three years after the author 's death ) United Artists sold the rights to Saul Zaentz Company , who trade as Tolkien Enterprises . Since then all " authorized " adaptations have been signed @-@ off by Tolkien Enterprises . In 1997 Tolkien Enterprises licensed the film rights to Miramax , which assigned them in 1998 to New Line Cinema . The heirs of Tolkien , including his son Christopher Tolkien , filed suit against New Line Cinema in February 2008 seeking payment of profits and to be " entitled to cancel ... all future rights of New Line ... to produce , distribute , and / or exploit future films based upon the Trilogy and / or the Films ... and / or ... films based on The Hobbit . " In September 2009 , he and New Line reached an undisclosed settlement , and he has withdrawn his legal objection to The Hobbit films .
The BBC Radio 4 series The Hobbit radio drama was an adaptation by Michael Kilgarriff , broadcast in eight parts ( four hours in total ) from September to November 1968 . It starred Anthony Jackson as narrator , Paul Daneman as Bilbo and Heron Carvic as Gandalf . The series was released on audio cassette in 1988 and on CD in 1997 .
The Hobbit , an animated version of the story produced by Rankin / Bass , debuted as a television movie in the United States in 1977 . In 1978 , Romeo Muller won a Peabody Award for his teleplay for The Hobbit . The film was also nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , but lost to Star Wars . The adaptation has been called " execrable " and confusing for those not already familiar with the plot .
In Decembers of 2012 , 2013 , and 2014 , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and New Line Cinema released one part each of a three @-@ part live @-@ action film version produced and directed by Peter Jackson . The titles were The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug , and The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies .
A three @-@ part comic @-@ book adaptation with script by Chuck Dixon and Sean Deming and illustrated by David Wenzel was published by Eclipse Comics in 1989 . In 1990 a one @-@ volume edition was released by Unwin Paperbacks . The cover was artwork by the original illustrator David Wenzel . A reprint collected in one volume was released by Del Rey Books in 2001 . Its cover , illustrated by Donato Giancola , was awarded the Association of Science Fiction Artists Award for Best Cover Illustration in 2002 .
ME Games Ltd ( formerly Middle @-@ earth Play @-@ by @-@ Mail ) , which has won several Origin Awards , uses the Battle of Five Armies as an introductory scenario to the full game and includes characters and armies from the book .
Several computer and video games , both licensed and unlicensed , have been based on the story . One of the most successful was The Hobbit , an award @-@ winning computer game published in 1982 by Beam Software and published by Melbourne House with compatibility for most computers available at the time . A copy of the novel was included in each game package . The game does not retell the story , but rather sits alongside it , using the book 's narrative to both structure and motivate gameplay . The game won the Golden Joystick Award for Strategy Game of the Year in 1983 and was responsible for popularizing the phrase , " Thorin sits down and starts singing about gold . "
= = = Collectors ' market = = =
While reliable figures are difficult to obtain , estimated global sales of The Hobbit run between 35 and 100 million copies since 1937 . In the UK The Hobbit has not retreated from the top 5 @,@ 000 books of Nielsen BookScan since 1995 , when the index began , achieving a three @-@ year sales peak rising from 33 @,@ 084 ( 2000 ) to 142 @,@ 541 ( 2001 ) , 126 @,@ 771 ( 2002 ) and 61 @,@ 229 ( 2003 ) , ranking it at the 3rd position in Nielsens ' " Evergreen " book list . The enduring popularity of The Hobbit makes early printings of the book attractive collectors ' items . The first printing of the first English @-@ language edition can sell for between £ 6 @,@ 000 and £ 20 @,@ 000 at auction , although the price for a signed first edition has reached over £ 60 @,@ 000 .
= M @-@ 62 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 62 is an arc @-@ shaped state trunkline highway in the southwestern part of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs from the Indiana state line north and west to M @-@ 140 in Eau Claire . In between , it serves the western Cass County communities of Dowagiac and Cassopolis . The highway was formed in the 1920s , originally as a north – south route . It was later extended , taking the current arc @-@ shaped routing . A short truncation in the 1950s produced the current routing , which has remained unchanged since . In total , M @-@ 62 runs about 28 1 ⁄ 3 miles ( 45 @.@ 6 km ) in the two counties .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 62 follows a roughly " question mark " -shaped routing in southwestern Michigan . It starts at the Indiana state line south of Edwardsburg in Cass County 's Ontwa Township north of Granger , Indiana . The trunkline connects with State Road 23 and runs north through farmland to Edwardsburg , intersecting US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in town . M @-@ 62 turns northeasterly running out of town parallel to a rail line up to Cassopolis . The trunkline crosses the rail line and runs concurrently with M @-@ 60 through Cassopolis . The two highways pass Stone Lake on the way into downtown . M @-@ 62 continues north after leaving M @-@ 60 , then curves west to leave town ; between these locations is where the change in signposting from north – south to east – west occurs . It then continues through more farmland to La Grange , where it crosses the Dowagiac River at the mouth of La Grange Lake . It crosses the river a second time on the way northwest to Dowagiac .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the traffic volumes along the roads it maintains . This is measured using a metric called average annual daily traffic , which is the number of vehicle per day that use a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT 's survey calculated that 2 @,@ 246 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 62 between Cassopolis , La Grange and Dowagiac . This was the lowest traffic count along the whole highway .
The third crossing of the Dowagiac is at the mouth of Mill Pond in eastern Dowagiac , where M @-@ 62 follows Division Street through downtown . This section of the highway had the highest traffic count with 9 @,@ 088 vehicles in 2009 . At Front Street , M @-@ 51 merges with M @-@ 62 , and the two run concurrently to the west through town . M @-@ 62 continues westerly after M @-@ 51 separates and turns southwesterly near the Dowagiac Municipal Airport . The highway crosses into Berrien County south of Indian Lake and continues west through more scattered farms and woodland to a junction with M @-@ 140 . At this intersection , M @-@ 140 turns west along the roadway , and M @-@ 62 ends . No section of M @-@ 62 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads considered important to the country 's defense , economy or mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 62 was formed before 1924 along a portion of its current routing . The trunkline started at the Indiana state line and ran north through Edwardsburg and Cassopolis . The northern terminus was at M @-@ 40 ( now M @-@ 51 ) in Dowagiac . The southern section was moved by the end of 1925 to follow a more direct routing between Edwardsburg and the state line . An extension in 1930 moved the northern terminus west into Berrien County , ending in Eau Claire . The final few miles of highway were transferred back in local control around 1957 . Before the transfer , M @-@ 62 ran concurrently with M @-@ 140 west and continued into Eau Claire . After the transfer , M @-@ 62 ended at the eastern M @-@ 140 junction and the concurrency was removed .
= = Major intersections = =
= Gliding =
Gliding is a recreational activity and competitive air sport in which pilots fly unpowered aircraft known as gliders or sailplanes using naturally occurring currents of rising air in the atmosphere to remain airborne . The word soaring is also used for the sport .
Gliding as a sport began in the 1920s . Initially the objective was to increase the duration of flights but soon pilots attempted cross @-@ country flights away from the place of launch . Improvements in aerodynamics and in the understanding of weather phenomena have allowed greater distances at higher average speeds . Long distances are now flown using any of the main sources of rising air : ridge lift , thermals and lee waves . When conditions are favourable , experienced pilots can now fly hundreds of kilometres before returning to their home airfields ; occasionally flights of more than 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 621 mi ) are achieved .
Some competitive pilots fly in races around pre @-@ defined courses . These gliding competitions test pilots ' abilities to make best use of local weather conditions as well as their flying skills . Local and national competitions are organized in many countries , and there are biennial World Gliding Championships . Techniques to maximize a glider 's speed around the day 's task in a competition have been developed , including the optimum speed to fly , navigation using GPS and the carrying of water ballast . If the weather deteriorates pilots are sometimes unable to complete a cross @-@ country flight . Consequently , they may need to land elsewhere , perhaps in a field , but motorglider pilots can avoid this by starting an engine .
Powered @-@ aircraft and winches are the two most common means of launching gliders . These and other launch methods require assistance and facilities such as airfields , tugs , and winches . These are usually provided by gliding clubs who also train new pilots and maintain high safety standards . Although in most countries the standards of safety of the pilots and the aircraft are the responsibility of governmental bodies , the clubs and sometimes national gliding associations often have delegated authority .
= = History = =
The development of heavier @-@ than @-@ air flight in the half century between Sir George Cayley 's coachman in 1853 and the Wright brothers mainly involved gliders ( see Aviation history ) . However , the sport of gliding only emerged after the First World War , as a result of the Treaty of Versailles , which imposed severe restrictions on the manufacture and use of single @-@ seat powered aircraft in Germany 's Weimar Republic . Thus , in the 1920s and 1930s , while aviators and aircraft makers in the rest of the world were working to improve the performance of powered aircraft , the Germans were designing , developing and flying ever more efficient gliders and discovering ways of using the natural forces in the atmosphere to make them fly farther and faster . With the active support of the German government , there were 50 @,@ 000 glider pilots by 1937 . The first German gliding competition was held at the Wasserkuppe in 1920 , organized by Oskar Ursinus . The best flight lasted two minutes and set a world distance record of 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . Within ten years , it had become an international event in which the achieved durations and distances had increased greatly . In 1931 , Gunther Grönhoff flew 272 kilometres ( 169 mi ) on the front of a storm from Munich to Kadaň ( Kaaden in German ) in Western Czechoslovakia , farther than had been thought possible .
In the 1930s , gliding spread to many other countries . In the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin gliding was a demonstration sport , and it was scheduled to be a full Olympic sport in the 1940 Games . A glider , the Olympia , was developed in Germany for the event , but World War II intervened . By 1939 the major gliding records were held by Russians , including a distance record of 748 kilometres ( 465 mi ) . During the war , the sport of gliding in Europe was largely suspended , though several German fighter aces in the conflict , including Erich Hartmann , began their flight training in gliders .
Gliding did not return to the Olympics after the war for two reasons : a shortage of gliders , and the failure to agree on a single model of competition glider . ( Some in the community feared doing so would hinder development of new designs . ) The re @-@ introduction of air sports such as gliding to the Olympics has occasionally been proposed by the world governing body , the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) , but has been rejected on the grounds of lack of public interest .
In many countries during the 1950s a large number of trained pilots wanted to continue flying . Many were also aeronautical engineers who could design , build and maintain gliders . They started both clubs and manufacturers , many of which still exist . This stimulated the development of both gliding and gliders , for example the membership of the Soaring Society of America increased from 1 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 by 1980 . The increased numbers of pilots , greater knowledge and improving technology helped set new records , for example the pre @-@ war altitude record was doubled by 1950 , and the first 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilometre ( 620 mi ) flight was achieved in 1964 . New materials such as glass fiber and carbon fiber , advances in wing shapes
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to Wayne County control . It was transferred again to state control on December 2 , 1930 . The Michigan State Highway Department designated it M @-@ 153 upon transfer to their responsibility . The highway designation was determined to continue west of the county line into Washtenaw County as a northerly bypass of Ann Arbor , but the segment between Canton Center Road and US 12 on Plymouth Road was not built at the time . The first extension west was finished in 1933 from the county line to Napier Road . The road was widened into a major thoroughfare between Detroit and Ann Arbor in 1934 , to relieve congestion on Michigan Avenue . The highway bypass of Ann Arbor was cancelled by 1935 , leaving the western terminus at US 12 ( Plymouth Road ) .
Construction of a northerly freeway bypass of Ann Arbor along M @-@ 14 to M @-@ 153 was completed by 1965 . A second freeway section was built between Ford Road at Frains Lake Road to the contemporary end of the M @-@ 14 freeway . This second freeway was assigned as part of M @-@ 153 and the former routing along Ford Road west to Plymouth Road was removed from the state trunkline highway system . A reconstruction project along M @-@ 153 in 1973 was completed , bringing the highway up to expressway standards . Several interchanges were built along the segment starting west of the M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) to I @-@ 94 in Dearborn . The last extension moved the western terminus in early 1980 when the M @-@ 14 freeway was completed , and M @-@ 153 was extended along a section of freeway used to connect the previous end of the M @-@ 14 freeway to Plymouth Road .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= Lake Toba =
Lake Toba ( Indonesian : Danau Toba ) is a large natural lake occupying the caldera of a supervolcano . The lake is about 100 kilometres long , 30 kilometres wide , and up to 505 metres ( 1 @,@ 666 ft ) deep . Located in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra , with a surface elevation of about 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 953 ft ) , the lake stretches from 2 @.@ 88 ° N 98 @.@ 52 ° E / 2 @.@ 88 ; 98 @.@ 52 to 2 @.@ 35 ° N 99 @.@ 1 ° E / 2 @.@ 35 ; 99 @.@ 1 . It is the largest lake in Indonesia and also the largest volcanic lake in the world .
Lake Toba is the site of a massive supervolcanic eruption estimated at VEI 8 that occurred 69 @,@ 000 to 77 @,@ 000 years ago , representing a climate @-@ changing event . It is the largest known explosive eruption on Earth in the last 25 million years . According to the Toba catastrophe theory , it had global consequences for human populations : it killed most humans living at that time and is believed to have created a population bottleneck in central east Africa and India , which affects the genetic make up of the human world @-@ wide population to the present .
It has been accepted that the eruption of Toba led to a volcanic winter with a worldwide decrease in temperature between 3 to 5 ° C ( 5 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 0 ° F ) , and up to 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) in higher latitudes . Additional studies in Lake Malawi in East Africa show significant amounts of ash being deposited from the Toba eruptions , even at that great distance , but little indication of a significant climatic effect in East Africa .
= = Geology = =
The Toba caldera complex in Northern Sumatra , comprises four overlapping volcanic craters that adjoin the Sumatran " volcanic front . " The fourth and youngest caldera is the world 's largest Quaternary caldera ( 100 by 30 km ( 62 by 19 mi ) ) and intersects the three older calderas . An estimated 2 @,@ 800 km3 ( 670 cu mi ) of dense @-@ rock equivalent pyroclastic material , known as the youngest Toba tuff , was released during one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions in recent geological history . Following this eruption , a resurgent dome formed within the new caldera , joining two half @-@ domes separated by a longitudinal graben .
At least four cones , four stratovolcanoes , and three craters are visible in the lake . The Tandukbenua cone on the northwestern edge of the caldera has only sparse vegetation , suggesting a young age of several hundred years . Also , the Pusubukit ( Hill Center ) volcano ( 1971 metres above sea level ) on the south edge of the caldera is solfatarically active and is a Geology Sanctuary .
= = Major eruption = =
The Toba eruption ( the Toba event ) occurred at what is now Lake Toba about 75000 ± 900 years ago . It was the last in a series of at least four caldera @-@ forming eruptions at this location , with earlier calderas having formed around 788000 ± 2200 years ago . This last eruption had an estimated VEI = 8 , making it the largest known explosive volcanic eruption within the last 25 million years .
Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was about 2 @,@ 800 km3 ( 670 cu mi ) — about 2 @,@ 000 km3 ( 480 cu mi ) of ignimbrite that flowed over the ground , and approximately 800 km3 ( 190 cu mi ) that fell as ash mostly to the west . However , based on the new method ( crystal concentration and exponential ) , Toba possibly erupted 3200 km ³ of ignimbrite and co @-@ ignimbrite . The pyroclastic flows of the eruption destroyed an area of least 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 722 sq mi ) , with ash deposits as thick as 600 m ( 1 @,@ 969 ft ) by the main vent .
The eruption was large enough to have deposited an ash layer approximately 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick over all of South Asia ; at one site in central India , the Toba ash layer today is up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) thick and parts of Malaysia were covered with 9 m ( 30 ft ) of ash fall . In addition it has been variously calculated that 10 @,@ 000 million tonnes ( 1 @.@ 1 × 1010 short tons ) of sulfurous acid or 6 @,@ 000 million tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 × 109 short tons ) of sulfur dioxide were ejected into the atmosphere by the event .
The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that , after filling with water , created Lake Toba . The island in the center of the lake is formed by a resurgent dome .
The exact year of the eruption is unknown , but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the summer monsoon could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea . The eruption lasted perhaps two weeks , and the ensuing " volcanic winter " resulted in a decrease in average global temperatures by 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 ° C ( 5 to 6 ° F ) for several years . Greenland ice cores record a pulse of starkly reduced levels of organic carbon sequestration . Very few plants or animals in southeast Asia would have survived , and it is possible that the eruption caused a planet @-@ wide die @-@ off . However , the global cooling has been discussed by Rampino and Self . Their conclusion is that the cooling had already started before Toba 's eruption . This conclusion was supported by Lane and Zielinski who studied the lake @-@ core from Africa and GISP2 . They concluded that there was no volcanic winter after Toba eruption and that high H2SO4 deposits do not cause long @-@ term effects .
Evidence from studies of mitochondrial DNA suggests that humans may have passed through a genetic bottleneck around this time that reduced genetic diversity below what would be expected given the age of the species . According to the Toba catastrophe theory , proposed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign in 1998 , the effects of the Toba eruption may have decreased the size of human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals . However , this hypothesis is not widely accepted because similar effects on other animal species have not been observed , and paleoanthropology suggests there was no population bottleneck .
= = = More recent activity = = =
Since the major eruption ~ 70 @,@ 000 years ago , eruptions of smaller magnitude have also occurred at Toba . The small cone of Pusukbukit formed on the southwestern margin of the caldera and lava domes . The most recent eruption may have been at Tandukbenua on the northwestern caldera edge , suggested by a lack of vegetation that could be due to an eruption within the last few hundred years .
Some parts of the caldera have shown uplift due to partial refilling of the magma chamber , for example , pushing Samosir Island and the Uluan Peninsula above the surface of the lake . The lake sediments on Samosir Island show that it has risen by at least 450 m ( 1 @,@ 476 ft ) since the cataclysmic eruption . Such uplifts are common in very large calderas , apparently due to the upward pressure of below @-@ ground magma . Toba is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth . Large earthquakes have recently occurred in the vicinity of the volcano , notably in 1987 along the southern shore of the lake at a depth of 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) . Such earthquakes have also been recorded in 1892 , 1916 , and 1920 – 1922 .
Lake Toba lies near the Great Sumatran fault , which runs along the centre of Sumatra in the Sumatra Fracture Zone . The volcanoes of Sumatra and Java are part of the Sunda Arc , a result of the northeasterly movement of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate , which is sliding under the eastward @-@ moving Eurasian Plate . The subduction zone in this area is very active : the seabed near the west coast of Sumatra has had several major earthquakes since 1995 , including the 9 @.@ 1 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 8 @.@ 7 2005 Nias – Simeulue earthquake , the epicenters of which were around 300 km ( 190 mi ) from Toba .
= = People = =
Most of the people who live around Lake Toba are ethnically Bataks . Traditional Batak houses are noted for their distinctive roofs ( which curve upwards at each end , as a boat 's hull does ) and their colorful decor .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The flora of the lake includes various types of phytoplankton , emerged macrophytes , floating macrophytes , and submerged macrophytes , while the surrounding countryside is rainforest including areas of Sumatran tropical pine forests on the higher mountainsides .
The fauna includes several species of zooplankton and benthic animals . Since the lake is oligotrophic ( nutrient @-@ poor ) , the native fish fauna is relatively scarce , and the only endemics are Rasbora tobana ( strictly speaking near @-@ endemic , since also found in some tributary rivers that run into the lake ) and Neolissochilus thienemanni , locally known as the Batak fish . The latter species is threatened by deforestation ( causing siltation ) , pollution , changes in water level and the numerous fish species that have been introduced to the lake . Other native fishes include species such as Aplocheilus panchax , Nemacheilus pfeifferae , Homaloptera gymnogaster , Channa gachua , Channa striata , Clarias batrachus , Barbonymus gonionotus , Barbonymus schwanenfeldii , Danio albolineatus , Osteochilus vittatus , Puntius binotatus , Rasbora jacobsoni , Tor tambra , Betta imbellis , Betta taeniata and Monopterus albus . Among the many introduced species are Anabas testudineus , Oreochromis mossambicus , Oreochromis niloticus , Ctenopharyngodon idella , Cyprinus carpio , Osphronemus goramy , Trichogaster pectoralis , Trichopodus trichopterus , Poecilia reticulata and Xiphophorus hellerii .
= = Gallery = =
= = Additional reading = =
Rampino , Michael R. and Stephen Self ( 1993 ) . " Climate @-@ volcanism feedback and the Toba eruption of 74 @,@ 000 Years Ago " . Quaternary Research 40 ( 3 ) : 269 – 280 . Bibcode : 1993QuRes .. 40 .. 269R. doi : 10 @.@ 1006 / qres.1993.1081.
Vazquez , Jorge A. and Mary R. Reid ( 2004 ) . " Probing the accumulation history of the voluminous Toba Magma " . Science 305 ( 5686 ) : 991 – 994 . Bibcode : 2004Sci ... 305 .. 991V. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.1096994. PMID 15310899 .
Petraglia , M. ; et al . ( 2007 ) . " Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super @-@ Eruption " . Science 317 ( 5834 ) : 114 – 116 . Bibcode : 2007Sci ... 317 .. 114P. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.1141564. PMID 17615356 .
= Mutiny on the Bounty =
The mutiny on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Bounty occurred in the south Pacific on 28 April 1789 . Disaffected crewmen , led by Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian , seized control of the ship from their captain Lieutenant William Bligh and set him and 18 loyalists adrift in the ship 's open launch . The mutineers variously settled on Tahiti or on Pitcairn Island . Bligh meanwhile completed a voyage of more than 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) in the launch to reach safety , and began the process of bringing the mutineers to justice .
Bounty had left England in 1787 on a mission to collect and transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies . A five @-@ month layover in Tahiti , during which many of the men lived ashore and formed relationships with native Polynesians , proved harmful to discipline . Relations between Bligh and his crew deteriorated after he began handing out increasingly harsh punishments , criticism and abuse , Christian being a particular target . After three weeks back at sea , Christian and others forced Bligh from the ship . Twenty @-@ five men remained on board afterwards , including loyalists held against their will and others for whom there was no room in the launch .
Bligh reached England in April 1790 , whereupon the Admiralty despatched HMS Pandora to apprehend the mutineers . Fourteen were captured in Tahiti and imprisoned on board Pandora , which then searched without success for Christian 's party that had hidden on Pitcairn Island . After turning back toward England , Pandora ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef , with the loss of 31 crew and 4 prisoners from Bounty . The 10 surviving detainees reached England in June 1792 and were court martialled ; 4 were acquitted , 3 were pardoned , and 3 were hanged .
Christian 's group remained undiscovered on Pitcairn until 1808 , by which time only one mutineer , John Adams , remained alive . Almost all his fellow mutineers , including Christian , had been killed , either by each other or by their Polynesian companions . No action was taken against Adams ; descendants of the mutineers and their Tahitian consorts live on Pitcairn into the 21st century . The generally accepted view of Bligh as an overbearing monster and Christian as a tragic victim of circumstances , as depicted in well @-@ known film accounts , has been challenged by late 20th- and 21st @-@ century historians from whom a more sympathetic picture of Bligh has emerged .
= = Background = =
= = = Bounty and her mission = = =
His Majesty 's Armed Vessel ( HMAV ) Bounty , or HMS Bounty , was built in 1784 at the Blaydes shipyard in Hull , Yorkshire as a collier named Bethia . She was renamed after being purchased by the Royal Navy for £ 1 @,@ 950 in May 1787 . She was three @-@ masted , 91 feet ( 28 m ) long overall and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) across at her widest point , and registered at 230 tons burthen . Her armament was four short four @-@ pounder carriage guns and ten half @-@ pounder swivel guns , supplemented by small arms such as muskets . As she was rated by the Admiralty as a cutter , the smallest category of warship , her commander would be a lieutenant rather than a post @-@ captain and would be the only commissioned officer on board . Nor did a cutter warrant the usual detachment of Marines that naval commanders used to enforce their authority .
Bounty had been acquired to transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti ( then rendered " Otaheite " ) , a Polynesian island in the south Pacific , to the British colonies in the West Indies . The expedition was promoted by the Royal Society and organised by its president Sir Joseph Banks , who shared the view of Caribbean plantation owners that breadfruit might grow well there and provide cheap food for the slaves . Bounty was refitted under Banks 's supervision at Deptford Dockyard on the River Thames . The great cabin , normally the ship 's captain 's quarters , was converted into a greenhouse for over a thousand potted breadfruit plants , with glazed windows , skylights , and a lead @-@ covered deck and drainage system to prevent the waste of fresh water . The space required for these arrangements in the small ship meant that the crew and officers would endure severe overcrowding for the duration of the long voyage .
= = = Bligh = = =
With Banks 's agreement , command of the expedition was given to Lieutenant William Bligh , whose experiences included Captain James Cook 's third and final voyage ( 1776 – 80 ) in which he had served as sailing master , or chief navigator , on HMS Resolution . Bligh was born in Plymouth in 1754 into a family of naval and military tradition — Admiral Sir Richard Rodney Bligh was his third cousin . Appointment to Cook 's ship at the age of 21 had been a considerable honour , although Bligh believed that his contribution was not properly acknowledged in the expedition 's official account . With the ending of the American War of Independence in 1783 , the navy was reduced in size , and Bligh found himself ashore on half @-@ pay .
After a period of idleness , Bligh took temporary employment in the mercantile service and in 1785 was captain of the Britannia , a vessel owned by his wife 's uncle Duncan Campbell . Bligh assumed the prestigious Bounty appointment on 16 August 1787 , at a considerable financial cost ; his lieutenant 's pay of four shillings a day ( £ 70 a year ) contrasted with the £ 500 a year he had earned as captain of Britannia . Because of the limited number of warrant officers allowed on Bounty , Bligh was also required to act as the ship 's purser . His sailing orders stated that he was to enter the Pacific via Cape Horn and then , after collecting the breadfruit plants , sail westward through the Endeavour Strait and across the Indian and Atlantic Oceans to the West Indies . Bounty would thus complete a circumnavigation of the Earth .
= = = Crew = = =
Bounty 's complement was 46 men , comprising 44 Royal Navy seamen ( including Bligh ) , and two civilian botanists . Directly beneath Bligh were his warrant officers , appointed by the Navy Board and headed by the sailing master John Fryer . The other warrant officers were the boatswain , the surgeon , the carpenter , and the gunner . To the two master 's mates and two midshipmen were added several honorary midshipmen — so @-@ called " young gentlemen " who were aspirant naval officers . These signed the ship 's roster as able seamen , but were quartered with the midshipmen and treated on equal terms with them .
Most of Bounty 's crew were chosen by Bligh or were recommended to him by influential patrons . William Peckover the gunner and Joseph Coleman the armourer had been with Cook and Bligh on HMS Resolution ; several others had sailed under Bligh more recently on the Britannia . Among these was the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Fletcher Christian who came from a wealthy Cumberland family descended from Manx gentry . Christian had chosen a life at sea rather than the legal career envisaged by his family . He had twice voyaged with Bligh to the West Indies , and the two had formed a master @-@ pupil relationship through which Christian had become a skilled navigator . Christian was willing to serve on Bounty without pay as one of the " young gentlemen " ; Bligh gave him one of the salaried master 's mate 's berths . Another of the young gentlemen recommended to Bligh was 15 @-@ year @-@ old Peter Heywood , also from a Manx family and a distant relation of Christian 's . Heywood had left school at 14 to spend a year on HMS Powerful , a harbour @-@ bound training vessel at Plymouth . His recommendation to Bligh came from Richard Betham , a Heywood family friend who was Bligh 's father @-@ in @-@ law .
The two botanists , or " gardeners " , were chosen by Banks . The chief botanist , David Nelson , was a veteran of Cook 's third expedition who had been to Tahiti and had learned some of the natives ' language . Nelson 's assistant William Brown was a former midshipman who had seen naval action against the French . Banks also helped to secure the official midshipmen 's berths for two of his protégés , Thomas Hayward and John Hallett . Overall , Bounty 's crew was relatively youthful , the majority being under 30 ; at the time of departure , Bligh was 33 years old . Among the older crew members were the 39 @-@ year @-@ old Peckover , who had sailed on all three of Cook 's voyages , and Lawrence Lebogue , a year older and formerly sailmaker on the Britannia . The youngest aboard were Hallett and Heywood , both 15 when they left England .
Living space on the ship was allocated on the basis of rank . Bligh , having yielded the great cabin , occupied private sleeping quarters with an adjacent dining area or pantry on the starboard side of the ship , and Fryer a small cabin on the opposite side . The surgeon Thomas Huggan , the other warrant officers , and Nelson the botanist had tiny cabins on the lower deck , while the master 's mates and the midshipmen , together with the young gentlemen , berthed together in an area behind the captain 's dining room known as the cockpit ; as junior or prospective officers , they were allowed use of the quarterdeck . The other ranks had their quarters in the forecastle , a windowless unventilated area measuring 36 by 22 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) with headroom of 5 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) .
= = Expedition = =
= = = To Cape Horn = = =
On 15 October 1787 , Bounty left Deptford for Spithead , in the English Channel , to await final sailing orders . Adverse weather delayed arrival at Spithead until 4 November . Bligh was anxious to depart quickly , to reach Cape Horn before the end of the short southern summer , but the Admiralty did not accord him high priority and delayed issuing the orders for a further three weeks . When Bounty finally sailed on 28 November , the ship was trapped by contrary winds and unable to clear Spithead until 23 December . With the prospect of a passage around Cape Horn now in serious doubt , Bligh received permission from the Admiralty to take , if necessary , an alternative route to Tahiti via the Cape of Good Hope .
As the ship settled into her sea @-@ going routine , Bligh introduced Cook 's strict discipline regarding sanitation and diet . According to the expedition 's historian Sam McKinney , Bligh enforced these rules " with a fanatical zeal , continually fuss [ ing ] and fum [ ing ] over the cleanliness of his ship and the food served to the crew . " He replaced the navy 's traditional watch system of alternating four @-@ hour spells on and off duty with a three watch system , whereby each four @-@ hour duty was followed by eight hours ' rest . For the crew 's exercise and entertainment , he introduced regular music and dancing sessions . Bligh 's despatches to Campbell and Banks indicated his satisfaction ; he had no occasion to administer punishment because , he wrote : " Both men and officers tractable and well disposed , & cheerfulness & content in the countenance of every one " . The only adverse feature of the voyage to date , according to Bligh , was the conduct of the surgeon Huggan , who was revealed as an indolent , unhygienic drunkard .
From the start of the voyage , Bligh had established warm relations with Christian , according him a status which implied that he was Bligh 's second @-@ in @-@ command rather than Fryer . On 2 March , Bligh formalised the position by assigning Christian to the rank of Acting Lieutenant . Fryer showed little outward sign of resentment at his junior 's advancement , but his relations with Bligh significantly worsened from this point . A week after the promotion on Fryer 's insistence , Bligh ordered the flogging of Matthew Quintal , who received 12 lashes for " insolence and mutinous behaviour " , thereby destroying Bligh 's expressed hope of a voyage free from such punishment .
On 2 April as Bounty approached Cape Horn , a strong gale and high seas began an unbroken period of stormy weather which , Bligh wrote , " exceeded what I had ever met with before ... with severe squalls of hail and sleet " . The winds drove the ship back ; on 3 April , she was further north than she had been a week earlier . Again and again , Bligh forced the ship forward , to be repeatedly repelled . On 17 April , he informed his exhausted crew that the sea had beaten them , and that they would turn and head for the Cape of Good Hope — " to the great joy of every person on Board " , Bligh recorded .
= = = Cape to Pacific = = =
On 24 May 1788 , Bounty anchored in False Bay , east of the Cape of Good Hope , where five weeks were spent in repairs and reprovisioning . Bligh 's letters home emphasised how fit and well he and his crew were , by comparison with other vessels , and expressed hope that he would receive credit for this . At one stage during the sojourn , Bligh lent Christian money , a gesture that the historian Greg Dening suggests might have sullied their relationship by becoming a source of anxiety and even resentment to the younger man . In her account of the voyage , Caroline Alexander describes the loan as " a significant act of friendship " , but one which Bligh ensured Christian did not forget .
After leaving False Bay on 1 July , Bounty set out across the southern Indian Ocean on the long voyage to their next port of call , Adventure Bay in Tasmania . They passed the remote Île Saint @-@ Paul , a small uninhabited island which Bligh knew from earlier navigators contained fresh water and a hot spring , but he did not attempt a landing . The weather was cold and wintry , conditions akin to the vicinity of Cape Horn , and it was difficult to take navigational observations , but Bligh 's skill was such that on 19 August he sighted Mewstone Rock , on the south @-@ west corner of Tasmania and , two days later , made anchorage in Adventure Bay .
The Bounty party spent their time at Adventure Bay in recuperation , fishing , replenishment of water casks , and felling timber . There were peaceful encounters with the native population . The first sign of overt discord between Bligh and his officers occurred when the captain exchanged angry words with William Purcell the carpenter over the latter 's methods for cutting wood . Bligh ordered Purcell back to the ship and , when the carpenter stood his ground , Bligh withheld his rations , which " immediately brought him to his senses " , according to Bligh .
Further clashes occurred on the final leg of the journey to Tahiti . On 9 October , Fryer refused to sign the ship 's account books unless Bligh provided him with a certificate attesting to his complete competence throughout the voyage . Bligh would not be coerced . He summoned the crew and read the Articles of War , at which Fryer backed down . There was also trouble with the surgeon Huggan , whose careless blood @-@ letting of able seaman James Valentine while treating him for asthma led to the seaman 's death from a blood infection . To cover his error , the surgeon reported to Bligh that Valentine had died from scurvy , which led Bligh to apply his own medicinal and dietary antiscorbutic remedies to the entire ship 's company . By now , Huggan was almost incapacitated with drink , until Bligh confiscated his supply . Huggan briefly returned to duty ; before Bounty 's arrival in Tahiti , he examined all on board for signs of venereal disease and found none . Bounty came to anchor in Matavai Bay , Tahiti on 26 October 1788 , concluding a journey of 27 @,@ 086 nautical miles ( 50 @,@ 163 km ; 31 @,@ 170 mi ) .
= = = Tahiti = = =
Bligh 's first action on arrival was to secure the co @-@ operation of the local chieftains . The paramount chief Tynah remembered Bligh from Cook 's voyage 15 years previously , and greeted him warmly . Bligh presented the chiefs with gifts and informed them that their own " King George " wished in return only breadfruit plants . They happily agreed with this simple request . Bligh assigned Christian to lead a shore party charged with establishing a compound in which the plants would be nurtured .
Whether based ashore or on board , the men 's duties during Bounty 's five @-@ month stay in Tahiti were relatively light . Many led promiscuous lives among the native women — altogether , 18 officers and men , including Christian , received treatment for venereal infections — while others took regular partners . Christian formed a close relationship with a Polynesian woman named Mauatua , to whom he gave the name " Isabella " after a former sweetheart from Cumberland . Bligh remained chaste himself , but was tolerant of his men 's activities , unsurprised that they should succumb to temptation when " the allurements of dissipation are beyond any thing that can be conceived " . Nevertheless , he expected them to do their duty efficiently , and was disappointed to find increasing instances of neglect and slackness on the part of his officers . Infuriated , he wrote : " Such neglectful and worthless petty officers I believe were never in a ship such as are in this " .
Huggan died on 10 December . Bligh attributed this to " the effects of intemperance and indolence ... he never would be prevailed on to take half a dozen turns upon deck at a time , through the whole course of the voyage " . For all his earlier favoured status , Christian did not escape Bligh 's wrath . He was often humiliated by the captain — sometimes in front of the crew and the Tahitians — for real or imagined slackness , while severe punishments were handed out to men whose carelessness had led to the loss or theft of equipment . Floggings , rarely administered during the outward voyage , now became increasingly common . On
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officer Mal Craig in the second series of BBC One 's Five Days , Roman soldier Bothos in Neil Marshall 's feature Centurion , stalking victim Jan Falkowski in U Be Dead , and Colonel John Arbuthnot in the Agatha Christie 's Poirot adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express . In 2011 and 2013 , he played Murray Devlin in The Field of Blood .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
Morrissey returned to a weekly television role at the end of 2010 playing police detective Tom Thorne in Thorne , a six @-@ part television series for Sky1 that was adapted from Mark Billingham 's novels Sleepyhead and Scaredy Cat . After reading Lifeless during his time filming The Water Horse in New Zealand , Morrissey searched the Internet for more information . He found an interview in which Billingham stated his preference for Morrissey to play Thorne should a screen adaptation ever be made . When he returned to England , Morrissey arranged a meeting with Billingham and the two began developing the TV series . Morrissey shadowed officers in the Metropolitan Police 's murder unit during their duties to learn about their jobs . He discovered that the officers felt undervalued in their jobs , and he incorporated these feelings into the series . Sky first broadcast the series on 10 October . Morrissey received approval for the role ; Andrea Mullaney wrote in The Scotsman , " Morrissey is never less than watchable and he brings a brooding presence to the role of Thorne . " and Adam Sweeting for The Arts Desk called him " authentic as the phlegmatic , low @-@ key Thorne . "
In 2011 , Morrissey starred as Robert Carne in South Riding , and played Dunlop in the Lionsgate crime drama feature Blitz . In May 2011 , he returned to the Everyman Theatre to play the eponymous king in Macbeth . Morrissey talked about the role to criminologists , to draw parallels with real @-@ life serial killers , and focused on Macbeth 's status as a war hero and his childless relationship with Lady Macbeth . Morrissey 's performance was commended by Laura Davis in the Liverpool Daily Post , who highlighted his delivery of his lines and portrayal of Macbeth " [ shifting ] from straight @-@ spined statesman to a fervent slayer " . Clare Brenan of The Observer offered similar praise but noted that Morrissey 's vocal inflections were sometimes " flat and rushed " . Continuing his roles in Shakespeare productions , Morrissey played Northumberland in a BBC Two production of Richard II , broadcast in July 2012 .
Morrissey joined the cast of The Walking Dead for its third season in 2012 . He portrays The Governor , a major villain from the graphic novel upon which the series is based . Morrissey read the prequel novel Rise of the Governor to gain insight into the character and his motivations . He also worked with an accent coach and listened to politicians with Southern accents , including Bill Clinton . He returned for the fourth season in 2013 , and made a cameo appearance in 2015 . In 2014 , Morrissey returned to British television in the David Nicholls drama The 7 @.@ 39 and the three @-@ part serial The Driver , written by Danny Brocklehurst .
From 10 September to 10 October Morrissey starred in Hangmen by Martin McDonagh , at the Royal Court Theatre . The play followed Harry Wade , England 's second @-@ best hangman , after the abolition of hanging in Great Britain in 1965 .
= = = Filmmaking = = =
In the early 1980s , Morrissey developed a filmmaking craft at the Rathbone Theatre Workshop , a Youth Opportunities Programme that taught school @-@ leavers skills for a year . With the workshop , Morrissey shot short silent films on Super 8 , where he was taught by Bert Byron , who introduced him to US Independent and foreign films for the first time . Although the scheme paid £ 23 @.@ 50 a week and took young people off unemployment benefits , Morrissey reflected in 2009 that many of the participants were just used as lackeys . After his acting career escalated , he started directing because he was aware that , as an actor , he was coming into a project quite late into development and then leaving before post @-@ production , and he wanted to see a film through to the end . Morrissey has said that he prefers to keep acting and directing separate , and would not direct anything he is acting in .
His first major project was Something for the Weekend ( 1996 ) , which he wrote and produced . Initially called The Barber Shop , the title was changed to avoid a clash with another film . His directorial debut , the short A Secret Audience , centres on a meeting between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII . His second short , Bring Me Your Love , was based on the short story by Charles Bukowski , and stars Ian Hart as a journalist bringing flowers to his wife in a mental hospital . It was screened in front of Some Voices . An Independent critic wrote that Bring Me Your Love " holds out great promise " for Morrissey and an Observer reviewer wrote that it was worth seeing but was not as impressive as A Secret Audience . Bring Me Your Love was produced by Tubedale Films , a studio Morrissey formed with his brother Paul and wife Esther Freud . In 2001 , Morrissey directed Sweet Revenge , a two @-@ part BBC television film starring Paul McGann that got him a BAFTA nomination for Best New Director ( Fiction ) . In 2004 , Morrissey reunited with Tony Marchant to direct the two @-@ part television film Passer By , about a man ( James Nesbitt ) who witnesses an attack on a woman ( Emily Bruni ) but does nothing to stop it . Morrissey was brought onto the project after reading the first draft of Marchant 's script . The script went through five more drafts before being filmed over 30 days . Morrissey developed his directing techniques by watching the directors on films and television series that he acted in ; he took the minor role of Tom Keylock in Stoned so that he could watch Stephen Woolley at work .
On 20 July 2007 , Morrissey was given an Honorary Fellowship from Liverpool John Moores University for contributions to performing arts . In the same year , he made his feature debut directing Don 't Worry About Me , a film about a London boy falling in love with a Liverpool girl . The film was shot on a budget of £ 100 @,@ 000 on location in Liverpool in September and October 2007 and had its world premiere at the 2009 London Film Festival . Joseph Galliano wrote in The Times that Don 't Worry About Me is " a very understated film and feels more like European Art Cinema . " The film was broadcast on BBC Two on 7 March 2010 and released on DVD the next day .
In 2009 , Morrissey and Mark Billingham launched the production company Sleepyhead , which produced the Thorne television series . The company was a part of Stagereel , a production house previously set up by Morrissey 's brother Paul . The company bought the rights to adapt the Thorne novels and Morrissey was already developing it to pitch to television channels when Sky made an offer to broadcast it . As of 2010 , Morrissey and Tubedale Films were developing two feature films with financing from the UK Film Council . Morrissey was critical of the Coalition government 's decision to close the UK Film Council , as he believed it was an asset to first @-@ time filmmakers . The organisation 's funding role was taken over by the British Film Institute in 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Morrissey married his girlfriend of over 13 years , novelist Esther Freud , on 12 August 2006 in a ceremony on Southwold Pier . They met when they were set up at a dinner party held by Morrissey 's Robin Hood co @-@ star Danny Webb , and have since had three children ; Albie , Anna and Gene . His sisters @-@ in @-@ law are Bella Freud and Susie Boyt and his father @-@ in @-@ law was the painter Lucian Freud .
In 2009 , Morrissey and a team of filmmakers ran a series of drama workshops for Palestinian refugee children in Beirut , Lebanon , in conjunction with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East ( UNRWA ) . On his return to Britain , Morrissey set up the Creative Arts School Trust ( CAST ) , a charity for the purpose of training teachers and continuing the workshops in Lebanon and elsewhere . Since 2010 , he has been a patron of The SMA Trust , a UK @-@ based charity that funds medical research into the children 's disease spinal muscular atrophy , and the Unity Theatre , Liverpool .
Morrissey is a lifelong Liverpool FC fan , having grown up in the city . He is also a supporter of the Labour Party , as well as being a patron of the human rights organisation Reprieve . In August 2014 , Morrissey was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian asking people in Scotland to vote against Scottish independence in the run @-@ up to September 's referendum on that issue .
= = Filmography and awards = =
Academic honours
Honorary Doctorate for contribution to UK Drama , Television and Film Edge Hill University ( 20 July 2016 ) .
Honorary Fellowship for contributions to performing arts , Liverpool John Moores University ( 20 July 2007 ) .
= Albert Einstein =
Albert Einstein ( / ˈaɪnstaɪn / ; German : [ ˈalbɛɐ ̯ t ˈaɪnʃtaɪn ] ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 ) was a German @-@ born theoretical physicist . He developed the general theory of relativity , one of the two pillars of modern physics ( alongside quantum mechanics ) . Einstein 's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science . Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass – energy equivalence formula E = mc2 ( which has been dubbed " the world 's most famous equation " ) . He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his " services to theoretical physics " , in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect , a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory .
Near the beginning of his career , Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field . This led to the development of his special theory of relativity . He realized , however , that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields , and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916 , he published a paper on general relativity . He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory , which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules . He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light . In 1917 , Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large @-@ scale structure of the universe .
He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and , being Jewish , did not go back to Germany , where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences . He settled in the U.S. , becoming an American citizen in 1940 . On the eve of World War II , he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of " extremely powerful bombs of a new type " and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research . This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project . Einstein supported defending the Allied forces , but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon . Later , with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell , Einstein signed the Russell – Einstein Manifesto , which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons . Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , until his death in 1955 .
Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non @-@ scientific works . On 5 December 2014 , universities and archives announced the release of Einstein 's papers , comprising more than 30 @,@ 000 unique documents . Einstein 's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word " Einstein " synonymous with " genius " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm , in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879 . His parents were Hermann Einstein , a salesman and engineer , and Pauline Koch . In 1880 , the family moved to Munich , where Einstein 's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie , a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current .
The Einsteins were non @-@ observant Ashkenazi Jews , and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years . At the age of 8 , he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium ( now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium ) , where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later .
In 1894 , Hermann and Jakob 's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current ( DC ) standard to the more efficient alternating current ( AC ) standard . The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory . In search of business , the Einstein family moved to Italy , first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia . When the family moved to Pavia , Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium . His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering , but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school 's regimen and teaching method . He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning . At the end of December 1894 , he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia , convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor 's note . During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title " On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field " .
In 1895 , at the age of 16 , Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich ( later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule , ETH ) . He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination , but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics . On the advice of the principal of the Polytechnic , he attended the Argovian cantonal school ( gymnasium ) in Aarau , Switzerland , in 1895 – 96 to complete his secondary schooling . While lodging with the family of professor Jost Winteler , he fell in love with Winteler 's daughter , Marie . ( Albert 's sister Maja later married Winteler 's son Paul . ) In January 1896 , with his father 's approval , Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service . In September 1896 , he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades , including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects , on a scale of 1 – 6 . Though only 17 , he enrolled in the four @-@ year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic . Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg , Switzerland , for a teaching post .
Einstein 's future wife , Mileva Marić , also enrolled at the Polytechnic that year . She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course . Over the next few years , Einstein and Marić 's friendship developed into romance , and they read books together on extra @-@ curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest . In 1900 , Einstein was awarded the Zürich Polytechnic teaching diploma , but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component , theory of functions . There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers , but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions .
= = = Marriages and children = = =
The discovery and publication in 1987 of an early correspondence between Einstein and Marić revealed that they had had a daughter , called " Lieserl " in their letters , born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents . Marić returned to Switzerland without the child , whose real name and fate are unknown . Einstein probably never saw his daughter . The contents of his letter to Marić in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either adopted or died of scarlet fever in infancy .
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903 . In May 1904 , their first son , Hans Albert Einstein , was born in Bern , Switzerland . Their second son , Eduard , was born in Zürich in July 1910 . In April they moved to Berlin . After a few months his wife returned to Zürich with their sons , after learning that Einstein 's chief romantic attraction was his first and second cousin Elsa . They divorced on 14 February 1919 , having lived apart for five years . Eduard , whom his father called " Tete " ( for petit ) , had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia . His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods , finally being committed permanently after her death .
In letters revealed in 2015 , Einstein wrote to his early love , Marie Winteler , about his marriage and his still @-@ strong feelings for Marie . In 1910 he wrote to her that " I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be " while his wife was pregnant with their second child . Einstein spoke about a " misguided love " and a " missed life " regarding his love for Marie .
Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919 , after having had a personal relationship with her since 1912 . She was a first cousin maternally and a second cousin paternally . In 1933 , they emigrated to the United States . In 1935 , Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems ; she died in December 1936 .
= = = Patent office = = =
After graduating in 1900 , Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post . He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901 , but was not conscripted for medical reasons . With the help of Marcel Grossmann 's father , Einstein secured a job in Bern at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property , the patent office , as an assistant examiner . He evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter . In 1903 , Einstein 's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent , although he was passed over for promotion until he " fully mastered machine technology " .
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical @-@ mechanical synchronization of time , two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time .
With a few friends
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he had met in Bern , Einstein started a small discussion group , self @-@ mockingly named " The Olympia Academy " , which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy . Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré , Ernst Mach , and David Hume , which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook .
= = = Academic career = = =
In 1900 , Einstein 's paper " Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen " ( " Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena " ) was published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik . On 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed his thesis , with Alfred Kleiner , Professor of Experimental Physics , serving as pro @-@ forma advisor . As a result , Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich , with his dissertation entitled , " A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions . " That same year , which has been called Einstein 's annus mirabilis ( miracle year ) , he published four groundbreaking papers , on the photoelectric effect , Brownian motion , special relativity , and the equivalence of mass and energy , which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world , at the age of 26 .
By 1908 , he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern . The following year , after giving a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics . Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909 .
Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles @-@ Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911 , accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire to do so . During his Prague stay , Einstein wrote 11 scientific works , five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids . In July 1912 , he returned to his alma mater in Zürich . From 1912 until 1914 , he was professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich , where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics . He also studied continuum mechanics , the molecular theory of heat , and the problem of gravitation , on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann .
In 1914 , he returned to the German Empire after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics ( 1914 – 1932 ) and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin , but freed from most teaching obligations . He soon became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences , and in 1916 was appointed president of the German Physical Society ( 1916 – 1918 ) .
Based on calculations Einstein made in 1911 , about his new theory of general relativity , light from another star should be bent by the Sun 's gravity . In 1919 , that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 . Those observations were published in the international media , making Einstein world famous . On 7 November 1919 , the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read : " Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown " .
In 1920 , he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1922 , Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " for his services to Theoretical Physics , and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect " . While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial , the citation also does not treat the cited work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law , as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose . Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( ForMemRS ) in 1921 . He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925 .
= = = 1921 – 1922 : Travels abroad = = =
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921 , where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan , followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions . He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University , and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House . On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London , where he met several renowned scientific , intellectual and political figures , and delivered a lecture at King 's College London .
He also published an essay , " My First Impression of the U.S.A. , " in July 1921 , in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans , much as had Alexis de Tocqueville , who published his own impressions in Democracy in America ( 1835 ) . For some of his observations , Einstein was clearly surprised : " What strikes a visitor is the joyous , positive attitude to life . . . The American is friendly , self @-@ confident , optimistic , and without envy . "
In 1922 , his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine , as part of a six @-@ month excursion and speaking tour , as he visited Singapore , Ceylon and Japan , where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese . After his first public lecture , he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace , where thousands came to watch . In a letter to his sons , Einstein described his impression of the Japanese as being modest , intelligent , considerate , and having a true feel for art .
Because of Einstein 's travels to the Far East , he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922 . In his place , the banquet speech was held by a German diplomat , who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist .
On his return voyage , he visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region . Einstein was greeted as if he were a head of state , rather than a physicist , which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner , Sir Herbert Samuel . During one reception , the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him . In Einstein 's talk to the audience , he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world .
= = = 1930 – 1931 : Travel to the U.S. = = =
In December 1930 , Einstein visited America for the second time , originally intended as a two @-@ month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology . After the national attention he received during his first trip to the U.S. , he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy . Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly , he declined them all .
After arriving in New York City , Einstein was taken to various places and events , including Chinatown , a lunch with the editors of the New York Times , and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera , where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival . During the days following , he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University , who described Einstein as " the ruling monarch of the mind . " Harry Emerson Fosdick , pastor at New York 's Riverside Church , gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full @-@ size statue that the church made of Einstein , standing at the entrance . Also during his stay in New York , he joined a crowd of 15 @,@ 000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration .
Einstein next traveled to California where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate , Robert A. Millikan . His friendship with Millikan was " awkward " , as Millikan " had a penchant for patriotic militarism , " where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist . During an address to Caltech 's students , Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good .
This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin , both noted for their pacifism . Carl Laemmle , head of Universal Studios , gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin . They had an instant rapport , with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife , Elsa , to his home for dinner . Chaplin said Einstein 's outward persona , calm and gentle , seemed to conceal a " highly emotional temperament , " from which came his " extraordinary intellectual energy . "
Chaplin also remembers Elsa telling him about the time Einstein conceived his theory of relativity . During breakfast one morning , he seemed lost in thought and ignored his food . She asked him if something was bothering him . He sat down at his piano and started playing . He continued playing and writing notes for half an hour , then went upstairs to his study , where he remained for two weeks , with Elsa bringing up his food . At the end of the two weeks , he came downstairs with two sheets of paper bearing his theory .
Chaplin 's film , City Lights , was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood , and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests . Walter Isaacson , Einstein 's biographer , described this as " one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity . " Einstein and Chaplin arrived together , in black tie , with Elsa joining them , " beaming . " The audience applauded as they entered the theater . Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin , and recalled his " modest little flat " and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory . Chaplin speculated that it was " possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis . "
= = = 1933 : Emigration to the U.S. = = =
In February 1933 while on a visit to the United States , Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany 's new chancellor , Adolf Hitler .
While at American universities in early 1933 , he undertook his third two @-@ month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena . He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March , and during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated . Upon landing in Antwerp on 28 March , he immediately went to the German consulate and turned in his passport , formally renouncing his German citizenship . A few years later , the Nazis sold his boat and turned his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp .
= = = = Refugee status = = = =
In April 1933 , Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions , including teaching at universities . Historian Gerald Holton describes how , with " virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues , " thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed .
A month later , Einstein 's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings , with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming , " Jewish intellectualism is dead . " One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase , " not yet hanged " , offering a $ 5 @,@ 000 bounty on his head . In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born , who had already emigrated from Germany to England , Einstein wrote , " ... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise . " After moving to the U.S. , he described the book burnings as a " spontaneous emotional outburst " by those who " shun popular enlightenment , " and " more than anything else in the world , fear the influence of men of intellectual independence . "
Einstein was now without a permanent home , unsure where he would live and work , and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany . He rented a house in De Haan , Belgium , where he lived for a few months . In late July 1933 , he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker @-@ Lampson , who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years . To protect Einstein , Locker @-@ Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London , with the press publishing a photo of them guarding Einstein .
Locker @-@ Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home , and later , Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George . Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany . British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately , and sent his friend , physicist Frederick Lindemann to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities . Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out , they had lowered their " technical standards " and put the Allies ' technology ahead of theirs .
Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations , including Turkey 's Prime Minister , İsmet İnönü , to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German @-@ Jewish scientists . As a result of Einstein 's letter , Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over " 1 @,@ 000 saved individuals . "
Locker @-@ Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein , during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe . The bill failed to become law , however , and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study , in the U.S. , to become a resident scholar .
= = = = Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study = = = =
In October 1933 Einstein returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study ( in Princeton , New Jersey ) , noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany . At the time , most American universities , including Harvard , Princeton and Yale , had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students , as a result of their Jewish quota which lasted until the late 1940s .
Einstein was still undecided on his future . He had offers from several European universities , including Christ Church , Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5 year Studentship , but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship .
Einstein 's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955 . He was one of the four first selected ( two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel ) at the new Institute , where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel . The two would take long walks together discussing their work . Bruria Kaufman , his assistant , later became a physicist . During this period , Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics , both unsuccessfully .
= = = = World War II and the Manhattan Project = = = =
In 1939 , a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research . The group 's warnings were discounted . Einstein and Szilárd , along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner , " regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb , and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon . " To make certain the U.S. was aware of the danger , in July 1939 , a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe , Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs , which Einstein , a pacifist , said he had never considered . He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter , with Szilárd , to President Roosevelt , recommending the U.S. pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research .
The letter is believed to be " arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II " . In addition to the letter , Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House 's Oval Office . President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first . As a result of Einstein 's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt , the U.S. entered the " race " to develop the bomb , drawing on its " immense material , financial , and scientific resources " to initiate the Manhattan Project . The U.S. became the only country to successfully develop nuclear weapons during World War II and also remains the only country to use them in combat , against Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9 , 1945 , respectively , towards the end of the war .
For Einstein , " war was a disease ... [ and ] he called for resistance to war . " By signing the letter to Roosevelt , he went against his pacifist principles . In 1954 , a year before his death , Einstein said to his old friend , Linus Pauling , " I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made ; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them ... "
= = = = U.S. citizenship = = = =
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940 . Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study ( in Princeton , New Jersey ) , he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe . He recognized the " right of individuals to say and think what they pleased " , without social barriers , and as a result , individuals were encouraged , he said , to be more creative , a trait he valued from his own early education .
= = = Personal life = = =
= = = = Supporter of civil rights = = = =
Einstein was a passionate , committed antiracist and joined National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) in Princeton , where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans . He considered racism America 's " worst disease , " seeing it as " handed down from one generation to the next . " As part of his involvement , he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951 . When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois , the judge decided to drop the case .
In 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania where he was awarded an honorary degree . Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to blacks , including Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall . To its students , Einstein gave a speech about racism in America , adding , " I do not intend to be quiet about it . " A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student , and black physicist Sylvester James Gates states that Einstein had been one of his early science heroes , later finding out about Einstein 's support for civil rights .
= = = = Assisting Zionist causes = = = =
Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , which opened in 1925 , and was among its first Board of Governors . Earlier , in 1921 , he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization , Chaim Weizmann , to help raise funds for the planned university . He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs .
Among those , he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land . That should be followed , he suggested , by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology , to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria , which he called an " evil " that was undermining a third of the country 's development . Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute , to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic , for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments , was also important .
Chaim Weizmann later became Israel 's first president . Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel , a mostly ceremonial post . The offer was presented by Israel 's ambassador in Washington , Abba Eban , who explained that the offer " embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons " . Einstein declined , and wrote in his response that he was " deeply moved " , and " at once saddened and ashamed " that he could not accept it .
= = = = Love of music = = = =
Einstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age , and later wrote : " If I were not a physicist , I would probably be a musician . I often think in music . I live my daydreams in music . I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music . "
His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin , not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture . According to conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was 5 , although he did not enjoy it at that age .
When he turned 13 , he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart , whereupon " Einstein fell in love " with Mozart 's music and studied music more willingly . He taught himself to play without " ever practicing systematically " , he said , deciding that " love is a better teacher than a sense of duty . " At age 17 , he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven 's violin sonatas , the examiner stating afterward that his playing was " remarkable and revealing of ' great insight ' . " What struck the examiner , writes Botstein , was that Einstein " displayed a deep love of the music , a quality that was and remains in short supply . Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student . "
Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein 's life from that period on . Although the idea of becoming a professional himself was not on his mind at any time , among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals , and he performed for private audiences and friends . Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern , Zürich , and Berlin , where he played with Max Planck and his son , among others . He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalogue of Mozart 's work ; that edition was actually prepared by Alfred Einstein , who may have been a distant relation .
In 1931 , while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles , where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart 's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet . Near the end of his life , when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton , he played his violin with them , and the quartet was " impressed by Einstein 's level of coordination and intonation . "
= = = = Political and religious views = = = =
Einstein 's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism , which he detailed in his essays such as " Why Socialism ? " . Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics . He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation @-@ states in the framework of a world federation .
Einstein 's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings . He called himself an agnostic , while disassociating himself from the label atheist . He said he believed in the " pantheistic " God of Baruch Spinoza , but not in a personal god , a belief he criticized . Einstein once wrote : " I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but expressed it clearly " .
= = = Death = = =
On 17 April 1955 , Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm , which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948 . He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel 's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital , but he did not live long enough to complete it .
Einstein refused surgery , saying : " I want to go when I want . It is tasteless to prolong life artificially . I have done my share , it is time to go . I will do it elegantly . " He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76 , having continued to work until near the end .
During the autopsy , the pathologist of Princeton Hospital , Thomas Stoltz Harvey , removed Einstein 's brain for preservation without the permission of his family , in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent . Einstein 's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location .
In his lecture at Einstein 's memorial , nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person : " He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn . "
= = Scientific career = =
Throughout his life , Einstein published hundreds of books and articles . He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non @-@ scientific ones . On 5 December 2014 , universities and archives announced the release of Einstein 's papers , comprising more than 30 @,@ 000 unique documents . Einstein 's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word " Einstein " synonymous with " genius " . In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose – Einstein statistics , the Einstein refrigerator and others .
= = = 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers = = =
The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect ( which gave rise to quantum theory ) , Brownian motion , the special theory of relativity , and E = mc2 that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905 . These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space , time , and matter . The
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included in the planet 's name to denote that . Because Kepler @-@ 11f was discovered with five other planets , the planets of Kepler @-@ 11 were sorted by distance from the host star ; thus , since Kepler @-@ 11f is the fifth planet from its star , it was given the letter " f . " The name " Kepler " is derived from the Kepler satellite , a NASA Earth @-@ trailing spacecraft that constantly observes a small patch of sky between the constellations Cygnus and Lyra for stars that are transited by , in particular , terrestrial planets . As these planets cross in front of their host stars with respect to Earth , a small and periodic dip in the star 's brightness occurs ; this dip is noted by the spacecraft and tagged for future study . Scientists then analyze the transit event more carefully to verify if the planet actually exists and to gather information on the planet 's orbit and composition ( if possible ) .
Follow @-@ up observations were conducted at observatories at the W.M. Keck Observatory 's Keck 1 telescope in Hawaii ; the Shane and Hale telescopes in California ; the Harlan J. Smith and Hobby @-@ Eberly telescopes in Texas ; telescopes at the WIYN ( including MMT ) and Whipple observatories in Arizona ; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands . The Spitzer Space Telescope was also used . According to NASA , Kepler @-@ 11 's system is the most compact and the flattest system yet discovered , surpassing even the Solar System .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11 is a G @-@ type star , much like the Sun is , and is located 613 parsecs away in the Cygnus constellation . It has 95 % the mass and 110 % the radius of the Sun . Its mass and radius , combined with an approximate iron content ( metallicity ) of 0 and effective temperature of 5680 K , makes the star very similar to the Sun , though slightly more diffuse and slightly cooler . However , the star is approximately 1 @.@ 74 times the age of the Sun , and is estimated to have existed for eight billion years . Kepler @-@ 11 has six known planets in orbit : Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . Kepler @-@ 11 's five inner planets orbit closely to their host star , and their orbits would fit within that of Mercury 's .
With an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 , Kepler @-@ 11 cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11f is , at 2 @.@ 3 times the mass of Earth , the least massive of the six planets discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 11 , although the planet 's mass may range from 1 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 5 , or from approximately that of Earth 's mass to that of Kepler @-@ 10b , a rather large confidence interval . Its radius is the second smallest of the six planets discovered in the system at 2 @.@ 61 times the radius of Earth . Kepler @-@ 11f has a density of about 0 @.@ 7 g / cm3 , comparable to that of the Solar System 's least dense planet , Saturn . Kepler @-@ 11f is the fifth planet from Kepler @-@ 11 , orbiting its host star every 46 @.@ 68876 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 25 AU . Its orbital eccentricity is unknown . In comparison , Mercury orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU . Kepler @-@ 11f has an orbital inclination of 89 @.@ 4 ° ; it can be seen almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth . Its surface equilibrium temperature is 544 K , over twice the surface equilibrium temperature of Earth and about two @-@ thirds the surface temperature of Venus .
Kepler @-@ 11f 's low density , characteristic of the outer planets of the system , suggests that a large hydrogen – helium atmosphere is present on these planets , classifying it as " gas dwarf " due to its small size and mass . This low density is not shared by the planets Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c because the solar wind has reduced their atmospheres to a thin layer . The planets accreted such large atmospheres because they formed within the first few million years of the system 's existence , when a protoplanetary disk was still present .
= Jack Sparrow =
Captain Jack Sparrow is a fictional character and the main protagonist in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . The character was created by screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio , and is portrayed by Johnny Depp , who based his characterization on Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards and cartoon character Pepé Le Pew . He first appears in the 2003 film Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl . He later appears in the sequels Dead Man 's Chest ( 2006 ) , At World 's End ( 2007 ) , On Stranger Tides ( 2011 ) , and Dead Men Tell No Tales ( 2017 ) .
In the films , Sparrow is one of the nine pirate lords in the Brethren Court , the Pirate Lords of the Seven Seas . He can be treacherous and survives mostly by using wit and negotiation rather than by force , opting to flee most dangerous situations and to fight only when necessary . Sparrow is introduced seeking to regain his ship , the Black Pearl , from his mutinous first mate , Hector Barbossa . Later he attempts to escape his blood debt to the legendary Davy Jones while battling the East India Trading Company . The character 's role expanded as the films progressed .
The Pirates of the Caribbean series was inspired by the Disney theme park ride of the same name , and when the ride was revamped in 2006 , the character of Jack Sparrow was added to it . He headlines the Legend of Captain Jack Sparrow attraction at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , and is the subject of spin @-@ off novels , including a children 's book series Pirates of the Caribbean : Jack Sparrow , which chronicles his teenage years .
= = Films = =
= = = The Curse of the Black Pearl = = =
Captain Jack Sparrow first appears in The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) when he arrives in Port Royal in Jamaica to commandeer a ship . Despite rescuing Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) , the daughter of Governor Weatherby Swann ( Jonathan Pryce ) , from drowning , he is jailed for piracy . That night , a cursed pirate ship called the Black Pearl attacks Port Royal and Elizabeth is kidnapped . The Black Pearl 's captain , Hector Barbossa ( Geoffrey Rush ) , desperately seeks one last gold coin to break an ancient Aztec curse that he and his crew are under . A blacksmith named Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) frees Sparrow to aid him in rescuing Elizabeth . They commandeer the HMS Interceptor and recruit a motley crew in Tortuga in Haiti before heading to Isla de Muerta , where Elizabeth is held captive . Along the way , Will learns that Sparrow was the Black Pearl 's captain until Barbossa led a mutiny ten years earlier and took over the ship , marooning Sparrow on an island to die . Sparrow tells Turner that his father was a pirate known as " Bootstrap " Bill Turner .
The rescue attempt goes awry and Barbossa maroons Jack and Elizabeth on the same island he had stranded Sparrow before . Elizabeth creates a signal fire from rum barrels and they are rescued by the British Royal Navy . Sparrow cuts a deal with Commodore James Norrington ( Jack Davenport ) to lead Norrington to the Black Pearl . Norrington refuses until Elizabeth , desperate to save Will , spontaneously accepts Norrington 's earlier marriage proposal . Right before the film 's climactic battle with the pirates at Isla de Muerta , Sparrow swipes a cursed coin from the treasure chest , making himself immortal and capable of dueling Barbossa . He shoots his rival with the pistol he has carried for ten years just as Will breaks the curse , killing Barbossa . Despite having assisted the Navy , Sparrow is sentenced to hang .
At Sparrow 's execution in Port Royal , Will saves Sparrow , but they are quickly captured . Elizabeth intervenes , declaring her love for Will who is pardoned , while Sparrow escapes by tumbling off a sea wall . The Black Pearl and her new crew arrive in time to retrieve him , and he becomes captain once more . Impressed by the wily pirate , Norrington allows him one day 's head start before giving chase .
= = = Dead Man 's Chest = = =
A year following the events of the first film , Sparrow searches for the Dead Man 's Chest , which contains the heart of Captain Davy Jones ( Bill Nighy ) . Sparrow made a bargain with Jones to raise the sunken Black Pearl and make Sparrow captain for thirteen years . Now the debt is due , and Sparrow must either serve one hundred years aboard the Flying Dutchman , or be dragged to Davy Jones 's Locker by the Kraken . If he can find the Dead Man 's Chest Sparrow can free his soul and control Jones and the seas .
Adding to Sparrow 's woes , Lord Cutler Beckett ( Tom Hollander ) of the East India Trading Company has a personal score to settle with Sparrow . Beckett wants the chest and forces Will Turner to search for Sparrow and his magic compass . Turner locates Sparrow and his crew on Pelegosto , held captive by cannibals who intend to eat Sparrow . They escape , and voyage to Tia Dalma ( later revealed to be the Goddess , Calypso , bound in human form as Dalma , and former lover of Jones ) . Dalma immediately sees destiny in Will , and provides Sparrow with a jar of dirt - Jones can only set foot on land once every 10 years , and since land is where Sparrow is safe , Dalma suggests with the dirt that he takes land with him .
Sparrow strikes a new deal with Jones to deliver one hundred souls in exchange for his own . Jones agrees but keeps Turner as a " good faith payment " . Sparrow is recruiting sailors in Tortuga when he encounters Elizabeth Swann and James Norrington , the latter having succumbed to alcohol . Sparrow convinces Elizabeth that Turner can be freed by using the magic compass to find the chest . The duo head for Isla Cruces and find Will , who escaped Jones 's ship and has stolen the key to the Chest . Turner wants to stab Jones 's heart and free his father from Jones 's servitude , while Norrington plots to restore his career by delivering the heart to Beckett . Sparrow wants it to convince Jones to call off the Kraken .
Norrington escapes with the heart amid a battle with Jones 's crew , and Jones summons the Kraken . Realizing Sparrow is the target , Elizabeth traps him aboard the Black Pearl as the crew abandons the ship , and kisses him while she handcuffs him to the mast . Then , the monster devours Sparrow and drags the ship and his soul to Davy Jones 's Locker . The surviving crew seeks refuge with Tia Dalma ( Naomie Harris ) , a magic woman , who produces a captain she says can rescue Sparrow : it was her doing that brought Barbossa back to life .
= = = At World 's End = = =
With Davy Jones 's heart in his possession and the Flying Dutchman under his command , Cutler Beckett begins exterminating all pirates . To combat Beckett , the nine pirate lords of the Brethren Court convene at Shipwreck Cove . Only Jack Sparrow is missing , killed and sent to Davy Jones 's Locker at the end of the previous film . Sparrow , as Pirate Lord of the Caribbean , must attend , as he did not bequeathe to a designated heir his " piece of eight " , a pirate lord 's marker . The collective " nine pieces of eight " are needed to free sea goddess Calypso to defeat Beckett . With Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) and Will Turner , Barbossa leads Sparrow 's crew to Davy Jones 's Locker using stolen navigational charts from the pirate lord Sao Feng ( Chow Yun @-@ fat ) . After the crew locate him , Sparrow deciphers a clue on the charts allowing them to escape the Locker .
At the Brethren Court , Elizabeth has succeeded Captain Sao Feng as a Pirate Lord and is elected " Pirate King " after Sparrow breaks a stalemate vote . Sparrow is briefly reunited with his father , Captain Teague ( Keith Richards ) . During a parley with Beckett and Jones , Sparrow is traded for Turner , whom Jones and Beckett had captured . When Sparrow negotiates with Beckett in the extended version of the film , it is revealed that he once sailed the Black Pearl under Beckett 's command , but deserted after refusing to carry slave cargo . The Black Pearl battles the Flying Dutchman during a maelstrom created by Calypso , during which Sparrow steals Jones 's heart to become immortal . When Jones mortally wounds Turner , Sparrow instead chooses to save Turner by helping him stab the heart , which kills Jones and makes Turner the Dutchman 's captain . Together , the Pearl and the Dutchman destroy Beckett 's ship . At the end , Barbossa again commandeers the Pearl and Sao Feng 's charts , stranding Sparrow and Gibbs in Tortuga . Sparrow , however , had removed the chart 's crucial center portion , and sets sail in a dinghy , armed with his magical compass and the chart to search for the Fountain of Youth .
= = = On Stranger Tides = = =
After failing to find the Fountain of Youth , Sparrow arrives in London only to learn someone is gathering a crew by using his name . While searching for the imposter , he saves Gibbs from being hanged but is captured by the Royal Guards . They present him to King George II . Sparrow is surprised to learn Captain Barbossa is now a privateer in the Royal Navy . Sparrow refuses to negotiate with them to locate the Fountain of Youth and escapes . Soon he crosses paths with his impersonator , an old flame named Angelica ( Penélope Cruz ) . She shanghais him to serve aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge , the ship captained by her father Blackbeard ( Ian McShane ) , who forces Sparrow to search for the Fountain of Youth .
Sparrow fails in his attempt to take over the ship in a mutiny against Blackbeard and save the naive Angelica from her evil father . After encountering dangerous mermaids , Barbossa , and the Spanish Navy , Sparrow locates the Fountain of Youth . When Angelica is wounded , he tricks Blackbeard into sacrificing himself to save her , and Angelica blames Sparrow for her father 's death . Sparrow and Angelica acknowledge their feelings for one another , but Sparrow maroons Angelica on an island , believing she may avenge her father 's death . Gibbs , meanwhile , has retrieved the shrunken Black Pearl from Blackbeard 's collection of shrunken ships in the hope of restoring it to normal size . Though he has forfeited his opportunity for immortality , Sparrow settles for being famous as the one who found the Fountain of Youth . Following the film 's end credits , Angelica 's voodoo doll of Sparrow has drifted to the island that she is marooned on .
= = = Dead Men Tell No Tales = = =
Sparrow will return in the fifth film , portrayed once again by Johnny Depp coming May 26 , 2017 .
= = Concept and creation = =
= = = Characters = = =
When writing the screenplay for The Curse of the Black Pearl , Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio envisioned Captain Jack Sparrow as a supporting character in the vein of Bugs Bunny and Groucho Marx . The producers saw him as a young Burt Lancaster . Director Gore Verbinski admitted , " The first film was a movie , and then Jack was put into it almost . He doesn 't have the obligations of the plot in the same ways that the other characters have . He meanders his way through , and he kind of affects everybody else . " Sparrow represents an ethical pirate , with Captain Barbossa as his corrupt foil . His true motives usually remain masked , and whether he is honorable or evil depends on the audience 's perspective . This acts as part of Will Turner 's arc , in which Sparrow tells him a pirate can be a good man , like his father .
Following the success of The Curse of the Black Pearl , the challenge to creating a sequel was , according to Verbinski , " You don 't want just the Jack Sparrow movie . It 's like having a garlic milkshake . He 's the spice and you need a lot of straight men ... Let 's not give them too much Jack . It 's like too much dessert or too much of a good thing . " Although Dead Man 's Chest was written to propel the trilogy 's plot , Sparrow 's state @-@ of @-@ mind as he is pursued by Davy Jones becomes increasingly edgy , and the writers concocted the cannibal sequence to show that he was in danger whether on land or at sea . Sparrow is perplexed over his attraction to Elizabeth Swann , and attempts to justify it throughout the film .
At World 's End was meant to return it tonally to a character piece . Sparrow , in particular , is tinged with madness after extended solitary confinement in Davy Jones 's Locker , and now desires immortality . Sparrow struggles with what it takes to be a moral person , after his honest streak caused his doom in the second film . This is mainly shown by his increasingly erratic behaviour and Jack 's hallucinations which appeared to be simply his deranged mind in the beginning where dozens of " Jack Sparrows " appeared to crew the ship in his solitary exile , but later the hallucinations grew more important and there were mainly two " Jacks " constantly arguing about which path to follow : the immortality or the mortality . The last hallucination took place while Jack was imprisoned on the Dutchman where his honest streak won ( possibly due to not liking his sea creature @-@ like " future " which comedically dropped his brain and searched for it around the Brig ) . By the end of At World 's End Sparrow is sailing to the Fountain of Youth , an early concept for the second film . Rossio said in 2007 that a fourth film was possible , and producer Jerry Bruckheimer expressed interest in a spin @-@ off . Gore Verbinski concurred that " all of the stories set in motion by the first film have been resolved . If there ever were another Pirates of the Caribbean film , I would start fresh and focus on the further adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow . "
On Stranger Tides was first announced on September 28 , 2008 , during a Disney event at the Kodak Theater . Verbinski did not return to direct the fourth installment and was replaced by Rob Marshall . The movie uses elements from Tim Powers ' novel of the same name , particularly Blackbeard and the Fountain of Youth , but the film is not a straight adaptation of the novel .
= = = Johnny Depp = = =
Looking to do a family film , Johnny Depp visited the Walt Disney Studios in 2001 when he heard of plans to adapt the Pirates of the Caribbean ride into a film . Depp was excited by the possibility of reviving an old Hollywood genre , and found the script met his quirky sensibilities : the crew of the Black Pearl were not in search of treasure but trying to return it to lift a curse on them , and the traditional mutiny had already occurred . Depp was cast on June 10 , 2002 . Producer Jerry Bruckheimer felt Depp would give the film an edge that could draw teenage and adult audiences despite Disney 's reputation for soft children 's fare .
At the first read @-@ through , Depp surprised the cast and crew by portraying the character in an off @-@ kilter manner . He researched 18th @-@ century pirates and , seeing parallels with modern rock stars , modeled his performance on Keith Richards . Richards later appeared
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-@ old Anne , who devotedly embroidered shirts for her fiancé while three hundred tailors worked on her wedding dress .
Whatever the truth of the rumours , James required a royal match to preserve the Stuart line . " God is my witness " , he explained , " I could have abstained longer than the weal of my country could have permitted , [ had not ] my long delay bred in the breasts of many a great jealousy of my inability , as if I were a barren stock . " On 20 August 1589 , Anne was married by proxy to James at Kronborg Castle , the ceremony ending with James ' representative , George Keith , 5th Earl Marischal , sitting next to Anne on the bridal bed .
= = = Marriage = = =
Anne set sail for Scotland within 10 days , but her fleet was beset by a series of misadventures. finally being forced back to the coast of Norway , from where she travelled by land to Oslo for refuge , accompanied by the Earl Marischal and others of the Scottish and Danish embassies .
On 12 September , Lord Dingwall had landed at Leith , reporting that " he had come in company with the Queen 's fleet three hundred miles , and was separated from them by a great storm : it was feared that the Queen was in danger upon the seas . " Alarmed , James called for national fasting and public prayers , kept watch on the Firth of Forth for Anne 's arrival , wrote several songs , one comparing the situation to the plight of Hero and Leander , and sent a search party out for Anne , carrying a letter he had written to her in French : " Only to one who knows me as well as his own reflection in a glass could I express , my dearest love , the fears which I have experienced because of the contrary winds and violent storms since you embarked ... " . Informed in October that the Danes had abandoned the crossing for the winter , and in what Willson calls " the one romantic episode of his life , " James sailed from Leith with a three @-@ hundred @-@ strong retinue to fetch his wife personally , arriving in Oslo on 19 November after travelling by land from Flekkefjord via Tønsberg . According to a Scottish account , he presented himself to Anne , " with boots and all " , and , disarming her protests , gave her a kiss in the Scottish fashion .
Anne and James were formally married at the Old Bishop 's Palace in Oslo on 23 November 1589 , " with all the splendour possible at that time and place . " So that both bride and groom could understand , Leith minister David Lindsay conducted the ceremony in French , describing Anne as " a Princess both godly and beautiful ... she giveth great contentment to his Majesty . " A month of celebrations followed ; and on 22 December , cutting his entourage to fifty , James visited his new relations at Kronborg Castle in Elsinore , where the newlyweds were greeted by Queen Sophie , twelve @-@ year @-@ old King Christian IV , and Christian 's four regents . The couple moved on to Copenhagen on 7 March and attended the wedding of Anne 's older sister Elizabeth to Henry Julius , Duke of Brunswick , sailing two days later for Scotland in a patched up " Gideon " . They arrived in the Water of Leith on 1 May . Five days later , Anne made her state entry into Edinburgh in a solid silver coach brought over from Denmark , James riding alongside on horseback .
= = = Coronation = = =
Anne was crowned on 17 May 1590 in the Abbey Church at Holyrood , the first Protestant coronation in Scotland . During the seven @-@ hour ceremony , her gown was opened by the Countess of Mar for presiding minister Robert Bruce to pour " a bonny quantity of oil " on " parts of her breast and arm " , so anointing her as queen . ( Kirk ministers had objected vehemently to this element of the ceremony as a pagan and Jewish ritual , but James insisted that it dated from the Old Testament . ) The king handed the crown to Chancellor Maitland , who placed it on Anne 's head . She then affirmed an oath to defend the true religion and worship of God and to " withstand and despise all papistical superstitions , and whatsoever ceremonies and rites contrary to the word of God " .
= = Relationship with James = =
By all accounts , James was at first entranced by his bride , but his infatuation evaporated quickly and the couple often found themselves at loggerheads , though in the early years of their marriage , James seems always to have treated Anne with patience and affection . Between 1593 and 1595 , James was romantically linked with Anne Murray , later Lady Glamis , whom he addressed in verse as " my mistress and my love " ; and Anne herself was also occasionally the subject of scandalous rumours . In Basilikon Doron , written 1597 – 1598 , James described marriage as " the greatest earthly felicitie or miserie , that can come to a man " .
From the first moment of the marriage , Anne was under pressure to provide James and Scotland with an heir , but the passing of 1591 and 1592 with no sign of a pregnancy provoked renewed Presbyterian libels on the theme of James ' fondness for male company and whispers against Anne " for that she proves not with child " . As a result , there was great public relief when on 19 February 1594 Anne gave birth to her first child , Henry Frederick .
= = = Custody of Prince Henry = = =
Anne soon learned that she would have no say in her son 's care . James appointed as head of the nursery his former nurse Helen Little , who installed Henry in James ' own oak cradle . Most distressingly for Anne , James insisted on placing Prince Henry in the custody of John Erskine , Earl of Mar at Stirling Castle , in keeping with Scottish royal tradition .
In late 1594 , she began a furious campaign for custody of Henry , recruiting a faction of supporters to her cause , including the chancellor , John Maitland of Thirlestane . Nervous of the lengths to which Anne might go , James formally charged Mar in writing never to surrender Henry to anyone except on orders from his own mouth , " because in the surety of my son consists my surety , " nor to yield Henry to the Queen even in the event of his own death . Anne demanded the matter be referred to the Council , but James would not hear of it . After public scenes in which James reduced her to rage and tears over the issue , Anne became so bitterly upset that in July 1595 she suffered a miscarriage . Thereafter , she outwardly abandoned her campaign , but it was thought permanent damage had been done to the marriage . In August 1595 , John Colville wrote : " There is nothing but lurking hatred disguised with cunning dissimulation betwixt the King and the Queen , each intending by slight to overcome the other . "
Anne saw a belated opportunity to gain custody of Henry in 1603 when James left for London with the Earl of Mar to assume the English throne following the death of Elizabeth I. Pregnant at the time , Anne descended on Stirling with a force of " well @-@ supported " nobles , intent on removing the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry , whom she had hardly seen for five years ; but Mar 's mother and brother would allow her to bring no more than two attendants with her into the castle . The obduracy of Henry 's keepers sent Anne into such a fury that she suffered another miscarriage : according to David Calderwood , she " went to bed in anger and parted with child the tenth of May . "
When the Earl of Mar returned with James ' instructions that Anne join him in the Kingdom of England , she informed James by letter that she refused to do so unless allowed custody of Henry . This " forceful maternal action , " as historian Pauline Croft describes it , obliged James to climb down at last , though he reproved Anne for " froward womanly apprehensions " and described her behaviour in a letter to Mar as " wilfulness . " After a brief convalescence from the miscarriage , Anne duly travelled south with Prince Henry , their progress causing a sensation in England . Lady Anne Clifford recorded that she and her mother killed three horses in their haste to see the Queen , and that when James met Anne near Windsor , " there was such an infinite number of lords and ladies and so great a Court as I think I shall never see the like again . "
= = = Marital frictions = = =
Observers regularly noted incidents of marital discord between Anne and James . The so @-@ called Gowrie conspiracy of 1600 , in which the young Earl of Gowrie , John Ruthven , and his brother Alexander Ruthven were killed by James ' attendants for a supposed assault on the King , triggered the dismissal of their sisters Beatrix and Barbara Ruthven as ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting to Anne , with whom they were " in chiefest credit . " The Queen , who was five months pregnant , refused to get out of bed unless they were reinstated and stayed there for two days , also refusing to eat . When James tried to command her , she warned him to take care how he treated her because she was not the Earl of Gowrie . James placated her for the moment by paying a famous acrobat to entertain her , but she never gave up , and her stubborn support for the Ruthvens over the next three years was taken seriously enough by the government to be regarded as a security issue . In 1602 , after discovering that Anne had smuggled Beatrix Ruthven into Holyrood , James carried out a cross @-@ examination of the entire household ; in 1603 , he finally decided to grant Beatrix Ruthven a pension of £ 200 .
A briefer confrontation occurred in 1613 when Anne shot and killed James ' favourite dog during a hunting session . After his initial rage , James smoothed things over by giving her a £ 2 @,@ 000 diamond in memory of the dog , whose name was Jewel . In 1603 , James fought with Anne over the proposed composition of her English household , sending her a message that " his Majesty took her continued perversity very heinously . " In turn , Anne took exception to James ' drinking : in 1604 she confided to the French envoy that " the King drinks so much , and conducts himself so ill in every respect , that I expect an early and evil result . "
= = = Separate life = = =
In London , Anne adopted a cosmopolitan lifestyle , while James preferred to escape the capital , most often at his hunting lodge in Royston . Anne 's chaplain , Godfrey Goodman , later summed up the royal relationship : " The King himself was a very chaste man , and there was little in the Queen to make him uxorious ; yet they did love as well as man and wife could do , not conversing together . " Anne moved into Greenwich Palace and then Somerset House , which she renamed Denmark House . After 1607 , she and James rarely lived together , by which time she had borne seven children and suffered at least three miscarriages . After narrowly surviving the birth and death of her last baby , Sophia , in 1607 , Anne 's decision to have no more children may have widened the gulf between her and James .
The death of Prince Henry in 1612 at the age of eighteen , probably from typhoid , and the departure for Heidelberg of the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Princess Elizabeth in April 1613 , after marrying Elector Frederick V of the Palatine , further weakened the family ties binding Anne and James . Henry 's death hit Anne particularly hard ; the Venetian ambassador was advised not to offer condolences to her " because she cannot bear to have it mentioned ; nor does she ever recall it without abundant tears and sighs " . From this time forward , Anne 's health deteriorated , and she withdrew from the centre of cultural and political activities , staging her last known masque in 1614 and no longer maintaining a noble court . Her influence over James visibly waned as he became openly dependent on powerful favourites .
= = = Reaction to favourites = = =
Although James had always adopted male favourites among his courtiers , he now encouraged them to play a role in the government . Anne reacted very differently to the two powerful favourites who dominated the second half of her husband 's English reign , Robert Carr , Earl of Somerset , and George Villiers , the future Duke of Buckingham . She detested Carr , but she encouraged the rise of Villiers , whom James knighted in her bedchamber ; and she developed friendly relations with him , calling him her " dog " . Even so , Anne found herself increasingly ignored after Buckingham 's rise and became a lonely figure towards the end of her life .
= = Religion = =
A further source of difference between Anne and James was the issue of religion ; for example , she abstained from the Anglican communion at her English coronation . Anne had been brought up a Lutheran , but she may have discreetly converted to Catholicism at some point , a politically embarrassing scenario which alarmed ministers of the Scottish Kirk and caused suspicion in Anglican England .
Queen Elizabeth had certainly been worried about the possibility and sent messages to Anne warning her not to listen to papist counsellors and requesting the names of anyone who had tried to convert her ; Anne had replied that there was no need to name names because any such efforts had failed . Anne drew criticism from the Kirk for keeping Henrietta Gordon , wife of the exiled Catholic George Gordon , Marquess of Huntly , as a confidante ; after Huntly 's return in 1596 , the St Andrews minister David Black called Anne an atheist and remarked in a sermon that " the Queen of Scotland was a woman for whom , for fashion 's sake , the clergy might pray but from whom no good could be hoped . "
When former intelligencer Sir Anthony Standen was discovered bringing Anne a rosary from Pope Clement VIII in 1603 , James imprisoned him in the Tower for ten months . Anne protested her annoyance at the gift , but eventually secured Standen 's release .
Like James , Anne later supported a Catholic match for both their sons , and her correspondence with the potential bride , the Spanish Infanta , Maria Anna , included a request that two friars be sent to Jerusalem to pray for her and the King . The papacy itself was never quite sure where Anne stood ; in 1612 , Pope Paul V advised a nuncio : " Not considering the inconstancy of that Queen and the many changes she had made in religious matters and that even if it might be true that she might be a Catholic , one should not take on oneself any judgement . "
= = Court and politics = =
In Scotland , Anne sometimes exploited court factionalism for her own ends , in particular by supporting the enemies of the Earl of Mar. As a result , James did not trust her with secrets of state . Henry Howard , active in the highly secret diplomacy concerning the English succession , subtly reminded James that though Anne possessed every virtue , Eve was corrupted by the serpent . In practice , Anne was little interested in high politics unless they touched on the fate of her children or friends .
In England , Anne largely turned from political to social and artistic activities . Though she participated fully in the life of James ' court and maintained a court of her own , often attracting those not welcomed by James , she rarely took political sides against her husband . Whatever her private difficulties with James , she proved a diplomatic asset to him in England , conducting herself with discretion and graciousness in public . Anne played a crucial role , for example , in conveying to ambassadors and foreign visitors the prestige of the Stuart dynasty and its Danish connections .
The Venetian envoy , Nicolo Molin , wrote this description of Anne in 1606 :
= = = Reputation = = =
Anne has traditionally been regarded with condescension by historians , who have emphasised her triviality and extravagance . Along with James , she tended to be dismissed by a historical tradition , beginning with the anti @-@ Stuart historians of the mid @-@ 17th century , which saw in the self @-@ indulgence and vanity of the Jacobean court the origins of the English civil war . Historian David Harris Willson , in his 1956 biography of James , delivered this damning verdict : " Anne had little influence over her husband . She could not share his intellectual interests , and she confirmed the foolish contempt with which he regarded women . Alas ! The king had married a stupid wife . " The 19th century biographer Agnes Strickland condemned Anne 's actions to regain custody of Prince Henry as irresponsible : " It must lower the character of Anne of Denmark in the eyes of everyone , both as a woman and queen , that she ... preferred to indulge the mere instincts of maternity at the risk of involving her husband , her infant , and their kingdom , in the strife and misery of unnatural warfare . "
However , the reassessment of James in the past two decades , as an able ruler who extended royal power in Scotland and preserved his kingdoms from war throughout his reign , has been accompanied by a re @-@ evaluation of Anne as an influential political figure and assertive mother , at least for as long as the royal marriage remained a reality . John Leeds Barroll argues in his cultural biography of Anne that her political interventions in Scotland were more significant , and certainly more troublesome , than previously noticed ; and Clare McManus , among other cultural historians , has highlighted Anne 's influential role in the Jacobean cultural flowering , not only as a patron of writers and artists but as a performer herself .
= = Patron of the arts = =
Anne shared with James the fault of extravagance , though it took her several years to exhaust her considerable dowry . She loved dancing and pageants , activities often frowned upon in Presbyterian Scotland , but for which she found a vibrant outlet in Jacobean London , where she created a " rich and hospitable " cultural climate at the royal court , became an enthusiastic playgoer , and sponsored lavish masques . Sir Walter Cope , asked by Robert Cecil to select a play for the Queen during her brother Ulrik of Holstein 's visit , wrote , " Burbage is come and says there is no new play the Queen has not seen but they have revived an old one called Love 's Labour 's Lost which for wit and mirth he says will please her exceedingly . " Anne 's masques , scaling unprecedented heights of dramatic staging and spectacle , were avidly attended by foreign ambassadors and dignitaries and functioned as a potent demonstration of the English crown 's European significance . Zorzi Giustinian , the Venetian ambassador , wrote of the Christmas 1604 masque that " in everyone 's opinion no other Court could have displayed such pomp and riches " .
Anne 's masques were responsible for almost all the courtly female performance in the first two decades of the seventeenth century and are regarded as crucial to the history of women 's performance . Anne sometimes performed with her ladies in the masques herself , occasionally offending members of the audience . In The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses of 1604 , she played Pallas Athena , wearing a tunic that some observers regarded as too short ; in The Masque of Blackness of 1605 , Anne performed while six months pregnant , she and her ladies causing scandal by appearing with their skin painted as " blackamores " . Letter writer Dudley Carleton reported that when the Queen afterwards danced with the Spanish ambassador , he kissed her hand " though there was danger it would have left a mark upon his lips " . Anne commissioned the leading talents of the day to create these masques , including Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones .
Jones , a gifted architect steeped in the latest European taste , also designed the Queen 's House at Greenwich for Anne , one of the first true Palladian buildings in England ; and the Dutch inventor Salomon de Caus laid out her gardens at Greenwich and Somerset House . Anne particularly loved music and patronised the lutenist and composer John Dowland , previously employed at her brother 's court in Denmark , as well as " more than a good many " French musicians .
Anne also commissioned artists such as Paul van Somer , Isaac Oliver , and Daniel Mytens , who led English taste in visual arts for a generation . Under Anne , the Royal Collection began once more to expand , a policy continued by Anne 's son , Charles . Historian Alan Stewart suggests that many of the phenomena now seen as peculiarly Jacobean can be identified more closely with Anne 's patronage than with James , who " fell asleep during some of England 's most celebrated plays " .
= = Death = =
By late 1617 , Anne 's bouts of illness had become debilitating ; the letter writer John Chamberlain recorded : " The Queen continues still ill disposed and though she would fain lay all her infirmities upon the gout yet most of her physicians fear a further inconvenience of an ill habit or disposition through her whole body . " In January 1619 , royal physician Sir Theodore de Mayerne instructed Anne to saw wood to improve her blood flow , but the exertion served to make her worse . James visited Anne only three times during her last illness , though Prince Charles often slept in the adjoining bedroom at Hampton Court Palace and was at her bedside during her last hours , when she had lost her sight . With her until the end was her personal maid , Anna Roos , who had arrived with her from Denmark in 1590 . Queen Anne died aged 44 on 2 March 1619 , of a dangerous form of dropsy .
Despite his neglect of Anne , James was emotionally affected by her death . He did not visit her during her dying days or attend her funeral , being himself sick , the symptoms , according to Sir Theodore de Mayerne , including " fainting , sighing , dread , incredible sadness ... " . The inquest discovered Anne to be " much wasted within , specially her liver " . After a prolonged delay , she was buried in King Henry 's Chapel , Westminster Abbey , on 13 May 1619 . The catafalque , designed by Maximilian Colt , placed over her grave was destroyed during the civil war .
As he had done before he ever met her , James turned to verse to pay his respects :
So did my Queen from hence her court remove
And left off earth to be enthroned above .
She 's changed , not dead , for sure no good prince dies ,
But , as the sun , sets , only for to rise .
= = Children = =
Anne gave birth to seven children who survived beyond childbirth , four of whom died in infancy or early childhood ; she also suffered at least three miscarriages . Her second son succeeded James as King Charles I. Her daughter Elizabeth was the " Winter Queen " of Bohemia and the grandmother of King George I of Great Britain .
Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales ( 19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612 ) . Died , probably of typhoid fever , aged 18 .
miscarriage ( July 1595 ) .
Elizabeth ( 19 August 1596 – 13 February 1662 ) . Married 1613 , Frederick V , Elector Palatine . Died aged 65 .
Margaret ( 24 December 1598 Dalkeith Palace – March 1600 Linlithgow Palace ) . Died aged fifteen months . Buried at Holyrood Abbey .
Charles I of England ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649 ) . Married 1625 , Henrietta Maria . Executed aged 48 .
Robert , Duke of Kintyre ( 18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602 ) . Died aged four months .
miscarriage ( 10 May 1603 ) .
Mary ( 8 April 1605 Greenwich Palace – 16 December 1607 Stanwell , Surrey ) . Died aged two .
Sophia ( 22 June 1606 – 23 June 1606 ) . Born and died at Greenwich Palace .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Fictional portrayal = =
Anne was portrayed in Pocahontas II : Journey to a New World . Finola Hughes was the voice actress for her .
= Monaco Grand Prix =
The Monaco Grand Prix ( French : Grand Prix de Monaco ) is a Formula One motor race held each year on the Circuit de Monaco . Run since 1929 , it is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world and , with the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans , forms the Triple Crown of Motorsport . The circuit has been called " an exceptional location of glamour and prestige " .
The race is held on a narrow course laid out in the streets of Monaco , with many elevation changes and tight corners as well as a tunnel , making it one of the most demanding tracks in Formula One . In spite of the relatively low average speeds , it is a dangerous place to race and often involves the intervention of a safety car . It is the only Grand Prix that does not adhere to the FIA 's mandated 305 @-@ kilometre ( 190 @-@ mile ) minimum race distance .
The event was part of the pre @-@ Second World War European Championship and was included in the first World Championship of Drivers in 1950 . It was designated the European Grand Prix two times , 1955 and 1963 , when this title was an honorary designation given each year to one Grand Prix race in Europe . Graham Hill was known as " Mr. Monaco " due to his five Monaco wins in the 1960s . Brazil 's Ayrton Senna won the race more times than any other driver , with six victories , winning five races consecutively between 1989 and 1993 . Fernando Alonso is the only driver to have won the race in consecutive years for different constructors , winning for Renault in 2006 and McLaren in 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Like many European races , the Monaco Grand Prix predates the current World Championship . The principality 's first Grand Prix was organised in 1929 by Antony Noghès , under the auspices of Prince Louis II , through the Automobile Club de Monaco ( ACM ) . Alexandre Noghès , Antony 's father , was founding president of the ACM , originally named Sport Vélocipédique Monégasque . The ACM made their first foray into motorsport by holding the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo in 1911 . In 1928 the club applied to the Association Internationale des Automobiles Clubs Reconnus ( AIACR ) , the international governing body of motorsport , to be upgraded from a regional French club to full national status . Their application was refused due to the lack of a major motorsport event held wholly within Monaco 's boundaries . The rally could not be considered as it mostly used the roads of other European countries .
In order to attain full national status , Noghès proposed the creation of an automobile Grand Prix in the streets of Monte Carlo . Noghès obtained the official support of Prince Louis II . Noghès also gained support for his plans from Monegasque Louis Chiron , a top @-@ level driver in European Grand Prix racing . Chiron thought that the topography of the location would be well suited to setting up a race track .
The first race , held on 14 April 1929 , was won by William Grover @-@ Williams driving a Bugatti .
The first Grand Prix Automobile de Monaco was an invitation @-@ only event , but not all of those invited decided to attend . The leading Maserati and Alfa Romeo drivers decided not to compete , but Bugatti was well represented . Mercedes sent their leading driver Rudolf Caracciola to drive a Mercedes SSK . Caracciola drove a fighting race , bringing his SSK up to second position at the end of the race , despite starting in fifteenth . The race was won by " Williams " ( pseudonym of William Grover @-@ Williams ) driving a Bugatti Type 35B painted dark green . Another driver who competed using a pseudonym was " Georges Philippe " , the Baron Philippe de Rothschild . Chiron was unable to compete , having a prior commitment to compete in the Indianapolis 500 on the same day .
However , Chiron did compete the following year , when he was beaten by René Dreyfus and his Bugatti and finished second , and took victory in the 1931 race driving a Bugatti . As of 2015 , he remains the only native of Monaco to have won the event .
= = = Pre @-@ war = = =
The race quickly grew in importance . Because of the large number of races which were being termed ' Grands Prix ' , the AIACR formally recognised the most important race of each of its affiliated national automobile clubs as International Grands Prix , or Grandes Épreuves , and in 1933 Monaco was ranked as such alongside the French , Belgian , Italian , and Spanish Grands Prix . That year 's race was the first Grand Prix where grid positions were decided , as they are now , by practice time rather than the established method of balloting . The race saw Achille Varzi and Tazio Nuvolari exchange the lead many times before being settled in Varzi 's favour on the final lap when Nuvolari 's car caught fire . The race became a round of the new European Championship in 1936 , when stormy weather and a broken oil line led to a series of crashes , eliminating the Mercedes @-@ Benzes of Chiron , Fagioli , and von Brauchitsch , as well as Bernd Rosemeyer 's Typ C for newcomer Auto Union ; Rudolf Caracciola , proving the truth of his nickname , Regenmeister ( Rainmaster ) , went on to win . In 1937 , von Brauchitsch duelled Caracciola before coming out on top . It was the last prewar Grand Prix at Monaco , for in 1938 , the demand for ₤ 500 ( about US $ 2450 ) in appearance money per top entrant led AIACR to cancel the event , while looming war overtook it in 1939 , and the Second World War ended organised racing in Europe until 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ war Grand Prix = = =
Racing in Europe started again on 9 September 1945 at the Bois de Boulogne Park in the city of Paris , four months and one day after the end of the war in Europe . In 1946 a new premier racing category , Grand Prix , was defined by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , the successor of the AIACR , based on the pre @-@ war voiturette class . A Monaco Grand Prix was run to this formula in 1948 , won by the future world champion Nino Farina in a Maserati 4CLT .
= = = Formula One = = =
= = = = Early championship days = = = =
The 1949 event was cancelled due to the death of Prince Louis II ; it was included in the new Formula One World Drivers ' Championship the following year . The race provided future five @-@ time world champion Juan Manuel Fangio with his first win in a World Championship race , as well as third place for the 51 @-@ year @-@ old Louis Chiron , his best result in the World Championship era . However , there was no race in 1951 , and in 1952 , a year in which the world drivers ' championship was run for less powerful Formula Two cars , the race was run to sports car rules instead and did not form part of the World Championship .
Since 1955 , the Monaco Grand Prix has continuously been part of the Formula One World Championship . That year , Maurice Trintignant won in Monte Carlo for the first time and Chiron again scored points and at 56 became the oldest driver to compete in a Formula One Grand Prix . It was not until 1957 , when Fangio won again , that the Grand Prix saw a double winner . Between 1954 and 1961 Fangio 's former Mercedes colleague , Stirling Moss , went one better , as did Trintignant , who won the race again in 1958 driving a Cooper . The 1961 race saw Moss fend off three works Ferrari 156s in a year @-@ old privateer Rob Walker Racing Team Lotus 18 , to take his third Monaco victory .
= = = = Graham Hill 's era = = = =
Britain 's Graham Hill won the race five times in the 1960s and became known as " King of Monaco " and " Mr. Monaco " . He first won in 1963 , and then won the next two years . In the 1965 race he took pole position and led from the start , but went up an escape road on lap 25 to avoid hitting a slow backmarker . Re @-@ joining in fifth place , Hill set several new lap records on the way to winning . The race was also notable for Jim Clark 's absence ( he was doing the Indianapolis 500 ) , and for Paul Hawkins ' Lotus ending up in the harbour . A similar incident was included in the 1966 film Grand Prix . Hill 's teammate , Briton Jackie Stewart , won in 1966 and New Zealander Denny Hulme won in 1967 , but Hill won the next two years , the 1969 event being his final Formula One championship victory , by which time he was a double Formula One world champion .
= = = = Track alterations , safety , and increasing business interests = = = =
By the start of the 1970s , efforts by Jackie Stewart saw a few events cancelled because of safety concerns . For the 1969 event , Armco barriers were placed at specific points for the first time in the circuit 's history ; before that , the circuit 's conditions were ( aside from the removal of people 's production cars parked on the side of the road ) virtually identical to everyday civilian use . If a driver went off , he would crash into whatever was next to the track ( buildings , trees , lamp posts , glass windows , and even a train station ) ; and in Alberto Ascari and Paul Hawkins ' cases , the harbour water , because the concrete road the course used had no Armco to protect the drivers from going off the track and into the Mediterranean . The circuit gained more Armco in specific points for the next 2 races , and by 1972 , the circuit was almost completely Armco @-@ lined . And for the first time in its history , the Monaco circuit was altered that year ; the pits were moved next to the waterfront straight between the chicane and Tabac and the chicane was moved further forward right before Tabac and was the junction point between the pits and the course . The course was changed again for the 1973 race ; the Rainier III Nautical Stadium was constructed where the straight that went behind the pits was and the circuit introduced a twisty section that went around the new swimming pool . This created space for a whole new pit facility ; and in 1976 the course was altered yet again ; the Sainte Devote corner was made slower and a chicane was placed right before the pit straight .
For the next two races , By the early 1970s , as Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone started to marshal the collective bargaining power of the Formula One Constructors Association ( FOCA ) , Monaco was prestigious enough to become an early bone of contention . Historically the number of cars permitted in a race was decided by the race organiser , in this case the ACM , which had always set a low number of around 16 . In 1972 Ecclestone was starting to negotiate deals which relied on FOCA guaranteeing at least 18 entrants for every race . A stand @-@ off over this issue left the 1972 race in jeopardy until the ACM gave in and agreed that 26 cars could participate – the same number permitted at most other circuits . Two years later , in 1974 , the ACM managed to get the numbers back down to 18 .
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injured Fatima 's hands for a misdemeanor . This caused her considerable pain throughout her childhood , hampering her ability to play the violin . She later became a highly competent player , though she remained self @-@ conscious about the scarring even as an adult . After elementary school , she was sent to boarding school at Julia C. Emery Hall , attached to the Bromley Mission near Clay @-@ Ashland in Montserrado County .
Momolu Massaquoi sought to give his favourite child , and only daughter , the very best education . She went with him to Hamburg in 1922 , where she lived at the consulate at 22 Johnsallee . Receiving her primary school education at St. Anschar Höhere Mädchenschule , Massaquoi quickly mastered German . On the recommendation of the consulate 's housekeeper , Gertrude von Bobers , to whom she became very attached , in 1932 she spent some time in Geneva , Switzerland , where she learnt French at the École Supérieure et Secondaire . The same year , she returned to Hamburg , attending the Helen Lange Schule , where she received her school leaving certificate in 1935 . She then went on to study medicine at the University of Hamburg graduating in 1937 .
Hans J. Massaquoi , her nephew , who was in Hamburg during the same period , recounts that " Tante Fatima " dressed exotically in African clothing , proudly maintained her African habits and spoke the Vai language . One of her fondest friends in Hamburg was Richard Heydorn , a pianist , with whom she gave many recitals . An opponent of Nazism , when war broke out he was sent to Russia , and was later reported missing in action . Being part of the first black diplomatic family in Germany had always been challenging , but with the rise of the Nazi regime , Massaquoi 's father began fearing for her safety . With the assistance of friends , he helped her relocate to the United States to avoid the Aryan policies and restrictions placed on women .
= = Years in the United States = =
Massaquoi arrived that same year in the United States and experienced the racial segregation and Jim Crow laws of the Southern States . She first attended Lane College in Jackson , Tennessee , graduating in sociology . Two years later she moved to Fisk University in Nashville earning two master 's degrees , first in sociology and then in anthropology in 1944 . She assisted her professor , Mark Hanna Watkins , in his understanding of the Vai language , cooperating with him in compiling a Vai dictionary . She agreed to accept a fellowship as a linguistic advisor , after her father died in 1938 . She taught French and German at Fisk and also paid her way by giving instruction in African and European folk dancing , as well as teaching the violin , thanks to her own competence on the instrument .
In 1940 , Massaquoi finished writing an autobiographical account of her early life as a tribal child , her life experiences with Europeans and education in Germany and Switzerland , and impressions of America . Watkins told her the English was too poor for publication , but later he claimed in a 1944 letter that she had written the account upon his insistence . While awaiting the editing , Massaquoi continued helping the school prepare a dictionary on the Vai language , teaching cultural dance and language , but was unhappy with the arrangement which paid only a small sum . When she attempted to retrieve her manuscript , Watkins refused and she sued the university for its return and to bar them from publishing her works . In 1945 , she won a permanent injunction against Watkins , Dr. Thomas E. Jones , president of the university , and Fisk University prohibiting them from publishing or receiving any financial rewards from any publication of the work . Massaquoi felt that she had been " conspired against " because she was foreign and a presumption that she did not have the strength to fight for her rights .
In 1946 while at Boston University , Massaquoi completed editing the autobiography ( which was originally titled Bush to Boulevard : The Autobiography of a Vai Noblewoman ) . Thanks to her extensive travels and education , by this time , she spoke several languages — at least eight and four tribal dialects . In addition to her native Vai and Mende , she spoke English which she had first learnt at school in Liberia , German from her many years in Hamburg , and French from her schooling in Switzerland .
= = Return to Liberia = =
Upon the invitation of President William Tubman , Massaquoi returned to Liberia on 13 October 1946 to help him establish a university in Monrovia . She became Professor of French and Science in March 1947 at Liberia College , later the University of Liberia ( UL ) . In 1956 , she became director , then dean ( 1960 ) , of the Liberal Arts College and was a co @-@ founder of the Society of Liberian Authors . In 1962 Massaquoi founded and directed a programme for African Studies , which would evolve into the Institute of African Studies at UL .
During her term at the university , Massaquoi succeeded in overcoming the requirement that students should adopt foreign names rather than keeping those of their indigenous families . In connection with this , when she married Ernest Freeman on 26 July 1948 , Massaquoi adopted his tribal name Fahnbulleh , calling herself Fatima Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbulleh . Her husband also changed his own name back to Fahnbulleh . To further contribute to the cultural and social development of Liberia , she organized a seminar through the African Studies Program in 1962 to promote the standardization of the Vai script .
With a view to enhancing educational developments in Liberia , in late 1963 and early 1964 , Massaquoi spent six months in the United States on an education scholarship , visiting fine arts colleges and university departments of anthropology and sociology , mainly in the east and mid @-@ west . In 1968 , while living in Monrovia , Liberia , with her daughter Vivian Seton and her grandchildren , Massaquoi suffered a stroke . This pressed Seton into having the 700 pages of her mother 's unpublished autobiography microfilmed , calling on the assistance of colleagues at the University of Liberia . Massaquoi retired from the university in the summer of 1972 , receiving an honorary Doctor of Humanities degree . She was also decorated as a Grand Commander of the Grand Star of Africa by the president of Liberia .
Fatima Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbulleh died in Monrovia on 26 November 1978 . Posthumously , her microfilmed manuscripts were discovered by German researcher Konrad Tuchscherer , while conducting other research . Arthur Abraham , a historian at Virginia State University , Massaquoi 's daughter , Vivian Seton , and Tuchscherer , edited the accounts of her early experiences in Germany and the United States . The book , The Autobiography of an African Princess , was published in 2013 and was well received by critics . Tamba M ’ bayo of West Virginia University , stated : " The strengths of this autobiography could be gauged at two or more different levels . First , its down @-@ to @-@ heart and honest account of even the most disturbing personal experiences … Second the larger canvas of Sierra Leonean and Liberian cultural and ethno @-@ linguistic history in which Fatima ’ s story is told . Rich in content and well orchestrated … " .
= = Accolades = =
Throughout her life , Massaquoi received a number of awards and honors , both locally and internationally . She was bestowed with the Tricentenary Bust of Molière by the French Government in 1955 . In 1962 , she was honoured with the Großes Verdienstkreuz erster Klasse from the Federal Republic of Germany by President Heinrich Lübke . Upon her 1972 retirement , she was granted an honorary Doctor of Humanities from UL and awarded the rank of Grand Commander of the Grand Star of Africa by President William R. Tolbert , Jr . When Massaquoi died , a tribute was held at the University of Liberia . Mary Antoinette Brown @-@ Sherman , who up to that time was the only woman to have served anywhere in Africa as a university president , proclaimed , " Hers was a life of dedication to the Liberian nation and to the cause of education . "
= = Selected works = =
Massaquoi , Fatima ( 2013 ) . The Autobiography of an African Princess . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 137 @-@ 10250 @-@ 8 .
Massaquoi Fahnbulleh , Fatima ; Henries ( artist ) , Doris Banks ( 1971 ) . Fatu 's Experiences : A Liberian First Reader . Liberian Information Service .
Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbulleh , Fatima ( 1973 ) . Writings and Papers of Fatima Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbulleh . African Imprint Library Services .
Massaquoi , Fatima ( 1961 ) . The Leopard 's Daughter : A Folk Tale from Liberia . Bruce Humphries .
Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbullet , Fatima ( 1953 ) . " The Seminar on Standardization of the Vai Script . " University of Liberia Journal , 3 / 1 , 15 – 37 .
= United Nations Security Council Resolution 82 =
United Nations Security Council Resolution 82 was a measure adopted by the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) on June 25 , 1950 . The resolution demanded North Korea immediately end its invasion of South Korea , the catalyst for the beginning of the Korean War . The measure was adopted by a vote of 9 support , none opposed , and one abstention .
The Korean Peninsula had been divided between occupation forces of the United States and the Soviet Union since the end of World War II along the 38th Parallel . Each government sought to prop up a government on its side of the occupation border , and as the Cold War began , tensions rose between the two Koreas . These culminated in open warfare with the North 's invasion of the South on June 25 . During this time , the United Nations backed South Korea and considered it the only lawful government .
The resolution called on the North to immediately halt its invasion and to move its troops back to the 38th parallel . Seen as a diplomatic victory for the United States , the resolution was completely ignored by North Korea . This brought the UN and the US to take further action , setting the state for massive international involvement and the expansion of the Korean War .
= = Background = =
= = = Division of Korea = = =
At the end of World War II , the Korean Peninsula , which up to that point had been occupied by the Empire of Japan , was divided along the 38th Parallel . To the north , the Soviet Union ( USSR ) occupied the country , which established itself as a communist state , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea under Kim Il Sung . To the south , the United States ( US ) occupied the country , establishing the Republic of Korea under an autocratic anti @-@ communist leader , Syngman Rhee . As tensions rose between the US and the USSR , each government in Korea claimed it had sovereignty over the whole country .
In the late @-@ 1947 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 112 established a temporary commission to monitor free elections in Korea . The UN had intended to reunify Korea under one government , but the UN commission was unable to enter North Korea . After observing elections in South Korea , the UN stated in General Assembly Resolution 195 on December 12 , 1948 , that the nation was to be established under one government as soon as possible , and the US and Soviet occupation forces there were to withdraw .
As time went on , the North Korean government became more aggressive , and skirmishes between troops of the North and South became common . UN military observers were assigned to monitor the situation and prevent it from escalating . United Nations General Assembly Resolution 293 , passed October 21 , 1949 , recognized only South Korea 's government as legal . For its part , North Korea issued inflammatory responses to the UN denying the legality of UN activities in Korea and saying it would drive the UN out of the country .
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
On the night of June 25 , 1950 , ten divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched a full @-@ scale invasion of the Republic of Korea . The force of 89 @,@ 000 men moved in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise , resulting in a rout . The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of equipment , and was unprepared for war . The numerically superior North Korean forces overcame isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the frontier before it began moving steadily south . Most of South Korea 's forces retreated in the face of the invasion . The North Koreans were well on their way to South Korea 's capital of Seoul within hours , forcing the government and its shattered army to retreat further south .
News of the invasion quickly spread around the world via ambassadors and correspondents in Korea . Journalists in the United States were reporting on the invasion within five hours of the initial attack , and United States Ambassador to Korea John J. Muccio sent a telegram to the US State Department at 21 : 26 EST ( 10 : 26 KST ) June 24 . As the combat grew more intense , US Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed US President Harry S. Truman ( who had been resting at his home in Independence , Missouri for the weekend ) , and Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Trygve Lie of the situation . The attack was particularly troubling to Truman , who likened it to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , and to Lie , who was reminded of the Invasion of Norway during World War II . Fearing the attack would spur a World War III , Truman resolved to act as quickly as possible to prevent an escalation of the conflict . Muccio met with Rhee , who informed him the South Korean Army would run out of ammunition within ten days , and would not be able to hold back the invasion on its own . He requested the United Nations and the United States assist South Korea in the conflict .
Lie convened the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) for its 473rd meeting at 14 : 00 June 25 in New York City , New York . He began the meeting with a detailed report from the UN Commission on Korea , explained the situation to the delegates , and insisted that the UN take action to restore peace in Korea . According to the UN Commission on Korea , the situation was assuming the character of full @-@ scale warfare . Then , US diplomat Ernest A. Gross gave Muccio 's report on the situation .
The United States introduced a resolution stating that North Korea 's invasion was a breach of peace in violation of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter . Gross requested that South Korea 's ambassador to the United Nations , Chang Myon , be present for the meeting , which was granted . The Yugoslavian delegate requested that a North Korean diplomat be present as well , but this request was not granted . North Korea was not a member of the UN and had no representation in the organization . Myon read a prepared statement calling the invasion a crime against humanity , and said that as the UN had played a major role in the founding of South Korea , it was their responsibility to help defend it from aggression . The UNSC debated the resolution and made amendments and revisions to its wording before passing it .
= = The resolution = =
The resolution passed with 9 supports and no opposition . Supporting nations included the United States , the United Kingdom , Republic of China , France , Cuba , Ecuador , Egypt , Norway and India . Ales Babbler , delegate from Yugoslavia , abstained from voting . The Soviet Union 's delegate had boycotted all UN meetings because of procedural disagreements earlier in the year . Soviet ambassador to the United Nations Yakov Malik had been personally ordered not to attend the UNSC meetings by Soviet premier Joseph Stalin . Lie was a strong supporter of the resolution , as he saw the conflict as a challenge to the authority of the UN .
= = Aftermath = =
The resolution was seen as a political victory for the United States , as it identified North Korea as the aggressor in the conflict . Earlier in the day , independent of the UN resolution , Truman had ordered the Joint Chiefs of Staff to contact US Army General of the Army Douglas Macarthur , who was in charge of US forces in the Far East . He ordered MacArthur to prepare ships for the evacuation of US citizens from Korea , and authorized him to send ammunition and supplies to Pusan to support South Korean forces in the Seoul @-@ Kimpo area . These would be escorted by US military units . He instructed MacArthur to send a survey team into the country to assess the situation and determine how to aid South Korea . Truman also ordered the mobilization of the US Navy for movement into the region .
The US delegation later contacted the Soviet delegation and sent a message requesting that the Kremlin use its influence over North Korea to compel it to comply with the resolution , but the Soviet Union denied the request . With the ineffectiveness of the resolution in de @-@ escalating the conflict , the UNSC convened on June 27 to discuss further actions to take , resulting in United Nations Security Council Resolution 83 , which recommended military intervention by other UN member nations to restore peace in Korea . Within days , ships and aircraft from several nations , as well as the first major formations of US troops , were moving to South Korea , setting the stage for a full @-@ scale conflict .
In a 2010 column , Colum Lynch of Foreign Policy magazine criticized the resolution as one of the ten worst UN resolutions in history . After the Soviet Union ended its boycott of the council , it used its veto power to block any further resolutions against North Korea . In response , Acheson introduced a new procedure to the UN General Assembly to allow a member state to bypass the UNSC and seek approval in the General Assembly , including recommendations on the use of force , United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377 . When this was passed , it allowed for open @-@ ended General Assembly emergency special sessions to address threats to international peace and security for which the UNSC was unable to pass a resolution . Lynch wrote that the creation of this rule caused unintended negative consequences for the United States in 1997 when several Arab states began the Tenth emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly to address the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and Israel 's occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . This session , convened as a way around a US veto , spanned 30 meetings over the next ten years , and has never formally been closed .
= College of Arms =
The College of Arms , also known as the College of Heralds , is a royal corporation consisting of professional officers of arms , with jurisdiction over England , Wales , Northern Ireland and some Commonwealth realms . The heralds are appointed by the British Sovereign and are delegated authority to act on behalf of the Crown in all matters of heraldry , the granting of new coats of arms , genealogical research and the recording of pedigrees . The College is also the official body responsible for matters relating to the flying of flags on land , and it maintains the official registers of flags and other national symbols . Though a part of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom the College is self @-@ financed , unsupported by any public funds .
Founded by royal charter in 1484 by King Richard III , the College is one of the few remaining official heraldic authorities in Europe . Within the United Kingdom , there are two such authorities , the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland and the College for the rest of the United Kingdom . The College has had its home in the City of London since its foundation , and has been at its present location on Queen Victoria Street since 1555 . The College of Arms also undertakes and consults on the planning of many ceremonial occasions such as coronations , state funerals , the annual Garter Service and the State Opening of Parliament . Heralds of the College accompany the sovereign on many of these occasions .
The College comprises thirteen officers or heralds : three Kings of Arms , six Heralds of Arms and four Pursuivants of Arms . There are also seven officers extraordinary , who take part in ceremonial occasions but are not part of the College . The entire corporation is overseen by the Earl Marshal , a hereditary office held by the Duke of Norfolk , currently Edward Fitzalan @-@ Howard , 18th Duke of Norfolk .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
King Richard III 's interest in heraldry was indicated by his possession of two important Rolls of Arms . While still Duke of Gloucester and Constable of England for his brother ( Edward IV ) from 1469 , he in the latter capacity supervised the heralds and made plans for the reform of their organisation . Soon after his accession to the throne he created Sir John Howard as Duke of Norfolk and Earl Marshal of England , who became the first Howard appointed to both positions .
In the first year of his reign , the royal heralds were incorporated under Royal charter dated 2 March 1484 , under the Latin name " Le Garter regis armorum Anglicorum , regis armorum partium Australium , regis armorum partium Borealium , regis armorum Wallæ et heraldorum , prosecutorum , sive pursevandorum armorum . " Translated as : " the Garter King of Arms of England , the King of Arms of the Southern parts , the King of Arms of the Northern parts , the King of Arms of Wales , and all other heralds and pursuivants of arms " . The charter then goes on to state that the heralds " for the time being , shall be in perpetuity a body corporate in fact and name , and shall preserve a succession unbroken . " This charter titled " Literæ de incorporatione heraldorum " is now held in the British Museum . There has been some evidence that prior to this charter , the royal heralds had already in some ways behaved like a corporation as early as 1420 . Nevertheless , the charter is the earliest surviving document to affirm the chapter as a corporate body of heralds . The charter outlines the constitution of the officers , their hierarchy , the privileges conferred upon them and their jurisdiction over all heraldic matters in the Kingdom of England .
The King empowered the College to have and use only one common seal of authority , and also instructed them to find a chaplain to celebrate mass daily for himself , Anne Neville , the Queen Consort , and his heir , Prince Edward . The College was also granted a house named Coldharbour ( formerly Poulteney 's Inn ) on Upper Thames Street in the parish of All @-@ Hallows @-@ the @-@ Less , for storing records and living space for the heralds . The house , built by Sir John de Pulteney , four times Lord Mayor of London , was said to be one of the greatest in the City of London .
= = = Varying fortunes = = =
The defeat and death of Richard III at Bosworth field was a double blow for the heralds , for they lost both their patron , the King , and their benefactor , the Earl Marshal , who was also slain . The victorious Henry Tudor was crowned King Henry VII soon after the battle . Henry 's first Parliament of 1485 passed an Act of Resumption , in which large grants of crown properties made by his two predecessors to their supporters were cancelled . Whether this act affected the status of the College 's charter is debatable ; however , the act did facilitate the de facto recovery of Coldharbour to the crown . Henry then granted the house to his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort , for life . This was because it was supposed that the house was granted personally to John Writhe the Garter King of Arms and not to the heralds as a corporation . As a result , the heralds were left destitute and many of their books and records were lost . Despite this ill treatment from the King , the heralds ' position at the royal court remained , and they were compelled by the King to attend him at all times ( albeit in rotation ) .
Of the reign of King Henry VIII , it has been said that : " at no time since its establishment , was [ the college ] in higher estimation , nor in fuller employment , than in this reign . " Henry VIII was fond of pomp and magnificence , and thus gave the heralds plenty of opportunity to exercise their roles in his court . In addition , the members of the College were also expected to be regularly despatched to foreign courts on missions , whether to declare war , accompany armies , summon garrisons or deliver messages to foreign potentates and generals . During his magnificent meeting with Francis I of France at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 , Henry VIII brought with him eighteen officers of arms , probably all he had , to regulate the many tournaments and ceremonies held there .
Nevertheless , the College 's petitions to the King and to the Duke of Suffolk in 1524 and 1533 for the return of their chapter house were rejected , and the heralds were left to hold chapter in whichever palace the royal court happened to be at the time . They even resorted to meeting at each other 's houses , at various guildhalls and even a hospital . Furthermore , Henry VIII 's habit of raising ladies in the situation of subjects to queens , and then awarding them many heraldic augmentations , which also extended to their respective families , was considered harmful to the science of heraldry . The noted antiquarian and heraldist Charles Boutell commented in 1863 , that the : " Arms of Queen Anne Boleyn are the first which exemplify the usage , introduced by Henry VIII , of granting to his Consorts ' Augmentations ' to their paternal arms . It is a striking illustration of the degenerate condition of Heraldry under the second Tudor Sovereign . "
It was also in this reign in 1530 , that Henry VIII conferred on the College one of its most important duties for almost a century , the heraldic visitation . The provincial Kings of Arms were commissioned under a royal warrant to enter all houses and churches and given authority to deface and destroy all arms unlawfully used by any knight , esquire , or gentleman . Around the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries this duty became even more necessary as the monasteries were previously repositories of local genealogical records . From then on , all genealogical records and the duty of recording them was subsumed by the College . These visitations were serious affairs , and many individuals were charged and heavily fined for breaking the law of arms . Hundreds of these visitations were carried out well into the 17th century ; the last was in 1686 .
= = = Reincorporation = = =
The College found a patroness in Mary I , although it must have been embarrassing for both sides , after the heralds initially proclaimed the right of her rival Lady Jane Grey to the throne . When King Edward VI died on 6 July 1553 , Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen four days later , first in Cheapside then in Fleet Street by two heralds , trumpets blowing before them . However , when popular support swung to Mary 's side , the Lord Mayor of London and his councils accompanied by the Garter King of Arms , two other heralds , and four trumpeters returned to Cheapside to proclaim Mary 's ascension as rightful queen instead . The College 's excuse was that they were compelled in their earlier act by the Duke of Northumberland ( Lady Jane 's father @-@ in @-@ law , who was later executed ) , an excuse that Mary accepted .
The queen and her husband ( and co @-@ sovereign ) Philip II of Spain then set about granting the College a new house called Derby Place or Derby House , under a new charter , dated 18 July 1555 at Hampton Court Palace . The house was built by Thomas Stanley , 1st Earl of Derby , who married Lady Margaret Beaufort in 1482 and was created the 1st Earl of Derby in 1485 . The house was built in 1503 and was given to the Crown by the 3rd Earl in 1552 / 3 in exchange for some land . The charter stated that the house would : " enable them [ the College ] to assemble together , and consult , and agree amongst themselves , for the good of their faculty , and that the records and rolls might be more safely and conveniently deposited . " The Charter also reincorporated the three kings of arms , six heralds and all other heralds and pursuivants , and their successors , into a corporation with perpetual succession . A new seal of authority , with the College 's full coat of arms was also engraved . On 16 May 1565 , the name " the House of the Office of Arms " was used , thereafter in May 1566 " our Colledge of Armes " , and in January 1567 " our House of the College of the office of arms " .
Derby Place was situated in the parish of St Benedict and St Peter , south of St Paul 's Cathedral , more or less on the College 's present location . There are records of the heralds carrying out modifications to the structure of Derby Place over many years . However , little record of its appearance has survived , except the description that the buildings formed three sides of a quadrangle , entered through a gate with a portcullis on the west side . On the south range , roughly where Queen Victoria Street now stands , was a large hall on the western end . Derby Place 's hearth tax bill from 1663 , discovered in 2009 at the National Archives at Kew , showed that the building had about thirty @-@ two rooms , which were the workplace as well as the home to eleven officers of arms .
The reign of Mary 's sister Elizabeth I saw the College 's privileges confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1566 . As well as the drawing up of many important internal statutes and ordinances for the College by Thomas Howard , Duke of Norfolk , the Earl Marshal , dated 18 July 1568 . The long reign saw the College distracted by the many quarrels between Garter William Dethick , Clarenceux Robert Cooke and York Herald Ralph Brooke about their rights and annulments . Disputes in which the other officers also took part , often occurred among the lesser heralds against each other . Historian Mark Noble wrote in 1805 , that these fights often involved the use of " every epithet that was disgraceful to themselves and their opponents . " and that " Their accusations against each other would fill a volume . " During these years , the College 's reputation was greatly injured in the eyes of the public .
The reason behind these discords were laid on the imperfect execution of the reorganisation of the College in 1568 and the uncertainty over issue of granting arms to the new and emerging gentry of the era . An enquiry into the state of the College lasted for one year , finally reporting to William Cecil , Baron Burghley in 1596 ; as a consequence , many important measures of reform for the College were made in the reign of James I. Eventually , these animosities among the heralds in the College ended only after the expulsion of one and the death of another .
= = = Civil War = = =
When the English Civil War began in 1642 during the reign of King Charles I , the College was divided : three king of arms , three heralds and one pursuivant sided with the King and the Royalists , while the other officers began to court the services of the Parliamentarian side . Nevertheless , the heralds petitioned Parliament in the same year , to protect their : " Books of Record , Registers , Entries , Precedents , Arms , Pedigrees and Dignities . " In 1643 the heralds joined the King at Oxford , and were with him at Naseby and followed him on all of his campaigns . Sir Edward Walker the Garter King of Arms ( from 1645 ) was even appointed , with the permission of Parliament , to act as the King 's chief secretary at the negotiations at Newport . After the execution of Charles I , Walker joined Charles II in his exile in the Netherlands .
Meanwhile , on 3 August 1646 the Committee of Sequestration took possession of the College premises , and kept it under its own authority . Later in October , Parliament ordered the committee to directly remove those officers whose loyalty were with the King and to nominate their own candidates to fill these vacant offices . Those officers whose loyalty remained with the King were persecuted ; first they were deprived of their offices , then of their annulments , then a fine was imposed and some were even imprisoned . In spite of this , the institutional College was protected by the Parliamentarians , and their rights and work continued unabated . Edward Bysshe a Member of Parliament from Bletchingley was appointed Garter , thus " Parliament which rejected its King created for itself a King of Arms " . During this time the heralds continued their work and were even present on 26 June 1657 at Oliver Cromwell 's second installation ceremony as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth .
= = = Survival = = =
On 8 May 1660 , the heralds at the command of the Convention Parliament proclaimed Charles II , King at Westminster Hall Gate . It was said that William Ryley , who was originally appointed Lancaster Herald by Charles I but then sided with Cromwell , did not even have a tabard with the Royal Arms , as his own had been " plundered in the wars " . He had to borrow a decorative one from the tomb of James I in Westminster Abbey instead ; the garment was duly returned the next day . The Restoration of Charles II , annulled all the Acts of the Parliament and all the actions of the Lord Protector , without penalising any of their supporters ( except for the regicides ) . Accordingly , all the grant of arms of the Commonwealth College was declared null and void . Furthermore , all heralds appointed during the Interregnum lost their offices , while those appointed originally by Charles I returned to their places . The exception was Edward Bysshe , who was removed as Garter , but was instead appointed Clarenceux in 1661 , much to the chagrin of Garter Edward Walker .
In 1666 as the Great Fire of London swept through the city , Derby Place , the College 's home since 1555 , was completely gutted and destroyed . Fortunately the College 's library was saved , and at first was stored in the Palace of Whitehall , then later moved to the Palace of Westminster , where a temporary office was opened in an apartment called the Queen 's court . An announcement was also made in the Gazette to draw public notice to the situation . Due to a shortage of funds , the planned rebuilding of a new College was delayed until 1670 . It was then that Francis Sandford , the Rouge Dragon Pursuivant and Morris Emmett , the King 's bricklayer , were together able to design and begin construction of a new structure on the old site . The costs of the rebuilding was financed in stages , and the structure was erected slowly in parts.The heralds contributed significantly out of their own pockets ; at the same time , they also sought subscriptions among the nobility , with the names of contributors recorded into a series of splendid manuscripts known as the Benefactors Books .
By 1683 the College part of the structure was finished . The new building was built out of plain bricks of three storeys , with basement and attic levels in addition . The College consists of an extensive range of quadrangular buildings . Apart from the hall , a porter 's lodge and a public office , the rest of the building was given over to the heralds as accommodation . To the east and south sides three terraced houses were constructed for leases , their façade in keeping with the original design . In 1699 the hall , which for some time had been used as a library , was transformed into the Earl Marshal 's Court or the Court of Chivalry ; it remains so to this day . In 1776 some stylistic changes were made to the exterior of the building and some details , such as pediments and cornices were removed , transforming the building to the then popular but austere Neo @-@ Classical style .
The magnificent coronation of James II in 1685 saw the College revived as an institution of state and the monarchy . However , the abrupt end of his reign saw all but one of the heralds taking the side of William of Orange and Mary II in the Glorious Revolution . The period from 1704 to 1706 saw not a single grant of arms being made by the College ; this nadir was attributed to the changes in attitude of the times . The Acts of Union 1707 between England and Scotland , in the reign of Anne did not affect the jurisdiction or the rights of the College . The College of Arms and the Court of the Lord Lyon were to exist side by side in their respective realms . However , in the matter of precedence ; the Lord Lyon , when in England , was to take immediate precedence behind Garter King of Arms .
= = = Comfortable decay = = =
The Hanoverian succession to the throne of Great Britain led to reigns with less ceremony than in any since the incorporation of the heralds . The only notable incident for the college in this period , during the reign
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benefit " , which was considered at length in Oppenheim v Tobacco Securities Trust . A fund was created to benefit children of employees and former employees of British American Tobacco , which was a large number ; the total number of employees was over 110 @,@ 000 . The House of Lords found that size was not the issue ; the group did not count as a section of the public because of the " personal nexus " , or common relationship , between the settlors ( British American Tobacco ) and the beneficiaries . The nature of charitable trusts means that the definition of " public benefit " varies between Macnaghten 's four categories .
= = = Poverty = = =
The 1601 Act stated that charities for the benefit of the " aged , impotent and poor people " had an appropriate purpose ; it is accepted that these may appear individually . A charity does not have to be for the benefit of people who are both poor , impotent and aged to be valid , only one of them . " Poverty " is a subjective term , and in Re Coulthurst , Sir Raymond Evershed indicated that it should be treated as such ; " poverty , of course , does not mean destitution ... it [ means ] persons who have to ' go short ' ... due regard being had to their status in life and so forth " . This appears to indicate that a millionaire who loses half of his income may be considered " poor " , in that he is unable to have the lifestyle he is accustomed to . Some limits were set to this provision by Lord Simonds in IRC v Baddeley , where he wrote that :
There may be a good charity for the relief of persons who are not in grinding need or utter destitution ... but relief connotes need of some sort , either need for a home , or for the means to provide for some necessity or qasi @-@ necessity , and not merely for an amusement , however healthy .
The gift that creates the charitable trust , whatever the definition of poverty accepted by the courts , must be for the poor and nobody else . In Re Gwyon , money was left to provide short trousers to children in Farnham . While this was a necessity under the standard definition of poverty , the gift was not limited to the poor , and instead went to every child in the area . As a result , the trust failed .
The " poverty " category is a " major exception " to the rule on personal relationships laid down in Oppenheim v Tobacco Securities Trust . In Dingle v Turner , a charitable trust was established to help poor employees of Dingle & Co . While the beneficiaries were all linked by a personal relationship ( their employer ) , the courts ruled that poverty is an exception to the Oppenheim rule . Academics Richard Edwards and Nigel Stockwell argue that this is because allowing such trusts to exist relieves the rest of society for having to provide for poor people ; as a result , there is " public benefit " in a wider way . The general public benefit rule in the " poverty " category is that " gifts for the relief of poverty among poor people of a particular description " is charitable ; " gifts to particular persons , the relief of poverty being the motive of the gift " are not .
= = = Education = = =
As with poverty , this category is also found in the 1601 Act 's preamble , which refers to charities established for the " Maintenance of ... Schools of Learning , Free Schools , and Scholars at Universities " . The common law , over the years , has recognised a wide area covered by " education " . This includes the education of the young , a particularly wide category , described by Lord Hailsham in IRC v McMullen , as " a balanced and systematic process of instruction , training and practice containing both spiritual , moral , mental and physical elements " . Although wide , this excludes things that the courts feel are harmful ; in Re Shaw , Harman J excluded schools for pickpockets or prostitutes . " Education " also includes research , as long as the subject is useful and the gift makes some requirement that the information be made available to others and disseminated . In Re Hopkins , a gift was given to the Francis Bacon society to find proof that William Shakespeare 's plays were written by Bacon . Wilberforce J held that it was a valid gift , as " the discovery would be of the highest value to history and to literature " . He also gave the definition of research required for a gift to be valid :
The word education must be used in a wide sense , certainly extending beyond teaching , and the requirement is that , in order to be charitable , research must either be of educational value to the researcher or must be so directed as to lead to something which will pass into the store of educational material , or so as to improve the sum of communicable knowledge in an area which education must cover - education in this last context extending to the formation of literary taste and appreciation .
This definition was expanded on by Slade J in McGovern v Attorney General , where he said that :
( 1 ) A trust for research will ordinarily qualify as a charitable trust if , but only if ( a ) the subject matter of the proposed research is a useful object of study ; and ( b ) if it is contemplated that the knowledge acquired as a result of the research will be disseminated to others ; and ( c ) the trust is for the benefit of the public , or a sufficiently important section of the public .
( 2 ) In the absence of such a contrary context , however , the court will be readily inclined to construe a trust for research as importing subsequent dissemination of the results thereof . Furthermore , if a trust for research is to constitute a valid trust for the advancement of education , it is no necessary either ( a ) that the teacher / pupil relationship should be in contemplation , or ( b ) that the persons to benefit from the knowledge to be acquired should be persons who are already in the course of receiving an education in the conventional sense .
For artistic pursuits , it is not enough to promote such things generally , as it is too vague . A body for specific artistic purposes may be charitable , as in Royal Choral Society v IRC , as is the promotion of a particular composer , seen in Re Delius . For a gift to be charitable , the courts must be convinced that the subject of advancement be of artistic merit . This includes famous composers , as seen above , and social graces , as in Re Shaw 's Wills Trust . When there is doubt , the courts ignore the opinions of the beneficiary and instead rely on experts , as in Re Pinion . This area is covered by the Charities Act 2006 , which lists " the advancement of citizenship or community development " and " the advancement of the arts , culture , heritage or science " as valid types of charitable trust .
= = = Religion = = =
For the purposes of this category , " religion " was seen to mean a faith in a higher power , and does not include ethical principles or rationalism , as in Bowman v Secular Society . The 2006 Act expanded this , noting that religion " includes .. a religion which does not involve belief in a god " . This extends to the support of religious buildings and sick or old members of the clergy , as in Re Forster . This category also covers groups with small followings , as in Re Watson , and with doubtful theology , as in Thornton v Howe . Curiously , and individually to religious charities , the public benefit requirement is justified by the assumption that , according to Cross J in Neville Estates v Madden , " some benefit accrues to the public from attendance at places of worship of persons who live in this world and mix with their fellow citizens " . Notably , this excludes gifts to groups which do not associate with the public , as in Gilmour v Coats .
= = = Other purposes = = =
Macnaghten 's fourth category contains not only individual categories of its own , but also general principles that are applied when a body seeks to be recognised as a charitable trust . The first of these " sub @-@ categories " contains trusts for the benefit of the sick and old ; the Preamble to the 1601 Act gave " aged , impotent and poor people " as acceptable beneficiaries for a charity . These acceptable beneficiaries are to be read individually ; there is no requirement to aid the aged and impotent as well as the poor , and one can even exclude the poor , such as in Re Resch 's Will Trusts , which dealt with a hospital that charged fees . The second sub @-@ category is for charitable trusts relating to animals . As with religious charities , the benefit is derived not from the comfort afforded to the animals , but from the " indirect moral benefit to mankind " . Again , this excludes trusts which isolate the beneficiaries from the public , as in Re Grove @-@ Grady , where the trust sought to provide " a refuge [ for animals ] ... so that they shall be safe from molestation and destruction by man " . Charities for the purpose of creating animal sanctuaries usually pass the public benefit test despite this , because they do not completely exclude the public and often have educational value .
The third sub @-@ category covers charitable trusts for the benefit of localities . A trust for the benefit of a locality has long been held only to apply to that area ; if its purpose within that area is charitable , it is valid . If the money is to be spent on non @-@ charitable purposes , the trust fails , regardless of the fact that it applies to a particular area . This class of charities can be held valid even when it only impacts on a class within a locality , as in Goodman v Saltash Corporation . This can apply even when the class " fluctuates " , such as in Re Christchurch Inclosure Act , where a gift was for the benefit of the inhabitants of a group of cottages , whoever those inhabitants might be .
Charitable trusts have historically been invalid if they include " purely recreational pastimes " , as in IRC v City of Glasgow Police Athletic Association ; even though the purpose of the charity was to improve the efficiency of the police force , the fact that this included a recreational element invalidated the trust . In response to this case and IRC v Baddely , the Recreational Charities Act 1958 was passed , which provides that " it shall be and be deemed always to have been charitable to provide , or assist in the provision of , facilities for recreation or other leisure @-@ time occupation , if the facilities are provided in the interest of social welfare " . Section 1 ( 1 ) of the Act , however , preserves the need to provide a " public benefit " . The Act also lays out what kinds of activities are in the " interest of social welfare " , stating in Section 1 ( 2 ) that it is where the facilities " are provided with the object of improving the conditions of life for the persons for whom the facilities are primarily provided " and in Section 1 ( 2 ) ( a ) " those persons have need of such facilities as aforesaid by reason of their youth , age , infirmity or disablement , poverty or social and economic circumstances " , or where , in Section 1 ( 2 ) ( b ) " the facilities are available to members ... of the public at large " .
This definition and the acceptance of the need for a " public benefit " allows the courts to reject charitable trusts for recreational activities , such as if they felt that the activities are harmful . The Act also excludes private clubs , unless the members fall under Section 1 ( 2 ) ( a ) . The courts are willing to accept charitable trusts for recreational activities if they benefit people as a whole , and not just the people covered by Section 1 ( 2 ) ( a ) , as in Guild v IRC , where Lord Keith stated " the fact is that persons from all walks of life and all kinds of social circumstances may have their conditions of life improved by the provision of recreational facilities of a suitable nature " .
= = Invalid purposes = =
= = = Political activism = = =
Charitable trusts can 't be used to promote political changes , and charities attempting such have been " consistently rebuffed " by the courts . There are two justifications for this . The first is that , even when a campaign for political change is stated to be for the benefit of the community , it is not within the court 's competence to decide whether or not the change would be beneficial . The second , laid out in National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society v IRC , is that the courts must assume the law to be correct , and as such could not support any charity which is trying to alter that law . Academic Alastair Hudson describes this argument as " a little thin . Given that judges contentedly take it upon themselves to interpret , limit and extend statutes ( as well as occasionally recommending the creation of new statutes to shore up the common law ) , it is peculiar to see judges so coy in the face of an argument being advanced that legislation might be changed " .
The leading case , Anti @-@ Vivisection Society , sets out a strict rule that charities cannot campaign politically . An illustration of its strictness is Bowman v Secular Society , where it was held that even when attempted changes to the law were ancillary to the main goals , it was still unacceptable . There is a dividing line ; charitable trusts discussing political issues can be valid , as discussed by Hoffmann J obiter dicta in Attorney General v Ross . This line is considered by the Charity Commission in their official guidelines , which allow the Commission to look at the wider purpose of the organisation when deciding if it constitutes a valid charity .
= = = Profit @-@ making = = =
No organisation run for profit can be a charity ; a public school may be a charitable body despite the fees paid , but not if they are directly run to make a profit , as in Re Girls ' Public Day School Trust . This also excludes benefit societies where the benefits are limited to those who have funded it , as in Re Holborn Air Raid Distress Fund .
= = = Exclusivity = = =
A charitable trust created from a gift must be exclusively charitable ; if there are any purposes which would not be charitable on their own , the trust fails . Trust instruments should ideally identify that the money is to be used for " charitable purposes " . The use of other words such as " beneficial " or " benevolent " causes the trust to fail at creation , as the words are not synonymous with charity . An example is the Privy Council decision in Attorney General of the Cayman Islands v Wahr @-@ Hansen , where the Council held that gifts to " organisations or institutions operating for the public good " and acting " for the good or for the benefit of mankind " failed , because the definition given was not exclusively charitable .
There are two exceptions to the rule of exclusivity ; ancillary purposes , and severance . Where the non @-@ charitable purpose is a necessary ancillary to the charitable one , the trust will not fail . This is a matter of degrees , and was discussed by Slade J in McGovern v Attorney General , when he said that :
The distinction is between ( a ) those non @-@ charitable activities authorised by the trust instrument which are merely incidental or subsidiary to a charitable purpose and ( b ) those non @-@ charitable activities so authorised which themselves form part of the trust purpose . In the latter but not the former case the reference to non @-@ charitable activities will deprive the trust of its charitable status .
Severance refers to the separation of charitable and non @-@ charitable purposes , dividing the funds between them . This allows the charitable element to take effect . This is only possible when the trust instrument indicates that the donor intended for the fund to be divided , and cannot work where the donor gives a list of purposes a single fund is to be used for . The standard rule for dividing the funds is based on the equitable rule that " equity is equality " ; money should be divided equally . There are exceptions where it is not practicable , as in Re Coxon , where of a £ 200 @,@ 000 gift to the City of London for charitable purposes , a £ 100 dinner and other small gifts to the board of trustees was funded .
= = Administration of charitable trusts = =
The administration of charitable trusts is covered primarily by the Charities Act 1993 and the Charities Act 2006 , and is widely divided between four groups ; the Attorney General for England and Wales , the trustees , the Charity Commission and the Official Custodian for Charities .
= = = Attorney General and trustees = = =
As mentioned , the Attorney General represents the beneficiaries as a parens patriae , appearing on the part of The Crown . Any case involving charities has him joined as a party , he may act against trustees in disputes , and take actions to recover property from third parties . His role was discussed in Brooks v Richardson , where the court quoted the practitioner 's text Tudor on Charity :
By reason of his duty as the Sovereign 's representative protecting all the persons interested in the charity funds , the Attorney @-@ General is as a general rule a necessary party to charity proceeding . He represents the beneficial interest ; it follows that in all proceedings in which the beneficial interest has to be before the court , he must be a party . He represents all the objects of the charity , who are in effect parties through him .
The next significant role is played by the charity trustees , defined in Section 97 of the 1993 Act as those persons having the general control and management of the administration of charities . As mentioned , charitable trustees have significantly more freedom to act than normal trustees , but the 1993 Act has put restrictions on who may be a charitable trustee . Section 72 excludes people convicted of a crime involving dishonesty , bankrupts , people previously removed from charity trusteeship , and people struck off as directors of companies . Those trustees appointed have many duties when administering the trust , including informing the Commission of changes to the charity or its dissolution , registering the charity and keeping proper accounts and records , to be submitted annually to the Commission .
= = = Charity Commission = = =
The Charity Commission originated as the Charity Commissioners , created by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853 to provide advice to charitable trusts . Currently governed by and exercising its functions under the Charities Act 2011 , it has five core objectives :
to increase public trust and confidence in charities ;
to promote the understanding of the public benefit requirement ;
to increase the compliance of trustees with their legal obligations ;
to promote the effective use of charitable resources ;
to make charities more accountable to the donors , beneficiaries and the public .
Along with these objectives , it has six functions under the 2011 Act :
Determining whether institutions are or are not charities .
Encouraging and facilitating the better administration of charities .
Identifying , investigating and taking appropriate action with regard to apparent misconduct or mismanagement .
Issuing public collection certificates in respect of public charity collections .
Providing information relating to its functions or objectives including maintenance of an up @-@ to @-@ date register .
Giving information or advice to any Minister of the Crown with regard to the Commission 's functions or meeting of its objectives .
The Charity Commission has the power to issue an inquiry into a charity under Section 46 of the 2011 act and , if they are satisfied there has been mismanagement , they are allowed to suspend trustees or officers , appoint additional trustees , vest charity property in the Official Custodian for Charities or order debtors or people holding charity property not to transfer it without their permission . They can also remove trustees on the grounds of bankruptcy , mental incapacity , failure to act or the trustee 's absence from the country . The Commission is also authorised to appoint new trustees to replace removed ones , or even to increase the number of trustees .
The jurisdiction of the Charity Commission is concurrent with that of the High Court of Justice . The High Court possesses all the powers of the Commission , who only exercise theirs on application of the charity or Attorney General , or trustees , beneficiaries and interested people when the charity has an income of less than £ 500 . The Commission , under Section 29 of the 2011 Act , also keeps the register of charities . Under Section 110 of the Act , the Commission is tasked with giving advice or opinions to trustees relating to the performance or administration of their charity . The Commission also acts as the Official Custodian for Charities , who acts as a trustee for charities at the direction of the Commission .
= = = Schemes = = =
Both the High Court and the Charities Commission are authorised to establish schemes administering charities . These can come about when money has been left for a charitable purpose which is not specified , or with no suggestion as to how it should be administered . The scheme may be used to appoint new trustees , except when the trustee 's identity is crucial to the intentions of the testator , as in Re Lysaght . Schemes may also be used to fix administrative difficulties caused by uncertainty , as in Re Gott , or even to completely defeat the gift . Schemes can also be used , on the application of trustees , to extend powers of investment or consolidate funds . The trustees may apply to change the core purpose of the trust , which while enacted through a scheme , follows the doctrine of Cy @-@ près .
= = = Cy @-@ près doctrine = = =
The doctrine of cy @-@ près is a form of variation of trusts ; it allows the original purpose of the trust to be altered . The doctrine originated in ecclesiastical law , the name coming as a contraction of the Norman French cy pres comme possible ( as close as possible ) , and is typically used where the original purpose of the charity has failed , and results in the trust purpose being altered to the nearest realistic alternative . Prior to the Charities Act 1960 , this " failed purpose " situation was the only time when cy @-@ près could be applied ; it required the original purpose to be impossible or impractical . With the 1960 Act ( the relevant provisions of which are now included in the 1993 Act ) , cy @-@ près can be applied where the original purposes have :
( a ) been as far as may be fulfilled ; or cannot be carried out , or not according to the directions given and to the spirit of the gift ;
( b ) or where the original purposes provide a use for part only of the property available by virtue of the gift ;
( c ) where the property available by virtue of the gift and other property applicable for similar purposes can be more effectively used in conjunction , and to that end can suitably , regard being had to the spirit of the gift , be made applicable to common purposes ;
( d ) or where the original purposes were laid down by reference to an area which then was but has ceased to be a unit for some other purpose , or by reference to a class of persons or to an area which has for any reason since ceased to be suitable , regard being had to the spirit of the gift , or to be practical in administering the gift ;
( e ) or where the original purposes , in whole or in part , have since they were laid down been adequately provided for by other means ; or ceased , as being useless or harmful to the community or for other reasons , to be in law charitable ; or ceased in any other way to provide a suitable and effective method of using the property available by virtue of the gift , regarding being had to the spirit of the gift .
This definition was amended by the Charities Act 2006 to replace " the spirit of the gift " with " the appropriate considerations " , which are defined as " ( on the one hand ) the spirit of the gift concerned , and ( on the other ) the social and economic circumstances prevailing at the time of the proposed alteration of the original purposes
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" .
Failures that lead to an application for cy @-@ près are of two sorts ; subsequent failure , where the trust , constituted properly , failed after a period of action , and initial failure , where the trust fails at creation . Subsequent failure cases are designed to have the charity 's funds applied to more effective purposes , and as such money already donated to the charity cannot be returned to the next of kin of the original money ; in Re Wright , it was said that " once money has been effectually dedicated to charity ... the testator 's next of kin or residuary legatees are for ever excluded " . Schemes for initial failure , on the other hand , ask the court to decide whether the gifts should be returned to the testator 's estate and next of kin or be applied to a new purpose under cy @-@ près . When deciding if a gift has failed , there is a distinction made between gifts to unincorporated bodies and incorporated bodies , as laid down in Re Vernon 's Will Trust . This is because gifts to an unincorporated body must be treated as gifts to that body 's purpose , not to the body itself , since unincorporated bodies cannot hold property . As such , the gift does not revert to the next of kin because even if the body is dissolved , the gift 's purpose is ( presumably ) still valid .
= Alien 8 =
Alien 8 is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game . It was released for the ZX Spectrum , BBC Micro , Amstrad CPC and MSX in 1985 . The game is a spiritual successor to the best @-@ selling Knight Lore , which was lauded by critics for its isometric graphics . In the game , the player takes control of a robot , Alien 8 , whose job is to ensure that all of the cryogenically frozen passengers on board a starship remain viable during the ship 's voyage .
The game was written by Chris Stamper , and graphics were designed by Tim Stamper . Alien 8 uses the same image masking technique as Knight Lore , which allows the developers to create composite structures out of stacked images without visual overlay . The technique was copyrighted by Ultimate as the Filmation game engine . As with its spiritual predecessor , the game is rendered isometric projection . The game was critically acclaimed upon release . Reviewers praised the game 's graphics and innovation , however minor criticism was directed at its similarities to Knight Lore .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in an isometric format and set on board a starship . Taking on the role of the robot , Alien 8 , the player must explore the large starship in order to ensure that the cryogenic life support systems preserving the biological crew are re @-@ activated . The core of this system is a series of geometrically @-@ shaped circuits . However , the circuits have been removed by the invading aliens and distributed around the starship . The main objective of the game is to collect the correct circuits and return them to their respective locations before the starship reaches its destination . The circuits are variously shaped as cubes , pyramids , domes or cylinders .
As with its spiritual predecessor , the environment of the game takes the form of a series of isometric flip @-@ screen rooms ( which trace the outline of a large starship ) . There are a total of 129 rooms and most are filled with various objects , such as moveable platforms , static hazards such as spikes and hostile aliens . As well as executing well @-@ timed manoeuvres and jumps , the player is able to use starship props to block or defend themselves . Another feature is the use of remote controlled drones , which can be directed by Alien 8 into inaccessible or dangerous areas .
= = Synopsis = =
On a dying planet in a distant galaxy , the last of the creatures known as the " guardians " stored all of their libraries , records , and knowledge on a single starship together with cryogenically preserved members of their race . A single robot , Alien 8 , is tasked with keeping the occupants of the vessel alive for the duration of its journey .
The ship is launched towards a new solar system and Alien 8 performs his task for thousands of years during the journey . However , as the ship nears its destination , it is attacked and boarded by hostile aliens . The cryogenic life support systems were damaged during the attack and Alien 8 must restore them to an operational status before the ship 's automatic thrusting systems manoeuvre it into planetary orbit .
= = Development and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games mainly for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .
Development of Alien 8 began immediately after the release of Knight Lore , in which the Stamper brothers predicted that publishers would attempt to copy Knight Lore 's Filmation technology in other games . As with its predecessor , the Stamper brothers developed the game in monochrome to avoid visual overlay and attribute clash , as it was a common processing limitation in early 8 @-@ bit consoles . However , the Amstrad release exclusively displayed dual @-@ colours .
= = Reception = =
The game was critically acclaimed upon release . A reviewer of Crash praised its graphics and presentation , stating them to be " excellent " and more " imaginative and pleasing " compared to its predecessor , despite regarding it as " only having a slight difference " . Amstrad Action similarly praised the graphics , citing them as " amazing " , " brilliant " and having " great " colour combinations . A reviewer of Amtix ! stated that the visuals were " breathtakingly stunning " and improves on its predecessor . David Kelly of Popular Computing Weekly stated the game was a " little " disappointment due to its similarities to Knight Lore , however he asserted that the graphics were of superior quality to its predecessor . Chris Bourne of Sinclair User stated that the general quality of graphics were " higher " than its predecessor , although it used an identical system .
Crash praised the new additions to the game , in particular the time limit and various collectable items . The reviewer stated that the new features were " compelling and exciting " , as it differs from its predecessor . A reviewer of Amstrad Action similarly praised its innovation , stating that it has " wonderfully " original ideas , despite criticising it similarities to Knight Lore . Kelly praised the game 's extra puzzles and the animation of enemies , heralding them as " brilliant " . Bourne similarly praised the 3D animation , stating that every extension of the game improved over Knight Lore .
= The Boat Race 1889 =
The 46th Boat Race took place on 30 March 1889 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . For the first time in the history of the event , all eight rowers in the Cambridge crew had rowed the previous year . Cambridge won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds , their fourth consecutive victory which took the overall record in the event to 23 – 22 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by seven lengths , while Oxford held the overall lead , with 23 victories to Cambridge 's 21 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge 's coaches were Fraser Emilie Churchill ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1883 , 1884 and 1885 races ) , Charles William Moore ( who represented Cambridge in the 1881 , 1882 , 1883 and 1884 races ) , Frederick Islay Pitman ( who rowed in 1884 , 1885 and 1886 ) , Herbert Edward Rhodes ( who rowed in the 1873 , 1874 , 1875 and 1876 races ) and Henry Tudor Trevor @-@ Jones . Oxford were coached by Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss ( who rowed for the Dark Blues four times between the 1875 and the 1878 races ) and William Grenfell ( who rowed for Oxford in 1877 , 1878 and was non @-@ rowing boat club president in 1879 ) .
The umpire for the race was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 5 lb ( 77 @.@ 6 kg ) , 3 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . For the only time in the history of the event , every rower from the Cambridge crew had taken part in the previous year 's race , with Stanley Muttlebury making his fourth consecutive appearance . As a result of the availability of the former Blues , there was little competition in the trial eights , and the Cambridge crew were considered to be " not nearly as fast " as they had been in 1888 . Only the cox Thomas Welby Northmore was new to the event . Oxford 's crew contained three former Blues , including H. R. Parker who was rowing in his third Boat Race . All of the competitors were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Commencing at 1.15pm , at a high stroke rate Cambridge took an early lead , before settling down to a " long , steady and tremendously powerful stroke " . By the Crab Tree pub , they were almost clear and despite a spurt from the Dark Blues , Cambridge were a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ahead by Hammersmith Bridge . They continued to pull away at Chiswick and despite the " tremendous sea raised by the wind above Barnes " , extended their lead further to win by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 14 seconds . It was Cambridge 's fourth consecutive victory and their fifth in six years , with the fastest winning time since Oxford 's victory in the 1882 race . The victory took the overall record to 23 – 22 in Oxford 's favour .
= Wannabe ( song ) =
" Wannabe " is the debut hit single by the British girl group the Spice Girls . Written by the group members with Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard during the group 's first professional songwriting session , it was produced by Rowe and Stannard for the group 's debut album Spice , released in November 1996 . The song was written and recorded very quickly ; the result was considered lacklustre by their label , and was sent to be mixed by Dave Way . The group was not pleased with the result , and the recording was mixed again , this time by Mark " Spike " Stent .
" Wannabe " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song that incorporates a mix of hip hop and rap . The lyrics , which address the value of female friendship over the heterosexual bond , became an iconic symbol of female empowerment and the most emblematic song of the group 's Girl Power philosophy . Despite receiving mixed reviews from music critics , the song won for Best British @-@ Written Single at the 1997 Ivor Novello Awards and for Best Single at the 1997 BRIT Awards .
" Wannabe " was heavily promoted by the group . Its music video , directed by Johan Camitz , became a big success on the British cable network The Box , which sparked press interest in the group . Subsequently the song had intensive radio airplay across the United Kingdom , while the group performed it on television programmes and started doing interviews and photo shoots for teen magazines .
Responding to the wave of public interest in the group , Virgin released the song as the group 's debut single in July 1996 , well ahead of the planned release date of the Spice album . " Wannabe " topped the UK Singles Chart for seven weeks and has received a double Platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . In January 1997 it was released in the United States , topping the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks . It was the group 's only number @-@ one single in that country . By the end of 1996 , " Wannabe " had topped the charts in 22 nations , and by March 1997 this number had climbed to 37 . " Wannabe " became the best @-@ selling single by a female group in the world , with 1 @,@ 360 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 910 @,@ 000 copies sold in United Kingdom ( by 2015 ) and United States ( by 2014 ) , respectively , and over 7 million copies worldwide by the end of 1997 . In 2014 , it was rated as the most easily recognisable pop song of the last 60 years .
= = Background = =
In March 1994 , father @-@ and @-@ son team Bob and Chris Herbert , together with financer Chic Murphy , working under the business name of Heart Management , placed an advertisement in The Stage , which asked the question : " Are you street smart , extrovert , ambitious , and able to sing and dance ? " After receiving hundreds of replies , the management had narrowed their search to a group of five girls : Victoria Adams , Melanie Brown , Melanie Chisholm , Geri Halliwell , and Michelle Stephenson . The group moved to a house in Maidenhead and received the name " Touch " . Stephenson was eventually fired because she lacked the drive of the other group members . She was replaced by Emma Bunton . In November , the group — now named " Spice " — persuaded their managers to set up a showcase in front of industry writers , producers , and A & R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd 's Bush , London . Producer Richard Stannard , at the studio for a meeting with pop star Jason Donovan , attended in the showcase after hearing Brown , as she went charging across the corridor . Stannard recalls :
More than anything , they just made me laugh . I couldn 't believe I 'd walked into this situation . You didn 't care if they were in time with the dance steps or whether one was overweight or one wasn 't as good as the others . It was something more . It just made you feel happy . Like great pop records .
Stannard stayed behind after the showcase to talk to the group . He then reported to his songwriter partner , Matt Rowe , that he had found " the pop group of their dreams " . Chris Herbert booked the group 's first professional songwriting session with the producers at the Strongroom in Curtain Road , East London , in January 1995 . Rowe recalls feelings similar to Stannard 's : " I love them . Immediately . [ ... ] They were like no one I 'd met before , really . " The session was productive ; Stannard and Rowe discussed the songwriting process with the group , and talked about what the group wanted to do on the record . In her autobiography , Brown recalls that the duo instinctively understood their point of view and knew how to incorporate " the spirit of five loud girls into great pop music " .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The first song the Spice Girls wrote with Stannard and Rowe was called " Feed Your Love " , a slow and soulful song that was recorded and mastered for the group 's debut album ; the song was not used because it was considered too rude for the target audience . The group next proposed to write a track with an uptempo rhythm . Rowe set up a drum loop on his MPC3000 drum machine . Its fast rhythm made Stannard remember the scene where John Travolta and Olivia Newton @-@ John perform " You 're the One That I Want " in Grease . Stannard commented that the only pre @-@ planned concept for the song was that it should represent the essence of what they were . The group then added their own contributions to the song , Rowe recalls :
They made all these different bits up , not thinking in terms of verse , chorus , bridge or what was going to go where , just coming up with all these sections of chanting , rapping and singing , which we recorded all higgledy @-@ piggledy . And then we just sewed it together . It was rather like the way we 'd been working on the dance remixes we 'd been doing before . Kind of a cut @-@ and @-@ paste method .
" Wannabe " was written in thirty minutes — mainly because the group had written parts of the song beforehand — in what Brown describes as a " sudden creative frenzy " . During the session , Brown and Bunton came up with the idea of including a rap near the end of the song . At this point the group got very motivated , and incorporated the word " zigazig @-@ ha " into the lyrics . Chisholm told Billboard magazine : " You know when you 're in a gang and you 're having a laugh and you make up silly words ? Well we were having a giggle and we made up this silly word , zigazig @-@ ha . And we were in the studio and it all came together in this song . "
= = Recording and production = =
While most of the other songs on the Spice album required two or three days of studio time , " Wannabe " was recorded in less than an hour . The solo parts were divided between Brown , Bunton , Chisholm , and Halliwell . Victoria Adams missed most of the writing session and communicated with the rest of the group on a mobile phone . In her autobiography she wrote : " I just couldn 't bear not being there . Because whatever they said about how it didn 't matter , it did matter . Saying ' Yes , I like that ' or ' Not sure about that ' down the phone is not the same " . She contributed backing vocals and sings during the chorus . Rowe stayed up all night working on the song , and it was finished by morning , the only later addition was the sound of Brown 's footsteps as she ran to the microphone .
The group parted with Heart Management in March 1995 because of their frustration with the management company 's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas . The girls met with artist manager Simon Fuller , who signed them with 19 Entertainment . The group considered a variety of record labels , and signed a deal with Virgin Records in July . The original mix of " Wannabe " was considered lacklustre by the label 's executives . Ashley Newton , who was in charge of A & R , sent the song to American producer Dave Way for remixing ; the result was not what the group had hoped to achieve . As Halliwell later described it , " the result was bloody awful " . She elaborated in her second autobiography , Just for the Record : " Right at the beginning of the Spice Girls , [ ... ] Ashley Newton had tried to turn us into an R & B group . He sent " Wannabe " over to America to be remixed by some hot R & B producers . He brought us jungle versions and hip @-@ hop mixes and I hated them all . Although Mel B [ rown ] was a big fan of R & B , she agreed with me that these versions just didn 't work so we exercised our Spice veto ! " Fuller gave the song to audio engineer Mark " Spike " Stent , who thought that it was a " weird pop record " . Stent remixed it in six hours , in what he described as " tightening it up " and " getting the vocals sounding really good " .
= = Composition = =
" Wannabe " is a dance @-@ pop song with influences of hip @-@ hop and rap . Written in the key of B major , it is set in the time signature of common time and moves at a moderate tempo of 110 beats per minute . It uses the sequence B – D – E – A – A ♯ as a bass line during the refrain , the chorus , and the bridge , and uses a chord progression of F ♯ – G ♯ m – E – B for the verses . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ pre @-@ chorus @-@ chorus form , with a rapped bridge before the third and final chorus . Musically , it is " energised " by a highly @-@ syncopated synthesised riff , and by the way the repetitive lyrics and rhythm are highlighted during the bridge . " Wannabe " presents a different version of the traditional pop love song performed by females ; its energic , self @-@ assertive style expresses a confident independence that is not reliant on the male figure for its continuance .
The song opens with Brown 's laugh , followed by " undislodgeable [ sic ] piano notes " . Over these notes , the first lines of the refrain are rapped in a call and response interaction between Brown and Halliwell . The words " tell " , " really " and " I wanna " are repeated , so that the vocal tone and lyrics build up an image of female self @-@ assertion . The refrain ends with the word " zigazig @-@ ha " , a euphemism for female desire , which is ambiguously sexualised or broadly economic . The first verse follows ; Brown , Halliwell , Chisholm , Bunton sing one line individually , in that order . In this part , the lyrics have a pragmatic sense of control of the situation — " If you want my future , forget my past " — which , according to musicologist Sheila Whiteley , tap directly into the emotions of the young teenage audience .
During the chorus , the lyrics — " If you wanna be my lover / You gotta get with my friends " — address the value of female friendship over the heterosexual bond , while the ascending group of chords and the number of voices creates a sense of power that adds to the song 's level of excitement . The same pattern occurs , leading to the second chorus . Towards the end , Brown and Halliwell rap the bridge , which serves as a presentation to each of the girls ' personalities . The group repeats the chorus for the last time , ending the song with energetic refrains — " Slam your body down and wind it all around " — and the word " zigazig @-@ ha " .
= = Release and promotion = =
After signing the group , Virgin Records launched a major campaign for their debut song to promote them as the new high @-@ profile act . There was a period of indecision about what song would be released as the first single ; the label wanted to get everything right for the campaign , because the all @-@ girl group format was untested . The group , led by Brown and Halliwell , was adamant that the debut song should be " Wannabe " , they felt it served as an introduction to their personalities and the Girl Power statement . Virgin 's executives believed that the first single should be " Say You 'll Be There " , which they considered a much " cooler " track . At the beginning of 1996 the impasse between the group and their record label about the release of the single was temporarily solved . In March , Fuller announced that he agreed with Virgin in that " Wannabe " should not be the first single . The label wanted a song that appealed to the mainstream market , and nothing considered too radical . Halliwell was shocked and furious ; she told Fuller , " It 's not negotiable as far as we 're concerned . ' Wannabe ' is our first single . " Fuller and the executives at Virgin relented , and the song was chosen as their first single .
The trigger for the Spice Girls ' launch was the release of the " Wannabe " music video in May 1996 . Its quick success on the British cable network The Box sparked press interest , despite initial resistance to the all @-@ girl group idea . The same month , their first music press interviews appeared in Music Week , Top of the Pops , and Smash Hits , and their first live TV slot was broadcast on LWT 's Surprise Surprise . A month after the video 's release , the song was receiving intensive airplay on the main radio stations across the UK , while the group started to appear on television — mainly on kid 's programmes such as Live & Kicking — and doing interviews and photo shoots for teen magazines . A full @-@ page advertisement appeared in the July issue of Smash Hits , saying : " Wanted : Anyone with a sense of fun , freedom and adventure . Hold tight , get ready ! Girl Power is comin ' at you " . The group appeared on the television programme This Morning with Richard and Judy , and performed at their first Radio One road show in Birmingham .
" Wannabe " was released in the United Kingdom on 8 July 1996 in two single versions . The first one , released in two formats — a standard CD single and a cassette single — included the radio edit of the track , the Motiv 8 vocal slam remix , and the B @-@ side , " Bumper to Bumper " . The group wrote " Bumper to Bumper " with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriter @-@ production duo known as Absolute — and British singer @-@ songwriter Cathy Dennis . The second version , released on maxi single format , featured the radio edit , an instrumental version , the Motiv 8 dub slam remix , and the Dave Way alternative mix . This version came with a fold @-@ out postcard inlay and a stickered case .
During the weeks following the UK release , the group began promotional visits abroad . They did three trips to Japan and brief visits to Germany and the Netherlands . On a trip to the Far East , they visited Hong Kong , Thailand , and South Korea . In January 1997 they travelled to North America to do a promotional campaign that Phil Quartararo , president of Virgin Records America , described as " absolutely massive " . During their visit to the US , the group met with influential radio programmers , TV networks , and magazines . In addition , Virgin persuaded fifty radio stations to playlist the song before it was released , while the music video was placed into heavy rotation by MTV .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Wannabe " received mixed reviews from UK music critics . Paul Gorman of Music Week called the group " smart , witty , abrasive and downright fun . " He described the song as a " R & B @-@ lite debut single , " and noted influences from Neneh Cherry in it . In a review conducted by the British pop band Deuce for Smash Hits magazine , the group described " Wannabe " as " limp , " " awful , " and " not strong enough for a debut single . " Kate Thornton , editor of Top of the Pops magazine , commented that the all @-@ girl group idea was " not going to happen ; " she considered it too threatening . In her review for The Guardian , Caroline Sullivan called it a combination of " cute hip pop and a vaguely feminist lyric , " she was also surprised that " considering the slightness of ' Wannabe , ' " the group had an overwhelming amount of offers from record companies . The NME characterised the song as " a combined force of Bananarama , Betty Boo and Shampoo rolled into one . " Dele Fadele of the same magazine called the rap during the song 's bridge " annoying , " and added , writing of the group 's music : " It 's not good . It 's not clever . But it 's fun . " The magazine named " Wannabe " the worst single of the year at the 1997 NME Awards . Conversely , it won for Best Single at the 1997 BRIT Awards , and for International Hit of the Year and Best British @-@ Written Single at the 1997 Ivor Novello Awards presented by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters . In October 2011 , the NME placed it at number 111 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years . "
In the United States , reaction to the song was also mixed . In a review of the group 's debut album , Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that " Wannabe " is " a melodious but disposable tune that typifies this debut 's tart bubblegum and packaged sexiness . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune called it " insidiously snappy , [ ... ] [ that ] is shaping up as this year 's ' Macarena . ' " Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said that " ' Wannabe ' has UGH written all over it , " adding that it was " relentlessly catchy and horrifyingly hummable . " The Buffalo News 's Anthony Violanti called it " irresistible . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe described it as a " maniacally zippy single , " and Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com referred to it as an " unapologetically sassy dance hit . " Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch commented that " based on their efficacious American debut single , [ ... ] the Spice Girls might be expected to deliver more of that zingy pop on their debut album , " but she felt that " aside from ' Wannabe , ' the album 's dance tracks are color @-@ by @-@ numbers bland . " Larry Flick of Billboard magazine said that " fans of the more edgy girl @-@ group
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for 2 : 26 less than Nevada .
Maryland , which was third @-@ best in the ACC in third down attempts ( 40 @.@ 4 % ) , did comparatively poorly during the game , converting only four of 14 third downs ( 28 @.@ 6 % ) .
Defensively , Maryland was able to hold the nation 's third @-@ ranked rushing offense to just 114 yards on the ground . Nevada quarterback Kaepernick , who ran for 1 @,@ 115 yards , was held to just 19 rushing yards , 15 of which were gained during a touchdown run . Two players made their first career interceptions : true freshman safety Kenny Tate and senior defensive back Jeff Allen . Tate 's interception in the Maryland end zone prevented a Nevada score , while Allen 's interception with 4 : 54 remaining helped seal the victory for Maryland . Offensive lineman Scott Burley forced a fumble against Nevada linebacker Brandon Marshall , who had recovered a third @-@ down fumble by Turner . Burley subsequently recovered the forced fumble and gave Maryland a first down .
Maryland 's special teams recorded one touchdown when Torrey Smith returned a kickoff for 99 yards . After the first touchdown of the game , senior placekicker Obi Egekeze missed an extra point for the first time in his career . Early in the season , Egekeze missed his first five field goal attempts , but , prior to the Humanitarian Bowl , he had made all 64 extra @-@ point attempts of his career . After the first failed kick , Egekeze made the other five extra @-@ point attempts of the game . The placekicker also erred when he attempted to kick the ball as it fell off the tee , resulting in a short 15 @-@ yard kick which was returned 36 yards by Nevada to the Maryland nine @-@ yard line .
= = = Nevada statistical recap = = =
Nevada recorded better statistics than Maryland in several areas despite ultimately losing the game . The Wolf Pack compiled seven more first downs , 172 more passing yards , 28 more total offensive yards , 15 fewer penalty yards , 15 @.@ 8 % more third down conversions , and 2 : 26 more time in possession of the ball .
In the passing game , Colin Kaepernick achieved a 51 @.@ 1 % pass completion rate ( 24 out of 47 ) . He threw for 370 yards , including three touchdowns . He completed passes to Mike McCoy ( 13 ) , Marko Mitchell ( five ) , Chris Wellington ( three ) , Arthur King , Jr . ( two ) , and Vai Taua ( one ) . Mitchell , Wellington , and Taua each caught a pass for a touchdown . Due to Kaepernick 's injury , backup quarterback Nick Graziano played for one series but was unable to make a completion on two attempts .
On the ground , Nevada struggled against the Maryland defense , recording 114 rushing yards , far fewer than its 291 @.@ 4 per game average . Running plays were attempted by Kaepernick and Taua , who made 23 carries for 101 yards and one touchdown . Despite suffering from a sprained ankle , Kaepernick also was able to scamper 15 yards for a rushing touchdown .
Conversely , the Nevada defense had difficulty stopping the Maryland run . Nevada 's rush defense allowed 258 yards , compared with its regular @-@ season average of just 74 @.@ 5 yards allowed per game . This was especially true after a well @-@ rested Da 'Rel Scott entered the game in the middle of the third quarter . Head coach Chris Ault said , " He just ran through us like we weren 't there . " Defensive back Jonathan Amaya intercepted a Chris Turner pass for his fourth interception of the season .
Brett Jaekle handled all of Nevada 's kicking duties . He made all five extra @-@ point attempts . Jaekle punted eight times for 295 yards and kicked off five times for 270 yards . With 1 : 42 remaining , he attempted an onside kick , but the ball was recovered by Maryland 's Danny Oquendo .
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
With the bowl game , Maryland finished the season with an 8 – 5 record . The win was Maryland 's 600th in school history . Ralph Friedgen 's postseason record improved to 4 – 2 , giving him twice as many bowl wins as any other head coach in school history . For the 2008 season , Maryland stood 5 – 1 in games decided by seven points or less and 8 – 0 in games kicked off during daylight hours .
Nevada posted a final record of 7 – 6 . The game was the third consecutive postseason loss for Chris Ault and Nevada . Ault 's post @-@ season bowl record slid to 1 – 5 as a result .
= Battle of Ong Thanh =
The Battle of Ong Thanh was fought at the stream of that name on the morning of October 17 , 1967 , in Chơn Thành District , at the time part of the old Bình Dương Province , South Vietnam , today in Bình Phước Province .
During the first few months of 1967 , the Viet Cong absorbed heavy losses as a result of large @-@ scale search and destroy missions conducted by the United States Army , and it prompted North Vietnamese leaders to review their war strategy in South Vietnam . In light of the setbacks which North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces had experienced early in 1967 , North Vietnamese General Trần Văn Trà suggested that North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces could still be victorious if they inflicted as many casualties as possible on U.S. military units , hoping that the Americans would conclude that the war was too costly and withdraw from Vietnam . Thus , towards mid @-@ 1967 , the Viet Cong 7th and 9th Divisions returned to the battlefield again , with the objective of inflicting casualties on U.S. military formations in III Corps Tactical Zone . On June 12 , the U.S. 1st Infantry Division launched Operation Billings to destroy elements of the Viet Cong 9th Division , which had built @-@ up strength around northern Phuoc Vinh .
During that operation , American soldiers initially made only limited contact with the Viet Cong , but defeated enemy troops in two separate battles . On June 17 the 1 / 16th infantry battalion , re @-@ enforced by a company of 2 / 28th infantry engaged in a six @-@ hour battle supported by airstrikes and massive artillery . The majority of the casualties suffered from that engagement alone , when the operation concluded on June 26 , the 1st Infantry Division had lost 57 soldiers dead and 197 wounded . Then in September , following a string of attacks on allied military installations by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops , Major General John H. Hay decided to temporarily stop conducting large @-@ scale operations until the true intentions of Communist forces were known . Towards October , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment marched into the Long Nguyen Secret Zone , to rest and refit for their next major operation . To disrupt the Viet Cong 's resting period , General Hay launched Operation Shenandoah II to clear a section of National Highway 13 which stretched from Chon Thanh to Loc Ninh .
Starting from September 28 , elements of the 1st Infantry Division were air @-@ lifted into positions around Long Nguyen , but again only few contacts were made with the Viet Cong . However , on October 16 , the 2nd Battalion of the U.S. 28th Infantry Regiment found a major Viet Cong bunker system located south of their night defensive position near the Ong Thanh Stream , and a short fire fight broke out . To avoid fighting a long battle , the commander of the 2nd Battalion decided to pull back , and made preparations for a frontal assault on the next day . On the morning of October 17 , two rifle companies of the 2nd Battalion returned to the bunker system they had found the previous day , but they were defeated by the Viet Cong 271st Regiment which had set up an ambush in anticipation of the American attack .
= = Background = =
In the first half of 1967 , United States military forces in Vietnam had inflicted losses on the Viet Cong , both in terms of infrastructure and manpower , through major ground operations such as Cedar Falls , Junction City and Manhattan . For North Vietnamese military leaders such as Generals Võ Nguyên Giáp and Nguyễn Chí Thanh , the operations carried out by the Americans in South Vietnam had been disastrous for Communist forces . Furthermore , the military situation in North Vietnam also prompted North Vietnamese leaders to question their war strategy . In 1967 the United States expanded their Rolling Thunder bombing campaign , which enabled American airpower to destroy rather than just threaten Hanoi 's limited industrial infrastructures . Consequently , North Vietnamese leaders feared that if the Red River dikes were targeted by the Americans , Hanoi and the surrounding farmlands would be flooded . At the same time , the North Vietnamese government was afraid the Viet Cong may split in order to accommodate a resolution with the Saigon government , because the U.S.-backed government in the South was showing no sign of collapse .
Despite the unfavorable developments in South Vietnam , North Vietnamese General Tran Van Tra believed North Vietnam and the Viet Cong could still win the war if they pursued a strategy of attrition . In other words , the Communists would have to fight on for as long as possible , until the United States recognized that the war was unwinnable and would disengage from the conflict in Vietnam . To achieve that objective at the tactical level , Tra argued that North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces would have to destroy American military units , and cause as many casualties as possible until they got tired and left . Indeed , towards mid @-@ 1967 General Thanh , who had the Viet Cong 7th and 9th Division at his disposal , was out to do just that . In June , U.S. military forces in III Corps Tactical Zone began to detect the build @-@ up of Viet Cong troops in northern Phuoc Vinh located War Zone D. To stop a major enemy attack on Phuoc Vinh , Major General John H. Hay — commander of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division — launched Operation Billings with the objective of trapping three Viet Cong battalions in War Zone D.
On the first day of the operation , the 1st Infantry Division was able march about 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) into Phuoc Vinh virtually unopposed . On June 13 , the Americans claimed to have killed about 60 Viet Cong soldiers in their first major contact . On June 17 Lieutenant Colonel Rufus C. Lazzell and the soldiers of the 1st Battalion , 16th Infantry Regiment , was air @-@ assaulted into a clearing known as Landing Zone X @-@ Ray to search for the Viet Cong . At about 1 : 00 pm Lazzell 's battalion was attacked by elements of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment , and the Viet Cong quickly penetrated the 1st Battalion 's perimeters . However , with the support of artillery and helicopter gunships , Lazzell 's men repelled repeated Viet Cong attacks for the loss of 35 killed and 150 wounded . On June 26 , Operation Billings concluded and the Americans claimed to have killed 347 enemy troops and captured one , at a cost of 57 U.S. soldiers dead and 197 wounded .
In August , the Viet Cong was back in action again ; this time the 165th Regiment of the 7th Division targeted the Tong Le Chon Special Forces Camp , located southeast of the 1st Infantry Division 's area of operations . Just after midnight on August 7 , the 165th Regiment attacked Tong Le Chon and was able to penetrate the Special Forces Camp , but was forced to flee after an ammunition bunker exploded . That night the Viet Cong assaulted the base several times more , but on each occasion they were repelled by artillery fire and close air @-@ support . By September , the scale of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese activities in III Corps had perplexed the U.S. commanders of Military Assistance Command , Vietnam . In the meantime , however , Hay decided to put an end to large @-@ scale operations which had proven to be unproductive , until the enemy 's real intentions were known . Instead , Hay continued to commit his 2nd Brigade to pacification efforts in southern Bình Dương Province , while the 3rd Brigade provided protection for engineers clearing Highway 13 .
= = Prelude = =
Following various engagements with the U.S. 1st Infantry Division during the previous months , Colonel Vo Minh Triet , commander of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment , was ordered to move his troops into an area known as the Long Nguyen Secret Zone , which was situated between National Highway 13 and the Michelin Rubber Plantation . It was located about 56 kilometers ( 35 mi ) northwest of Saigon , in Binh Duong Province . There , Triet 's regiment was supposed to receive troop replacements and food supplies , to prepare for a major offensive against an unspecified target in War Zone D. In previous years , the Viet Cong 9th Division had often used the month of September and October to rest and prepare for their winter @-@ spring offensives , and 1967 was no different . For that reason Hay was determined to disrupt the Viet Cong 's resting period by launching Operation Shenandoah II , with the objective of clearing Highway 13 from Chon Thanh to Loc Ninh .
On September 29 , Hay ordered Colonel George E. Newman — commander of the 1st Brigade — to place the 1st Battalion , 2nd Infantry Regiment and the 1st Battalion , 28th Infantry Regiment , in the northern portion of Long Nguyen . On the next day , Colonel Frank E. Blazey , commander of the 3rd Brigade , was ordered to deploy the 2nd Battalion , 2nd Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry Regiment to the southern half of the area . In the early stages of Shenandoah II , U.S. forces only made a few contacts with the Viet Cong . On October 2 , a South Vietnamese unit operating east of Highway 13 near Chon Thanh made significant contact with a large Viet Cong formation and absorbed heavy casualties . Enemy documents obtained by the South Vietnamese indicated they had clashed with a battalion @-@ sized unit from the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment , sent to attack Chon Thanh in order to cover the movement of the 271st Regiment into the Long Nguyen area . Early in October , Viet Cong soldiers of the 271st Regiment had arrived in Long Nguyen but they could not obtain their much @-@ needed food supplies , as a result of allied search @-@ and @-@ destroy operations which had created significant food shortages for Viet Cong units in the region .
Triet then marched his starving soldiers southward toward the Ong Thanh Stream to link up with Rear Service Group 83 , but local Viet Cong units also lacked adequate food supplies of their own , so the 271st Regiment was forced to wait in the area for the arrival of rice and other essential supplies . Meanwhile , on October 4 the Lieutenant Colonel Joseph R. Stauffer 's 1st Battalion , 2nd Infantry Regiment , made contact with a company @-@ sized Viet Cong formation about 9 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) south @-@ west of Chon Thanh , and claimed to have killed 12 enemy soldiers . To pursue the retreating Viet Cong formation , Lieutenant Colonel Richard E. Cavazos — commander of the 1st Battalion , 18th Infantry Regiment — was instructed to conduct an air @-@ assault into a clearing located about 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) west of Stauffer ' battalion , in order to block enemy troops . Cavazos ' battalion landed unopposed , and they immediately set up their standard field position with wire entanglements to protect the base . On October 6 , the 1st Battalion 's position was subjected to Viet Cong mortar bombardment ; even though the shells had caused little damage , Cavazos believed it was part of the enemy 's final preparations for a major ground attack later that evening .
At around 6 : 00 pm the rain began to fall and the Viet Cong started attacking the battalion 's camp from different directions , but Cavazos ' men were able to hold their ground , with the support of artillery and mortar fire . By 12 : 00 am the fight was over , and U.S. casualties included 5 killed in action and 4 wounded . Three weeks later a captured Viet Cong soldier from the 2nd Battalion , 271st Regiment , revealed that his unit lost 59 soldiers killed and 56 wounded , in battle with Cavazos ' battalion . On October 8 , Hay pulled Stauffer 's 1st Battalion back to Phuoc Vinh to act as the division 's reaction force . Lieutenant Colonel Terry D. Allen — commander of the 2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry Regiment — was then ordered to depart from Lai Khê with three of his rifle companies ( Alpha , Bravo and Delta ) and air @-@ lifted into a site about 21 kilometers ( 13 mi ) northwest of Chon Thanh village , and 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north @-@ west of Cavazos ' 1st Battalion . Charlie Company was detached from Allen 's 2nd Battalion to protect the supporting 15th Field Artillery Regiment .
Two days later , Stauffer 's battalion was deployed into new blocking positions , as Viet Cong units were believed to be moving toward the Michelin Rubber Plantation . On October 11 , Cavazos led two of his companies out on a northward probe , and they were immediately attacked by the Viet Cong . While under heavy fire , Cavazos ordered the lead company to pull back behind a perimeter formed by the second company . As the lead company fell back , artillery and air support were called in to pummel the Viet Cong 's attacking formation . When the battle was over , 21 Viet Cong soldiers were found dead , whereas U.S. casualties for the day were 1 killed and 4 wounded . Shortly afterwards , Cavazos ' battalion pulled back to Phuoc Vinh for rest and refitting . By mid @-@ October , Hay believed the Viet Cong 's 271st Regiment had suffered a major defeat and was ready to withdraw from the Long Nguyen Secret Zone , so he was ready to terminate Shenandoah II . However , increased Viet Cong activity near the Ong Thanh Stream , where the 1st Brigade made most of its contacts , had indicated otherwise .
= = Battle = =
On the morning of October 16 , Allen led two rifle companies ( Bravo and Delta ) of the 2nd Battalion out from their temporary night defensive position along the Ong Thanh Stream to patrol an area to the southeast , which was covered by thick jungle canopy . After marching for about 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , the battalion found a fortified Viet Cong bunker , so Allen ordered his men to pull back and directed airstrikes against Viet Cong positions . When the bombing runs were over , Allen ’ s men entered the camp and a firefight broke out with Viet Cong snipers firing down from trees in the surrounding areas . Again , Allen ordered his men to pull back and form a perimeter to protect their wounded soldiers , as artillery strikes were called in against Viet Cong bunker positions . The 2nd Battalion re @-@ entered the camp , and they discovered the bodies of 17 dead Viet Cong soldiers . Allen 's men then moved through the western end of the camp , and another fire @-@ fight broke out with an estimated 60 Viet Cong soldiers .
Later that afternoon Allen decided to break contact and return to base , to avoid fighting a battle that could last until the evening . In the meantime , however , he called in air @-@ strikes to inflict further damage on the base camp of his primary target , the 271st Regiment . That evening Brigadier General William Coleman and other senior officers of the 1st Infantry Division visited the 2nd Battalion 's camp , where they praised Allen 's men for their efforts , and presented First Lieutenant Clark Welch — commander of Delta Company — with a Silver Star for his actions earlier in the day . Allen then decided to launch a full @-@ frontal attack against the 271st Regiment 's base camp , to determine if the enemy unit was still there . However , due to the lack of sufficient manpower , Welch suggested that Allen should either call off the assault or get more soldiers on the ground for the operation . Allen dismissed Welch 's suggestions , and responded by giving Captain James George — commander of Alpha Company — the responsibility of leading the attack instead of Welch .
Meanwhile , Triet 's 1 @,@ 200 @-@ strong regiment was joined by 200 soldiers from the C1 Company of Rear Service Group 83 — under the command of Captain Nguyen Van Lam — and they set up a three @-@ sided ambush and waited for the arrival of a reported U.S. battalion . At around 8 : 00 am on the morning of October 17 , the 2nd Battalion departed from their night defensive position with Alpha Company in the lead followed by the Battalion Command Group , and the tail of the formation was covered by Delta Company . Bravo Company stayed behind to protect the battalion 's base , along with the mortar sections of Alpha and Delta Companies . In accordance with the 1st Brigade 's policy , Allen personally led his unit out as part of the Battalion Command Group , although he preferred to supervise actions from a helicopter . For artillery support , Alpha Company was authorized to call upon the 105mm and 155mm howitzers located at Fire Support Bases Caisson V , Caisson III @-@ S and Lorraine III .
Allen 's men marched southward from the base , with the intention of entering the enemy base camp from a slightly different direction to the west . Preceded by marching artillery fire , the 2nd Battalion stopped periodically to conduct cloverleaf patrols to their front , rear and both flanks . At 9 : 56 am the lead element of Alpha Company stumbled upon a northeast @-@ southwest trail , which appeared to have been used within the last hour . The 1st Platoon Leader then requested and received permission to make cloverleaf patrols to the east and west of the trail . Almost immediately , the 1st Platoon sighted a Viet Cong soldier while scouting west of the trail and another group of Viet Cong soldiers soon appeared . George then ordered the 1st Platoon to set up a hasty ambush across the trail , but by the time they were in position the Viet Cong soldiers had disappeared and everything was quiet . About 10 – 15 minutes later , the 1st Platoon Leader reported that trees were moving , in addition to the sound of weapons clicking and the rattle of ammunition .
In response , George ordered the 1st Platoon to reinforce their ambush position . While that was happening Alpha Company 's right flank , which was covered by the 2nd Platoon , began to receive sporadic enemy fire . The rest of the 1st Platoon was then pinned down when the Viet Cong , from within concealed bunker positions , fired on them using captured M60 machine @-@ guns . The Viet Cong steadily increased their fire which came in the form of various small arms , .50 caliber and 12.7mm machine guns . Unable to communicate with the 1st and 2nd Platoons , George moved forward with the 3rd Platoon only to find his lead platoons held in their positions by enemy fire . A M18 Claymore mine then exploded in front of Alpha Company 's command element , killing the radio operator and severely wounding both George and his Forward Artillery Observer . At around 10 : 40 am gunfire had died down , but Alpha Company was virtually destroyed during 30 minutes of fighting , with the company commander wounded and the leaders of 1st and 2nd Platoons both killed .
To break contact with the Viet Cong units which fired on Alpha Company from the western flank , First Sergeant Jose Valdez quickly organized an assembly area on the eastern side to round up the survivors . Shortly after the assembly area was established George , who was severely wounded from the Claymore explosion , turned his company over to Valdez . Allen then ordered Valdez to lead the survivors of Alpha Company northward to join the rest of the battalion . The survivors , mostly from the 2nd and 3rd Platoons of Alpha Company , were then ordered to withdraw through a perimeter formed by Delta Company . As the surviving elements of Alpha Company pulled back , Delta Company began to receive sporadic fire from their southern flank , so Allen ordered his command group to remain in place near a prominent anthill with the 1st and 2nd Platoons of Delta Company . The 3rd Platoon , on the other hand , was instructed to move forward to assist the wounded men from Alpha Company .
As Viet Cong fire increased in intensity , the soldiers of Delta Company picked up the distinctive sound of a U.S.-made M @-@ 60 machine @-@ gun firing from the southern flank . Allen assumed that Alpha Company was approaching his perimeter , so he ordered them to cease @-@ fire because he feared his rifle companies were firing on each other . However , the order was also passed down along the formation of Delta Company , which enabled the Viet Cong soldiers of the 271st Regiment to gain fire superiority . At around 11 : 35 am , Triet unleashed his 2nd Battalion which was placed in reserve during the battle , and they attacked Welch 's Delta Company from three different directions . During that time Allen tried to request artillery support , but that had become impossible due to the close proximity between U.S. and Viet Cong soldiers . In a scene that had characterized the destruction of Alpha Company earlier , both Allen and Welch were wounded in battle as Viet Cong snipers fired down from the trees . Nonetheless , just before 12 : 00 pm , Allen instructed Delta Company to begin a northward march toward the battalion 's base , and Bravo Company to move forward to cover the withdrawal .
The withdrawal quickly descended into a scene of chaos , as U.S. soldiers scrambled to avoid heavy enemy fire . During the last moments of the battle , Allen was struck in the head by machine @-@ gun fire which grazed his helmet , and was finally killed when another burst of machine @-@ gun fire hit him . At around 12 : 20 pm Newman flew into Ong Thanh to assume command of the 2nd Battalion , while Coleman took control of the 1st Brigade . Meanwhile , Alpha Company had linked up with Bravo Company , which had taken up positions about 450 meters ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) to the south of the battalion 's night defensive position with the task of assisting the wounded . At around 2 : 00 pm that afternoon , the 2nd Battalion 's Charlie Company was airlifted into Ong Thanh from FSB Caisson V , as Bravo Company moved into the battle area to help evacuate the wounded . Coleman , who was coordinating the evacuation of U.S. casualties from a helicopter , decided to assemble the bodies of the dead in an area and protect it with artillery fire . By that stage , however , Triet 's 271st Regiment had withdrawn from the battlefield , and medivac flights were only challenged by sporadic sniper fire .
= = Aftermath = =
At around 12 : 00 pm Triet had already ordered his troops to disengage from the battle without annihilating the remaining Americans caught in his ambush . His men were tired and hungry and he was behind schedule in his movement toward his next assignment . Moreover , he feared that American air power and artillery would begin to inflict heavy casualties on his unit .
The battle at Ong Thanh was a costly affair for the soldiers of the 2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry Regiment . During two hours of fighting the 2nd Battalion lost 64 men killed in action , including Lieutenant Colonel Terry Allen and every member of the Battalion Command Group , as well as 75 wounded and 2 missing . For their efforts in the battle , 13 American soldiers were awarded the Silver Star , while Allen and Welch received the Distinguished Service Cross . Forward Observer Second Lieutenant Harold B. Durham , who was attached to the 2nd Battalion on the day from the 15th Field Artillery Regiment , was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroic actions . Despite the losses that had been inflicted on the 2nd Battalion by the Viet Cong , the U.S. military told the media that the fight at Ong Thanh had resulted in a major American victory .
General Hay initially portrayed Ong Thanh as an American victory and cited 101 enemy dead in the battle . However , American veterans who survived the ordeals of the battle were adamant they were ambushed and defeated by the Viet Cong 's 271st Regiment . The estimate of 101 enemy dead officially provided by the U.S. military was likely much inflated to emphasize the scale of the ' American victory ' . For retired U.S. Army Brigadier General James E. Shelton , who was then a major and served as an Operations Officer with the 2nd Battalion , the lack of reliable intelligence and overconfidence on the part of Allen as the battalion commander , were some of the factors that led to the disastrous outcome in the Ong Thanh battle . Furthermore , the American soldiers under Allen 's command lacked fighting experience , whereas the Viet Cong soldiers of the 9th Division were tough and experienced light infantry . The Viet Cong 271st Regiment , after their victory at Ong Thanh , withdrew back towards their base area near the Cambodian border .
Meanwhile , the rest of the Viet Cong 9th Division was planning for a major attack on Loc Ninh , with the objective of capturing the district town and the Special Forces Camp . To accomplish their goals the Viet Cong deployed the 272nd and 273rd Regiments , reinforced with two battalions from the 165th Regiment and the Vietnam People 's Army 84th Artillery Regiment . During the days before the battle , U.S. military intelligence had noticed the build @-@ up of Viet Cong units around Loc Ninh . Hay , in response , planned to insert four battalions of the 1st Infantry Division and position them around Loc Ninh , thereby trapping the Viet Cong inside the town . On the evening of October 28 , the 272nd Regiment marched into position from the northeast , and the 273rd Regiment from west . At 1 : 15 am on October 29 , the 273rd Regiment began assaulting the Loc Ninh Special Forces Camp , but they were quickly repelled by U.S.-led Special Forces . At around 6 : 30 am the remaining elements of Bravo and Charlie Companies 2nd Battalion , 28th Infantry Regiment , were airlifted onto the Loc Ninh airfield , to set up a firebase at the field 's south @-@ western end . The soldiers of Alpha and Delta Companies were sent back to their Base Camp at Lai Khe to adjust to the losses they had suffered , and to be kept away from enemy activity .
= Low Fell =
Low Fell is a suburb situated in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead in Tyne and Wear , England . Built predominantly on sandstone , grindstone and clay , it is bordered by Sheriff Hill / Deckham to the east , Saltwell / Bensham to the west , Harlow Green to the south and Shipcote to the north . The suburb lies on a major bus route 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of Gateshead , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of the historic City of Durham . The principal road in the suburb is the A167 . According to the 20
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, edited by Peter Haining ) includes a short story called " Hollywood Chickens " .
Legends , edited by Robert Silverberg ( 1998 ) , contains a Discworld short story called " The Sea and Little Fishes " .
The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy , edited by David Pringle ( 1998 ) , has a foreword by Pratchett .
The Leaky Establishment , written by David Langford ( 1984 ) , has a foreword by Pratchett in later reissues ( from 2001 ) .
Meditations on Middle @-@ Earth , an anthology of essays on Middle Earth compiled by Karen Haber , contains Pratchett 's essay " Cult Classic " ( 2002 )
Once More * With Footnotes , edited by Priscilla Olson and Sheila M. Perry ( 2004 ) , is " an assortment of short stories , articles , introductions , and ephemera " by Pratchett which " have appeared in books , magazines , newspapers , anthologies , and program books , many of which are now hard to find . "
The Writers ' and Artists ' Yearbook 2007 includes an article by Pratchett about the process of writing fantasy .
The " Long Earth " series , written with Stephen Baxter , which includes the following titles :
The Long Earth ( 2012 )
The Long War ( 2013 )
The Long Mars ( 2014 )
The Long Utopia ( 2015 )
The Long Cosmos ( 2016 )
= = = Unfinished texts = = =
According to Pratchett 's assistant Rob Wilkins , Pratchett left " an awful lot " of unfinished writing , " 10 titles I know of and fragments from many other bits and pieces . " In the past , Pratchett himself mentioned at least two texts , Scouting for Trolls , and a Discworld novel centering on a new character . The notes left behind outline ideas about " how the old folk of the Twilight Canyons solve the mystery of a missing treasure and defeat the rise of a Dark Lord despite their failing memories " , " the secret of the crystal cave and the carnivorous plants in the Dark Incontinent " , about Constable Feeney of the Watch , first introduced in Snuff , involving how he " solves a whodunnit among the congenitally decent and honest goblins " , and on a second book about Amazing Maurice from The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents .
Pratchett 's daughter is the current custodian of the Discworld franchise , and has stated on several occasions that she has no plans to publish any of her father 's unfinished work , or to continue the Discworld on her own .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Comic books and graphic novels = = =
Four graphic novels of Pratchett 's work have been released . The first two , originally published in the US , were adaptations of The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic and illustrated by Steven Ross ( with Joe Bennett on the latter ) . The second two , published in the UK , were adaptations of Mort ( subtitled A Discworld Big Comic ) and Guards ! Guards ! , both illustrated by Graham Higgins and adapted by Stephen Briggs . The graphic novels of The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic were republished by Doubleday on 2 June 2008 . An adaption of Small Gods is planned for release on 28 June 2016 .
= = = Feature films = = =
Pratchett held back from Discworld feature films ; though the rights to a number of his books have been sold , no films have yet been made .
Director Terry Gilliam announced in an 1999 interview with Empire magazine that he planned to adapt Good Omens , but as of 2007 this still needed funding .
In 2001 , DreamWorks commissioned a Truckers adaptation by Andrew Adamson and Joe Stillman but Pratchett believed that it will not be made until after " Shrek 17 " .
In 2006 , it was reported that The Wee Free Men was set to be directed by Sam Raimi , but in 2009 Pratchett said that he had " got [ it ] back " after reading the proposed screenplay .
In 2008 , Danny Boyle revealed that he hoped to direct a Truckers adaptation by Frank Cottrell Boyce .
= = = Internet games = = =
The world of Discworld is featured in a fan @-@ created online MUD ( multi @-@ user dungeon ) , which allows players to play humans in various guilds within the universe that Pratchett created .
= = = Music = = =
From The Discworld ( 1994 ) is a collection of 14 songs by Dave Greenslade inspired by the Discworld novels , with the author contributing to the production of the record . The album features songs and instrumentals about the books as well as some that appear in the novels , such as " A Wizard 's Staff has a Knob on the End " . The video of Soul Music used parts of the complete songs that were actually written and performed by Keith Hopwood and Phil Bush ; the complete songs were released on an audio CD .
Steeleye Span co @-@ operated with Terry Pratchett to write and produce the album Wintersmith ( October 2013 ) , based on the novels featuring the Wee Free Men .
= = = Radio = = =
Pratchett had a number of radio adaptations on BBC Radio 4 : The Colour of Magic , Equal Rites ( on Woman 's Hour ) , Only You Can Save Mankind , Guards ! Guards ! , Wyrd Sisters , Mort , and Small Gods have all been dramatised as serials , as was Night Watch in early 2008 , and The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents as a 90 @-@ minute play .
The 4 @-@ part BBC Radio 4 adaptation of Eric by Robin Brooks again started on 6 March 2013 .
Guards ! Guards ! was adapted as a one @-@ hour audio drama by the Atlanta Radio Theatre Company and performed live at Dragon * Con in 2001 .
In 2014 , a six @-@ part adaption of Good Omens aired on BBC Radio 4 , and featured cameos by both Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman .
= = = Television = = =
Truckers was adapted as a stop motion animation series for Thames Television by Cosgrove Hall Films in 1992 . Johnny and the Dead was made into a TV serial for Children 's ITV on ITV , in 1995 . Wyrd Sisters and Soul Music were adapted as animated cartoon series by Cosgrove Hall for Channel 4 in 1996 ; illustrated screenplays of these were published in 1998 and 1997 respectively . In January 2006 , BBC One aired a three @-@ part adaptation of Johnny and the Bomb .
A two @-@ part , feature @-@ length version of Hogfather starring David Jason and the voice of Ian Richardson was first aired on Sky One in the United Kingdom in December 2006 , and on ION Television in the US in 2007 . Pratchett was opposed to live action films about Discworld before because of his negative experience with Hollywood film makers . He changed his opinion when he saw that the director Vadim Jean and producer Rod Brown were very enthusiastic and cooperative . A two @-@ part , feature @-@ length adaptation of The Colour of Magic and its sequel The Light Fantastic aired during Easter 2008 on Sky One . A third adaptation , Going Postal was aired at the end of May 2010 . The Sky adaptations are notable also for the author 's presence in cameo roles . He is also credited as having " mucked about " with these adaptations .
In 2012 , Pratchett founded a television production company of his own , Narrativia , which is to hold the rights to his works , and which is in development of a television series , The Watch , based on the Ankh @-@ Morpork City Watch .
In 2016 , Neil Gaiman stated that Terry had given him his blessing to go forward with an adaptation of Good Omens if he so wished . It is currently formatted as a six @-@ part series .
= = = Theatre = = =
Twenty one of Pratchett 's novels have been adapted as plays by Stephen Briggs and published in book form . They were first produced by the Studio Theatre Club in Abingdon , Oxfordshire . They include adaptations of The Truth , Maskerade , Mort , Wyrd Sisters and Guards ! Guards ! Stage adaptations of Discworld novels have been performed on every continent in the world , including Antarctica .
In addition , Lords & Ladies has been adapted for the stage by Irana Brown , and Pyramids was adapted for the stage by Suzi Holyoake in 1999 and had a week @-@ long theatre run in the UK . In 2002 , an adaptation of Truckers was produced as a co @-@ production between Harrogate Theatre , the Belgrade Theatre Coventry and Theatre Royal , Bury St. Edmunds . It was adapted by Bob Eaton , and directed by Rob Swain . The play toured to many venues in the UK between 15 March and 29 June 2002 .
A version of Eric adapted for the stage by Scott Harrison and Lee Harris was produced and performed by The Dreaming Theatre Company in June / July 2003 inside Clifford 's Tower , the 700 @-@ year @-@ old castle keep in York . It was revived in 2004 in a tour of England along with Robert Rankin 's The Antipope .
In 2004 , a musical adaptation of Only You Can Save Mankind was premiered at the Edinburgh Festival , with music by Leighton James House and book and lyrics by Shaun McKenna .
In January 2009 , the National Theatre announced that their annual winter family production in 2009 would be a theatrical adaptation of Pratchett 's novel Nation . The novel was adapted by playwright Mark Ravenhill and directed by Melly Still . The production premiered at the Olivier Theatre on 24 November , and ran until 28 March 2010 . It was broadcast to cinemas around the world on 30 January 2010 .
Pratchett worked with Youth Music Theatre UK several times over the last few years to bring adaptations of both Mort and Soul Music to the stage . In August 2014 , a brand new adaptation of Soul Music will be performed at the Rose Theatre , Kingston .
= = = Role @-@ playing games = = =
GURPS Discworld ( Steve Jackson Games , 1998 ) and GURPS Discworld Also ( Steve Jackson Games , 2001 ) are role @-@ playing source books which were written by Terry Pratchett and Phil Masters , which also offer insights into the workings of the Discworld . The first of these two books was re @-@ released in September 2002 under the name of The Discworld Roleplaying Game , with art by Paul Kidby .
= = = Video games = = =
The Discworld universe has also been used as a basis for a number of video games on a range of formats , such as the Sega Saturn , the Sony PlayStation , the Philips CD @-@ i , and the 3DO , as well as DOS and Windows @-@ based PCs . The following are the more notable games :
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to intervene on behalf of South Korea , inviting member states to send forces to restore the situation . As a consequence , American ground forces were hastily deployed in an attempt to prevent the South Koreans from collapsing , however they too were under strength and poorly equipped , and by early August had been forced back by the North Koreans to an enclave around Pusan , known as the Pusan Perimeter . Key US allies — Britain , Canada and Australia — also committed forces , although these were initially limited to naval contingents and were largely viewed as token efforts in the US . Under diplomatic pressure the British agreed to deploy an infantry brigade in July , and would later dispatch a second brigade as the crisis worsened . The Canadians also agreed to provide an infantry brigade , although the first battalion would not arrive until December 1950 . A total of 21 UN member states eventually contributed forces .
Australia was one of the first nations to commit units to the fighting , playing a small but sometimes significant part in the United Nations Command , which was initially led by General Douglas MacArthur . Forces deployed in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force formed the basis of the Australian response , with P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter @-@ bombers from No. 77 Squadron RAAF flying their first missions on 2 July , while the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and the destroyer HMAS Bataan were also committed to naval operations . During this time the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , which had been preparing to return to Australia prior to the outbreak of the war , remained in Japan , however on 26 July the Australian government announced that it would also commit the understrength and poorly equipped infantry battalion to the fighting , following a period of preparation . Training and re @-@ equipment began immediately , while hundreds of reinforcements were hastily recruited in Australia as part of K Force ; they soon began arriving to fill out the battalion . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh , was subsequently replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green . An officer with extensive operational experience fighting the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , Green took over from Walsh due to the latter 's perceived inexperience .
On 23 September 1950 , 3 RAR embarked for Korea , concentrating at Pusan on 28 September . There it joined the British 27th Infantry Brigade , a garrison formation hurriedly committed from Hong Kong by the British government as the situation deteriorated around the Pusan Perimeter in late August to bolster the US Eighth Army under Lieutenant General Walton Walker . Commanded by Brigadier Basil Coad , the brigade was renamed the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and consisted of the 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment ( 1 ASHR ) , the 1st Battalion , Middlesex Regiment ( 1 MR ) and 3 RAR . Under strength , the two British battalions had each mustered just 600 men of all ranks , while the brigade was also short on transport and heavy equipment , and had no integral artillery support , for which it would rely entirely on the Americans until the 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery arrived in January 1951 . As such , with a strength of nearly 1 @,@ 000 men , the addition of 3 RAR gave the brigade increased tactical weight as well as expediently allowing the Australians to work within a familiar organisational environment , rather than being attached to a US formation . Also under the command of the brigade were a number of US Army units , including 155 mm howitzers from the US 90th Field Artillery Battalion , M4 Sherman tanks from US 89th Tank Battalion and a company from the US 72nd Combat Engineer Battalion .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
By the time 3 RAR arrived in the theatre , the North Koreans had been broken and were in rapid retreat , with MacArthur 's forces conducting a successful amphibious assault at Inchon and breaking out along the Naktong perimeter on the southern tip of the Korean peninsula . A steady advance began , driving the North Koreans northwards towards the 38th Parallel . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was airlifted from Taegu to Kimpo Airfield north of Seoul on 5 October , however its vehicles had to move by road , driving 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) , and did not arrive until 9 October . It was subsequently attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division , under the command of Major General Hobart R. Gay . On 16 October the brigade took over from the US 7th Cavalry Regiment as the vanguard of the UN advance up the west coast , its axis intended to take it through Kaesong , Kumchon and Hungsu @-@ ri to Sariwon , then through Hwangju to the North Korean capital of Pyongyang . Although the North Koreans had suffered heavily in the preceding weeks , they continued to resist strongly , while a lack of accurate maps and the narrowness of the roads made rapid movement difficult for the advancing UN forces . During this time 3 RAR had a platoon of American M4 Sherman tanks attached and a battery of field guns in direct support .
The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently moved 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) from Kumchon , with the Argylls capturing Sariwon on 17 October , killing 215 North Koreans and taking many prisoners for the loss of one man killed and three wounded . The brigade then passed to the command of the US 24th Infantry Division on 21 October , under the overall command of Major General John H. Church , while the US 1st Cavalry Division remained in Pyongyang to complete its capture . The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was subsequently ordered to seize Chongju . Consequently , the brigade continued to advance north with little respite , and on 22 October the Australians fought their first major action at Yongju , killing 150 North Koreans and capturing 239 of the brigade 's 800 prisoners , for the loss of seven men wounded . Intending to defeat the North Koreans and bring the war to a close , the UN forces pushed towards the Yalu River , on the Chinese border . Resistance continued to be met as the brigade crossed the Chongchon River however , and they now moved towards Pakchon . On 24 October , MacArthur had removed all restrictions on the movement of his forces south of the Yalu River and prepared for the final phase of the UN advance , defying a directive of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and risking Chinese intervention in support of North Korea .
On the afternoon of 25 October a platoon from 3 RAR was fired on by two companies of North Koreans as they crossed the Taeryong River to conduct a reconnaissance of the west bank , and although they were subsequently forced to withdraw , the Australians took 10 prisoners with them . Acting as the forward elements of the brigade , that evening Green sent two companies across the river to establish defensive positions , and they subsequently broke up a frontal assault on their positions with mortars while the North Koreans were in the process of forming up . Sixty North Koreans supported by a T @-@ 34 tank then attacked the forward Australian companies at Kujin early the following morning , resulting in Australian losses of eight killed and 22 wounded . However , the North Koreans suffered heavy casualties including over 100 killed and 350 captured , and the Australians subsequently succeeded in defending the bridgehead after the North Koreans withdrew . Intelligence indicated that the British and Australians were facing the North Korean 17th Tank Brigade , equipped with 20 tanks , which was preparing a last line of defence at Chongju , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . Although the North Koreans had suffered heavy casualties during the previous fighting on the Taeryong River , Coad was now forced to adopt more cautious tactics , advancing in shorter bounds and clearing high points en route . On 27 October the Middlesex continued the advance and was involved in a sharp fight in the hills west of the river near the village of Yongsong @-@ ni . With the war considered all but over the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade continued to pursue the North Koreans towards Chongju over the next three days , however the advance increasingly encountered strong resistance from North Korean infantry dug @-@ in with tanks and self @-@ propelled guns in support , as they approached the Yalu River on the Manchurian border .
= = Battle = =
= = = Fighting around Chongju , 29 October 1950 = = =
3 RAR took over as lead battalion of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade on 29 October , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Chongju . At 10 : 00 a US LT @-@ 6G Mosquito light spotter aircraft reported a large North Korean formation consisting of a battalion @-@ sized force of 500 – 600 infantry supported by several tanks and at least two self @-@ propelled guns , positioned on a thickly wooded ridgeline around Chongju . Astride the line of the advance , these positions were noted as being well constructed , camouflaged and dug @-@ in , with the North Koreans occupying positions on the forward slopes on both sides of the road . Airstrikes were called in and eight sorties were undertaken by United States Air Force ( USAF ) F @-@ 80 Shooting Stars which rocketed , strafed and napalmed the North Korean positions on the ridgelines . By 14 : 00 the pilots claimed to have destroyed seven T @-@ 34 tanks and two SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , as well as causing many casualties among the North Korean forces . These claims proved optimistic however . With only a few hours of daylight remaining , Green then planned a battalion attack with two companies forward . Under the command of Major Walter Brown , D Company was subsequently ordered to attack the North Korean positions on the left of the road , followed by A Company commanded by Captain William Chitts , which would attack the right . Meanwhile , preparatory fire from the 155 mm howitizers of the US 90th Field Artillery Battalion and 3 @-@ inch mortars from Support Company 3 RAR began to fall on the North Korean positions .
At 14 : 30 , D Company launched an assault against the ridge south of the road , with two platoons of Sherman tanks in support from D Company , US 89th Tank Battalion . One tank platoon led the attack followed by the other carrying infantry from 10 Platoon D Company . Under the command of Lieutenant David Mannett , 10 Platoon made a right flanking assault along the road , while 11 and 12 Platoons attacked the ridge frontally across the paddy fields . Meeting stronger resistance than expected however , the attackers came under heavy fire and one of the Sherman tanks was knocked out by an armour @-@ piercing round that hit its turret . However , with the American tanks providing vital close support to the infantry , 10 Platoon successfully secured its objective , allowing it to take the North Koreans in enfilade and to provide fire support to the assault . Thus , despite strong opposition , the remainder of D Company gained the high ground by 16 : 30 . With the earlier airstrikes having been ineffective , D Company had been opposed by a number of T @-@ 34 tanks and SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , however the bulk of these were destroyed by the Shermans during the assault . Another tank had been knocked out by well @-@ directed fire at point @-@ blank range from a Bren light machine @-@ gun by Private John Stafford , which caused the armoured vehicle 's auxiliary fuel tanks to ignite , resulting in its ammunition exploding . Stafford was subsequently awarded the US Silver Star for his bravery .
A Company attacked the ridgeline to the north of the road to Chonju just prior to dusk , this time without the support of the Sherman tanks . The Australians again came under heavy fire from the North Koreans , however they quickly overcame the defenders and the ridge was secured by 17 : 30 . During the fighting for the northern position , three North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks dug @-@ in on the ridgeline had been destroyed by the Australians at short range with new M20 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazookas , which now proved to be effective anti @-@ armour weapons despite difficulties experienced in their use at Kujin several days before . During the day 's fighting , a total of 11 T @-@ 34 tanks and two SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns had been destroyed by the Australian infantry and American tanks , contrary to the reports of their destruction by USAF airstrikes earlier in the day . Expecting a counter @-@ attack , Green then ordered B Company forward to occupy positions along the road in between the positions held by D and A Companies , while Battalion headquarters moved in behind B Company , with C Company held in reserve at the rear with Support Company . After conducting a limited resupply of the forward companies , the Australians hastily began to dig in .
The North Koreans subsequently brought up substantial reinforcements , and soon after dark they moved against D Company on the southern flank . Preparatory fire by artillery , mortars and machine @-@ guns began at 19 : 00 , following which a battalion @-@ sized ground assault was launched . The weight of the counter @-@ attack fell on 10 Platoon D Company , with Mannett holding his platoon 's fire until the North Koreans were only 10 metres ( 33 ft ) away before engaging , killing 32 men . Mannett was later awarded the Military Cross for his leadership during the initial assault and the subsequent defence of the ridgeline . Regardless , the North Koreans succeeded in overrunning parts of the Australian position before they were finally repulsed following counter @-@ attacks by 11 and 12 Platoons during two hours of fierce fighting . A number of North Koreans also succeeded in penetrating the perimeter , and they moved behind D Company from where they fired on the 3 RAR headquarters . Contact was subsequently lost with D Company and was not regained until the North Koreans were forced to withdraw by Headquarters Company , under Captain Ben O 'Dowd , which then cleared the depth positions . At 21 : 30 the focus of the North Korean counter @-@ attack shifted to the northern flank , launching a heavy assault against A Company . This effort also failed however , being repulsed as Chitts called @-@ in indirect fire from the Support Company mortars and American howitzers to within 10 metres ( 33 ft ) of the forward Australian positions . The North Koreans finally withdrew at 22 : 15 , though a SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled gun continued to fire sporadically into the Australian positions until 23 : 00 .
= = = Clearance of the town , 30 October 1950 = = =
The following morning the Australians remained in position , and at daybreak they found more than 150 North Korean dead within the 3 RAR defensive position . Coad subsequently brought the Middlesex forward to secure his northern flank , while 3 RAR moved forward to the Talchon River , taking up positions in the hills overlooking Chongju by 11 : 00 . During the advance the Australians had clashed with a number of North Korean stragglers , killing 12 and capturing 10 in skirmishes . It became clear that organised resistance had ceased however , with the successful Australian assault and the subsequent defence of its objectives the day before breaking the North Koreans locally . In the north the Middlesex pushed forward to the riverbank , while in the afternoon the Argylls forded the river with two platoons of Shermans . Meanwhile , aerial reconnaissance reported the presence of North Korean tanks to the west of Chongju . Regardless , that afternoon the Argylls encountered no further opposition as they entered and cleared the ruined and burning town , securing it by 17 : 00 . The brigade then moved into divisional reserve for the US 24th Infantry Division , with Church ordering the US 21st Infantry Regiment to take its place in the lead in order to give the British and Australian infantry a much needed respite . The tanks and infantry of the US 21st Infantry Regiment subsequently moved through the brigade .
The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade adopted tight security that evening due to the threat of North Korean infiltration . For added protection while in reserve the 3 RAR headquarters had been sited on the reverse slope of a hill overlooking the Talchon River , with the rifle companies occupying the forward slope of the ridgeline to the west and a spur line which thrust towards the river bank . Around dusk at 18 : 10 on 30 October , six high @-@ velocity shells , likely from a North Korean self @-@ propelled gun or tank , hit the area . Five of the shells landed on the forward slope , while the sixth cleared the crest and detonated to the rear of the C Company position after hitting a tree . In his tent on a stretcher after 36 hours without sleep , Green was severely wounded in the stomach by a fragment from the wayward round . He was evacuated to a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital ( MASH ) at Anju , however he succumbed to his wounds and died two days later on 1 November , and was subsequently interred at Pusan . Forty other men who had been in the vicinity when the shell landed were unhurt . A popular and respected commanding officer , Green 's loss was keenly felt by the Australians . Meanwhile , Coad received congratulations from Gay for the brigade 's victory at Chongju after marching 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) in twelve hours .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The fighting around Chongju was the heaviest undertaken by the Australians since entering the war . North Korean casualties included 162 killed and 10 captured , while Australian losses were nine killed and 30 wounded , including Green . The Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honour " Chongju " . Following the capture of the town the US 21st Infantry Regiment had set off rapidly along the road to Sonchon to the west . Encountering only one strong North Korean position which they quickly turned , by noon on 1 November the lead battalion had reached Chonggodong , just 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the Yalu River where the Americans clashed with another North Korean armoured force . To the north meanwhile , the US 5th and 9th Infantry Regiments of the 24th Division secured Taechon and Kusong , before advancing to within 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of the Manchurian border .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
During the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People 's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River under the overall command of Marshal Peng Dehuai in order to reinforce the remnants of the KPA . Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence , the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into North Korea , and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group ; in total 30 divisions composed of 380 @,@ 000 men . The Chinese subsequently ambushed MacArthur 's forces which were now widely dispersed , decimating ROK II Corps at Onjong and encircling and overrunning the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at Unsan . Ultimately Chongju was the furthest north that 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was to penetrate , and on 1 November the brigade began moving south as part of the United Nations general withdrawal in the face of the Chinese First Phase Offensive . Walsh , by then an observer at US Eighth Army headquarters , was urgently posted to resume command of 3 RAR following Green 's death , however he was relieved of his position by Coad just six days later in the wake of the Battle of Pakchon on 5 November that cost the battalion heavily , losing 12 killed and 64 wounded despite killing 200 Chinese . The battalion second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Bruce Ferguson , subsequently assumed command . Suffering significant casualties , the Chinese offensive was halted the next day due to logistics difficulties .
Between 6 – 25 November 3 RAR remained in the Pakchon area , conducting extensive patrolling to secure the area. small groups of Chinese and North Koreans were captured . As winter approached the weather became colder and the Australians increasingly suffered health and maintenance problems , before additional US cold clothing and equipment was issued . The United Nations subsequently resumed the offensive again on 24 November . Meanwhile , the Chinese began their Second Phase Offensive , with the Chinese 13th Army Group pushing the US Eighth Army back to the Chongchon River , inflicting heavy losses on the South Koreans and decimating the US 2nd Infantry Division on the right flank as the US Eighth Army began a long retreat . At the same time , the Chinese 9th Army Group ambushed the US X Corps near the Chosin Reservoir as the freezing winter weather set in . Although the US Eighth Army succeeded in avoiding encirclement , the US X Corps had to be evacuated by sea from Hungnam during December 1950 , despite inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese . MacArthur 's forces were subsequently expelled from North Korea , and withdrew to the 38th Parallel where they sought to once again establish defensive positions .
= Bart the Murderer =
" Bart the Murderer " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 10 , 1991 . In the episode , Bart stumbles upon the Mafia bar , Legitimate Businessman 's Social Club , after having a terrible day at school . The owner of the bar , mobster Fat Tony , hires Bart to work as its bartender . When Principal Skinner goes missing after punishing Bart in school , Bart is soon accused of having him murdered and is put on trial . As he is about to get convicted , Skinner arrives and explains that he was accidentally trapped in his garage all week , clearing Bart.
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Rich Moore . Fat Tony ( voiced by Joe Mantegna ) and his henchmen , Legs and Louie , made their first appearances on The Simpsons . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " Witchcraft " and " One Fine Day " , and the American television series MacGyver . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 4 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After having a particularly bad day at school , Bart gets caught in a downpour and loses control of his skateboard . He crashes down the stairwell of the Legitimate Businessman 's Social Club , a Mafia bar owned by the Springfield Mafia . Fat Tony , the leader of the Mafia , and his henchmen Legs and Louie are initially inhospitable towards Bart , but they are impressed by his ability to pick the winning horse in a horse race on television . When Bart makes up an excellent Manhattan cocktail for the mobsters , Fat Tony hires him as their bartender and errand boy . As Bart adopts more and more gangster @-@ like traits , Marge grows anxious and tells Homer to go and meet the Mafia , but Homer approves of them after they let him win at poker .
When Fat Tony finds out the Principal Skinner is giving Bart detention after school , the mobsters go to confront Skinner . The next day , Skinner is missing and is presumed to have been murdered . Bart has a nightmare of Skinner 's ghost and his own execution on the chair . He rushes to confront Fat Tony at the bar . When the police burst in , Fat Tony blames Skinner 's disappearance on Bart , who is put on trial . During the trial , Fat Tony , Legs , and Louie lie to the court , saying that Bart is Skinner 's murderer and the leader of the Springfield Mafia .
Judge Snyder is about to convict Bart when Skinner bursts through the doors , disheveled and unshaven , and explains that neither Bart nor the mobsters assaulted him . Rather , when Fat Tony and his henchmen had come to his office meekly , Skinner had yelled at them to not interfere with student discipline , and they left sheepishly . After Skinner returned to his house , he became trapped beneath tons of old newspapers in his garage , and was stuck there for over a week , until he was able to escape . Bart is cleared of all charges despite counsel for the prosecution unsuccessfully trying to convince the Judge to strike Skinner 's speech from the record . Fat Tony tells Bart that he did not want to get him into any trouble on his behalf , but Bart decides to resign after learning that " crime doesn 't pay " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Rich Moore . The writers conceived the idea of the episode before the 1990 film GoodFellas , which has a similar plot , was released . After it was , the writers incorporated references to the film into the episode . The character Fat Tony makes his first appearance on the show in this episode . He was modeled after the physical appearance of Paul Sorvino 's character Paul Cicero in GoodFellas .
The writers originally wanted American actor Sheldon Leonard to voice Fat Tony , but they were unable to get him , so they went with Joe Mantegna instead . Mantegna was offered the role during the show 's second season , and since he had seen the show before and thought it was " funny " , he decided to give it a shot . He felt honored that they asked him to do a voice for the show . In an interview with The A.V. Club , Mantegna said he thinks the reason he got the role was partly due to his performance in the 1990 Mafia film The Godfather Part III , which opened just prior to when he received the role . He thought the script was smart and clever and that he enjoyed recording it . Mantegna has since appeared many times on the show as Fat Tony , who became a recurring character ; it is Mantegna 's longest @-@ running role in his acting career . Mantegna commented : " Who knew that Fat Tony was gonna resonate in the hearts and minds of the [ Simpsons fans ] out there ? Apparently [ the writers ] got enough feedback as to how the character was liked that they wrote it in again and again , and I was kind of a recurring guy that they ’ d tap into at least a couple episodes a season . "
Legs and Louie , Fat Tony 's henchmen , also made their first appearances in this episode . The character of Louie was based on American actor Joe Pesci , who is known for playing violent Mafia mobsters . Neil Patrick Harris guest starred in the episode as himself , portraying Bart in Blood on the Blackboard : The Bart Simpson Story , a horribly inaccurate made @-@ for @-@ television film based on Bart 's life with the Mafia that the Simpson family watches at the end of the episode . The movie casts Joe Mantegna ( looking like his character in The Godfather Part III ) as Fat Tony .
= = Cultural references = =
The sequence of Bart crashing down the stairwell to the Mafia bar is similar to a scene in the film GoodFellas , in which a young boy is employed by a Mafia as their messenger . All of the horses in the race that Bart bets on are named after a famous animated character 's catchphrase : " Ain 't I a Stinker ? " ( Bugs Bunny ) , " Yabba Dabba Doo " ( Fred Flintstone ) , " Sufferin ' Succotash " ( Sylvester ) , " That 's All Folks " ( Porky Pig ) , " I Yam What I Yam " ( Popeye ) , and Bart 's catchphrases " Eat my shorts " and " Don 't have a cow " . The Chiffons 's song " One Fine Day " is heard when Bart serves drinks to the mobsters during a game of poker . The writers originally wanted to use the song " Be My Baby " by The Ronettes for the scene , but they could not clear the copyrights for it . In his room , Bart stores the Springfield Mafia 's loot — a truckload of cartons of Laramie cigarettes . While strutting around the kitchen , he sings Frank Sinatra 's song " Witchcraft " . The scene in which Bart wakes up screaming after having a nightmare about Skinner is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film The Godfather , in which Jack Woltz screams after waking up in bed and finding a decapitated horse head by his side . Skinner frees himself from being trapped under the newspapers in a way similar to the character Angus MacGyver 's escapes in the American television series MacGyver .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart the Murderer " finished 31st in the ratings for the week of October 7 – 13 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . John Orvted of Vanity Fair named it the eighth best episode of The Simpsons because of the " inspired " Mafia satire and because it " goes deeper into Bart 's ongoing conflict with authority figures . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the scene in which Skinner explains his disappearance to the courtroom , calling it Skinner 's " finest hour " on the show . Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed named the episode the best in the third season , and commented that there are " many priceless moments " in it , such as Homer 's meeting with the Springfield Mafia . Meyers also praised Swartzwelder 's script . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict commented that how an episode that starts with Bart having a bad day can lead to him being tried for murder as the head of the local Mafia " is just one of the amazing monuments to this show 's superiority . "
DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought " Bart the Murderer " was season three 's first " truly great " episode because it " starts off strong and gets even better as it moves . " Even though he thinks Mafia parodies have been overused , Jacobson thought this one brought " a fresh approach and remains consistently amusing . A great guest spot from Mantegna helps . It also feels like the first episode of this season that really moves the series ahead ; it seems like something a little more incisive than most of what came before it . " Andy Patrizio of IGN called " Bart the Murderer " his favorite of the season , and praised the episode for its references to The Godfather and MacGyver . The episode 's reference to GoodFellas was named the 28th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
= Meshuggah =
Meshuggah / məˈʃʊɡə / is a Swedish extreme metal band from Umeå , formed in 1987 . Meshuggah 's line @-@ up consists of founding members vocalist Jens Kidman and lead guitarist Fredrik Thordendal , drummer Tomas Haake , who joined in 1990 , rhythm guitarist Mårten Hagström , who joined in 1992 and bassist Dick Lövgren since 2004 .
Meshuggah first attracted international attention with the 1995 release Destroy Erase Improve for its fusion of fast @-@ tempo death metal , thrash metal and progressive metal elements . Since its 2002 album Nothing , Meshuggah has switched from seven @-@ string to downtuned eight @-@ string guitars . Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style , complex , polymetered song structures and polyrhythms . Meshuggah was labelled as one of the ten most important hard rock and heavy metal bands by Rolling Stone and as the most important band in metal by Alternative Press . Meshuggah has found little mainstream success as yet , but is a significant act in extreme underground music . Nevertheless , Meshuggah has begun to gain attention and respect among more mainstream audiences since the late 2000s , having also inspired the djent movement within progressive metal .
Since its formation , Meshuggah has released seven studio albums , six EPs and eight music videos . The band has performed in various international festivals , including O
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-@ Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm . The last @-@ minute decision to join 2002 's Ozzfest tour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one . Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording .
The album Nothing was released in August 2002 , selling 6 @,@ 525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on the Billboard 200 . With this album , Meshuggah became the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack the Billboard 200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed in Rolling Stone magazine . Meshuggah 's previous two releases , 1998 's Chaosphere and 1995 's Destroy Erase Improve , have sold 38 @,@ 773 and 30 @,@ 712 copies to that date , respectively . The CD booklet of Nothing has no liner notes , lyrics , or credits , only a hint of one word : ingenting , which is Swedish for nothing . All of this information is available on the CD @-@ ROM . At the end of 2002 , the band went on another US tour with Tool and a headlining tour of its own .
= = = I and Catch Thirtythree ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =
In 2003 , Hagström hinted at the direction of the band 's next album by saying , " There 's only one thing I really feel that is important . We 've never measured our success in terms of sales , because we 're quite an extreme band . It 's more that people understand where we 're coming from . I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we 've totally changed their way of looking on metal music , than having like 200 kids buy it . I mean , it would be nice for the money , but that 's not why we 're in it . So what I 'd like to see is that we keep progressing . Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been , but exploring the bar , so to speak . Destroy Erase Improve was like exploring the dynamics of the band , Chaosphere was exploring the aggressiveness , the all @-@ out side , and Nothing is more of a sinister , dark , pretty slow album , actually . So honestly , now I don 't know where we 're going . It might be a mix of all of them . "
In February 2004 , bassist Dick Lövgren joined Meshuggah . The band then recorded and released the I EP , which contains a single , 21 @-@ minute track , released on Fractured Transmitter Records . Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP . Catch Thirtythree , the only Meshuggah album on which programmed drums have been used , was released the following year in May 2005 . Seven thousand copies of Catch Thirtythree were sold the first week , and it debuted at No. 170 on the Billboard 200 chart in June 2005 . The video for the track " Shed " was released in June , and the previous album Nothing sold approximately 80 @,@ 000 copies in the United States to that date , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Catch Thirtythree earned the band a Swedish Grammy nomination .
In December 2005 , 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing company Warner / Chappell Music Scandinavia , Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company . In November 2005 , Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions of Chaosphere and Nothing , because , being on tour , they had little time to devote to them .
A remixed and remastered version of Nothing with rerecorded guitars was released in a custom @-@ shaped slipcase featuring a three @-@ dimensional hologram card on October 31 , 2006 , via Nuclear Blast Records . The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band 's appearance at the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of " Rational Gaze " , " Shed " and " New Millennium Cyanide Christ " .
= = = obZen , Koloss , Pitch Black and new album ( 2007 – present ) = = =
Meshuggah returned to the studio to record obZen , which was released in March 2008 . The band spent almost a year on the album , its longest recording session yet . A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote ; the recording itself took six months. obZen reached No. 59 on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 11 @,@ 400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50 @,@ 000 copies after six months . With obZen , Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans . The release was followed by a world tour , which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe , Asia and Australia .
In May 2008 , Meshuggah published a music video for the song " Bleed " , which was produced by Ian McFarland and was written , directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland . Killswitch Productions said : " It 's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video . "
In January 2009 , obZen was nominated for the Swedish Grammis award in the " Best Hard Rock " category . In February 2009 , Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album . In April , Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009 , due to Haake 's herniated disc in his lower back , which was causing problems with his right foot when playing . Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals .
The concert DVD entitled Alive was released on February 5 , 2010 in Europe and February 9 in North America . Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with the Belgian drummer Dirk Verbeuren .
The newest studio album , Koloss , was released on March 23 , 2012 in Germany , on March 26 in the rest of Europe , and March 27 in North America . Koloss reached No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200 , and sold 18 @,@ 342 copies in its first week . In Sweden , it reached No. 12 .
On February 5 , 2013 , Meshuggah released a free two @-@ track EP entitled Pitch Black with Scion A / V. The EP features a previously unreleased track , " Pitch Black " , that was recorded by Fredrik Thordendal in 2003 at Fear and Loathing , in Stockholm Sweden . The second track is a live recording of " Dancers to a Discordant System " from obZen . The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven , Netherlands , on December 9 , 2012 .
On May 12 , 2016 , Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album is to be released in late 2016 .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Genre and typical traits = = =
Meshuggah 's experimentation , stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres . Heavy metal subgenres avant @-@ garde metal or experimental metal are umbrella terms that enable description of the career of the band in general . Extreme metal crosses both thrash metal and death metal ( or technical death metal ) , which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah 's music , which has also been described as groove metal . The band is often labelled as math metal ( for using elements of math rock ) and progressive metal . Meshuggah also incorporates elements of experimental jazz . In its review of Nothing , Allmusic describes Meshuggah as " masterminds of cosmic calculus metal — call it Einstein metal if you want " . Meshuggah 's early output was also considered alternative metal . Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprint and distinct style .
Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah 's sound and songwriting include polyrhythms , polymetered riff cycles , rhythmic syncopation , rapid key and tempo changes and neo @-@ jazz chromatics . Hagström notes that " it doesn 't really matter if something is hard to play or not . The thing is , what does it do to your mind when you listen to it ? Where does it take you ? " A trademark of Thordendal is jazz fusion @-@ like soloing and improvisation . He is also known for the usage of a " breath controller " device . Haake is known for his cross @-@ rhythm drumming with " jazzlike cadence " . The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies between hardcore @-@ style shouts and " robotic " death metal vocals .
In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah , the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5 / 16 or 17 / 16 , while drums play in 4 / 4 . One particular example of Haake 's use of polymeter is 4 / 4 against 23 / 16 bimeter , in which he keeps the hi @-@ hat and ride cymbal in 4 / 4 time but uses the snare and double bass drums in 23 / 16 time . On " Rational Gaze " ( from Nothing ) , Haake plays simple 4 / 4 time , hitting the snare on each third beat , for 16 bars . At the same time , the guitars and bass are playing same quarter notes , albeit in a different time signature ; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat . Hagström notes about the polymeters , " We 've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using . Everything we do is based around a 4 / 4 core . It 's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on . "
= = = Early work , Destroy Erase Improve and Chaosphere = = =
The early work of Meshuggah , influenced mainly by Metallica , is " simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material , but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time @-@ changes and polyrhythmics , and Fredrik Thordendal 's lead playing stands out " . According to Allmusic , their debut album is a relatively immature , but original , release . Double bass drums and " angular " riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah .
With the groundbreaking Destroy Erase Improve , Meshuggah showed fusion of death metal , thrash metal , progressive metal and technical polyrhythmic math metal . Allmusic describes the style as " weaving hardcore @-@ style shouts amongst deceptively ( and deviously ) simple staccato guitar riffs and insanely precise drumming — often with all three components acting in different time signatures " . Thordendal adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitar and uses his " breath controller " device most famously on the opening track " Future Breed Machine " .
Chaosphere incorporates typically fast , still tempo changing death metal . Allmusic compares the genre also with grindcore fathers Napalm Death . Rockdetector states : " Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings , critics struggled to dissect and analyze , hailing Haake 's unconventional use of dual 4 / 4 and 23 / 16 rhythm , Kidman 's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal 's liberal usage of avant @-@ garde jazz " .
= = = Nothing , I and Catch Thirtythree = = =
On Nothing , Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos of Chaosphere and concentrates on slow , tuned down tempos and grooves . The album was intended to be recorded using custom @-@ made Nevborn eight @-@ string guitars , but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used detuned Ibanez seven @-@ string guitars instead . This technique , which involved keeping the instruments untuned during the sessions , created additional problems . When Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight @-@ string guitars with two extra @-@ low strings that worked properly after the initial release , the band re @-@ recorded the guitar parts for Nothing and re @-@ released it in 2006 . Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars .
The I EP contains a single , 21 @-@ minute song of complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album , 2005 's Catch Thirtythree . The EP , which was never played live by the band , was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal . On Catch Thirtythree , Meshuggah again used eight @-@ string guitars , but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release , with the exception of two songs from 2001 's compilation Rare Trax . The album was self @-@ produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger . Hagström notes , " The eight @-@ strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with . Part of it is the restrictions they impose : you really can 't play power chords with them ; the sound just turns to mush . Instead , we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single @-@ note parts , new tunings and chord voicings . We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album , so the guitars worked out beautifully . "
Catch Thirtythree is one 47 @-@ minute song divided into 13 sections . It is more mid @-@ tempo guitar riff based , and a more straightforward and experimental full @-@ length album than Chaosphere or Nothing . Nick Terry of Decibel Magazine describes the album as a four @-@ movement symphony . Some songs still use Meshuggah 's " familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse , mechanically advancing , oddball tempos " , while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics . The first part of Catch Thirtythree centers around two simple riffs . In the song " In Death - Is Death " , the band uses a combination of noise and silence , which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on " Dehumanization " . On " Mind 's Mirrors " , Meshuggah used electronics , programming and " robotic voices " . " Shed " incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals .
= = = obZen = = =
With 2008 's obZen , Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002 's Nothing and 2005 's Catch Thirtythree to return to the musical style of its previous albums , such as Contradictions Collapse , Destroy Erase Improve and Chaosphere , while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation . The album loses some of the mathematical @-@ like rhythmal quick changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration of Catch Thirty @-@ Three and uses " angular " riffs , mid @-@ tempo and common 4 / 4 beats . The album is a culmination of the band 's previous work . Meshuggah decided to self @-@ produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process .
For obZen , Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song " Bleed " . In an interview for Gravemusic.com , Haake stated , " [ ' Bleed ' ] was a big effort for me to learn , I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff . I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically . So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined . It 's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I 'm glad we were able to nail it for the album . For a while though we didn 't even know if it was going to make it to the album . " Hagström also stated , " obZen is one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape " . Revolver magazine confirms this statement : " At first listen , obZen seems less challenging to the listener than some of the band 's other records , and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next . However , careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group 's most complicated " .
= = Reception = =
Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushes heavy metal into new territory , and for its technical prowess . Hagström comments : " We try never to repeat ourselves . " Rockdetector stated about Destroy Erase Improve : " [ T ] he band ... stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form " . The official Meshuggah biography comments on Chaosphere by noting that " Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind ; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound . " The band 's website also describes Nothing as displaying " a very mature and convincing Meshuggah , now focusing on groove and sound ... Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the ' ecstatic ' and the ' slightly disappointed ' " . The polyrhythms can make the music sound cacophonous , like band members are playing different songs simultaneously . Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is fitted to a metric framework , or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as " noise " .
Rolling Stone labeled Meshuggah as " one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands " , and the Alternative Press named it the " most important band in metal . " Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius @-@ bordering musicians , " recognized by mainstream music magazines , especially those dedicated to particular instruments " . In 2007 , Meshuggah earned an in @-@ depth analysis by the academic journal Music Theory Spectrum . Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extreme underground music and an influence for many modern metal bands . According to guardian.co.uk , Meshuggah coined the onomatopoeic term " djent " , describing an " elastic , syncopated guitar riff " , that later gave a name to the microgenre .
= = Songwriting , recording and lyrics = =
Meshuggah 's music is written by Thordendal , Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman . During songwriting , a member programs the drums , and records the guitar and bass via computer . He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work . Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards . Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually , and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument . Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore , but he is involved in writing riffs .
Except for when Hagström needs a soloist , he and Thordendal rarely record together . Both play guitar and bass while composing . Haake says about his songwriting , " Sometimes I 'll sample guitar parts , cut them up , pitch @-@ shift and tweak them until I 've built the riffs I want , just for demoing purposes . But most of the time I 'll just present the drums , and explain my ideas for the rest of the song , sing some riffs . " The band uses Cubase to record the tracks , and the guitars are routed through software amplifier modeling , because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully recorded .
Approximately once a year , Haake writes most of the band 's lyrics , with the exception of finished tracks . His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films . Although Meshuggah does not record concept albums , the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background .
Often esoteric and conceptual , Meshuggah 's lyrics explore themes such as existentialism . Allmusic describes Destroy Erase Improve 's lyrical focus as " the integration of machines with organisms as humanity 's next logical evolutionary step " . PopMatters ' review of Nothing singles out the lyrics from " Rational Gaze " : " Our light @-@ induced image of truth — filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won 't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined . Separated , one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration . " Haake explains that Catch Thirtythree 's cover , title and lyrics deal with " the paradoxes / negations / contradictions of life and death ( as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation ) " .
The main theme of obZen is " human evil " , according to Haake . The title is a play on the words " obscene " and " Zen " ; in addition , " ob " means " anti " in Latin . Therefore , the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed . Revolver Magazine finds the lyrics of the title track from obZen representative of the entire album : " Salvation found in vomit and blood / Where depravation , lies , corruption / War and pain is god . " However , Haake claims , " We don 't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people . But with these songs , I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale . We 're going , ' Heads up . Here 's what some of the parts of being human are about , and this is what we can be at our worst . ' So it 's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Contradictions Collapse ( 1991 )
Destroy Erase Improve ( 1995 )
Chaosphere ( 1998 )
Nothing ( 2002 )
Catch Thirtythree ( 2005 )
obZen ( 2008 )
Koloss ( 2012 )
TBA ( 2016 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Loudwire Music Awards
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
Revolver Golden Gods Awards
Decibel Magazine
= = = Official = = =
Official website
Meshuggah on Facebook
= = = Videos = = =
Meshuggah - The Movie , Behind The Scenes Footage - The Life of Meshuggah , official Meshuggah channel on YouTube
Interview with Mårten Hagström and Tomas Haake , 2008 , Nuclear Blast : part 1 , part 2 , part 3 , part 4
= James Bond filmography =
Commander James Bond RN — code number 007 — is a fictional character created by the British journalist and novelist Ian Fleming in 1952 . The character appeared in a series of twelve novels and two short story collections written by Fleming and a number of continuation novels and spin @-@ off works after Fleming 's death in 1964 . Seven actors have played Bond in 26 films .
Fleming portrayed Bond as a tall , athletic , handsome secret agent in his thirties or forties ; he has several vices including drinking , smoking , gambling , automobiles and women . He is an exceptional marksman , and skilled in unarmed combat , skiing , swimming and golf . While Bond kills without hesitation or regret , he usually kills only when carrying out orders , while acting in self @-@ defence and occasionally as revenge .
American actor Barry Nelson was the first to portray Bond on screen , in a 1954 television adaptation , " Casino Royale " . In 1961 Eon Productions began work on Dr. No , an adaptation of the novel of the same name . The result was a film that began a series of 24 films that celebrated their 50th anniversary in 2012 . After considering the likes of " refined " English actors such as Cary Grant and David Niven , the producers cast Sean Connery as Bond in the film . Fleming was appalled at the selection of the uncouth , 31 @-@ year @-@ old Scottish actor , considering him to be the antithesis of his character . However , Connery 's physical prowess and sexual magnetism in the role came to be closely identified with the character , with Fleming ultimately changing his view on Connery and incorporating aspects of his portrayal into the books .
Following Connery 's portrayal , David Niven , George Lazenby , Roger Moore , Timothy Dalton , Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig have assumed the role in twenty @-@ six feature film productions . These screen versions have retained many traits from Fleming 's depiction , although some of Bond 's less fashionable attitudes have been dropped , such as racism , homophobia , retaining the services of a maid , and in the more recent films , smoking . Despite playing the same character , there have been notable differences among the portrayals . Daniel Craig is the incumbent Bond in the long @-@ running Eon series , and played the part for a fourth time in the latest film , Spectre , released in October 2015 .
= = Fleming 's literary characterisation = =
A Secret Service agent , Bond was a composite based on a number of commandos whom author Ian Fleming had known during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II , to whom he added his own style and a number of his own tastes . Fleming appropriated the name from American ornithologist James Bond . Bond 's code number 007 comes from one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I : the breaking of the German diplomatic code . One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram , which was coded 0075 , and which was one of the factors that led the US entering the war . Subsequently if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified . Fleming later told a journalist , " When I was at the Admiralty ... all the top @-@ secret signals had the double @-@ 0 prefix ... and I decided to borrow it for Bond " .
Although James Bond is in his mid @-@ to @-@ late thirties , he does not age in Fleming 's stories . Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that , " within the first few pages [ of Casino Royale ] Ian had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks " , which included his looks , his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits : Bond 's penchant for alcohol runs throughout the series of books and he smokes up to 70 cigarettes a day .
Fleming decided to underplay Bond 's character , observing that " Exotic things would happen to and around him , but he would be a neutral figure " . On another occasion , he reinforced his point , saying , " When I wrote the first one in 1953 , I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull , uninteresting man to whom things happened ; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument " .
= = Films = =
= = = Sean Connery : 1962 – 67 , 71 and 83 = = =
Sean Connery was the first actor to portray Bond on film in Dr. No ( 1962 ) . An amateur bodybuilder , he had come to the attention of the Bond film producers after several appearances in British films from the late 1950s . At a muscular 6 ' 2 " , Fleming originally disapproved of his casting as James Bond , believing him to be an overgrown stuntman who lacked the finesse and elegance to play James Bond ; he envisaged a suave actor , such as David Niven playing the role . Producer Albert R. Broccoli — known to all as Cubby — disagreed with Fleming 's view , later commenting that " I wanted a ballsy guy ... put a bit of veneer over that tough Scottish hide and you 've got Fleming 's Bond instead of all the mincing poofs we had applying for the job " . Eon 's choice of Connery was also based on his looks and sex appeal , an appeal that would later be echoed by Honor Blackman who said , after appearing with Connery in Goldfinger , " He was exceedingly handsome , virile and sexy and that really was the tenor of what the script was always trying to display " . After Connery was chosen , director Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser , and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor " in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool " .
Connery 's interpretation of the character differed considerably from Fleming 's , being more promiscuous and cold blooded than the literary version . Connery described Bond as " a complete sensualist — senses highly tuned , awake to everything , quite amoral . I particularly like him because he thrives on conflict " . Academic James Chapman observed that for Dr. No , Connery 's interpretation of the character , although not complete , showed the actor " should be credited with having established a new style of performance : a British screen hero in the manner of an American leading man " . In his second film , From Russia with Love , Connery looked less nervous and edgy ; he gave " a relaxed , wry performance of subtle wit and style " . Pfeiffer and Worrall noted that Connery " personified James Bond with such perfection that even Ian Fleming ... admitted that it was difficult imagining anyone else in the part " ; academic Jeremy Black agreed and declared that " Connery made the role his own and created the Bond audience for the cinema " . Black also observed that Connery gave the character a " spare , pared @-@ down character ... [ with ] inner bleakness along with the style " . Connery played Bond with " the right mix of cool charisma , violence and arrogance ... against which all others are judged " . Raymond Benson perceived that Connery " embodies a ruggedness and an intense screen presence this transcends any preconceived notions about the character " . Benson also noted that Bond was witty , but contains " an assured toughness that epitomises the machismo male " . Roger Moore agreed with Black and Benson , commenting that " Sean was Bond . He created Bond . He embodied Bond and because of Sean , Bond became an instantly recognisable character the world over — he was rough , tough , mean and witty ... he was a bloody good 007 " . However , despite his charm and virility , Connery was characteristically laconic in his delivery . Christopher Bray says of him that " in his single @-@ minded , laconic , mocking , self @-@ sufficient vanity , Connery 's Bond was the epitome of sixties consumer culture " .
Interviewed by Oriana Fallaci in 1965 , Connery identified where he had altered the character for the films , saying " I said to the producers that the character had one defect , there was no humor about him ; to get him accepted , they 'd have to let me play him tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , so people could laugh . They agreed , and there you are : today Bond is accepted to such an extent that even philosophers take the trouble to analyze him , even intellectuals enjoy defending him or attacking him . And even while they 're laughing at him , people take him terribly seriously " . Connery went on to add that " Bond is important : this invincible superman that every man would like to copy , that every woman would like to conquer , this dream we all have of survival . And then one can 't help liking him " . After the pressures of five films in six years , Connery left the role after the 1967 film You Only Live Twice saying , " It became a terrible pressure , like living in a goldfish bowl ... that was part of the reason I wanted to be finished with Bond . Also I had become completely identified with it , and it became very wearing and very boring " .
After a hiatus of one film — On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , in which George Lazenby played Bond — Connery returned to the role for Diamonds Are Forever after David Picker , the head of United Artists , made it clear that Connery was to be enticed back to the role and that money was no object . When approached about resuming the role of Bond , Connery demanded — and received — a fee of £ 1 @.@ 25 million ( £ 24 million in 2016 pounds ) , 12 @.@ 5 % of the gross profits and , as a further enticement , United Artists offered to back two films of his choice . His performance received mixed reviews , with Raymond Benson considering that Connery " looks weary and bored ... he is overweight , slow @-@ moving , and doesn 't seem to be trying to create a credible character " . Despite that , Benson considers that Connery " still radiates more screen presence than Roger Moore or George Lazenby " . On the other hand , Pauline Kael said " Connery 's James Bond is less lecherous than before and less foppish — and he 's better this way " .
In the early 1980s producer Jack Schwartzman moved ahead with a non @-@ Eon Bond film , following the controversy over the 1961 novel Thunderball and the subsequent long legal battle ; the result was Never Say Never Again . Connery accepted an offer to play Bond once more , asking for ( and receiving ) a fee of $ 3 million ( $ 7 million in 2016 dollars ) , a percentage of the profits , as well as casting , director and script approval . The script has several references to Bond 's advancing years — playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming . David Robinson , reviewing the film for The Times considered that , " Connery ... is back , looking hardly a day older or thicker , and still outclassing every other exponent of the role , in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way " . In 2003 Bond , as portrayed by Connery , was selected as the third @-@ greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute .
= = = David Niven : 1967 = = =
When Sean Connery had been cast in November 1961 , David Niven had been Fleming 's choice for the role as the actor reflected his image of the character . In 1965 producer Charles Feldman signed Niven to play Sir James Bond for Casino Royale , a film not made by Eon Productions . Connery and Peter Sellers had both turned down the role . Niven was 56 when he played Bond and his characterisation was that of an elderly man who had won the Victoria Cross at the Siege of Mafeking , had a daughter by his lover , the spy Mata Hari , played Claude Debussy on the piano , ate royal jelly and cultivated black roses . The concept of Bond is that once Niven 's Bond retired , his name and 007 designation was passed to another agent to keep the legend alive ; James Chapman notes that the implication was that the " other Bond " was that played by Connery .
Chapman considered the concept of an elderly Bond to be an interesting one , with Bond referring to Connery 's Bond as a " sexual acrobat who leaves a trail of beautiful dead women behind like blown roses " . In line with the literary Bond , Niven 's character drives a vintage Bentley , rather than the Aston Martin favoured by Connery . Bond scholar Steven Jay Rubin thought Niven perfectly cast as the retired Bond , and saw him as " a throw @-@ back to the hell @-@ for @-@ leather adventure heroes " of the character , which paralleled Niven 's own life and career . Barnes and Hearn describe this as a " perfectly fair interpretation " , given the way Niven approached the role , while Raymond Benson thinks casting Niven was " intelligent " . Jeremy Black questioned the use of Niven in the role , observing that he did not seem to be a killer , and did not have the " disconcerting edge " that Connery had .
= = = George Lazenby : 1969 = = =
With the departure of Connery after You Only Live Twice , Broccoli and director Peter R. Hunt chose Australian George Lazenby to play the role of Bond . He first came to their attention after
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any real substance " , while Doug Pratt said that " the writers worked out an amenable personality for Roger Moore and found a breezy balance between comedy and action " . To make Moore 's character appear tougher , a Smith & Wesson .44 Magnum — which at the time was associated with the macho image of the Clint Eastwood character , Dirty Harry — was chosen for Moore to use in Live and Let Die rather than Bond 's usual choice of Walther PPK .
Spicer says " Roger Moore re @-@ created Bond as an old @-@ style debonair hero , more polished and sophisticated than Connery 's incarnation , using the mocking insouciance he had perfected in his role as Simon Templar ... Moore 's humour was a throwaway , and certainly in the later films , verged on self @-@ parody . It was an essential strand in the increasingly tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek direction of the series which became more light @-@ hearted , knowing and playfully intertextual " . Chapman noted that Moore was the most comedic of the Bonds , with a more light @-@ hearted approach to playing the character with a mocking wit and innuendo . Additionally , Moore 's one @-@ liners were delivered in a way to suggest that the violence inherent in the films was a joke , as opposed to Connery 's , which was used to mitigate the violence . Moore explained his approach to the humour by saying " to me , the Bond situations are so ridiculous ... I mean , this man is supposed to be a spy , and yet everybody knows he 's a spy ... it 's outrageous . So you have to treat the humour outrageously as well " .
Pauline Kael was a fairly vocal critic of Moore 's , dismissing him as an " iceberg " in The Man with the Golden Gun . In reviewing For Your Eyes Only , she wrote " Roger Moore is Bond again , and his idea of Bond 's imperturbable cool is the same as playing dead " . Reviewing Moonraker , she wrote " Roger Moore is dutiful and passive as Bond ; his clothes are neatly pressed and he shows up for work , like an office manager who is turning into dead wood but hanging on to collect his pension " . Only in The Spy Who Loved Me , one of Kael 's favourite Bond films , did she praise him describing him as self @-@ effacing : " Moore gets the chance to look scared — an emotion that suits him and makes him more likable " .
A number of Moore 's personal preferences were transferred into his characterisation of Bond : his taste for Cuban cigars and his wearing of safari suits were assigned to the character . Moore 's use for cigars in his early films put him in contrast to the cigarette @-@ smoking Connery , Lazenby and Dalton . By the time of Moore 's fifth film , For Your Eyes Only , released in 1981 , his characterisation had come to represent an old @-@ fashioned character , in contrast to the fashionability Connery had brought to the role in the 1960s .
In 1985 Moore appeared in his seventh and final film , A View to a Kill ; he was 57 ( he appeared alongside co @-@ star Tanya Roberts , who was 30 ) . Critics focussed on Moore 's age : The Washington Post said " Moore isn 't just long in the tooth – he 's got tusks , and what looks like an eye job has given him the pie @-@ eyed blankness of a zombie . He 's not believable anymore in the action sequences , even less so in the romantic scenes " . When he was cast for the film , Moore recalled that he felt " a bit long in the tooth " , and in December 2007 admitted that he " was only about four hundred years too old for the part " . Like Connery , Moore appeared as Bond in seven films ; by the time he retired in 1985 , he was the oldest actor to play 007 in the Eon series , and his Bond films had earned over $ 1 billion at the box office .
= = = Timothy Dalton : 1986 – 94 = = =
With the retirement of Roger Moore in 1985 , a search for a new actor to play Bond took place that saw a number of actors , including Sam Neill , Pierce Brosnan and Timothy Dalton audition for the role in 1986 . Bond co @-@ producer Michael G. Wilson , director John Glen , Dana and Barbara Broccoli " were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him " , although Bond producer Albert R. Broccoli was not sold on the actor . Dalton and Brosnan were both considered by Eon , but after Brosnan was eventually ruled out by his Remington Steele contract , Dalton was appointed in August 1986 on a salary of $ 5 @.@ 2 million . When he was either 24 or 25 years old Dalton had discussed playing Bond with Broccoli , but decided he was too young to accept the role , thinking Bond should be played between 35 and 40 years old . In preparing for the role , Dalton , a green @-@ eyed , dark haired , slender , 6 ' 2 " ( 1 m 88 cm ) classically trained Shakespearean actor , was keen to portray the character as accurately as possible , reading up extensively on the books before his role in The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) .
Dalton 's Bond was a serious one : dark , cold , emotional stern , ruthless , showing little humour , and focused as a killer with little time for fun and indulgence . Dalton 's interpretation of the character came from his " desire to see a darker Bond " , one that was " less of a womaniser , tougher and closer to the darker character Ian Fleming wrote about " . James Chapman also considered Dalton to be closer to Fleming 's Bond than the previous actors , writing that Dalton was " clearly less comfortable ... with the witty asides and one @-@ liners ... so he becomes something closer to the Bond of the books , who rarely develops a sense of humour " . When reviewing Licence to Kill , Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times disagreed , declaring that " any vestiges of the gentleman spy ... by Ian Fleming " have now gone ; he went on to say that " this character is remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the new Batman film " .
Not all viewers were taken with Dalton . Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail was entirely dismissive . " The new Bond has been widely described in feature stories as a throwback to the Ian Fleming original ( studying the Fleming novels , Dalton was pleased to discover that Bond was a human being , he says ) , and that may be true , if the Fleming original lacked charm , sex appeal and wit . Timothy Dalton 's Bond is a serious bloke who swallows his words and approaches his job with responsibility and humanity , and eschews promiscuity – Dirtless Harry . You get the feeling that on his off nights , he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting – he 'd try to memorize the jokes – before nodding off under the influence of Ovaltine . The British reviews of The Living Daylights have been laudatory , perhaps because this Bond is the most British of all , if British is to be understood as a synonym for reserved " .
Raymond Benson noted that Dalton " purposely played Bond as a ruthless and serious man with very little of the wit displayed by Connery , Lazenby or Moore " , and considered him to be " the most accurate and literal interpretation of the role ... ever seen on screen " . His character also reflected a degree of moral ambiguity ; in Licence to Kill , for instance , he becomes a rogue agent , while Dalton himself saw the character as a " man , not a superhuman ; a man who is beset with moral confusions and apathies and uncertainties , and who is often very frightened and nervous and tense " . Smith and Lavington observed that during Dalton 's portrayal in Licence to Kill , Bond appeared " self @-@ absorbed ... reckless , brutal , prone to nervous laughter and ... probably insane , or at least seriously disturbed . In the light of Licence to Kill , one academic , Martin Willis , referred to Dalton 's Bond as a " muscular vigilante " . Steven Jay Rubin noted that Dalton 's films had " a hard @-@ edged reality and some unflinching violent episodes that were better suited to Dalton 's more realistic approach to the character " . Rubin considered Dalton 's portrayal to be " Fleming 's Bond ... the suffering Bond " . In contrast to the previous incarnations of the character , Smith and Lavington identified Dalton 's humour as " brooding rather than flippant " ; combined with his heavy smoking , they considered him " an effective leading man " . Eoghan Lyng , writing for The James Bond Dossier , favourably compared him to Daniel Craig , stating that " Despite chronological placement , it was Dalton , not Brosnan , who proved to be the prototype for the 21st century Bond . " . Although Bond screenwriter Richard Maibaum called Sean Connery the best Bond , he considered Dalton the best actor of the four he worked with . His predecessor , Roger Moore also felt that Dalton was the best Bond .
Dalton 's films did not perform as well at the box office as most of the previous films . Commentators such as Screen International considered the Bond series had run its course in the age of series such as Indiana Jones and Lethal Weapon . Edward P. Comentale observed that " Dalton , for all his occasional flat northern vowels , was probably too much the stage actor to be convincing as an action hero in the age of Willis , Schwarzenegger and Stallone " . After just two films — The Living Daylights and Licence to Kill — litigation ensued over the licensing of the Bond catalogue , delaying what would have been Dalton 's third film by several years . His six @-@ year contract expired in 1993 and he left the series in 1994 .
= = = Pierce Brosnan : 1995 – 2004 = = =
After Timothy Dalton retired from the Bond role in 1994 , Eon turned to the actor they had considered after A View to a Kill : Pierce Brosnan . He was offered a three @-@ film contract , with an option on a fourth ; his salary for his first film , GoldenEye , was $ 4 million , which rose to $ 16 @.@ 5 million for his fourth and final outing , Die Another Day . Brosnan had first met Broccoli on the set of For Your Eyes Only , when Brosnan 's wife , Cassandra Harris , was appearing in the film as Countess Lisl von Schlaf , and the couple lunched with Broccoli during filming . Brosnan went on to play a criminal @-@ turned @-@ private investigator in Remington Steele in the 1980s , where he captured some of the traits of previous Bonds in playing the role : like Moore , he exemplified a high degree of suavity , elegance , charm and wit , but displayed a masculinity and grittiness on occasion reminiscent of Connery 's Bond , both successfully " combine the character 's Englishness with a classless internationalism that is highly knowing " . Andrew Spicer says that " Brosnan 's frame carries the ' Armani look ' with its refined understated Englishness , to perfection . His lithe , sinuous athleticism is well suited to the fast @-@ paced action and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art gadgetry that retains the series ' core appeal " . James Chapman also considered Brosnan 's appearance striking , saying the actor had " old @-@ fashioned , darkly handsome matinee idol looks " .
With Brosnan , the Bond writers knew that because of the changes in public attitudes , he could not be as overtly sexual and dominant over women as Connery 's Bond , and was denounced by M in Goldeneye to be a " sexist , misogynist dinosaur , a relic of the Cold War " . Brosnan was seen by many as the quintessential James Bond in appearance and manner ; displaying an air of coolness , elegance and a grace which made him believable as an international playboy , if not purely as an assassin . John G. Stackhouse for instance argues that it is preposterous that any man as strikingly handsome as Brosnan and Connery could be a secret agent , saying , " When Sean Connery or Pierce Brosnan enters a room , everyone notices . Thus it is ridiculous to suppose that James Bond , looking like that , could be a secret agent for longer than about two seconds " .
Brosnan 's Bond was introduced in Goldeneye ; James Chapman argues that the film works his portrayal of Bond into the history of the others in the series through the post @-@ credits sequence use of the Aston Martin DB5 , previously seen in Goldfinger and Thunderball , " thus immediately evoking the memory of [ Sean ] Connery " . Brosnan 's characterisation of Bond was seen by Jeremy Black as being " closer to the Fleming novels than Moore ... yet he is also lighter and less intense than Dalton " . Black also commented that the shift in character in the first three films reflected changing social opinions , with Bond not smoking . Brosnan was clear he wanted to change Bond 's smoking habit , saying " I don 't give a damn about everyone 's perception of the character : I think smoking causes cancer therefore he doesn 't smoke " , although he did smoke a Cuban cigar in Die Another Day . Brosnan continued with the use of humour prevalent with other portrayals , and provided a " mix of action and danger threaded through with the right amount of wit and humour " ; Smith and Lavington saw the humour largely as puns that were " flippant , but not crass " .
After four films in the role , Brosnan stated he wished to do one final Bond film . Although plans were made for a film to be released in 2004 , negotiations stalled and Brosnan announced his intention to leave in July 2004 .
= = = Daniel Craig : 2005 – present = = =
On 14 October 2005 Eon Productions , Sony Pictures Entertainment and MGM announced at a press conference in London that Daniel Craig would be the sixth actor to portray Bond in the Eon series ( although seventh film Bond overall ) . A tuxedo @-@ clad Craig arrived via a Royal Navy speedboat . Craig had based his acceptance of the role on the strength of the script for the first film , Casino Royale ; he later recalled that " once I sat down and read the story , I just thought that I wanted to tell [ it ] ... I 'm a big Bond fan , and I love what he represents " . Significant controversy followed the decision , with some critics and fans expressing doubt the producers had made the right choice . Throughout the entire production period , Internet campaigns such as danielcraigisnotbond.com expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest . Craig , unlike previous actors , was not considered by the protesters to fit the tall , dark , handsome and charismatic image of Bond to which viewers had been accustomed . Many disparagingly called him " James Blonde " , believing the 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) blond @-@ haired blue @-@ eyed rugged Craig to be far fitting from the traditional tall , dark and suave actors who had earlier portrayed him . The Daily Mirror ran a front page news story critical of Craig , with the headline , The Name 's Bland – James Bland .
Craig first played Bond in the 2006 film Casino Royale , an adaptation of Fleming 's novel of the same name and a reboot of the Eon series , which saw Bond earn his 00 status . Despite the negative press on his appointment , Craig was widely praised by critics and former Bonds after the release of Casino Royale , believing him to have been the first actor to truly nail Fleming 's character in the book : Todd McCarthy , reviewing the film for Variety , considered that " Craig comes closer to the author 's original conception of this exceptionally long @-@ lived male fantasy figure than anyone since early Sean Connery " , and he went on to say that " Craig once and for all claims the character as his own " , while Steven Spielberg called Craig " the perfect 21st @-@ century Bond " . Paul Arendt , writing for the BBC , agreed , observing that " Daniel Craig is not a good Bond . He 's a great Bond . Specifically , he is 007 as conceived by Ian Fleming — a professional killing machine , a charming , cold @-@ hearted patriot with a taste for luxury . Craig is the first actor to really nail 007 's defining characteristic : he 's an absolute swine " . James Chapman commented on the realism and violence in the film noting that Bond is seen to seriously bleed for the first time in the series ; Chapman also identified a number of violent scenes which make Casino Royale notable in the series . In 2012 Skyfall was released : it was Craig 's third outing as 007 . Reviewing the film , Philip French , writing in The Observer , considered that Craig managed to " get out of the shadow of Connery " , while the New Statesman thought that he had " relaxed into Bond without losing any steeliness " .
= D.S. ( song ) =
" D.S. " is an album track by Michael Jackson from his 1995 double disc record HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. It is track six on the second disc , one of the three songs from that disc whose lyrics are printed in the album booklet , and is four minutes and forty @-@ nine seconds in length . The song is often cited as a derogatory reference to Santa Barbara County District Attorney Tom Sneddon , whose name is similar to the subject of the song , Dom Sheldon . When Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse in 1993 , the investigation was controlled by Sneddon , who also ordered that Jackson be strip searched . The criminal investigation was subsequently closed when according to the New York Times , " the boy and his family announced that they would no longer cooperate . In an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of a civil suit filed by the family , the boy was to receive a payment of more than $ 10 million , according to Mr. Jackson ’ s associates . " Jackson was angered by the allegations , his perception of being mistreated by the police and media , and the negative effect on his health .
Shortly afterwards , he began work on HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. The track " D.S. " is written , composed and produced by Jackson and includes a guitar solo by Slash . It is a rock song that conveys themes such as bitterness , mistrust and corruption within law enforcement . There was no major critical analysis of the song from mainstream reviews when HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I was issued , but the song 's connection to Tom Sneddon was widely reported in the media . Jackson was subsequently involved in projects that made coded references to Sneddon and the 1993 investigation .
= = Background = =
HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , its album tracks such as " D.S. " and corresponding music videos are heavily influenced by the 1993 child sexual abuse accusations made against Jackson , the reaction to the allegations and the effect they had on the singer . The album acts as Jackson 's response to the media and the public . In 1993 , Evan Chandler and his son Jordan Chandler accused Jackson of child sexual abuse . Jackson agreed to a strip search of his body at Neverland Ranch ; the strip search was ordered by Thomas W. Sneddon Jr . , the district attorney of Santa Barbara County , California . Sneddon was in charge of the investigation as a whole . The accuser gave a detailed description of what he alleges were Jackson 's genitals , also giving details on patches of vitiligo on the singer 's body , but eventually the description was proved wrong . In an emotional state , Jackson stood on a platform in the middle of the room , took off all his clothes and was examined for approximately twenty @-@ five minutes ; he was never physically touched .
The media coverage of the allegations was criticized for using sensational headlines to draw in readers and viewers when the content itself did not support the headline , for accepting stories of Jackson 's alleged criminal activity in return for money , for accepting confidential leaked material from the police investigation in return for money , for deliberately using pictures of Jackson 's appearance at its worst , for a lack of objectivity and for using headlines that strongly implied Jackson 's guilt . At the time , Jackson said of the media reaction , " I will say I am particularly upset by the handling of the matter by the incredible , terrible mass media . At every opportunity , the media has dissected and manipulated these allegations to reach their own conclusions " .
A few months after the allegations became news , Jackson had lost approximately 10 pounds in weight and had stopped eating . Jackson 's health had deteriorated to the extent that he cancelled the remainder of his tour and went into rehabilitation . Jackson booked the whole fourth floor of the clinic , and was put on Valium IV to wean him from painkillers . The singer 's spokesperson told reporters that Jackson was " barely able to function adequately on an intellectual level " . While in the clinic , Jackson took part in group and one @-@ on @-@ one therapy sessions .
Jackson was not charged with a crime and the police closed their criminal investigation citing lack of evidence . With his health improving , Jackson then began work on a new album called HIStory , and commenced recording in 1994 . The song " D.S. " included in the album contains lyrics about a cold man called Dom S. Sheldon , which , when sung , sounds similar to Thomas Sneddon . Some media sources , and Sneddon himself , believe the song is directed at him .
= = Themes and genre = =
" D.S. " has very similar themes to the rest of HIStory . The album 's content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production . In the new jack swing / funk rock efforts " Scream " and " Tabloid Junkie " , along with the R & B ballad " You Are Not Alone " , Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels , and directs much of his anger at the media . " D.S. " contains an excerpt from the Yes hit single " Owner of a Lonely Heart " composed by Trevor Rabin , Jon Anderson , Chris Squire and Trevor Horn . The lyrics describe the subject of the song as a man who wants him " dead or alive " and " really tried to take me down / By surprise " . The track ends with the sound of a gunshot .
The song has a distinct rock feel to it , with a guitar solo performed by Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash , who had previously worked with Jackson on his Dangerous album . Jackson screams the name " Slash ! " immediately before Slash 's part in the song . Jackson has previously made a number of successful rock songs , including ; " Beat It " , " Dirty Diana " , " Give In to Me " and " Scream " . In his HIStory album review , Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne musically defines " D.S. " as a hard rock song .
= = Critical reaction = =
Although the album HIStory was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year and had additional related Grammy nominations , hardly any mainstream music reviewers provided a critical analysis of " D.S. " in their reviews of the album . Analysis of the song usually only covered the connection to Tom Sneddon and the song 's genre . However , Fred Shuster of the Daily News of Los Angeles described " D.S. " as a " superb [ slice ] of organic funk that will fuel many of the summer 's busiest dance floors " .
Many news organizations reviewed the piece in connection to Sneddon . Fox News Channel and CNN expressed the opinion that the " cold man " of this song 's lyrics is Sneddon , as when sung , " Dom S. Sheldon " sounds very close to " Thomas Sneddon " . The BBC suggested that the lyric 's reference to a " B.S.T.A. " sounds similar to " S.B.D.A. " , meaning " Santa Barbara District Attorney " . The Guardian and The New York Times expressed the view that Jackson suggests " Sheldon " has links to the CIA and the Ku Klux Klan and he just " wants your vote " . Sneddon 's own work website indicates that he believes he is the subject of the song , stating , " He 's the only DA in the nation to have an angry song written about him by pop megastar Michael Jackson " . Of the song , he said , " I have not — shall we say — done him the honor of listening to it , but I ’ ve been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot " .
= = Other works and aftermath = =
Although there was no music video made for " D.S. " , the song 's subject was referenced in the short film Ghosts . Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival , it was written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston . The story was loosely based on the events and isolation Jackson felt after he was accused of child sexual abuse in 1993 . In the plot , the Maestro ( played by Jackson ) is nearly chased out of his town by the mayor ( who deliberately looks very similar to Sneddon ) and the residents because they believe him to be a " freak " . It features many special effects and dance moves to original music , composed and choreographed by Jackson . The film includes several songs and music videos from the albums HIStory and Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix . The video for Ghosts is over thirty @-@ eight minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world 's longest music video .
The child sexual abuse allegations of 2003 resulted in a long trial two years later . Sneddon was the lead investigator again , as well as the trial prosecutor . The trial ended with Jackson being acquitted on all counts . The two investigations being controlled by Sneddon have led to complaints that he was motivated by a " vendetta " against Jackson . Evidence to support these claims include Sneddon joking about Jackson 's greatest hits album being released on the same day as his arrest and sarcastically saying , " Like the sheriff and I really are into that kind of music " . He then preceded to call Jackson " Wacko Jacko " and shouting " we got him , we finally got him " to the media when he had only just begun an investigation and had gathered limited information or evidence . " D.S. " was sung outside the courtroom by a group of Jackson 's fans every day the trial took place .
= = Personnel = =
Written , composed , produced , vocal arrangements , lead and background vocals by Michael Jackson
Arrangements by Michael Jackson , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis and Dallas Austin
Keyboards and synthesizers by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis
Lead and rhythm guitars by Slash
= Girl ( Destiny 's Child song ) =
" Girl " is a song recorded by American girl group Destiny 's Child . Columbia Records released it as the third single from the group 's fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) on January 16 , 2005 . The band co @-@ wrote the song with Darkchild , Ric Rude , Angela Beyince , Sean Garrett , and Patrick " 9th Wonder " Douthit ; the latter co @-@ produced it with band members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . Sampling " Ocean of Thoughts and Dreams " by The Dramatics , the soul song was written about an abusive relationship Rowland went through during the time of writing .
The song received mostly positive reviews by music critics who praised its composition and lyrical content . " Girl " had a moderate success in the US and across most European countries in comparison to the group 's other singles ; in the former it peaked at number 23 on its Billboard Hot 100 chart and was certified gold . It was more successful in the UK , Ireland , New Zealand and Australia where it peaked inside the top ten on the countries ' respective singles charts . A music video for the song was directed by Bryan Barber and it depicted a story inspired by Sex and the City . The song was performed live by the band in 2005 at three televised appearances as well as during their final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It . In 2015 , " Girl " was sampled on " The Girl Is Mine " by British music duo 99 Souls .
= = Background and release = =
In June 2013 , Rowland revealed during an interview with Hot 107 @.@ 9 Morning Show that Beyoncé and Williams wrote " Girl " as a request for her to escape an abusive relationship ; the same topic was discussed in Rowland 's " Dirty Laundry " ( 2013 ) and her fans were the first to " connect [ the ] dots " and discover the inspiration behind " Girl " . Rowland elaborated , " Of course , I did [ feel emotional upon hearing ' Girl ' ] ! The girls [ Beyonce and Michelle Williams ] [ sic ] wrote it for me . Destiny 's Child is deeper than what people see on the surface . Those are my homies for life ... Those girls we stuck with each other – period . "
Producer 9th Wonder initially met Beyoncé while she was in the recording studio as Jay @-@ Z was recording the song " Threat " for his 2003 album The Black Album . After Jay went through the CD of tracks that 9th Wonder handed to him , Beyoncé mentioned that she liked what she heard from him . Several months later , 9th received a call from Jay @-@ Z asking for him to give the CD of tracks to Destiny 's Child . He was surprised at being contacted by Jay about working with the group , as 9th confessed that he never owned an album by Destiny 's Child . He later traveled to Los Angeles to work on the songs with the trio for their next album . During the three days sessions , he produced the songs " Girl " , " Is She The Reason " and " Game Over " - all of which made the final track listing for Destiny Fulfilled .
In early 2005 , a poll was conducted on Destiny 's Child 's official website asking from the group 's fans to choose their " favorite " song between " Girl " and " Cater 2 U " . Following this , " Girl " was released as the next single from Destiny Fulfilled . It became the group 's final single on the European music market . In the UK and Ireland , two separate CD singles of " Girl " were released on April 25 , 2005 . In Germany , a vinyl single was released on May 2 , 2005 and the following day it was also released in the US . A CD single consisting of the album track and a Kardinal Beats Remix was released on May 16 in the former country . An extended play ( EP ) consisting of remixes of " Girl " was released on May 17 , 2005 . The same day a maxi single was released in Germany also consisting of several remixes of " Girl " . " Girl " was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Girl " was written by Destiny 's Child band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams as well as Darkchild , Ric Rude , Angela Beyince , Sean Garrett , and Patrick " 9th Wonder " Douthit , with production handled by Beyoncé , Rowland and 9th Wonder . " Girl " was recorded by Jim Caruana at Sony Music Studios in New York City in 2004 . The song was mixed by Dave " Hard Drive " Pensado and mastered by Tom Coyne . " Girl " samples the song " Ocean of Thoughts and Dreams " , written by Don Davis and Eddie Robinson and performed by The Dramatics . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Girl " was composed using common time in the key of C ♯ minor with a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from the low note of E3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . " Girl " was noted for containing elements of soul music in its composition . Eric Henderson from the website Slant Magazine described the song as Zhané @-@ esque . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe magazine felt that it sounded like a " Motown classic on steroids " .
Lyrically , the song talks about two female friends being concerned about their other friend who denies her bad love relationship and tries to convince them that nothing is wrong . As the girls know what is really happening , they try to comfort her and make her leave the partner . A writer of The Times of India found a break @-@ up theme in the song , further saying that " In ' Girl ' , the relational mishaps play out as three @-@ way girl talk , with two girlfriends trying to help their sister see the truth of a bad connection " . It opens with Beyoncé singing the lines " Take a minute girl , come sit down / And tell us what 's been happening / In your face I can see the pain / Don 't try and convince us you 're happy . "
= = Critical reception = =
Lynsey Hanley writing for The Daily Telegraph described " Girl " as an obvious choice for a single and hailed it as " Beyoncé 's requisite
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upon McCarthyism , she called for an end to " character assassinations " and named " some of the basic principles of Americanism : The right to criticize ; The right to hold unpopular beliefs ; The right to protest ; The right of independent thought " . She said " freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America " , and decried " cancerous tentacles of ' know nothing , suspect everything ' attitudes " . Six other Republican Senators — Wayne Morse , Irving M. Ives , Charles W. Tobey , Edward John Thye , George Aiken , and Robert C. Hendrickson — joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism .
Elmer Davis , one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s , often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism . On one occasion he warned that many local anti @-@ Communist movements constituted a " general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries , on teachers and textbooks , but on all people who think and write [ ... ] in short , on the freedom of the mind " .
In 1952 , the Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision in Adler v. Board of Education of New York , thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed " subversive " . In his dissenting opinion , Justice William O. Douglas wrote : " The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society — guilt by association . [ ... ] What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state . Teachers are under constant surveillance ; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty ; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts . "
One of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst Edward R. Murrow . On October 20 , 1953 , Murrow 's show See It Now aired an episode about the dismissal of Milo Radulovich , a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists . The show was strongly critical of the Air Force 's methods , which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open . On March 9 , 1954 , See It Now aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism , this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself . Titled " A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy " , it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest , reckless and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans . In his concluding comment , Murrow said :
We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty . We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law . We will not walk in fear , one of another . We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason , if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine , and remember that we are not descended from fearful men .
This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism .
In April 1954 , Senator McCarthy was also under attack in the Army – McCarthy hearings . These hearings were televised live on the new American Broadcasting Company network , allowing the public to view first @-@ hand McCarthy 's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics . In one exchange , McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army , Joseph Welch , that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies . In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy , Welch rebuked the senator : " Have you no sense of decency , sir ? At long last , have you left no sense of decency ? "
= = Decline = =
In the mid- and late 1950s , the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened . Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism . Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions .
A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was John Henry Faulk . Host of an afternoon comedy radio show , Faulk was a leftist active in his union , the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists . He was scrutinized by AWARE , Inc . , one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist " disloyalty " . Marked by AWARE as unfit , he was fired by CBS Radio . Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting , Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962 . With this court decision , the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused . Although some informal blacklisting continued , the private " loyalty checking " agencies were soon a thing of the past . Even before the Faulk verdict , many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist . In 1960 , Dalton Trumbo , one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten , was publicly credited with writing the films Exodus and Spartacus .
Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the Supreme Court . As Richard Rovere wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy , " [ T ] he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before . " Two Eisenhower appointees to the court — Earl Warren ( who was made Chief Justice ) and William J. Brennan , Jr . — proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated , and he would later refer to the appointment of Warren as his " biggest mistake " .
In 1956 , the Supreme Court heard the case of Slochower v. Board of Education . Harry Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy 's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party . The court prohibited such actions , ruling " ... we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person 's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment . [ ... ] The privilege against self @-@ incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury . "
Another key decision was in the 1957 case Yates v. United States , in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed . In Justice Black 's opinion , he wrote of the original " Smith Act " trials : " The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant . Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago . [ ... ] When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue , [ ... ] prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances . "
Also in 1957 , the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Watkins v. United States , curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress . Justice Warren wrote in the decision : " The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify , against his will , about his beliefs , expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference . And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox , unpopular , or even hateful to the general public , the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous . "
In its 1958 decision in Kent v. Dulles , the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant 's communist beliefs or associations .
= = Repercussions = =
The political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest , and the politics and history of anti @-@ Communism in the United States are still contentious . Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist . Loyalty oaths are still required by the California Constitution for all officials and employees of the government of California ( which is highly problematic for Quakers and Jehovah 's Witnesses whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state ) , and at the federal level , a few portions of the McCarran Internal Security Act are still in effect . A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to recent actions against suspected terrorists , most of them Muslims . In The Age of Anxiety : McCarthyism to Terrorism , author Haynes Johnson compares the " abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9 / 11 " to the excesses of the McCarthy era . Similarly , David D. Cole has written that the Patriot Act " in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism , simply substituting ' terrorist ' for ' communist . ' "
From the opposite pole , conservative writer Ann Coulter devotes much of her book Treason to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern @-@ day liberals , arguing that the former hindered the anti @-@ Communist cause and the latter hinder the War on Terrorism . Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti @-@ terrorism policies and McCarthyism include Geoffrey R. Stone , Ted Morgan , and Jonah Goldberg .
McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue . Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet messages , it has become known that the Soviet Union engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s . It is also known that the Communist Party USA was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union , and there are accusations that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies . In the view of some contemporary commentators , these revelations stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism . Some feel that there was a genuinely dangerous subversive element in the United States , and that this danger justified extreme measures . Others , while acknowledging that there were inexcusable excesses during McCarthyism , argue that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the depth of Soviet espionage in America or the undemocratic nature of the CPUSA , the latter concern being shared by some Trotskyites who felt that they , and anti @-@ Stalin socialists in general , were persecuted by the CPUSA . The opposing view holds that , recent revelations notwithstanding , by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s , the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group , and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal . Historian Ellen Schrecker , herself criticised for pro @-@ Stalinist leanings , has written , " in this country , McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did . "
= = = Later use of the term = = =
Since the time of McCarthy , the word McCarthyism has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices : aggressively questioning a person 's patriotism , making poorly supported accusations , using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent , subverting civil and political rights in the name of national security , and the use of demagoguery are all often referred to as McCarthyism . McCarthyism can also be synonymous with the term witch @-@ hunt , both referring to mass hysteria and moral panic .
= = McCarthyism in popular culture = =
The 1952 Arthur Miller play The Crucible used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism , suggesting that the process of McCarthyism @-@ style persecution can occur at any time or place . The play focused on the fact that once accused , a person had little chance of exoneration , given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public . Miller later wrote : " The more I read into the Salem panic , the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties . "
The 1976 film The Front dealt with the McCarthy @-@ era Hollywood blacklist , as did the 2015 film Trumbo .
= Boosey & Hawkes =
Boosey & Hawkes is a British music publisher purported to be the largest specialist classical music publisher in the world . Until 2003 , it was also a major manufacturer of brass , string and woodwind musical instruments .
Formed in 1930 through the merger of two well @-@ established British music businesses , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major , 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , including Steve Reich , John Adams , James MacMillan , Elliott Carter , Harrison Birtwistle , Osvaldo Golijov , Anna Clyne , and Louis Andriessen .
With subsidiaries in Germany , the UK and the US , the company also sells sheet music ; provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use ; commissions and produces music for radio , television and advertising ; and administers copyrights owned by media companies .
= = History = =
= = = Before the merger of the Boosey and Hawkes companies = = =
Boosey & Hawkes was founded in 1930 through the merger of two respected music companies , Boosey & Company and Hawkes & Son .
The Boosey family was of Franco – Flemish origin . Boosey & Company traces its roots back to John Boosey , a bookseller in London in the 1760s – 1770s . His son Thomas continued the business at 4 Old Bond Street , and from 1819 the bookshop was called Boosey & Sons or T. & T. Boosey .
Thomas Boosey 's son , also named Thomas ( 1794 / 1795 – 1871 ) , set up a separate musical branch of the company known as T. Boosey & Co. and , in the latter part of the 19th century , Boosey & Company . This branch initially imported foreign music but soon began publishing in England the works of composers such as Johann Nepomuk Hummel , Saverio Mercadante and Gioachino Rossini , and subsequently important operas by Bellini , Donizetti and Verdi . Elgar and Vaughan Williams were among its later signings . The company also produced books : among its first publications was an English translation of Johann Nikolaus Forkel 's book Life of J.S. Bach ( 1820 ) . The company was seriously affected by the House of Lords ' decision in Boosey v. Jeffreys ( 1854 ) which deprived English publishers of many of their foreign copyrights .
Boosey & Company diversified into manufacturing woodwind instruments in 1851 , collaborating in 1856 with flautist R.S. Pratten ( 1846 – 1936 ) to develop new designs for flutes . The firm bought over the business of Henry Distin in 1868 , allowing it to begin making brass instruments . Among its achievements was the widely acclaimed design for compensating valves developed by David James Blaikley in 1874 . The company also commenced production of string instruments .
The company capitalised on the increasing popularity of the ballad by focusing its publishing activities on them . To promote sales , John Boosey ( c.1832 – 1893 ) , son of Thomas Jr . , established the London Ballad Concerts in 1867 at St. James 's Hall and later at Queen 's Hall when it opened in 1893 . Clara Butt , John Sims Reeves and Charles W. Clark performed at these concerts , and its successes included Arthur Sullivan 's " The Lost Chord " ( 1877 ) and Stephen Adams ' " The Holy City " . The company began emphasising educational music from about the end of the 19th century .
In 1874 Boosey & Company moved into offices at 295 Regent Street , where the business was to stay for the next 131 years . In 1892 , Boosey & Company opened an office in New York which still exists today . The business eventually owned half of Regent Street , and at the time of the merger was managed by Leslie Boosey ( 1887 – 1979 ) .
Hawkes & Son ( later Rivière & Hawkes ) , a rival to Boosey & Company , was founded in 1865 by William Henry Hawkes selling orchestral sheet music . The company also made musical instruments and spare parts such as clarinet reeds , and by 1925 Hawkes had set up an instrument factory in Edgware , North London . The business , which was particularly known for brass and military band music , was eventually inherited by Ralph Hawkes ( 1898 – 1950 ) .
= = = After the merger = = =
Leslie Boosey and Ralph Hawkes met in the 1920s when they were on the Board of the Performing Right Society , and saw an opportunity to go into business together . They formed Boosey & Hawkes in October 1930 through a merger of their respective businesses . Hawkes & Son moved from its office in Denman Street to join the Boosey staff at 295 Regent Street .
The 1938 Anschluss — the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime — led to the Nazification of Viennese publishing house Universal Edition . Boosey & Hawkes seized the opportunity to sign up composers Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály , and also rescued Universal 's Jewish staff , who later played an important role in developing the company . One such employee in particular , Ernst Roth , facilitated the signing of Richard Strauss and Igor Stravinsky , and was instrumental in the production of Strauss 's Vier letzte Lieder ( Four Last Songs ) ( 1948 ; premièred 1950 ) and Stravinsky 's The Rake 's Progress ( premièred 1951 ) . Another significant figure from Vienna who occupied an editorial role was composer Arnold Schoenberg 's pupil Erwin Stein , and after the war the composer Leopold Spinner , a pupil of Anton Webern , was also on the editorial staff . Stein was instrumental in founding the modern @-@ music journal Tempo in 1939 , which began as Boosey & Hawkes ' own newsletter but later became a more independent publication .
By the time World War II broke out in 1939 , Boosey & Hawkes had also signed Benjamin Britten and Aaron Copland . It was Ralph Hawkes who championed Britten when he was still relatively unknown , often against the rest of the board of directors , until the première on 7 June 1945 of Peter Grimes , which was a critical and popular success . Sheet music sales soared during the War , enabling Boosey & Hawkes to buy Editions Russes which held the rights to the most valuable works of Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff and Stravinsky . The company also purchased the lease of the Royal Opera House in London in 1944 , rescuing it from becoming a permanent dance hall and providing a venue for world @-@ class ballet and opera in the capital .
By 1950 , Boosey & Hawkes was a leading international music company with an extensive catalogue of serious composers and offices in Bonn , Johannesburg , New York , Paris , Toronto and Sydney . However , from the late 1940s , strains had begun to appear in the relationship between Leslie Boosey and Ralph Hawkes , and this led to factions supporting each man forming in the company . It was discovered that Hawkes had borrowed capital of £ 100 @,@ 000 during the war without the permission of the exchange control authorities , and Boosey was forced to clear up the situation at great personal cost . Hawkes secretly wanted to buy out the music publishing side of the business and manage it from New York , leaving Boosey in London with the musical instrument business which Hawkes found dull . However , he died suddenly on 8 September 1950 , and representation of his faction was taken over by his flamboyant but unreliable brother Geoffrey who spent much of the company 's money on ventures such as the manufacture of mouth organs and ovens , which failed . Geoffrey Hawkes also sold shares in the company to fund his philandering , to the point that the company was forced to go public to raise cash . Leslie Boosey allowed Geoffrey his turn as chairman , but within two years the profitable company was on the brink of insolvency and Geoffrey Hawkes died of leukaemia in 1961 .
During these difficult years , Boosey was supported by his trusted managing director , Ernst Roth . However , Roth later regarded the Boosey family as ineffectual and parochial . In the early 1960s , Roth forced Boosey 's sons Anthony and Simon out of the company , and prevented his youngest son , Nigel , from even joining , allegedly at the behest of Benjamin Britten . Roth and Boosey also had differences over Britten 's influence over the company . Roth regarded Britten as a gifted local musician , rather than a true genius like Roth 's friends Strauss and Stravinsky . Boosey realised how valuable Britten was to the company , and agreed to Britten 's request to divide the company into instruments and publishing . However , Britten humiliated Boosey by preventing him from chairing the music publishing board Boosey had established at Britten 's request . In 1963 , Britten also managed to get Boosey & Hawkes to employ Donald Mitchell to find new , young composers for the company . Angered by the sway Britten had over Boosey , Roth fired Mitchell within a year . Mitchell later set up Faber Music for book publisher Faber and Faber with the assistance of Britten and the blessing of T. S. Eliot .
Boosey retired from the company in 1964 , and died without an obituary in 1979 . Although he had been awarded with the Légion d 'honneur by France , his achievements were mostly unrecognised in the UK . However , a large number of composers and their estates continue to benefit from his pioneering work in rights and royalty collection . In addition , every two years the Royal Philharmonic Society and the Performing Right Society honour individuals who have made an outstanding contribution to the furtherance of contemporary music in Britain with the Leslie Boosey Award . The award is given to those who work " backstage " , such as administrators , broadcasters , educationalists , programmers , publishers and representatives from the recording industry .
Some time during the late 1960s or early 1970s Boosey & Hawkes bought out The Salvation Army Brass Instrument Factory in North London . They continued for some years to manufacture instruments with The Salvation Army name and crest on them such as The Bandmaster cornets .
Boosey & Hawkes ' musical instruments division was gradually scaled down from the mid @-@ 1970s as it became less viable to have such an extensive range of products . Various lines were outsourced and sold off . By the time of the closure of the Edgware factory in 2001 , brass instruments were the only thriving part of the instrument range . Production was moved to Watford , Hertfordshire , and the instruments rebranded Besson .
It took nearly 20 years for Boosey & Hawkes to regain the leading position in the international
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music scene that it has today . It claims to be the largest specialist classical music publisher in the world .
= = The company today = =
In 2001 , Boosey & Hawkes was put up for sale after accounting irregularities were discovered in its Chicago instrument @-@ distribution business , leading to £ 13m worth of sales being written off , a plummeting share price , and the company 's near @-@ bankruptcy . It was eventually bought by venture capitalists HgCapital in 2003 for £ 40 million .
On 11 February 2003 , Boosey & Hawkes sold its musical instrument division , which included clarinet maker Buffet Crampon and guitar manufacturer Höfner , to The Music Group , a company formed by rescue buyout specialists Rutland Fund Management , for £ 33 @.@ 2 million . An archive of musical instruments manufactured or collected by the company throughout its history was passed to the Horniman Museum in Forest Hill , South London .
In September 2005 the company was again offered for sale by HgCapital which announced that it was seeking between £ 60 and £ 80 million . One of the interested buyers was Elevation Partners , a private equity firm which counts U2 lead singer Bono as a partner and managing director . Despite offers of about £ 115 million from a number of parties , the sale was later cancelled in November 2005 . In April 2008 , Boosey & Hawkes was bought by the Imagem Music Group .
Today , partly due to the foresight or business acumen of Ralph Hawkes , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten ( notably all his output between 1938 and 1963 ) , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , such as John Adams , Louis Andriessen , Sir Harrison Birtwistle , Unsuk Chin , Michael Daugherty , Peter Maxwell Davies , Henryk Górecki , Heinz Karl Gruber , Robin Holloway , Magnus Lindberg , James MacMillan , Olga Neuwirth , Kurt Schwertsik and Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage . The company 's New York branch has developed its own catalogue emphasising the works of American composers , including Elliott Carter , David Del Tredici , Walter Piston , Ned Rorem and Steve Reich .
295 Regent Street , which was the home of Boosey & Company since 1874 and of Boosey & Hawkes ' publishing business and music shop from 1930 , was finally given up by the company in 2005 which then relocated to Aldwych House . Boosey & Hawkes Music Shop claims to have the UK 's largest selection of printed music from all publishers , and operates a worldwide mail order service .
The company had a major division , BooseyMedia , that commissioned and produced music for radio , television and advertising jingles , and the administration of copyrights owned by media companies . This has now been split into commercial synchronisation and production music departments , both under the Imagem name . Its Cavendish Production Music Library provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use .
The Boosey & Hawkes group has branches in five countries on four continents , including companies in Germany ( Bote & Bock GmbH & Co . KG and Anton J. Benjamin GmbH ) , the UK ( Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ) and the USA ( Boosey & Hawkes , Inc . ) . In North America , Boosey & Hawkes ' print sales catalogue is distributed by the Hal Leonard Corporation .
Boosey & Hawkes launched its Online Scores service in 2011 , allowing customers to view full scores of works in its catalogue .
= = Parodies = =
The company was lampooned by The Goon Show as " Goosy and Borks " in their episode , " Lurgy Strikes Britain " , as well as by musical parodist Peter Schickele who named one of the friends of fictional composer P.D.Q. Bach Jonathan " Boozey " Hawkes . Somewhat more recondite was the punning reference delivered in one of Gerard Hoffnung 's parody concerts : " If Boosey 's will Hawk it , Schott 's will Tippett " ( from Punkt Contrapunkt at Hoffnung Interplanetary Music Festival with John Amis , Royal Festival Hall , 21 and 22 November 1958 )
= = = Articles = = =
Mortimer , C.G. ( 1938 – 1939 ) . " Leading Music Publishers : Boosey & Hawkes Ltd . " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 62 : 181 – 190 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" The Music Publisher of Tradition : The Booseys : Thomas and John ; The Hawkes : William Henry and Oliver " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 65 : 68 . 1941 – 1942 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" Boosey & Hawkes Settle with Disney " . The Daily Telegraph . 21 March 2001 .
Aldrick , Philip ( 1 May 2001 ) . " Boosey in Talks with Lenders after Account Irregularities " . The Daily Telegraph .
Fagan , Mary ( 7 October 2001 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes Faces £ 50m Bid " . The Daily Telegraph .
Aldrick , Philip ( 13 February 2002 ) . " Steinway Quits Boosey Auction " . The Daily Telegraph .
Parkinson , Gary ( 25 February 2002 ) . " Equity Groups Make a Play for Boosey " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 30 April 2002 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes in Sale Talks " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 27 May 2003 ) . " Boosey Stands Firm on EMI Deal " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 11 September 2003 ) . " Final Notes Sound in Boosey Sale Opera " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Fresh Bidder Chimes in on Boosey Sale " . The Daily Telegraph .
Lawson , Annie ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Trumpets £ 40m Buyout " . The Guardian .
Osborne , Alistair ( 17 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Prepared for Trio of Suitors " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 4 October 2003 ) . " Hg Offer Tops Boosey Buyout " . The Daily Telegraph .
Milmo , Dan ( 23 November 2004 ) . " La Donna e mobile ? Key in a Classic Ringtone " . The Guardian .
Hopkins , Nic ( 20 September 2005 ) . " Clamour of Interest in £ 130m Sale of Boosey " . The Times ( London ) .
= = = Books = = =
Boosey , William ( 1931 ) . Fifty Years of Music . London : Ernest Benn . OCLC 1150185 .
Wallace , Helen ( 2007 ) . Boosey & Hawkes : The Publishing Story . London : Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85162 @-@ 514 @-@ 0 .
= Radar ( song ) =
" Radar " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fifth studio album , Blackout ( 2007 ) . It was written and produced by Bloodshy & Avant and The Clutch , with additional writing from Henrik Jonback , as a record that did not relate to any of her personal problems at the time . The recording sessions took place the day after Spears filed for divorce from Kevin Federline , and members of The Clutch claimed to be surprised by her work ethic . " Radar " was originally planned to be released as the third single from Blackout , but " Break the Ice " was chosen instead . The song was then planned as the fourth single , but the release was cancelled as Spears began recording her sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . " Radar " was later included as a bonus track on Circus , and released as the fourth and final single from the album on June 22 , 2009 by Jive Records .
Musically , " Radar " is an electropop and synthpop song , that runs through a midtempo dance groove . Spears ' vocals are auto tuned and accompanied by sonar pulses and a heavy usage of distorted synthesizers . The lyrics refer to an attraction between the protagonist and a man , while she wonders if he knows what she is feeling . " Radar " received mixed reviews from critics ; some called it one of the highlights of Blackout , while others felt that it was over @-@ produced and also criticized her vocals for being processed . In July 2008 , " Radar " charted in the top forty of Ireland and New Zealand , and inside the top @-@ ten in Sweden . After it was released as a single from Circus , the track performed poorly on the charts and did not manage to enter the top forty in most countries . However , it became her 21st hit on the US Billboard 's Pop Songs chart , the most for any artist of the decade .
The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Dave Meyers , and pays tribute to the music video of Madonna 's " Take a Bow " ( 1994 ) . In the video , Spears is an aristocratic woman involved in a love triangle with two men who are polo players . The video received mixed reviews from critics , who complimented the fashion but called the idea unoriginal . " Radar " was performed by Spears at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , with the accompanying dance routine featuring her pole dancing .
= = Background = =
The main instrumentation was recorded by Bloodshy & Avant at Bloodshy & Avant Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . In November 2006 , Spears recorded " Radar " with Ezekiel Lewis and Patrick M. Smith of The Clutch at Sony Music Studios in New York City . Lewis had wanted to work with her for a long time and was motivated to produce something for her that was going to " help her project become a great project to come back with " . Smith stated that the team tried to create a record " for the Britney Spears that we know and love "
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and that it did not " touch on anything that was really dealing with all the stuff that she was dealing with . " Both commented that although Spears arrived late to the recording sessions , she caught them off guard with her efficiency and professionalism , with Lewis adding , " It was absolutely nuts , and she took directions very well . [ ... ] I don ’ t know what I was expecting because we went in to cut that record the day after she filed divorce from Kevin [ Federline ] . " The song was later mixed by Niklas Flyckt at Mandarine Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . " Radar " was originally planned to be released as the third single from Blackout , according to Lewis . " Break the Ice " was released instead and " Radar " was chosen as the fourth single . In July 2008 , a CD single was released in countries such as New Zealand and Sweden . However , a wider release was scrapped when Spears began recording new material for her sixth studio album , Circus . On May 7 , 2009 , the song was announced as the fourth single from Circus .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Radar " is an electropop and synthpop song , that runs through a midtempo dance groove . The song is influenced by rave music and R & B. It has a bouncy and skipping beat , and a repetitive melody reminiscent of a nursery rhyme . Spears ' vocals are auto tuned and kept " more in the foreground " , according to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV . Her voice is accompanied by sonar pulses and distorted synthesizers . The synthesizers have been compared by Kimberly Chou of The Michigan Daily to those of Soft Cell 's " Tainted Love " ( 1981 ) . During the outro , Spears repeats Vocodered da @-@ da @-@ das . Critics noted that " Radar " is influenced by the works of Rihanna ; Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun said the song sounds " like an inferior take " of Rihanna 's single “ SOS ” ( 2006 ) . According to Poppy Cossins of The Sun , Radar sounds " like the Pussycat Dolls at their most risqué " . Roger Friedman of Fox News said that along with " Break the Ice " , " Radar " was more " straight @-@ ahead electronic disco " than the rest of Blackout and added that it " sounds like Las Vegas goes Eurodisco . " In the lyrics , Spears lets the subject know he is on her radar , while she lists the qualities the man has . Kimberly Chou said Spears ' delivery " [ is ] so aggressive it 's almost threatening . " Spears sings lyrics such as " Confidence is a must / cockiness is a plus / edginess is a rush / edges I like ' em rough / A man with a Midas touch / Intoxicate me I 'm a lush . " During the bridge she sings " I got my eye on you / And I can 't let you get away " , making clear her attraction .
= = Critical reception = =
Blender gave the song four and a half stars , named it the second potential hit from the album , and called it “ a bubblegum @-@ electro dance floor jam with a hook most pop stars would kill for ” . Eric R. Danton of The Hartford Courant deemed it as " crackling " and " club @-@ ready " , while calling it one of the " killer tracks " off the album along with " Break the Ice " and " Hot as Ice " . Denton Record @-@ Chronicle 's Mike Daniel said the best tracks of Blackout are " the unwaveringly catchy ' Radar ' and the neo @-@ wave curveball of ' Heaven and Earth ' " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said some of the songs of Blackout , " really show off the skills of the producers " , exemplifying " Gimme More " , " Radar " , " Break the Ice " , " Heaven on Earth " and " Hot as Ice " . He also selected it as one of his ' track picks ' of the album . Jedd Rosche of The Maneater deemed it as one of the standout tracks of Blackout along with " Ooh Ooh Baby . "
Nekesa Mumbi Moody of USA Today called it " a sexy techno groove that you can 't help but bounce to . " Theon Weber of The Village Voice said that " Spears 's writers present her with the goofiest , most vivacious productions she 's ever had , filling ' Radar ' with pinging noises and polishing Madonna 's dance @-@ floor trash bright . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy called it " a rave @-@ tinged electro blipathon on which Spears is vocodered to the point of sounding extra @-@ terrestrial . " Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said that the song " seems to be bending over backwards to annoy the listener . Perhaps it 's a last desperate tactic to win back some privacy : she 's trying to get people to leave her alone by making as irritating a noise as possible . " A reviewer from the Ottawa Citizen said that " some tracks [ of the album ] just don 't work , such as Radar , in which Britney 's voice is tuned up so high she sounds like she 's 14 . "
Laura Herbert of BBC News said that many of the album 's songs , including " Radar " and " Toy Soldier " " are repetitive and over @-@ produced . " Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel said that " Musically , songs such as ' Piece of Me , ' ' Radar ' and ' Break the Ice ' are one @-@ dimensional , robotic exercises . " Chris Wasser from the Irish Independent said the album had single potential , exemplifying that " There 's little doubting we 'll hear the bouncing and digitally affected vocals of Radar and the livelier Hot As Ice on the radio soon enough , but both tracks still seem a little under par . " After the release of " Radar " single from Circus , Nick Levine of Digital Spy said it " still sounds pretty ace , one of the best examples of the robopop sound Blackout essentially invented , but its fresh @-@ out @-@ the @-@ box sheen has long since faded " . On July 29 , 2009 , " Radar " was chosen as single of the week in FHM .
= = Commercial performance = =
On November 17 , 2007 , due to digital downloads for the Blackout release , " Radar " peaked at number fifty @-@ two on the U.S. Billboard Hot Digital Songs . The song also charted in several countries based on strong digital sales and airplay alone , surprisingly reaching high chart positions . In Ireland , the song debuted at number forty @-@ seven on July 15 , 2008 . It peaked at number thirty @-@ two on August 5 , 2008 . In Sweden , " Radar " debuted at number forty @-@ six on July 24 , 2008 . The single peaked at number eight on July 28 , 2008 , becoming the second highest @-@ charting single from the album after " Gimme More " . It stayed on the position for two weeks , and for eight weeks on the chart overall . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ seven on August 18 , 2008 , and peaked at number thirty @-@ two two weeks later . It stayed on the chart for five weeks .
After being confirmed as the fourth single from Circus , " Radar " re @-@ entered the charts in several countries . On August 29 , 2009 , the song peaked at number thirty on the U.S. Billboard Pop Songs . On September 5 , 2009 , " Radar " finally entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number ninety , and peaked at number eighty @-@ eight on the following week . It became her fifth song from Circus to chart on the Hot 100 , marking the first time five songs from one of her albums entered the chart . It was also her 22nd Hot 100 hit . " Radar " also became her 21st hit on the Pop Songs chart , the most for any artist of the decade . As of July 2010 , " Radar " has sold 481 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . On the same week , the song peaked at number sixty @-@ five in Canada . The track re @-@ entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number forty @-@ six on July 20 , 2009 and stayed on the chart for just one week . In the UK , the song peaked at number forty @-@ six on August 2 , 2009 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
In June 2008 , Spears ' manager Larry Rudolph told The Sun that a video for " Radar " directed by Spears was to be shot in Chelsea , London . The concept would have Spears and her friends chasing a man in different clubs . However , this was scrapped along with the single ’ s release . The music video for " Radar " from Circus was filmed on May 27 and 28 , 2009 , at the Bacara Resort & Spa located in Santa Barbara , California . It was directed by Dave Meyers , who previously worked with Spears on her music videos for " Lucky " , " Boys " and " Outrageous " as well as the Curious commercials . Meyers claimed the video pays tribute to the music video of Madonna 's 1994 single " Take a Bow " . He added , " [ we were ] looking for a way to take her into a contemporary , classy environment . I felt empowered by referencing Madonna 's video . Britney hasn 't done anything like that " . He had a very clear idea of how he wanted the story line to work : " There is a narrative going on , a romantic triangle on a weekend at this polo mansion , " he said . " A soap @-@ opera romance . " Meyers commented that working with Spears again was " a great celebration of trusting one another " , explaining that both wanted " to do something fresh and new , seeking out an actual different technique and stylistic choices and trying to find a form to celebrate them in . " Since the song was not the first single from Circus , Meyers chose to experiment and not have dancing scenes , saying that " the videos are a chance for her to vocalize a sense of herself . The media tends to attack her , so I thought , ' Let 's show the classy side of Britney and focus on a classy experience , very European @-@ inspired ' . And she 's at the point in her career where I think this would be a nice step . " After the video was finished , Meyers said he was happy with the lack of dancing scenes , because the cuts and dissolves kept the pace of the song .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Spears arriving at a polo mansion . She comes out from the car wearing a vest , jeans and showing her midriff . She starts singing while her boyfriend welcomes her . They walk past a barn , where a polo player is sitting . They look at each other briefly and she starts to sing in a balcony , watching the second man with a pair of binoculars . At the end of the first chorus , her boyfriend comes and puts a studded necklace around her neck , as a surprise gift . Until the end of the second chorus , we see scenes of Spears singing and watching the polo player as he gets ready . When the bridge begins , Spears arrives at a match wearing a white dress and a large hat . She looks at the polo player over her shoulder and sings the lines " I got my eye on you / And I can ’ t let you get away " . When the match ends , she leaves and the second man follows her . They flirt inside a hallway and leave . Her boyfriend notices her absence , walks into the hallway and sees her necklace on the floor . The video ends with Spears and the second man walking into the sunset .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video leaked online on July 1 , 2009 . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said the music video was her weakest since " Gimme More " and highlighted the comparisons with " Take a Bow " , saying , " while Madonna dressed the role of a distressed aristocratic senorita in the stands , Spears ’ wardrobe and giant hat mirror the elite at the Kentucky Derby " . He also said the idea was unoriginal and compared it to Spears ' fragances commercials . Nadia Mendoza of The Sun said , " forget PVC catsuits and teeny weeny air hostess outfits . Britney Spears has gone all sophisticated on us " and positively commented on the fashion , saying " Britney dons a hat more suited to Ascot than a music video " . Peter Gicas of E ! commented that the video was a nice departure from her recent more choreographed videos , such as " Womanizer " and " If U Seek Amy " . He commended it for its " more straightforward approach in telling a so @-@ called story " , but felt it was " a bit too much like one of those overly dramatic fragrance commercials " . OK ! said the video was " posh " and also noted the difference from her recent videos .
= = Live performances = =
Spears performed the song during The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) . After the performance of " Piece of Me " , there was a brief interlude in which acrobats hanging from fabric simulated a thunderstorm . Spears took the stage again to perform "
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, debris removal , inspections , and policing . Also , 41 % of all fires in Buffalo are in vacant buildings , and more than 90 % of all arson cases involved abandoned houses . Subsequently , during the first ever " State of Upstate Address " , New York Governor Spitzer suggested committing $ 100 million in state funds to build or rehabilitate 10 @,@ 000 homes and apartments . The mayor 's initial demolition plans met with resistance from preservationists and he had to negotiate with the National Trust for Historic Preservation , which got him attention from coast to coast .
In 2008 , Brown convinced Buffalo to use a real @-@ time wireless video surveillance system . The city installed 56 Avrio Rapid Deployment Surveillance Solution PoleCams . The system was the result of a request by Brown that the city evaluate surveillance cameras in other cities . By January 2009 State of the City Address , Brown reported that crime had fallen 12 % and homicide by 50 % since he had taken office .
= = = Public relations = = =
On June 13 , 2008 , upon the death of NBC News Washington Bureau Chief and Meet the Press moderator Tim Russert , who was a proud Buffalo native , Brown ordered that all flags on city property be lowered to half @-@ staff in order to honor Russert 's memory . Brown called Russert one of Buffalo 's finest ambassadors , and his decision to lower the flags in honor of Russert , a civilian who never held elected office , was an unusual gesture that was described as breathtaking on Hardball with Chris Matthews by Tom Brokaw . He was joined by several other officials in recognizing Russert . Chief among those was United States President George W. Bush who signed a bill that named a stretch of U.S. Route 20A that passes in front of Ralph Wilson Stadium ( home stadium of the Buffalo Bills ) Timothy J. Russert Highway .
In a public relations controversy , Brown got caught in a fight against the movement to replace traditional lawns with front yard gardens . His office had issued an edict that a resident remove her landscape renovations . However , an e @-@ mail campaign in defense of the resident caused the mayor to rethink his stance .
= = = Reelection = = =
On September 15 , 2009 , Brown won the Democratic Primary for a second term by a nearly two to one margin over City councilmember Michael P. Kearns . Brown had amassed an early lead amongst voters until several scandals involving former basketball star Leonard Stokes , including the questionable government support of his failed " One Sunset " restaurant and a perceived undue influence in mitigating Stokes 's arrest for possessing a stolen handicapped parking permit , cut away most of his lead . There were no Republican , third @-@ party or independent candidates , so Brown ran unopposed and won the general election .
= = Political dealings = =
Brown and Erie County Democratic Party chairman Leonard Lenihan were at odds over various political positions after Lenihan played a major role in Brown 's election to the office of mayor . Brown supported Andrew Cuomo for New York Attorney General in the 2006 general election , David Paterson for Lieutenant Governor of New York in the 2006 general election and Antoine Thompson for 60th District New York Senator in a special election on February 28 , 2006 . Lenihan disagreed with each of these choices . Thompson had run Brown 's last common council campaign , and Brown was upset that he did not get to select his successor in the 60th District . Many supporters considered boycotting the special election due to a perceived racial slight against an African American who seemed to be wrongfully shutout of the process . Lenihan pointed out that neither of the previous state senators turned mayor , Anthony Masiello and James D. Griffin , was granted the right to pick their successor , and he noted that Thompson had not been timely in entering the special election process . The Erie and Niagara County Democratic committees bypassed Thompson as their nominee in favor of Marc Coppola despite Brown 's backing in the February special election . Thompson subsequently decided to run for the New York Senate seat in the November general election .
The week before the 2006 New York State Democratic Convention , Brown was described as a political confidant of Democratic New York Attorney General candidate Andrew Cuomo . He seconded Cuomo 's nomination at the convention on May 30 , 2006 . Throughout the campaign Brown was described as a close political advisor to Cuomo . He was noted as ( along with Charles Rangel ) one of the important black political leaders that Cuomo courted on his road to victory .
During the 2008 United States presidential election , like most of the New York State Democratic establishment , Brown was a supporter of Hillary Rodham Clinton , the United States Senator from New York . This marked a break from his earlier political organization , Grassroots , which supported Barack Obama from the outset . He even ran to be a delegate for Clinton at the 2008 Democratic National Convention . In July 2008 , Golisano announced that he would attempt to create change in Albany by spending $ 5 million on targeted campaigns . During the New York state September primary elections for state office , The New York Times alleged that Brown was aiding Golisano 's attempt to unseat Sam Hoyt in the New York State Assembly .
As Hillary Clinton resigned her United States Senate seat on January 21 , 2009 to assume a position in the United States Cabinet under United States President Barack Obama , New York Governor David Paterson was required to appoint a temporary replacement until a special election in 2010 for the balance of her term . Some thought that the New York State Governor would appoint a minority senator such as Brown , Gregory W. Meeks , H. Carl McCall , William C. Thompson , Jr . , José E. Serrano or Nydia M. Velázquez . However , Andrew Cuomo was the front @-@ runner for the seat and the next most likely candidates were Velázquez , Steve Israel , Nita Lowey and Meeks . Prominent women who were mentioned include Carolyn B. Maloney and Caroline Kennedy . The New York Times 's Danny Hakim noted that Cuomo , Paterson and Brown were the three names most often mentioned prior to Paterson 's ascension to the governor 's office . Although these three were the favorites , Brown was considered an unknown outside of Western New York . Nonetheless , Brown 's name was mentioned before Kennedy 's and Cuomo 's in a New York Times article paragraph about Paterson 's final nomination decision thoughts . In fact , in at least one article in The New York Times on the subject , Brown was mentioned and Cuomo wasn 't . When Paterson announced he had selected Blue Dog Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand , Brown was one of the few contenders to attend the event .
With Cuomo likely to be running for governor in the 2010 New York gubernatorial election , Brown was mentioned in early 2010 as a possible Lieutenant Governor of New York candidate by numerous sources , including multiple journalists from The New York Times . Meanwhile , in early 2010 , newly transplanted New Yorker Harold Ford , Jr. considered challenging New York 's Junior United States Senator Kirsten E. Gillibrand in the 2010 United States Senate special election in New York and met with Brown as part of his statewide political travels .
= = Allegations of corruption = =
The Buffalo News reported that Brown may have interfered with a police investigation in 2007 . The allegations stem from an incident in which it is alleged Brown ordered police to free a possible friend of the mayor , Leonard Stokes , who had been arrested for possessing a stolen handicapped parking tag . The Buffalo News also reported another scandal involving Stokes and Brown , involving a $ 160 @,@ 000 loan given to Stokes from the City of Buffalo , to open a restaurant in Buffalo . Further controversy arose when it was discovered that Michelle Baron , Vice President of the city backed corporation which gave Stokes , who had no previous experience operating a restaurant , the loan , was involved in securing the loan with a faulty business plan . Evidence also points to Brown green lighting the loan .
In June 2009 , Commissioner Tanya Perrin @-@ Johnson wrote a series of e @-@ mails that were sent to about 20 employees in her department directing them to work on the mayor 's re @-@ election campaign . The Office of Special Counsel began an investigation to determine whether the e @-@ mails represented a violation of the federal Hatch Act , which , among other things , prohibits employees involved in federally funded programs from using their authority to influence political campaigns . As a result of the probe , in 2010 the Common Council decided to delay her reappointment as commissioner until the investigation concluded . She had been serving in an interim capacity . In April 2011 , Perrin @-@ Johnson resigned her position .
A March 2010 Buffalo News article outlined Brown 's political relationship with Reverend Richard Stenhouse . The article details the over $ 5 million Stenhouse received to develop affordable housing on Buffalo 's East Side . The article goes on to suggest much of the money was wasted due to incompetence and inexperience . Stenhouse is the pastor for one of Buffalo 's largest congregations , Bethel AME Church , and an ally of Brown .
= = Personal = =
Byron Brown is married to the former Michelle Austin and they have a son , Byron III , who is referred to as Byron , Jr. by some accounts . Brown III enjoys basketball and has attended high @-@ level youth basketball camps . He played for City Honors School . On the national level , he was an unheralded point guard in the 2008 high school graduating class , and he went on to attend Queen City Prep in Charlotte , North Carolina .
The Brown family attends St. John Baptist Church . While mayor , Brown has performed at least one wedding ceremony at the church . Byron Brown is a chapter president of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity , a past President of the Buffalo State College Alumni Association Board , and at the time of his mayoral inauguration he sat on the Board of the Boy Scout Council of Western New York and the Community Action Organization of Erie County . Brown collects tropical fish and maintains an aquarium in his Buffalo Mayor 's office . His parents divorced and at the beginning of his mayoral tenure , his mother was living in Buffalo . He also is a member of the Erie County Democratic Committee . He was a delegate to the 1992 , 2000 and 2004 Democratic National Conventions .
On Saturday February 24 , 2007 at about 6 : 55 a.m. , Brown 's Chevrolet Equinox was stolen from an on @-@ street parking location by someone with key access and crashed into three parked vehicles before being abandoned a few blocks from the family home . Brown had driven his son to play in a basketball tournament in Jamestown , New York on Friday February 23 . They returned home at approximately 10 : 30 p.m. from the tournament . In interviews at the end of March 2007 , Brown claimed that all members of his family with known key access had alibis . At the time Brown III possessed a learner 's permit . Canisius College security cameras recorded parts of the accident , including the driver leaving the scene of multiple accidents . In April a second video recording with more fluid movement was revealed in contrast to the original recording of 36 frames per minute . In a news conference Brown announced that Byron Brown III took the senior Brown 's car without permission and drove about the area near his house and Canisius College campus . Brown III admitted to the damage and was charged with driving without a driver 's license and leaving the scenes of multiple accidents . Brown III was scheduled to appear on April 16 , 2007 in Buffalo City Court on the charges . He pleaded guilty to unlicensed driving and leaving the scene of an accident . In 2010 , his son was charged with petit larceny for leaving a store with goods that were not paid for . Byron Jr. was spared a criminal conviction when a judge granted him a delayed dismissal on shoplifting charges , as recommended by prosecutors . Buffalo City Judge David M. Manz warned him and Xavier Jemison that they have to complete a four @-@ hour shoplifting class and stay out of trouble for the next six months . He granted each an adjournment in contemplation of dismissal , meaning their petit larceny charges will be dismissed if they comply with his orders .
= = Election history = =
= Aashiqui 2 =
Aashiqui 2 is a 2013 Indian romantic drama film directed by Mohit Suri . Starring Aditya Roy Kapoor and Shraddha Kapoor in the lead roles , it was produced by Bhushan Kumar and Mukesh Bhatt under the T @-@ Series and Vishesh Films banners . Set in the early 2010s , Aashiqui 2 is a love story centering on the turbulent relationship between musicians Rahul and Arohi , a relationship which is affected by Rahul 's issues with alcohol abuse and temperament .
The film is a spiritual successor to the 1990 musical film Aashiqui , and initially caused concern in the Indian media that the film could live up to the high standards and success of the original . Production of Aashiqui 2 began in 2011 , with the principal photography taking place in Cape Town , Goa and Mumbai on a budget of ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) .
The film which premiered on 26 April 2013 received a positive to mixed critical reception and became a major commercial success at the box @-@ office despite featuring newcomers , earning ₹ 1 @.@ 09 billion ( US $ 16 million ) worldwide within the first four weeks . It was declared as a blockbuster by Box Office India after its three @-@ week box office run , and is the highest grossing film ever produced by Vishesh Films . The soundtrack to the film became very popular after its release ; the songs " Tum Hi Ho " and " Sunn Raha Hai " topped the charts across various platforms in India . It was later remade in Telugu as Nee Jathaga Nenundali
= = Plot = =
The film opens by showing a large crowd waiting for Rahul Jaykar ( Aditya Roy Kapoor ) – a successful musician whose career is waning because of his alcohol addiction – to perform at a stage show in Goa . After nearly completing a song , he is unexpectedly interrupted by Aryan ( Salil Acharya ) , who was losing his career due to Rahul 's , during his performance . Rahul fights him , stops his performance , and drives to a local bar . He meets Aarohi ( Shraddha Kapoor ) , a bar singer who idolises Rahul . After noticing Aarohi looking at a photograph of Lata Mangeshkar in the bar , he assumes that she wants to become a singer . Impressed by her simplicity and voice , Rahul promises to transform her into a singing sensation , and asks her to never perform again in bars . Aarohi leaves her job and returns to Mumbai with Rahul , who convinces record producer Saigal ( Mahesh Thakur ) to meet her . When Aarohi calls Rahul , he is attacked and injured by some thugs , and is unable to receive her call . His friend and manager Vivek ( Shaad Randhawa ) says that news of Rahul 's accident should not be leaked to the media , and instead publicises a false story that Rahul has left the country to participate in stage shows . When Aarohi attempts to contact Rahul again , Vivek ignores the calls . After two months of futilely attempting to contact Rahul , a broken Aarohi is forced to sing in bars again because of her family problems .
After recovering from his injuries , Rahul vows to search for Aarohi . He learns that Aarohi is working in a bar again and that Vivek had ignored her calls without informing him . Rahul apologises to Aarohi and fires Vivek , and they meet with Saigal for the recording agreement . Rahul begins to train Aarohi , who signs a music contract to sing in films and becomes a successful playback singer . Her family and Rahul are happy , but when people begin to gossip that Rahul is using her as a servant , he relapses into alcohol addiction . Aarohi , who loves Rahul more than her career , comforts him and they spend the night together . Despite Aarohi 's mother 's disapproval , Aarohi moves in with Rahul and things go well until Rahul 's addiction worsens , causing him to become aggressive and violent .
To help Rahul fight his alcoholism , Aarohi attempts to rehabilitate Rahul , sacrificing her singing career in doing so . After Saigal reminds them about their dream of Aarohi becoming a successful singer , Rahul orders her to focus on her work . During Aarohi 's stage show , Rahul meets a journalist backstage , who accuses him of using Aarohi for pleasure and money . Furious , Rahul beats up the journalist and starts drinking . He ends up in jail , and Aarohi comes to bail him out . Rahul overhears Aarohi telling Saigal that she is going to leave her career for him and is ready to give up her celebrity status because Rahul is more important to her . Rahul understands that he has become a burden in her life , and that leaving her is his only option to save her . The next day , he bids her farewell by assuring her that he will change his lifestyle and commits suicide by jumping from a bridge .
Distraught by Rahul 's death , Aarohi decides to leave her career but Vivek persuades her to stay . He reminds her that Rahul wanted her to become a successful singer and killed himself as he did not want to be a burden on her and remain an obstacle in the path of her success . Aarohi agrees , and returns to singing . Later , she signs her name as " Aarohi Rahul Jaykar " in a fan 's handbook as a tribute to Rahul and her unsung desire to marry him . As rain starts falling , she watches the couple who took her autograph sharing a romantic moment under a jacket as she and Rahul had done when he was alive .
= = Cast = =
Aditya Roy Kapoor as Rahul Jaykar
Shraddha Kapoor as Aarohi Keshav Shirke / Aarohi Rahul Jaykar
Shaad Randhawa as Vivek , Rahul 's Manager and best friend
Mahesh Thakur as Saigal
Shubhangi Latkar as Aarohi 's mother
Chitrak Bandhopadyay as Salim Bhai
Mahesh Bhatt as Rahul 's father ( voice )
Salil Acharya as Aryan
Ashish Bhatt as Reporter
Ankit Tiwari as the music director of Aasan Nahin Yahan song .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In September 2011 , the Indian media reported that Mahesh Bhatt and Bhushan Kumar were keen to remake the 1990 musical blockbuster Aashiqui . Kumar approached Bhatt for a possible sequel , although it was Shagufta Rafique 's melodramatic romantic script which persuaded him that the film had potential as a sequel and decided to proceed with the project . Given Aashiqui ' s status in Hindi cinematic history as one of the finest Indian musicals of all time , many expressed concerns towards the decision to remake the film , dubious that the producers could come up with a soundtrack on par with the quality of the 1990 film . Bhatt stated that they completely resisted the temptation to use the soundtrack of the earlier film , and promised that Aashiqui 2 would revive the era of melodious film music , as Aashiqui had done 22 years ago .
It was reported that Madhur Bhandarkar had been approached to direct the film , but later turned down the offer because of other working commitments . It was confirmed in November 2011 that Vishal Mahadkar , director of Blood Money , was to direct the picture , but the following month it was announced that Mohit Suri had replaced Mahadkar as director at the last minute . Bhatt confirmed the development , saying " Earlier we had finalised Vishal for the project . But now we have scrapped that idea and found a fresh one . We got Mohit to direct the film " . Several media outlets falsely reported that the film is a remake of the Vishesh films 1990 love triangle Awaargi . However , Mahesh Bhatt denied the rumours and said " Aashiqui 2 is not a remake of any of our films . It 's an original script . A very contemporary love story dealing with mature emotions . "
= = = Casting = = =
The film 's producers launched a nationwide talent hunt to discover new faces for the film , initially refusing to employ established actors . However , the actors who came to audition were not promising enough for the roles , and the idea was scrapped . Mahesh Bhatt said , " It was a disastrous talent hunt . We discovered that people lacked the courage to audition . Those who are amateurs went for audition ... and people with certain talent were like why should we risk public rejection . " When Suri saw some pictures of Aditya Roy Kapur and met him , he found Kapur perfect for the role and cast him to play the male lead . In June 2012 , Shraddha Kapoor was signed to play the female lead . Bhatt said , " Yes , Shraddha Kapoor is playing the lead with the two boys Aditya Roy Kapur and Shaad Randhawa . We found her to be very talented . All three actors have extremely challenging dramatic roles . " When asked about replacing new actors with known ones , Suri said " People said I couldn 't make a film with new actors and expect an audience to come in . But I was pretty sure I wanted Aditya and Shraddha to play my protagonists . My writer Shagufta Rafique and I saw them as the protagonists . See , Aditya and Shraddha may have had unsuccessful films before . But that never took away from their talent . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the film began in October 2012 with film 's lead cast . The film was shot in Goa , Mumbai and Cape Town . During the filming in South Africa , Shraddha Kapoor needed medical attention after kneeling on broken glass fragments during the scene in which she had to kneel on the floor and talk to her co @-@ star Aditya Roy Kapoor . Aditya Roy Kapoor also received burns to his hand during the filming of the scene in which they light some Chinese lanterns in Cape Town .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = Marketing and release = =
The first teaser was released on 22 March 2013 , and was well received by critics and audiences . Unlike other films whose theatrical trailers are released first , the makers of the film chose to release the songs before the trailer . The first song , " Tum Hi Ho " , was released on 23 March 2013 to unanimous critical reception from critics and became very popular among the audiences . The song became an instant hit with approximately 2 million views on YouTube within 10 days of release , which helped in the marketing of the film . Various versions of the song were uploaded by amateur singers , guitarists and DJs on social networking sites . It has been trending on Twitter and YouTube since its launch .
The film 's preview poster showing Aditya and Shraddha under a jacket in a rain @-@ drenched street with the streetlight casting a glow was released along with music on 8 April 2013 . At the music release event , Aditya and Shraddha recreated the scene from Aashiqui from under a jacket ( much like the poster ) on the stage . The theatrical trailer was released in mid @-@ April 2013 , two weeks before the film 's release , and was well received by critics and audiences .
Unlike most Bollywood films which indulge in months of promotion before the release , Aashiqui 2 had less than three weeks for promotion before its release . A music concert where singers ( who sang songs in the soundtrack album ) performed to their respective songs was organised to promote the film . The makers of the film launched the Aashiqui 2 jackets , as seen in the film 's poster . Statues resembling the signature image of the couple hiding under the jacket were placed inside various theatres . Due to the romantic theme of the film , it was originally planned for a Valentine 's day release on 14 February 2013 , but this was postponed because of production delays . The film 's new release date was 10 May 2013 , but it was released a fortnight early on 26 April 2013 in over 2800 screens across India . The film was not released in key markets such as UK , US , Canada , Australia and New Zealand .
= = Reception = =
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics , who praised the performances , chemistry between the lead pair , and the music . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 4 out of 5 stars , stating that it " brings romance back on the Hindi screen – intense , pure , selfless and heart wrenching . A stirring account with brilliant moments , bravura performances , strong emotional quotient and addictive music , this one 's an absolute must watch for the romantics . " He praised the lead cast 's performances , writing that " ... Aditya Roy Kapur 's depiction of the intense character is outstanding ... [ which ] clearly demonstrates his potency as an artist of caliber and competence . Shraddha also gets to sink her teeth into this challenging character and the attractive youngster is simply amazing , more so towards the demanding moments in the second hour . Furthermore , the chemistry between Aditya and Shraddha is incredible . " Indiatimes gave the film a rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 and said , " Suri pitches the story with old @-@ world romance , high @-@ drama and well @-@ crafted heart @-@ breaking moments . " Indo @-@ Asian News Service rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 and wrote , " Director Mohit Suri traverses the angst @-@ soaked territory with a sincere and deep understanding of the dynamics that destroy love and trust between couples in the glamorous and competitive profession " , and that , " Aashiqui 2 makes us grateful for the movement of the love story away from the standard Romeo & Juliet format into the dark destructive domain of A Star Is Born . "
The film also received some mixed reactions from critics . Writing for Hindustan Times , Anupama Chopra rated the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 and believed that the film didn 't fulfill its potential , but said , " It 's an interesting scenario and Suri and his actors set it up well . Aditya gives Rahul 's angst a certain charm . He is earnest and broken . And the real triumph here is Shraddha , whose porcelain face has a haunting vulnerability . She 's very good as the woman in the throes of a grand passion who believes that love will show the way . " Resham Sengar rated the film 2 @.@ 5 and questioned the logic behind the script and believed that several of the scenes either dragged on excessively or were too abrupt , which affected the quality of the entire film . India Today also gave the film a rating of 2 @.@ 5 stars out of four , and argued that the film was only a success because of its soundtrack , saying that the film " merely banks on the power of saleable music and the novelty of a fresh cast to enable brothers Bhatt , Mahesh and Mukesh , [ to ] make maximum moolah within minimum budget as they have done all along . "
= = Box office = =
On its opening day , Aashiqui 2 collected about ₹ 52 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 780 @,@ 000 ) and collected ₹ 179 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 7 million ) during its first weekend . The film collected ₹ 346 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) in its first week . In the second week , despite new releases , it collected ₹ 173 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 26 million ) , which took its two @-@ week box @-@ office collections to ₹ 470 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 0 million ) . The film remained steady on weekdays and collected ₹ 165 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 5 million ) in its third week and total collections rose to ₹ 635 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 4 million ) . The film had the highest third week collections of 2013 to that date . The film 's revenues remained consistent in its fourth weekend and took its total to ₹ 710 million ( US $ 11 million ) . Box Office India declared the film a blockbuster after its three @-@ week box office run . As of 20 May , the film was the second @-@ highest grossing Hindi film of 2013 and the highest @-@ grossing film produced by Vishesh Films . According to Box Office India , Aashiqui 2 is the best trending film at the box office since 3 Idiots as the fourth week 's collections were nearly ₹ 75 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) nett , which was more than every film released in the last ten years apart from 3 Idiots . The fourth week collections of the film were the third highest of all time . The film collected ₹ 57 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 850 @,@ 000 ) nett approx in its fifth week . The film went on to gross approximately ₹ 780 million ( US $ 12 million ) in its sixth week at the domestic box @-@ office . Internationally , the film collected around US $ 150 @,@ 000 over the first weekend because its limited release meant the film was only released in UAE and Pakistan . The film collected ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide in its fourth week . During the entire theatrical run , the film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 09 billion ( US $ 16 million ) worldwide .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Filmfare Awards
Winner , Filmfare Award for Best Music Director : Ankit Tiwari , Mithoon and Jeet Ganguly
Winner , Best Playback Singer ( Male ) : Arijit Singh ( Tum Hi Ho )
Nominated , Best Actress : Shraddha Kapoor
Nominated , Best Playback Singer ( Female ) : Shreya Ghoshal ( Sunn Raha Hai )
IIFA Awards
Winner , IIFA Award for Best Music Director : Mithoon , Ankit Tiwari , Jeet Ganguly
Winner , IIFA Award for Best Lyricist : Mithoon ( Tum Hi Ho )
Winner , IIFA Award for Best Male Playback : Arijit Singh ( Tum Hi Ho )
Winner , IIFA Award for Best Female Playback : Shreya Ghoshal ( Sunn Raha Hai )
Nominated , IIFA Award for Best Actress : Shraddha Kapoor
Nominated , IIFA Award for Best Lyricist : Sandeep Nath ( Sunn Raha Hai )
Nominated , IIFA Award for Best Male Playback : Ankit Tiwari ( Sunn Raha Hai )
Screen Awards
Winner , Best Playback Singer ( Male ) : Arijit Singh ( Tum Hi Ho )
Winner , Best Playback Singer ( Female ) : Shreya Ghoshal ( Sunn Raha Hai )
Winner , Screen Award for Jodi No. 1 : Aditya Roy Kapur & Shraddha Kapoor
Nominated , Best Music Director : Ankit Tiwari , Mithoon and Jeet Ganguly
Nominated , Best Actress Female : Shraddha Kapoor
Nominated , Most Popular Actor Male : Aditya Roy Kapur
Nominated , Most Popular Actress Female : Shraddha Kapoor
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saying , " Once again , hooks are aplenty , with ' 80s @-@ inspired synthesizers , robotic verses and a warm , sunny hook in the chorus , which is even more addictive than the previous single ( ' Just Dance ' ) ... With a focused artistic vision , a swagger in her interview style and above all , a fantastic collection of diverse pop nuggets , Gaga is playing her cards right — and " Poker " is another obvious ace . "
Slant Magazine music reviewer Sal Cinquemani included " Poker Face " among the songs that work in The Fame , namely tracks like " Starstruck , " " Paper Gangsta " and " Summerboy " . Matthew Chisling from Allmusic called the song " infectious " and along with the title track " The Fame " , complimented them for " rejuvenating the vibe on the album for its second half . " Andy Downing from The Chicago Tribune called the song " jaunty " while reviewing Gaga 's Fame Ball tour . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters.com felt that " Poker Face " along with the track " Paparazzi " , duplicate much of the same " glitzy territory that previous single ' Just Dance ' had covered , but never once does it feel like Gaga is deliberately repeating herself . " Rolling Stone in a review for The Fame Ball Tour compared the live acoustic " bluesy " version of " Poker Face " with the music of singer Amy Winehouse . Erika Hobert from the New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach newspaper called the song " trashtastic Europop . " The song was nominated for Grammy Awards in the categories for Song of The Year , Record of The Year , and Best Dance Recording , ultimately winning the last of these . Rolling Stone ranked it number ninety @-@ six on their list of 100 Best Songs of the 2000s decade . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 103 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at ninety @-@ two and reached number six on the issue dated March 7 , 2009 . The next week the song climbed another three places to reach a peak of three and stayed there for two additional weeks . On the Billboard issue dated April 11 , 2009 , the song topped the chart . " Poker Face " became Gaga 's second consecutive number one song on the Hot 100 , marking the first time a new artist has had their first two charting singles hit number one on the Hot 100 since Christina Aguilera did so with " Genie In a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " in 1999 – 2000 . The song stayed on the Hot 100 for 40 weeks . " Poker Face " also peaked on both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Play charts . It became the first single since Madonna 's 2006 single " Sorry " , to top all the three dance charts in a single week including the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . The song has been certified ten times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and sold 7 @.@ 3 million paid digital downloads in the United States as of April 2016 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Gaga is the first artist in digital history to top the six and seven million mark in paid downloads with two songs , the first being " Just Dance " . " Poker Face " is Gaga 's most digitally @-@ sold track in the United States .
In Canada , the song debuted at number forty @-@ one on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the chart dated December 13 , 2008 , " Poker Face " ascended to the number one spot and then spent nine non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top . The song was certified eight times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for paid digital downloads of 320 @,@ 000 . " Poker Face " entered the Australian charts at number 26 , and in its seventh week peaked at number one . " Poker Face " has shipped over 420 @,@ 000 copies in Australia , earning six @-@ times Platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . It held the record for the longest @-@ charting song in ARIA Chart history of 106 weeks until this was broken in May 2015 by Vance Joy 's " Riptide " . In New Zealand , the song debuted on the official chart at number twenty @-@ one . In its sixth week , it peaked the chart spending ten consecutive weeks at number one . " Poker Face " was certified two times platinum after twenty @-@ seven weeks on the chart , selling over 30 @,@ 000 copies , according to the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
In the United Kingdom , " Poker Face " debuted at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart . After three weeks , it climbed to number one , thus giving Gaga her second consecutive British number one single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold over 1 @.@ 12 million copies there . It was the biggest selling digital single in the United Kingdom , before being overtaken by " I Gotta Feeling " by The Black Eyed Peas in June 2010 . However , the song became the country 's biggest @-@ selling single of 2009 , and was awarded The Record of the Year . In Italy the song debuted at number nineteen and peaked at number two . The song has also reached the peak in a number of European countries including Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Sweden and Switzerland . In Germany " Poker Face " became the most successful download single of all time and the first one to sell more than 500 @,@ 000 downloads . The song also peaked on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles and was on the top for sixteen weeks making it the longest running single in the chart . Worldwide , the song had sold 9 @.@ 8 million copies by November 2009 according to IFPI . It has since gone on to sell over 13 @.@ 4 million copies as of September 2013 , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Poker Face " , directed by Ray Kay and aided by Anthony Mandler , was filmed at the luxury villa on bwin PokerIsland. bwin also provided the poker equipment and obtained product placements in return . The video premiered on October 22 , 2008 . It is set by a pool , as well as in a mansion . It begins with Gaga emerging from the pool wearing a mirror masquerade mask and a black full @-@ body leotard , with two Great Danes beside her . She throws the mask aside and the song begins with a facial shot of Gaga singing it . Gaga wears a metallic sticker on her left cheek in this shot . Featured in the video are scenes of Gaga in a mansion and dancing poolside with her dancers in a turquoise leotard . Gaga attends a wild party where every man and woman tries their luck on a strip poker game . The party gets wilder when all the party 's guests strip down to their underwear , dance around , and share kisses with each other . The video also features several white mannequins on her swimming pool deck . During the musical interlude before the " I won 't tell you that I love you " hook , Gaga is shown in her trademark " Pop Music Will Never Be Low Brow " sunglasses while sitting beside the pool . The video ends with the head shot of Gaga singing the Mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ ma hook .
Gaga explained in the nineteenth episode of her " Transmission Gagavision " series , the main idea behind the music video of " Poker Face " . She said that " I knew I wanted it to be sexy , so I thought no pants , because that 's sexy , [ ... ] And I knew I wanted it to be futuristic , so I thought shoulder pads , because that 's my thing . " The music video premiered on MTV UK on February 17 , 2009 . In some versions of the song , the words " muffin " ( being a slang term for the woman 's vagina ) , " Russian Roulette " and " gun " are censored out ( bleeped ) . On June 21 , 2009 , the video won the Best International Artist Video at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards . The video received four nominations at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , in the categories of Video of the Year , Best New Artist , Best Female Video and Best Pop Video . Along with five other nominations for " Paparazzi " , Gaga was tied with Beyoncé for most nominations each for that year .
In June 2010 , Gaga held a reverse auction for one of the necklaces worn in the music video , designed by Brian Lichtenberg . All the proceeds from the auction went to the Lupus Foundation of America .
= = Live performances = =
" Poker Face " has been performed by Gaga at a number of shows including the AOL Sessions , the Cherrytree House of Interscope Records , and also the MTV sessions . The song was performed by Gaga both in the original version and the acoustic piano version in her headlining The Fame Ball tour . She performed the piano version wearing a dress made of plastic transparent bubbles and playing the glass piano with her stilletoes with a glowing mannequin , like the music video , standing in front of the stage . Gaga claimed that the transparent bubble filled piano was specifically made to match her dress . The actual version was performed by Gaga as the final song of the encore , after " Boys , Boys , Boys " . She started the performance saying " Some say Lady Gaga is a lie , and they ’ re right : I am a lie , and every day I kill to make it true . " Gaga wore a nude corseted leotard embellished with crystals and an admiral 's hat during the performance . The hat as well as the fingerless gloves worn were decorated with the word Gaga on it .
On April 1 , 2009 , both the acoustic and normal version of " Poker Face " was performed live on Fox 's American Idol . The performance started with Gaga sitting at a Plexiglass piano filled with bubbles and bathed in pink light . She started singing the second verse of " Poker Face " in a Bette Midler style accompanied by a violin player while wearing a shiny aluminum shoulder pad and platinum bleached blond wig . After the first chorus , the pace increased whence the original intro for the song started . Gaga got up from her seat and proceeded to perform the song in the middle of the stage . She wore a silvery leotard with a giant star on her shoulder and tassels . As the song progressed to the intermediate verse , the violist played a hoe @-@ down version of the music and Gaga danced around frantically over the stage . The performance ended with Gaga staring towards the audience while revealing an open zipper , patched over her left eye . The performance was described an " alien @-@ disco performance art . " Cortney Harding of Billboard wrote , " [ it was ] Gaga 's crowning TV moment ... show [ ing ] middle America that she was a bona fide pop star . "
The acoustic version was performed by Gaga at BBC Live & In @-@ Session on April 19 , 2009 . In the same day , she had her first appearance on Italian TV , on the TV program Quelli che ... il Calcio . She also performed " Poker Face " in the United Kingdom on The Paul O 'Grady Show . First she played an acoustic version first before going on to the normal version , and a rock version on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . On May 12 , 2009 , Gaga performed " Poker Face " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show while wearing a gyroscope on her head , designed by theatrical hat designer Nasir Mazhar and playing the piano while standing on the stool . Gaga referred to the gyroscope as her " Gaga barrier " . It prevented Ellen DeGeneres from greeting her because of the size of the gear . A remixed version of " Poker Face " and " LoveGame " was performed at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards , during the indoor @-@ outdoor streetside show . This performance , which included Gaga being trapped in a fake subway car surrounded by fake police officers , was billed as a tribute to New York City . Snippet of the song was performed by Gaga at the thirty @-@ fifth season of American comedy show Saturday Night Live , while wearing a giant contraption ( " The Orbit " ) of several metallic concentric rings that rotated around her .
It was also performed on Gaga 's The Monster Ball Tour . The piano version was played by Gaga while balancing on the piano stool and holding one leg up in the air . Rapper Kid Cudi joined her then to perform his song " Make Her Say " which contains a sample of " Poker Face " . The actual version was performed at the last segment of the show . Gaga wore a dress made of guns and during the performance she pumped her hands in the air . It was also performed at the 52nd Grammy Awards , where she opened the show with the song while standing on a pedestal . In the middle , she was then flung into the garbage chute of the Fame Factory set , before emerging seated at a piano , facing Elton John . In May 2011 , Gaga performed the song during Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria . The song was included on the set list of her 2012 Born This Way Ball Tour in which she sports a modified version of her famous meat dress . At the end of the song Her dancers dump her down a giant meat grinder .
= = Cover versions and adaptations = =
Rock musician Chris Daughtry performed an acoustic version of the song while at a radio station in Germany . In 2009 , a single by rapper Kid Cudi featuring Kanye West and Common titled " Make Her Say " was released ; it contains a vocal sample of the acoustic version of " Poker Face " from The Cherrytree Sessions EP . The song was originally entitled " I Poke Her Face " but was changed to make it more acceptable for radio . It features Kanye West , who also produced the track , and Common , as well as scratches from DJ A @-@ Trak . Actor Christopher Walken performed a special a capella rendition of " Poker Face " on BBC1 's Friday Night with Jonathan Ross for Halloween 2009 . The song was also covered by British singer Mika during his visit to the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge . It was later released as a track on his single " Rain " .
The song was also featured in the South Park episode titled " Whale Whores " , sung by series character Eric Cartman . On March 16 , 2010 , South Park 's version of " Poker Face " became available as a downloadable song for the video game Rock Band , in the same day a Lady Gaga track pack featuring the original song was released . On a live special Family Guy episode , the song was performed by Alex Borstein who was parodying Marlee Matlin who interrupted the performance in a guest stint . Lea Michele and Idina Menzel , in character as Rachel Berry and Shelby Corcoran respectively , covered an acoustic version of " Poker Face " in the " Theatricality " episode of Glee . Their version debuted at position 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and moved up to a peak of 20 on the next week . It went on to become one of the show 's most popular recordings ; having sold 410 @,@ 000 U.S. downloads , it remains the tenth best @-@ selling song in the show 's history . " Weird Al " Yankovic included the chorus in his , ironically titled , polka medley " Polka Face " from his 2011 album Alpocalypse . During the end credits of the 2012 The Simpsons season @-@ finale episode " Lisa Goes Gaga " , Homer Simpson performed a parody version entitled " Homer Face " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Fame .
Lady Gaga – lead vocals , backing vocals
Gene Grimaldi – mastering
Robert Orton – mixing
RedOne – backing vocals , engineering , instrumentation , production , programming
Dave Russell – engineering
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= 1988 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1988 Atlantic hurricane season was a moderately active season that proved costly and deadly , with 15 tropical cyclones directly affecting land . The season officially began on June 1 , 1988 , and lasted until November 30 , 1988 , although activity began on May 30 when a tropical depression developed in the Caribbean Sea . The June through November dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first cyclone to attain tropical storm status was Alberto on August 8 , nearly a month later than usual . The final storm of the year , Tropical Storm Keith , became extratropical on November 24 .
The season produced 19 tropical depressions of which 12 attained tropical storm status . One tropical storm was operationally classified as a tropical depression but
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4 within a weak trough of low pressure that formed off the coast of South Carolina . The next day a low level circulation was detected by satellite , indicating that a tropical depression was forming . By August 6 the storm was designated the second tropical depression of the season . An approaching weak frontal trough pushed the depression northeastward and enhanced its upper level outflow . On August 7 the system was designated Tropical Storm Alberto while located just south of Nantucket , Massachusetts . The storm accelerated northeastward at 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) and struck western Nova Scotia that evening with little impact . On August 8 Alberto became extratropical over the cold waters of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Shortly thereafter it dissipated just north of Newfoundland .
In Maine , Alberto produced light rainfall , reaching 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 60 mm ) near Millinocket . The storm produced peak wind gusts of 48 mph ( 78 km / h ) at Yarmouth , Nova Scotia . Rainfall reached 1 @.@ 78 inches ( 45 @.@ 1 mm ) in Saint John , New Brunswick , most of which fell in a short amount of time . The rainfall caused localized flooding , which briefly closed some streets . The extratropical remnants of Alberto also produced light rain and some clouds along western Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
The third tropical depression of the season formed on August 7 from a surface low over southeastern Louisiana . The slow moving system organized as it drifted toward the mouth of the Mississippi River . It soon had enough convective organization for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to issue an initial advisory on Tropical Depression Three . By August 8 surface winds increased enough to issue tropical storm warnings for Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle . Over the open Gulf , Beryl produced sustained winds of minimal tropical storm force and tropical storm force gusts over coastal Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama . Excessive rain fell along the central Gulf Coast , including local amounts of 16 in ( 410 mm ) at Dauphin Island , Alabama .
Maintaining a well @-@ structured outflow , Beryl 's circulation on August 9 moved over warm water , where conditions were favorable for further intensification . However , a front approached from the northwest and reversed the storm 's course into southeastern Louisiana . The next morning Beryl had weakened to a tropical depression as it moved over the Bayou Teche . Heavy downpours from system 's remnants brought more than 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain to parts of eastern Texas . Overall damage from the storm was light , and only one known death was attributed to the storm .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
On August 12 a westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four near the southern Bahamas . The depression tracked north @-@ northwest along Florida 's coast and made landfall near Jacksonville , Florida , the next day . The system spawned gusty winds and thunderstorms along the coasts of Florida and Georgia but caused little damage . The storm moved over south Georgia and the central Gulf Coast while dropping up to 7 in ( 178 mm ) of rain on the Southeast . According to the National Weather Service , winds in some squalls to the north and east of the center reached up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The system finally dissipated as it reemerged over water near the mouth of the Mississippi .
Early predictions from hurricane forecasters said that the depression would strengthen into the season 's third tropical storm . Because of unfavorable upper level conditions and interaction with Bahama islands , the system lost its well defined center as it moved towards Florida 's east coast .
= = = Tropical Depression Five = = =
A tropical wave in the far eastern Atlantic developed into the fifth tropical depression on August 20 . The storm drifted north @-@ northwest of the Cape Verde islands for the next three days with little change in strength . Forecasters were concerned because the depression formed in the breeding ground where other powerful East Coast hurricanes have started . Though the storm was still very weak , they initially predicted it would strengthen .
By August 24 the depression 's forward speed had increased to 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) as its movement turned west . Cool ocean temperatures weakened the system and diminished its prospects for restrengthening , and on August 26 Tropical Depression Five degenerated into a tropical wave . The remnants redeveloped on August 30 about 180 miles ( 290 km ) southeast of North Carolina , and the Washington office of the National Weather Service continued to track the system as a gale center until it merged with a front off the East Coast on September 1 .
= = = Tropical Depression Six = = =
Tropical Depression Six developed from a tropical wave that moved off the northwest African coast on August 12 . The system crossed the tropical Atlantic as a wave until it began organizing near 55 ° W on August 19 . The next day this system was designated a tropical depression while it approached the Windward Islands . After crossing the islands , the depression continued westward into the central Caribbean and encountered less @-@ favorable conditions . Though poorly organized on August 21 , the depression was expected to strengthen into a tropical storm over the western Caribbean 's warmer waters . Nevertheless , it was downgraded to a tropical wave at 80 ° W near the island of Jamaica on August 23 . The disturbance moved over Central America with minimal convection but redeveloped into Hurricane Kristy once it reached the eastern Pacific . The system 's main effect on land was squally weather on the Windward Islands .
= = = Tropical Storm Chris = = =
Chris formed from a strong tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 15 . By August 21 convection in the northern part of the wave detached and organized into Tropical Depression Seven . The storm tracked westward along the southern periphery of a subtropical high pressure ridge over the mid @-@ Atlantic . For the next seven days , surface and reconnaissance observations found little evidence that the storm was strengthening . As a result , it remained a tropical depression as it moved across portions of the Lesser and Greater Antilles as well as the Bahamas .
The depression passed south of Puerto Rico on August 24 and dumped more than 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rain on parts of the island . Three deaths in Puerto Rico were attributed to the weather . On August 28 the storm was upgraded to Tropical Storm Chris as it traveled northward just offshore of Florida . It made landfall near Savannah , Georgia , bringing light wind and rain damage to the area . Weakening to a depression , Chris poured heavy rains on South Carolina , where it merged with a cold front and became extratropical . The low accelerated over the Eastern Seaboard through Nova Scotia and finally dissipated on August 30 . Heavy thunderstorms spawned a tornado in South Carolina that resulted in another death .
= = = Hurricane Debby = = =
Debby formed from the southern part of a tropical wave that became Tropical Storm Chris . In the mid @-@ tropical Atlantic , the northern area of convection detached and became Tropical Depression Seven . The southern portion continued moving westward as a disorganized area of showers . The system did not develop until the low @-@ level center emerged from the Yucatán into the Bay of Campeche on August 31 . It is estimated that the storm became Tropical Depression Eight just offshore at around 12 p.m. local time .
Drifting west @-@ northwest over the Gulf of Mexico , the depression organized and reached tropical storm @-@ strength early on September 2 . Later that day , based on observations from aircraft reconnaissance , Debby was upgraded to a hurricane . At peak intensity , the hurricane 's center was just 30 mi ( 48 km ) from the coast . With little change in intensity , Debby made landfall near Tuxpan , Veracruz , six hours later . The storm brought high winds , inland flooding , and mudslides and caused 10 deaths .
Debby weakened considerably over the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains , although the remnants continued moving across Mexico . The tight center tracked towards the Pacific coast and reemerged near Manzanillo on September 5 . Upon entering the Eastern Pacific , the system became Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E before dissipating in the Gulf of California on September 8 .
= = = Tropical Storm Ernesto = = =
On September 2 a cluster of thunderstorms associated with a northwestward @-@ moving tropical wave developed a surface low near Bermuda . Though the surface low remained poorly defined and separate from the convection , the system became a tropical depression on September 3 . Under the influence of southwesterlies , the depression accelerated northeastward at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Late on September 3 it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ernesto . The storm continued to strengthen as it lost tropical characteristics . A large extratropical storm over the North Atlantic absorbed Ernesto on September 5 .
Throughout its life , Ernesto remained at sea and brought strong winds to the open waters of the ocean . The only land area affected by the storm was in the Azores , where it brought near storm @-@ force winds to Flores Island . No damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
A broad low pressure area formed in the western Gulf of Mexico on September 2 and quickly developed through the next day . By September 3 convection was organized enough to declare the system a tropical depression about 160 mi ( 260 km ) west @-@ southwest of Morgan City , Louisiana . Forecasters issued tropical storm warnings for the coast from Cameron , Louisiana , to Apalachicola , Florida , while the storm moved rapidly northeastward at 15 to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . However , the depression degenerated a few hours later when it merged with the cold front that had caused its acceleration . Oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico reported winds gusts to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , and moderate to heavy rains drenched large portions of southeast Texas and Louisiana . The wave dampened over the next 24 hours and brought heavy rain to the rest of the southeast , including a maximum of 8 @.@ 4 in ( 210 mm ) in Biloxi , Mississippi . No major damage was reported .
= = = Unnamed Tropical Storm = = =
A well @-@ organized disturbance moved off the African coast on September 6 and rapidly developed into Tropical Depression Eleven . The NHC began issuing advisories on September 8 while it was 350 mi ( 560 km ) northeast of Cape Verde . An after @-@ the @-@ fact review of satellite and ship reports indicated that the depression reached tropical storm @-@ strength on September 7 . However , because of its extreme eastern track , the storm 's observational track did not include this information .
For three days a large trough of low pressure northwest of the system steered it north @-@ northwest towards cooler waters . Moderate to heavy rain was reported along the west coast of Africa , but no damage was reported . The system eventually weakened and merged with the low pressure trough . This unnamed storm was later added to the list of tropical storms in the annual summary for the Atlantic hurricane season .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
A cloud band accompanying a cold front exited the coast of Texas into the Gulf of Mexico on September 4 . The band split into two over the central Gulf when the southern portion stalled and the northern portion developed into a frontal wave that tracked northeastward . Convection over the southern portion increased and wrapped around the center of the cloud band . On September 7 the system formed a surface circulation , and tropical depression advisories began that day .
The depression drifted eastward under the influence of the dissipating frontal trough and intensified into Tropical Storm Florence , as confirmed by Hurricane Hunters . The storm turned northward on September 9 and accelerated toward the northern Gulf Coast under the influence of a mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Florence became a hurricane just hours before landfall on the western Mississippi Delta . The storm rapidly weakened over southeastern Louisiana and lost all its deep convection as it passed over the New Orleans area . Florence became a depression on September 10 near Baton Rouge and dissipated the next day over northeast Texas .
Early in its duration the system dropped moderate amounts of rainfall across the Yucatán Peninsula . Upon striking Louisiana , storm surge water levels rose moderately above normal just east of where the center moved ashore . Gusty winds caused power outages to more than 100 @,@ 000 people . In Alabama one man died while trying to secure his boat . Rainfall from the hurricane caused severe river flooding in portions of the Florida Panhandle in an area already severely affected by heavy rainfall , and the flooding damaged or destroyed dozens of houses in Santa Rosa County .
= = = Hurricane Gilbert = = =
The 12th tropical depression formed just east of the Lesser Antilles on September 8 . As it moved west @-@ northwest , it became Tropical Storm Gilbert over the islands on September 9 . The tropical storm turned west and rapidly intensified to a major hurricane on September 11 . Gilbert continued to strengthen as it brushed the southern coast of Hispaniola . It passed directly over Jamaica as a Category 3 hurricane and brought torrential rains to the island 's mountainous areas . When the center reemerged over water , Gilbert rapidly intensified again . On September 13 the central pressure dropped 72 millibars ( 2 @.@ 1 inHg ) , the fastest deepening of an Atlantic hurricane on record until 2005 's Hurricane Wilma . Gilbert 's pressure of 888 millibars ( 26 @.@ 2 inHg ) at the time was the lowest sea level pressure ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere .
Gilbert weakened slightly before landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , although it struck at Category 5 strength . As the eye moved over land , the storm rapidly lost strength , reemerging on September 15 in the Gulf of Mexico as a Category 2 hurricane . Hurricane Gilbert continued its northwest track and restrengthened to a minimal Category 4 hurricane . On September 16 , Gilbert made its final landfall in northeast Mexico near the town of La Pesca with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . The center passed south of Monterrey , Mexico , on September 17 and brought heavy flooding to the city . Gilbert 's remnants turned north and eventually merged with a developing frontal low pressure system over Missouri .
Hurricane Gilbert was the most intense hurricane ever observed in the Atlantic basin until Hurricane Wilma broke this record in 2005 . The storm caused $ 5 billion ( 1988 USD ) in damage across the Caribbean and into Central America . Gilbert was the first hurricane to make landfall in Jamaica since Hurricane Charlie in 1951 . Until 2007 's Hurricane Dean , it was also the most recent storm to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane in Mexico . The death toll from Gilbert was reported to be 318 people , mostly from Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Helene = = =
A tropical wave with deeply organized convection crossed the coast of Africa on September 15 . The system was forced west due to a strong ridge in the eastern Atlantic . On September 19 at 1800 UTC , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Fourteen . By 0600 UTC on September 20 , the depression was strengthened , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Helene . Helene began to turn to the northwest on September 21 due to a major trough in the eastern Atlantic . Later on September 21 , Helene intensified into a hurricane . Favorable conditions allowed the storm to continue strengthening , and on September 22 , Helene became a major hurricane . Late on the following day , Helene attained its peak intensity maximum sustained winds were at 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) and the minimum pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity , Helene weakened as it tracked generally northward through the open Atlantic . By early on September 29 , Helene briefly restrengthened into a Category 2 hurricane and reached a secondary peak of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . However , later that day , Helene weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane while accelerating to the northeast . At 1200 UTC on September 30 , Helene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while centered well south of Iceland . The precursor tropical wave produced thunderstorms and gusty winds ranging between 23 and 34 mph ( 37 and 55 km / h ) in Cape Verde on September 17 .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen = = =
While Hurricane Helene was spinning in the central Atlantic , a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa in late September rapidly organized . On September 27 the storm became the fifteenth tropical depression of the season while it was about 265 mi ( 426 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Verde . The depression tracked westward at 15 to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) but weakened rapidly . The next day it was downgraded to a tropical wave while still in the far eastern Atlantic , and never reformed in the Atlantic . Aside from a brief threat to the Cape Verde islands , the system remained far from any landmasses throughout its life .
= = = Tropical Storm Isaac = = =
Isaac moved off the coast of Africa on September 23 . It traveled westward at a low latitude along the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( or ITCZ )
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923 – 1957 ) = =
On 14 June 1925 , in a spontaneous reaction against Primo de Rivera 's dictatorship , the crowd in the stadium jeered the Royal March . As a reprisal , the ground was closed for six months and Gamper was forced to relinquish the presidency of the club . This coincided with the transition to professional football , and , in 1926 , the directors of Barcelona publicly claimed , for the first time , to operate a professional football club . On 3 July 1927 , the club held a second testimonial match for Paulino Alcántara , against the Spanish national team . To kick off the match , local journalist and pilot Josep Canudas dropped the ball onto the pitch from his airplane . In 1928 , victory in the Spanish Cup was celebrated with a poem titled " Oda a Platko " , which was written by a member of the Generation of ' 27 , Rafael Alberti , inspired by the heroic performance of the Barcelona goalkeeper , Franz Platko . Two years after the victory , on 30 July 1930 , Gamper committed suicide after a period of depression brought on by personal and financial problems .
Although they continued to have players of the standing of Josep Escolà , the club now entered a period of decline , in which political conflict overshadowed sports throughout society . Attendance at matches dropped as the citizens of Barcelona were occupied with discussing political matters . Although the team won the Campionat de Catalunya in 1930 , 1931 , 1932 , 1934 , 1936 and 1938 , success at a national level ( with the exception of the 1937 disputed title ) evaded them .
A month after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 , several players from Barcelona enlisted in the ranks of those who fought against the military uprising , along with players from Athletic Bilbao . On 6 August , Falangist soldiers near Guadarrama murdered club president Josep Sunyol , a representative of the pro @-@ independence political party . He was dubbed the martyr of barcelonisme , and his murder was a defining moment in the history of FC Barcelona and Catalan identity . In the summer of 1937 , the squad was on tour in Mexico and the United States , where it was received as an ambassador of the Second Spanish Republic . The tour led to the financial security of the club , but also resulted in half of the team seeking asylum in Mexico and France , making it harder for the remaining team to contest for trophies .
On 16 March 1938 , Barcelona came under aerial bombardment from the Italian Air Force , causing more than 3 @,@ 000 deaths , with one of the bombs hitting the club 's offices . A few months later , Catalonia came under occupation and as a symbol of the " undisciplined " Catalanism , the club , now down to just 3 @,@ 486 members , faced a number of restrictions . All signs of regional nationalism , including language , flag and other signs of separatism were banned throughout Spain . The Catalan flag was banned and the club were prohibited from using non @-@ Spanish names . These measures forced the club to change its name to Club de Fútbol Barcelona and to remove the Catalan flag from its crest .
In 1943 , Barcelona faced rivals Real Madrid in the semi @-@ finals of Copa del Generalísimo . The first match at Les Corts was won by Barcelona 3 – 0 . Before the second leg , Franco 's director of state security visited Barcelona 's players in the changing room . He reminded them that they were only playing due to the " generosity of the regime " . Real Madrid comfortably won the match , beating Barcelona 11 – 1 .
Despite the difficult political situation , CF Barcelona enjoyed considerable success during the 1940s and 1950s . In 1945 , with Josep Samitier as coach and players like César , Ramallets and Velasco , they won La Liga for the first time since 1929 . They added two more titles in 1948 and 1949 . In 1949 , they also won the first Copa Latina . In June 1950 , Barcelona signed Ladislao Kubala , who was to be an important figure at the club .
On a rainy Sunday of 1951 , the crowd left Les Corts stadium after a 2 – 1 win against Santander by foot , refusing to catch any trams , and surprising the Francoist authorities . The reason was simple : at the same time , a tram strike was taking place in Barcelona , receiving the support of blaugrana fans . Events like this made CF Barcelona represent much more than just Catalonia and many progressive Spaniards saw the club as a staunch defender of rights and freedoms .
Coach Fernando Daučík and player László Kubala , regarded by many as the club 's best , inspired the team to several different trophies in 1952 , including La Liga , the Copa del Generalísimo , the Copa Latina , the Copa Eva Duarte and the Copa Martini Rossi . In 1953 , they helped the club win La Liga and the Copa del Generalísimo again .
= = Club de Fútbol Barcelona ( 1957 – 1978 ) = =
With Helenio Herrera as coach , a young Luis Suárez , the European Footballer of the Year in 1960 , and two influential Hungarians recommended by László Kubala , Sándor Kocsis and Zoltán Czibor , the team won another national double in 1959 and a La Liga and Fairs Cup double in 1960 . In 1961 , they became the first club to beat Real Madrid in a European Cup play @-@ off . However , they lost 2 – 3 to Benfica in the final .
The 1960s were less successful for the club , with Real Madrid monopolising La Liga . The completion of the Camp Nou , finished in 1957 , meant the club had little money to spend on new players . The 1960s saw the emergence of Josep Maria Fusté and Carles Rexach , and the club won the Copa del Generalísimo in 1963 and the Fairs Cup in 1966 . Barcelona restored some pride by beating Real Madrid 1 – 0 in the 1968 Copa del Generalísimo final at the Santiago Bernabéu – in front of Francisco Franco – with their coach Salvador Artigas , a former republican pilot in the civil war . With the end of Franco 's dictatorship in 1974 , the club changed its official name back to Futbol Club Barcelona and reverted the crest to its original design , including the original letters once again .
The 1973 – 74 season saw the arrival of a new player in Johan Cruyff , who was bought for a world record £ 920 @,@ 000 from Ajax . Already an established player with Ajax , Cruyff quickly won over the Barcelona fans when he told the European press that he chose Barcelona over Real Madrid because he could not play for a club associated with Franco . He further endeared himself when he named his son Jordi , after the local Catalan Saint George . Next to champions like Juan Manuel Asensi , Carles Rexach and Hugo Sotil , he helped the club win the 1973 – 74 season for the first time since 1960 , defeating Real Madrid 5 – 0 at the Santiago Bernabéu along the way . He was crowned European Footballer of the Year in 1973 during his first season with Barcelona ( his second Ballon d 'Or win ; he won his first while playing for Ajax in 1971 ) . Cruyff received this prestigious award a third time ( the first player to do so ) in 1974 , while he was still with Barcelona .
= = Núñez and the stabilization years ( 1978 – 2000 ) = =
In 1978 , Josep Lluís Núñez became the first elected president of FC Barcelona , and , since then , the members of Barcelona have elected the club president . The process of electing a president of Barcelona was closely tied to Spain 's transition to democracy in 1974 and the end of Franco 's dictatorship . The new president 's main objective was to develop Barcelona into a world @-@ class club by giving it stability both on and off the pitch . His presidency was to last for 22 years , and it deeply affected the image of Barcelona , as Núñez held to a strict policy regarding wages and discipline , letting go of such world @-@ class players as Diego Maradona , Romário and Ronaldo rather than meeting their demands .
On 16 May 1979 , the club won its first UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup by beating Fortuna Düsseldorf 4 – 3 in Basel in a final watched by more than 30 @,@ 000 travelling blaugrana fans . The same year , Núñez began to invest in the club 's youth program by converting La Masia to a dormitory for young academy players from abroad . The name of the dormitory would later become synonymous with the youth program of Barcelona .
In June 1982 , Diego Maradona was signed for a world record fee of £ 5 million from Boca Juniors . In the following season , under coach César Luis Menotti , Barcelona won the Copa del Rey , beating Real Madrid . Maradona 's time with Barcelona , however , was short @-@ lived and he soon left for Napoli . At the start of the 1984 – 85 season , Terry Venables was hired as manager and he won La Liga with noteworthy displays by German midfielder Bernd Schuster . The next season , he took the team to their second European Cup final , only to lose on penalties to Steaua București during a dramatic evening in Seville .
Around this time , tensions began to arise between what was perceived as president Núñez 's dictatorial rule and the nationalistic support group , Boixos Nois . The group , identified with a left @-@ wing separatism , repeatedly demanded the resignation of Núñez and openly defied him through chants and banners at matches . At the same time , Barcelona experienced an eruption in skinheads , who often identified with a right @-@ wing separatism . The skinheads slowly transferred the Boixos Nois ' ideology from liberalism to fascism , which caused division within the group and a sudden support for Núñez 's presidency . Inspired by British hooligans , the remaining Boixos Nois became violent , causing havoc leading to large @-@ scale arrests .
After the 1986 FIFA World Cup , Barcelona signed the English top @-@ scorer Gary Lineker , along with goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta , but the team could not achieve success , as Schuster was excluded from the team . Terry Venables was subsequently fired at the beginning of the 1987 – 88 season and replaced with Luis Aragonés . The season finished with the players rebelling against president Núñez , in an event known as the Hesperia mutiny , and a 1 – 0 victory at the Copa del Rey final against Real Sociedad .
In 1988 , Johan Cruyff returned to the club as manager and he assembled the so @-@ called " Dream Team " . He used a mix of Spanish players like Pep Guardiola , José Mari Bakero and Txiki Begiristain while signing international players such as Ronald Koeman , Michael Laudrup , Romário and Hristo Stoichkov .
It was ten years after the inception of the youth program , La Masia , when the young players began to graduate and play for their first team . One of the first graduates who would later earn international acclaim was Pep Guardiola . Under Cruyff 's guidance , Barcelona won four consecutive La Liga titles from 1991 to 1994 . They beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final and the 1992 European Cup final at Wembley Stadium , with a free @-@ kick goal from Dutch international Ronald Koeman . They also won a Copa del Rey in 1990 , the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España . With 11 trophies , Cruyff became the club 's most successful manager to date . He also became the club 's longest consecutive serving manager , serving eight years . Cruyff 's fortune was to change , however , and in his final two seasons , after he failed to win any trophies , he fell @-@ out with president Núñez , resulting in his departure .
Reacting to Cruyff 's departure , an independent protest group was organised by Armand Caraben , Joan Laporta and Alfons Godall . The objective of the group , called L 'Elefant Blau was to oppose the presidency of Núñez , which they regarded as a corruption of the club 's traditional values . Laporta would later take over the presidency of Barcelona in 2003 .
Cruyff was briefly replaced by Bobby Robson , who took charge of the club for a single season in 1996 – 97 . He recruited Ronaldo from his previous club , PSV and delivered a cup treble , winning the Copa del Rey , UEFA Cup Winners Cup and the Supercopa de España . Despite his success , Robson was only ever seen as a short @-@ term solution while the club waited for Louis van Gaal to become available .
Like Maradona , Ronaldo only stayed a short time before he left for Internazionale . New stars emerged , however , such as Luís Figo , Patrick Kluivert , Luis Enrique and Rivaldo , and the team won a Copa del Rey and La Liga double in 1998 . In 1999 , the club celebrated its centenari , winning the Lile title and where Rivaldo became the fourth Barcelona player to be awarded European Footballer of the Year . Despite this domestic success , the failure to emulate Real Madrid in the Champions League led to van Gaal and Núñez resigning in 2000 .
= = The Laporta years ( 2000 – 2010 ) = =
The departures of Núñez and Louis van Gaal were hardly noticed by the fans when compared to that of Luís Figo , then club vice @-@ captain . Figo had become a cult hero and was considered by Catalans to be one of their own . Barcelona fans , however , were distraught by Figo 's decision to join arch @-@ rivals Real Madrid , and , during subsequent visits to the Camp Nou with Madrid , Figo was given an extremely hostile reception . Upon his first return , a piglet 's head and a full bottle of whiskey were thrown at him from the crowd . The next three years saw the club in decline , and managers came and went . Van Gaal was replaced by Llorenç Serra Ferrer who , despite an extensive investment in players in the summer of 2000 , presided over a mediocre league campaign and a humiliating first @-@ round Champions League exit , and was eventually dismissed late in the season .
Long @-@ serving coach Carles Rexach was appointed as his replacement , initially on a temporary basis , and managed to at least steer the club to the last Champions League spot on the final day of the season . Despite better form in La Liga and a good run to the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League , Rexach was never viewed as a long @-@ term solution and that summer Van Gaal returned to the club for a second spell as manager . What followed , despite another decent Champions League performance , was one of the worst La Liga campaigns in the club 's history , with the team as low as 15th in February 2003 . This led to Van Gaal 's resignation and replacement for the rest of the campaign by Radomir Antić , though a sixth @-@ place finish was the best that he could manage . At the end of the season , Antić 's short @-@ term contract was not renewed , and club president
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Joan Gaspart resigned , his position having been made completely untenable by such a disastrous season on top of the club 's overall decline in fortunes since he became president three years prior .
After the disappointment of the Gaspart era , the combination of a new young president , Joan Laporta , and a young new manager , former Dutch and Milan star Frank Rijkaard , saw the club bounce back . On the field , an influx of international players , including Ronaldinho , Deco , Henrik Larsson , Ludovic Giuly , Samuel Eto 'o and Rafael Márquez , combined with homegrown Spanish players Carles Puyol , Andrés Iniesta , Xavi and Víctor Valdés , led to the club 's return to success . Barcelona won La Liga and the Supercopa de España in 2004 – 05 , and Ronaldinho and Eto 'o were voted first and third , respectively , in the FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
In the 2005 – 06 season , Barcelona repeated their Liga and Supercupa successes . The pinnacle of the league season arrived at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in a 3 – 0 win over Real Madrid . It was Rijkaard 's second victory at the Bernabéu , making him the first Barcelona manager to win there twice . Ronaldinho 's performance was so impressive that after his second goal , which was Barcelona 's third , some Real Madrid fans gave him a standing ovation . In the Champions League , Barcelona beat Arsenal 2 – 1 in the final . Trailing 1 – 0 to a ten @-@ man Arsenal and with less than 15 minutes remaining , they came back to win 2 – 1 , with substitute Henrik Larsson , in his final appearance for the club , setting up goals for Samuel Eto 'o and fellow substitute Juliano Belletti , for the club 's first European Cup victory in 14 years .
Despite being the favourites and starting strongly , Barcelona finished the 2006 – 07 season without any trophies won . A pre @-@ season United States tour was later blamed for a string of injuries to key players , including leading scorer Samuel Eto 'o and rising star Lionel Messi . There was open feuding as Eto 'o publicly criticized coach Rijkaard and Ronaldinho . Ronaldinho also admitted that a lack of fitness affected his form . In La Liga , Barcelona were in first place for much of the season , but inconsistency in the New Year saw Real Madrid overtake them to become champions . Barcelona advanced to the semi @-@ finals of the Copa del Rey , winning the first leg against Getafe 5 – 2 , with a goal from Messi bringing comparison to Diego Maradona 's goal of the century , but then lost the second leg 4 – 0 . They took part in the 2006 FIFA Club World Cup , but were beaten by a late goal in the final against Brazilian side Internacional . In the Champions League , Barcelona were knocked out of the competition in the last 16 by eventual runners @-@ up Liverpool on the away goals rule .
Barcelona finished the 2007 – 08 season third in La Liga and reached the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League and Copa del Rey , both times losing to the eventual champions , Manchester United and Valencia , respectively . The day after a 4 – 1 defeat to Real Madrid , Joan Laporta announced that Barcelona B coach Pep Guardiola would take over Rijkaard 's duties on 30 June 2008 .
In the pre @-@ season of 2008 – 09 , a motion of no confidence was raised against club president Joan Laporta . This motion received 60 percent support , just short of the 66 percent required to oust him , prompting eight of the directors to resign . Continuing as president , Laporta made large changes to the playing staff , spending nearly € 90 million rebuilding the squad .
For the second time that season , Barcelona played Real Madrid in El Clásico , this time at the Santiago Bernabéu . Barcelona won the historic match 2 – 6 , which was the largest margin of victory by which Barcelona had won in Madrid since the 1970s , when Johan Cruyff led Barcelona to win 0 – 5 . On 6 May 2009 , Barcelona played against Chelsea in the second leg of the Champions League semi @-@ finals . Following a goalless first leg , Chelsea led the second leg at Stamford Bridge 1 – 0 , from the eighth minute until injury time , when Andrés Iniesta scored an equaliser in the 93rd minute from the edge of the penalty area , sending Barcelona through to the final on the away goals rule . On 13 May , Barcelona beat Athletic Bilbao 4 – 1 to win the Copa del Rey for a record 25th time . Three days later , Real Madrid lost a league match and Barcelona was crowned La Liga champions for the 2008 – 09 season .
With a largely homegrown squad , in which seven players of the starting 11 were products of their youth academy , La Masia , Barcelona defeated the defending champions Manchester United 2 – 0 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 27 May 2009 , to earn their third Champions League title . This completed the first ever treble won by a Spanish side , having already won the La Liga and Copa del Rey in that season .
Barcelona went on to win the 2009 Supercopa de España against Athletic Bilbao , and the 2009 UEFA Super Cup against Shakhtar Donetsk , becoming the first European club to win both domestic and European Super Cups following a treble . In December 2009 , Barcelona won the 2009 Club World Cup , thus becoming the first team ever to accomplish the sextuple . In May 2010 , Barcelona won La Liga for the second consecutive time with a record Spanish league tally of 99 points out of 114 possible . In August , Barcelona won their ninth Supercup , beating the previous record of eight , which they shared with Real Madrid .
= = 2011 – present = =
Barcelona begin start off the season with the traditional curtain raiser , the Supercopa de España , against Sevilla , losing the first leg 3 – 1 at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium . In the return leg at the Camp Nou , however , the team would win 4 – 0 , thus claiming the Supercopa 5 – 3 on aggregate . In the 2010 – 11 season , Barcelona would endure a slow start to the campaign , despite a victory over Racing de Santander ( 3 – 0 ) on the opening day of the season ; they would go on to be defeated 2 – 0 at the Camp Nou by newly promoted minnows Hércules . Nevertheless , Barça would recover and go on to magnificent 5 – 0 win over Real Madrid at home . In the Champions League semi @-@ finals against Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu , Lionel Messi scored two goals to ensure a 0 – 2 win for Barcelona , with the second leg at home ending in a 1 – 1 draw , sending Barça through to the Final to take on Manchester United . In the Copa del Rey Final at the Mestalla Stadium against Real Madrid , Cristiano Ronaldo would convert a header on the 100th minute to win the Copa for Madrid , 1 – 0 . Barça , however , would end up beating Manchester United 3 – 1 with goals from Pedro , Messi and David Villa to win them the Champions League for the fourth time in club history . Barcelona would also claim La Liga with 96 points to Real Madrid 's 92 for the third time in a row to round off a very successful season .
The 2011 – 12 season would kick off with the Supercopa de España , this time against reigning Copa del Rey champions Real Madrid . In Madrid , Barcelona would play to a 2 – 2 draw , but would seal the Supercup with a 3 – 2 win at the Camp Nou . The first kick of a ball in La Liga for Barça would be at the Camp Nou against Villarreal , with the Catalans easily winning 5 – 0 . In the first Liga Clásico of the season , Barcelona would win 1 – 3 in Madrid to level on points with Madrid heading into the Christmas break . Nevertheless , Barcelona would drop two points away to Espanyol , which ended 1 – 1 , to go two points behind their archrivals Madrid . In the Copa del Rey semi @-@ finals , in the first leg against Real Madrid , the Blaugrana would win 1 – 2 in Madrid , later sealing their place in the semi @-@ finals after a 2 – 2 draw at the Camp Nou . In the Round of 16 of the UEFA Champions League , the then @-@ defending champions would defeat Bayer Leverkusen 1 – 3 in Germany and rout them 7 – 1 at the Camp Nou . The quarter @-@ finals against Milan would begin slowly for the Catalan club , playing to a 0 – 0 draw in Milan , only to sweep the Italian club aside 3 – 1 at the Camp Nou with two strikes from Lionel Messi . In the semi @-@ finals against Chelsea , Barcelona would be defeated 1 – 0 in London after a Didier Drogba strike in the 45th minute . The second leg , meanwhile , at the Nou Camp finished 2 – 2 , thus eliminating Barcelona from European contention . In the penultimate game of the season at home to Real Madrid , perhaps the most important game of the Catalan club 's season , Barça would collapse 1 – 2 to Real Madrid with a strike each from Sami Khedira and Cristiano Ronaldo , winning Los Blancos the match . On 27 April , coach Pep Guardiola announced in a tearful press conference in Barcelona that he would be stepping down as coach of the Catalan club at the end of the season , citing that he needed a break from football ; he was to be replaced by Tito Vilanova . In Barcelona 's final game of the season , the Copa del Rey finals against Athletic Bilbao , Barça would win 3 – 0 with a brace from Pedro and a strike from Messi , winning the club the trophy . That season , Barça would also win the 2011 UEFA Super Cup , 2 – 0 against Porto and the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup , 4 – 0 against Santos .
Barça 's 2012 – 13 season yet again began with a Supercopa contention , this time another incarnation of El Clásico . Barcelona would win the first leg at home 3 – 2 with goals from Messi , Pedro and Xavi , but in the second leg , despite a wonderfully @-@ struck free kick from Messi from 35 yards out , Barcelona would succumb 2 – 1 to their fiercest foes with goals from Ronaldo and Gonzalo Higuaín . In La Liga , Barcelona would shoot straight up to the top of the league table with a 5 – 1 win over Real Sociedad . In the most @-@ hyped game of the season so far , Barcelona and Real Madrid would play out what many regard as the best Clásico in recent memory , ending in a 2 – 2 draw at the Camp Nou with both Messi and Ronaldo netting twice for their respective clubs . Barça would also kick of their Copa del Rey defence with a 3 – 0 win over Alavés . In the Champions League on 7 November 2012 , Barcelona would fall 2 – 1 to Celtic , with Messi grabbing his third Champions League goal of the 2012 – 13 season in the 90th minute in Glasgow . Barcelona were eliminated from Europe 0 – 7 on aggregate in the semi @-@ finals against eventual champions Bayern Munich , the worst @-@ ever aggregate loss in any European competition for the club .
On 22 July 2013 , Gerardo Martino was confirmed as manager of Barcelona for the 2013 – 14 season . Barcelona 's first official games under Martino were the home and away legs of the 2013 Supercopa de España , which Barça won 1 – 1 on away goals . On 23 January 2014 , Sandro Rosell resigned as president by the admissibility of the complaint for alleged misappropriation following the transfer of Neymar . Josep Maria Bartomeu replaced him to finish the term in 2016 .
In April 2014 , FIFA banned the club from buying players for the next two transfer windows following the violation of the FIFA 's rules about the transfer of footballers aged under 18 . A statement on FIFA 's website read , " With regard to the case in question , FC Barcelona has been found to be in breach of art . 19 of the Regulations in the case of ten minor players and to have committed several other concurrent infringements in the context of other players , including under Annexe 2 of the Regulations . The Disciplinary Committee regarded the infringements as serious and decided to sanction the club with a transfer ban at both national and international level for two complete and consecutive transfer periods , together with a fine of CHF 450 @,@ 000 . Additionally , the club was granted a period of 90 days in which to regularise the situation of all minor players concerned . " FIFA rejected an appeal in August but the pending appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) allowed Barcelona to sign players during the summer of 2014 .
On 17 May , in a game where they needed to defeat Atlético Madrid ( who had eliminated them from the Champions League in the quarter @-@ finals earlier in the year ) to be crowned champions of La Liga for the 23rd time , they drew after Atlético defender Diego Godín headed in the equalizer in the 49th minute , giving Atlético the championship .
On 19 May 2014 , it was announced that Luis Enrique would return to Barcelona as head coach after he agreed to a two @-@ year deal . He was recommended by sporting director Andoni Zubizarreta , his former Spain national teammate . Following Luis Enrique 's arrival , Barcelona broke their transfer record when they paid Liverpool between € 81 to € 94 million for striker Luis Suárez , who at the time was serving a four @-@ month ban from all football @-@ related activity imposed by the FIFA Disciplinary Committee after biting Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini during his appearance for Uruguay in a World Cup group stage match .
In late December 2014 , Barcelona 's appeal to the CAS was unsuccessful and the original transfer ban was reinstated , leaving the club unable to utilise the 2015 winter and summer transfer windows . On 5 January 2015 , Zubizareta was sacked by the board after 4 years as director of football . On 12 February 2015 , Barcelona announced the formation of a new Football Area Technical Commission , made up of vice @-@ president Jordi Mestre , board member Javier Bordas , Carles Rexach and Ariedo Braida .
Barcelona won the treble in the 2014 – 15 season , winning La Liga , Copa del Rey and Champions League titles , and became the first European team to have won the treble twice . On 17 May , the club clinched their 23rd La Liga title after defeating Atlético Madrid . This was Barcelona 's seventh La Liga title in the last ten years . On 30 May , the club defeated Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final at Camp Nou . On 6 June , Barcelona won the Champions League final with a 3 – 1 win against Juventus , which completed the treble , the club 's second in six years .
= Sacagawea dollar =
The Sacagawea dollar ( also known as the " golden dollar " ) is a United States dollar coin that has been minted every year since 2000 , although not released for general circulation from 2002 through 2008 and again from 2012 onward due to its general unpopularity with the public and low business demand for the coin . These coins have a copper core clad by manganese brass , giving them a distinctive golden color . The coin features an obverse by Glenna Goodacre . From 2000 to 2008 , the reverse featured an eagle design by Thomas D. Rogers . Since 2009 , the reverse of the Sacagawea dollar has been changed yearly , with each design in the series depicting a different aspect of Native American cultures .
The coin was first suggested as a replacement for the Susan B. Anthony dollar , which proved useful for vending machine operators and mass transit systems despite being unpopular with the public . The Statue of Liberty was originally proposed as the design subject , but Sacagawea , the Shoshone guide of the Lewis and Clark expedition , was eventually chosen .
The new dollar coin was heavily marketed by the Mint in a series of print , radio , and television advertisements , as well as Mint partnerships with Walmart and Cheerios . However , the Sacagawea dollar did not prove popular with the public , and mintage dropped sharply in the second year of production . Production of Sacagawea dollars continued , since 2007 in parallel with the U.S. Presidential dollars . In 2012 , mintage numbers were reduced by over 90 % , in line with a similar reduction for the Presidential Dollars , due to large stockpiles of unused dollar coins .
The Mint planned to issue the Sacagawea design in 22 @-@ karat gold as well , but this idea was quickly abandoned after the Mint 's authority to strike the coins was questioned , and the Mint has retained ownership of the few such coins produced . Soon after initial production of the dollar , it was noticed that a few of the dollar coins were erroneously struck with the obverse of a state quarter and the normal reverse .
= = Background = =
Due to the limited circulation of the Eisenhower dollar , it was decided in the 1970s that a smaller dollar coin might prove more useful to the public . On September 26 , 1978 , Congress approved legislation to provide for a smaller dollar coin to be minted , which would depict Susan B. Anthony , a prominent American suffragette . These new dollars also proved unpopular , due in large part to their similarity in size and metallic composition to the quarter @-@ dollar . Since there was little interest in the coin as a circulating medium , most were placed in United States Mint and Federal Reserve vaults throughout the country , and mintage ceased after 1981 .
Despite their initial lack of popularity , by the late 1990s the Treasury 's supply of small dollar coins began to dwindle due to their widespread use in vending machines ( including more than 9 @,@ 000 stamp machines situated in post offices across the United States ) and mass transit turnstiles . Beginning in 1997 , several bills were introduced to Congress with the intent of resuming mintage of small @-@ sized dollar coins to keep up with demand . On March 20 of that year , Arizona Republican Representative Jim Kolbe introduced legislation calling for more dollar coins to be minted . Four months later , on July 24 , Republican Representative Michael Castle of Delaware , a member of the House Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy , also introduced legislation , calling for the Statue of Liberty to be the subject of the design . On October 21 , Minnesota Republican Rod Grams introduced a bill in the Senate , also calling for the mintage of a newly designed dollar coin . The final legislation authorizing the design and production of a new dollar coin was based on Grams ' bill . Also on October 21 , in a hearing before the House Financial Services Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy , Trade , and Technology , Treasury Department officials gave their support for a new dollar coin , recommending that it be gold @-@ colored with a distinctive edge , to make it easily distinguishable from the quarter @-@ dollar . During this hearing , Philip N. Diehl , then Director of the Mint , estimated that it would take thirty months to begin production of the new coin .
The United States Senate approved the necessary legislation on November 9 , 1997 , and the House of Representatives did the same on November 13 . On December 1 President Bill Clinton signed the 50 States Commemorative Coin Program Act , which became Public Law 105 @-@ 124 . Section four of the act , which is entitled " United States $ 1 Coin Act of 1997 " , provided for a new dollar coin to be struck , stating in part : " The dollar coin shall be golden in color , have a distinctive edge , have tactile and visual features that make the denomination of the coin readily discernible " . The act also gave authority to the Secretary of the Treasury to resume production of the Susan B. Anthony dollar until production could begin on the new dollar coin . In total , more than 41 million Susan B. Anthony dollars were struck bearing the date 1999 .
= = Design history = =
= = = Subject selection = = =
Though the United States $ 1 Coin Act of 1997 required a change in composition and edge , it did not dictate what was to appear on the coin . To determine this , Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin appointed a nine @-@ member Dollar Coin Design Advisory Committee . Rubin , who had the authority to select the coin 's design as Secretary of the Treasury , specified that the coin should depict a representation of one or more women and could not depict a living person . The committee was chaired by Philip N. Diehl , a role that did not include a vote on the designs . They met in Philadelphia in June 1998 , listening to seventeen concepts submitted by members of the public , and reviewing many more suggestions received by telephone , mail and email . On June 9 , 1998 , the committee recommended Sacagawea , the Shoshone guide of the Lewis and Clark Expedition , for the design of the new coin . Despite the committee 's choice of Sacagawea , Castle advocated that the Statue of Liberty be depicted , as per his earlier legislation . In a letter to the House of Representatives , Castle explained his objection , stating that the " goal in creating a new dollar coin is to make it more distinctive with a popular design that would encourage its wider use by the public . " Between November 18 and 22 , 1998 , the General Accounting Office conducted a poll on behalf of Castle . The object of the poll was to determine which design the public would find more desirable . In total , 65 percent preferred the Statue of Liberty , 27 percent preferred Sacagawea , two percent believed that either was acceptable , three percent said neither was acceptable , and an additional three percent had no opinion . Despite Castle 's objection , Sacagawea was ultimately chosen as the subject of the coin .
= = = Initial design selection = = =
Invitations were sent to 23 artists with guidelines as to what their designs should depict . The obverse was to depict a representation of Sacagawea , and the reverse an eagle symbolizing peace and freedom . Another guideline requested artists " be sensitive to cultural authenticity , and try to avoid creating a representation of a classical European face in Native American headdress . " In November and December 1998 , members of the Native American community , teachers , numismatists , historians , members of Congress , various government officials and others were invited by the United States Mint to review the submitted proposed designs . Six obverse and seven reverse designs were originally selected for further consideration .
After the Mint conducted a series of polls and focus groups , three obverse and four reverse designs were selected as finalists . The Mint received approximately 90 @,@ 000 e @-@ mails in reference to the design selection process . In response to the large amount of feedback generated , Diehl stated that the internet has " allowed us to conduct a public outreach program of unprecedented scope to measure opinions of the designs . " All seven of the selected designs were forwarded to the United States Commission of Fine Arts ; the Commission chose an obverse design depicting Sacagawea with her infant son , Jean Baptiste Charbonneau , as designed by sculptor Glenna Goodacre . Goodacre chose Randy 'L He @-@ dow Teton to model for Sacagawea , of whom there are no known contemporary portraits , to help the artist capture the features of a young Native American woman . The chosen reverse , designed by Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Thomas D. Rogers , depicted a soaring eagle .
= = = Native American redesign = = =
On September 20 , 2007 , Pub.L. 110 – 82 , known as the Native American $ 1 Coin Act , was signed by president George W. Bush . The act specified in part that the one dollar coin shall depict " images celebrating the important contributions made by Indian tribes and individual Native Americans to the development of the United States and the history of the United States . " The act also called for the removal of the date from the obverse and " E PLURIBUS UNUM " from the reverse of the coin , opting instead to add them to the edge . At this time the mintmark was also moved to the edge .
The program requires that the reverse of the dollar depict a new design every year . In order to determine which design to depict on the coins , officials from the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs , the Native American Caucus and the National Congress of American Indians , the consulting organizations for the program , appoint a liaison to the United States Mint . Between twelve and fifteen themes are selected after consultation with the National Museum of the American Indian and the Smithsonian Institution . At this point , the consulting organizations supply the Mint with written comments regarding the themes . The suggestions are then sent to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee , where a theme is recommended . After reviewing the recommendations and input from the contributing organizations , the selected theme is finalized , at which point designs are produced that represent the theme . Once designs are created , the consulting organizations and the National Museum of the Native American are consulted , and the designs are sent to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee for approval . Based on all comments and recommendations received , the Mint selects a final design that is recommended to the Secretary of the Treasury for approval .
The first coin in the Native American series , issued in 2009 , was designed by Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Norman E. Nemeth , the subject being the spread of Three Sisters Agriculture . It depicts a Native American woman planting seeds in a field populated with corn , beans and squash . Above the woman is the inscription " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , and below is " $ 1 " .
The design selected for the 2010 reverse was designed by Artistic Infusion Program artist Thomas Cleveland and depicts the Hiawatha belt surrounding five stone @-@ tipped arrows , along with the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , " $ 1 " , " HAUDENOSAUNEE " and " GREAT LAW OF PEACE " . The subject of the design is the " Great Tree of Peace " .
The reverse of the 2011 dollar depicts the hands of the Supreme Sachem Ousamequin and Plymouth Colony Governor John Carver holding a ceremonial pipe , along with the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , " $ 1 " , and " WAMPANOAG TREATY 1621 " . The coin was designed by Artistic Infusion Program artist Richard Masters and engraved by Mint sculptor – engraver Joseph Menna . The design subject is treaties with tribal nations .
The theme for the reverse of the 2012 dollar is " Trade Routes of the 17th Century " and the design depicts the profile of a Native American man and a horse in the foreground and a group of galloping horses in the background . This reverse design was created by Thomas Cleveland as part of the Artistic Infusion Program and engraved by Mint sculptor – engraver Phebe Hemphill .
The 2013 dollar commemorates the Treaty with the Lenape in 1778 , the first formal treaty between the United States and a Native American tribe . The coin depicts a turkey , a howling wolf , and a turtle — symbols of the Lenape . Its design was created by Susan Gamble as part of the Artistic Infusion Program , and engraved by Phebe Hemphill .
The 2014 dollar depicts a Native American man clasping a ceremonial pipe while his wife holds a plate of provisions , including fish , corn , roots and gourds . In the background is the stylized image of the face of William Clark 's compass , displaying " NW " for " northwest . " It bears the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " and " $ 1 , " as required by law .
The reverse design of the 2015 dollar depicts Mohawk ironworkers . According to the U.S. Mint , the coin commemorates Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawk ironworkers who contributed to the building of New York City skyscrapers . The inscriptions on the reverse read " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , " " $ 1 " and " MOHAWK IRONWORKERS . " It was designed by artist Ronald D. Sanders .
According to an August 29 , 2014 , U.S. Mint press release , the design selected for use on the 2016 coins commemorates Code talkers from World Wars I and II . Designed by Thomas D. Rogers , it includes the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , " $ 1 " , " WWI " and " WWII " and depicts two helmets used by American fighting forces in the 20th century — the Brodie helmet of World War I , and the M1 helmet of World War II — along with two feathers which combine to form a V , " symbolizing victory , unity , and the important role that these code talkers played . "
On October 7 , 2015 , the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee recommended new designs for 2017 and 2018 . These were , respectively , Sequoyah and Jim Thorpe , the latter over an outline of his ancestor Chief Black Hawk .
= = Production and release = =
After her obverse design was approved , Goodacre visited the Philadelphia Mint engraving department six times in order to finalize the designs . Rogers ' reverse design was also modified before production began . In his original proposal , mountainous scenery was depicted beneath the flying eagle ; this was removed and the positions of other reverse design features were altered before Rubin gave final approval . The composition selected for the new coin included a cladding of manganese brass ( containing about 77 % copper , 12 % zinc , 7 % manganese , and 4 % nickel ) over a pure copper core . This composition was chosen because it would give the coin a distinctive golden color while being electromagnetically identical to its predecessor , the copper @-@ nickel Susan B. Anthony dollar . The first official striking of the Sacagawea dollar took place on November 18 , 1999 , during a ceremony in which dignitaries and other invited guests each struck individual examples of the coins . Because the coins were struck before 2000 , it was not legal to release them during the first strike ceremonies . Instead , the coins were saved and later sent to the dignitaries who struck them . Full @-@ scale production began shortly after the ceremonial strikings .
For her work creating the obverse of the Sacagawea dollar , Goodacre received a $ 5 @,@ 000 commission ; she requested that it be paid in dollar coins . The coins paid to Goodacre were struck on specially burnished blanks to give them a finish unique to that striking . Diehl and other Mint dignitaries personally delivered the coins to Goodacre on April 5 , 2000 . A similar specially burnished finish was used on the 75 @,@ 000 2000 @-@ D dollars included in the Millennium Coin & Currency sets . Soon after release of the new coins , it was discovered that they tarnished quickly once in circulation . In April 2001 the Mint began testing an experimental rinse that would inhibit the tarnishing ; however , the rinse was used only in that year .
= = = Marketing = = =
The act authorizing the dollar coin also provided for the Secretary of the Treasury to " adopt a program to promote the use of such coins by commercial enterprises , mass transit authorities , and Federal , State , and local government agencies . " The Mint 's initial advertising campaign , consisting of an estimated 1 @,@ 600 television , radio and print advertisements and partnerships with the national retail chain Wal @-@ Mart and the General Mills company , cost approximately $ 41 million . The television ads consisted of the head of George Washington superimposed upon a body , voiced by actor Michael Keaton , discussing the merits of the new dollar coin .
Beginning in January 2000 , the Mint began sending dollar coins to Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club stores across the United States in order to help promote and circulate the coins . In total , $ 100 million worth of the dollars were shipped to the stores as part of the promotion . Some store owners criticized the Mint 's partnership with Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club as being unfair to smaller retailers . In response , Diehl noted that " every retailer and commercial establishment has the right to carry the Golden Dollar . The Mint 's agreement with Wal @-@ Mart is designed to encourage all retailers and commercial businesses in the nation to use the new Golden Dollar in everyday transactions . "
During this time , the Mint began a partnership with the General Mills company , in which 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 boxes of Cheerios cereal would contain a 2000 @-@ dated Lincoln cent as a prize , one in every 2 @,@ 000 boxes would contain a new Sacagawea dollar and one in every 4 @,@ 400 would hold a certificate redeemable for 100 Sacagawea dollars . It was later discovered that the dollars included in every 2 @,@ 000 boxes were in fact early strikes , differing from those ultimately issued for circulation by the number of tail feathers on the eagle . Approximately 5 @,@ 500 of the coins were included in the boxes of cereal .
= = = Gold dollars = = =
In 1999 , the Mint struck a number of Sacagawea dollars in .9167 fine ( 22 @-@ karat ) gold . During the initial production of the coins , they were denominated at five dollars in order to help the public distinguish them from their circulating counterparts . The plan was to sell gold versions of the coins to collectors . On March 20 , this plan was halted when some Congressmen questioned the authority of Mint officials to strike the coins in a composition different from what had already been authorized . Full @-@ scale coin production never took place even though the Mint maintained that it did have authority to do so , as the coins would be considered numismatic items and not regular @-@ issue coins . Similar gold coins were also struck , this time bearing the denomination of one dollar and a " W " mint mark , signifying that the coins were struck at the West Point Mint . In total , 39 such coins were struck , twelve of which were found to be of adequate quality , while the rest were eventually destroyed . Unlike those den
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It was confirmed in October 2009 that Chenoweth would reprise the role of April later in the first season , and on March 14 , 2010 that her return would occur in " Home " .
While Glee also features Chenoweth 's former Wicked co @-@ star Idina Menzel as recurring character Shelby Corcoran , the producers declined to give the two scenes together , explaining that the series is story @-@ driven , and as re @-@ uniting the two on @-@ screen did not work for storytelling purposes , it was deemed unnecessary . Of Chenoweth 's future with Glee beyond " Home " , Falchuk commented that the producers want to " have her around as much as possible " , and although no plans have been solidified , she may return in the second season . He expanded : " [ When ] you have talents like that , it 's very hard to not want them back . The one advantage we have , I think , is that we have so many incredibly talented people in our … cast that … we don 't need [ guest actors ] as much . But there are certain very special people that , of course , you 'd always be interested in . "
The episode features a cover version of " A House Is Not a Home " , performed by Colfer and Monteith , as well as a mash @-@ up of " A House Is Not a Home " and " One Less Bell to Answer " , performed by Chenoweth and Morrison . Morrison and Chenoweth also duet on The Pointer Sisters ' version of " Fire " . In keeping with the " home " theme of the episode , Mötley Crüe 's ballad " Home Sweet Home " ( and also " Heart of Glass " by Blondie , although this isn 't about home ) can be heard in the roller rink scene , but was not covered by the cast . Chenoweth performs " Home " from The Wiz , and Riley sings " Beautiful " by Christina Aguilera . The songs performed were all released as singles , available for digital download . Each track except " Fire " and " Home Sweet Home " is also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Home " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million American viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 2 / 13 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million viewers and was the second most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by Britain 's Got More Talent . In Canada , Glee was watched by 2 @.@ 16 million viewers , making Glee the tenth most @-@ viewed program of the week . In Australia , the episode lead in its timeslot in all key demographics , and was watched by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , making Glee the 16th most @-@ viewed show of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Home " received mixed reviews from critics . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times deemed it the series ' most emotional episode , and his favorite next to " Wheels " . Kennedy praised O 'Malley 's performance as " nothing short of perfection " and recommended that Chenoweth receive an Emmy nomination for her performance . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly concurred that Chenoweth 's performance was Emmy @-@ worthy , though felt she may have been slightly overused in the episode . Stack noted that he did not love " Home " upon his first viewing , but praised it for adding depth to the characters and tackling body image and sexuality issues . Rick Bentley of McClatchy Newspapers called the episode " as perfect as television can get " , praising Colfer 's performance and also deeming him deserving of an Emmy nomination . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald similarly assessed that " Home " is : " the strongest episode of the season to date , the one Fox should submit for Emmy consideration . " Perigard was impressed by the range shown by O 'Malley , and opined that the episode as a whole had no low @-@ points .
In contrast , Jean Bentley of MTV described " Home " as " an hour of television better suited for Internet surfing than actually paying attention . " She criticized the songs as being unrecognizable to younger viewers , and called the main plots " emotional doozies , with not much comic relief in between . " Bentley felt that Chenoweth was overused , and called her appearance in the episode " nonsensical and unnecessary " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " C " . He felt that the three main plot strands were poorly balanced , resulting in an episode with " powerful moments that drown as they 're nearly subsumed by everything else going on . " VanDerWerff criticized Mercedes ' storyline as being too abrupt , and deemed her performance of " Beautiful " : " so forced that it loses any power it might have from what 's a genuinely nice arrangement of the song . " Finally , he expressed his concern that the prevalence of songs in Glee may detract from the quality of the show . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle also criticized the episode , deeming it the weakest of the series so far , and one that left him underwhelmed .
= Saint @-@ Sylvestre coup d 'état =
The Saint @-@ Sylvestre coup d 'état was a coup d 'état staged by Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , leader of the Central African Republic ( CAR ) army , and his military officers against the government of President David Dacko on 31 December 1965 and 1 January 1966 . Dacko , Bokassa 's cousin , took over the country in 1960 , and Bokassa , a military officer in the French army , joined the CAR army in 1962 . By 1965 , the country was in turmoil — plagued by corruption and slow economic growth , while its borders were breached by rebels from neighboring countries . Dacko obtained financial aid from the communist People 's Republic of China , but despite this support , the country 's problems persisted . Bokassa made plans to take over the government ; Dacko was made aware of this , and attempted to counter by forming the gendarmerie headed by Jean Izamo , who quickly became Dacko 's closest adviser .
With the aid of Captain Alexandre Banza , Bokassa started the coup New Year 's Eve night in 1965 . First , Bokassa and his men captured Jean Izamo , locking him in a cellar at Camp de Roux . Bokassa 's men then occupied the capital , Bangui , and overpowered the gendarmerie and other resistance . After midnight , Dacko headed back to the capital , where he was promptly arrested , forced to resign from office and then imprisoned at Camp Kassaï . According to official reports , eight people were killed for resisting the coup . By the end of January 1966 , Izamo was tortured to death , but Dacko 's life was spared because of a request from the French government , which Bokassa was trying to satisfy . Bokassa justified the coup by claiming he had to save the country from falling under the influence of communism , and cut off diplomatic relations with China . In the early days of his government , Bokassa dissolved the National Assembly , abolished the Constitution and issued a number of decrees , banning begging , female circumcision , and polygamy , among other things . Bokassa initially struggled to obtain international recognition for the new government . However , after a successful meeting with the president of Chad , Bokassa obtained recognition of the regime from other African nations , and eventually from France , the former colonial power .
Bokassa 's right @-@ hand man Banza attempted his own coup in April 1969 , but one of his co @-@ conspirators informed the president of the plan . Banza was put in front of a military tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad . Dacko , who remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville in June 1969 , which Bokassa intercepted . Bokassa charged Dacko with threatening state security and transferred him to the infamous Ngaragba Prison , where many prisoners taken captive during the coup were still being held . A local judge convinced Bokassa that there was a lack of evidence to convict Dacko , who was instead placed under house arrest . In September 1976 , Dacko was named personal adviser to the president ; the French government later convinced him to take part in a coup to overthrow Bokassa , who was under heavy criticism for his ruthless dictatorial rule . This coup was carried out on 20 and 21 September 1979 , when Dacko became president again , only to be overthrown in another coup two years later .
= = Background = =
In 1958 , after the French Fourth Republic began to consider granting independence to most of its African colonies , nationalist leader Barthélemy Boganda met with Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle to discuss terms for the independence of Oubangui @-@ Chari , a French colonial territory which later became the Central African Republic ( CAR ) . De Gaulle accepted his request , and on 1 December 1958 , Boganda declared the establishment of the autonomous CAR , with full independence to follow soon . He became the autonomous territory 's first Prime Minister and intended to serve as the first President of the independent CAR . However , he was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959 , while en route to the capital , Bangui .
Boganda 's right @-@ hand man Abel Goumba , described as " intelligent , honest , and strongly nationalistic " by author Brian Titley in Dark Age : The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa , succeeded him as the leader of the CAR . In May 1959 , a month into Goumba 's term , David Dacko took control of the government . Dacko , a former member of Boganda 's cabinet and party leader of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa ( MESAN ) , had the support of the French high commissioner Roger Barberot , the Bangui chamber of commerce and Boganda 's widow Michelle Jourdain . Two months later , Dacko dismissed Goumba from his new post as minister of finance . Goumba and Pierre Maleombho , the former president of the National Assembly who was ousted by Dacko , left the MESAN party and organized their own opposition party , Democratic Evolution Movement of Central Africa ( MEDAC ) , on 25 June 1960 . Meanwhile , on August 13 , 1960 , Boganda 's dream was realized when the Central African Republic ( CAR ) attained formal independence from France .
MEDAC became moderately popular , was approved by Etienne Ngounio ( the Dacko @-@ appointed president of MESAN ) , and received significant support in by @-@ elections on 20 September . Dacko viewed MEDAC as a dissident party and sought to disestablish it — he soon received power from the National Assembly to deal with his opponents in any way he saw fit . In December 1960 , Dacko dissolved MEDAC and Goumba was arrested for " fomenting disorder by questioning Dacko 's assumption of power " . Goumba was eventually sentenced to life in prison , but fled into exile in France .
On 1 January 1962 , Dacko 's cousin , Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , left the French Army and joined the military forces of the CAR with the rank of battalion commandant . Over a year later , Bokassa became commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the 500 soldiers in the Central African army . Due to his relation to Dacko and experience abroad in the French military , Bokassa was able to quickly rise through the ranks of the army , becoming the Central African army 's first colonel on 1 December 1964 .
Bokassa sought recognition for his status as the army 's leader ; he frequently appeared in public wearing all his military decorations , and in ceremonies often tried to sit next to President Dacko to hint at his importance in the government . Bokassa constantly involved himself in heated arguments with Jean @-@ Paul Douate , the government 's chief of protocol , who admonished him for not following the correct order of seating at presidential tables . At first , Dacko found his cousin 's antics for power and recognition amusing . Despite the recent rash of African military coups , Dacko publicly dismissed the possibility that Bokassa would someday try to take control of the country . At a state dinner , he said , " Colonel Bokassa only wants to collect medals and he is too stupid to pull off a coup d 'état " . Other members of Dacko 's cabinet saw Bokassa as a major threat to the regime . Jean @-@ Arthur Bandio , the minister of interior , recommended that Bokassa be brought into the cabinet , which he hoped would both satisfy the colonel 's desire for recognition and break his connections with the army . To prevent the possibility of a military coup , Dacko created the gendarmerie , an armed police force of 500 , headed by Jean Izamo , and a 120 @-@ member presidential security guard , led by Prosper Mounoumbaye .
= = Origins = =
Dacko 's government faced a number of problems during 1964 and 1965 : the economy experienced stagnation , the bureaucracy started to fall apart , and the country 's boundaries were constantly breached by Lumumbists from the south and the rebel Sudan People 's Liberation Army from the east . Under pressure from radicals in MESAN and in an attempt to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his independence in foreign policy , Dacko established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) in September 1964 . A delegation led by Meng Yieng and agents of the Chinese government toured the country , showing Communist propaganda films . Soon after , the PRC gave the CAR an interest @-@ free loan of one billion CFA francs ( 20 million French francs ) ; however , the aid failed to prevent the prospect of a financial collapse for the country . Another problem which plagued the government was widespread corruption . Bokassa felt that he needed to take over the CAR government to remove the influence of Communism and solve all the country 's problems . According to Samuel Decalo , a scholar on African government , Bokassa 's personal ambitions most likely played the most important role in his decision to launch a coup against the government .
Dacko sent Bokassa to Paris as part of a delegation for the Bastille Day celebrations in July 1965 . After attending a 23 July ceremony to mark the closing of a military officer training school he had attended decades earlier , Bokassa planned to return to the CAR . However , Dacko had forbidden his return , and Bokassa spent the next few months trying to obtain the support of friends in the French and Central African armed forces . Dacko eventually yielded to pressure and allowed Bokassa back in October .
Tensions between Dacko and Bokassa increased . In December , Dacko approved a budget increase for Izamo 's gendarmerie , but rejected the budget proposal for Bokassa 's army . At this point , Bokassa told friends he was annoyed by Dacko 's treatment and was " going for a coup d 'état " . Dacko planned to replace Bokassa with Izamo as his personal military adviser , and wanted to promote army officers loyal to the government , while demoting Bokassa and his close associates . Dacko was not silent about his plans ; he hinted at his intentions to elders of the Bobangui village , who informed Bokassa of the plan in turn . Bokassa realized he had to act against Dacko quickly , and worried that his 500 @-@ man army would be no match for the gendarmerie and the presidential guard . He was also concerned the French would intervene to aid Dacko , as had occurred after the 23 February 1964 coup d 'état in Gabon against President Léon M 'ba . After receiving word of the coup from the country 's vice president , officials in Paris sent paratroopers to Gabon in a matter of hours and M 'ba was quickly restored to power .
Bokassa found substantive support from his co @-@ conspirator , Captain Alexandre Banza , who was commander of the Camp Kassaï military base in northeast Bangui , and , like Bokassa , had served in the French army in posts around the world . Banza was an intelligent , ambitious and capable man who played a major role in planning the coup . By December , many people began to anticipate the potential turmoil that would result . Dacko 's personal advisers alerted him that Bokassa " showed signs of mental instability " and needed to be arrested before he sought to bring down the government , but Dacko failed to heed these warnings .
= = Coup d 'état on 31 December and 1 January = =
Early in the evening of 31 December 1965 , Dacko left the Palais de la Renaissance to visit one of his ministers ' plantations southwest of the capital . At 22 : 30 WAT ( UTC 21 : 30 ) , Captain Banza gave orders to his officers to begin the coup : one of his captains was to subdue the security guard in the presidential palace , while the other was to take control of Radio @-@ Bangui to prevent communication between Dacko and his followers . Bokassa called Izamo at his headquarters , asking him to come to Camp de Roux to sign some papers that needed his immediate attention . Izamo , who was at a New Year 's Eve celebration with friends , reluctantly agreed and traveled in his wife 's car to the camp . Upon arrival , he was confronted by Banza and Bokassa , who informed him of the coup in progress . When asked if he would support the coup , Izamo said no , leading Bokassa and Banza to overpower him and hold him in a cellar .
Shortly after midnight , in the first minutes of 1 January 1966 , Bokassa and Banza organized their troops and told them of their plan to take over the government . Bokassa claimed that Dacko had resigned from the presidency and given the position to his close advisor Izamo , then told the soldiers that the gendarmerie would take over the CAR army , which had to act now to keep its position . He then asked the soldiers if they would support his course of action ; the men who refused were locked up . At 00 : 30 WAT , Bokassa and his supporters left Camp de Roux to take over the capital . They encountered little resistance and were able to take Bangui . Bokassa and Banza then rushed to the Palais de la Renaissance , where they tried to arrest Dacko , who was nowhere to be found . Bokassa began to panic , as he believed the president had been warned of the coup in advance , and immediately ordered his soldiers to search for Dacko in the countryside until he was found .
Dacko was not aware of the events taking place in the capital . After leaving his minister 's plantation near midnight , he headed to Simon Samba 's house to ask the Aka Pygmy leader to conduct a year @-@ end ritual . After an hour at Samba 's house , he was informed of the coup in Bangui . According to Titley , Dacko then left for the capital , in hopes of stopping the coup with the help of loyal members of the gendarmerie and French paratroopers . Others like Thomas E. O 'Toole , professor of sociology and anthropology at St. Cloud State University , believe that Dacko was not trying to mount a resistance — instead , he was planning on resigning and handing his power over to Izamo . In any case , Dacko was arrested by soldiers patrolling Pétévo Junction , on the western border of the capital . He was taken back to the presidential palace , where Bokassa hugged the president and told him , " I tried to warn you — but now it 's too late " . President Dacko was taken to Ngaragba Prison in east Bangui at around 02 : 00 WAT . In a move that he thought would boost his popularity in the country , Bokassa ordered prison director Otto Sacher to release all prisoners in the jail . Bokassa then took Dacko to Camp Kassaï at 03 : 20 WAT , where the president was forced to resign from office . Later , Bokassa 's officers announced on Radio @-@ Bangui that the Dacko government had been toppled and Bokassa had taken over control . In the morning , Bokassa addressed the public via Radio @-@ Bangui :
Central Africans ! Central Africans ! This is Colonel Bokassa speaking to you . Since 3 : 00 AM this morning your army has taken control of the government . The Dacko government has resigned . The hour of justice is at hand . The bourgeoisie is abolished . A new era of equality among all has begun . Central Africans , wherever you may be , be assured that the army will defend you and your property ... Long live the Central African Republic !
= = Aftermath = =
Officially , eight people died trying to resist the coup . Afterwards , Bokassa 's officers went around the country , arresting Dacko 's political allies and close friends , including Simon Samba , Jean @-@ Paul Douate and more than 60 presidential security guards , who were all taken to Ngaragba Prison . Prosper Mounoumbaye , the director of the presidential security , fled the country . Weeks later , he was detained by the Congolese and handed over to Bokassa on 23 January 1966 . At Camp Kassaï , he was beaten and tortured to death , in full view of Bokassa , Banza and Dacko . Jean Izamo met a similar fate : he was transferred to Ngaragba Prison on 10 January , but was tortured to death by the month 's end . President Dacko 's life was spared , as Bokassa wanted international recognition for his government and France had threatened to cut off aid to the CAR if Dacko was killed . Bokassa had Dacko detained in a small room at Camp Kassaï , where he was cut off from communication with the outside world and placed on a highly restrictive diet . On 3 February , he was taken to Camp de Roux , where he remained in isolation .
In the meantime , Bokassa engaged in self @-@ promotion before the media , showing his countrymen his French army medals , and displaying his strength , fearlessness and masculinity . He formed a new government called the Revolutionary Council , invalidated the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly , calling it " a lifeless organ no longer representing the people " . In his address to the nation , Bokassa claimed that the government would hold elections in the future , a new assembly would be formed , and a new constitution would be written . He also told his countrymen that he would give up his power after the communist threat had been eliminated , the economy stabilized , and corruption rooted out . President Bokassa allowed MESAN to continue functioning , but barred all other political organizations from the country . In the coming months , Bokassa imposed a number of new rules and regulations : men and women between the ages of 18 to 55 had to provide proof that they had jobs , or else they would be fined or imprisoned ; begging was banned ; tom @-@ tom playing was allowed during the nights and weekends ; and a " morality brigade " was formed in the capital to monitor bars and dance halls . Polygamy , dowries and female circumcision were all abolished . Bokassa also opened a public transport system in Bangui and subsidized the creation of two national orchestras .
Despite the positive changes in the country , Bokassa had difficulty obtaining international recognition for his new government . He tried to justify the coup by explaining that Izamo and communist Chinese agents were trying to take over the government and that he had to intervene to save the CAR from the influence of communism . He alleged that Chinese agents in the countryside had been training and arming locals to start a revolution , and on 6 January 1966 , he dismissed the communist agents from the country and cut off diplomatic relations with China . Bokassa also believed that the coup was necessary in order to prevent further corruption in the government .
Bokassa first secured diplomatic recognition from President François Tombalbaye of neighboring Chad , whom he met in Bouca , Ouham . After Bokassa reciprocated by meeting Tombalbaye on 2 April 1966 along the southern border of Chad at Fort Archambault , the two decided to help one another if either was in danger of losing power . Soon after , other African countries began to diplomatically recognize the new government . At first , the French government was reluctant to support the Bokassa regime , so Banza went to Paris to meet with French officials to convince them that the coup was necessary to save the country from turmoil . Bokassa met with Prime Minister Georges Pompidou on 7 July 1966 , but the French remained noncommittal in offering their support . After Bokassa threatened to withdraw from the franc monetary zone , President Charles de Gaulle decided to make an official visit to the CAR on 17 November 1966 . To the Bokassa regime , this visit meant that the French had finally accepted the new changes in the country .
= = = Banza and Dacko = = =
Alexandre Banza , who stood by Bokassa throughout the planning and execution of the coup , served as minister of finance and minister of state in the new government . Banza was successful in his efforts at building the government 's reputation abroad ; many believed that the natural @-@ born leader would no longer accept serving as Bokassa 's right @-@ hand man . In 1967 , Banza and Bokassa had a major argument regarding the country 's budget , as Banza adamantly opposed Bokassa 's extravagance at government events . Bokassa moved to Camp de Roux , where he felt he could safely run the government without having to worry about Banza 's thirst for power . On 13 April 1968 , Bokassa demoted Banza from minister of finance to minister of health , but let him remain in his position as minister of state . The following year , Banza made a number of remarks highly critical of Bokassa and his management of the economy . At this point , Bokassa realized that his minister would soon attempt to take over power in the country , so he removed him as his minister of state .
Banza revealed his intention to start a coup to Lieutenant Jean @-@ Claude Mandaba , the commanding officer of Camp Kassaï , who promptly informed Bokassa . When he entered Camp Kassaï on 9 April 1969 ( the coup was planned for that evening ) , Banza was ambushed , thrown into the trunk of a Mercedes and taken directly to Bokassa by Mandaba and his soldiers . At his house in Berengo , Bokassa nearly beat Banza to death before Mandaba suggested that Banza be put on trial for appearance 's sake . On 12 April , Banza presented his case before a military tribunal at Camp de Roux , where he admitted to his plan , but stated that he had not planned to kill Bokassa . Nevertheless , he was sentenced to death by firing squad , taken to an open field behind Camp Kassaï , executed and buried in an unmarked grave .
Ex @-@ President Dacko remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , where the French government , which expressed concern for his well @-@ being , sent a military attaché to visit him . Dacko told the attaché that he had not been given anything to read for more than two years ; the attaché negotiated with the prison head to get Dacko some books . However , Dacko 's living conditions failed to improve , and in June 1969 , Dacko sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville , asking that he offer financial support to his family . The message was intercepted and handed over to Bokassa , who thought the letter was ample reason for him to get rid of Dacko . Dacko was charged with threatening state security and transferred to Ngaragba Prison . However , Bokassa dropped the charges on 14 July , after Judge Albert Kouda convinced him that there was insufficient evidence to get a conviction . Dacko stayed at the Palais de la Renaissance until his health improved , after which he was sent to live in Mokinda , Lobaye under house arrest . It was not until October 1969 — almost four years after the coup — that Bokassa began releasing other prisoners from Ngaragba .
Dacko remained under house arrest until he was named private adviser to President Bokassa on 17 September 1976 . Bokassa dissolved the government and formed the Central African Empire , which led to increasing international criticism in the late 1970s . Dacko managed to leave for Paris , where the French convinced him to cooperate in a coup to remove Bokassa from power and restore him to the presidency . Dacko was installed as president on 21 September 1979 , but was once again removed from power by his army chief of staff , André Kolingba , in a bloodless coup d 'état on 1 September 1981 . Bokassa lived in exile in Paris and was sentenced to death in absentia in December 1980 . Upon returning to the CAR in October 1986 , he was arrested and charged with treason , murder , cannibalism and embezzlement . He was cleared on the cannibalism charges , but was convicted on the rest and sentenced to death on 12 June 1987 . Kolingba commuted his sentence to life imprisonment in February 1988 , and then commuted it again to 20 years in prison . Kolingba later declared amnesty for all prisoners , so Bokassa was released from prison on 1 August 1993 .
= The King 's Speech =
The King 's Speech is a 2010 British biographical drama film directed by Tom Hooper and written by David Seidler . Colin Firth plays King George VI who , to cope with a stammer , sees Lionel Logue , an Australian speech and language therapist played by Geoffrey Rush . The men become friends as they work together , and after his brother abdicates the throne , the new king relies on Log
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weeks . Many roads and buildings were damaged by Hurricane Katrina .
In a June 2006 report on the disaster , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers admitted that faulty design specifications , incomplete sections , and substandard construction of levee segments , contributed to the damage done to New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina . A report released by the American Society of Civil Engineers in June 2007 concluded that two @-@ thirds of the flooding in the city could have been avoided if the levees had held .
The failure of the Hurricane Protection Project of New Orleans has prompted many government officials to call for many congressional committee hearings and investigations . The group Levees.org led by Sandy Rosenthal called for 8 / 29 Commission to investigate both the engineering and decision @-@ making behind the collapse of a flood protection system that should have held against Katrina 's storm surge .
= = = Loss of life = = =
Final reports indicate that the official death toll , according to the Louisiana Department of Health , was 1 @,@ 464 people . The first deaths were reported shortly before midnight on August 28 , 2005 , as three nursing home patients died during an evacuation to Baton Rouge . On September 4 , Mayor Nagin speculated that the death toll could rise as high as ten thousand after the clean @-@ up was completed . Some survivors and evacuees reported seeing bodies lying in city streets and floating in still @-@ flooded sections , especially in the east of the city . The advanced state of decomposition of many corpses , some of which were left in the water or sun for days before being collected , hindered efforts by coroners to identify many of the dead .
There were six deaths confirmed at the Superdome . Four of these were from natural causes , one was the result of a drug overdose , and one was a suicide . At the Convention Center , four bodies were recovered . One of these four is believed to be the result of a homicide . Body collection throughout the city began on approximately September 9 . Prior to that date , the locations of corpses were recorded , but most were not retrieved .
Later studies determined that most of New Orleans ' Katrina dead were elderly persons living near levee breaches in the Lower Ninth Ward and Lakeview neighborhoods of New Orleans .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Civil disturbances = = =
The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina was characterized by extensive reporting of looting , violence , shooting against rescuers , murder and rape . While some criminal acts did occur , such as the emptying of an entire Walmart , many reports were also exaggerated , inflated , or simply fabricated . Several news organizations went on to issue retractions .
There were reports of snipers taking potshots at rescue helicopters ; these were false . Reports of gangs roving the city shooting police officers and survivors were also false , as only one policeman was shot in the aftermath of Katrina and no indictments were brought forward against the supposed gang members .
While looting was indeed widespread , many reported instances of " looting " were in fact stranded survivors scavenging necessary supplies such as food , water , clothing , and shelter . Some instances of looting were later found out to have been carried out by a small number of NOPD officers .
Rebecca Solnit , writing in The Nation , reported that “ Several weeks after Hurricane Katrina , community organizer and former Black Panther Malik Rahim had told Amy Goodman on her nationally syndicated program DemocracyNow ! , " During the aftermath , directly after the flooding , in New Orleans hunting season began on young African American men . In Algiers , I believe , approximately around 18 African American males were killed . No one really know [ s ] what 's the overall count . " ”
These investigations led to at least one indictment by the Department of Justice .
Civil disturbances in post @-@ Hurricane Katrina were consistent with all existing research on disaster sociology , which concludes that “ [ post @-@ disaster ] widespread looting [ is ] a myth ” , and were vastly overstated by the media , ultimately fueling a climate of suspicion and paranoia which greatly hampered rescue efforts and further worsened the conditions of the survivors .
Some initial reports of mass chaos , particularly in stories about the Superdome , were later found to be exaggerated or rumor . In the Superdome for example , the New Orleans sex crimes unit investigated every report of rape or atrocity and found only two verifiable incidents , both of sexual assault . The department head told reporters , " I think it was urban myth . Any time you put 25 @,@ 000 people under one roof , with no running water , no electricity and no information , stories get told . " Based on these reports , government officials expected hundreds of dead to be found in the Superdome , but instead found only 6 dead ( of which there were 4 natural deaths , one drug overdose and one suicide ) . In a case of reported sniper fire , the " sniper " turned out to be the relief valve of a gas tank popping every few minutes .
Additional acts of unrest occurred following the storm , particularly with the New Orleans Police Department . In the aftermath , a tourist asked a police officer for assistance , and got the response , " Go to hell , it 's every man for himself . " Also , one @-@ third of New Orleans police officers deserted the city in the days before the storm , many of them escaping in their department @-@ owned patrol cars . This added to the chaos by stretching law enforcement thin . Additionally , several NOPD officers were arrested weeks after Katrina for suspicion of vehicle theft .
= = = Gretna controversy = = =
The City of Gretna on the West Bank of the Mississippi River received considerable press coverage when , in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina ( late August 2005 ) , displaced and dehydrated survivors who attempted to escape from New Orleans by walking over the Crescent City Connection bridge over the Mississippi River were turned back at gunpoint by City of Gretna Police , along with Crescent City Connection Police and Jefferson Parish Sheriff 's deputies , who set up a roadblock on the bridge in the days following the hurricane .
= = = Re @-@ establishing governance = = =
On August 31 , New Orleans 's 1 @,@ 500 @-@ member police force was ordered to abandon search and rescue missions and turn its attention toward controlling the widespread looting . The city also ordered a mandatory curfew . Mayor Nagin called for increased federal assistance in a " desperate S.O.S. " , following the city 's inability to control looting . He was often misquoted as declaring " martial law " in the city , despite there being no such term in Louisiana state law ( a declaration of a state of emergency was instead made ) . On the same day , Governor Kathleen Blanco announced the arrival of a military presence , stating that " they have M @-@ 16s and are locked and loaded . These troops know how to shoot and kill and I expect they will . " Despite the increased law enforcement presence , crime continued to be a problem .
Relief efforts were constantly disrupted by violence , and there were reports of groups of armed men running rampant through the streets , looting and pillaging unattended buildings and stores . Charity Hospital , one of several facilities attempting to evacuate patients , was forced to halt the effort after coming under gunfire . By September 1 , 6 @,@ 500 National Guard troops had arrived in New Orleans , and on September 2 Blanco requested a total of 40 @,@ 000 for assistance in evacuation and security efforts in Louisiana . In addition , the Louisiana State Guard and state defense forces from several states were activated to aid the National Guard in sheltering the large number of refugees leaving Louisiana and assist in other disaster recovery operations .
Some concern over the availability and readiness of the Louisiana National Guard to help stabilize the security situation was raised . Guardsman Lieutenant Colonel Pete had commented that " dozens of high water vehicles , humvees , refuelers , and generators were abroad . " At the time of the hurricane , approximately 3 @,@ 000 members of the Guard were serving a tour of duty in Iraq . With total personnel strength of 11 @,@ 000 , this meant that 27 % of the Louisiana National Guard was abroad . However , both the White House and the Pentagon argued that the depletion of personnel and equipment did not impact the ability of the Guard to perform its mission — rather , impassable roads and flooded areas were the major factors impeding the Guardsmen from securing the situation in New Orleans .
Before Hurricane Katrina , the murder rate in New Orleans was ten times higher than the U.S. average . After the situation in New Orleans was brought under control , criminal activity in New Orleans dropped significantly .
In response to the increase in criminal activity in New Orleans , makeshift prisons were constructed to house prisoners for short periods of time . Camp Greyhound was a temporary prison that housed more than 200 suspected looters in New Orleans until they could be transferred to other institutions . With room for 700 prisoners , the facility was guarded by officers from one of the United States ' toughest prisons , the Louisiana State Penitentiary at Angola . The station 's bus terminals were converted into chain @-@ link prison cells that could hold up to fifteen prisoners each . These prisoners were kept in conditions that included a portable toilet and military issued meals , but excluded a mattress or cot .
This camp demonstrated the reaction time and resourcefulness of the law enforcement of Louisiana . Several prisons were uninhabitable due to flooding , and the officers were forced to be flexible and work with the tools available to them . Law enforcement constructed the necessary offices of a police station in the general areas of the bus station , which included the offices of the District Attorney and the Justice Department . Camp Greyhound did have several issues with police records due to flooding , and prisoners who had committed minor infractions were kept in the same areas as those with more serious allegations . The facility was run on backup generators and outdated fingerprinting methods were used , which added to the confusion of the facility .
= = = The Superdome = = =
As one of the largest structures in the city , evacuees were brought to the Superdome to wait out the storm or to await further evacuation . Many others made their way to the Superdome on their
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own , hoping to find food , water , shelter , or transport out of town . On August 29 , Katrina passed over New Orleans with such force that it ripped two holes in the Superdome roof . On the evening of August 30 , Maj. Gen. Bennett C. Landreneau , of the Louisiana National Guard , said that the number of people taking shelter in the Superdome had risen to around 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 as search and rescue teams brought more people to the Superdome from areas hard @-@ hit by the flooding . As conditions worsened and flood waters continued to rise , on August 31 , Governor Blanco ordered that all of New Orleans , including the Superdome , be evacuated . The area outside the Superdome was flooded to a depth of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , with a possibility of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) if the area equalized with Lake Pontchartrain . Governor Blanco had the state send in 68 school buses on Monday to begin evacuating people .
Despite increasingly squalid conditions , the population inside continued to grow . The situation inside the building was described as chaotic ; reports of rampant drug use , fights , rape , and filthy living conditions were widespread . At the time , as many as 100 were reported to have died in the Superdome , with most deaths resulting from heat exhaustion , but other reported incidents included an accused rapist who was beaten to death by a crowd and an apparent suicide . Despite these reports , though , the final official death toll was significantly less : six people inside ( 4 of natural causes , one overdose , and an apparent suicide ) and a few more in the general area outside the stadium .
FEMA had announced that , in conjunction with Greyhound , the National Guard , and Houston Metro , the 25 @,@ 000 people at the Superdome would be relocated across state lines to the Houston Astrodome . Roughly 475 buses were promised by FEMA to ferry evacuees with the entire evacuation expected to take two days . By September 4 , the Superdome had been completely evacuated .
Although the Superdome suffered damage by water and wind to the overall interior and exterior structures , as well as interior damage from human waste and trash , the facility was repaired at a cost of US $ 140 million and was ready for games by the autumn of 2006 .
= = = New Orleans Convention Center = = =
Because of Hurricane Katrina , the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center suffered a loss of water pressure and electricity , and one of its convention halls had a large hole in its ceiling . The center was otherwise only lightly damaged .
On August 29 , as people were being turned away at the Superdome and rescues continued , rescuers began dropping people off at the Convention Center , which , at 8 feet ( 2 m ) above sea level , easily escaped the flood . Captain M.A. Pfeiffer of the NOPD was quoted as saying , " It was supposed to be a bus stop where they dropped people off for transportation . The problem was , the transportation never came . " By the afternoon of the 29th , the crowd had grown to about 1 @,@ 000 people . The convention center 's president ( who was there with a small group of convention center employees at this time ) addressed the crowd near dark , informing them that there was no food , water , medical care , or other services . By late on the evening of the 29th , the convention center had been broken into , and evacuees began occupying the inside of the convention center .
A contingent of 250 National Guard engineering units occupied one part of the convention center beginning August 30 and remained there until September 1 , at times barricaded in their location . The units were never given orders to control the crowd , and were not expected to be prepared for such a task , as engineering units . The number of people at the convention center continued to grow over the next three days by some estimates to as many as 20 @,@ 000 people . Reasons for arriving included being sent to the convention center from the overwhelmed Superdome , being dropped off there by rescuers , or hearing about the convention center as a shelter via word of mouth . No checking for weapons was done among the crowd as was done at the Superdome , and a large store of alcohol kept at the Convention Center was looted . Reports of robberies , murder , and rape began to surface . In general , those who died , regardless of cause of death , were not moved or removed and were left to decompose .
By September 1 , the facility , like the Superdome , was completely overwhelmed and declared unsafe and unsanitary . However , even though there were thousands of people who were evacuating at the center , along with network newscasters , pleading desperately for help on CNN , FOX , and other broadcast outlets , FEMA head Michael Brown and Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff both claimed to have no knowledge of the use of the Convention Center as a shelter until the afternoon of September 1 .
A sizable contingent of National Guard arrived on September 2 to establish order and provide essential provisions , and on September 3 , buses began arriving at the convention center to pick up the refugees there . The Convention Center was completely evacuated by September 4 .
= = = Evacuation efforts = = =
On August 31 , a public health emergency was declared for the entire Gulf Coast , and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco ordered a mandatory evacuation of all those remaining in New Orleans . Relief organizations scrambled to locate suitable areas for relocating evacuees on a large scale . Many of the survivors in the Superdome were bussed to the Reliant Astrodome in Houston , Texas . Houston agreed to shelter an additional 25 @,@ 000 evacuees beyond those admitted to the Astrodome , including one " renegade bus " that was commandeered by private citizen Jabbar Gibson , who had been released on bond from the Orleans Parish Prison just days before the storm hit , and had a previous criminal conviction . By September 1 , the Astrodome was declared full and could not accept any more evacuees . The George R. Brown Convention Center nearby was opened to house additional evacuees . San Antonio , Texas also agreed to house 25 @,@ 000 refugees , beginning relocation efforts in vacant office buildings on the grounds of KellyUSA , a former air force base , and Reunion Arena in Dallas , Texas was mobilized to house incoming evacuees , and smaller shelters were established in towns across Texas and Oklahoma . Arkansas also opened various shelters and state parks throughout the state for evacuees .
Expected to last only two days , the evacuation of remaining evacuees proved more difficult than rescue organizations anticipated as transportation convoys struggled with damaged infrastructure and a growing number of evacuees . By the morning of September 1 , Governor Blanco reported that the number of evacuees in the Superdome was down to 2 @,@ 500 . However , by evening , eleven hours after evacuation efforts began , the Superdome held 10 @,@ 000 more people than it did at dawn . Evacuees from across the city swelled the crowd to about 30 @,@ 000 , believing the arena was the best place to get a ride out of town .
Evacuation efforts were hastened on September 2 by the wider dispersal of evacuees among newly opened shelters . Louis Armstrong International Airport was reopened to allow flights related to relief efforts , and began to load evacuees onto planes as well .
Elements of the 82nd Airborne Division arrived in New Orleans September 3 . The flooding was a challenge for the paratroopers when they first arrived . The division had just four boats at the time , however , the division quickly started getting Coast Guard , Navy and Marine assets placed under their control . Army Maj. Gen. William B. Caldwell IV , the 82nd 's commanding general , noted : " We eventually became the 82nd ' Waterborne ' Division , " the general said , " and that really was our forte " during search @-@ and @-@ rescue and security missions in flooded sections of the city .
Task Force Katrina Commander Army Lt. Gen. Russel Honore also charged the paratroopers to straighten out the evacuation situations at Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport , the New Orleans Convention Center and the Superdome . In all , 3 @,@ 600 of the division 's paratroopers were deployed to New Orleans to participate in Task Force All @-@ American . The unit worked in tandem with state , local and other federal authorities to feed , process and transport evacuees to other accommodations ; the division 's soldiers helped evacuate 6 @,@ 000 New Orleans residents . By September 18 , the 82nd Division medical personnel had treated 1 @,@ 352 people and given 2 @,@ 047 immunizations , according to unit documents . By September 19 , 82nd Division military engineers had cleared 185 city blocks of debris , cleared 113 streets , and removed 218 trees , according to unit documents .
On September 3 , some 42 @,@ 000 evacuees were evacuated from New Orleans , including those remaining in the Superdome and Convention Center . Efforts turned to the hundreds of people still trapped in area hotels , hospitals , schools and private homes .
On September 6 , Mayor Ray Nagin ordered a forced evacuation of everyone from the city who was not involved in clean up work , citing safety and health concerns . The order was given not only as an attempt to restore law and order , but also out of concern about the hazardous living conditions in the city . Eviction efforts escalated three days later , when door @-@ to @-@ door searches were conducted to advise remaining residents to leave the city . Despite this , a number of residents defied the eviction order . While initially lax in enforcing evictions , National Guard troops eventually began to remove residents by force .
= = = Health effects = = =
There was a concern that the prolonged flooding would lead to an outbreak of health problems for those who remained in the city . In addition to dehydration and food poisoning , there was also potential for the spread of hepatitis A , cholera , tuberculosis , and typhoid fever , all related to the growing contamination of food and drinking water supplies in the city compounded by the city 's characteristic heat and stifling humidity . Survivors could also face long @-@ term health risks due to prolonged exposure to the petrochemical tainted flood waters and mosquito @-@ borne diseases such as yellow fever , malaria and West Nile Virus .
On September 2 , an emergency triage center was set up at the airport . A steady stream of helicopters and ambulances brought in the elderly , sick , and injured . Baggage equipment was used as gurneys to transport people from the flight line to the hospital , which was set up in the airport terminal . The scene could be described as , " organized chaos " , but efficient . By September 3 , the situation started to stabilize . Up to 5 @,@ 000 people had been triaged and fewer than 200 remained at the medical unit .
Hospital evacuations continued from other area hospitals that were flooded or damaged . Reports from the Methodist Hospital indicated that people were dying of dehydration and exhaustion while the staff worked unendingly in horrendous conditions . The first floor of the hospital flooded and the dead were stacked in a second floor operating room . Patients requiring ventilators were kept alive with hand @-@ powered resuscitation bags .
Among the many hospitals shut down by damage related to the hurricane was the public hospital serving New Orleans , Charity Hospital , which was also the only trauma center serving that region . The destruction of the hospital 's structure has forced the continued closure as funding for a new building is sought out .
On September 6 , E. coli was detected in the water supply . According to the CDC , five people died from bacterial infections caused by the toxic waters . The deaths appear to have been caused by Vibrio vulnificus bacteria , of the Cholera family .
= = = Economy = = =
Before Katrina ’ s landfall in 2005 , the economy of New Orleans relied heavily on its usefulness and income derived from being a port city . The population grew and the economy peaked in the late 19th century . However , in the recent years , after rapid industrialization and the development of faster methods of transporting goods , the economy of New Orleans has been in a steady decline . As a result , New Orleans came to rely on three major industries for economic revenue : transportation , entertainment , and public services . However , after Katrina ’ s landfall , these sectors , including the overall economy , were reduced and heavily affected by the natural disaster .
After the hurricane , the labor force diminished and wages decreased by staggering amounts . In July 2005 , 9 @,@ 592 people applied for unemployment services and the payroll of metropolitan firms declined by 13 @.@ 6 % between July 2005 and July 2007 , indicating an estimated loss of 70 @,@ 000 jobs . The sectors most affected were service @-@ related industries , fluctuating with the population . The only sector to truly thrive after landfall was construction , which was in high demand to make needed repairs and rebuild destroyed homes .
In the first initial months following Katrina , the labor force reduced faster than the demand and unemployment
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living happily ever after with Pamela and their two sons . A third version by an unknown writer focused on the Murphy @-@ McClure friendship and was rejected by the threat of a lawsuit from McClure . Desi Arnaz offered to bankroll a 1965 project titled Helmets in the Dust . At Murphy 's request McClure wrote a film treatment , but the project never came to fruition .
= = Later films = =
The Hibbs @-@ Murphy team proved so successful in To Hell and Back that the two worked together on a total of five subsequent films . Hibbs directed Murphy in Ride Clear of Diablo in 1954 . The partnership resulted in the commercially unsuccessful non @-@ traditional 1956 western Walk the Proud Land . Hibbs and Murphy teamed with each other for non @-@ westerns Joe Butterfly and World in My Corner . They worked together a final time in the 1958 western Ride a Crooked Trail . Veteran character actor Dan Duryea who portrayed villain Whitey Kincaide in Ride Clear of Diablo played a second lead in two more Murphy vehicles , Night Passage and Six Black Horses . The Story of Charles Russell with Murphy as the lead was under development at Universal but shelved after the disappointing receipts of Walk the Proud Land . Murphy , however , was enthusiastic enough about a biopic of Charles Marion Russell to give serious consideration tor his own production that would star Guy Mitchell in the lead , but no such film was made .
Murphy was hired by Joseph L. Mankiewicz to play the role of The American ( Alden Pyle in the book ) in the 1958 version of The Quiet American , replacing Montgomery Clift when the latter dropped out . Michael Redgrave replaced Laurence Olivier who dropped out when Clift withdrew . The cold @-@ war drama filmed in Vietnam was a departure from the genre in which Murphy had normally been cast .
Murphy formed a partnership with Harry Joe Brown to make three films , the first of which was the 1957 The Guns of Fort Petticoat . The partnership fell into disagreement over the remaining two projects , and Brown filed suit against Murphy . Although Murphy was to co @-@ star with Robert Mitchum in the 1957 film Night Riders , scheduling conflicts prevented him from doing so . Springing from his skin diving hobby , Murphy hired diving expert Paul Kazear to write the script Skin Diver with a Heart . Murphy reneged on the deal and the film was never made . Kazear sued Murphy in 1958 .
The 1950s decade ended with Murphy doing three westerns . He co @-@ starred with 14 @-@ year @-@ old Sandra Dee in the 1959 film The Wild and the Innocent . The film 's cast was rounded out with respected talent of the era in Gilbert Roland , Joanne Dru and Jim Backus . His collaboration with Walter Mirisch on the black and white Cast a Long Shadow included an uncredited stint as co @-@ producer . The film co @-@ starred Terry Moore . His performance in No Name on the Bullet was well received . The storyline follows the cool , jaded hired gun as the townspeople are gripped with fear by his presence .
Murphy continued to make films in the 1960s . Murphy and Huston worked together one more time in the 1960 film The Unforgiven , in which Murphy took second billing as Burt Lancaster 's racist kid brother who was bent on the destruction of the Kiowa.Writer Clair Huffaker had success in a number of his works being adapted for the films , including his 1958 novel Flaming Lance being filmed as the Elvis Presley western Flaming Star . Two of his works retained their original titles when Huffaker wrote the screenplays for them as Murphy 's films in 1961 , Seven Ways from Sundown and Posse from Hell . Author Bob Herzberg deemed the scripts two of the best Murphy worked with in that decade . Herbert Coleman directed Posse from Hell as well as the black and white World War II drama Battle at Bloody Beach set in the Philippines .
Willard W. Willingham and his wife Mary Willingham were friends of Murphy 's from his earliest days in Hollywood and who worked with him on a number of projects . Williard was a producer on Murphy 's 1961 television series Whispering Smith . He additionally collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965 . The latter was based on activities of Quantrill 's Raiders and a remake of the George Montgomery 1951 film The Texas Rangers . Moving the setting from Texas to Arizona , the film also featured veteran actor Buster Crabbe . Willard was a co @-@ writer on the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach . The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplays for Gunpoint as well the script for Murphy 's last starring lead in a western 40 Guns to Apache Pass . Released through Columbia Pictures in May 1967 , the storyline centered around Murphy 's character retrieving a cache of stolen rifles sold to Apache leader Cochise .
Apache Rifles in 1964 was another formula Murphy western . He stayed at Universal for a few more years , then left to work at Columbia and Allied Artists before making several films in Europe . In 1966 , he made Trunk to Cairo in Israel . He felt the film was , " the worst James Bond parody I 've ever seen , " but was unable to get out of the commitment .
I feel like a prostitute who is a little over the hill . I get all kinds of promotional offers for movies . But instead of my usual price of $ 100 @,@ 000 per picture , they offer $ 20 @,@ 000 and a percentage of the profit you never see . When people find you need the money in this town , they cut their offer by 80 percent . And I keep turning down liquor and cigarette commercials . I don 't believe they 're good for kids . I guess it 's a matter of not being 100 percent prostitute .
His own company FIPCO Productions produced his last film A Time for Dying . He had a cameo role as Jesse James , and his sons Terry and James were given small roles . Willard W. Willingham played Frank James . Budd Boetticher wrote the script , and agreed to the production as a return favor for an earlier time when Murphy had bailed him out of financial setbacks . The production was beset with financial problems , and the set burned down twice . The film opened in France in 1971 , but was not shown in the United States until its limited release in 1982 . Two other projects that Murphy and Boetticher planned to produce , A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There 's Sumpthin ' to Do , never came to fruition . He made over 40 feature films in his career .
= = Films = =
= = Television = =
The only television series Murphy starred in was the 1961 Whispering Smith in which he played the title character . Based on the film of the same name , the show was about a 19th @-@ century Denver railroad investigator . Episodes were gleaned from real @-@ life cases of the Denver Police Department . The United States Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency was concerned about the violent content in the show and leveled charges against the network . 26 episodes had been filmed , but not all of them aired .
The cooperation of the United States Army and the United States Defense Department was extended for Murphy 's media appearances to publicize the film To Hell and Back . Among the 1955 celebrity television shows on which Murphy appeared to promote the film was Toast of the Town hosted by Ed Sullivan .
The Man 1960 suspense episode of Startime was based on an original Broadway play written by Mel Dinelli . Murphy played a mentally unbalanced stranger who posed as a student and handyman and terrorized homeowner Thelma Ritter .
In 1960 , he was awarded the Outstanding Civilian Service Medal for his cooperation in the production of The Big Picture television series episode Broken Bridge .
= = Radio = =
= = Public Service Announcements = =
= Atlanta =
Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia , with an estimated 2015 population of 463 @,@ 878 . Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area , home to 5 @,@ 522 @,@ 942 people and the ninth largest metropolitan area in the United States . Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County , and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County .
Atlanta was established in 1837 at the intersection of two railroad lines , and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce . In the decades following the Civil Rights Movement , during which the city earned a reputation as " too busy to hate " for the progressive views of its citizens and leaders , Atlanta attained international prominence . Atlanta is the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States , via highway , railroad , and air , with Hartsfield – Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world 's busiest airport since 1998 .
Atlanta is an " alpha- " or " world city " , exerting a significant impact upon commerce , finance , research , technology , education , media , art , and entertainment . It ranks 36th among world cities and 8th in the nation with a gross domestic product of $ 270 billion . Atlanta 's economy is considered diverse , with dominant sectors including logistics , professional and business services , media operations , and information technology . Topographically , Atlanta is marked by rolling hills and dense tree coverage . Revitalization of Atlanta 's neighborhoods , initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta , has intensified in the 21st century , altering the city 's demographics , politics , and culture .
= = History = =
Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia , Creek and Cherokee Indians inhabited the area . Standing Peachtree , a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River , was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta . As part of the systematic removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825 , the Creek ceded the area in 1821 , and white settlers arrived the following year .
In 1836 , the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western and Atlantic Railroad in order to provide a link between the port of Savannah and the Midwest . The initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River , which would then be linked to Savannah . After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus , the " zero milepost " was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points . A year later , the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement , first known as " Terminus " , and later as " Thrasherville " after a local merchant who built homes and a general store in the area . By 1842 , the town had six buildings and 30 residents , and was renamed " Marthasville " to honor the Governor 's daughter . J. Edgar Thomson , Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad , suggested the town be renamed " Atlantica @-@ Pacifica , " which was shortened to " Atlanta " . The residents approved , and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29 , 1847 .
By 1860 , Atlanta 's population had grown to 9 @,@ 554 . During the Civil War , the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies . In 1864 , following the capture of Chattanooga , the Union Army moved southward and began its invasion of north Georgia . The region surrounding Atlanta was the location of several major army battles , culminating with the Battle of Atlanta and a four @-@ month @-@ long siege of the city by the Union Army under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman . On September 1 , 1864 , Confederate General John Bell Hood made the decision to retreat from Atlanta , ordering all public buildings and possible assets to the Union Army destroyed . On the next day , Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army , and on September 7 , General Sherman ordered the city 's civilian population to evacuate . On November 11 , 1864 , in preparation of the Union Army 's march to Savannah , Sherman ordered Atlanta to be burned to the ground , sparing only the city 's churches and hospitals .
After the Civil War ended in 1865 , Atlanta was gradually rebuilt . Due to the city 's superior rail transportation network , the state capital was moved to Atlanta from Milledgeville in 1868 . In the 1880 Census , Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgia 's largest city . Beginning in the 1880s , Henry W. Grady , the editor of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper , promoted Atlanta to potential investors as a city of the " New South " that would be based upon a modern economy and less reliant on agriculture . By 1885 , the founding of the Georgia School of Technology ( now Georgia Tech ) and the city 's black colleges had established the city as a center for higher education . In 1895 , Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition , which attracted nearly 800 @,@ 000 attendees and successfully promoted the New South 's development to the world .
During the first decades of the 20th century , Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth . In three decades ' time , Atlanta 's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs ; the city 's skyline emerged with the construction of the Equitable , Flatiron , Empire , and Candler buildings ; and Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of black commerce . However , the period was also marked by strife and tragedy . Increased racial tensions led to the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906 , which left at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured . In 1915 , Leo Frank , a Jewish @-@ American factory superintendent , convicted of murder , was hanged by a lynch mob , drawing attention to antisemitism in the United States . On May 21 , 1917 , the Great Atlanta Fire destroyed 1 @,@ 938 buildings in what is now the Old Fourth Ward , resulting in one fatality and the displacement of 10 @,@ 000 people .
On December 15 , 1939 , Atlanta hosted the film premiere of Gone with the Wind , the epic film based on the best @-@ selling novel by Atlanta 's Margaret Mitchell . The film 's legendary producer , David O. Selznick , as well as the film 's stars Clark Gable , Vivien Leigh , and Olivia de Havilland attended the gala event at Loew 's Grand Theatre , but Oscar winner Hattie McDaniel , an African American , was barred from the event due to racial segregation laws and policies .
Atlanta played a vital role in the Allied effort during World War II due the city 's war @-@ related manufacturing companies , railroad network , and military bases , leading to rapid growth in the city 's population and economy . In the 1950s , the city 's newly constructed freeway system allowed middle class Atlantans the ability to relocate to the suburbs . As a result , the city began to make up an ever smaller proportion of the metropolitan area 's population .
During the 1960s , Atlanta was a major organizing center of the Civil Rights Movement , with Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . , Ralph David Abernathy , and students from Atlanta 's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement 's leadership . While minimal compared to other cities , Atlanta was not completely free of racial strife . In 1961 , the city attempted to thwart blockbusting by erecting road barriers in Cascade Heights , countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to foster Atlanta as the " city too busy to hate " . Desegregation of the public sphere came in stages , with public transportation desegregated by 1959 , the restaurant at Rich 's department store by 1961 , movie theaters by 1963 , and public schools by 1973 .
In 1960 , whites comprised 61 @.@ 7 % of the city 's population . By 1970 , African Americans were a majority of the city 's population and exercised new @-@ found political influence by electing Atlanta 's first black mayor , Maynard Jackson , in 1973 . Under Mayor Jackson 's tenure , Atlanta 's airport was modernized , solidifying the city 's role as a transportation center . The opening of the Georgia World Congress Center in 1976 heralded Atlanta 's rise as a convention city . Construction of the city 's subway system began in 1975 , with rail service commencing in 1979 . However , despite these improvements , Atlanta lost over 100 @,@ 000 residents between 1970 and 1990 , over 20 % of its population .
In 1990 , Atlanta was selected as the site for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games . Following the announcement , the city government undertook several major construction projects to improve Atlanta 's parks , sporting venues , and transportation infrastructure . While the games themselves were marred by numerous organizational inefficiencies , as well as the Centennial Olympic Park bombing , they were a watershed event in Atlanta 's history , initiating a fundamental transformation of the city in the decade that followed .
During the 2000s , Atlanta underwent a profound transformation demographically , physically , and culturally . Suburbanization , a booming economy , and new migrants decreased the city 's black percentage from a high of 67 % in 1990 to 54 % in 2010 . From 2000 to 2010 , Atlanta gained 22 @,@ 763 white residents , 5 @,@ 142 Asian residents , and 3 @,@ 095 Hispanic residents , while the city 's black population decreased by 31 @,@ 678 . Much of the city 's demographic change during the decade was driven by young , college @-@ educated professionals : from 2000 to 2009 , the three @-@ mile radius surrounding Downtown Atlanta gained 9 @,@ 722 residents aged 25 to 34 holding at least a four @-@ year degree , an increase of 61 % . Between the mid @-@ 1990s and 2010 , stimulated by funding from the HOPE VI program , Atlanta demolished nearly all of its public housing , a total of 17 @,@ 000 units and about 10 % of all housing units in the city . In 2005 , the $ 2 @.@ 8 billion BeltLine project was adopted , with the stated goals of converting a disused 22 @-@ mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art @-@ filled multi @-@ use trail and increasing the city 's park space by 40 % . Lastly , Atlanta 's cultural offerings expanded during the 2000s : the High Museum of Art doubled in size ; the Alliance Theatre won a Tony Award ; and numerous art galleries were established on the once @-@ industrial Westside .
= = Geography = =
Atlanta encompasses 134 @.@ 0 square miles ( 347 @.@ 1 km2 ) , of which 133 @.@ 2 square miles ( 344 @.@ 9 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 85 square miles ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) is water . The city is situated among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains , and at 1 @,@ 050 feet ( 320 m ) above mean sea level , Atlanta has the highest elevation of major cities east of the Mississippi River . Atlanta straddles the Eastern Continental Divide , such that rainwater that falls on the south and east side of the divide flows into the Atlantic Ocean , while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide flows into the Gulf of Mexico . Atlanta sits atop a ridge south of the Chattahoochee River , which is part of the ACF River Basin . Located at the far northwestern edge of the city , much of the river 's natural habitat is preserved , in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Most of Atlanta was burned during the Civil War , depleting the city of a large stock of its historic architecture . Yet architecturally , the city had never been particularly " southern " — because Atlanta originated as a railroad town , rather than a patrician southern seaport like Savannah or Charleston , many of the city 's landmarks could have easily been erected in the Northeast or Midwest .
During the Cold War era , Atlanta embraced global modernist trends , especially regarding commercial and institutional architecture . Examples of modernist architecture include the Westin Peachtree Plaza
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( 1976 ) , Georgia @-@ Pacific Tower ( 1982 ) , the State of Georgia Building ( 1966 ) , and the Atlanta Marriott Marquis ( 1985 ) . In the latter half of the 1980s , Atlanta became one of the early adopters of postmodern designs that reintroduced classical elements to the cityscape . Many of Atlanta 's tallest skyscrapers were built in the late 1980s and early 1990s , with most displaying tapering spires or otherwise ornamented crowns , such as One Atlantic Center ( 1987 ) , 191 Peachtree Tower ( 1991 ) , and the Four Seasons Hotel Atlanta ( 1992 ) . Also completed during the era is Atlanta 's tallest skyscraper , the Bank of America Plaza ( 1992 ) , which , at 1 @,@ 023 feet ( 312 m ) , is the 61st @-@ tallest building in the world and the 9th @-@ tallest building in the United States . The Bank of America Plaza is the tallest building outside of New York City and Chicago , and was the last building built in the United States to be in the top 10 tallest buildings in the world until One World Trade Center was completed externally in May 2013 . The city 's embrace of modern architecture , however , translated into an ambivalent approach toward historic preservation , leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks , including the Equitable Building ( 1892 – 1971 ) , Terminal Station ( 1905 – 1972 ) , and the Carnegie Library ( 1902 – 1977 ) . The Fox Theatre ( 1929 ) — Atlanta 's cultural icon — would have met the same fate had it not been for a grassroots effort to save it in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Atlanta is divided into 242 officially defined neighborhoods . The city contains three major high @-@ rise districts , which form a north @-@ south axis along Peachtree : Downtown , Midtown , and Buckhead . Surrounding these high @-@ density districts are leafy , low @-@ density neighborhoods , most of which are dominated by single @-@ family homes .
Downtown Atlanta contains the most office space in the metro area , much of it occupied by government entities . Downtown is also home to the city 's sporting venues and many of its tourist attractions . Midtown Atlanta is the city 's second @-@ largest business district , containing the offices of many of the region 's law firms . Midtown is also known for its art institutions , cultural attractions , institutions of higher education , and dense form . Buckhead , the city 's uptown district , is eight miles ( 13 km ) north of Downtown and the city 's third @-@ largest business district . The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road , surrounded by suburban single @-@ family neighborhoods situated among dense forests and rolling hills .
Surrounding Atlanta 's three high @-@ rise districts are the city 's low- and medium @-@ density neighborhoods , where the craftsman bungalow single @-@ family home is dominant . The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs built from the 1890s @-@ 1930s as havens for the upper middle class . These neighborhoods , many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded , architecturally @-@ distinct residential streets , include the Victorian Inman Park , Bohemian East Atlanta , and eclectic Old Fourth Ward . On the westside , former warehouses and factories have been converted into housing , retail space , and art galleries , transforming the once @-@ industrial West Midtown into a model neighborhood for smart growth , historic rehabilitation , and infill construction . In southwest Atlanta , neighborhoods closer to downtown originated as streetcar suburbs , including the historic West End , while those farther from downtown retain a postwar suburban layout , including Collier Heights and Cascade Heights , home to much of the city 's affluent African American population . Northwest Atlanta contains the areas of the city to west of Marietta Boulevard and to the north of Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive , including those neighborhoods remote to downtown , such as Riverside , Bolton and Whittier Mill , which is one of Atlanta 's designated Landmark Historical Neighborhoods . Vine City , though technically Northwest , adjoins the city 's Downtown area and has recently been the target of community outreach programs and economic development initiatives .
Gentrification of the city 's neighborhoods is one of the more controversial and transformative forces shaping contemporary Atlanta . The gentrification of Atlanta has its origins in the 1970s , after many of Atlanta 's neighborhoods had undergone the urban decay that affected other major American cities in the mid @-@ 20th century . When neighborhood opposition successfully prevented two freeways from being built through city 's the east side in 1975 , the area became the starting point for Atlanta 's gentrification . After Atlanta was awarded the Olympic games in 1990 , gentrification expanded into other parts of the city , stimulated by infrastructure improvements undertaken in preparation for the games . Gentrification was also aided by the Atlanta Housing Authority 's eradication of the city 's public housing .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen classification , Atlanta has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) with four distinct seasons and generous precipitation year @-@ round , typical for the inland South . Summers are hot and humid , with temperatures somewhat moderated by the city 's elevation . Winters are cool but variable , with an average of 48 freezing days per year and temperatures dropping to 0 ° F ( − 17 @.@ 8 ° C ) on rare occasions . Warm air from the Gulf of Mexico can bring spring @-@ like highs while strong Arctic air masses can push lows into the teens ( ≤ − 7 ° C ) .
July averages 80 @.@ 2 ° F ( 26 @.@ 8 ° C ) , with high temperatures reaching 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on an average 44 days per year , though 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) readings are not seen most years . January averages 43 @.@ 5 ° F ( 6 @.@ 4 ° C ) , with temperatures in the suburbs slightly cooler due largely to the urban heat island effect . Lows at or below freezing can be expected 40 nights annually , but extended stretches with daily high temperatures below 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) are very rare , with a recent exception in January 2014 . Extremes range from − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) on February 13 , 1899 to 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on June 30 , 2012 . Dewpoints in the summer range from 63 @.@ 6 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in June to 67 @.@ 8 ° F ( 20 ° C ) in July .
Typical of the southeastern U.S. , Atlanta receives abundant rainfall that is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year , though spring and early fall are markedly drier . The average annual rainfall is 50 @.@ 2 inches ( 1 @,@ 280 mm ) , while snowfall is typically light at around 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 cm ) per year . The heaviest single snowfall occurred on January 23 , 1940 , with around 10 inches ( 25 cm ) of snow . However , ice storms usually cause more problems than snowfall does , the most severe occurring on January 7 , 1973 . Tornadoes are rare in the city itself , but the March 15 , 2008 EF2 tornado damaged prominent structures in downtown Atlanta .
Note
= = Demographics = =
The 2010 United States Census reported that Atlanta had a population of 420 @,@ 003 . The population density was 3 @,@ 154 per square mile ( 1232 / km2 ) . The racial makeup and population of Atlanta was 54 @.@ 0 % Black or African American , 38 @.@ 4 % White , 3 @.@ 1 % Asian and 0 @.@ 2 % Native American . Those from some other race made up 2 @.@ 2 % of the city 's population , while those from two or more races made up 2 @.@ 0 % . Hispanics of any race made up 5 @.@ 2 % of the city 's population . The median income for a household in the city was $ 45 @,@ 171 . The per capita income for the city was $ 35 @,@ 453 . 22 @.@ 6 % percent of the population was living below the poverty line . However , compared to the rest of the country , Atlanta 's cost of living is 6 @.@ 00 % lower than the U.S. average . Atlanta has one of the highest LGBT populations per capita , ranking third among major American cities , behind San Francisco and slightly behind Seattle , with 12 @.@ 8 % of the city 's total population identifying as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . 7 @.@ 3 % of Atlantans were born abroad .
In the 2010 Census , Atlanta was recorded as the nation 's fourth @-@ largest majority @-@ black city . It has long been known as a center of African @-@ American political power , education , and culture , often called a black mecca . African @-@ American residents of Atlanta have followed whites to newer housing in the suburbs in the early 21st century . From 2000 to 2010 , the city 's black population decreased by 31 @,@ 678 people , shrinking from 61 @.@ 4 % of the city 's population in 2000 to 54 @.@ 0 % in 2010 .
At the same time , the white population of Atlanta has increased . Between 2000 and 2010 , the proportion of whites in the city 's population grew faster than that of any other U.S. city . In that decade , Atlanta 's white population grew from 31 % to 38 % of the city 's population , an absolute increase of 22 @,@ 753 people , more than triple the increase that occurred between 1990 and 2000 .
Out of the total population five years and older , 83 @.@ 3 % spoke only English at home , while 8 @.@ 8 % spoke Spanish , 3 @.@ 9 % another Indo @-@ European language , and 2 @.@ 8 % an Asian language . Atlanta 's dialect has traditionally been a variation of Southern American English . The Chattahoochee River long formed a border between the Coastal Southern and Southern Appalachian dialects . Because of the development of corporate headquarters in the region , attracting migrants from other areas of the country , by 2003 , Atlanta magazine concluded that Atlanta had become significantly " de @-@ Southernized . " A Southern accent was considered a handicap in some circumstances . In general , Southern accents are less prevalent among residents of the city and inner suburbs and among younger people ; they are more common in the outer suburbs and among older people . At the same time , residents of the city express Southern variations of African American Vernacular English .
Religion in Atlanta , while historically centered on Protestant Christianity , now involves many faiths as a result of the city and metro area 's increasingly international population . Protestant Christianity still maintains a strong presence in the city ( 63 % ) , but in recent decades the Catholic Church has increased in numbers and influence because of new migrants in the region . Metro Atlanta also has numerous ethnic or national Christian congregations , including Korean and Indian churches . The larger non @-@ Christian faiths are Judaism , Islam and Hinduism . Overall , there are over 1 @,@ 000 places of worship within Atlanta .
= = Economy = =
Encompassing $ 304 billion , the Atlanta metropolitan area is the eighth @-@ largest economy in the country and 17th @-@ largest in the world . Corporate operations comprise a large portion of the Atlanta 's economy , with the city serving as the regional , national , or global headquarters for many corporations . Atlanta contains the country 's third largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies , and the city is the global headquarters of corporations such as The Coca @-@ Cola Company , The Home Depot , Delta Air Lines , AT & T Mobility , Chick @-@ fil @-@ A , UPS , and Newell @-@ Rubbermaid . Over 75 percent of Fortune 1000 companies conduct business operations in the Atlanta metropolitan area , and the region hosts offices of about 1 @,@ 250 multinational corporations . Many corporations are drawn to Atlanta on account of the city 's educated workforce ; as of 2010 , nearly 43 % of adults in the city of Atlanta have college degrees , compared to 27 % in the nation as a whole .
Atlanta began as a railroad town and logistics has remained a major component of the city 's economy to this day . Atlanta is an important rail junction and contains major classification yards for Norfolk Southern and CSX . Since its construction in the 1950s , Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport has served as a key engine of Atlanta 's economic growth . Delta Air Lines , the city 's largest employer and the metro area 's third largest , operates the world 's largest airline hub at Hartsfield @-@ Jackson and has helped make it the world 's busiest airport , both in terms of passenger traffic and aircraft operations . Partly due to the airport , Atlanta has become a hub for diplomatic missions ; as of 2012 , the city contains 25 general consulates , the seventh @-@ highest concentration of diplomatic missions in the United States .
Media is also an important aspect of Atlanta 's economy . The city is a major cable television programming center . Ted Turner established the headquarters of both the Cable News Network ( CNN ) and the Turner Broadcasting System ( TBS ) in Atlanta . Cox Enterprises , the country 's third @-@ largest cable television service and the publisher of over a dozen major American newspapers , is headquartered in the city . The Weather Channel , owned by NBCUniversal , Bain Capital , and The Blackstone Group , is headquartered just outside Atlanta in Cobb County .
Information technology , an economic sector that includes publishing , software development , entertainment and data processing has garnered a larger percentage of Atlanta 's economic output . Indeed , Atlanta has been nicknamed the Silicon peach due to its burgeoning technology sector . As of 2013 , Atlanta contains the fourth @-@ largest concentration of information technology jobs in the United States , numbering 85 @,@ 000 . Atlanta also ranks as the sixth fastest @-@ growing city for information technology jobs , with an employment growth of 4 @.@ 8 % in 2012 and a three @-@ year growth near 9 % , or 16 @,@ 000 jobs . Information technology companies are drawn to Atlanta 's lower costs and educated workforce .
Largely due to a statewide tax incentive enacted in 2005 , the Georgia Entertainment Industry Investment Act , which awards qualified productions a transferable income tax credit of 20 % of all in @-@ state costs for film and television investments of $ 500 @,@ 000 or more , Atlanta has become a center for film and television production . Film and television production facilities in Atlanta include Turner Studios , Pinewood Studios ( Pinewood Atlanta ) , Tyler Perry Studios , Williams Street Productions , and the EUE / Screen Gems soundstages . Film and television production injected $ 6 billion into Georgia 's economy in 2015 , with Atlanta garnering most of the projects . Atlanta has gained recognition as a center of production of horror and zombie @-@ related productions , with Atlanta magazine dubbing the city the " Zombie Capital of the World " .
Compared to other American cities , Atlanta 's economy has been disproportionately affected by the 2008 financial crisis and subsequent recession , with the city 's economy earning a ranking of 68 among 100 American cities in a September 2014 report due to an elevated unemployment rate , declining real income levels , and a depressed housing market . From 2010 – 2011 , Atlanta saw a 0 @.@ 9 % contraction in employment and only a 0 @.@ 4 % rise in income . Though unemployment had dropped to 7 % by late 2014 , this was still higher than the national unemployment rate of 5 @.@ 8 % Atlanta 's housing market has also struggled , with home prices falling by 2 @.@ 1 % in January 2012 , reaching levels not seen since 1996 . Compared with a year earlier , the average home price in Atlanta fell 17 @.@ 3 % in February 2012 , the largest annual drop in the history of the index for any city . The collapse in home prices has led some economists to deem Atlanta the worst housing market in the country . Nevertheless , in August 2013 , Atlanta appeared on Forbes magazine 's list of the Best Places for Business and Careers .
= = Culture = =
Atlanta , while located in the South , has a culture that is no longer strictly Southern . This is due to a large population of migrants from other parts of the U.S. , in addition to many recent immigrants to the U.S. who have made the metropolitan area their home , establishing Atlanta as the cultural and economic hub of an increasingly multi @-@ cultural metropolitan area . Thus , although traditional Southern culture is part of Atlanta 's cultural fabric , it is mostly the backdrop to one of the nation 's most cosmopolitan cities . This unique cultural combination reveals itself in the arts district of Midtown , the quirky neighborhoods on the city 's eastside , and the multi @-@ ethnic enclaves found along Buford Highway .
= = = Arts and theater = = =
Atlanta is one of few United States cities with permanent , professional , resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines : opera ( Atlanta Opera ) , ballet ( Atlanta Ballet ) , orchestral music ( Atlanta Symphony Orchestra ) , and theater ( the Alliance Theatre ) . Atlanta also attracts many touring Broadway acts , concerts , shows , and exhibitions catering to a variety of interests . Atlanta 's performing arts district is concentrated in Midtown Atlanta at the Woodruff Arts Center , which is home to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Alliance Theatre . The city also frequently hosts touring Broadway acts , especially at The Fox Theatre , a historic landmark that is among the highest grossing theatres of its size .
As a national center for the arts , Atlanta is home to significant art museums and institutions . The renowned High Museum of Art is arguably the South 's leading art museum and among the most @-@ visited art museums in the world . The Museum of Design Atlanta ( MODA ) , a design museum , is the only such museum in the Southeast . Contemporary art museums include the Atlanta Contemporary Art Center and the Museum of Contemporary Art of Georgia . Institutions of higher education also contribute to Atlanta 's art scene , with the Savannah College of Art and Design 's Atlanta campus providing the city 's arts community with a steady stream of curators , and Emory University 's Michael C. Carlos Museum containing the largest collection of ancient art in the Southeast .
= = = Music = = =
Atlanta has played a major or contributing role in the development of various genres of American music at different points in the city 's history . Beginning as early as the 1920s , Atlanta emerged as a center for country music , which was brought to the city by migrants from Appalachia . During the countercultural 1960s , Atlanta hosted the Atlanta International Pop Festival , with the 1969 festival taking place more than a month before Woodstock and featuring many of the same bands . The city was also a center for Southern rock during its 1970s heyday : the Allman Brothers Band 's hit instrumental " Hot ' Lanta " is an ode to the city , while Lynyrd Skynyrd 's famous live rendition of " Free Bird " was recorded at the Fox Theatre in 1976 , with lead singer Ronnie Van Zant directing the band to " play it pretty for Atlanta " . During the 1980s , Atlanta had an active Punk rock scene that was centered on two of the city 's music venues , 688 Club and the Metroplex , and Atlanta famously played host to the Sex Pistols first U.S. show , which was performed at the Great Southeastern Music Hall . The 1990s saw the birth of Atlanta hip hop , a subgenre that gained relevance following the success of home @-@ grown duo OutKast ; however , it was not until the 2000s that Atlanta moved " from the margins to becoming hip @-@ hop 's center of gravity , part of a larger shift in hip @-@ hop innovation to the South " . Also in the 2000s , Atlanta was recognized by the Brooklyn @-@ based Vice magazine for its impressive yet under @-@ appreciated Indie rock scene , which revolves around the various live music venues found on the city 's alternative eastside .
= = = Tourism = = =
As of 2010 , Atlanta is the seventh @-@ most visited city in the United States , with over 35 million visitors per year . Although the most popular attraction among visitors to Atlanta is the Georgia Aquarium , the world 's largest indoor aquarium , Atlanta 's tourism industry mostly driven by the city 's history museums and outdoor attractions . Atlanta contains a notable amount of historical museums and sites , including the Martin Luther King , Jr . National Historic Site , which includes the preserved childhood home of Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . , as well as his final resting place ; the Atlanta Cyclorama & Civil War Museum , which houses a massive painting and diorama in @-@ the @-@ round , with a rotating central audience platform , depicting the Battle of Atlanta in the Civil War ; the World of Coca @-@ Cola , featuring the history of the world famous soft drink brand and its well @-@ known advertising ; the College Football Hall of Fame which honors college football and its athletes ; the National Center for Civil and Human Rights , which explores the Civil Rights Movement and its connection to contemporary human rights movements throughout the world ; the Carter Center and Presidential Library , housing U.S. President Jimmy Carter 's papers and other material relating to the Carter administration and the Carter family 's life ; and the Margaret Mitchell House and Museum , site of the writing of the best @-@ selling novel Gone with the Wind .
Atlanta also contains various outdoor attractions . The Atlanta Botanical Garden , adjacent to Piedmont Park , is home to the 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) Kendeda Canopy Walk , a skywalk that allows visitors to tour one of the city 's last remaining urban forests from 40 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 12 m ) . The Canopy Walk is considered the only canopy @-@ level pathway of its kind in the United States . Zoo Atlanta , located in Grant Park , accommodates over 1 @,@ 300 animals representing more than 220 species . Home to the nation 's largest collections of gorillas and orangutans , the Zoo is also one of only four zoos in the U.S. to house giant pandas . Festivals showcasing arts and crafts , film , and music , including the Atlanta Dogwood Festival , the Atlanta Film Festival , and Music Midtown , respectively , are also popular with tourists .
Tourists are also drawn to the city 's culinary scene , which comprises a mix of urban establishments garnering national attention , ethnic restaurants serving cuisine from every corner of the world , and traditional eateries specializing in Southern dining . Since the turn of the 21st century , Atlanta has emerged as a sophisticated restaurant town . Many restaurants opened in the city 's gentrifying neighborhoods have received praise at the national level , including Bocado , Bacchanalia , and Miller Union in West Midtown , Empire State South in Midtown , and Two Urban Licks and Rathbun 's on the east side . In 2011 , the New York Times characterized Empire State South and Miller Union as reflecting " a new kind of sophisticated Southern sensibility centered on the farm but experienced in the city . " Visitors seeking to sample international Atlanta are directed to Buford Highway , the city 's international corridor . There , the million @-@ plus immigrants that make Atlanta home have established various authentic ethnic restaurants representing virtually every nationality on the globe . For traditional Southern fare , one of the city 's most famous establishments is The Varsity , a long @-@ lived fast food chain and the world 's largest drive @-@ in restaurant . Mary Mac 's Tea Room and Paschal 's are more formal destinations for Southern food .
= = Sports = =
Atlanta is home to professional franchises for three major team sports : the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball , the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association
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, and the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League . The Braves , who moved to Atlanta in 1966 , were established as the Boston Red Stockings in 1871 and are the oldest continually operating professional sports franchise in the United States . The Braves won the World Series in 1995 , and had an unprecedented run of 14 straight divisional championships from 1991 to 2005 .
The Atlanta Falcons have played in Atlanta since their inception in 1966 . The Falcons have won the division title five times ( 1980 , 1998 , 2004 , 2010 , 2012 ) and the conference championship once , when they finished as the runner @-@ up to the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII in 1999 . The Atlanta Hawks began in 1946 as the Tri @-@ Cities Blackhawks , playing in Moline , Illinois . The team moved to Atlanta in 1968 , and they currently play their games in Philips Arena . The Atlanta Dream is the city 's Women 's National Basketball Association franchise .
Atlanta has also had its own professional ice hockey and soccer franchises . The National Hockey League ( NHL ) has had two Atlanta franchises : the Atlanta Flames began play in 1972 before moving to Calgary in 1980 , while the Atlanta Thrashers began play in 1999 before moving to Winnipeg in 2011 . The Atlanta Chiefs was the city 's professional soccer team from 1967 to 1972 , and the team won a national championship in 1968 . In 1998 another professional soccer team was formed , the Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League . In April 2014 , a Major League Soccer team , Atlanta United FC , was formed as an expansion team to begin play in 2017 .
Atlanta has been the host city for various international , professional and collegiate sporting events . Most famously , Atlanta hosted the Centennial 1996 Summer Olympics . Atlanta has also hosted Super Bowl XXVIII in 1994 and Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000 . In professional golf , The Tour Championship , the final PGA Tour event of the season , is played annually at East Lake Golf Club . In 2001 and 2011 , Atlanta hosted the PGA Championship , one of the four major championships in men 's professional golf , at the Atlanta Athletic Club . In professional ice hockey , the city hosted the 56th NHL All @-@ Star Game in 2008 , three years before the Thrashers moved . In 2011 , Atlanta hosted professional wrestling 's annual WrestleMania . The city has hosted the NCAA Final Four Men 's Basketball Championship four times , most recently in 2013 . In college football , Atlanta hosts the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game , the SEC Championship Game , and the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Peach Bowl .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Atlanta 's 343 parks , nature preserves , and gardens cover 3 @,@ 622 acres ( 14 @.@ 66 km2 ) , which amounts to only 5 @.@ 6 % of the city 's total acreage , compared to the national average of just over 10 % . However , 64 % of Atlantans live within a 10 @-@ minute walk of a park , a percentage equal to the national average . Furthermore , in its 2013 ParkScore ranking , the The Trust for Public Land , a national land conservation organization , reported that among the park systems of the 50 most populous U.S. cities , Atlanta 's park system received a ranking of 31 . Piedmont Park , located in Midtown is Atlanta 's most iconic green space . The park , which has undergone a major renovation and expansion in recent years , attracts visitors from across the region and hosts cultural events throughout the year . Other notable city parks include Centennial Olympic Park , a legacy of the 1996 Summer Olympics that forms the centerpiece of the city 's tourist district ; Woodruff Park , which anchors the campus of Georgia State University ; Grant Park , home to both Zoo Atlanta and the Atlanta Cyclorama & Civil War Museum ; and Chastain Park , which houses an amphitheater used for live music concerts . The Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area , located in the northwestern corner of the city , preserves a 48 mi ( 77 km ) stretch of the river for public recreation opportunities . The Atlanta Botanical Garden , adjacent to Piedmont Park , contains formal gardens , including a Japanese garden and a rose garden , woodland areas , and a conservatory that includes indoor exhibits of plants from tropical rainforests and deserts . The BeltLine , a former rail corridor that forms a 22 mi ( 35 km ) loop around Atlanta 's core , will eventually be transformed into a series of parks , connected by a multi @-@ use trail , increasing Atlanta 's park space by 40 % .
Atlanta offers resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation . Jogging is a particularly popular local sport . The Peachtree Road Race , the world 's largest 10 km race , is held annually on Independence Day . The Georgia Marathon , which begins and ends at Centennial Olympic Park , routes through the city 's historic east side neighborhoods . Golf and tennis are also popular in Atlanta , and the city contains six public golf courses and 182 tennis courts . Facilities located along the Chattahoochee River cater to watersports enthusiasts , providing the opportunity for kayaking , canoeing , fishing , boating , or tubing . The city 's only skate park , a 15 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) facility that offers bowls , curbs , and smooth @-@ rolling concrete mounds , is located at Historic Fourth Ward Park .
= = Government and politics = =
Atlanta is governed by a mayor and the Atlanta City Council . The city council consists of 15 representatives — one from each of the city 's 12 districts and three at @-@ large positions . The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council , but the council can override the veto with a two @-@ thirds majority . The mayor of Atlanta is Kasim Reed , a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose first term in office expired at the end of 2013 . Reed was elected to a second term on November 5 , 2013 . Every mayor elected since 1973 has been black . In 2001 , Shirley Franklin became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Atlanta , and the first African @-@ American woman to serve as mayor of a major southern city . Atlanta city politics suffered from a notorious reputation for corruption during the 1990s administration of Bill Campbell , who was convicted by a federal jury in 2006 on three counts of tax evasion in connection with gambling income he received while Mayor during trips he took with city contractors .
As the state capital , Atlanta is the site of most of Georgia 's state government . The Georgia State Capitol building , located downtown , houses the offices of the governor , lieutenant governor and secretary of state , as well as the General Assembly . The Governor 's Mansion is located in a residential section of Buckhead . Atlanta serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy , including the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Atlanta also plays an important role in federal judiciary system , containing the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit and of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia .
Historically , Atlanta has been a stronghold for the Democratic Party . Although municipal elections are officially nonpartisan , nearly all of the city 's elected officials are registered Democrats . The city is split among 14 state house districts and four state senate districts , all held by Democrats . At the federal level , Atlanta is split between two congressional districts . The northern three @-@ fourths of the city is located in the 5th district , represented by Democrat John Lewis . The southern fourth is in the 13th district , represented by Democrat David Scott .
The city is served by the Atlanta Police Department , which numbers 2 @,@ 000 officers and oversaw a 40 % decrease in the city 's crime rate between 2001 and 2009 . Specifically , homicide decreased by 57 % , rape by 72 % , and violent crime overall by 55 % . Crime is down across the country , but Atlanta 's improvement has occurred at more than twice the national rate . Nevertheless , Forbes ranked Atlanta as the sixth most dangerous city in the United States in 2012 .
= = Education = =
Due to the more than 30 colleges and universities located in the city , Atlanta is considered a center for higher education . Among the most prominent public universities in Atlanta is the Georgia Institute of Technology , a research university located in Midtown that has been consistently ranked among the nation 's top ten public universities for its degree programs in engineering , computing , management , the sciences , architecture , and liberal arts . Georgia State University , a public research university located in Downtown Atlanta , is the largest of the 29 public colleges and universities in the University System of Georgia and a major contributor to the revitalization of the city 's central business district . Atlanta is also home to nationally renowned private colleges and universities , most notably Emory University , a leading liberal arts and research institution that ranks among the top 20 schools in the United States and operates Emory Healthcare , the largest health care system in Georgia . Also located in the city is the Atlanta University Center , the largest contiguous consortium of historically black colleges , comprising Spelman College , Clark Atlanta University , Morehouse College , Morehouse School of Medicine , and Interdenominational Theological Center . Atlanta also contains a campus of the Savannah College of Art and Design , a private art and design university that has proven to be a major factor in the recent growth of Atlanta 's visual art community .
Atlanta Public Schools enrolls 55 @,@ 000 students in 106 schools , some of which are operated as charter schools . The district has been plagued by a widely publicized cheating scandal exposed in 2009 . Atlanta is also served by many private schools , including parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Atlanta .
= = Media = =
The primary network @-@ affiliated television stations in Atlanta are WXIA @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WGCL @-@ TV ( CBS ) , WSB @-@ TV ( ABC ) , and WAGA @-@ TV ( FOX ) . The Atlanta metropolitan area is served by two public television stations and one public radio station . WGTV is the flagship station of the statewide Georgia Public Television network and is a PBS member station , while WPBA is owned by Atlanta Public Schools . Georgia Public Radio is listener @-@ funded and comprises one NPR member station , WABE , a classical music station operated by Atlanta Public Schools .
Atlanta is served by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution is the result of a 1950 merger between The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution , with staff consolidation occurring in 1982 and separate publication of the morning Constitution and afternoon Journal ceasing in 2001 . Alternative weekly newspapers include Creative Loafing , which has a weekly print circulation of 80 @,@ 000 . Atlanta magazine is an award @-@ winning , monthly general @-@ interest magazine based in and covering Atlanta .
= = Transportation = =
Atlanta 's transportation infrastructure comprises a complex network that includes a heavy rail line , a streetcar line , multiple interstate highways , the world 's busiest airport , and over 45 miles ( 72 kilometres ) of bike paths .
With a network of freeways that radiate out from the city , automobiles are the dominant mode of transportation in the region . Three major interstate highways converge in Atlanta : I @-@ 20 ( east @-@ west ) , I @-@ 75 ( northwest @-@ southeast ) , and I @-@ 85 ( northeast @-@ southwest ) . The latter two combine in the middle of the city to form the Downtown Connector ( I @-@ 75 / 85 ) , which carries more than 340 @,@ 000 vehicles per day and is one of the most congested segments of interstate highway in the United States . Atlanta is mostly encircled by Interstate 285 , a beltway locally known as " the Perimeter " that has come to mark the boundary between " Inside the Perimeter " ( ITP ) , the city and close @-@ in suburbs , and " Outside the Perimeter " ( OTP ) , the outer suburbs and exurbs . The heavy reliance on automobiles for transportation in Atlanta has resulted in traffic , commute , and air pollution rates that rank among the worst in the country .
The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority ( MARTA ) provides public transportation in the form of buses and heavy rail . Notwithstanding heavy automotive usage in Atlanta , the city 's subway system is the eighth busiest in the country . MARTA rail lines connect many key destinations , such as the airport , Downtown , Midtown , Buckhead , and Perimeter Center . However , significant destinations , such as Emory University and Cumberland , remain unserved . As a result , a 2012 Brookings Institution study placed Atlanta 87th of 100 metro areas for transit accessibility . Emory University operates its Cliff shuttle buses with 200 @,@ 000 boardings per month , while private minibuses supply Buford Highway . Amtrak , the national rail passenger system , provides service to Atlanta via the Crescent train ( New York – New Orleans ) , which stops at Peachtree Station . In 2014 , the Atlanta Streetcar opened to the public . The streetcar 's line , which is also known as the Downtown Loop , runs 2 @.@ 7 miles around the downtown tourist areas of Peachtree Center , Centennial Olympic Park , the Martin Luther King , Jr . National Historic Site , and Sweet Auburn . The Atlanta Streetcar line is also being expanded on in the coming years to include a wider range of Atlanta 's neighborhoods and important places of interest , with a total of 66 miles of track being laid in the near future .
Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport , the world 's busiest airport as measured by passenger traffic and aircraft traffic , offers air service to over 150 U.S. destinations and more than 80 international destinations in 52 countries , with over 2 @,@ 700 arrivals and departures daily . Delta Air Lines maintains its largest hub at the airport . Situated 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of downtown , the airport covers most of the land inside a wedge formed by Interstate 75 , Interstate 85 , and Interstate 285 .
Cycling is a growing mode of transportation in Atlanta , more than doubling since 2009 , when it comprised 1 @.@ 1 % of all commutes ( up from 0 @.@ 3 % in 2000 ) . Although Atlanta 's lack of bike lanes and hilly topography may deter many residents from cycling , the city 's transportation plan calls for the construction of 226 miles ( 364 kilometres ) of bike lanes by 2020 , with the BeltLine helping to achieve this goal . In 2012 , Atlanta 's first " bike track " was constructed on 10th Street in Midtown . The two lane bike track runs from Monroe Drive west to Charles Allen Drive , with connections to the Beltline and Piedmont Park . Starting in June 2016 , Atlanta received a bike sharing program with 100 bikes in Downtown , with 500 more being expected by the end of the year .
= = Tree canopy = =
Atlanta has a reputation as a " city in a forest " due to an abundance of trees that is rare among major cities . The city 's main street is named after a tree , and beyond the Downtown , Midtown , and Buckhead business districts , the skyline gives way to a dense canopy of woods that spreads into the suburbs . The city is home to the Atlanta Dogwood Festival , an annual arts and crafts festival held one weekend during early April , when the native dogwoods are in bloom . However , the nickname is also factually accurate , as the city 's tree coverage percentage is at 36 % , the highest out of all major American cities , and above the national average of 27 % . Atlanta 's tree coverage does not go unnoticed — it was the main reason cited by National Geographic in naming Atlanta a " Place of a Lifetime " .
The city 's lush tree canopy , which filters out pollutants and cools sidewalks and buildings , has increasingly been under assault from man and nature due to heavy rains , drought , aged forests , new pests , and urban construction . A 2001 study found that Atlanta 's heavy tree cover declined from 48 % in 1974 to 38 % in 1996 . However , the problem is being addressed by community organizations and city government : Trees Atlanta , a non @-@ profit organization founded in 1985 , has planted and distributed over 75 @,@ 000 shade trees in the city , while Atlanta 's government has awarded $ 130 @,@ 000 in grants to neighborhood groups to plant trees .
= = Sister cities = =
Atlanta has 18 sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International , Inc . ( SCI ) :
= The 37 's =
" The 37 's " is the first episode of the second season , and seventeenth episode overall , of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . Due to differing release schedules , it was also released as the final episode of the first season in other countries . The episode originally aired August 28 , 1995 , on the UPN network . Directed by James L. Conway , it was written by producers Jeri Taylor and Brannon Braga . It was originally intended to be a two @-@ part episode to bridge between the first and second seasons , and was subsequently re @-@ written to be a single part . Due to late changes to the final act of the episode , special effects shots of the settlers ' cities could not be completed , which Braga and series creator Michael Piller were unhappy with .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant , far from the rest of the Federation . In this episode , Voyager 's crew discovers a group of humans — including Amelia Earhart ( Sharon Lawrence ) — who were abducted from Earth in 1937 .
Lawrence was cast as Amelia Earhart after she had previously worked with Voyager 's casting director on NYPD Blue . The episode shows the first time that a Federation starship lands on a planet 's surface . CGI was used to show the landing struts unfold , and feet were added to the Voyager model for filming ; however the production crew weren 't pleased with these and obscured them during filming . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 7 @.@ 5 percent , and was given a mixed response by critics . Among the criticisms were the density of the ideas in the episode and the gimmicky appearance of Earhart . It was also said to be redeemed by the vignettes showing the crew discussing whether to leave the ship , and that the episode contained a " powerful feminist narrative " .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 48975 @.@ 1 , the crew of Voyager follows an ancient SOS to a Class L planet whose atmospheric interference requires landing the ship to investigate . On the surface , Captain Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) leads an away team to discover the source of the transmission : it is a Lockheed Model 10 Electra with an alien generator added to sustain the SOS . Joining Commander Chakotay 's ( Robert Beltran ) team , the crew finds a " cryostasis chamber " containing eight humans preserved since the 1930s , including Amelia Earhart ( Sharon Lawrence ) and her navigator , Fred Noonan ( David Graf ) .
After resuscitation , Noonan uses a handgun to hold the Voyager officers hostage , disbelieving their story and insisting on speaking to J. Edgar Hoover . Janeway speaks to Earhart and explains her significance to human history and to Janeway herself ; Earhart , as Noonan 's boss , tells him to cooperate , and some of them go out of the caves . Outside , however , a firefight breaks out between Starfleet officers from Voyager and three hooded figures . Janeway flanks the aliens and disarms them ; they are human , and are surprised that Janeway is also . They had assumed the Voyager was a Briori ship .
Janeway learns that the Briori are an alien species who visited Earth in 1937 and abducted more than 300 humans , bringing them to this planet in the Delta Quadrant as slaves ; but the humans successfully rose up against the Briori , who never returned . Fifteen generations later , there are more than 100 @,@ 000 humans living in three cities on the planet . The last eight un @-@ revived humans in cryostasis were believed dead by the others , who came to revere " the 37s " as " monuments to [ their ] ancestors " .
The settlers cannot offer Janeway the Briori technology that brought them there , as their ancestors dismantled the alien ship long ago . But they do offer to accept any of the Voyager crew into their society . Janeway thus faces a crisis of conscience : can she decide , for all 152 people on Voyager , to condemn them to the 70 @-@ year journey home to Earth ? Yet , if the choice is presented to the crew and only some decide to stay , the ship cannot be staffed by fewer than 100 . Meanwhile , Earhart says that as much as she admires Voyager and yearns to learn to pilot it , she and the other 37s feel a stronger affinity to the people on the planet and they will all be staying . In the end , Janeway allows the crew to decide as individuals , and none of them choose to leave .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The 37 's " was written by Jeri Taylor and Brannon Braga . One of four season two episodes produced during season one ( the others being " Projections " , " Elogium " , and " Twisted " ) , " The 37 's " was originally intended to round out the first season of Voyager ; UPN delayed these episodes to begin Voyager 's second season before other networks ' shows . This delay influenced a lot of decision @-@ making about an episode that wound up pushed to the second season . Both writers wanted to end the first season by showing the Starfleet and Maquis factions aboard the ship banding together as a crew , accepting their long journey home , and " whining less about home . " The landing of Voyager was also intended to take advantage of the last episode of the season as an opportunity to really wow the audience .
Braga wanted the episode to be broken into a two @-@ part episode because of what he called " a wealth of material " , what Kate Mulgrew would later describe as " every scene " containing a monologue . However , nobody else on the staff wanted to end the first season on a cliffhanger , as the first half would have been . Braga therefore condensed it into one episode , and admitted to struggling with the story , pointing out dramatically different tones in the first three acts as compared to the final two . Ultimately , though , he was satisfied with the end result and how the story came back around to focus on the Voyager crew in the end .
The colonists ' cities , which are described in the episode as " [ something ] to be proud of " , " amazing " , and impressive , were never actually seen . Jeri Taylor explained that the last act of the episode was developed late , and between budgetary considerations and time constraints , it was impossible to realize them . Unlike co @-@ writer Brannon Braga and series creator Michael Piller , who felt not seeing the cities was detrimental to the overall episode , Taylor did not think the compromise was " a big deal . "
= = = Sharon Lawrence = = =
Casting for " The 37 's " was done by Junie Lowry @-@ Johnson , C.S.A. , and Ron Surma . Lowry @-@ Johnson was familiar with guest star Sharon Lawrence from their work together on NYPD Blue . Lawrence later expressed the belief that the qualities of her NYPD Blue character ( " somebody who had ... a professional strength about them " ) was what cinched her role as Amelia Earhart .
The actress was excited to be portraying a version of Earhart , saying that she relishes the professional relationships roles like these have — as opposed to ones featuring " domestic or familial relationship [ s ] . " In " The 37 's " , Lawrence was drawn to the relationship Earhart has with Janeway : two women , two professional pilots who have risen to great heights in their chosen fields . Not only did the historical character appeal to her , Lawrence also reveled in the " what @-@ if " twist , the alternate historical story about what happened .
Lawrence grew up watching Mulgrew as Mary Ryan on the soap opera Ryan 's Hope . As Lawrence came from a family where women more often than not became homemakers , Mary Ryan was an " exotic " character — with her career and life in New York City — who served as inspiration . On the set of Star Trek : Voyager the two actresses spoke frequently about their careers , their backgrounds in theatre , and the struggles of balancing home and professional requirements . Lawrence felt that her relationship with Mulgrew influenced the relationship between their characters on screen . Mulgrew praised Lawrence 's performance in " The 37 's " , saying that " [ she ] really played the hell out of that role " .
Though she specifically remarked on her pleasure at seeing Robert Beltran ( Chakotay ) again , Lawrence praised all the cast 's professionalism and their ability to cope with the " vast amount of virtually unreferenced text that they have on Star Trek . "
= = = Landing the USS Voyager = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
For the original Star Trek , to avoid the tremendous costs of landing the Enterprise every week , Gene Roddenberry invented the transporter to get the crew to and from planets cheaply and quickly . For Star Trek : Voyager however , the concept of landing the Voyager was considered from the beginning as a way to differentiate the new series from those that preceded it . Episode co @-@ writer Brannon Braga explained that it was understood from the beginning that the ship could land .
= = = = Effects = = = =
" The 37 's " is the first time in Star Trek canon that a starship is landed on a planet 's surface . This was accomplished with a combination of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) and physical modeling . Overhead views of the ship as it descended were CGI because it allowed the ship to descend " to a virtual pinpoint " .
Because the initial description of the ship described its landing capability , four small hatches on the ventral hull were included on both the ship miniature and model . However the legs that were to emerge from those hatches had not yet been designed by " The 37 's " . In the 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) allowed by the design of the ship , Rick Sternbach had difficulty designing " an articulated set of legs and footpads " that would fold out and support some of the ship 's 750 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 740 @,@ 000 long tons ; 830 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Shots of the unfolding " landing struts " were CGI because motorized versions were not installed in the physical model ; visual effects producer Dan Curry later said that installing such motorized elements in the 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) model was impossible due to the size . For filming the landed Voyager , miniature feet were made ; however , because the producers felt the feet looked inappropriately sized for the rest of the ship , they were partially obscured by landscape in post @-@ production .
Scenes with the landed ship were shot in Bronson Canyon . Before filming , shots were plotted out with a styrofoam , " foam @-@ core Voyager mockup for scale and perspective . " Since the canyon could not provide enough space to show the entire landed ship , the Voyager set down with the forepart of the ship visible outside the mouth of the canyon against a matte painting backdrop . Visual effects supervisor Ronald B. Moore later admitted that the composited Voyager in the canyon was far too small with respect to the shooting location , though without any visible references for the audience , and by keeping the cast between the ship and camera , it was not obvious to anyone except the visual effects crew .
= = Reception = =
" The 37 's " was first aired in the United States on UPN on August 28 , 1995 . It received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 percent , meaning that it was watched by 7 @.@ 5 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was the most watched episode of the season , receiving the highest ratings since the first season episode " Ex Post Facto " .
Kate Mulgrew later recalled that she " loved shooting every second of ' The 37 's ' " ; she specifically praised the writing , Sharon Lawrence as Amelia Earhart , and director James L. Conway . Tim Russ ( Tuvok ) praised the episode as a fine example of science fiction and said he wished to see more of this type of episode . Braga felt " The 37 's " had a lot of fun and cool elements such as meeting Earhart and landing the ship , but that the episode fell flat after meeting the colonists and never seeing their cities on the planet . Star Trek : Voyager co @-@ creator Michael Piller described the premise of the episode as hokey , comparing it to " old Star Trek " ; instead Piller praised the landing of the ship as " pretty amazing . " Series co @-@ creator Rick Berman described " The 37 's " as " a great episode . "
Cinefantastique 's Dale Kutzera felt that " The 37 's " had too many disparate ideas crammed into one episode . Specifically , in his view , Amelia Earhart served little purpose as the subject of Janeway 's idolization ( as compared to Captain Kirk and Abraham Lincoln in The Original Series episode " The Savage Curtain " ) , and he complained that she all but disappears from the second half of the episode . Kutzera also noted the lauded unseen cities . He awarded " The 37 's " two out of four stars . In Frank Garcia and Mark Phillips ' book Science Fiction Television Series , 1990 – 2004 , " The 37 's " was specifically called out for being gimmicky , noting the appearance of not only " a phony @-@ looking , 1936 Ford truck ... but long @-@ lost aviatrix Amelia Earhart . " In his book Delta Quadrant : The unofficial guide to Voyager , David McIntee described the acting in " The 37 's " as watchable , and felt the episode was redeemed by the little vignettes such as Earhart and Janeway 's discussion , or Harry Kim ( Garrett Wang ) and B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) debating whether to leave the ship . He gave the episode a 6 / 10 rating . Though David Greven , in his book Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek , also described the plot as hokey , he felt the episode contained " a powerful feminist narrative of shared female aspiration and daring . "
= 2009 International Bowl =
The 2009 International Bowl was a postseason college football bowl game between the Connecticut Huskies ( UConn ) and the Buffalo Bulls at the Rogers Centre in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , on January 3 , 2009 . The game was the final contest of the 2008 NCAA Division I @-@ Football Bowl Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FBS ) football season for both teams , and ended in a 38 – 20 victory for Connecticut . UConn represented the Big East Conference ( Big East ) in the game ; Buffalo entered as the Mid @-@ American Conference ( MAC ) champion .
Connecticut was selected as a participant in the 2009 International Bowl following a 7 – 5 regular season where they won their first five games , only to lose five of their last seven contests . Facing the Huskies were the Buffalo Bulls with a regular season record of 8 – 5 , highlighted by an upset win over then @-@ No. 12 and undefeated Ball State in the 2008 MAC Championship Game . Pre @-@ game media coverage focused on the legacy of the 1958 Buffalo Bulls , the first team from the university to be invited to a bowl game . When told that the two African @-@ American members of the team would not be allowed to play because of segregation , the team elected to refuse the bowl bid . Buffalo would not play in a bowl until this game , 50 years later .
The game began at 12 : 00 PM EST . Connecticut , led by running back Donald Brown 's 208 yards rushing , dominated the first half statistically , but found themselves down 20 – 10 midway through the second quarter because they committed six fumbles , five of which were recovered by Buffalo . UConn would close the gap to 20 – 17 by halftime , and take the lead for good late in the third quarter off a 4 @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Tyler Lorenzen to tight end Steve Brouse . The Connecticut victory was sealed when , late in the fourth quarter , Buffalo quarterback Drew Willy threw a pass that was intercepted by UConn safety Dahna Deleston and returned 100 yards for a touchdown .
UConn junior running back Donald Brown was named player of the game . He finished with 261 rushing yards and one touchdown ; his 2 @,@ 083 rushing yards for the 2008 season was best in the NCAA . Following the game , Brown declared his eligibility for the 2009 NFL Draft ; he would become the first Connecticut player ever drafted in the first round . Three other UConn players were drafted in the second round .
= = Team selection = =
The International Bowl had contracts with the Big East and Mid @-@ American Conferences that allowed them to select one team from each conference to participate in their annual game . By virtue of being the Big East champion Cincinnati was awarded an automatic Bowl Championship Series berth ; they would play in the 2009 Orange Bowl . The Gator Bowl and Sun Bowl shared the second pick of Big East teams ; after the Gator Bowl opted to select Big 12 member Nebraska and the Sun Bowl learned that they would not be allowed to select Notre Dame , Pittsburgh received the Sun Bowl invitation . The Meineke Car Care Bowl , which had the third selection , picked West Virginia . The fourth , fifth , and sixth selections of Big East teams belonged collectively to the International Bowl , PapaJohns.com Bowl , and St. Petersburg Bowl , which , in consultation with the Big East , decided which schools were the best fit for each bowl . There were three remaining bowl @-@ eligible Big East teams : Connecticut , Rutgers , and South Florida . The previous season , Rutgers had played in the International Bowl and South Florida had appeared in the PapaJohns.com Bowl ; bowls in general dislike inviting the same team in consecutive years , on the theory that fans are less likely to want to travel to the same destination they were at the year before . Additionally , the St. Petersburg Bowl , in its inaugural year , sought to have local team South Florida play in their game to drive local attendance . Therefore , the teams were apportioned among the bowls as follows : South Florida to the St. Petersburg Bowl , Rutgers to the PapaJohns.com Bowl , and Connecticut to the International Bowl . On December 7 , 2008 , UConn formally accepted the bowl invitation , the third in their history .
Buffalo accepted an invitation to the International Bowl following their victory over then @-@ undefeated Ball State in the 2008 MAC Championship Game . Although in past years the MAC champion had been invited to the Motor City Bowl , Buffalo preferred to go to the International Bowl due to Toronto being closer to the school than Detroit , the home of the Motor City Bowl . The game marked the first bowl for the Bulls after their first MAC Championship since moving to Division I @-@ A and joining the MAC in 1999 .
The Bulls and Huskies had been frequent opponents during the previous decade as both programs made the transition from Division I @-@ AA to Division I @-@ A. The two teams played each other in six consecutive seasons from 1
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– 1111 .
1970 . Rogerson CT . " The Hypocrealean fungi ( Ascomycetes @-@ Hypocreales ) " . Mycologia 62 : 865 – 910 .
1971 . — — — , Mazzer SJ . " Two new species of Hypomyces from Michigan " . Michigan Bot 10 : 107 – 113 .
1971 . — — — , Simms HR . " A new species of Hypomyces on Helvella " . Mycologia 63 : 416 – 422 .
1973 . — — — . " Fred Jay Seaver , 1877 – 1970 " . Mycologia 65 : 721 – 724 .
1973 . — — — . " New names and new taxa of fungi proposed by Fred Jay Seaver ( 1877 – 1970 ) . 1 – 42 " . Unpublished manuscript . The New York Botanical Garden .
1973 . — — — . " Publications of Fred Jay Seaver , 1877 – 1970 . 1 – 21 " . Unpublished manuscript , The New York Botanical Garden .
1976 [ 5 Jan 1977 ] . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Taxonomy and morphology of a new species of Hypocrea on Marasmius " . Brittonia 28 : 381 – 389 .
1976 . Rogerson CT , ed . " Commemorating the 70th Birthday of Dr. Josiah L. Lowe " . Mem New York Bot Gard 28 : 24 .
1977 . Hervey A , Rogerson CT , Leong I. " Studies of fungi cultivated by ants " . Brittonia 29 : 226 – 236 .
1977 . Malloch D , Rogerson CT . " Pulveria , a new genus of Xylariaceae ( Ascomycetes ) " . Can J Bot 55 : 1505 – 1509 .
1978 . — — — , — — — . " Fungi of the Canadian boreal forest region : Catulus aquilonius gen. et sp. nov . , a hyperparasite on Seuratia millardetii " . Can J Bot 56 : 2344 – 2347 .
1978 . Rogerson CT . " Bibliography and index ( Compositae tribe Mutisiae , tribe Senecioneae , tribe Vernoniaea ) " . N Am Flora II , 10 : 203 – 245 .
1981 . Berthier J , Rogerson CT . " A new North American species : Physalacria cryptomeriae " . Mycologia 73 : 643 – 648 .
1981 . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Morphology and cytology of Hypomyces polyporinus and its Sympodiophora anamorph " . Bull Torrey Bot Club 108 : 12 – 24 .
1981 . Rossman AY , Rogerson CT . " A new species of Hypomyces ( Hypocreaceae ) with phragmosporous ascospores " . Brittonia 33 : 382 – 384 .
1983 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Two new species of Loculoascomycetes " . Mycotaxon 17 : 247 – 252 .
1983 . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Arnoldiomyces clavisporus , the anamorph of Hypomyces polyporinus " . Bull Torrey Club 110 : 224 – 225 .
1983 . Nair MSR , Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Illudoids from Omphalotus olivascens and Clitocybe subilludens " . Mycologia 75 : 920 – 922 .
1984 [ May 1986 ] . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT . " New ascomycetes from Amazonas " . Acta Amazonica 14 ( 1 / 2 Suppl . ) : 81 – 93 .
1984 . Buck WR , Rogerson CT . " Bibliography . Sphagnopsida , Sphagnaceae " . N Am Flora II 11 : 161 – 175 .
1984 . Rogerson CT , Thiers BM . " Fungi from the A.O. Garrett Herbarium , University of Utah ( UT ) " . Brittonia 36 : 293 – 296 .
1984 . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT , Rossman AY , Smith JD . " Nectria tuberculariformis , Nectriella muelleri , Nectriella sp . , and Hyponectria sceptri : low @-@ temperature tolerant , alpine @-@ boreal fungal antagonists " . Can J Bot 62 : 1896 – 1903 .
1984 . — — — , — — — . " Nectria atrofusca and its anamorph , Fusarium staphyeae , a parasite of Staphylea trifolia in Eastern North America " . Brittonia 36 : 81 – 895 .
1985 . Illman WI , Rogerson CT , White GP . " Disposition of Stilbum rhizomorpharum under Pseudographiella " . Mycologia 77 : 662 – 665 .
1985 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Species of Hypomyces and Nectria occurring on discomycetes " . Mycologia 77 : 763 – 783 .
1986 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT , Smith SJ , Haines JH . " An annotated catalog of the pyrenomycetes described by Charles H. Peck " . Bull New York State Mus Nat Hist 459 : 1 – 74 .
1986 . Rogerson CT . " [ Review of ] Microfungi on land plants . An identification handbook , by Martin B. Ellis and J. Pamela Ellis " . Bull Torrey Club 113 : 61 .
1988 . Samuels GJ , Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Xenomeris saccifolii and Gibbera sphyrospermi , new tropical species of the Venturiaceae ( Fungi , Pleosporales ) " . Brittonia 40 : 392 – 397 .
1989 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Boleticolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 81 : 413 – 432 .
1989 . — — — , — — — . " Polyporicolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 85 : 231 – 272 .
1989 . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT . " Endocreas lasiacidis and Sinosphaeria lasiacidis , new tropical ascomycetes " . Stud Mycol 31 : 145 – 149 .
1990 . Rogerson CT , Harris RC , Samuels GJ . " Fungi collected by Bassett Maguire and Collaborators in the Guayana Highland , 1944 – 1983 " . Mem New York Bot Gard 64 : 130 – 164 .
1990 . Samuels GJ , Doi Y , Rogerson CT . " Hypocreales " . Mem New York Bot Gard 59 : 6 – 108 .
1990 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " Some Ascomycetes ( Fungi ) occurring on tropical ferns " . Brittonia 42 : 105 – 115 .
1990 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " New Ascomycetes from the Guayana Highland " . Mem New York Bot Gard 64 : 165 – 183 .
1991 . — — — , Rossman AY , Lowen R , Rogerson CT . " A synopsis of Nectria subgen . Dialonectria " . Mycol Pap 164 : 1 – 48 .
1992 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " New species of Hypocreales ( Fungi , Ascomycetes ) " . Brittonia 44 : 256 – 263 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2806843
1993 . — — — , Stephenson SL . " Myxomyceticolous fungi " . Mycologia 85 : 456 – 469 .
1994 . — — — , Samuels GJ . " Agaricolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 86 : 839 – 866 .
1995 . Braun U , Rogerson CT . " Phytoparasitic hyphomycetes from Utah ( USA ) — II " . Sydowia 47 : 141 – 145 .
1995 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " Phytoparasitic Hyphomycetes from Utah ( USA ) " . Mycotaxon 46 : 263 – 274 .
1996 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Mycology at The New York Botanical Garden ( 1895 – 1995 ) " . Brittonia 48 : 389 – 398 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF02805308
1999 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Some loculoascomycete species from the Great Basin , USA " . Mycotaxon 71 : 473 – 480 .
1999 . Rossman , Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT , Lowen R. " Genera of Bionectriaceae , Hypocreaceae , and Nectriaceae ( Hypocreales , Ascomycetes ) " . Stud Mycol 42 : 1 – 248 .
= = External Links = =
Clark T. Rogerson , Expert on Fungi , Is Dead at 82 - The New York Times Obituaries
= Felix Leiter =
Felix Leiter is a fictional character created by Ian Fleming in the James Bond series . The character is an operative for the CIA and Bond 's friend . After losing a leg and his hand to a shark attack , Leiter joined the Pinkerton Detective Agency . The name " Felix " comes from the middle name of Fleming 's friend Ivor Bryce , while the name " Leiter " was the surname of Fleming 's friend Marion Oates Leiter Charles , then wife of Thomas Leiter .
Leiter also appeared in novels by continuation authors , as well as ten films and one television programme , Casino Royale , where the character became a British agent , Clarence Leiter , played by Michael Pate . In the Eon Productions series of films , Leiter has been portrayed by Jack Lord , Cec Linder , Rik Van Nutter , Norman Burton , David Hedison , John Terry and Jeffrey Wright ; in the independent production Never Say Never Again , the part was played by Bernie Casey . Leiter has also appeared in the video game 007 Legends .
= = Novels = =
Felix Leiter , James Bond 's CIA ally and friend , played a part in six of the Fleming novels ; he is introduced in Casino Royale as being thin , tall , about thirty @-@ five years old and a former member of the U.S. Marine Corps who was working with the Joint Intelligence Staff of NATO . Fleming named the character after two of his American friends : " Felix " was Ivar Bryce 's middle name , whilst Tommy Leiter was a mutual friend . Academic Kerstin Jütting describes Leiter as " a cool and quiet no @-@ nonsense character who knows 007 's strengths and weaknesses well " . Physically , Fleming describes Leiter in Casino Royale : " a mop of straw @-@ coloured hair lent his face a boyish look which closer examination contradicted " .
Leiter is Bond 's saviour in Casino Royale , providing him with 32 million francs when Bond has been cleaned out by SMERSH paymaster Le Chiffre , calling it " Marshall Aid " . Media historian James Chapman notes that Bond 's relationship with Leiter represented the Special Relationship between Britain and America , although the American Leiter is in the subordinate position to the British Bond . Academic Jeremy Black agrees , although points out that the Bond and Leiter relationship suggested " a far smoother working of the Anglo @-@ American alliance than was in fact the case . " Academic and writer Kingsley Amis , in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier , considered that this view of Leiter was partly because of Fleming 's writing , noting that " Leiter , such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he , the American , takes orders from Bond , the Britisher , and that Bond is constantly doing better than he " . Bond scholars Bennett and Woollacott note that although the two men share adventures , it is Bond who leads , not Leiter . Leiter 's role is to " suppl [ y ] Bond with technical support and hardware , add ... muscle where needed and money " .
Fleming 's second novel , Live and Let Die shows that in his early twenties , Leiter wrote a few pieces on Dixieland jazz for the New York Amsterdam News . Bond scholar John Griswold notes that in the original draft of the story , Fleming killed Leiter off in the shark attack ; when Naomi Burton , Fleming 's US agent with Curtis Brown , protested about the death of the character , Fleming relented and Leiter lived , albeit missing an arm and half a leg . Espionage scholar Rupert Allason , writing as Nigel West , noted that Leiter 's involvement in a domestic US matter was a breach of the CIA 's charter , as laid out in the National Security Act of 1947 .
After the shark attack , Leiter returned in Diamonds Are Forever with a hook for his missing hand and a prosthetic leg ; as he had lost his gun hand , he was no longer with the CIA , but employed as a private detective by Pinkerton Detective Agency , although he was on the reserve of the CIA and was recalled for Goldfinger , Thunderball and The Man with the Golden Gun . Fleming had flown to the US in August 1954 to research the background to Diamonds Are Forever ; his friend Ernest Cuneo introduced him to a rich socialite , William Woodward , Jr . , who drove a Studillac — a Studebaker with a powerful Cadillac engine . According to Bond scholar Henry Chancellor , " the speed and comfort of it impressed Ian , and he shamelessly appropriated this car " for Leiter to drive in the novel .
For the post @-@ Fleming continuation Bond authors , Leiter has also appeared on a periodic basis . After John Gardner took over writing the James Bond novel series , Leiter made an occasional appearance and the novel For Special Services introduces his daughter , Cedar Leiter , who is also a CIA officer ( and briefly Bond 's romantic conquest ) . Raymond Benson also included Leiter 's character in some of his novels , including The Facts of Death and Doubleshot . Similarly the more recent continuation Bond novels — the 2008 Sebastian Faulks novel Devil May Care and the 2011 novel Carte Blanche by Jeffery Deaver — both contained the character .
= = Television = =
= = = Michael Pate : 1954 = = =
The first screen interpretation of the Leiter character was in the 1954 CBS one @-@ hour television adventure Casino Royale , broadcast as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater , which ran between October 1954 and June 1958 . For the American audience the Bond character from Casino Royale was re @-@ cast as an American agent — " Card Sense " Jimmy Bond , played by Barry Nelson — described as working for " Combined Intelligence " , supported by the British agent , Clarence Leiter ; " thus was the Anglo @-@ American relationship depicted in the book reversed for American consumption " , according to Jeremy Black . Leiter , who was an agent for Station S , was a combination of the novel 's Felix Leiter and René Mathis and was played by the Australian actor Michael Pate .
= = Films = =
= = = Eon Productions films = = =
= = = = Jack Lord : 1962 = = = =
Jack Lord was the first Felix Leiter , appointed into the role for the first Bond film , Dr. No . Eon Productions started filming the series out of the order written by Fleming ( Fleming had started with Casino Royale , with Dr. No being the sixth novel ) . Leiter was not present in the Fleming novel , but the writers added the character to the film . Bond scholars Smith and Lavington consider Leiter to offer negligible help to Bond , largely because there is no role for him in the novel , a point with which continuation Bond author Raymond Benson agrees , noting that he is " extraneous to the dramatic action " . Jeremy Black agrees , although points out that the inclusion of Leiter was a sign of American influence in the Caribbean .
Lord played Leiter in a " swaggering " fashion , according to Smith and Lavington , and they considered him " excellent , an effective American version of James Bond . " Bond scholars Pfeiffer and Worrall agree , stating that Lord 's was " one of the most satisfying portrayals of Leiter " .
Featured in
Dr. No ( 1962 )
= = = = Cec Linder : 1964 = = = =
When the role of Leiter was brought back for the third Bond film , Goldfinger , in 1964 , Lord was again approached to play Leiter ; according to screenwriter Richard Maibaum , Lord demanded co @-@ star billing with Connery , a bigger role and more money to reprise the role . The producers instead decided to recast the role , initially with Austin Willis . At the last minute , Cec Linder switched roles with Willis , who played cards with Goldfinger . Linder was the only actor actually on location in Miami . Raymond Benson considers that Linder was " miscast " as Leiter because he looked too old : " he looks like Bond 's uncle rather than his best friend . "
Featured in
Goldfinger ( 1964 )
= = = = Rik Van Nutter : 1965 = = = =
The fourth film in the Eon series , Thunderball , was the third to portray Leiter and the producers chose a third actor to play the role , Rik Van Nutter . Van Nutter was married to Swedish actress Anita Ekberg at the time and the couple had dined with Cubby and Dana Broccoli after Ekberg had appeared in the Eon @-@ produced Call Me Bwana . Van Nutter was subsequently offered the Leiter role without an audition , although he did have screen tests with some of the Bond girls .
According to Pfeiffer and Worrall , Leiter had a more proactive role in Thunderball and Van Nutter was " an inspired choice for the role " . Smith and Lavington agree and consider that Van Nutter 's " relaxed and charming performance works well . " Benson also concurs , but complains that although Van Nutter is a piece of successful casting , " the script ... does not give the character any real depth " .
Featured in
Thunderball ( 1965 )
= = = = Norman Burton : 1971 = = = =
For the 1971 instalment , Diamonds Are Forever , Eon chose Norman Burton . Burton 's Leiter was more amusing and more exasperated than the previous incarnations of the role .
Raymond Benson again considers that the Leiter role was miscast and considered Burton to be " overweight and too old for the role " . Smith and Lavington describe him as " an elderly , portly man in a government @-@ issue suit ... anonymous , orthodox " . Pfeiffer and Worrall agree , thinking that Burton was " the least likely incarnation " of Leiter .
Featured in
Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 )
= = = = David Hedison : 1973 & 1989 = = = =
In 1973 the Bond franchise introduced a new main lead , Roger Moore , who played Bond for the next twelve years in seven films . To play the part of Leiter in Live and Let Die , an old friend of Moore 's was chosen , David Hedison . Pfeiffer and Worrall consider that this friendship comes through , with " genuine chemistry " between the two . Hedison played the role with an understated charm , although the script did not give Leiter much to do . Raymond Benson thought him miscast , but acknowledged that " he 's the best Leiter next to Rik Van Nutter . "
Hedison returned to play Leiter sixteen years later in Licence to Kill and after another actor had also been in the role . Hedison did not expect to return to the role , saying " I was sure that ... [ Live and Let Die ] would be my first – and last " and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61 @-@ year @-@ old actor , since the role even had a scene parachuting . Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter twice until Jeffrey Wright appeared in both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace .
Leiter is central to the plot of Licence to Kill . Now working with the DEA , Leiter and Bond work together to capture drug lord Franz Sanchez on the way to Leiter 's wedding , at which Bond serves as Best Man . A short time , Leiter and his wife Della are attacked by an escaped Sanchez , who kills Della and tortures Leiter by lowering him into a tank containing a great white shark . Bond finds Leiter maimed but alive , and seeks revenge on Sanchez , paving the way for the rest of the film 's plot . At the film 's end , Leiter is shown recovering in the hospital .
Featured in
Live and Let Die ( 1973 )
Licence to Kill ( 1989 )
= = = = John Terry : 1987 = = = =
Following Hedison 's first outing in 1973 in Live and Let Die , the Leiter role did not appear again until the 1987 film The Living Daylights , by which time Bond was being played by Timothy Dalton ; the role was taken up by John Terry .
Smith and Lavington consider that , although the scene between Bond and Leiter sees warmth in the relationship between them , " it is too fleeting to have any impact " . Pfeiffer and Worrall agree on the briefness of Leiter 's role in the film , although they consider that Terry has " virtually no chemistry with Dalton " .
Featured in
The Living Daylights ( 1987 )
= = = = Jeffrey Wright : 2006 & 2008 = = = =
Casino Royale rebooted the series , which allowed Leiter to re @-@ appear ; he and Bond meet for the first time in the film . He appeared again in Quantum of Solace ; early script drafts for Quantum of Solace gave Wright a larger role , but his screen time was restricted by on @-@ set rewrites . Leiter is mentioned in Spectre .
Featured in
Casino Royale ( 2006 )
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 )
= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = Bernie Casey : 1983 = = = =
In 1983 Kevin McClory , one of the original writers of the novel Thunderball , produced Never Say Never Again , a re @-@ make of the 1965 film Thunderball . McClory 's rights to the film were held separate to those of Eon Productions , although he had been one of the producers for the original Thunderball adaptation . The film marked the return of Sean Connery to the Bond role ; he spoke with Bernie Casey , saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences , using a black Leiter might make him more memorable . Smith and Lavington consider Casey to be " the most compelling Felix Leiter since Jack Lord " , although again there was little in the script for him to do .
Featured in
Never Say Never Again ( 1983 )
= = Video games = =
In the 2012 game 007 Legends , Canadian @-@ American actor Demetri Goritsas provided his likeness and voice for the character of Leiter .
= = Analysis = =
The New York Times has referred to Leiter as James Bond 's " sidekick " and documented that his evolving character has paralleled Bond 's fortunes as both a cinematic icon and a hero of the Cold War and its aftermath .
= Exposé ( Lost ) =
" Exposé " is the 14th episode of the 3rd season and 63rd episode overall of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ' s serial drama television series Lost . It aired on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada on March 28 , 2007 . The episode was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by Stephen Williams .
The episode 's story focuses on couple Nikki Fernandez ( Kiele Sanchez ) and Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) . The flashbacks reveal their lives before arriving on the island , and what they have been doing between day one and day eighty @-@ one . Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) returned for the fifth time since his death late in the first season . Furthermore , Ethan ( William Mapother ) and Dr. Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) reprised their guest roles in flashbacks . The episode got a mixed response from critics and fans , with positive reception considering it an entertaining send @-@ off to two unpopular characters , but negative reviews deeming it unnecessary .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
The flashbacks begin with Nikki Fernandez ( Kiele Sanchez ) acting in a popular , Charlie 's Angels @-@ like TV show Exposé filmed in Sydney , in which she is a guest star . She is also having an affair with the septuagenarian executive producer , Howard L. Zuckerman , who is very wealthy , while Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) works as his chef . Paulo kills Zuckerman by poisoning his food , and the couple steals his diamonds , which are worth $ 8 million . The couple plan on returning to the United States on Oceanic Flight 815 , encountering Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) at the airport . Upon surviving the plane crash , Nikki and Paulo realize that they have lost the bag with the diamonds . Nikki consults Dr. Leslie Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) , who tells her of a spider with the ability to paralyze people . He also gives her a trajectory map which leads them to The Pearl and the Nigerian plane ; they explore neither . When Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) mentions that she found luggage from the plane in a lake , Paulo finds the diamonds , but does not tell Nikki . Instead , he hides them in the toilet at The Pearl and overhears a conversation between Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . The two accidentally leave behind a walkie @-@ talkie that Paulo takes . Later , when Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , Nikki and Paulo visit The Pearl , Paulo retrieves the diamonds by pretending to use the bathroom . Nikki figures out that Paulo has found the diamonds without telling her and decides to lure him into a trap . When he denies that he has the diamonds she unleashes one of the paralyzing spiders on him . She finds the diamonds and Paulo apologizes , claiming that he did it so that she would not end their relationship . As Nikki stands in a state of regret , the pheromones of the female spider attract a group of the male spiders of the same species and she is bitten on her leg . She buries the diamonds and sprints to the beach .
= = = On the beach = = =
Nikki then runs onto the beach , before collapsing where Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) are playing ping pong . As Hurley and Sawyer rush to her , she says something barely audible . She is soon pronounced dead . Hurley and Sawyer try to recount what Nikki said before she died and come to the conclusion that she said , " Paulo lies " , although she actually said " paralyzed " . Sawyer and Hurley begin an investigation and find Paulo lying lifeless in the jungle . Sawyer finds a walkie talkie in Nikki and Paulo 's tent , and concludes they were working with the Others , due to the similarity . Hurley does not think the Others are near their camp , but Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) reminds them that she was abducted nearby ( unaware that it was Charlie who grabbed her ) . Sawyer tries to calm them down and says he will do a perimeter sweep . Meanwhile , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) , who feels guilty , confesses to Sun that it was he who attempted to kidnap her . Sawyer returns , having found the diamonds , and the other survivors accuse him of being the killer because Desmond saw him arguing with Nikki just that morning . He gives the diamonds to Sun , but she later confronts him about kidnapping her and returns the diamonds because " they 're worthless here . " The survivors then hold a funeral for Nikki and Paulo , where Sawyer pours the pouch of diamonds into the grave . Nikki 's eyelids open just as Hurley and Sawyer are filling the grave , burying her and Paulo alive .
= = Production = =
" Exposé " was the fourteenth episode of the series directed by Stephen Williams , and the ninth written by the screenwriting duo Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz . Kitsis and Horowitz intended to make the episode an homage to film noir , with two con artists who did the " perfect crime " , that eventually goes wrong due to them getting stranded on the island . A reference to the genre was added by having Sawyer read Agatha Christie 's Evil Under the Sun . A recurring theme is Nikki and Paulo 's selfishness , which eventually leads to their deaths due to them being greedy and " too focused on their own petty needs to really care about anyone else " .
The flashbacks of " Exposé " would show how Nikki and Paulo were always on the island by making them appear in important previous events . The scene set after the crash mixes actual scenes and unused footage of the pilot episode , along with new footage shot in the original location of Mokulēʻia beach . Since not all pieces of the wreckage were found , a few were added with greenscreen effects . The scene with Jack 's speech intersperses new scenes with footage from " White Rabbit " . Other continuity nods were considered , such as Paulo finding Shannon 's inhaler from " Confidence Man " , Nikki seeing Boone and Locke carrying shovels to excavate the hatch , and a filmed , but deleted scene where Nikki sees the sky turning purple .
During season one , the writers had the idea of introducing a character who was an actress and also created the outline of the fictional show where she would work Exposé . The " long , daunting hours " on the writer 's room would sometimes lead to creating episodes of the fictional show , with ten being done when the Nikki @-@ centered episode was written . Originally , there was going to be an entire flashback episode in which Nikki was going to be a crime @-@ fighting stripper , only to have it revealed that she was actually an actress . The idea was shortened to just one flashback spot . The role of Mr. LaShade was written with Billy Dee Williams in mind and , when he was cast , the color scheme of LaShade 's hat was chosen in reference to his costume worn in his famed role as Lando Calrissian .
Nikki and Paulo were killed off due to being disliked by much of Lost 's fan base . Show runner Damon Lindelof admitted that the couple were " universally despised " by fans . Lindelof explained that " back when we ( the producers ) had more good faith with the audience , we could have gotten away with these shenanigans . Given the backlash against them , we had to clean up the mess . " The decision to kill them off in one flashback episode was decided by the producers in December 2006 . It was also stated by Lindelof and fellow show runners Carlton Cuse that despite Nikki and Paulo 's bad reception , they felt the episode was necessary to explain their original plan of introducing former background characters to the main cast . Lindelof suggested having the characters be buried alive . Although actress Kiele Sanchez said that she wasn 't bothered by the general dislike of her character , she was very nervous during the burial scene , because she has claustrophobia . Speculation about the duo 's deaths began months before the actual episode aired . Santoro said in an interview with Brazilian Rolling Stone that his character was going to die in the middle of the third season . Another clue about the deaths came when it was announced that Sanchez was signed on to film a fall 2007 pilot for the ABC show , Football Wives .
= = Reception = =
" Exposé " had 11 @.@ 25 million viewers upon its first US broadcast , being ABC 's third most watched show of the week – behind the performance show and results of Dancing with the Stars – and placing Lost at the eighteenth spot on the overall weekly ranking . It also attracted 1 @.@ 089 million viewers in Canada , being the fourth most watched show of the night , and 961 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , being Sky One 's most watched show of the week .
" Exposé " received mixed reviews . Lindelof admitted that the episode " created a varying degree of fan reaction " , with some fans even describing it as " filler " . But Cuse defended " Exposé " , saying it was " a little bit more of an anthology episode for the show " , and that he felt that " it 's unrealistic , in a show that is now
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72 episodes in , that every episode is gonna be , you know , chock full of plot momentum . I think it 's entirely reasonable , and we sort of by necessity have to have episodes that aren 't super @-@ narratively , you know , propelled . " Daniel of TMZ.com said that the episode " was a complete waste of time " , and that although he " wanted Nikki and Paulo to die " , he did not think their deaths warranted an entire episode . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen wrote that although he liked the cameo appearance of Billy Dee Williams , he did not think " Exposé " " will do much to change anyone 's minds " about Nikki and Paulo , who were already unpopular characters . Brooke Tarnoff , a writer for UGO.com , wrote that she was " embarrassed " for Lost . New York Magazine put " Exposé " at the top of its list of " Twenty Most Pointless Lost Episodes " . However , TV Guide 's Matt Roush very much praised the episode for " weaving flashbacks that appeared to be posthumous but really weren 't while providing clever new angles on classic Lost moments from previous seasons " , Roush went on to say that " Exposé " was " a welcome reminder that sometimes these producers really do seem to know what they 're doing after all . " Chris Carabott of IGN also gave a positive review , stating that while Nikki and Paulo had no real impact on the overall storyline , " their ultimate end made for an entertaining hour of television " . The IGN staff later ranked " Exposé " 58th out of the 113 Lost episodes , describing it as " one of the series ' darkest and most fun episodes " .
= Bombing of Banski dvori =
The bombing of Banski dvori ( Croatian : bombardiranje Banskih dvora ) was a Yugoslav Air Force strike on the Banski dvori in Zagreb — the official residence of the President of Croatia at the time of the Croatian War of Independence . The bombing occurred on 7 October 1991 , as a part of a Yugoslav Air Force attack on a number of targets in the Croatian capital city . One civilian was reported killed by strafing of the Tuškanac city district and four were injured .
At the time of the attack , Croatian President Franjo Tuđman was in the building , meeting Stjepan Mesić , then President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia and Ante Marković , then Prime Minister of Yugoslavia , but none of them were injured in the attack . In immediate aftermath , Tuđman remarked that the attack was apparently meant to destroy the Banski dvori as the seat of the statehood of Croatia . Marković blamed Yugoslav Defence Secretary General Veljko Kadijević , who denied the accusation and suggested the event was staged by Croatia . The attack prompted international condemnation and consideration of economic sanctions against Yugoslavia . The presidential residence was immediately moved to the Presidential palace , which was formerly known as Villa Zagorje . The Banski dvori sustained significant damage , but repairs started only in 1995 . The building later became the seat of the Croatian Government .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win raising nationalist tensions further in an already tense SFR Yugoslavia . The Serb politicians left the Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become part of the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina , which had the intention on achieving independence from Croatia . As tensions rose , Croatia declared independence in June 1991 . However , the declaration was suspended for three months , until 8 October 1991 . The suspension came about as the European Economic Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatia that it would not be recognized as an independent state because of the possibility of a civil war in Yugoslavia . The tensions escalated into the Croatian War of Independence when the Yugoslav People 's Army and various Serb paramilitaries mobilized inside Croatia . On 3 October , the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia . This move followed months of standoff and the capture of Yugoslav military installations in Dalmatia and elsewhere . These events are now known as the Battle of the barracks . That resulted in the capture of significant quantities of weapons , ammunition and other equipment by the Croatian Army , including 150 armoured personnel carriers , 220 tanks and 400 artillery pieces of 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) caliber or larger , 39 barracks and 26 other facilities including two signals centres and a missile base . It also coincided with the end of Operation Coast @-@ 91 , in which the Yugoslav forces failed to occupy the coastline in an attempt to cut off Dalmatia 's access to the rest of Croatia .
= = Warning of the attack = =
According to Martin Špegelj , the Defence Minister of Croatia between August 1990 and July 1991 , the Croatian Army was informed by a Yugoslav Air Force Željava Air Base @-@ based source about a top secret mission prepared for the next day , but Špegelj claims that the information was not taken seriously due to lack of details . Other sources assert that a warning was conveyed by Croatian security and intelligence system services , indicating the Soviet Union and its then @-@ president Mikhail Gorbachev as the source of the information . At midnight during the night of the 6 – 7 October , the Soviet ambassador to Belgrade was reported to have received government instructions to warn the Yugoslav military against attacking Zagreb .
Tuđman spent the night in a Croatian Air Force and Air Defence command post — a tunnel running under the Gornji Grad — where information on the movement of Yugoslav aircraft was relayed . In the morning , Yugoslav General Andrija Rašeta informed the press that his superiors may decide to attack Zagreb as a form of pressure on Tuđman . Three air raid alarms were sounded during the morning of 7 October because the Yugoslav Air Force deployed as many as 30 to 40 combat jets in the Zagreb area , and numerous tip @-@ offs of imminent air raids were received from Yugoslav military bases . During the morning , Yugoslav Air Force jets were observed taking off from bases near Pula and Udbina in Croatia and Banja Luka in Bosnia and Herzegovina . No flights were recorded taking off from Željava Air Base , presumably because of low cloud cover in the area . At 1 : 30 pm , the Croatian Army captured a Yugoslav military communications centre and radar post near Velika Buna , south of Zagreb , hindering Yugoslav Air Force control of aircraft in the area . It is believed that the event affected the timing of the raid on the Banski dvori , the official residence of the President of Croatia at the time .
= = Bombing = =
Approximately at noon of 7 October 1991 , Tuđman met with Stjepan Mesić , then President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia and Ante Marković , then Prime Minister of Yugoslavia , both ethnic Croats , in the Banski dvori . The purpose of the meeting was to persuade Marković to leave his position as the head of the Yugoslav federal government , which he appeared reluctant to do , and to discuss the need for Croatia 's independence . The meeting was adjourned for lunch that was to be attended by presidential aides . Tuđman made another effort at persuading Marković , trying to appeal to his Croatian origin . The three left the lunch as dessert was being served and moved into the president 's office to continue their discussion . After Tuđman left the room , everyone else followed .
Just after 3 pm , minutes after the lunch had ended , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked the Banski dvori and other targets in the Gornji Grad area of Zagreb and elsewhere in the Croatian capital city , two or three minutes after everyone had left the hall where the lunch was hosted . Zagreb was attacked by approximately 30 Yugoslav jets , however the Gornji Grad raid was carried out by two Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21s carrying eight Munja 128 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) unguided missiles each and two Soko G @-@ 4 Super Galebs carrying two Mark 82 bombs each . The Banski dvori building was struck by the Mark 82 bombs set off by proximity fuzes 5 metres ( 16 feet ) above the target , scoring two direct hits .
One civilian was reported killed by the aircraft strafing of the Tuškanac area of Gornji Grad . None of the three leaders was injured , but four people were wounded in the attack . The facade of the Banski dvori and nearly all its rooms were damaged , and a part of its roof structure was destroyed . The first estimates of the damage inflicted on the building and its contents ranged between 2 and 3 million US dollars . Apart from the Banski dvori , other buildings in the area sustained damage . Those included the Croatian Parliament building , the Old City Hall , St. Mark 's Church , the Museum of History , the Institute for the protection of cultural monuments as well as residences and offices in the vicinity , including the residence of Swiss consul Werner Mauner .
= = Aftermath = =
In a television report taped and broadcast shortly after the bombing , Tuđman said that the attack appears to have been meant to destroy the Banski dvori as the seat of the statehood of Croatia , and as a decapitation strike . He concluded with statements of resolve to end foreign occupation and rebuild the nation . Marković telephoned his office in Belgrade blaming Yugoslav Defence Secretary General Veljko Kadijević for the attack . He demanded his resignation , threatening not to return to Belgrade until Kadijević was out of office . The Yugoslav Defence Ministry brushed away the accusation , claiming that the attack was not authorized by the central command and suggesting that the event might have been stage @-@ managed by the Croatian authorities . The Yugoslav military later suggested that Croatian leadership planted plastic explosives in the Banski dvori .
In response to the situation , the United States consulate advised American nationals , including journalists , to leave Croatia . The US State Department announced that it would consider introducing economic sanctions against Yugoslavia . Germany condemned the attack , calling it barbarous , and blamed it on the Yugoslav military .
On 8 October 1991 , as the independence declaration moratorium expired , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . That particular session of the parliament was held in the INA building on Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb due to security concerns provoked by the recent air raid ; Specifically , it was feared that the Yugoslav Air Force might attack the parliament building .
After the bombing , the residence of the President of Croatia was moved from the Banski dvori to the Presidential palace — formerly known as Villa Zagorje — in the Pantovčak area of Zagreb . Funds to repair the Banski dvori were approved in 1995 , and the site became the official residence of the Croatian Government . A plaque commemorating the bombing was placed at the Banski dvori facade 20 years after the attack , in 2011 . The bombing is also commemorated by the Zagreb City Museum as the event is featured in the Zagreb in Independent Croatia collection of its permanent display .
= Sanctuary ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the Canadian science fiction – fantasy television series Sanctuary premiered on Space in Canada and on Syfy in the United States on October 9 , 2009 , and concluded on the same channel on January 15 , 2010 after 13 episodes . It continues to follow the actions of a secret organization known as the Sanctuary Network , who track down a series of creatures known as abnormals and then bring them to the Sanctuary base for refuge . Amanda Tapping , Robin Dunne , Emilie Ullerup , Ryan Robbins , Agam Darshi and Christopher Heyerdahl are billed in the opening credits as the main cast .
The season starts six weeks after the conclusion of the first season , where the protagonists work to defeat the antagonistic Cabal from destroying the Sanctuary Network , but in the process Ashley Magnus ( Ullerup ) , daughter of Sanctuary leader Helen Magnus ( Tapping ) , dies . Later episodes involve a story arc on Big Bertha , the most dangerous abnormal on Earth .
The second season included a writing team , where as in the first there were only two writers ; series creator Damian Kindler , and Sam Egan ; however Egan left the series after the end of the first season . The producers wanted to expand on the Sanctuary Network by including episodes where the team visit some of their international sites as opposed to only mentioning them . The season was filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia from late March to July 2009 , with some scenes of the finale filmed on location in Tokyo , Japan . Anthem Visual Effects continues to produce the series ' visual effects . Anthem found an exponential growth in their work , with some episodes including as many as 500 visual effects shots .
The first ten episodes were seen by an average of 1 @.@ 55 million viewers in the United States , increasing to 2 @.@ 2 million when time @-@ shifted viewings were taken into account . It received generally positive reviews from critics ; however , some reviewers criticized the abrupt end to the Cabal arc within the first few episodes . The introduction of the new character Kate Freelander ( Darshi ) was also met with mixed reactions , while there was an outpouring of fans against Ashley 's demise . Season two won seven Leo Awards after its release . The season was released on a four @-@ disc set on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 9 , 2010 in Region 4 , June 15 in Region 1 , and October 4 in Region 2 .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast .
= = Cast = =
= = = Regular cast = = =
The second season began with the original cast from the first season . Amanda Tapping returns as series protagonist Helen Magnus , a 158 @-@ year @-@ old English scientist who runs the Sanctuary Network . The producers intended for Magnus to be more angry and vulnerable following Ashley 's death after the first three episodes . Robin Dunne returns as Will Zimmerman , a former forensic psychiatrist who has been Magnus ' protégé since the pilot . After the first season , the producers made Will more confrontational towards Magnus after feeling more comfortable working with her . Christopher Heyerdahl portrays two characters : Bigfoot , an abnormal who works in the Sanctuary , and John Druitt , Magnus ' former fiancé and father to Ashley . Ryan Robbins returns as Henry Foss . A recurring actor in the first season , Robbins was upgraded to a series regular in the second .
Emilie Ullerup returns as Ashley , Magnus ' daughter who was written out of the series after " Eulogy " . The decision to kill off the character came from an agreement between series creator Damian Kindler and the commissioning networks , as they felt this development would " have the deepest , most dramatic impact on the series and the characters . " Director Martin Wood also believed that her death would add a sense of jeopardy on the show . When Ullerup first heard Ashley would be killed off , she was under the impression that her character was not well received by the fans . After the second season aired however , Ullerup noticed an outpouring from fans against Ashley 's death . Following her death , the producers were willing to develop an Ashley story for the third season .
Agam Darshi joined the cast as Kate Freelander , described by Syfy as " a swindler , con artist and thief who finds herself in an uneasy alliance with Dr. Magnus after her business relationship with the Cabal goes sour . " The producers intended for Kate to be an unlikeable character at first , but by the end of the season have " 99 percent of the people who don 't like Kate , [ ... ] like Kate . " The producers also noted that Kate would begin to prove herself by the third episode " Eulogy " , and the ninth episode " Penance " would become important to Kate 's evolution from " first class bitch " to a more open character when her father 's death is revisited .
= = = Recurring cast and guest appearances = = =
Jonathon Young returns as half @-@ vampire Nikola Tesla . In the tenth episode , the character was " de @-@ vamped " . Kindler felt this development was a bold choice , but also believed his vampirism was the least interesting character trait against being a genius and having electricity @-@ based powers . The producers wanted to make Tesla somewhat heroic by sacrificing that part of him . Like the first season , there were instances where Young was unavailable to shoot some of his scenes due to theatre commitments , so he was replaced by a body double . Christine Chatelain returns as Will 's girlfriend Clara Griffin . Clara was killed off in the second episode ; Tapping viewed the death as an " important casualty " that has resonance to the main characters . Robert Lawrenson made a recurring appearance as Declan McRae , the head of the London Sanctuary following the death of James Watson in the season one finale . The character was originally going to be introduced in " Hero " , but Kindler decided it would be better for the character to be introduced earlier in the season .
The season also introduced numerous guest appearances . Babz Chula appeared as a Cabal scientist in the season premiere , a character that was originally a German male ; Chula accepted Tapping 's offer to appear on the show after they met at an awards ceremony . Christopher Gauthier appears as Walter and his alter @-@ ego , " the Adjuster " , in " Hero " . Gauthier modeled the Adjuster 's voice from Christian Bale 's Batman . The scenes where Walter was worn out from the suit that is killing him mirrored Gauthier 's performance because of the suit he had to wear constantly , which consisted of two sets of jogging outfits , cotton padding , and a wetsuit . Because the producers were impressed with Walter , they wanted him to return in the next season . Mandy May , the wife of director Steven A. Adelson , appears in full prosthetics as the abnormal Jack in " Fragments " ; May previously appeared on the series as the face of Sally the mermaid . In the same episode , Colin Cunningham played the antagonist Gerald . Cunningham was offered a role because he was long @-@ time friends with some of the crew members , as is the same case when it came to casting Anne Marie Loder , wife of director Peter DeLuise , as Rachel . Eureka actress Erica Cerra makes a guest appearance as the telepath Emma in " Veritas " . Cerra 's casting by the producers was " really easy " as it was based on her work in other science fiction productions , especially Eureka .
Tapping 's former Stargate SG @-@ 1 co @-@ star Michael Shanks guest starred as Jimmy in " Penance " . Shanks had an interest in playing Jimmy because of the edgeness of the character . Shanks also suggested Aleks Paunovic , actor and part @-@ time boxer , for the part as the diacon Duke ; being a boxer fit into the character 's violent nature . Paul McGillion returns as Wexford in the season finale . McGillion first appeared as Wexford in the original webisodes , and since then the producers wanted him to return . Tapping believed that placing him in the finale was " the perfect place for him . " Callum Blue was cast as the finale 's antagonist , Edward Forsythe , as the producers believed Blue could portray somebody who is both charming and evil . In the same episode , Sahar Biniaz was cast as Kali ; Biniaz was chosen as the producers believed her physical appearance was goddess @-@ like . Balinder Johal played a cult member ; she was the first person to audition for the part , and the producers cast her as she was spiritual , calm , and soft in her appearance . Johal taught the cast how to speak Hindi in parts of the dialogue . The producers were hoping to cast David Hewlett , another Stargate alum , in a guest spot ; however , this was met by scheduling issues , as he was shooting a film at the time . Despite this the producers were confident they would cast Hewlett " eventually . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Syfy officially announced the commissioning of a second season of Sanctuary in November 2008 due to the ratings success of the pilot episode , which totalled over three million viewers . Writer and executive producer Sam Egan left the series after the first season . Andrea Gorfolova , Carrie Mudd and Keith Beedie join creator Damian Kindler , director Martin Wood , and actress Amanda Tapping as the show 's executive producers .
= = = Writing = = =
The second season saw the introduction of a writing team ; Sara Cooper , Alan McCullough and James Thorpe were hired as additional writers to Kindler . Because of the writing team , it allowed Kindler and the team had to hold meetings , where as in the first season it was just him discussing with Egan . One of the goals in writing the second season is to further explore the global Sanctuary Network , because in the Sanctuary universe abnormals can be found all around the world . Some international Sanctuary bases were mentioned in the first season , but in the second season , the producers wished to visit some of those bases . Introducing new Sanctuaries and its characters would widen the breadth of the show . They also wished to start introducing abnormals that cannot walk , including an oil @-@ like abnormal in " End of Nights " and the fire elemental " Penance " . Kindler wrote both parts of " End of Nights " , " Pavor Nocturnus " , " Next Tuesday " , " Haunted " and the second part of " Kali " . McCullough wrote " Hero " , " Veritas " , " Penance " and the first part of " Kali " . Cooper wrote " Eulogy " and " Fragments " , while Thorpe wrote " Sleepers " , and co @-@ wrote " Pavor Nocturnus " and " Haunted " with Kindler .
Following the cliffhanger of the first season finale , Kindler worked to figure out how to conclude the story and managed to write the outlines of the first two episodes in two days . He also consulted with the writing team to look at all the problems on how to conclude the story . " Eulogy " was conceived as an important episode in the lives of the main characters following the aftermath of " End of Nights " , as well as dealing with the loss of Ashley . Kindler said of the episode " it 's one thing to end on a terrible tragic cliffhanger , it 's another in a satisfactory manner lay all things to rest appropriately . " In writing the episode Cooper was knowledgeable on " medical jargon , " as she once wrote for the medical drama series House . In writing his first script " Hero " , McCullough was initially concerned that it would be met by resistance from the producers because of the special effects that would be involved , but was " floored " to find out it was entirely possible because of Anthem Visual Effects . The producers were originally hesitant in including " Hero " as the fourth episode , as it was considered lighter in tone as Magnus was trying to get over Ashley 's death from " Eulogy " . " Pavor Nocturnus " came early in the development of the season , as Kindler wanted to show an episode about Magnus ' work going " horribly wrong , " and explore the opportunity to have the heroes warned that their work has consequences . Described as the " darkest , scariest , creepiest episode ever " by Tapping , it also featured scenes Kindler was never comfortable with , and did not want to show again , including the assault of naked women , and child killings .
" Fragments " was written to be in real time format . Kindler described the episode as a " nice procedural , with heart , " that follows the same style as episodes of the medical drama ER , where " stuff goes down and you have to kind of follow the team in different aspects and see how they 're handling the situation . " The idea behind " Next Tuesday " came when Kindler and Wood noticed a rescue helicopter that was available for rent , prompting the two to come up with a " helicopter story . " The episode also introduces a next level in Will and Magnus ' friendship ; arguments , which would create a " far more realistic thread of tension " between the two characters who " obviously love each other , " and " obviously get along , " which Kindler felt made a " cool character layer . " This was also based on the producers themselves , who despite being good friends , often argue while producing the series .
" Sleepers " was developed because the producers wanted to do a Tesla @-@ centric episode , as they view him as one of their favorite characters . " Haunted " rounds Druitt to " something unexpected . " The producers were aware that Druitt became more insane the more he teleports , and they wanted to find an explanation why , hence the creation of the energy creature . " Kali " was designed as a somewhat " faith versus science " episode , with faith as the winning party , because any host to the macri would need a spiritual understanding to it ; the cult of Kali are religious , so they would make suitable hosts , but Edward Forsythe is a believer of science , and would not make a suitable host as he does not share the cult 's understanding . In the original draft , Magnus would fall ill , but that later changed to Will before the episode was filmed . Some episodes in the season originally followed a different order . " Pavor Nocturnus " was originally going to be the fourth episode , while " Hero " would become the tenth . " Sleepers " would also be in an earlier slot . However , the order changed , partially due to availability issues with Jonathon Young for " Sleepers " . The writers were also working on a Bigfoot @-@ centric episode , where he returns to his home . However , before it could be written , the networks were unhappy with the idea .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in late March 2009 , and finished on the end of July the same year . Director Martin Wood wanted to film the season in a more graphic novel style . Wood directed both parts of " End of Nights " , " Hero " , " Next Tuesday " and both parts of " Kali " . Brenton Spencer directed " Eulogy " , " Pavor Nocturnus " and " Penance " . The producers felt that Spencer did " a great job " in making sense on a lot of moves he had to make , as well as understanding that the stories are important in getting things back on track in " Eulogy " . The episode ended up being 17 minutes longer than usual , so much of it had to be cut . Steven A. Adelson directed " Fragments " and " Sleepers " . Amanda Tapping directed " Veritas " , her first directorial credit since the Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Resurrection " in 2004 . To direct the scenes featuring Magnus , Tapping rehearsed them to decide how it would be shot , then appointed somebody to handle the cameras . Peter DeLuise directed " Haunted " . Lee Wilson from Anthem Visual Effects directed a scene in " Hero " , while Robbins directed a scene from " Fragments " when his character recorded Rachel 's documentary .
Like the first season , much of the second was filmed on green screen sets in a studio in Burnaby , British Columbia , though also like the first season , there are more instances it was shot on practical sets and on location , most of which taking place just outside the studio . The first part of " End of Nights " had scenes filmed at a large empty warehouse . At some point , Dunne , Kindler , Tapping and Wood were sent to Tokyo to promote the series for Syfy Asia . The four decided to use the opportunity to film some scenes for the finale there , one of which was filmed in the Shibuya crossing . Filming took place just as a monsoon season was kicking in . In addition , they noticed a concert hall and took pictures of one of its angles as they deem the architecture suitable for a Tokyo Sanctuary base .
During the shoot of the first part of " End of Nights " , Kindler loaned his car for a car chase sequence . A later scene involved having the car shot at by snipers . To prevent damage to the car , the bullet holes were made from visual effects . In " Pavor Nocturnus " , the crew had to make the Sanctuary set ruined in a post @-@ apocalyptic state . Set designer Bridget McGuire made the set look " horrible " overnight , but then had to clean it up for the last scene . They also " completely trashed " the street sets in the studio . " Next Tuesday " was considered a bottle episode as it was largely filmed in one set , a water tank some 14 feet deep and 70 feet long , in a studio . The episode was filmed over five 13 @-@ hour days , not including a two @-@ day break midway through , becoming the fastest time filming a Sanctuary episode . Wood directed the episode from the water rather than dry land . The following episode " Penance " was largely filmed at a constructed city set some three and a half blocks in size , which was previously used in the superhero film Watchmen .
The Mumbai slum set in the season finale was constructed on the parking lot of the studio , which took two to three weeks to complete . The finale was filmed during one of the hottest heatwaves to hit British Columbia ; Tapping found that the set was hotter than the average temperature of the actual Mumbai . Three main cameras were used , one of which was crane @-@ operated . 60 extras were used , the highest number used in an Sanctuary episode . For the extras to be used in more than one scene , they wore many different costumes . The streeting area was also limited in size , so the streets were recycled frequently with every scene . The practical sets of the Sanctuary offices and corridors were also redesigned to look like the Mumbai Sanctuary .
= = = Music = = =
Andrew Lockington was appointed the series composer in the season . The producers liked Lockington 's contribution to the score as it was more heightened than it was in the first season . Lockington would also capture the emotional temper when it comes to scoring for the emotional scenes . The composer sampled several instruments from around the world to give the score a more ehtnic , international feel . Some episodes feature the score taking different styles . For instance " Fragments " features a " cool Michael Mann soundtrack . " In " Kali " , the score adopted a more Bollywood @-@ style theme , particularly during Will 's dance sequence . In addition to the score , there were occasional instances where popular music was featured . " End of Nights " featured a track from the Toronto @-@ based hip hop group Down with Webster .
= = = Effects = = =
Anthem Visual Effects resumed their duties of producing the visual effects for the second season . The company 's Lee Wilson noted that their workload for the second season " increased exponentially " over the first , with some episodes containing as many as 500 visual effects shots . The produce decided to " re @-@ jig " the opening title sequence , which they wanted to do each year . The photograph where Magnus meets Albert Einstein changed to aviation pilot Amelia Earhart . The producers noticed that the visual effects have been made " more wonderous than we did the season before , " as they were able to produce certain actions that they never tried before . The steno in " Eulogy " was designed to look adorable , harmless and bunny @-@ like in its infancy , but more menacing when it grows up . In making the Adjuster fly in " Hero " , both visual and practical effects were used ; some of the simpler sequences involved Gauthier hooked up to a velocity rig , but in order to make him fly over the city skyline , a computer @-@ generated avatar was created . The design of the coleanthropus in the same episode was based on a mix of insect and dinosaur .
The second season introduces " moving zorts , " an upgraded technique the film crew used to complete the effect where Druitt teleports . The zorts were used specifically to make the sequences where the cast around Heyerdahl freeze until he leaves the screen . The producers wanted to have the camera move during those shots , as they believed it would be " way cooler to have those zorts on the move . " One of the more difficult moving zorts included a " triple zort " with other characters who could teleport on the same shot in " End of Nights " . The sequence was difficult for Tapping , as she had to carry a prop weighing approximately 73 pounds . A three @-@ dimensional hologram of Rachel 's office was included in " Fragments " ; it was originally intended to feature the hologram throughout the episode , but because doing so would be costly , the producers decided to have one scene with the hologram , so Henry could use it as a blueprint to make an identical office with boxes . For the finale , Anthem decided to make the macri and Big Bertha look like the same creature , though Bertha would be a considerably larger creature . Some scenes involve the macri interacting with real life objects , including clothing . To make a scene where the macri enters a jacket , Wilson used fishing wire to move a sleeve slightly . Big Bertha 's actions meanwhile , were largely made underwater . Anthem found that making underwater effects was difficult because there was a different style of movement . Additionally , Anthem produced a sequence where Wexford launches depth charges from his ship . The producers were looking for stock footage of the dropping depth charges , but they could not find one in high @-@ definition .
In addition to visual effects , other forms of physical effects were produced . In " Hero " , there was a scene where the camera appeared to be shot from inside a water tank . Instead , a water tank was placed between the camera and the actors , where Alka @-@ Seltzer was placed at the bottom to simulate bubbles . Wood previously used this technique in the first season episode " Requiem " as well as in Stargate Atlantis . The Adjuster comic books at the end of the episode were designed by artists who occasionally work for DC Comics . Dunne wore a mullet and a white eye contact lens in " Pavor Nocturnus " for Will 's alternate self in a dystopian future . The vampire squid @-@ related effects for " Next Tuesday " were made possible by visual aids . For the shots where the squid swims on the water surface , the production crew used a radio @-@ controlled boat to mimic a wake . When the squid erupts from the water , they placed a beach ball underwater and released it to mimic the splash . To make the helicopter sway during the battles between the squid and sea scorpion , an air pump was placed below it . However , doing so added the side effect of strong currents , proving difficult for the cast to swim towards the helicopter .
The season also includes stunt work . Weeks before filming " End of Nights " , Heyerdahl practiced sword fighting to be done against the hybrids in the second part . Jonathon Young performed his own stunts for " Sleepers " , including being run over by a car and falling from a car . Both stunts involved harnesses and other safety measures . Young also participated in a fight scene with the other vampire characters , but he ended up injuring two of the actors . In one instance Young hit Chad Rook in the face , which caused a fang insert to puncture his lip .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The season commenced airing on Syfy from October 9 , 2009 , and aired nearly every Friday night until the two @-@ part finale " Kali " on January 15 , 2010 . It aired alongside the first season of Stargate Universe . The season started off with 1 @.@ 85 million viewers . Ratings were up 18 per cent in terms of adults aged between 18 and 49 , and 7 per cent in adults aged between 25 and 54 compared to the average of the first season . After " Sleepers " aired , the season was seen by an average of 1 @.@ 55 million viewers per episode . Timeshifted ratings for the season increases from live viewers by 45 @.@ 9 per cent , increasing the average to 2 @.@ 2 million viewers per episode . In Canada , the season premiered on October 9 on Space , a cable channel that specialises in science fiction programs . Each episode would be available on demand on the channel 's website after they aired . It was moved from The Movie Network , which originally aired the first season . In the United Kingdom , the season premiered on ITV4 on October 12 , 2009 , and finished on January 18 , 2010 . It started with 334 @,@ 000 viewers for the first episode , and ended with 268 @,@ 000 for the finale . In Australia , the season started airing on July 12 , 2010 on ABC2 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The season was met with generally positive reviews . Mark Wilson of About.com believed that after the series was " finding its feet , " and " looks like a harbinger of the new , more confident Sanctuary , " but added " there 's still work to be done . " He also stated " because of the talents involved , the wide @-@ open concept , and the way it 's created , Sanctuary has huge potential . The season 2 premiere is good to great , with
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a fantastic performance from Tapping and a real escalation of the Cabal threat . Let 's hope that the show continues to develop and evolves , like its characters , into the show it 's capable of becoming . " In a DVD review of the season , Monsters and Critics rated it five out of five , stating that fans " will be very happy " with the season set .
John Sinnott of DVD Talk said that while " the show still has a lot of charm , " he felt it did not live up to the standards of the first season . Sinnott criticised the season for wrapping up the Cabal story line in the first two episodes , expecting it to continue throughout the season , as well as accusing the writers of throwing out " a lot of aspects that made the end of the first season so great . " However , he felt there were good episodes , naming " Sleepers " as his favourite , and also saying he liked " Hero " . He summed up that the season was " still worth watching and enjoyable , just not as gripping as the first season , " believing it comes " recommended " to those who wish to purchase the season box set . David Blackwell of Enterline Media stated that the second season " continues to amaze as a show I first wrote off as bad . I 'm glad I 'm still giving this show a second chance as it continues to deliver great character arcs and stories . " Blackwell named " Pavor Nocturnus " , " Veritas " and " Haunted " as the standout episodes . CliqueClack TV believed the season was a " mixed bag " ; " End of Nights " was considered " the most thrilling hours of television Sanctuary has ever produced , " but the season later " suffered mostly from failure to follow through with the Cabal / Ashley story arc . "
Critical reactions towards the introduction of Kate Freelander was also mixed . Mark Wilson stated " the growling sass @-@ mouth feels out of place . Darshi 's performance is good , at least , so we 'll just have to see if the writers are capable of integrating her into the cast . " John Sinnot meanwhile , started " I always found [ Ashley ] a bit irritating , so it was no big loss . For some reason however , they 've replaced her with another annoying young woman , Kate Freelander . She 's basically the same character as Ashley , tough as nails on the outside but still a vulnerable young woman on the inside , but this time in an Indian shell . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Overall the second season won seven awards , all them Leo Awards , out of 17 nominations from the same ceremony . " Pavor Nocturnus " won three of those wins ; Brenton Spencer won " Best Direction " , Christina McQuarrie won " Best Costume Design " , and Robin Dunne won " Best Lead Performance by a Male " . Christopher Gauthier won " Best Guest Performance by a Male " for his role in " Hero " . Todd Masters , Holland Miller , Harlow Macfarlane , Werner Pretorius and Yukio Okajima won " Best Make @-@ Up " for " Fragments " . Christopher Heyerdahl won " Best Supporting Performance by a Male " for " Haunted " , and Bridget McGuire won " Best Production Design " in the season finale , " Kali Part 2 " . The season was also nominated for " Best Dramatic Series " , but lost to Stargate Universe .
The second part of " Kali " represented the series for " Best Television Series – Drama " in the 2010 Directors Guild of Canada Awards , but lost out to the comedy – drama series Being Erica . Elsewhere , Dunne was also nominated for " Best Male Performance in a 2009 Science Fiction Television Episode " at the 2010 Constellation Awards , but lost out to Doctor Who actor David Tennant , for his role in the episode " The Waters of Mars " , by only one percent of the votes .
= = Home video releases = =
A DVD box set of the second season , published by E1 Entertainment , was first released in Region 1 on June 15 , 2010 , in Region October 2 4 , 2010 , and in Region 4 on June 9 , 2010 It was also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United States and Australia on the same days the DVD counterpart was released . The four @-@ disc set consists of all 13 episodes , each with audio commentaries from cast and crew . The set also includes numerous special featurettes : Amanda Tapping Directs " Veritas " , " Next Tuesday " – Anatomy of an Episode , Sanctuary Visual Effects , Sanctuary for Kids , Behind the Scenes and On the Set , Sanctuary Goes to Japan and Dancing in Mumbai , as well as a presentation from the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , a blooper reel and photo gallery .
= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1985 – present ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1985 to the 2015 – 16 Liverpool F.C. season covers the period from the appointment of Kenny Dalglish as manager , the Hillsborough disaster , the club 's return to European competition in 1991 , and the club 's performance in the Premier League .
Dalglish was appointed as manager after Joe Fagan resigned following the Heysel Stadium disaster , which resulted in Liverpool being banned from European competition for an indefinite period . Dalglish had the dual role of player and manager and in his first season the club won the league championship and FA Cup . They failed to retain the title the following season finishing second to neighbours Everton F.C. The club regained the league championship , but lost the final of the FA Cup to Wimbledon F.C. , to prevent a repeat of the double . The following season saw the club involved in one of the worst disasters to occur at an English football stadium . 96 of the club 's supports lost their lives on 15 April 1989 , as a consequence of being crushed against perimeter fencing due to overcrowding at the Leppings Lane End of Hillsborough stadium , during an FA Cup semi @-@ final against Nottingham Forest . Liverpool subsequently won the FA Cup , defeating Everton in the final . They again missed out on the double , as they were beaten to the league championship by Arsenal by goals scored , after the two teams finished the season tied on 76 points . Liverpool regained the league championship in the 1989 – 90 season to win their 18th title . Dalglish resigned the following season , as Liverpool finished second to Arsenal .
Former player Graeme Souness was appointed as manager and he won the FA Cup in his first full season in charge . Despite this , the club finished in sixth position , the first time they had finished outside the top two since 1981 . Liverpool fared no better in the 1992 – 93 season , again finishing sixth . A poor start to the 1993 – 94 season resulted in Souness being replaced by Roy Evans midway through the season . Liverpool improved to fourth the following season and won the Football League Cup . The team improved under Evans ' stewardship finishing fourth , third and fourth in the following season under his reign . They also reached the final of the FA Cup in 1996 but lost to Manchester United . After finishing third during the 1997 – 98 season , Gérard Houllier was appointed co @-@ manager alongside Evans . The arrangement lasted until November when Evans resigned . The team improved under Houllier and after finishing fourth during the 1999 – 2000 season , they won a unique treble of trophies the following season . They finished second to Arsenal during the 2001 – 02 season , their highest league finish since 1991 . The following seasons were disappointing as Liverpool were unable to improve on the previous season 's exploits finishing fifth and fourth respectively . Houllier was sacked at the end of the 2003 – 04 season .
Houllier 's replacement was Rafael Benítez . Liverpool won the UEFA Champions League for the fifth time in Benítez 's first season beating Milan in the final . This was followed by success in the FA Cup the following season . Midway through the following season , Liverpool were bought by Americans Tom Hicks and George Gillett . The club again reached the final of the UEFA Champions League against Milan , but this time , they were defeated by 2 – 1 . The 2008 – 09 season saw Liverpool finish second in the league to Manchester United . Despite this , the following season was a disappointment , as the club finished in seventh place . Benítez left at the end of the season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson . At the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Liverpool were on the verge of bankruptcy . The club were sold to New England Sports Ventures following a high court ruling after the club 's creditors requested the club be sold . Hodgson was replaced by former manager Dalglish midway through the season . He won the Football League Cup in his second spell , but was replaced by Brendan Rodgers after finishing eighth in the 2011 – 12 season .
= = 1985 – 90 : Success at a cost = =
Dalglish became manager following the resignation of Fagan after the Heysel Stadium disaster . He started by replacing long @-@ serving full @-@ backs Phil Neal and Alan Kennedy with Steve Nicol and Jim Beglin . Liverpool began the 1985 – 86 season poorly and were ten points behind Manchester United at the end of September . The club continued to struggle until the end of the season when they won eleven of their last twelve matches , as their rivals were dropping points . Liverpool needed to beat Chelsea in the last game of the season to win the league championship . A goal from Dalglish secured the championship . The club also progressed to the final of the FA Cup , where they faced Everton . Liverpool went behind to a first @-@ half goal from Gary Lineker , but two goals from Ian Rush and a Craig Johnston goal in the second half secured a 3 – 1 victory . Thus , the club had achieved a double of league championship and FA Cup in the same season for the first time .
At the start of the 1986 – 87 season , Rush announced his intention to leave Liverpool for Italian team Juventus when the season was finished . Rush did not want to leave , but the club decided to sell him , due to the expulsion from European competition affecting the club 's cash @-@ flow . Midway through the season , Dalglish signed John Aldridge , who would replace Rush when he left . Despite his impending departure , Rush scored 40 goals . It was not enough to help Liverpool retain the trophies they won the previous season , as they finished second in the league behind Everton , and were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round by Luton Town . The club did reach the final of the Football League Cup , but they were beaten 2 – 1 by Arsenal . At the end of the season , Dalglish signed Peter Beardsley and John Barnes to improve their attacking options . The signings had the desired effect as Liverpool regained the league championship . They did not suffer defeat until their 29th match against Everton , one of two losses during the season . The club had the chance to complete the double , as they reached the final of the FA Cup against Wimbledon . Although favourites against a club who had only become a member of The Football League eleven years previously , they lost the match 1 – 0 .
Rush returned to Liverpool for the start of the 1988 – 89 season , due to homesickness . Liverpool struggled at the start of the season and by January they were nine points behind leaders Arsenal . However , by April the teams were level on points , with Arsenal leading on goal difference . By this time , Liverpool had reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup against Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough stadium on 15 April 1989 . Within six minutes the match was abandoned ; overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end of the ground resulted in the death of ninety @-@ six people , as they were crushed against perimeter fencing . Ninety @-@ four fans died , in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster , that day ; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later and the 96th died nearly four years later , without regaining consciousness . Liverpool won the replayed match 3 – 1 to reach the final against Everton . They led for the majority of the match courtesy of a goal from Aldridge . Stuart McCall scored in the 89th minute to take the game into extra @-@ time . Substitute Rush scored in the 95th minute , but McCall scored again in the 102nd minute to level the match . Another goal from Rush two minutes later , secured a 3 – 2 victory for Liverpool . Once again , Liverpool had a chance to complete the double . Their final match of the season was against second @-@ placed Arsenal , who were three points behind . The game had originally been scheduled for 23 April , but Liverpool 's FA Cup commitments meant it was postponed and rearranged for 26 May . Arsenal needed to win the match by two clear goals to win the league championship . They took the lead in the 52nd minute when striker Alan Smith scored . With the match in injury time , Michael Thomas scored to give Arsenal a 2 – 0 victory . The result meant Arsenal won the championship on goals scored .
Following the end of the season , an inquiry , headed by Lord Taylor was set up to establish the causes of the Hillsborough disaster . The subsequent Taylor Report , published in 1990 , found that failure of police control was the main reason for the disaster and recommended that major stadia remove terracing and become all @-@ seater stadia . Liverpool started the 1989 – 90 season in good form , exemplified by a 9 – 0 victory over newly promoted Crystal Palace . Eight different players scored for the club , the only time this has occurred in English football . The club endured a blip in October and November when they lost four games , but they recovered to go unbeaten until a 1 – 0 loss to Tottenham Hotspur in March . Following the match , Liverpool signed forward Ronny Rosenthal on loan from Standard Liège to boost their attacking options . His impact was immediate , he scored seven goals in eight appearances , including a hat @-@ trick against Charlton Athletic to help Liverpool to their eighteenth league championship . The club progressed to the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , but they were unable to defend the trophy , losing 4 – 3 to Crystal Palace after extra @-@ time .
= = 1990 – 98 : Decline = =
Liverpool started the 1990 – 91 season in good form , as they won their first eight league games . They remained unbeaten until a 3 – 0 loss to Arsenal in December , which was followed by another to Crystal Palace at the end of the month . The club 's form began to tail off and Arsenal moved above them in January . After a 4 – 4 draw against Everton in an FA Cup replay in February , Dalglish announced his resignation as manager , citing stress as the reason . Coach Ronnie Moran was installed as caretaker manager , he won three of the ten matches he was in charge of , as they fell further behind Arsenal . Former player Graeme Souness was announced as manager in April , but the club were unable to catch Arsenal , who won the league by seven points . Souness reshaped the team during the 1991 – 92 season , which not been replenished by Dalglish , since the signings of Barnes and Beardsley . Beardsley , Gary Gillespie and Steve McMahon were sold . He bought Dean Saunders for £ 2 @.@ 9 million , but the league campaign was unsuccessful for Liverpool , as they finished in sixth position , the first time they had finished outside the top two since 1981 . The club did reach the final of the FA Cup against Sunderland , which they won 2 – 0 . The season saw Liverpool compete in Europe for the first time since the Heysel stadium disaster in 1985 , they were readmitted a year after other English clubs . Competing in the UEFA Cup , Liverpool reached the quarter @-@ finals , where they beaten by Italian team Genoa 4 – 1 over two @-@ legs . The Boot Room , which had been a meeting place for Liverpool 's coaches since Bill Shankly was manager was demolished during Souness ' time at the club . A new press room was built in its place .
Anfield was redeveloped at the start of the 1992 – 93 season following the recommendations of the Taylor report . A second tier was added to the Kemlyn Road stand , which included executive boxes and function suites as well as 11 @,@ 000 seats . Renamed the Centenary Stand , it was officially opened on 1 September 1992 by Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) president Lennart Johansson . In the inaugural season of the Premier League , Liverpool performed poorly ; they again finished in sixth place , losing fifteen of their forty @-@ two matches . They did not fare better in cup competitions , exiting early in the FA Cup , League Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . The 1993 – 94 season started well for Liverpool as they won their first three games . However , their form dipped in the league as they lost four consecutive games . One positive was the emergence of striker Robbie Fowler from the club 's youth team . He scored on his first @-@ team debut against Fulham in the first leg of the League Cup and scored all five goals in the return leg as Liverpool won 5 – 0 . Liverpool continued to struggle during the season , culminating in a defeat to Bristol City in an FA Cup replay . Souness was sacked after the match and replaced by coach Roy Evans . The club 's form did not improve under Evans and they ended the season in eighth place after losing sixteen of their forty @-@ two games . Liverpool began to fall behind their rivals off the pitch . Their rivals Manchester United made £ 93 million after they were floated on the stock market , while Liverpool made £ 22 million when media company Granada bought 9 @.@ 9 % of the club .
Following on from the construction of the Centenary Stand , the Spion Kop was redeveloped for the start of the 1994 – 95 season . The stand became all @-@ seater , retaining the single tier with a reduced capacity of 12 @,@ 000 . Evans first full season in charge was more successful than the previous seasons . Liverpool finished the season in fourth place , their best finish since the departure of Dalglish . The club performed well in cup competitions ; they reached the sixth round of the FA Cup , before losing 2 – 1 to Tottenham Hotspur and reached the final of the League Cup against Bolton Wanderers . Two goals from Steve McManaman helped Liverpool to a 2 – 1 victory as they won their fifth League Cup . The season also saw a number of long @-@ serving players leave the club , as Grobbelaar , Steve Nicol and Ronnie Whelan departed . Before the start of the 1995 – 96 season , Liverpool signalled their intent to improve upon the previous season , signing forward Stan Collymore for a British club record £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Collymore made an immediate impact , scoring the only goal in a 1 – 0 win over Sheffield Wednesday in the first game of the season . Liverpool were unable to sustain a challenge for the league championship over the course of the season and finished in third place . The club reached the final of the FA Cup against Manchester United . However , an 85th @-@ minute goal from Eric Cantona secured a 1 – 0 victory for United .
Liverpool started the 1996 – 97 season in good form , and by the turn of the year they were top of the league , two points clear of Arsenal . The club were unable to maintain their form during the rest of the season , losses to Coventry City , Manchester United and Wimbledon resulted in the club finishing the season in fourth position . Despite early exits in the League and FA Cup , Liverpool reached the semi @-@ finals of the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . They were unable to progress after a 3 – 0 defeat in the first @-@ leg , despite winning the second leg 2 – 0 and were knocked out 3 – 2 on aggregate against French team Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Liverpool were without striker Fowler for the start of the 1997 – 98 season after he suffered knee ligament damage in a pre @-@ season friendly . This was offset by the emergence of Michael Owen , who scored eighteen goals from thirty @-@ six appearances . Paul Ince was signed to replace Barnes who left the club to join Newcastle United . Despite this , Liverpool were unable to challenge eventual winners Arsenal and finished thirteen points behind in third place . Further redevelopment took place at Anfield during the season with a second tier added to the Anfield Road stand .
= = 1998 – 2006 : Fluctuating fortunes = =
Liverpool appointed Frenchman Gérard Houllier as co @-@ manager alongside Evans for the 1998 – 99 season . The arrangement did not last long , poor results put pressure on the partnership and after a 3 – 1 defeat by Tottenham Hotspur in the League Cup , Evans resigned . Houllier 's first game as sole manager was a 3 – 1 defeat to Leeds United . Liverpool 's form did not improve under Houllier and early exits in the UEFA and FA Cup , were followed with the club finishing the season in seventh place outside of the qualification spots for European competition . Houllier reshaped the squad at the start of the 1999 – 2000 season . A number of players were brought into the squad such as Dietmar Hamann , Sami Hyypiä and Sander Westerveld , while players such as David James , Ince and McManaman left the club . Houllier continued the reshaping into the season when he signed forward Emile Heskey for a then club record £ 11 million in March . Liverpool failed to secure a return to the UEFA Champions League , as they finished the season in fourth place . Their also performed poorly in the FA and League Cup , exiting early in both competitions .
The 2000 – 01 season was the best in recent years for Liverpool , as they won three competitions to complete a unique treble of trophies . The first trophy the club won was the League Cup after they beat Birmingham City 5 – 4 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match had finished 1 – 1 . They then won the FA Cup , as Owen scored two goals in the last ten minutes to overturn a one @-@ goal deficit to win the match 2 – 1 against Arsenal . The final trophy the club won was the UEFA Cup . An own goal in the last minute of extra time by Delfí Geli secured a 5 – 4 victory over Spanish team Alavés . Liverpool finished the season in third place in the league , securing a return to the European Cup ( now rebranded as the UEFA Champions League ) for the first time since the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 . Liverpool 's participation in the UEFA Champions League in the 2001 – 02 season saw the club reach the quarter @-@ finals , where they were eliminated by German team Bayer Leverkusen 4 – 3 on aggregate . The season was Liverpool 's best in the league in recent years , as they finished in second place , seven points behind Arsenal . Despite their improved performance in the league , Liverpool were unable to defend the FA and League Cup they won the previous season exiting in the fourth and third rounds respectively . The season was overshadowed by heart problems that affected Houllier . He suffered chest pain at half @-@ time during a match with Leeds United at Anfield . He subsequently had an eleven @-@ hour operation to fix an acute dissection of the aorta and did not return until February . His assistant Phil Thompson took charge of the team in the interim .
Hollier signed a number of players at the start of the 2002 – 03 season , including Bruno Cheyrou , Salif Diao and El @-@ Hadji Diouf . The former was preferred to Nicolas Anelka , despite the latter performing well during his loan from Paris Saint @-@ Germain the previous season . Liverpool were unbeaten in their first twelve games in the league , which gave them a seven @-@ point lead . A defeat to Middlesbrough in their next game , started a run of twelve games without victory until they beat Southampton 1 – 0 in January . The club were unable to regain their form from earlier in the season and finished the season in fifth place . Despite early exits in the FA Cup and UEFA Champions League , Liverpool won the League Cup defeating Manchester United in the final . The 2003 – 04 season started poorly for Liverpool as they lost their first game 2 – 1 to Chelsea . Their form did not improve and by the end of the year they had lost six of their eighteen matches in the league . The club 's form improved in the second half of the season and they only lost a further four games to finish in fourth position securing a place in the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League . Liverpool 's form in cup competitions was poor as they exited the UEFA and League Cup in the fourth round . They progressed a round further in the FA Cup , but were eliminated by Portsmouth 1 – 0 in a replay . At the end of the season Houllier was replaced as manager by Rafael Benítez .
The 2004 – 05 season was a disappointment in the league as Liverpool finished in fifth place outside of the UEFA Champions League qualification places . Despite their poor form in the league , the club performed well in cup competitions , the FA Cup withstanding , where they were eliminated in the third round by Burnley . The club reached the final of the League Cup , but were unable to beat Chelsea , losing 3 – 2 . Liverpool also reached the final of the UEFA Champions League and it appeared the club would lose their second final of the season when they were 3 – 0 down to Italian team Milan at half @-@ time . However , three goals in six minutes meant Liverpool drew level at 3 – 3 . No goals in extra time meant the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out , which they won 3 – 2 . A fifth @-@ place finish in the Premier League meant Liverpool were not guaranteed entry into the Champions League and faced the prospect of not being able to defend their European title . UEFA eventually ruled that they would be allowed to do so , but Liverpool would be required to start in the first qualifying round . Despite being allowed to enter the competition they were unable to defend the trophy , as they were eliminated in the first knockout round by Portuguese team Benfica . Liverpool 's performance in the league improved in the 2005 – 06 season as they finished in third place . They also reached the final of the FA Cup where they faced West Ham United . Liverpool won 3 – 1 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match finished 3 – 3 to win the competition .
= = 2006 – present : Downturn = =
The 2006 – 07 season saw Liverpool come under new ownership as American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks bought the club in a deal which valued it and its outstanding debts at £ 218 @.@ 9 million . Liverpool again finished the season in third place , as they finished twenty @-@ one points behind Manchester United . Despite exiting to Arsenal in both the FA and League Cup , the club reached final of the UEFA Champions League where they again faced Milan . The result was different from the match in 2005 , as Liverpool were unable to recover a two @-@ goal deficit and lost the match 2 – 1 Benítez made a number of signings , including Ryan Babel , Yossi Benayoun and Fernando Torres for a club record £ 24 million , in an attempt to improve the club 's performance during the 2007 – 08 season . The signings , Torres in particular , who scored 33 goals during the season , had an effect as the club only lost four league games during the season . However , they drew thirteen of their thirty @-@ eight matches and finished the season in fourth place . Liverpool exited the FA and League Cup in the fifth round , but performed well in the UEFA Champions League . They reached the semi @-@ finals for the third time in four seasons , where they faced Chelsea , who won 4 – 3 on aggregate .
The 2008 – 09 season was the club 's best in recent years . A 5 – 1 victory over Newcastle United in December gave Liverpool a three @-@ point lead in the league with half of the season remaining . They suffered a blip in January , not winning any games and despite good form for the remainder of the season , they were unable to catch Manchester United and finished in second place . Liverpool 's form in the league did not carry over to the FA and League Cup as they were eliminated in the fourth round of both competitions . They performed better in the UEFA Champions League , where the club reached the quarter @-@ finals , but were again eliminated by Chelsea . The 2009 – 10 season was a disappointment for Liverpool as they were unable to improve on the previous season 's performance , finishing seventh in the league . They lost eleven matches , nine more than the previous season , to finish outside the top four for the first time since 2005 . The club also suffered poor form in the UEFA Champions League , they were eliminated in the group stages and subsequently entered the UEFA Cup ( now rebranded as the UEFA Europa League ) . They performed better in the Europa League , where they reached the semi @-@ finals . Their opponents were Spanish team Atlético Madrid , who progressed to the final on the away goals rule after the tie finished 2 – 2 on aggregate . Benitez left the club by mutual consent at the end of the season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson .
The club was sold to Fenway Sports Group during the 2010 – 11 season . Accounts had shown that Liverpool were £ 350 million in debt with losses of £ 55 million , causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion . The Royal Bank of Scotland who were the club 's creditors , took owners Gillett and Hicks to court to force through a sale . The court ruled in the creditors favour and the club was sold to Fenway Sports Group for £ 300 million on 15 October 2010 . On the pitch , Liverpool 's performances were poor . A 3 – 1 defeat to Blackburn Rovers in January , left the club in twelfth place in the league with nine defeats from twenty games . Hodgson was sacked after the match and replaced by former manager Dalglish . Despite a loss in his first match against Manchester United in the FA Cup , Liverpool improved under Dalglish and eventually finished the season in sixth place . Dalglish bought a number of players at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , including Charlie Adam , Stewart Downing and Jordan Henderson . Despite the arrival of new players , their performance in the league did not improve , as they finished in eighth place , the club 's worst finish in eighteen years . Liverpool performed markedly better in the League and FA Cup , as they reached the final of both competitions . The club won a record eighth League Cup , with a 3 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out victory against Cardiff City after the match finished 2 – 2 . Liverpool were unable to repeat their success in the FA Cup , as they lost the final 2 – 1 to Chelsea . The season was marred by the Luis Suárez racial abuse incident in October during a match against Manchester United , in which Suárez racially abused Patrice Evra , and was fined £ 40k and banned for eight games . Dalglish was sacked at the end of the season and replaced by Brendan Rodgers .
In the 2013 – 14 season , Liverpool challenged for their first league title since 1990 . In April 2014 , after a run of 11 consecutive victories , they lost 2 – 0 at home to Chelsea . The following match they led 3 – 0 after 78 minutes , but ended in a 3 – 3 draw to Crystal Palace , as Manchester City won the league . In July , Suárez was sold to Barcelona for £ 75 million , and the following January Gerrard agreed a move to the LA Galaxy at the end of the campaign , ending 17 years at the club . Rodgers was sacked after a poor start to the 2015 – 16 season , and was replaced by German Jürgen Klopp . Liverpool were unsuccessful in the finals of the League Cup and UEFA Europa League , losing the former 3 – 1 in a penalty shootout after the match finished 1 – 1 , and the latter 3 – 1 to Spanish team Sevilla in Basel .
= 2004 Football League Cup Final =
The 2004 Football League Cup Final ( known as the Carling Cup final for sponsorship reasons ) was a football match that took place on 29 February 2004 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2003 – 04 Football League Cup , the 44th edition of the Football League Cup , a competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League .
It was contested between Premier League sides Bolton Wanderers and Middlesbrough , both of whom had never won in their previous appearances in the final . Bolton 's run to the final included a win away to holders Liverpool in the fourth round , while requiring extra time against Southampton in the next round and losing the second leg of the semi @-@ final against Aston Villa . Middlesbrough needed extra time against lowly Brighton & Hove Albion in their first game , and later advanced on penalty shootouts against top @-@ flight Everton and Tottenham Hotspur ; they then won home and away against league leaders Arsenal in the semi @-@ finals .
Middlesbrough scored two goals in the first seven minutes , from Joseph @-@ Désiré Job and a Boudewijn Zenden penalty . Kevin Davies got a goal back in the first half after an error by Boro goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer , but Middlesbrough kept the score at 2 – 1 for their first major trophy . In doing so , they qualified for the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup , their first European competition .
= = Background = =
Bolton were playing in their second League Cup Final , having lost the 1995 edition 2 –
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Treak Cliff Cavern .
Industrial limestone quarrying for the manufacture of soda ash started in the Buxton area as early as 1874 . In 1926 this operation became part of ICI . Large @-@ scale limestone and gritstone quarries flourished as lead mining declined , and remain an important if contentious industry in the Peak . Twelve large limestone quarries operate in the Peak ; Tunstead near Buxton is one of the largest quarries in Europe . Total limestone output was substantial : at the 1990 peak , 8 @.@ 5 million tonnes was quarried .
= = = Introduction of textiles = = =
Textiles have been exported from the Peak for hundreds of years . Even as early as the 14th century , the area traded in unprocessed wool . There was a number of skilled hand spinners and weavers in the area . By the 1780s , inventors such as Richard Arkwright developed machinery to produce textiles more quickly and to a higher standard . The early mills were narrow and low in height , of light construction , powered by water wheels and containing small machines . Interior lighting was by daylight , and ceiling height was only 6 – 8 ft . These Arkwright type mills are about 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The Peak District was the ideal location , with its rivers and humid atmosphere . The local pool of labour was quickly exhausted and the new mills such as Litton Mill and Cressbrook Mill in Millers Dale brought in children as young as four from the workhouses of London as apprentices .
With the advance of technology , the narrow Derbyshire valleys became unsuited to the larger steam driven mill , but the Derbyshire mills remained , and continued to trade in finishing and niche products . The market town of Glossop benefitted from the textile industry . The town 's economy was linked closely with a spinning and weaving tradition which had evolved from developments in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . Until the First World War , Glossop had the headquarters of the largest textile printworks in the world . In the 1920s , the firm was refloated on the easily available share capital ; thus it was victim of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 . Their product lines becoming vulnerable to the new economic conditions , and resulted in the industry 's decline .
= = = Waterways = = =
The streams of the Peak District have been dammed to provide headwater for numerous water driven mills ; weirs have been built across the rivers for the same purpose .
There are no canals within the National Park boundary ( though the Standedge Tunnels on the Huddersfield Narrow Canal run underneath the extreme north of the park ) . Waters from the Dark Peak fed the Ashton Canal , and Huddersfield Narrow Canal , and waters from the White Peak fed the Macclesfield Canal . Outside the National Park , but within the general area , the Peak Forest Canal was built to bring lime from the quarries at Dove Holes for the construction industry .
The canal terminated at Bugsworth and the journey was completed using the Peak Forest Tramway . Southeast of the National Park , the disused Cromford Canal ran from Cromford to the Erewash Canal and formerly served the lead mines at Wirksworth and cotton mills of Sir Richard Arkwright .
The large reservoirs along the Longdendale valley known as the Longdendale Chain were designed in the 1840s and completed in February 1877 . They provided compensation water to ensure a continuous flow along the River Etherow which was essential for local industry , and provided pure water for Manchester . The Upper Derwent Valley reservoirs were built from the mid 20th century onward to supply drinking water to the East Midlands and South Yorkshire .
= = = Development of tourism = = =
The area has been a tourist destination for centuries , with an early tourist description of the area , De Mirabilibus Pecci or The Seven Wonders of the Peak by Thomas Hobbes , being published in 1636 . Much scorn was poured on these seven wonders by subsequent visitors , including the journalist Daniel Defoe who described the moors by Chatsworth as " a waste and houling wilderness " and was particularly contemptuous of the cavern near Castleton known as the ' Devil 's Arse ' or Peak Cavern . Visitor numbers did not increase significantly until the Victorian era , with railway construction providing ease of access and a growing cultural appreciation of the Picturesque and Romantic . Guides such as John Mawe 's Mineralogy of Derbyshire ( 1802 ) and William Adam 's Gem of the Peak ( 1843 ) generated interest in the area 's unique geology .
Buxton has a long history as a spa town due to its geothermal spring which rises at a constant temperature of 28 ° C. It was initially developed by the Romans around AD 78 , when the settlement was known as Aquae Arnemetiae , or the spa of the goddess of the grove . It is known that Bess of Hardwick and her husband the Earl of Shrewsbury , " took the waters " at Buxton in 1569 , and brought Mary , Queen of Scots , there in 1573 . The town largely grew in importance in the late 18th century when it was developed by the 5th Duke of Devonshire in style of the spa of Bath .
A second resurgence a century later attracted the eminent Victorians such as Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood , who were drawn by the reputed healing properties of the waters . The railway reached Buxton in 1863 . Buxton has many notable buildings such as ' The Crescent ' ( 1780 – 1784 ) , modelled on Bath 's Royal Crescent , by John Carr , ' The Devonshire ' ( 1780 – 1789 ) , ' The Natural Baths ' , and ' The Pump Room ' by Henry Currey . The Pavilion Gardens were opened in 1871 . Buxton Opera House was designed by Frank Matcham in 1903 and is the highest opera house in the country . Matcham was the theatrical architect who designed the London Palladium , the London Coliseum , and the Hackney Empire .
There is a great tradition of public access and outdoor recreation in the area . The Peak District formed a natural hinterland and rural escape for the populations of industrial Manchester and Sheffield , and remains a valuable leisure resource in a largely post @-@ industrial economy .
In a 2005 survey of visitors to the Peak District , 85 % of respondents mentioned " scenery and landscape " as a reason for visiting .
= = = Modern history = = =
The Kinder Trespass in 1932 was a landmark in the campaign for national parks and open access to moorland in Britain . At the time , such open moors were closed to all ; they were strongly identified with the game @-@ keeping interests of landed gentry who used them only 12 days a year . The Peak District National Park became the United Kingdom 's first national park on 17 April 1951 . The first long @-@ distance footpath in the United Kingdom was the Pennine Way , which opened in 1965 and starts at the Nags Head Inn , in Grindsbook Booth , part of Edale village .
The northern moors of Saddleworth and Wessenden , above Meltham , gained notoriety in the 1960s as the burial site of several children murdered by Ian Brady and Myra Hindley .
= = Transport = =
= = = History = = =
The first roads in the Peak were constructed by the Romans , although they may have followed existing tracks . The Roman network is thought to have linked the settlements and forts of Aquae Arnemetiae ( Buxton ) , Chesterfield , Ardotalia ( Glossop ) and Navio ( Brough and Shatton ) , and extended outwards to Danum ( Doncaster ) , Mamucium ( Manchester ) and Derventio ( Little Chester , near Derby ) . Parts of the modern A515 and A53 roads south of Buxton are believed to run along Roman roads .
Packhorse routes criss @-@ crossed the Peak in the Medieval era , and some paved causeways are believed to date from this period , such as the Long Causeway along Stanage Edge . However , no highways were marked on Christopher Saxton 's map of Derbyshire , published in 1579 . Bridge @-@ building improved the transport network . A surviving early example is the three @-@ arched gritstone bridge over the River Derwent at Baslow , which dates from 1608 and has an adjacent toll @-@ shelter .
Although the introduction of turnpike roads ( toll roads ) from 1731 reduced journey times , the journey from Sheffield to Manchester in 1800 still took 16 hours , prompting Samuel Taylor Coleridge to remark that " a tortoise could outgallop us ! " From around 1815 onwards , turnpike roads both increased in length and improved in quality . An example is the Snake Pass , which now forms part of the A57 , built under the direction of Thomas Telford in 1819 – 21 ; the name refers to the crest of the Duke of Devonshire . The Cromford Canal opened in 1794 , carrying coal , lead and iron ore to the Erewash Canal .
Within several years , the improved roads and the Cromford Canal both saw competition from new railways , with work on the first railway in the Peak commencing in 1825 . Although the Cromford and High Peak Railway ( from the Cromford Canal at High Peak Junction to Whaley Bridge ) was an industrial railway , passenger services soon followed , including the Woodhead Line ( Sheffield to Manchester via Longdendale ) and the Manchester , Buxton , Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway . Not everyone regarded the railways as an improvement :
You enterprised a railroad through the valley , you blasted its rocks away , heaped thousands of tons of shale into its lovely stream . The valley is gone , and the gods with it ; and now , every fool in Buxton can be at Bakewell in half @-@ an @-@ hour , and every fool in Bakewell at Buxton .
By the second half of the 20th century , the pendulum had swung back towards road transport . The Cromford Canal was largely abandoned in 1944 , and several of the rail lines passing through the Peak were closed as uneconomic in the 1960s as part of the Beeching Axe . The Woodhead Line was closed between Hadfield and Penistone . Parts of the trackbed are now used for the Trans Pennine Trail , the stretch between Hadfield and Woodhead being known specifically as the Longdendale Trail .
The Manchester , Buxton , Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway is now closed between Rowsley and Buxton where the trackbed forms part of the Monsal Trail . The Cromford and High Peak Railway is now completely shut , with part of the trackbed open to the public as the High Peak Trail . Another disused rail line between Buxton and Ashbourne now forms the Tissington Trail .
= = = Road network = = =
The main roads through the Peak District are the A57 ( Snake Pass ) between Sheffield and Manchester , the A628 ( Woodhead Pass ) between Barnsley and Manchester via Longdendale , the A6 from Derby to Manchester via Buxton , the Cat and Fiddle road from Macclesfield to Buxton , and in the extreme north of the Park the A635 ( Saddleworth Moor ) running from Manchester to Barnsley and the A62 from Manchester to Leeds , which forms the northernmost border of the National Park at Standedge . These major roads , together with other minor roads and lanes in the area , are attractive to drivers , but the Peak 's popularity makes road congestion and the availability of parking spaces a significant problem , especially during summer . This led to the proposal of a congestion charge in 2005 , but this was later rejected .
= = = Public transport = = =
The Peak District is readily accessible by public transport , which reaches even central areas . Train services into the area are along the Hope Valley Line from Sheffield and Manchester , the Derwent Valley Line from Derby to Matlock , the Huddersfield Line from Manchester to Huddersfield , the Buxton Line and Glossop Line , linking those towns to Manchester . Coach ( long @-@ distance bus ) services provide access to Matlock , Bakewell and Buxton from Derby , Nottingham and Manchester through TransPeak and National Express , and there are regular buses from the nearby towns of Sheffield , Glossop , Stoke , Leek and Chesterfield . The nearest airport is Manchester .
For such a rural area , the smaller villages of the Peak are relatively well served by internal transport links . There are many minibuses operating from the main towns ( Bakewell , Matlock , Hathersage , Castleton , Tideswell and Ashbourne ) out to the small villages . The Hope Valley and Buxton Line trains also serve many local stations ( including Hathersage , Hope and Edale ) .
The National Park Authority announced , in October 2009 , that Cycle England will be investing £ 1 @.@ 25 million , to be spent by 2011 , to build and improve cycle routes within the National Park for use by leisure and commuting cyclists . It is hoped that this investment will help reduce traffic congestion and environmental pollution , as well as giving commuters and visitors a viable alternative to travelling around the National Park by car .
= = Activities = =
The Peak District provides opportunities for many types of outdoor activity . An extensive network of public footpaths and numerous long @-@ distance trails , over 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) in total , as well as large open @-@ access areas , are available for hillwalking and hiking . The Pennine Way traverses the Dark Peak from Edale to the Park 's northern boundary just south of Standedge . Bridleways are commonly used by mountain bikers , as well as horse riders . Some of the long @-@ distance trails in the White Peak , such as the Tissington Trail and High Peak Trail , re @-@ use former railway lines ; they are well used by walkers , horse riders and cyclists .
The local authorities run cycle hire centres at Ashbourne , Parsley Hay , Middleton Top and the Upper Derwent Valley . Wheelchair access is possible at several places on the former railway trails , and cycle hire centres offer vehicles adapted to wheelchair users . There is a programme to make footpaths more accessible to less @-@ agile walkers by replacing climbing stiles with walkers ' gates .
The many gritstone outcrops , such as Stanage Edge and The Roaches , are recognised as some of the finest rock climbing sites in the world ( see rock climbing in the Peak District ) ; they were the first to be climbed . The Peak District 's limestone was then ' discovered ' by climbers . It is more unstable but provides many testing climbs . For example , Thor 's Cave was explored in the early 1950s by Joe Brown and others . Eleven limestone routes there are listed by the BMC , ranging in grade from Very Severe to E7 , and several more have been claimed since the guidebook 's publication ; a few routes are bolted .
Beneath the ground , the potholer enjoys natural caves , the potholes and old mine workings found in the limestone of the Peak . Peak Cavern is the largest and most important cave system which is even linked to the Speedwell system at Winnats . The only significant potholes are Eldon Hole and Nettle Pot . There are many old mine workings , which often were extensions of natural cave systems . Systems can be found at Castleton , Winnats , Matlock , Stoney Middleton , Eyam , Monyash and Buxton .
Some of the area 's large reservoirs , for example Carsington Water , have become centres for water sports , including sailing , fishing and canoeing , in this most landlocked part of the UK . Other activities include air sports such as hang gliding and paragliding , birdwatching , fell running , off @-@ roading , and orienteering .
= = Visitor attractions = =
= = = Towns and villages = = =
Buxton , Matlock and Matlock Bath , Bakewell , Leek and the small towns of Ashbourne and Wirksworth , on the fringes of the Park , all offer a range of tourist amenities . To the north the village of Hayfield sits at the foot of Kinder Scout , the highest summit in the area .
Bakewell is the largest settlement within the National Park ; its five @-@ arched bridge over the River Wye dates from the 13th century .
The spa town of Buxton was developed by the Dukes of Devonshire as a genteel health resort in the 18th century . Although just outside the national park boundary , it is a popular attraction in the area . It has an opera house with a theatre , museum and art gallery . Another spa town is Matlock Bath , popularised in the Victorian era .
The picturesque village of Castleton , overshadowed by Peveril Castle , has four show caves , the Peak , Blue John , Treak Cliff , and Speedwell , and is the centre of production of the unique semi @-@ precious mineral , Blue John . Other show caves and mines include the Heights of Abraham , reached by cable car , at Matlock Bath , and Poole 's Cavern in Buxton . The small village of Eyam is known for its self @-@ imposed quarantine during the Black Death of 1665 .
= = = Historic buildings = = =
Historic buildings include Chatsworth House , seat of the Dukes of Devonshire and among Britain 's finest stately homes ; the medieval Haddon Hall , seat of the Dukes of Rutland ; Hardwick Hall , built by powerful Elizabethan Bess of Hardwick ; and Lyme Park , an Elizabethan manor house transformed by an Italianate front .
Many of the Peak 's villages and towns have fine parish churches , with a particularly magnificent example being the 14th century Church of St John the Baptist at Tideswell , sometimes dubbed the ' Cathedral of the Peak ' . ' Little John 's Grave ' can be seen in the Hathersage churchyard . Historic castles include Bolsover Castle and Peveril Castle , both associated with the Normans .
= = = Museums and attractions = = =
The Mining Museum at Matlock Bath , which includes tours of the Temple Lead Mine , and the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site and Brindley Water Mill at Leek give insight into the Peak 's industrial heritage . The preserved steam railway between Matlock and Rowsley , the National Tramway Museum at Crich and the Cromford Canal chart the area 's transport history . The Life in a Lens Museum of Photography & Old Times in Matlock Bath presents the history of photography from 1839 . Other attractions on the fringes of the national park include the theme parks of Alton Towers and Gulliver 's Kingdom , and the Peak Wildlife Park .
= = = Local customs and events = = =
Well dressing ceremonies are held in most of the villages during the spring and summer months , in a tradition said to date from pagan times . Other local customs include Castleton 's annual Garland Festival and Ashbourne 's Royal Shrovetide Football , played annually since the 12th century . Buxton hosts two opera festivals , the Buxton Festival and the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival , as well as the Buxton Festival Fringe , and the Peak Literary Festival is held at various locations twice a year .
= = = Local cuisine = = =
Peak District food specialities include the dessert Bakewell pudding , very different from the nationally available Bakewell tart , and until 2009 the famous cheese Stilton and other local cheeses were produced in the village of Hartington .
= = Conservation issues = =
The proximity of the Peak to major conurbations ( an estimated 20 million people live within an hour 's drive ) poses unique challenges to managing the area . The Peak District National Park Authority and the National Trust , with other landowners , attempt to balance keeping the upland landscape accessible to visitors for recreation , whilst protecting it from intensive farming , erosion and pressure from visitors themselves . An inevitable tension exists between the needs of the 38 @,@ 000 residents of the Peak District National Park , the many millions of people who visit it annually , and the conservation requirements of the area .
The uneven distribution of visitors creates further stresses . Dovedale alone receives an estimated two million visitors annually ; other highly visited areas include Bakewell , Castleton and the Hope Valley , Chatsworth , Hartington and the reservoirs of the Upper Derwent Valley . Over 60 % of visits are concentrated in the period May – September , with Sunday being the busiest day .
= = = Footpath erosion = = =
The number of footpath users on the more popular walking areas in the Peak District has contributed to serious erosion problems , particularly on the fragile peat moorlands of the Dark Peak . The recent use of some paths by mountain bikers is believed by some to have exacerbated an existing problem . Measures taken to contain the damage have included the permanent diversion of the official route of the Pennine Way out of Edale , which now goes up Jacob 's Ladder rather than following the Grindsbrook , and the surfacing of many moorland footpaths with expensive natural stone paving .
= = = Quarrying = = =
Large @-@ scale limestone quarrying has been a particular area of contention . Most of the mineral extraction licences were issued by national government for 90 years in the 1950s , and remain legally binding . The Peak District National Park Authority has a policy of considering all new quarrying and licence renewal applications within the area of the National Park in terms of the local and national need for the mineral and the uniqueness of the source , in conjunction with the effects on traffic , local residents and the environment .
Some licences have not been renewed ; for example , the RMC Aggregates quarry at Eldon Hill was forced to close in 1999 , and landscaping is ongoing . The proposals dating from 1999 from Stancliffe Stone Ltd to re @-@ open dormant gritstone quarries at Stanton Moor have been seen as a test case . They are hotly contested by ecological protesters and local residents on grounds that the development would threaten nearby Bronze Age remains , in particular the Nine Ladies Stone Circle , as well as the natural landscape locally . As of 2007 , negotiations are ongoing to shift the development to the nearby Dale View quarry , a less sensitive area .
= = Peak District in literature and arts = =
The landscapes of the Peak have formed an inspiration to writers for centuries . Various places in the Peak District have been identified by Ralph Elliott and others as locations in the 14th @-@ century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ; Lud 's Church for example , is thought to be the Green Chapel .
Key scenes in Jane Austen 's 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice are set in the Derbyshire Peak District . Peveril of the Peak ( 1823 ) by Sir Walter Scott is a historical novel set at Peveril Castle , Castleton during the reign of Charles II . William Wordsworth was a frequent visitor to Matlock ; the Peak inspired several of his poems , including an 1830 sonnet to Chatsworth House . The village of Morton in Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel Jane Eyre is based on Hathersage , where Brontë stayed in 1845 , and Thornfield Hall might have been inspired by nearby North Lees Hall . Snowfield in George Eliot 's first novel Adam Bede ( 1859 ) is believed to be based on Wirksworth , where her uncle managed a mill ; Ellastone ( as Hayslope ) and Ashbourne ( as Oakbourne ) are also featured .
Beatrix Potter , the author of Peter Rabbit , used to visit her uncle Edmund Potter at his printworks in Dinting Vale . She used cloth patterns from his Pattern Sample book to dress her characters . Mrs Tiggywinkle 's shawl , in The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy @-@ Winkle , is based on pattern number 222714 .
Children 's author Alison Uttley ( 1884 – 1976 ) was born at Cromford ; her well @-@ known novel A Traveller in Time , set in Dethick , recounts the Babington Plot to free Mary , Queen of Scots , from imprisonment . Crichton Porteous ( 1901 – 91 ) set several books in specific locations in the Peak ; Toad Hole , Lucky Columbell and Broken River , for example , are set in the Derwent Valley . More recently , Geraldine Brooks 's first novel , Year of Wonders ( 2001 ) , blends fact and fiction to tell the story of the plague village of Eyam , which also inspired Children of Winter by children 's novelist Berlie Doherty ( b . 1943 ) . Doherty has set several other works in the Peak , including Deep Secret , based on the drowning of the villages of Derwent and Ashopton by the Ladybower Reservoir , and Blue John , inspired by the Blue John Cavern at Castleton .
Many works of crime and horror have been set in the Peak . The Terror of Blue John Gap by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ( 1859 – 1930 ) recounts terrible events at the Blue John mines , and Sherlock Holmes investigates the kidnapping of a child in the region in The Adventure of the Priory School . Many of the horror stories of local author Robert Murray Gilchrist ( 1878 – 1916 ) feature Peak settings . More recently , Stephen Booth has written a series of crime novels set in various real and imagined Peak locations , while In Pursuit of the Proper Sinner , an Inspector Lynley mystery by Elizabeth George , is set on the fictional Calder Moor .
Other writers and poets who lived in or visited the Peak include Samuel Johnson , William Congreve , Anna Seward , Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , Lord Byron , Thomas Moore , Richard Furness , D. H. Lawrence , Vera Brittain , Richmal Crompton and Nat Gould . The landscapes and historic houses of the Peak are also popular settings for film and television . The classic 1955 film The Dam Busters was filmed at the Upper Derwent Valley reservoirs , where practice flights for the bombing raids on the Ruhr dams had been made during the Second World War .
In recent adaptations of Pride and Prejudice , Longnor has featured as Lambton , while Lyme Park and Chatsworth House have stood in for Pemberley . Haddon Hall not only doubled as Thornfield Hall in two different adaptations of Jane Eyre , but has also appeared in several other films including Elizabeth , The Princess Bride and The Other Boleyn Girl . The long @-@ running television medical drama Peak Practice is set in the fictional village of Cardale in the Derbyshire Peak District ; it was filmed in Crich , Matlock and other Peak locations .
= Seth Neddermeyer =
Seth Henry Neddermeyer ( September 16 , 1907 – January 29 , 1988 ) was an American physicist who co @-@ discovered the muon , and later championed the Implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon while working on the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II .
= = Early life = =
Seth Henry Neddermeyer was born in Richmond , Michigan , on September 16 , 1907 . He attended Olivet College , a small college that his mother , older sister , and uncle had also attended , for two years before his family moved to California . He transferred to Stanford University , from which received his Bachelor of Arts ( A.B. ) degree in 1929 . His interest in physics was inspired by the work of Robert A. Millikan , and he enrolled in graduate school at California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) , where he wrote his 1935 Ph.D. thesis on " The absorption of high energy electrons " , under the supervision of Carl D. Anderson . He confirmed the theory espoused by Niels Bohr for this process . He also noted large radiative energy losses of electrons in lead , in agreement with the theory propounded by Hans Bethe and Walter Heitler .
Neddermeyer contributed to the research which led to the 1932 discovery of the positron , for which Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 . That year , Neddermeyer and Anderson discovered the muon , using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays . Their discovery predated Hideki Yukawa 's 1935 theory of mesons that postulated the particle as mediating the nuclear force . Anderson and Neddermeyer collaborated with Millikan in high altitude studies of cosmic rays , which confirmed Robert Oppenheimer 's theory that the air showers produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays contained electrons . They also obtained the first evidence that gamma rays can generate positrons .
= = Manhattan Project work = =
In early 1941 , with World War II raging in Europe but the United States not yet a belligerent , Neddermeyer joined a team led by Charles C. Lauritsen and William A. Fowler at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington , and then at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington , D.C. , that worked on the photoelectric proximity fuze . After this work was successfully completed , Neddermeyer was recruited by Oppenheimer to work at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory . Neddermeyer was an early advocate for the development of an implosion technique for assembling a critical mass In an atomic bomb . Although implosion was suggested by Richard Tolman as early as 1942 , and discussed in the introductory lectures given to Los Alamos scientists by Robert Serber , Neddermeyer was one of the first to urge its full development . Unable to find much initial enthusiasm for the concept among his fellow Los Alamos scientists , Neddermeyer presented the first substantial technical analysis of implosion in late April 1943 . Oppenheimer considered this to be the beginning of implosion research at Los Alamos .
Though many remained unimpressed , Oppenheimer appointed Neddermeyer the head of a new group to test implosion . His group became the E @-@ 5 ( Implosion ) Group , which was part of Captain William S. Parsons ' E Division . A gun @-@ type nuclear weapon was the preferred method , but implosion research constituted a backup . Neddermeyer embarked on an intensive series of experiments testing cylindrical implosions . The result was a series of distorted shapes . Progress was made ; Neddermeyer and a member of his team , Hugh Bradner , along with James L. Tuck from the British Mission , conceived the idea of explosive lenses , in which shaped charges are used to focus the force of an explosion . Nevertheless , seemingly unsolvable problems with shock wave uniformity brought progress on implosion to a crawl .
By September 1943 , Neddermeyer 's team had grown from five people to fifty . That month , John von Neumann came to Los Alamos at Oppenheimer 's request . Von Neumann was impressed by the implosion concept and , working with Edward Teller , an old friend , made a series of suggestions . Von Neumann was able to create a sound mathematical model of implosion , enabling Neddermeyer to present a proposal for a greatly expanded research program . Edwin McMillan and Isidor Isaac Rabi recommended that George Kistiakowsky , who had a specialized knowledge in
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left in the day , Burns finds a cop ticketing his car , which he had parked in the middle of the road . After discovering the cop is a beautiful woman named Gloria ( voiced by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) , Burns asks her out on a date . Gloria warily accepts , much to Burns ' delight and Smithers ' chagrin .
After a pleasant first date at the carnival , Burns asks about another date but Gloria is about to turn him down when Homer runs by . Burns asks Homer to vouch for him to Gloria , so Homer regales her by listing Burns ' many exploits . After Gloria agrees to a second date , Burns enlists Homer to be his " youthful advisor " , accompanying the couple on their next date at the disco hall , and even carrying Burns and Gloria up the stairs when they go to have sex . In these cases , Burns overcomes his weakness and extreme age by means of a powerful aphrodisiac ( made from an extract of the " pocket fox " , a species which only existed for three weeks in the 16th century ) .
Eventually , during a date at the bowling alley , Burns decides to ask Gloria to marry him . She says yes . As Burns goes off to get some champagne to celebrate , Snake comes to rob the bowling alley , and is surprised to see Gloria , who turns out to be his ex @-@ girlfriend . Despite Gloria 's protests , Snake kidnaps her and Homer . When Burns finds Gloria 's ring , dropped in the commotion , he assumes she ran off with Homer . Snake takes Gloria and Homer to his hideout . Though Gloria says she loves Burns , Snake vows he can change . The police arrive and confront Snake . Homer tries to escape but instead sets Snake 's house on fire . Snake and Homer get out and Burns runs in to save Gloria , however he is soon overcome by the smoke and Gloria is then seen carrying him to safety . Although initially grateful , Gloria begins to reminisce about Snake , causing her to break up with Burns and become Snake 's girl again .
= = Production = =
" A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love " was written by John Swartzwelder while Lance Kramer served as director . It first aired in the United States on December 2 , 2001 on the Fox network .
= = = Writing = = =
Mike Scully , who worked as an executive producer and show runner for the episode , stated in the episode 's DVD audio commentary that the first thing the writers tried to think of while writing the episode was how the Simpson family would fit into the story . In the episode 's first draft , Gloria worked as a food truck driver , however this was later changed so that she instead worked as a police lady . Scully also stated that , in the scene after Homer carries Burns and Gloria up the stairs , there were originally a lot of jokes about Homer " taking care of business " for Burns , however the staff decided to leave it out since it would make Homer " unlikable . " In the episode , Snake Jailbird 's mailbox reads " Snake ( Jailbird ) " which is a reference to a debate that the writers had over whether Snake 's mailbox would read " Snake " or " Jailbird " . Originally , the episode would end with Burns taking the " pocket fox " extract , however when seeing the animatic , the writers felt that that ending would be " too slow " , so they changed it into Gloria falling in love with Snake again .
= = = Animation = = =
On the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Kramer stated that there was an issue over which color to paint the fortunes with . Kramer wanted the fortunes to be white while one of his co @-@ workers suggested they should be pink . Kramer stated that the co @-@ worker had been to a Chinese restaurant close to the studio that had pink fortunes , and that " that 's why she [ colored the fortunes pink ] . " The animators also found it difficult to draw Mr Burns happy . Kramer stated that Burns was " designed to look like a vulture " and look " evil all the time " , so in order to make Burns look happy and more sympathetic , the animators had to change some things in Burns ' regular model . For example , Burns ' eyebrows are not visible through the majority of the episode . The scene with Mr Burns and Gloria on the Ferris wheel was difficult to animate as well , since the animators had to " keep everything moving to sell it . " In the scene in which Snake 's house is burning down , the animators chose to color the sky red , in order to reflect the fire as well as make the scene " a little more exciting . "
= = = Casting = = =
Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus guest @-@ starred as Gloria in the episode . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , current show runner Al Jean stated that working with Louis @-@ Dreyfus was " an absolute pleasure " , stating that " not only was she funny but you 'd give her , like , one suggestion , and she 'd do three great things with it . " The waiter in the Chinese restaurant was portrayed by actor George Takei . Dan Castellaneta , who plays Homer among several characters on the show , supplied the voice for Woody Allen . The delivery boy was portrayed by Karl Wiedergott , a voice actor who usually fill in for the male actors on The Simpsons when they are not available for the table read . Jean described him as " versatile " and " very talented " .
= = Release = =
Following the release of thirteenth season of The Simpsons on DVD and Blu @-@ Ray on August 24 , 2010 , " A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love " received positive reviews from critics . Writing for Project : Blu , Nate Boss was favorable , describing it as " A hilarious episode , with some fantastic one liners " , and went on to say that the episode was " so far the best in the season . " Ron Martin of 411Mania was also positive towards the episode , writing " The antics of Mr. Burns and Homer trying to woo a young police officer are at worst amusing , at most hilarious . " He wrote that Snake Jailbird was " a welcome side character " , and went on to write that the episode was the best of the first disc of The Simpsons ´ thirteenth season on DVD .
Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B + rating , and wrote that the episodes highlights were " Burns ' reaction walking into a strip club " [ sic ] and " a fortune cookie Homer writes , ' You will be aroused by a shampoo commercial ' . " Colin Jacobsson , writing for DVD Movie Guide , stated that , while it was not as good as the previous episode , " Homer the Moe " , " A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love " still " offers a reasonably solid episode " . He liked the parts related to the fortune cookies , and stated that “ Burns ’ attempts to woo a much younger woman fare pretty well ” . He concluded his review by saying that “ enough smiles and snickers emerge to make this an enjoyable show ” . Obsessed With Film 's Adam Rayner , in his review of The Simpsons thirteenth season , wrote that Julia Louis Dreyfus ' appearance in the episode was " arguably the best [ cameo ] of the season " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode title makes reference to a line from " Burning Love " , a song made popular by Elvis Presley in 1972 .
= Florian Znaniecki =
Florian Witold Znaniecki ( 15 January 1882 – 23 March 1958 ) was a Polish philosopher and sociologist who taught and wrote in Poland and in the United States . Over the course of his work he shifted his focus from philosophy to sociology . He remains a major figure in the history of Polish and American sociology ; the founder of Polish academic sociology , and of an entire school of thought in sociology . He won international renown as co @-@ author , with William I. Thomas , of the study , The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( 1918 – 20 ) , which is considered the foundation of modern empirical sociology . He also made major contributions to sociological theory , introducing terms such as humanistic coefficient and culturalism .
In Poland , he established the first Polish department of sociology at Adam Mickiewicz University where he worked from 1920 to 1939 . His career in the US begun at the University of Chicago ( 1917 to 1919 ) and continued at Columbia University ( 1932 to 1934 and 1939 to 1940 ) and at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign ( 1942 to 1950 ) . He was the 44th President of the American Sociological Association ( for the year 1954 ) .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Florian Znaniecki was born on 15 January 1882 at Świątniki , Congress Poland , a state controlled by the Russian Empire to Leon Znaniecki and Amelia , née Holtz He received early schooling from tutors , then attended secondary schools at Warsaw and Częstochowa . While in secondary school , he was a member of an underground study group , specializing in history , literature and philosophy . His secondary @-@ school grades were average at best , and he had to repeat a year of school ; this was largely due to his extracurricular interest in Polish @-@ language study , which was banned under the Russified school program . As a youth , he wrote some poetry , including a drama , Cheops ( 1903 ) . A poem of his , " Do Prometeusza " ( " To Prometheus " ) , was included in a 1900 anthology ; however , neither he in later life , nor literary critics , judged his poetry outstanding .
He entered the Imperial University of Warsaw in 1902 , but was soon expelled after taking part in protests against the Russian administration 's curtailment of student rights . Threatened with conscription into the Imperial Russian Army , he chose to emigrate and in early 1904 left Warsaw for Switzerland .
During that period , he was briefly an editor at a French @-@ language literary magazine , Nice Illustrée ( late 1904 – early 1905 ) ; faked his own death ; briefly served in the French Foreign Legion in Algeria ; and worked at a flea market , on a farm , in a traveling circus , and as a librarian at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil , Switzerland .
In Switzerland he soon resumed his university studies , first at the University of Geneva ( 1905 – 07 ) , then at the University of Zurich ( 1907 – 08 ) , eventually transferring to the Sorbonne in Paris , France ( 1908 – 09 ) , where he attended lectures by sociologist Émile Durkheim . In 1909 , after the death of his supervisor Frédéric Rauh , he returned to Poland , where in 1910 he obtained his Ph.D. degree at Jagiellonian University , in Kraków , under a new supervisor , Maurycy Straszewski .
= = = Early Polish career = = =
That year he also joined the Polish Psychological Society ( Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne ) , in which he would be highly active over the next few years , becoming its vice president in 1913 – 14 . Much of his early academic work at that time could be classified as philosophy . In 1909 , aged 27 , he published his first academic paper , Etyka filozoficzna i nauka o wartościach moralnych ( " Philosophical Ethics and the Science of Moral Values " ) ; a year later he published Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii ( The Question of Values in Philosophy ) , based on his doctoral dissertation , and a paper , Myśl i rzeczywistosc ( " Mind and Reality " ) . In 1912 he published a new book , Humanizm i Poznanie ( Humanism and Knowledge ) , and a paper , Elementy rzeczywistości praktycznej ( " Elements of Practical Reality " ) . A year later , he published an annotated translation of Henri Bergson 's Creative Evolution and a paper , Znaczenie rozwoju świata i człowieka ( " The Meaning of World and Human Development " ) . The year 1914 saw the publication of his papers , Formy i zasady twórczości moralnej ( " Forms and Principles of Moral Creativity " ) and Zasada względności jako podstawa filizofii ( " The Principle of Relativity as a Foundation of Philosophy " ) . His works , published in Polish , were well received by the Polish scholarly community and intelligentsia .
Due to his past political activism , he was unable to secure a post at a major university . From 1912 to 1914 he lectured at a novel women 's institution of higher education , the Advanced Pedagogical Courses for Women ( Wyższe Kursy Pedagogiczne dla Kobiet ) . During his studies , he had worked at several European institutions dealing with Polish immigrants ; he would build on his experiences by becoming involved with the Warsaw @-@ based Society for the Welfare of Émigrés ( Towarzystwo Opieki nad Wychodźcami ) , where he worked in 1910 – 14 . By 1911 he was the Society 's director and ( 1911 – 12 ) editor of its journal , Wychodźca Polski ( The Polish Émigré ) . Znaniecki became an expert on Polish migration , in 1914 authoring for the government a 500 @-@ page report , Wychodźtwo Sezonowe ( Seasonal Migration ) .
= = = Work with Thomas = = =
A year earlier , in 1913 , Znaniecki had met William I. Thomas , an American sociologist who had come to Poland in connection with his research on Polish immigrants in the United States . Thomas and Znaniecki had begun to collaborate , and soon Thomas invited Znaniecki to come to Chicago to continue work with him in the United States . In July 1914 , just on the eve of World War I , Znaniecki left Poland to work with Thomas as a research assistant . From 1917 to 1919 Znaniecki also lectured in sociology at the University of Chicago .
Their work culminated in co @-@ authoring of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( 1918 – 20 ) , considered a sociology classic . It was his collaboration with Thomas that marked the transition in Znaniecki 's career from philosopher to sociologist . Znaniecki stayed with Thomas in Chicago until mid @-@ 1919 , when he moved to New York , following Thomas , who had lost his job at Chicago due to a spurious scandal .
That year Znaniecki published a new book , still mostly philosophical rather than sociological , Cultural Reality . Published in English , it was a synthesis of his philosophical thought . In New York , Thomas and Znaniecki carried on research for the Carnegie Corporation on the process of immigrant Americanization . Znaniecki contributed to Thomas ' book , Old World Traits Transplanted , and published an anonymous solicited article on that topic to the February 1920 Atlantic Monthly .
= = = Founding Polish sociology = = =
Poland had regained independence following World War I , in 1918 . In 1919 Znaniecki contacted the newly founded Ministry of Religion and Education , offering to return to Poland if the Ministry could help him secure a chair at a Polish university . He proposed creating a novel Institute of Sociology , but bureaucracy and communication delays resulted in that idea being shelved , and he was offered a philosophy professorship at the newly organized Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań .
In 1920 Znaniecki returned to the newly established Second Polish Republic , where at Poznań University he soon became Poland 's first chair in sociology . He accomplished this by renaming the department , originally " Third Philosophical Department " , to " Department of Sociology and Cultural Philosophy " , doing the same for his chair , and establishing a Sociological Seminary . That same year he also founded the Polish Institute of Sociology ( Polski Instutut Socjologiczny ) , the fifth @-@ oldest sociological institute in Europe .
In 1927 his department was officially renamed to " department of sociology " , and in 1930 the department gained authorization to issue degrees in sociology . In 1930 the Polish Institute of Sociology began publishing the first Polish sociological journal , Przegląd Socjologiczny ( The Sociological Review ) , with Znaniecki its chief editor from 1930 to 1939 . That year the Institute organized Poland 's first academic sociologists ' conference . Due to his role as founder of so many of its building blocks , Znaniecki is considered the father of sociology in Poland .
= = = Late U.S. career = = =
Keeping in touch with American sociologists , Znaniecki lectured as a visiting professor at Columbia University in New York in 1932 – 34 and during the summer of 1939 . That summer ended the Polish stage of his career , as the German invasion on Poland and the start of World War II prevented his return to Poland . He was already aboard a ship bound for Poland when his travel was cut short in the United Kingdom . He still briefly considered returning to Poland , where his wife and daughter remained ; however , faced with the occupation of Poland , he returned to the United States , where his family eventually joined him in 1940 .
With help from American colleagues , Znaniecki obtained an extension of his appointment at Columbia University through mid @-@ 1940 . He then moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign and in 1942 obtained American citizenship , allowing him to transition from a visiting to a regular professorship . He taught at the University of Illinois until his retirement , deciding not to return to the communist People 's Republic of Poland , established in the aftermath of World War II ( despite the offer of a chair at Poznań University ) . In 1950 he retired , becoming a professor emeritus .
He was 44th President of the American Sociological Association ( for 1954 ) . His presidential address , " Basic Problems of Contemporary Sociology , " was delivered on 8 September 1954 at the Association 's annual meeting and was later published in the American Sociological Review .
He died on 23 March 1958 in Champaign , Illinois . The cause of death was arteriosclerosis . His funeral took place on 26 March , and he was buried at Roselawn Champaign Cemetery .
= = Family = =
In 1906 Znaniecki married a fellow Polish student at the University of Geneva , Emilia Szwejkowska . They had a son , poet and writer Juliusz Znaniecki , born 1908 . Znaniecki 's wife Emilia died in 1915 .
Next year Znaniecki married Eileen Markley ( 1886 – 1976 ) . They had one daughter , sociologist Helena Znaniecki Lopata , born 1925 .
= = Importance = =
Polish sociologist and historian of ideas Jerzy Szacki writes that Znaniecki 's major contributions include : the founding of sociology in Poland ; his work in empirical sociology ; and his work in sociological theory . Szacki notes that Znaniecki sought to bridge a number of gaps : between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches ; between objectivity and subjectivity ; between humanistic and naturalistic methodologies and viewpoints ; and between American and European intellectual traditions .
Szacki writes that , while Znaniecki 's theoretical contributions were subsequently pushed into the background by Talcott Parsons ' " functionalism " , Znaniecki offered the most ambitious sociological theory known to America before Parsons .
Znaniecki 's most famous work remains The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( 1918 – 20 ) , co @-@ authored with William I. Thomas . His other major works include Wstęp do socjologii ( An Introduction to Sociology , 1922 ) , The Method of Sociology ( 1934 ) , Social Actions ( 1936 ) , The Social Role of the Man of Knowledge ( 1940 ) and Cultural Sciences ( 1952 ) .
= = Themes = =
= = = Empirical sociology = = =
Znaniecki 's contributions to empirical sociology began after , and were influenced by , his collaboration with William I. Thomas . The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( 1918 – 20 ) , a five @-@ volume work which he wrote with Thomas , is considered a classic of empirical sociology . It is a study of Polish immigrants to America , based on personal documents . The work became a landmark study of Americanization — of how new immigrants to the United States " become Americans " .
This work represents Znaniecki 's most valued contribution to empirical sociology . Most of his other works focused on theory , the only other notable exception being Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli ( The City in the Consciousness of its Citizens , 1931 ) .
= = = Sociology : theory and definition = = =
A key element of Znaniecki 's sociological theory is his view of sociology in particular , and of the social sciences in general , as a scientific field uniquely different from the natural sciences . Znaniecki defines sociology as a study of social actions . His recommended methodology was analytic induction : analysis of typical case studies , and generalization from them .
Znaniecki 's theories form a major part of sociology 's action theory , and his work is a major part of the foundation of humanistic sociology . Another term connected with Znaniecki 's theories is " systematic sociology " ( " socjologia systematyczna " ) . He sought to create a grand sociological theory , one that would bridge the gap between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches .
Znaniecki criticized the widespread definition of sociology as the study of society . In Znaniecki 's culturalist perspective , sociology is a study of culture ( though it is not the study of culture , as Znaniecki recognized that other social sciences also study culture ) . His definition of sociology has been described as that of " a cultural science whose function is to study systems of social interaction based upon patterns of values and norms of behaviour , through the use of the humanistic coefficient " , or more simply , " the investigation of organized , interdependent interaction among human beings . " The part of the culture that sociology focused on was that of social relation or interaction .
Znaniecki saw culture as a field separate from nature , but also from individuals ' perceptions . The essence of culture is socially constructed objects . He was one of the first sociologists to begin analyzing personal documents such as letters , autobiographies , diaries , and the like . He considered the analysis of such documents an important part of the humanistic @-@ coefficient method .
Znaniecki saw sociology as an objective , inductive and generalizing science . According to Szacki , Znaniecki viewed sociology as a nomothetic science that should be able to use a methodology similar to that of the natural sciences ( however , Znaniecki 's daughter Helena Znaniecki Lopata , in her introduction to Social Relations and Social Roles , contradicts Szacki , writing that , for Znaniecki , sociology was a science " whose subject matter calls for a method different from that of the natural sciences . " ) . In 1934 he formulated the principle of analytic induction , designed to identify universal propositions and causal laws . He contrasted it with enumerative research , which provided mere correlations and could not account for exceptions in statistical relationships . He was also critical of the statistical method , which he did not see as very useful .
In addition to the science of sociology , Znaniecki was also deeply interested in the larger field of the sociology of science . He analyzed the social roles of scientists , and the concept of a school of thought .
= = = Four social systems = = =
According to Znaniecki , sociology can be divided into the study of four dynamic social systems : social action theory , social relation theory , social actors theory , and social groups theory . Znaniecki saw social actions as the foundation of a society , as they give rise to more complex social relations , and he saw this theory as the foundation of all the others . Unlike Max Weber , he did not believe that everything can be reduced to social actions ; he was also quite skeptical of any insights coming from the science of psychology , which he held in low esteem .
The four major forms of cooperative interaction , or four social systems , in growing complexity , were :
social actions ( in Polish , " czyny społeczne " or " czynności społeczne " ) : the most basic type of social fact ;
social relations ( in Polish , " stosunki społeczne " ) : these require at least two persons and a mutual obligation ; the study of social relations is the study of norms regulating social actions ;
social personalities ( in Polish , " osoby społeczne " or " osobowości społeczne " ) : the combined picture that emerges from a number of different social roles that an individual has ;
social group ( in Polish , " grupa społeczna " ) : any group which is recognized by some as a separate entity ; Znaniecki saw a society as a group of groups , but denied it primacy as an area that the sociologist should focus on ( while at the same time recognizing that most sociologists differed on this ) .
The four @-@ category division described above appeared in his 1934 book , The Method of Sociology . By 1958 he had reformulated the division , and was speaking instead of social relations , social roles , social groups , and societies .
= = = Sociology of culture = = =
Znaniecki coined the term " humanistic coefficient " for a method of social research by way of data analysis that emphasizes participants ' perceptions of the experience being analyzed . The humanistic coefficient sees all social facts as being created by social actors and as being understandable only from their perspective . Thus the sociologist ought to study reality by trying to understand how others see the world , not ( objectively ) as an independent observer ; in other words , the scientist needs to understand the subject 's world . While some have criticized this approach as being too close to subjectivism , Znaniecki himself saw it as anti @-@ subjectivist ; he observed that social facts such as cultural systems can exist even if no one perceives their existence . He was also skeptical of any value coming from personal , subjective observations , arguing that such observations have value only if they can be objectively described . He argued that the difference between the natural and social sciences lies not in the difference between objective and subjective experiences , but in the subject being studied : for Znaniecki , the natural sciences studied things , and the social sciences studied cultural values .
Znaniecki characterized the world as being caught within two contrary modes of reflection ; idealism and realism . He proposed a third way , which he called " culturalism " . His culturalism was one of the founding ideas of modern antipositivist and antinaturalist sociology . The term " culturalism " was introduced into English in his book , Cultural Reality ( 1919 ) , and was translated into Polish as " kulturalizm " ; previously Znaniecki had discussed the concept in Polish as " humanism " ( " humanizm " ) .
= = = Other themes = = =
Znaniecki 's work also touched on many other areas of sociology , such as intergroup conflict , urban sociology , and rural sociology .
= = Works = =
Znaniecki 's first academic works , of the 1910s , were more philosophical than sociological in nature ; beginning in the 1920s , his works were primarily sociological . His Cultural Reality ( 1919 ) was a synthesis of his philosophical thought , but the simultaneous publication of his much more popular The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( 1918 – 20 ) associated his name in academic circles primarily with sociology rather than with philosophy . His early works focused on analysis of culture and strongly criticized the principles of sociological naturalism . Szacki notes a puzzling gap in Znaniecki 's research : while he was well @-@ read in , and engaged with , most previous and current theories , he largely ignored the works of some notable sociologists of his time such as Max Weber , Vilfredo Pareto and Talcott Parsons . On the other hand , his works engaged closely with those of William I. Thomas , Georg Simmel , Robert E. Park , and Émile Durkheim .
His The Method of Sociology first introduced his concept of divisions within subfields of sociology . His most notable works included two books published in the same year ( 1952 ) : Modern Nationalities , and Cultural Sciences . The former is an analysis of the evolution of national @-@ culture societies , and the latter presents a theoretical study of the relation between sociology and other sciences . Znaniecki never finished his magnum opus , Systematic Sociology , which would eventually be collected and published posthumously in its unfinished but final form as Social Relations and Social Roles : The Unfinished Systematic Sociology ( 1965 ) .
= = = List of works = = =
Roughly half of Znaniecki 's published works are in English ; the rest , in Polish .
In English :
The Polish Peasant in Europe and America ( with William I. Thomas , 5 vols . , 19l8 @-@ 20 ) .
" The Principle of Relativity and Philosophical Absolutism " , The Philosophical Review , vol . 24 , no . 2 ( March 1915 ) , pp. 150 – 64 .
Cultural Reality , Chicago , 1919 .
" The Subject Matter and Tasks of the Science of Knowledge " , translated by Christopher Kasparek ( first published in Polish as " Przedmiot i zadania nauki o wiedzy " , 1923 ) , Polish Contributions to the Science of Science , edited by Bohdan Walentynowicz , Dordrecht , D. Reidel Publishing Company , 1982 , ISBN 83 @-@ 01 @-@ 03607 @-@ 9 , pp. 1 – 81 . ( Znaniecki proposes the founding of a new empirically based science which would study science itself , and which he terms " the science of knowledge " ; Znaniecki 's proposed meta @-@ science has since been called by various other names , including " the science of science " , " the sociology of science " , and " logology " . )
The Laws of Social Psychology , Warsaw , 1926 .
The Method of Sociology , New York , 1934 .
Social Actions , New York 1936 .
The Social Role of the Man of Knowledge , New York , 1940 .
Cultural Sciences : Their Origin and Development , Urbana , 1952 .
Modern Nationalities , Urbana , 1952 .
Social Relations and Social Roles : The Unfinished Systematic Sociology , San Francisco , 1965
On Humanistic Sociology ( a selection of works edited by R. Bierstedt ) , Chicago , 1969 .
The Social Role of the University Student , Poznań , 1994 .
In Polish :
Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii ( The Question of Value in Philosophy ) , Warsaw , 1910 .
Humanizm i poznanie ( Humanism and Knowledge ) , Warsaw , 1912 .
Upadek cywilizacji zachodniej : Szkic z pogranicza filozofii kultury i socjologii ( The Decline of Western Civilization : A Sketch from the Interface of Cultural Philosophy and Sociology ) , Poznań , 1921 .
Wstęp do socjologii ( An Introduction to Sociology ) , Poznań , 1922 .
" Przedmiot i zadania nauki o wiedzy " ( " The Subject Matter and Tasks of the Science of Knowledge " ) , Nauka Polska ( Polish Science ) , vol . IV ( 1923 ) , no . 1 . ( English translation : " The Subject Matter and Tasks of the Science of Knowledge " , translated by Christopher Kasparek , Polish Contributions to the Science of Science , edited by Bohdan Walentynowicz , Dordrecht , D. Reidel Publishing Company , 1982 , ISBN 83 @-@ 01 @-@ 03607 @-@ 9 , pp. 1 – 81 . )
Socjologia wychowania ( The Sociology of Education ) , Warsaw ( vol . I : 1928 ; vol . II : 1930 ) .
Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli ( The City in the Consciousness of Its Citizens ) , Poznań , 1931 .
Ludzie teraźniejsi a cywilizacja przyszłości ( Contemporary People and the Civilization of the Future ) , Lwów , 1934 .
= Wooden Leg : A Warrior Who Fought Custer =
Wooden Leg : A Warrior Who Fought Custer is a book by Thomas Bailey Marquis about the life of a Northern Cheyenne Indian , Wooden Leg , who fought in several historic battles between United States forces and the Plains Indians , including the Battle of the Little Bighorn , where he faced the troops of George Armstrong Custer . The book is of great value to historians , not only for its eye @-@ witness accounts of battles , but also for its detailed description of the way of life of 19th @-@ century Plains Indians .
The book was dictated to Marquis by Wooden Leg
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in the film = = =
Songs featured in the film include :
" Love Missile F1 @-@ 11 " ( Extended Version ) by Sigue Sigue Sputnik
" Jeannie " ( Theme from I Dream of Jeannie )
" Beat City " by The Flowerpot Men
" Main Title / Rebel Blockade Runner " by John Williams ( From Star Wars )
" Please , Please , Please , Let Me Get What I Want " ( instrumental ) by The Dream Academy ( a cover of a song by The Smiths )
" The Celebrated Minuet " by Luigi Boccherini ( Performed by the Zagreb Philharmonic Chamber Studio )
" Danke Schoen " by Wayne Newton
" Twist and Shout " by The Beatles
" Radio People " by Zapp
" I 'm Afraid " by Blue Room
" Taking the Day Off " by General Public
" The Edge of Forever " by The Dream Academy
" March of the Swivelheads " ( a remix of " Rotating Heads " ) by The ( English ) Beat
" Oh Yeah " by Yello
" BAD " by Big Audio Dynamite
" Go Down Moses " credited to the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1871 ( The dirge @-@ like song that Cameron sings to himself while lying in his sick bed )
" Danke Schoen " is one of the recurring motifs in the film and is sung by Ferris , Ed Rooney , and Jeanie . Hughes called it the " most awful song of my youth . Every time it came on , I just wanted to scream , claw my face . I was taking German in high school — which meant that we listened to it in school . I couldn 't get away from it . " According to Broderick , Ferris 's singing " Danke Schoen " in the shower was his idea . " Although it 's only because of the brilliance of John 's deciding that I should sing " Danke Schoen " on the float in the parade . I had never heard the song before . I was learning it for the parade scene . So we 're doing the shower scene and I thought , ' Well , I can do a little rehearsal . ' And I did something with my hair to make that Mohawk . And you know what good directors do : they say , ' Stop ! Wait till we roll . ' And John put that stuff in . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The film received widely positive reviews from critics . It has a " Certified Fresh " rating on Rotten Tomatoes , having an aggregated critical film review score of 80 % . The site 's consensus reads " Matthew Broderick charms in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off , a light and irrepressibly fun movie about being young and having fun " . Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars , calling it " one of the most innocent movies in a long time " , and " a sweet , warm @-@ hearted comedy " . Richard Roeper called Ferris " one of my favorite movies of all time . It has one of the highest ' repeatability ' factors of any film I 've ever seen ... I can watch it again and again . There 's also this , and I say it in all sincerity : Ferris Bueller 's Day Off is something of a suicide prevention film , or at the very least a story about a young man trying to help his friend gain some measure of self @-@ worth ... Ferris has made it his mission to show Cameron that the whole world in front of him is passing him by , and that life can be pretty sweet if you wake up and embrace it . That 's the lasting message of Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . " Roeper 's license plate , " SVFRRIS " , also pays homage to the film . Conservative columnist George Will hailed Ferris as " the moviest movie " , a film " most true to the general spirit of the movies , the spirit of effortless escapism " .
Essayist Steve Almond called Ferris " the most sophisticated teen movie ( he ) had ever seen " , adding that while Hughes had made a lot of good movies , Ferris was the " one film ( he ) would consider true art , ( the ) only one that reaches toward the ecstatic power of teendom and , at the same time , exposes the true , piercing woe of that age " . Almond also applauded Ruck 's performance , going so far as saying he deserved the Best Supporting Actor Academy Award of 1986 : " His performance is what elevates the film , allows it to assume the power of a modern parable . " The New York Times reviewer Nina Darnton critiqued Mia Sara 's portrayal of Sloane as " played without the specific detail that characterized the adolescent characters in Hughes 's other films , and has therefore created a basically stable but forgettable character " . Conversely , Darnton praised Ruck and Grey 's performances : " The two people who grow in the movie — Cameron , played with humor and sensitivity by Alan Ruck , and Ferris 's sister Jeanie , played with appropriate self @-@ pity by Jennifer Grey — are the most authentic . Grey manages to play an insufferably sulky teen @-@ ager who is still attractive and likable . "
National Review writer Mark Hemingway lauded the film 's celebration of liberty . " If there 's a better celluloid expression of ordinary American freedom than Ferris Bueller 's Day Off , I have yet to see it . If you could take one day and do absolutely anything , piling into a convertible with your best girl and your best friend and taking in a baseball game , an art museum , and a fine meal seems about as good as it gets " , wrote Hemingway .
Ben Stein was exceptionally moved by the film , calling it " the most life @-@ affirming movie possibly of the entire post @-@ war period " . " This is to comedies what Gone with the Wind is to epics " , Stein added . " It will never die , because it responds to and calls forth such human emotions . It isn 't dirty . There 's nothing mean @-@ spirited about it . There 's nothing sneering or sniggering about it . It 's just wholesome . We want to be free . We want to have a good time . We know we 're not going to be able to all our lives . We know we 're going to have to buckle down and work . We know we 're going to have to eventually become family men and women , and have responsibilities and pay our bills . But just give us a couple of good days that we can look back on . "
Others were not as enamored with Ferris , many taking issue with the film 's " rebel without a cause " hedonism . David Denby of New York Magazine , called the film " a nauseating distillation of the slack , greedy side of Reaganism " . Author Christina Lee agreed , adding it was a " splendidly ridiculous exercise in unadulterated indulgence " , and the film " encapsulated the Reagan era 's near solipsist worldview and insatiable appetite for immediate gratification — of living in and for the moment ... " Gene Siskel panned the film from a Chicago @-@ centric perspective saying " Ferris Bueller doesn 't do anything much fun ... They don 't even sit in the bleachers where all the kids like to sit when they go to Cubs games . " ( Incidentally , Hughes revealed in the DVD commentary that he was not a Cubs fan . ) Siskel did enjoy the chemistry between Jennifer Grey and Charlie Sheen . Ebert thought Siskel was too eager to find flaws in the film 's view of Chicago . Broderick was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1986 for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy .
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes " Life moves pretty fast . If you don 't stop and look around once in a while , you could miss it . " - Nominated .
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened in 1 @,@ 330 theaters in the United States and had a total weekend gross of $ 6 @,@ 275 @,@ 647 , opening at # 2 . Ferris Bueller 's Day Off 's total gross in the United States was approximately $ 70 @,@ 136 @,@ 369 , making it a box office success . It subsequently became the 10th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 1986 .
= = = Rankings = = =
As an influential and popular film , Ferris Bueller 's Day Off has been included in many film rating lists . The film is number 54 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " , came 26th in the British 50 Greatest Comedy Films and ranked number 10 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 50 Best High School Movies " . The film was featured in the VH1 television show I Love the 80s , which aired in 2002 . In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted Ferris Bueller 's Day Off the 23rd @-@ greatest comedy film of all time , and in 2005 an Empire magazine article declared Ferris Bueller 's Day Off the number @-@ one teen film of all time .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
First Lady Barbara Bush paraphrased the film in her 1990 commencement address at Wellesley College : " Find the joy in life , because as Ferris Bueller said on his day off , ' Life moves pretty fast ; if you don 't stop and look around once in a while , you could miss it ! ' " Responding to the audience 's enthusiastic applause , she added " I '
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m not going to tell George ya clapped more for Ferris than ya clapped for George . "
Other phrases from Ferris Bueller 's Day Off such as Stein 's nasally @-@ voiced " Bueller ? ... Bueller ? ... Bueller ? " ( while taking roll call in class ) , and " Anyone ? Anyone ? " ( trying to probe the students for answers ) as well as Kristy Swanson 's cheerful " No problem whatsoever ! " also permeated popular culture . Stein 's monotone performance actually launched his acting career .
Broderick said of the Ferris Bueller role , " It eclipsed everything , I should admit , and to some degree it still does . " Later at the 2010 Oscar tribute to Hughes , he said , " For the past 25 years , nearly every day someone comes up to me , taps me on the shoulder and says , ' Hey , Ferris , is this your day off ? ' "
Ruck says that with Cameron Frye , Hughes gave him " the best part I ever had in a movie , and any success that I 've had since 1985 is because he took a big chance on me . I 'll be forever grateful . " " While we were making the movie , I just knew I had a really good part " , Ruck says . " My realization of John 's impact on the teen @-@ comedy genre crept in sometime later . Teen comedies tend to dwell on the ridiculous , as a rule . It 's always the preoccupation with sex and the self @-@ involvement , and we kind of hold the kids up for ridicule in a way . Hughes added this element of dignity . He was an advocate for teenagers as complete human beings , and he honored their hopes and their dreams . That 's what you see in his movies . "
Lyman Ward and Cindy Pickett , who play the parents , met on the set in 1986 and were married a short time after that . The two again played parents in the 1992 horror film Sleepwalkers .
Broderick starred in a television advertisement prepared by Honda promoting its CR @-@ V for the 2012 Super Bowl XLVI . The ad pays homage to Ferris Bueller , featuring Broderick ( as himself ) faking illness to skip out of work to enjoy sightseeing around Los Angeles . Several elements , such as the use of the song " Oh Yeah " , and a valet monotonously calling for " Broderick ... Broderick ... " , appear in the ad . A teaser for the ad had appeared two weeks prior to the Super Bowl , which had created rumors of a possible film sequel . It was produced by Santa Monica @-@ based RPA and directed by Todd Phillips . AdWeek 's Tim Nudd called the ad " a great homage to the original 1986 film , with Broderick this time calling in sick to a film shoot and enjoying another day of slacking . " On the other hand , Jalopnik 's Matt Hardigree called the spot " sacrilegious " .
The 2016 movie Deadpool 's post @-@ credit scene is an homage to Ferris Bueller 's post @-@ credit scene . Deadpool is dressed in a robe and talks directly to the audience in a hallway that looks similar to the one in the movie . Similar to Ferris , Deadpool says " You 're still here ? It 's over . Go home . " At the end of the scene , Deadpool leans back into the frame from behind a doorway , and makes the " Chicka @-@ chickahhhh " sound from Ferris Bueller .
An episode titled ' Brian Finch ’ s Black Op ' of the 2016 TV series Limitless paid homage to the movie .
= = = = Music = = = =
The film 's influence in popular culture extends beyond the film itself to how musical elements of the film have been received as well , for example , Yello 's song " Oh Yeah " . As Jonathan Bernstein explains , " Never a hit , this slice of Swiss @-@ made tomfoolery with its varispeed vocal effects and driving percussion was first used by John Hughes to illustrate the mouthwatering must @-@ haveness of Cameron 's dad 's Ferrari . Since then , it has become synonymous with avarice . Every time a movie , TV show or commercial wants to underline the jaw @-@ dropping impact of a hot babe or sleek auto , that synth @-@ drum starts popping and that deep voice rumbles , ' Oh yeah . . . ' " Concerning the influence of another song used in the film , Roz Kaveney writes that some " of the finest moments in later teen film draw on Ferris 's blithe Dionysian fervour — the elaborate courtship by song in 10 Things I Hate About You ( 1999 ) draws usefully on the ' Twist and Shout ' sequence in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off " . The bands Save Ferris and Rooney were named in allusion to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off .
" Twist and Shout " charted again , 16 years after the Beatles broke up , as a result of its prominent appearance in both this film and Back To School ( where Rodney Dangerfield performs a cover version ) which was released the same weekend as Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . The re @-@ released single reached # 23 in the U.S ; a US @-@ only compilation album containing the track The Early Beatles , re @-@ entered the album charts at # 197 . The version heard in the film includes brass overdubbed onto the Beatles ' original recording , which did not go down well with Paul McCartney . " I liked ( the ) film but they overdubbed some lousy brass on the stuff ! If it had needed brass , we 'd had stuck it on ourselves ! " Upon hearing McCartney 's reaction , Hughes felt bad for " offend ( ing ) a Beatle . But it wasn 't really part of the song . We saw a band and we needed to hear the instruments . "
= = = = Sequel = = = =
Broderick and Hughes stayed in touch for a while after production . " We thought about a sequel to Ferris Bueller , where he 'd be in college or at his first job , and the same kind of things would happen again . But neither of us found a very exciting hook to that . The movie is about a singular time in your life . " " Ferris Bueller is about the week before you leave school , it 's about the end of school — in some way , it doesn 't have a sequel . It 's a little moment and it 's a lightning flash in your life . I mean , you could try to repeat it in college or something but it 's a time that you don 't keep . So that 's partly why I think we couldn 't think of another " , Broderick added . " But just for fun " , said Ruck , " I used to think why don 't they wait until Matthew and I are in our seventies and do Ferris Bueller Returns and have Cameron be in a nursing home . He doesn 't really need to be there , but he just decided his life is over , so he committed himself to a nursing home . And Ferris comes and breaks him out . And they go to , like , a titty bar and all this ridiculous stuff happens . And then , at the end of the movie , Cameron dies . "
= = Academic analysis = =
Many scholars have discussed at length the film 's depiction of academia and youth culture . For Martin Morse Wooster , the film " portrayed teachers as humorless buffoons whose only function was to prevent teenagers from having a good time " . Regarding not specifically teachers , but rather a type of adult characterization in general , Art Silverblatt asserts that the " adults in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off are irrelevant and impotent . Ferris 's nemesis , the school disciplinarian , Mr. Rooney , is obsessed with ' getting Bueller . ' His obsession emerges from envy . Strangely , Ferris serves as Rooney 's role model , as he clearly possesses the imagination and power that Rooney lacks . ... By capturing and disempowering Ferris , Rooney hopes to ... reduce Ferris 's influence over other students , which would reestablish adults , that is , Rooney , as traditional authority figures . " Nevertheless , Silverblatt concludes that " Rooney is essentially a comedic figure , whose bumbling attempts to discipline Ferris are a primary source of humor in the film " . Thomas Patrick Doherty writes that " the adult villains in teenpics such as ... Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ( 1986 ) are overdrawn caricatures , no real threat ; they 're played for laughs " . Yet Silverblatt also remarks that casting " the principal as a comic figure questions the competence of adults to provide young people with effective direction — indeed , the value of adulthood itself " .
Of course , adults are not the stars or main characters of the film , and Roz Kaveney notes that what " Ferris Bueller brings to the teen genre , ultimately , is a sense of how it is possible to be cool and popular without being rich or a sports hero . Unlike the heroes of Weird Science , Ferris is computer savvy without being a nerd or a geek — it is a skill he has taken the trouble to learn . "
= = Home media = =
The film was first released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1987 , and then re @-@ released on VHS in 1996 . The film has been released on DVD three times ; including the original DVD release in 1999 , the " Bueller ... Bueller " edition in 2006 , and the " I Love the ' 80s " edition in 2008 . The original DVD , like most Paramount Pictures films released on DVD for the first time , has very few bonus features , but it does feature a commentary by Hughes . Though this is no longer available for sale , the director 's commentary is available here . The " Bueller ... Bueller " re @-@ release has several more bonus features , but does not contain the commentary track of the original DVD release . The " I Love the ' 80s " edition is identical to the first DVD release ( no features aside from commentary ) , but includes a bonus CD with songs from the 1980s . The songs are not featured in the film . The " Bueller ... Bueller " edition has multiple bonus features such as interviews with the cast and crew , along with a clip of Stein 's commentaries on the film 's philosophy and impact . The Blu @-@ ray Disc release ( which is a part of the " Bueller ... Bueller " edition , with the same bonus material ) was first released on May 5 , 2009 . A 25th anniversary edition for DVD and Blu @-@ ray were both released on August 2 , 2011 .
= = Television series = =
In 1990 , a series called Ferris Bueller started for NBC , starring Charlie Schlatter as Ferris Bueller , Jennifer Aniston as Jeanie Bueller , and Ami Dolenz as Sloane Peterson . The series served as a prequel to the film . In the pilot episode , the audience sees Schlatter cutting up a cardboard cutout of Matthew Broderick , saying that he hated Broderick 's performance as him . It was produced by Maysh , Ltd . Productions in association with Paramount Television . In part because of competition of the similar series on the Fox Television Network , Parker Lewis Can 't Lose , the series was canceled after the first thirteen episodes aired . Both Schlatter and Aniston later had success on other TV shows , Schlatter on Diagnosis : Murder and Aniston on Friends .
= Mezhyhirya Monastery =
The Mezhyhirya Savior @-@ Transfiguration Monastery ( Ukrainian : Межигірський Спасо @-@ Преображенський монастир , Mezhyhirskyi Spaso @-@ Preobrazhenskyi Monastyr ) was an Eastern Orthodox female monastery that was located in the neighborhood of Mezhyhiria .
The monastery served as a historic Princely residency of Rurik dynasty during the Medieval times located just 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the north of Vyshhorod . Today , the territory is part of the Vyshhorod Raion , Kiev Oblast ( province ) in northern Ukraine . The location is situated in the Mezhyhirya ravine , on the right bank of the Dnieper River in close proximity to the Kiev water reservoir .
Founded in 988 AD , the Mezhyhirya Monastery was one of the first monasteries established in the East Slavic state of Kievan Rus ' . Throughout its existence , it was destroyed , and then restored numerous times , yet it was not spared destruction by Soviet authorities in 1935 . At the time of its height , the Mezhyhirya Monastery was considered a spiritual center of Rus royal Rurikid house and later Cossacks . Currently , the area of the former monastery is located on a fenced @-@ in woodland territory next to Novi Petrivtsi village and is directly connected with a private residence for Ukrainian government officials .
As an important monastery of the Zaporozhian Host , the Mezhyhirya Monastery left a rich legacy behind it . The monastery was mentioned in one of Taras Shevchenko 's poems , " Chernets , " written in 1847 , and was the subject of a drawing by him . Nikolai Gogol 's novel , " Taras Bulba , " published in 1835 , also mentions the monastery .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation and early history = = =
The monastery is mentioned for the first time in the early 14th century , although Yevgeniy Bolkhovitinov claimed that it had been founded by the first Metropolitan of Kiev , Michael , along with Greek monks arriving from Byzantium in 988 AD . The claim is likely spurious , since Mezhyhirya is not listed by modern authors among the monasteries of Kievan Rus .
In 1154 , the Prince of Vladimir @-@ Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruki divided the territory surrounding the monastery 's grounds amongst his sons . His son Andrei I Bogolyubsky received the lands nearest to the monastery , now the city of Vyshhorod . Not too long afterwards , he is alleged to have moved the monastery to its current location in the hills of the Dnieper , giving the monastery its name , " Mezhyhirya . " Bogolyubsky despised the city of Kiev , therefore moving to Suzdal , in modern @-@ day Russia . On his trip , he took with him the " Theotokos of Vladimir " icon , a gift from Constantinople Patriarch Luke Chrysoberges to Dolgoruki . The icon is one of the most venerated Orthodox icons , now located in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow .
With the Mongol invasion of Rus ' by Batu Khan in 1237 @-@ 40 , the monastery is supposed to have been completely destroyed . These legends were written down much later . The monastery is known to have existed in the 14th century , though . In 1482 , it was attacked by the Crimean Tatars under Meñli I Giray . Reconstruction on the monastery began only 40 years later . In 1523 , the monastery was transferred to the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund I. In addition , the monastery was given a full reign over its territory . In 1555 , the complex consisted of four churches , including and one cave church .
= = = Cossack monastery = = =
During the 16th century , the monastery frequently lost and regained its ownership rights . On the funds of the monastery 's new hegumen Afanasiy ( a protégé of prince Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski ) , the monastery 's old buildings were demolished , and new ones were built in their place . In 1604 , the Gate Church of Ss . Peter and Paul was constructed , in 1609 - the Mykilska Refectory , and the Transfiguration Cathedral in 1609 @-@ 1611 . Under his rule , the monastery was considered as the second lavra ( cave monastery ) in Ukraine .
After its reconstruction , the Mezhyhirya Monastery became a regional center of the Zaporozhian Host , serving the host as a military monastery . In 1610 , the monastery received the status of a stauropegic monastery ( orthodox church autonomy ) , under the Patriarch of Constantinople . The universal ( act ) of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky issued on May 21 , 1656 transferred the neighboring settlements of Vyshhorod , Novi Petrivtsi , and Moshchany under control of the Mezhyhirya Monastery . In effect , the universal made Khmelnytsky the monastery 's ktitor . After the destruction of the Trakhtemyrivskyi Monastery by a Polish szlachta army , the Mezhyhirya Monastery replaced it as the main cossack military monastery . As a military monastery , retired and elderly cossacks from the Zaporozhian Host would now come to the monastery to retire and live in until the end of their lives . At that time , the monastery 's expenses were paid off with the help of the cossack 's Sich Host .
In 1676 , the area was burned down after a fire started in the wooden Transfiguration Cathedral . With the help of Ivan Savelov , a monk who lived in the monastery and later became a Patriarch of Moscow , the complex was reconstructed . Two years later , with the help of the cossack community , the Annunciation Church was constructed near the monastery 's hospital .
In 1683 , the Sich Rada voted that the ministers in the Sich 's Pokrovskyi Cathedral ( the main cathedral of the sich ) should be only from the Mezhyhirya Monastery . In 1691 , monasteries located near the Sich were placed under the Mezhyhirya Monastery 's authority . Under hegumen Feodosiy at the end of the 17th century , considered as a period of prosperity , the Mezhyhirya Monastery became one of the largest monastery 's in Ukraine .
At the request of Peter I of Russia , the stauropegic status of the monastery was revoked ; it was later reinstated in 1710 . In 1717 , a large fire destroyed a large portion of the monastery 's buildings . The monastery 's " military " status was reconfirmed by cossacks in 1735 . In 1774 , with the funds of the last Koshovyi Otaman Petro Kalnyshevsky , the Ss . Peter and Paul Church was reconstructed . Ukrainian architect Ivan Hryhorovych @-@ Barskyi designed some of the buildings , including the monk 's residence .
= = = Decline and Soviet demolition = = =
A period of decline began with the abolition of the Zaporozhian Host by Catherine II of Russia . In 1786 the Russian Imperial government closed the monastery and confiscated its valuable treasures . The remaining Zaporozhian Cossacks soon afterwards left Zaporizhia , and moved to the Kuban region . There they founded the Kuban Cossack Host , which still exists to this day . The cossacks were able to leave with some of the monastery 's manuscripts , some of which are now kept in the Krasnodar Krai Archive .
In 1787 , Catherine II of Russia came to Kiev ( Kyiv ) for a visit and wished to see the Mezhyhirya Monastery . She never got to see it , because the monastery mysteriously burned down the night before her arrival .
In 1796 , a German engineer found that the area had suitable clay for the making of faience , and two years later , founded the Mezhyhirya Faience Factory , the first one in Ukraine , at the site of the unused monastery . By 1852 , the faience factory had become the largest industrial complex in Kiev . During its existence , the factory produced a variety of crockery and ornamental vases and figurines . In 1884 , the faience factory was closed down after it failed to bring any profit .
In 1894 , the Mezhyhirya Monastery was rebuilt and transformed into a women 's monastery . After its reconstruction , the monastery was transferred to the authority of the Intercession of the Saints Monastery in Kiev .
After the Russian Revolution , the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 's capital moved from Kharkiv to Kiev in 1934 , and the city was in need of a suburban residence for government officials . Mezhyhirya was chosen as the site of the new government residence . The decision of the Politburo in April 1935 ordered the demolition of the whole complex . Before the scheduled demolition in 1936 , the architecture and buildings of the monastic complex were photographed . During the demolition , an underground library was discovered , full of handwritten manuscripts . There are speculations that the discovered books belonged to the lost library of Yaroslav the Wise , or perhaps of a later period , during the times of the Zaporozhian Host . The only thing that remains now of the monastic complex is a water well .
During Soviet times , the area served as a residence for Leonid Brezhnev and Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , who worked in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 's government at the time . During this period , its location was concealed from the public .
= = Ownership controversy = =
In 2008 the Mezhyhirya residence was amid an ownership controversy between the former Ukrainian Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych and the new Ukrainian government , led by Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko . The transfer of the 1 @.@ 4 km ² Mezhyhirya official residence in Novi Petrivtsi , Vyshhorod Raion ( district ) to the " Nadra Ukraine " firm on July 11 , 2007 by Viktor Yanukovych pulled the territory from under government ownership .
= = = Private residence of Viktor Yanukovych = = =
On July 9 , 2007 , President Viktor Yushchenko signed a secret presidential decree # 148 , according to the local business newspaper Delo which referred to the information of the State Directorate of Affairs . The document states : " The government dacha on the territory of the recreational complex " Pushcha @-@ Vodytsia " is presented for a use to the head of Kabmin , Viktor Yanukovych . " Later the document has never appeared on the website of the head of state nor in any other open source of information . A single official confirmation of it was given to the newspaper by the State Directorate of Affairs . The directorate explained that the recreational complex " Pushcha @-@ Vodytsia " includes the recreational resort " Pushcha @-@ Vodytsia " and the Mezhyhirya residency . The residency that is located in the village of Novi Petrivtsi was occupied by Yanukovych in the last several years .
The newspaper notes that at the same time , July 9 , at the website of the President appeared another document - an order in which he obliged the prime @-@ minister to execute the decision of the RNBO and secure the financing of early elections . The newspaper speculated that it was a trade exchange of power for the state dacha . In the late February 2008 Yanukovych confirmed that he indeed possesses a dacha in the Mezhyhirya residency awarded by a presidential decree . According to the data of the State Directorate of Affairs , the territory of residency occupies 136 @.@ 8 hectares ( 338 acres ) . It is enclosed in perimeter by a five @-@ meter [ tall ] iron fence and inside it is secured by operatives of " Titan " . Yanukovych claimed that he only uses one of the houses which has an area of 250 square metres ( 2 @,@ 700 sq ft ) and after which is secured 1 @.@ 5 hectares ( 3 @.@ 7 acres ) of land . Yanukovych also stated that with help of the State Directorate of Affairs he was able to conduct a substantial renovations of the property and confirms that in 2007 some area was bought by some private entity after which he had to pay monthly 11 @,@ 000 hryvnias for rent . In interview to BBC he acknowledged that lives at the Mezhyhirya 's cottage sometime since 1999 or 2000 .
= = = Further developments = = =
On July 11 , 2007 , Yanukovych issued a government order # 521 , according to which the National Joint @-@ Stock Company " Nadra Ukrainy " received the state residency and a territory of 137 ha in Mezhyhirya . Soon " Nadra Ukrainy " concluded a barter with another company " Medinvesttreid " ( Medinvesttrade ) after which the above @-@ mentioned government assigned residence was exchanged for two properties at Parkova alleya ( Park alley ) in Kiev . " Medinvesttreid " , in its turn , sold the newly acquired property of " Nadra Ukrainy " to some other company " Tantalit " . Since May 2008 the Ministry of the Interior was conducting a search for the director of " Medinvesttreid " , Hennadiy Herasymenko , who in their opinion was involved in a scheme to get the former state residence out of state property . On February 12 , 2008 Yushchenko signed a decree for relieving a state property security personnel from duties at the State cottages area in Mezhyhirya . His decree canceled the previous presidential decree of January 12 , 2006 where the security personnel was assigned to properties at Zalissya , instead of Zalissya and Mezhyhirya .
Subsequently , Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych privatized the complex , already residing there while prime minister . At the time , the property 's price was estimated at around 1 billion hryvnias ( $ 200 million ) . After Yulia Tymoshenko 's election , her cabinet annulled the decree which transferred the property to the " Nadra Ukraine " firm , and again placed the territory under government control . However , on July 28 , 2008 , the Economic Court of Kiev City annulled the Cabinet 's decision and returned the Mezhyhirya residence back under Yanukovych 's ownership .
= Cowboy Bebop : The Movie =
Cowboy Bebop : The Movie , known in Japan as Cowboy Bebop : Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door ( Japanese : カウボーイビバップ 天国の扉 , Hepburn : Kaubōi Bibappu : Tengoku no Tobira , lit . Cowboy Bebop : Heaven 's Door ) , is a 2001 Japanese animated space Western action film based on the 1998 anime series Cowboy Bebop created by Hajime Yatate . Multiple staff from the original series worked on the film , including director Shinichirō Watanabe , writer Keiko Nobumoto , character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto , and animation director Hiroshi Osaka , and composer Yoko Kanno . The original English and Japanese voice cast also reprised their roles .
Cowboy Bebop : The Movie is set between episodes 22 and 23 of the original series . The plot centers on a mysterious terrorist planning to destroy the human population on Mars using an unknown pathogen . The bounty hunter crew of the spaceship Bebop work to find the terrorist and discover the source of the pathogen before the attack can take place .
The film was conceived by Watanabe as an extension of his work on the television series , which he treated as a series of miniature films . So as not to alienate fans of the series , a large amount of aesthetic material was incorporated , while also adjusting it to make it accessible to newcomers . Increased budget and production facilities enabled the use of filming styles associated with live @-@ action films and a higher animation quality than the series . Arabic thematic elements were incorporated to contrast against the series , which entailed Watanabe traveling to Morocco for research . The Arabic atmosphere was also used in Kanno 's music .
The film was produced by studios Sunrise , which had previously developed the original series , Bones , a later studio founded by former Sunrise staff , and Bandai Visual . Cowboy Bebop : The Movie was released to theaters in Japan on September 1 , 2001 and in the United States on August 11 , 2002 . It went on to gross over $ 3 million worldwide , and when released on DVD , it ranked high on Japanese and US charts . The film received generally positive reviews from mainstream and anime critics and was nominated for the Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Animated Film .
= = Plot = =
Cowboy Bebop : The Movie is set on Mars in 2071 , 49 years after Earth was mostly abandoned after a catastrophe . Humanity has settled on other planets and moons in the solar system . The film 's protagonists are legalized bounty hunters who travel together on the spaceship Bebop . They are Spike Spiegel , a former associate of the Red Dragon crime syndicate ; Jet Black , a former police officer and owner of the Bebop ; Faye Valentine , a woman who was once a fugitive from bounty hunters ; Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV ( Ed for short ) , a girl with genius computer skills ; and Ein , an artificially enhanced " data dog " with human @-@ level intelligence .
Days before Halloween , a man explodes a truck in Mars ' capital city , spreading what is assumed to be a new pathogen that kills or sickens over three hundred people . In response , the Mars government issues a record bounty of 300 million woolong for the culprit 's capture . Faye , who was pursuing Lee Sampson , a hacker that was apparently driving the truck , sees the terrorist and the Bebop crew decide to take on the bounty . Each follows different lines of inquiry . Ed , using a tattoo on the attacker 's wrist , manages to identify him as Vincent Volaju , a former member of a military squad apparently killed in the Titan War . In reality , Vincent was the only survivor of a test involving the pathogen , having been immunized with a test vaccine : made an amnesic , he suffers from hallucinations , and his inability to tell dreams from reality eventually drove him insane .
Jet learns that the truck was the property of Cherious Medical Pharmaceutical Company , who illegally manufactured the pathogen as a biological weapon . Looking for information on the pathogen , Spike is given a sample by a man named Rashid , who was the former lead on its development . Spike also encounters Elektra Ovirowa , an agent of Cherious Medical . Upon examination , the " pathogen " proves to be a type of protein @-@ based nanomachine that mimic human lymphocytes then break down into protein after death , making them undetect
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won the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil . Critics applauded the screenplay , dialogue , direction , music , and the performances of Ganesan , Nagesh and Balaiah . The Tamil magazine Kalki , in a review dated 22 August 1965 , considered the film to be " a victory for Tamil cinema " , while Mana Baskaran of The Hindu Tamil appreciated the way Nagarajan blended contemporary social issues into a devotional film , opining that the costume and set designs " gave a new dimension to film making in Tamil cinema . " Ananda Vikatan , in a review dated 28 August 1965 , appreciated the film and noted : " When social films have started dominating Tamil Cinema , it is a welcome change to see a very good devotional film like this which made everyone happy . The film deserves another viewing . "
M. Suganth and Karuna Amarnath of The Times of India praised Ganesan for displaying versatility through Shiva 's various appearances in the film , and called it a " must watch " . The actor and film historian Mohan V. Raman was enthusiastic about Balaiah 's performance in " Oru Naal Podhuma " , believing his screen presence to have been instrumental in the success of the film . S. Theodore Baskaran gave a rather mixed review , describing his experience seeing the film as " watching a merely photographed drama " , but appreciated Nagesh 's performance : " If there is just one role that he is remembered for , it is this . " Baskaran also appreciated Ganesan 's dialogue delivery during the scene where his character argues with Nakkeerar . Subha J. Rao and K. Jeshi of The Hindu , in their article " Laughter lines " , highlighted the way that Nagesh " brings the house down as the impoverished poet . " Following Manorama 's death in October 2015 , The New Indian Express ranked Thiruvilaiyadal eighth in their list of " Top Movies " featuring her .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Thiruvilaiyadal has attained cult status in Tamil cinema . It was a landmark film in reviving public interest in devotional films and became the definitive film of the genre at a time when social melodramas dominated Tamil cinema . Many critics consider Thiruvilaiyadal to be Nagarajan 's greatest work , with film critic Baradwaj Rangan calling it " the best " of the epic Tamil films . Nagarajan and Ganesan went on to collaborate on several more films in the same genre , including Saraswati Sabatham ( 1966 ) , Thiruvarutchelvar ( 1967 ) , Kandhan Karunai ( 1967 ) and Thirumal Perumai ( 1968 ) , Other notable films that followed the trend set by Thiruvilaiyadal include Sri Raghavendrar ( 1985 ) and Meenakshi Thiruvilayadal ( 1989 ) . Thiruvilaiyadal became a milestone in Nagesh 's career and the character of Dharumi is cited as one of his best roles to date .
Director Boopathy Pandian 's Thiruvilaiyaadal Aarambam ( 2006 ) was initially titled Thiruvilayadal , but this was changed after an outburst of objections from Ganesan 's fans . In July 2007 , when S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight acclaimed directors to list ten films they liked most , Thiruvilaiyadal was chosen by C. V. Sridhar and Ameer . The latter found the film to be " imaginative " and that it depicted the mythological genre in " an interesting way . " Ameer concluded by calling it " one of the best films in the annals of Tamil cinema . " Following Nagesh 's death in 2009 , Sify ranked Thiruvilaiyadal fifth in its list , " 10 Best Films of late Nagesh " , commenting that he " was at his comic best in this film " . Thiruvilaiyadal is included along with other Sivaji Ganesan films in 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , a compilation DVD featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " which was released in May 2012 .
Thiruvilaiyadal has been parodied and referenced in various media such as cinema , television and theatre . Notable films that allude to Thiruvilaiyadal include Netrikkann ( 1981 ) , Poove Unakkaga ( 1996 ) , Mahaprabhu ( 1996 ) , Kaathala Kaathala ( 1998 ) , Vanna Thamizh Pattu ( 2000 ) , Middle Class Madhavan ( 2001 ) , Kamarasu ( 2002 ) , Vanakkam Thalaiva ( 2005 ) , Kanthaswamy ( 2009 ) , and Oru Kal Oru Kannadi ( 2012 ) . In his review of Oru Kanniyum Moonu Kalavaanikalum ( 2014 ) , Baradwaj Rangan likened the way Shiva plays his divine games by intervening in human affairs in Thiruvilaiyadal to the use of touchscreen human face icons on mobile apps .
The Star Vijay comedy series Lollu Sabha made two parodies on the film ; once in an episode of the same name , and a contemporary version titled " Naveena Thiruvilayaadal " . In April 2008 , Raadhika Sarathkumar launched a television series titled Thiruvilaiyadal , which covers all sixty @-@ four stories in the Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam , unlike the film which covered only four . In April 2012 , Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff included the film in her list , " The A to Z of Tamil Cinema " . The character of Dharumi was parodied in Iruttula Thedatheenga , a theatrical play performed in November 2013 . In a January 2015 interview with The Times of India , playwright Y. G. Mahendra said , " most character artists today lack variety [ ... ] Show me one actor in India currently who can do a [ Veerapandiya ] Kattabomman , a VOC , a Vietnam Veedu , a Galatta Kalyanam and a Thiruvilayadal [ sic ] . " In October 2014 , The Times of India ranked Thiruvilaiyadal fourth in its list , " Top 5 Sivaji Ganesan films on his birthday " , appreciating the performances of Ganesan and Nagesh .
= = Re @-@ release = =
In mid @-@ 2012 , legal issues arose when attempts were made to digitally re @-@ release the film . G. Vijaya of Vijaya Pictures had filed a lawsuit against Gemini Colour Laboratory and Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures for attempting to re @-@ release the film without her production company 's permission . The reason for the suit was that in December 1975 , Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures had transferred the entire rights of the film to Movie Film Circuit , which in turn had transferred them to Vijaya Pictures on 18 May 1976 . Vijaya Pictures approached the Gemini Colour Laboratory to digitise the film for re @-@ release , however Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures asked laboratory officials not to release the film without their prior consent . Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures also disputed Vijaya 's claim by running an advertisement in a Tamil newspaper on 18 May 2012 , stating that it was the owner of the film 's rights and anybody who wished to exhibit it in digital format should only do so with their permission . R. Subbiah , the judge who presided over the case , ordered the status quo to be maintained by both parties .
Bolstered by the success of the re @-@ release of Karnan ( 1964 ) , Nagarajan 's son and present head of Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures , C. N. Paramasivam , found film negatives of Thiruvilayadal in a storage facility at Gemini Films . Paramasivam restored the film and re @-@ released it in September 2012 in CinemaScope format . The digitised version had its premiere at the Woodlands Theater in Royapettah , Chennai . Despite being a re @-@ release , the film earned public acclaim and was a commercial success . Of the digitised version , Ganesan 's son , producer Ramkumar said , " It was like watching a new film " .
= Benet Academy =
Benet Academy ( / ˈbɛnɛt / BEN @-@ et ; often shortened to Benet ) is a co @-@ educational , college @-@ preparatory , Benedictine high school in Lisle , Illinois , United States , overseen by the Diocese of Joliet . Founded in 1887 , the school was initially established in Chicago as the all @-@ boys St. Procopius College and Academy by Benedictine monks , who also operated the St. Joseph Bohemian Orphanage . In 1898 , the orphanage moved to Lisle , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) west of Chicago , to be joined by St. Procopius three years later . In 1926 Benedictine nuns constructed the all @-@ girls Sacred Heart Academy near the orphanage and school in Lisle . The orphanage closed in 1956 to make room for St. Procopius Academy , which separated from the college in 1957 . Due to rising costs and waning enrollment , Sacred Heart merged with St. Procopius Academy in 1967 to form Benet Academy on the St. Procopius campus . Since then , numerous building projects have been undertaken to expand Benet 's athletics , music , and science programs . As of 2016 it is considered the second best Catholic highschool in Illinois , and eighth best private high school .
Admission is competitive and relies primarily on test scores . All students complete a college @-@ preparatory curriculum and may earn college credit through programs including Advanced Placement . As of 2009 , Benet 's average ACT test score regularly exceeds state and national averages , and more than 99 percent of students go on to college after graduation . The school 's academic program has been featured in reports by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and U.S. News & World Report .
The athletic program has fielded several teams that have placed fourth or higher in state tournaments . In the 2014 @-@ 2015 school year the girls ' volleyball team and the girls ' basketball team both won IHSA state titles , which makes Benet only the second school in IHSA history and the first large ( 4A ) school to win titles for both these sports in the same season . The boys ' basketball team has broken two state records , including a 102 home @-@ game winning streak . In the 2015 @-@ 2016 year the boys ' basketball team ended up getting second in the state , with the girls taking first , along with many other state titles in other sports .
Other activities include the annual Christmas Drive fundraiser and over 30 clubs and organizations , including the Math Team and Science Olympiad team , both of which have won awards in their state tournaments .
Benet 's performing arts program is highly praised and competitive and stages an annual winter musical , which often sells out quickly . Many performers have been nominated for state @-@ wide awards . Other productions include the fall play , one @-@ act plays , variety show , and spring play .
The band program performed in state @-@ wide events in 1998 and 2002 .
Notable alumni of the school include NBA player Frank Kaminsky , former Illinois Attorney General Jim Ryan , and Grammy @-@ winning singer Dave Bickler .
= = History and facilities = =
= = = Founding in Chicago = = =
In the aftermath of the Great Chicago Fire , Chicago 's working @-@ class Pilsen neighborhood , a predominantly Czech enclave , expanded quickly . To serve this growing ethnic population , St. Procopius parish was founded in the summer of 1875 , near the intersection of 18th and Allport Streets . The parish was named for Saint Procopius of Sázava , who founded a monastery in Bohemia in the eleventh century and became the first saint from Czechoslovakia . Vilém Čoka served as the first pastor . Planning to build a school , Čoka left it to the community to decide if the school would be secular or Catholic . They chose a Catholic school , despite the fact that only 25 percent of Pilsen 's Czech population was Catholic . As the parish outgrew his capacity to serve them , Čoka turned for help to the Order of St. Benedict .
Rev. John Nepomucene Jaeger , the first Bohemian abbot in the United States , was urged to establish a monastic community to teach at parochial schools in Bohemian as well as English . He founded St. Procopius priory in 1885 . The priory took control of St. Procopius parish in January 1886 , and Jaeger became the pastor . Jaeger also founded a convent in 1895 , consisting of nuns brought from St. Mary 's Convent in Pittsburgh and headed by Jaeger 's biological sister , Mother Mary Nepomucene Jaeger . The Czech @-@ American media had pushed for a convent to prepare Czech @-@ speaking nuns for teaching positions in Czech parochial schools , which had previously hired mostly lay teachers trained in Austrian normal schools . The nuns were transferred from Pittsburgh to St. Scholastica 's Convent on Chicago 's north side , but later that same year moved to an old parish building at Ashland and 19th Streets , where they would remain until 1912 . A section of the convent was converted into a music school . Graduates taught in parishes throughout the nation .
The priory was elevated to the status of abbey by Pope Leo XIII in 1894 , and the monks founded a school for lay monks to help build a self @-@ sustaining source of revenue . Failing to attract a single prospective applicant in over seven years , they expanded enrollment to students with no intention of joining the clergy . The two groups would eventually be taught separately , and the monastic students were trained to become priests fluent in Bohemian , German , and English and prepared to preach to ethnically diverse congregations . Lay students were trained for employment in the business world .
In 1900 , Chicago had one of the largest Czech populations of any city in the world , with approximately 75 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 Czechs living in the city 's 10 Czech communities . Some 50 @,@ 000 Czech immigrants were served by the three Czech parishes of Chicago — 16 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 of them by St. Procopius . These Czech immigrants wanted to assimilate into American society , but also wanted to pass their language on to their children . The abbey established St. Procopius College and Academy in 1887 as a school that taught men of Czech and Slovak descent . It became the first Czech institution of higher learning in the nation , and in 1920 it remained the only Czech college . Rev. Procopius Neuzil was named the first teacher and director . Classes began on March 2 , 1887 , when Neuzil taught a remedial course to two students in two small rooms at 704 Allport Street . Enrollment grew to 20 within the week , taught by three instructors during the four @-@ month term . The first full year of classes began in the fall of 1887 . The college was chartered by the State of Illinois in 1890 ; only a two @-@ year high school program was offered at the time . In 1893 the college published its first catalog , which urged Czech parents to enroll their 13 @-@ year @-@ old boys . The academic curriculum included a preparatory year to teach elementary school subjects to remedial students . The two high school years were referred to as " Latin years " , and included required courses in Czech , English , Latin , math , orthography , history , and religion ; optional courses included German and bookkeeping . Following the Latin years , students were enrolled in the business course , which included math , bookkeeping , economics , composition , history , oratory , and religion .
= = = Orphanage = = =
The Benet Academy campus in Lisle began as an orphanage . On March 14 , 1899 , the abbey founded St. Joseph 's Orphanage on a farm in Lisle purchased from one Serafin Rott , and transferred 10 Czech orphans there from St. Hedwig 's Polish Orphanage , which charged the parishes more for housing non @-@ Polish orphans . It opened under the supervision of the Sisters of St. Benedict . Abbot Jaeger allowed the orphanage to use the land for free until more satisfactory housing could be constructed . The orphanage lacked stoves , fuel , adequate bedding , decent food , and any stable source of income . Neuzil , then editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Czech Benedictine Press , raised $ 80 @,@ 000 within 12 years from the generally impoverished Czech immigrant community through local publications . A new building was commissioned in 1899 to accommodate the increasing number of applicants for admission , including orphans from out @-@ of @-@ state . The new building was dedicated on July 2 , 1900 , at the same time as the cornerstone was laid for St. Procopius College , about .25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) away .
Due to increasing applications for admission , still more space was required , and William Schwartz sold the abbey 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of land in Lisle . On July 16 , 1911 , a new building was dedicated on the grounds of what is now Benet
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2005 , Gordon and Levin met with Warner Bros. to develop the film there again . Tim Burton at one point expressed interest in directing the film but ultimately turned it down . Impressed with Zack Snyder 's work on 300 , Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen . Screenwriter Alex Tse drew from his favorite elements of Hayter 's script , but also returned it to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic . Similar to his approach to 300 , Snyder used the comic book as a storyboard . Following negotiations , Paramount , which had already spent $ 7 million in their failed project , earned the rights for international distribution of Watchmen and 25 % of the film 's ownership .
The fight scenes were extended , and a subplot about energy resources was added to make the film more topical . Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic , Snyder intended Nite Owl to look scarier , and made Ozymandias ' armor into a parody of the rubber muscle suits from 1997 's Batman & Robin . Production took place in Vancouver , where a New York City back lot was built . Sound stages were used for apartments and offices , while sequences on Mars and Antarctica were shot against green screens . Filming started on September 17 , 2007 , and ended on February 19 , 2008 , on an estimated $ 120 million budget . To handle the 1 @,@ 100 shots featuring visual effects , a quarter of them being computer @-@ generated imagery , ten different effects companies were involved with Watchmen . While 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit to block the film 's release , the studios eventually settled , and Fox received an upfront payment and a percentage of the worldwide gross from the film and all sequels and spin @-@ offs in return .
Dave Gibbons became an adviser on Snyder 's film , but Moore has refused to have his name attached to any film adaptations of his work . Moore has stated he has no interest in seeing Snyder 's adaptation ; he told Entertainment Weekly in 2008 , " There are things that we did with Watchmen that could only work in a comic , and were indeed designed to show off things that other media can 't . " While Moore believes that David Hayter 's screenplay was " as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen , " he asserted he did not intend to see the film if it were made .
= = Music = =
Both a soundtrack and excerpts from Tyler Bates ' film score were released as albums on March 3 , 2009 . The soundtrack features three songs written by Bob Dylan — " Desolation Row " , " All Along the Watchtower " and " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " — with only the latter performed by Dylan on the soundtrack . It includes some songs mentioned in the comic , such as Simon and Garfunkel 's " The Sound of Silence " and Leonard Cohen 's " Hallelujah " . Dylan 's " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " and " All Along the Watchtower " are also quoted in the graphic novel . Music by Philip Glass from Koyaanisqatsi plays when Dr. Manhattan is looking back on his life when he arrives on Mars . The Introitus of Mozart 's Requiem appears at the end of the film . " Desolation Row " was covered by My Chemical Romance especially for the film , and the song plays in the end credits .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment published a USA @-@ only episodic video game to be released alongside the film called Watchmen : The End Is Nigh . Warner Bros. took this low @-@ key approach to avoid rushing the game on such a tight schedule , as most games adapted from films are panned by critics and consumers . The game is set in the 1970s , and is written by Len Wein , the comic 's editor ; Dave Gibbons is also an advisor . On March 4 , 2009 Glu Mobile released Watchmen : The Mobile Game , a beat ' em up mobile game featuring Nite Owl and The Comedian fighting enemies in their respective settings of New York City and Vietnam . On March 6 , 2009 , a game for the Apple Inc. iPhone and iPod Touch platform was released , titled Watchmen : Justice is Coming . Though highly anticipated , this mobile title suffered from serious game play and network issues which have yet to be resolved .
As a promotion for the film , Warner Bros. Entertainment released Watchmen : Motion Comic , a series of narrated animations of the original comic book . The first chapter was released for purchase in the summer of 2008 on digital video stores , such as iTunes Store and Amazon Video on Demand . DC Direct released action figures based on the film in January 2009 . Director Zack Snyder also set up a YouTube contest petitioning Watchmen fans to create faux commercials of products made by the fictional Veidt Enterprises . The producers also released two short video pieces online , which were intended to be viral videos designed as fictional backstory pieces , with one being a 1970 newscast marking the 10th anniversary of the public appearance of Dr. Manhattan . The other was a short propaganda film promoting the Keene Act of 1977 , which made it illegal to be a superhero without government support . An official viral marketing web site , The New Frontiersman , is named after the tabloid magazine featured in the graphic novel , and contains teasers styled as declassified documents . After the trailer to the film premiered in July 2008 , DC Comics president Paul Levitz said that the company had had to print more than 900 @,@ 000 copies of Watchmen trade collection to meet the additional demand for the book that the advertising campaign had generated , with the total annual print run expected to be over one million copies . DC Comics reissued Watchmen # 1 for the original cover price of $ 1 @.@ 50 on December 10 , 2008 ; no other issues are to be reprinted .
= = = Home media = = =
Tales of the Black Freighter , a fictional comic within the Watchmen limited series , was adapted as a direct @-@ to @-@ video animated feature from Warner Premiere and Warner Bros. Animation , and released on March 24 , 2009 . It was originally included in the Watchmen script , but was changed from live @-@ action footage to animation because of the $ 20 million it would have cost to film it in the stylized manner of 300 that Snyder wanted ; this animated version , originally intended to be included in the final cut , was then cut because the film was already approaching a three @-@ hour running time . Gerard Butler , who starred in 300 , voices the Captain in the animated feature , having been promised a role in the live @-@ action film that never materialized . Jared Harris voices his deceased friend Ridley , whom the Captain hallucinates is talking to him . Snyder had Butler and Harris record their parts together . International rights to Black Freighter are held by Paramount .
The Tales of the Black Freighter DVD also includes Under the Hood , a fictional in @-@ universe documentary detailing the characters ' backstories , which takes its title from that of Hollis Mason 's memoirs in the comic book . Under the Hood is rated PG because it is meant to resemble a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes television news magazine profile of the characters . The actors were allowed to improvise during filming interviews in character . Bolex cameras were even used to film " archive " footage of the Minutemen . The film itself was scheduled to be released on DVD four months after Tales of the Black Freighter , and Warner released a director 's cut on July 21 , 2009 , and the extended version with the animated film edited back into the main picture was scheduled to be released on November 3 , 2009 , but did not hit the shelves until November 10 , 2009 . Snyder said if the film did well enough , a theatrical release of the director 's cut would be shown at theaters in New York and Los Angeles simultaneously . In addition , the Watchmen : Motion Comic , was released in digital video stores and DVD on March 3 . It included an exclusive scene from the movie but as of press time ( prior to the disc 's release ) the scene had yet to be added .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on July 21 , 2009 . The Blu @-@ ray version contains " Maximum Movie Mode " , which plays the film along with a video presentation by director Snyder , and includes behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , comic comparisons , trivia , and more . In November 2009 , an " Ultimate Collector 's Edition " was released . The five @-@ disc set includes the director 's cut of the film with Tales of the Black Freighter woven in , new commentaries by Zack Snyder and Dave Gibbons , the complete Watchmen : Motion Comic , and over 3 hours of bonus content including Under the Hood , which was previously released on the Tales of the Black Freighter DVD . A special Blu @-@ ray included the director 's cut of Watchmen along with both parts of the game Watchmen : The End is Nigh for PlayStation 3 .
Watchmen debuted at the top of the rental , DVD , and Blu @-@ ray charts . First week sales of the DVD stood at 1 @,@ 232 @,@ 725 copies , generating $ 24 @,@ 597 @,@ 425 in sales revenue . As of November 1 , 2009 the DVD has sold a total of 2 @,@ 510 @,@ 321 copies and $ 46 @,@ 766 @,@ 383 in revenue .
= = = Director 's cut = = =
A director 's cut of the film running at 186 minutes held a limited release in Los Angeles , Dallas , Minneapolis , and New York City . The director 's cut was released on DVD in the United States , along with the theatrical version . The director 's cut was also released on Blu @-@ ray , but not the theatrical cut . The theatrical version was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the European area , later on , the director 's cut was also released , exclusively on the Blu @-@ ray format . This is the preferred version of the film by director Zack Snyder .
= = = Ultimate cut = = =
In November 2009 , a four @-@ disc set was released as the " Ultimate Cut " . This version included the director 's cut of the film re @-@ edited to contain Tales of the Black Freighter into the story as it is featured in the graphic novel , bringing the run time of the film to 215 minutes . The set also included two additional hours of bonus features including Under the Hood and The Complete Motion Comic . Originally released only on DVD , the set later became available on Blu @-@ ray .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Watchmen was released at midnight on March 5 , 2009 , and earned an estimated $ 4 @.@ 6 million for the early showing , which is approximately twice as much as 300 , Snyder 's previous comic book adaptation . The film earned $ 24 @,@ 515 @,@ 772 in 3 @,@ 611 theaters its first day , and later finished its opening weekend grossing $ 55 @,@ 214 @,@ 334 . Watchmen 's opening weekend is the highest of any Alan Moore adaptation to date , and the income was also greater than the entire box office take of From Hell , which ended its theatrical run with $ 31 @,@ 602 @,@ 566 . Although the film finished with $ 55 million for its opening , while Snyder 's previous adaptation 300 earned $ 70 million in its opening weekend , Warner Bros. ' head of distribution , Dan Fellman , believes that the opening weekend success of the two films cannot be compared due to the extended running time of Watchmen — the film comes in at 2 hours and 45 minutes , while 300 is just under 2 hours — provides the 2009 film with fewer showings a night than 300 . Next to the general theaters , Watchmen pulled in $ 5 @.@ 4 million at 124 IMAX screens , which is the fifth largest opening behind Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen , Star Trek , Avatar , and The Dark Knight .
Following its first week at the box office , Watchmen saw a significant drop in attendance . By the end of its second weekend , the film brought in $ 17 @,@ 817 @,@ 301 , finishing second on that weekend 's box office . The 67 @.@ 7 % overall decrease is one of the highest for a major comic book film . Losing two @-@ thirds of its audience from its opening weekend , the film finished second for the weekend of March 13 – 15 , 2009 . The film continued to drop about 60 % in almost every subsequent weekend , leaving the top ten in its fifth weekend , and the top twenty in its seventh . Watchmen crossed the $ 100 million mark on March 26 , its twenty @-@ first day at the box office , and finished its theatrical run in the United States on May 28 , having grossed $ 107 @,@ 509 @,@ 799 in 84 days . The film had grossed one @-@ fifth of its ultimate gross on its opening day , and more than half of that total by the end of its opening weekend .
Watchmen currently sits tenth in all time March openings , as well as the twelfth largest opening for an R @-@ rated film in North American history . It was the sixth highest grossing R @-@ rated film of 2009 , behind The Hangover , Inglourious Basterds , District 9 , Paranormal Activity , and It 's Complicated . On the North American box office , Watchmen currently sits as the twelfth highest grossing film based on a DC Comics comic book ( narrowly ahead of 1997 's Batman & Robin ) , and the thirty @-@ first highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 .
Watchmen earned $ 26 @.@ 6 million in 45 territories overseas ; of these , Britain and France had the highest box office with an estimated $ 4 @.@ 6 million and $ 2 @.@ 5 million , respectively . Watchmen also took in approximately $ 2 @.@ 3 million in Russia , $ 2 @.@ 3 million in Australia , $ 1 @.@ 6 million in Italy , and $ 1 @.@ 4 million in Korea . The film collected $ 77 @,@ 743 @,@ 688 in foreign box office , bringing its worldwide total to $ 185 @,@ 253 @,@ 487 .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Watchmen received a polarizing reaction from both audiences and critics . Some critics gave it overwhelmingly positive reviews for the dark and unique take on the superhero genre , the cast , and the visual effects ; while others derided it for the same reasons , as well as the R @-@ rating ( for " strong graphic violence , sexuality , nudity , and language " ) , the running time , and the much @-@ publicized fidelity to the graphic novel .
On Rotten Tomatoes , Watchmen currently has a 65 % ' fresh ' approval rating , based on 294 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Gritty and visually striking , Watchmen is a faithful adaptation of Alan Moore 's graphic novel , but its complex narrative structure may make it difficult for it to appeal to viewers not already familiar with the source material . " By comparison , on Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating reviews from mainstream critics , the film has a score of 56 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade cinemagoers gave the film was B on an A + to F scale , and that the primary audience was older men .
Patrick Kolan of IGN Australia gave the film an enormous amount of praise , awarding it a perfect 10 / 10 and saying " It 's the Watchmen film you always wanted to see , but never expected to get . " Also praising the film along with another perfect score ( 4 / 4 ) was Kyle Smith of the New York Post , comparing it to some of Stanley Kubrick 's films . " Director Zack Snyder 's cerebral , scintillating follow @-@ up to 300 seems , to even a weary filmgoer 's eye , as fresh and magnificent in sound and vision as 2001 . " Roger Ebert gave it four out of four stars . " It 's a compelling visceral film — sound , images and characters combined into a decidedly odd visual experience that evokes the feel of a graphic novel . " Richard Corliss of Time concluded " this ambitious picture is a thing of bits and pieces , " yet " the bits are glorious , the pieces magnificent . " Total Film awarded it 4 / 5 stars , stating : " It 's hard to imagine anyone watching the Watchmen as faithfully as Zack Snyder 's heartfelt , stylised adap . Uncompromising , uncommercial , and unique . " When comparing the film to the original source material , Ian Nathan of Empire felt that while " it isn 't the graphic novel ... Zack Snyder clearly gives a toss , creating a smart , stylish , decent adaptation . " Nick Dent of Time Out Sydney gave the film 4 / 6 in his review of February 25 , praising the film 's inventiveness but concluding , " While Watchmen is still as rich , daring , and intelligent an action film as there 's ever been , it also proves Moore absolutely right [ that Watchmen is inherently un @-@ filmable ] . As a comic book , Watchmen is an extraordinary thing . As a movie , it 's just another movie , awash with sound and fury . "
The negative reviews generally disliked the film 's Cold War @-@ period setting , using various adjectives to describe it such as " stuffy " , " stiff " , " bor [ ing ] " , " oddly hollow " , " embalmed " , " truncated " , and " psychic suffocation " . They cited the film 's much @-@ advertised reverence of the source material as a fault , referring to the story as " trapped " in a faithful representation of Alan Moore 's graphic novel . " Watchmen is a bore [ ... ] It sinks under the weight of its reverence for the original , " wrote Philip Kennicott of The Washington Post . Devin Gordon wrote for Newsweek , " That 's the trouble with loyalty . Too little , and you alienate your core fans . Too much , and you lose everyone — and everything — else . " Owen Gleiberman 's Entertainment Weekly review reads , " Snyder treats each image with the same stuffy hermetic reverence . He doesn 't move the camera or let the scenes breathe . He crams the film with bits and pieces , trapping his actors like bugs wriggling in the frame . " " [ Snyder ] never pause [ s ] to develop a vision of his own . The result is oddly hollow and disjointed ; the actors moving stiffly from one overdetermined tableau to another , " said Noah Berlatsky of the Chicago Reader . David Edelstein of New York agrees : " They 've made the most reverent adaptation of a graphic novel ever . But this kind of reverence kills what it seeks to preserve . The movie is embalmed . " A reviewer in The Wall Street Journal wrote , " Watching ' Watchmen ' is the spiritual equivalent of being whacked on the skull for 163 minutes . The reverence is inert , the violence noxious , the mythology murky , the tone grandiose , the texture glutinous . " Donald Clarke of The Irish Times was similarly dismissive : " Snyder , director of the unsubtle 300 , has squinted hard at the source material and turned it into a colossal animated storyboard , augmented by indifferent performances and moronically obvious music cues . " The trade magazines Variety and The Hollywood Reporter were even less taken with the film . Variety 's Justin Chang commented that , " The movie is ultimately undone by its own reverence ; there 's simply no room for these characters and stories to breathe of their own accord , and even the most fastidiously replicated scenes can feel glib and truncated , " and Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter writing , " The real disappointment is that the film does not transport an audience to another world , as 300 did . Nor does the third @-@ rate Chandler @-@ esque narration by Rorschach help ... Looks like we have the first real flop of 2009 . "
Analyzing the divided response , Geoff Boucher of the Los Angeles Times felt that , like Eyes Wide Shut , The Passion of the Christ , or Fight Club , Watchmen would continue to be a talking point among those who liked or disliked the film . Boucher felt in spite of his own mixed feelings about the finished film , he was " oddly proud " that the director had made a faithful adaptation that was " nothing less than the boldest popcorn movie ever made . Snyder somehow managed to get a major studio to make a movie with no stars , no ' name ' superheroes and a hard R @-@ rating , thanks to all those broken bones , that oddly off @-@ putting Owl Ship sex scene and , of course , the unforgettable glowing blue penis . "
= = = Awards = = =
Watchmen was nominated for one award at the 2009 VES Awards , seven awards at the 36th Saturn Awards , and 13 awards at the 2009 Scream Awards . The film was also pre @-@ nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , although it did not make the final shortlist .
= = TV series = =
On October 1 , 2015 , it was reported that HBO is in talks with Snyder to make a TV series based on the comics with no word about it being a sequel to the film .
= Honoré de Balzac =
Honoré de Balzac ( / ˈbɔːlzæk , ˈbæl- / ; French : [ ɔ.nɔ.ʁe d ( ə ) bal.zak ] , born Honoré Balzac , 20 May 1799 – 18 August 1850 ) was a French novelist and playwright . The novel sequence La Comédie Humaine , which presents a panorama of post @-@ Napoleonic French life , is generally viewed as his magnum opus .
Owing to his keen observation of detail and unfiltered representation of society , Balzac is regarded as one of the founders of realism in European literature . He is renowned for his multi @-@ faceted characters ; even his lesser characters are complex , morally ambiguous and fully human . Inanimate objects are imbued with character as well ; the city of Paris , a backdrop for much of his writing , takes on many human qualities . His writing influenced many famous writers , including the novelists Émile Zola , Charles Dickens , Gustave Flaubert , Jack Kerouac and Henry James , as well as important philosophers such as Friedrich Engels . Many of Balzac 's works have been made into films , and they continue to inspire other writers .
An enthusiastic reader and independent thinker as a child , Balzac had trouble adapting to the teaching style of his grammar school . His willful nature caused trouble throughout his life and frustrated his ambitions to succeed in the world of business . When he finished school , Balzac was apprenticed in a law office , but he turned his back on the study of law after wearying of its inhumanity and banal routine . Before and during his career as a writer , he attempted to be a publisher , printer , businessman , critic , and politician ; he failed in all of these efforts . La Comédie Humaine reflects his real @-@ life difficulties , and includes scenes from his own experience .
Balzac suffered from health problems throughout his life , possibly due to his intense writing schedule . His relationship with his family was often strained by financial and personal drama , and he lost more than one friend over critical reviews . In 1850 , Balzac married Ewelina Hańska , a Polish aristocrat and his longtime love ; he died in Paris five months later .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family = = =
Honoré de Balzac was born into a family which through its industry and efforts aspired to achieve respectability . His father , born Bernard @-@ François Balssa , was one of eleven children from an artisan family in Tarn ( Occitanie ) , a region in the south of France . In 1760 he set off for Paris with only a Louis coin in his pocket , intent on improving his social standing ; by 1776 he had become Secretary to the King 's Council and a Freemason ( he had also changed his name to the more noble sounding " Balzac , " his son later adding — without official recognition — the nobiliary particle : " de " ) . After the Reign of Terror ( 1793 – 94 ) , François Balzac was despatched to Tours to coordinate supplies for the Army .
Balzac 's mother , born Anne @-@ Charlotte @-@ Laure Sallambier , came from a family of haberdashers in Paris . Her family 's wealth was a considerable factor in the match : she was eighteen at the time of the wedding , and François Balzac fifty . As the author and literary critic Sir Victor Pritchett explained , " She was certainly drily aware that she had been given to an old husband as a reward for his professional services to a friend of her family and that the capital was on her side . She was not in love with her husband " .
Honoré ( named after Saint @-@ Honoré of Amiens , who is commemorated on 16 May , four days before Balzac 's birthday ) was actually the second child born to the Balzacs ; exactly one year previous , Louis @-@ Daniel had been born , but he lived for only a month . Honoré 's sisters Laure and Laurence were born in 1800 and 1802 , and his younger brother Henry @-@ François in 1807 .
= = = Early life = = =
As an infant Balzac was sent to a wet @-@ nurse ; the following year he was joined by his sister Laure and they spent four years away from home . ( Although Genevan philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's influential book Émile convinced many mothers of the time to nurse their own children , sending babies to wet @-@ nurses was still common among the middle and upper classes . ) When the Balzac children returned home , they were kept at a frosty distance from their parents , which affected the author @-@ to @-@ be significantly . His 1835 novel Le Lys dans la Vallée features a cruel governess named Miss Caroline , modeled after his own caregiver .
At age ten Balzac was sent to the Oratorian grammar school in Vendôme , where he studied for seven years . His father , seeking to instill the same hardscrabble work ethic which had gained him the esteem of society , intentionally gave little spending money to the boy . This made him the object of ridicule among his much wealthier schoolmates .
Balzac had difficulty adapting to the rote style of learning at the school . As a result , he was frequently sent to the " alcove " , a punishment cell reserved for disobedient students . ( The janitor at the school , when asked later if he remembered Honoré , replied : " Remember M. Balzac ? I should think I do ! I had the honour of escorting him to the dungeon more than a hundred times ! " ) Still , his time alone gave the boy ample freedom to read every book which came his way .
Balzac worked these scenes from his boyhood — as he did many aspects of his life and the lives of those around him — into La Comédie Humaine . His time at Vendôme is reflected in Louis Lambert , his 1832 novel about a young boy studying at an Oratorian grammar school at Vendôme . The narrator says : " He devoured books of every kind , feeding indiscriminately on religious works , history and literature , philosophy and physics . He had told me that he found indescribable delight in reading dictionaries for lack of other books . "
Balzac often fell ill , finally causing the headmaster to contact his family with news of a " sort of a coma " . When he returned home , his grandmother said : " Voilà donc comme le collège nous renvoie les jolis que nous lui envoyons ! " ( " Look how the academy returns the pretty ones we send them ! " ) Balzac himself attributed his condition to " intellectual congestion " , but his extended confinement in the " alcove " was surely a factor . ( Meanwhile , his father had been writing a treatise on " the means of preventing thefts and murders , and of restoring the men who commit them to a useful role in society " , in which he heaped disdain on prison as a form of crime prevention . )
In 1814 the Balzac family moved to Paris , and Honoré was sent to private tutors and schools for the next two and a half years . This was an unhappy time in his life , during which he attempted suicide on a bridge over the Loire River .
In 1816 Balzac entered the Sorbonne , where he studied under three famous professors : François Guizot , who later became Prime Minister , was Professor of Modern History ; Abel @-@ François Villemain , a recent arrival from the Collège Charlemagne , lectured on French and classical literature ; and , most influential of all , Victor Cousin 's courses on philosophy encouraged his students to think independently .
Once his studies were completed , Balzac was persuaded by his father to follow him into the Law ; for three years he trained and worked at the office of Victor Passez , a family friend . During this time Balzac began to understand the vagaries of human nature . In his 1840 novel Le Notaire , he wrote that a young person in the legal profession sees " the oily wheels of every fortune , the hideous wrangling of heirs over corpses not yet cold , the human heart grappling with the Penal Code . "
In 1819 Passez offered to make Balzac his successor , but his apprentice had had enough of the Law . He despaired of being " a clerk , a machine , a riding @-@ school hack , eating and drinking and sleeping at fixed hours . I should be like everyone else . And that 's what they call living , that life at the grindstone , doing the same thing over and over again .... I am hungry and nothing is offered to appease my appetite " . He announced his intention to become a writer .
The loss of this opportunity caused serious discord in the Balzac household , although Honoré was not turned away entirely . Instead , in April 1819 he was allowed to live in the French capital – as English critic George Saintsbury describes it – " in a garret furnished in the most Spartan fashion , with a starvation allowance and an old woman to look after him " , while the rest of the family moved to a house twenty miles [ 32 km ] outside Paris .
= = = First literary efforts = = =
Balzac 's first project was a libretto for a comic opera called Le Corsaire , based on Lord Byron 's The Corsair . Realizing he would have trouble finding a composer , however , he turned to other pursuits .
In 1820 Balzac completed the five @-@ act verse tragedy Cromwell . Although it pales by comparison with his later works , some critics consider it a quality text . When he finished , Balzac went to Villeparisis and read the entire work to his family ; they were unimpressed . He followed this effort by starting ( but never finishing ) three novels : Sténie , Falthurne , and Corsino .
In 1821 Balzac met the enterprising Auguste Le Poitevin , who convinced the author to write short stories , which Le Poitevin would then sell to publishers . Balzac quickly turned to longer works , and by 1826 he had written nine novels , all published under pseudonyms and often produced in collaboration with other writers . For example , the scandalous novel Vicaire des Ardennes ( 1822 ) — banned for its depiction of nearly @-@ incestuous relations and , more egregiously , of a married priest — attributed to a " Horace de Saint @-@ Aubin " . These books were potboiler novels , designed to sell quickly and titillate audiences . In Saintsbury 's view , " they are curiously , interestingly , almost enthrallingly bad " . Saintsbury indicates that Robert Louis Stevenson tried to dissuade him from reading these early works of Balzac . American critic Samuel Rogers , however , notes that " without the training they gave Balzac , as he groped his way to his mature conception of the novel , and without the habit he formed as a young man of writing under pressure , one can hardly imagine his producing La Comédie Humaine " . Biographer Graham Robb suggests that as he discovered the Novel , Balzac discovered himself .
During this time Balzac wrote two pamphlets in support of primogeniture and the Society of Jesus . The latter , regarding the Jesuits , illustrated his lifelong admiration for the Catholic Church . In the preface to La Comédie Humaine he wrote : " Christianity , above all , Catholicism , being ... a complete system for the repression of the depraved tendencies of man , is the most powerful element of social order " .
= = = " Une bonne spéculation " = = =
In the late 1820s Balzac dabbled in several business ventures , a penchant his sister blamed on the temptation of an unknown neighbour . His first enterprise was in publishing which turned out cheap one @-@ volume editions of French classics including the works of Molière . This business failed miserably , with many of the books " sold as waste paper " . Balzac had better luck publishing the Memoirs of the Duchess of Abrantès , with whom he also had a love affair .
Balzac borrowed money from his family and friends , and tried to build a printing business , then a typefounder enterprise . His inexperience and lack of capital caused his ruin in these trades . He gave the businesses to a friend ( who made them successful ) but carried the debts for many years . As of April 1828 Balzac owed 50 @,@ 000 francs to his mother .
Balzac never lost his penchant for une bonne spéculation . It resurfaced painfully later when — as a renowned and busy author — he traveled to Sardinia in the hopes of reprocessing the slag from the Roman mines there . Near the end of his life Balzac was captivated by the idea of cutting 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) of oak wood in Ukraine and transporting it for sale in France .
= = = La Comédie Humaine and literary success = = =
After writing several novels , in 1832 Balzac conceived the idea for an enormous series of books that would paint a panoramic portrait of " all aspects of society "
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0 @.@ 16 km ) from the bridge is the site of the former Forest Glen station . The trail crosses Bridge Creek Road and Old Ford Road about 1 ⁄ 4 and 1 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 and 1 @.@ 61 km ) from the Forest Glen bridge , respectively , before entering the town of New Paltz .
Shortly after entering New Paltz , the trail crosses a bridge over Plattekill Creek . The masonry for the bridge was completed by late June 1870 , and trestle work was done by July . Originally made of wood , the bridge was accidentally set on fire in 1880 by ashes or sparks from a passing train . This prompted the railroad to coat its rail ties with tin while replacing its wooden bridges with ones made of stone . The bridge 's original abutments were made of Shawangunk conglomerate . It was rebuilt in 1912 , and crosses the Plattekill Creek at a height of 35 feet ( 11 m ) . The Shawangunk Ridge is visible from the bridge .
Plains Road is shortly after the bridge , and the trail continues for 3 ⁄ 10 mile ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) before crossing Cedar Lane . It crosses Plains Road again after another 1 1 ⁄ 5 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) , reaching the Sojourner Truth park in the village of New Paltz . The trail is connected to the park via a small footbridge constructed in 2010 by the Alexandria , Minnesota – based construction company Contech . It has a weight limit of 5 short tons ( 4 @.@ 5 t ) and is able to withstand earthquakes .
At the edge of the park , the trail crosses Water Street and enters the Water Street Market , a " restored area of boutiques , galleries , and cafés " . It then crosses State Route 299 and passes La Stazione , the former railroad station . The refurbished depot had been originally built in 1870 , rebuilt after a 1907 fire , and sold to private interests in 1959 . The building was in a state of disrepair by the early 1980s , but renovated in 1988 and converted to an Italian restaurant in 1999 . Over the next 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) , the trail passes North Front Street , Broadhead Avenue , and Mulberry Street . After another 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) the trail traverses Huguenot Street , a historic district containing colonial @-@ era stone houses . Some of the houses date to the late 1600s .
About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Huguenot Street , the trail reaches the 413 @-@ foot ( 126 m ) Springtown bridge spanning the Wallkill River . The bridge was originally made of wood and completed by the middle of December 1870 , but was rebuilt between 1880 and 1881 , using iron , by Clarke , Reeves & Co . It was rated by the superintendent of the Wallkill Valley Railroad to be safe for rail traffic as fast as 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . The bridge 's decking and benches were put in place in 1993 by volunteers and members of the nearby Hutterite community in the hamlet of Rifton . The design of the bridge 's railings was influenced by equestrians to better accommodate horses . Immediately after the bridge is Springtown Road .
The trail continues west of the Wallkill River . Roughly 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the Springtown bridge , the trail crosses Cragswood Road . Another 3 ⁄ 10 mile ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) farther , it reaches the New Paltz – Rosendale boundary line , continuing another 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) on formerly private property to Mountain Road in the hamlet of Rosendale . Restorations to the Rosendale trestle were completed , and the bridge was opened to the public in June , 2013 . This added 11 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) over the Rondout Creek to Kingston , crossing Interstate 87 and terminating by State Route 32 . The extension passes through the town of Ulster and includes four small bridges between Rosendale and Kingston .
= = Recreation = =
The road between the former railroad station and Water Street Market was the first site of a new town crosswalk system that opened on March 29 , 2008 . Under the new system , pedestrians can use flags placed in roadside containers to signal traffic . The trail connects with the Sojourner Truth park , which has had access to the Wallkill River for kayaking and canoeing since April 27 , 2003 . The Minnewaska Preserve and Mohonk Preserve , featuring 60 miles ( 97 km ) of combined walkways , can be reached through New Paltz . In the past , students at nearby SUNY New Paltz have used the trail for " legend [ ary , ] massive keg parties [ and ] ... opportunities to be romantic " . As part of an August 2010 art exhibit depicting concealed weapons laws , the Samuel Dorsky Museum of Art placed pieces of the exhibit throughout areas of New Paltz expected to have heavy pedestrian traffic , including the rail trail .
The trail connects to the Binnewater Historic District in Rosendale . The district was the location of several local quarries which opened throughout the region after the 1825 discovery of rocks capable of producing Rosendale cement in the nearby hamlet of High Falls . At its peak , the district was producing 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels a year and employed 5 @,@ 000 people .
Though the Binnewater rail station was once part of the historic district , it was located too close to Binnewater Road and was hit repeatedly by trucks until it fell apart in May 1989 . The station was subsequently demolished by the county highway department . Another historic district , the Snyder Estate , runs along the Rosendale section . The Snyder Estate is a former mining site once used by all four major regional cement producers . The Rosendale trestle has been the site of numerous picnics , barbecues , and at least one wedding . One person has tried bungee jumping off the bridge without a restraining cord .
Several shale outcrops are visible along the trail , with views of the Shawangunk Ridge to the west ; the skytop tower of the Mohonk Mountain House is visible on one of the cliffs . Parking for the trail is provided at a municipal lot on Farmers Turnpike in Gardiner . In New Paltz , there are parking lots at the Sojourner Truth park , off Springtown Road , at the Huguenot Historical Society , and at a Board of Cooperative Educational Services ( BOCES ) conference center . The trail runs parallel to state routes 208 and 32 ; there are two park and rides on Route 32 , a 63 @-@ spot lot in New Paltz , and a 58 @-@ spot lot in Rosendale . There are two bicycle shops along the trail in both Gardiner and New Paltz .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Flora along the northern end of the trail includes sumac ( Rhus ) and honeysuckle ( Lonicera ) shrubs , American elm ( Ulmus americana ) , bigtooth aspen ( Populus grandidentata ) and quaking aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) . As the trail approaches Gardiner to the south , there are occurrences of sugar maple ( Acer saccharum ) , American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) , tulip @-@ tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera ) and black birch ( Betula lenta ) . Other trees common on the trail include red maple ( Acer rubrum ) , shagbark hickory ( Carya ovata ) , northern pin oak ( Quercus ellipsoidalis ) , eastern red cedar ( Juniperus virginiana ) , white ash ( Fraxinus americana ) and eastern white pine ( Pinus strobus ) .
Many animals pass through the trail unobserved , leaving behind tracks . This includes bears , deer , coyotes , dogs , bobcats , cats , skunks and rabbits . Several bird species overwinter in the region and can be observed from the trail , such as the mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) , blue jay ( Cyanocitta cristata ) , bluebird ( Sialia ) , cardinal ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) , starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , downy woodpecker ( Picoides pubescens ) , American goldfinch ( Spinus tristis ) , tufted titmouse ( Baeolophus bicolor ) , black @-@ capped chickadee ( Poecile atricapillus ) , sparrow ( Passer ) and purple finch ( Carpodacus purpureus ) .
= I Am Your Leader =
" I Am Your Leader " is a song recorded by Trinidadian @-@ American recording artist Nicki Minaj for her second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) . The song features additional rap vocals from hip hop artists Rick Ross and Cam 'ron . Production of the song was handled by Fernando Garibay & Chauncey " Hit @-@ Boy " Hollis , with writing coming from Minaj , Garibay , Hollis , Ross , and Cam 'ron . Musically , " I Am Your Leader " is a midtempo hardcore hip hop and electro hop song that contains sparse beats , minimal instrumentation , repetitive , high @-@ pitched , off @-@ pitch synth hooks , and a booming , static bass . Lyrically , Minaj " dishes boast @-@ heavy verses about how she ’ s better than all these other bitches " , according to Adam Fleischer of XXL Magazine .
" I Am Your Leader " garnered praise from contemporary music critics , with the majority praising the songs production , Minaj 's vocal delivery , and the appearances of Cam 'ron and Ross . To promote the song , an accompanying music video for the song was released on August 24 , 2012 . It features Minaj inside a brightly colored playhouse dressed in eccentric clothing , while sequences show Minaj , Ross and Cam 'ron in different rooms such as the bathroom , the staircase , and the dining room . Fellow rapper Tyga also makes a brief cameo appearance . Despite not being released as a single , " I Am Your Leader " peaked at number 71 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Minaj briefly performed a part of the song on The Today Show 's summer concert series .
= = Background = =
Following the success of Minaj 's debut album , Pink Friday , Cash Money co @-@ CEO , Brian " Birdman " Williams announced to Billboard that Minaj was aiming to release her second album within the first quarter of 2012 . In November 2011 , Minaj announced on Twitter that the album would be released on February 14 , 2012 , though it was later delayed to April 3 , 2012 . The album focuses on Roman Zolanski , one of Minaj 's alter egos that was first featured on Pink Friday . On May 24 , 2012 , a poll was posted on Minaj 's official website asking fans to choose the next single ( s ) . The poll was divided into three categories : The second category asked fans to choose between " Champion " , " HOV Lane " , and " I Am Your Leader " . " Champion " had the most votes and won the poll ; " HOV Lane " came in second , and " I Am Your Leader " came in third . On June 6 , 2012 , Minaj announced through her official Twitter that " Champion " would be the next urban single .
= = Composition = =
" I Am Your Leader " is a hardcore hip @-@ hop and electro @-@ hop song that runs for three minutes and thirty @-@ three seconds . The production consists of a " chilled @-@ out , humming beat punctuated on the chorus with a blunted fake @-@ horn hook — halfway between classic @-@ era Neptunes and Look At Me Now " according to Andrew Unterberger of Popdust . It also contains repetitive , high @-@ pitched , off @-@ pitch synth hooks , and a booming , static bass . " I Am Your Leader " makes use of sparse beats , frills , minimal instrumentation , and allows Minaj ’ s rhymes to be the focal point , all of which gives the song " something of a mixtape feel " according to Joe Rivers of No Ripcord . In his review of the song , Unterberger of Popdust noted Hit @-@ Boy 's modern hip hop production , saying " Diplo and Bangladesh might have to watch their back after the up @-@ and @-@ comers contributions to this album . " Adam Fleischer of XXL said " Nicki dishes boast @-@ heavy verses about how she ’ s better than all these other bitches . "
= = Critical reception = =
" I Am Your Leader " gained positive reviews . Andrew Unterberger of Popdust gave it a 4 @-@ star rating , complimenting Minaj 's rapping as well as the guest verses of Cam 'ron and Rick Ross . However , Unterberger felt that Minaj was overshadowed by the guest verses . Andrew Hampp of Billboard echoed Unterberger 's sentiments , saying " The nostalgia of Cam 's return trumps the overall catchiness of the song . " XXL Magazine stated that " Though many of the early songs [ on the album ] lack real substance , the records remain generally exciting - “ I Am Your Leader , ” alongside Rick Ross and Cam ’ ron , “ Beez In The Trap ” with 2 Chainz , and the triumphant “ Champion ” featuring Nas , Drake and Young Jeezy are all memorable moments " . Joe Rivers No Ripcord praised " I Am Your Leader " along with " Beez in the Trap " for being " thrilling " and making " good use of cameos " . Stephen Deusner of Paste Magazine said that " On the nursery rhyming “ I Am Your Leader , ” [ Minaj ] spits yet another dick joke like a playground jeer , slyly undermining hip @-@ hop ’ s traditionally male @-@ centric braggadocio . She ’ s not only participating in phallocentric boasting ; she ’ s also inflating the convention with a Swedish penis pump until it ’ s just shy of bursting " .
David Jeffries of Allmusic listed it as one of the best tracks on the album . Matthew Cole of Slant Magazine stated that " ' I Am Your Leader ' and ' Beez in the Trap ' [ are ] two excellent tracks which manage to sound both bubbly and heavy as Minaj delivers her most effortlessly entertaining shit @-@ talk to date " . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork called " Come On A Cone " and " I Am Your Leader " " two brilliantly off @-@ kilter songs " . Tom Ewing of The Guardian said that " On " I Am Your Leader " , [ Minaj ] drops a couple of octaves to gleefully pompous effect " . Kevin Ritchie of NOW Magazine named it the top track of the album . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly named it one of the best tracks on the album along with " Champion " .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The video begins with a pink mailbox with the song 's title on the front written in different fonts . The video is set in a playhouse esque brightly coloured house . Minaj spits her first verse in a spacious room filled with antler heads and wacky windows , Minaj is seen standing on a zebra print carpet . Minaj 's second appearance saw her in a bathtub , partially clothed - wearing only Alexander McQueen “ Armadillo ” jewel encrusted 12 @-@ inch stiletto shoes . She also wore a green , Marilyn Monroe inspired wig . There is also a scene with all three rappers . After the hook , Rick Ross is seen sitting at a gold banquet table reciting his rap , shirtless , whilst gold maniquins ascend behind him . For Cam 'ron 's verse the scene is located on a staircase of moving photos of the three rappers . Nicki 's Young Money labelmate , Tyga also made a brief cameo appearance in the video . The video garnered positive reviews from critics , noting its high energy , fun and wackiness . MTV 's Rob Markman gave the video a positive review saying , " Only in a Nicki Minaj video can you find two of rap 's hardest street figures performing in such a wacky setting , but it 's the juxtaposition that " I Am Your Leader " offers which makes it so fun . "
= = = Live performances = = =
Minaj performed the song for the first time on The Today Show 's summer concert series on August 14 , 2012 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at : Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Evolution of lemurs =
The evolutionary history of lemurs occurred in isolation from other primates , on the island of Madagascar , for at least 40 million years . Lemurs are primates belonging to the suborder Strepsirrhini , which branched off from other primates less than 63 mya ( million years ago ) . They share some traits with the most basal primates , and thus are often confused as being ancestral to modern monkeys , apes , and humans . Instead , they merely resemble ancestral primates .
Lemurs are thought to have evolved during the Eocene or earlier , sharing a closest common ancestor with lorises , pottos , and galagos ( lorisoids ) . Fossils from Africa and some tests of nuclear DNA suggest that lemurs made their way to Madagascar between 40 and 52 mya . Other mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence comparisons offer an alternative date range of 62 to 65 mya . An ancestral lemur population is thought to have inadvertently rafted to the island on a floating mat of vegetation , although hypotheses for land bridges and island hopping have also been proposed . The timing and number of hypothesized colonizations has traditionally hinged on the phylogenetic affinities of the aye @-@ aye , the most basal member of the lemur clade .
Having undergone their own independent evolution on Madagascar , lemurs have diversified to fill many niches normally filled by other types of mammals . They include the smallest primates in the world , and once included some of the largest . Since the arrival of humans approximately 2 @,@ 000 years ago , lemurs are now restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 23 @,@ 000 square miles ) , and many face extinction .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Lemurs are primates belonging to the suborder Strepsirrhini . Like other strepsirrhine primates , such as lorises , pottos , and galagos , they share ancestral traits with early primates . In this regard , lemurs are popularly confused with ancestral primates ; however , lemurs did not give rise to monkeys and apes , but evolved independently on Madagascar .
Primates first evolved sometime between the Middle Cretaceous and the early Paleocene periods on either the supercontinent of Laurasia or in Africa . According to molecular clock studies , the last common ancestor of all primates dates to around 79 @.@ 6 mya , although the earliest known fossil primates are only 54 – 55 million years old . The closest relatives of primates are the extinct plesiadapiforms , the modern colugos ( commonly and inaccurately named " flying lemurs " ) , and treeshrews . Some of the earliest known true primates are represented by the fossil groups Omomyidae , Eosimiidae , and Adapiformes .
The relationship between known fossil primate families remains unclear . A conservative estimate for the divergence of haplorhines ( tarsiers , monkeys , apes , and humans ) and strepsirrhines is 58 to 63 mya . A consensus is emerging that places omomyids as a sister group to tarsiers , eosimids as a stem group to simians ( non @-@ tarsier haplorhines ) , and Djebelemur , an African genus likely to be related to an early Asian branch of cercamoniine adapiforms , as a stem group to modern strepsirrhines , including lemurs . In 2009 , a highly publicized and scientifically criticized publication proclaimed that a 47 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old adapiform fossil , Darwinius masillae , demonstrated both adapiform and simian traits , making it a transitional form between the prosimian and simian lineages . Media sources inaccurately dubbed the fossil as a " missing link " between lemurs and humans .
Lemurs were traditionally thought to have evolved during the Eocene ( 55 to 37 mya ) based on the fossil record , although molecular tests suggest the Paleocene ( 66 to 56 mya ) or later . Until recently , they were thought to have descended directly from the diverse group of adapiforms due to several shared postcranial traits , as well as long snouts and small brains . Although adapiforms also had lemur @-@ like auditory bullae , a prosimian characteristic , they had smaller brains and longer snouts than lemurs . There are also several other morphological differences . Most noticeably , adapiforms lack a key derived trait , the toothcomb , and possibly the toilet @-@ claw , found not only in extant ( living ) strepsirrhines but also in tarsiers . Unlike lemurs , adapiforms exhibited a fused mandibular symphysis ( a characteristic of simians ) and also possessed four premolars , instead of three or two .
Comparative studies of the cytochrome b gene , which are frequently used to determine phylogenetic relationships among mammals — particularly within families and genera — have been used to show that lemurs share common ancestry with lorisoids . This conclusion is also corroborated by the shared strepsirrhine toothcomb , an unusual trait that is unlikely to have evolved twice . If adapiforms were the ancestors of the living strepsirrhines , then the last common ancestor of modern strepsirrhines would have to predate the early Eocene , a view supported by molecular phylogenetic studies by Anne D. Yoder and Ziheng Yang in 2004 , which showed that lemurs split from lorises approximately 62 to 65 mya . These dates were confirmed by more extensive tests by Julie Horvath et al. in 2008 . These molecular studies also showed that lemuroids diversified before the modern lorisoids . Using a more limited data set and only nuclear genes , another study in 2005 by Céline Poux et al. dated the split between lemurs and lorises at 60 mya , lemur diversification at 50 mya , and the lemur colonization of Madagascar somewhere between these two approximate dates . However , the 2003 discovery of fossil lorisoids at the Fayum Depression in Egypt pushed the date of lorisoid divergence back to the Eocene , matching the divergence dates predicted by Yoder and Horvath .
The fossil record tells a different story . Although it cannot show the earliest possible date for the appearance of a taxonomic group , other concerns have arisen about these vastly earlier divergence dates predicted independently of the fossil record . First , palaeontologists have expressed concerns that if primates have been around for significantly more than 66 million years , then the first one @-@ third of the primate fossil record is missing . Another problem is that some of these molecular dates have overestimated the divergence of other mammalian orders , such as Rodentia , suggesting primate divergence might also be overestimated . One of the oldest known strepsirrhines , Djebelemur , dates from the early Eocene of northern Africa and lacks a fully differentiated toothcomb . Based on fossils and other genetic tests , a more conservative estimate dates the divergence between lemurs and lorises to around 50 to 55 mya .
To complicate the ancestry puzzle , no terrestrial Eocene or Paleocene fossils have been found on Madagascar , and the fossil record from both Africa and Asia around this time is not much better . Fossil sites in Madagascar are restricted to only five windows in time , which omit most of the Cenozoic , from 66 mya to ~ 26 @,@ 000 years ago . What little fossil @-@ bearing rock exists from this vast span of time is dominated by marine strata along the west coast . The oldest lemur fossils on Madagascar are actually subfossils dating to the Late Pleistocene .
= = = Colonization of Madagascar = = =
Once part of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar broke away from eastern Africa , the likely source of the ancestral lemur population , about 160 mya and then from Antarctica between 80 and 130 mya . Initially , the island drifted south from where it split from Africa ( around modern Somalia ) until it reached its current position between 80 and 90 mya . Around that time , it split with India , leaving it isolated in the Indian Ocean and separated from nearby Africa by the Mozambique Channel , a deep channel with a minimum width of approximately 560 km ( 350 mi ) . These separation dates and the estimated age of the primate lineage preclude any possibility that lemurs could have been on the island before Madagascar pulled away from Africa , an evolutionary process known as vicariance . In support of this , mammalian fossils on Madagascar from the Cretaceous ( see Mesozoic mammals of Madagascar ) include gondwanatheres and other mammalian groups that would not have been ancestral to lemurs or the other endemic mammals present on the island today .
With Madagascar already ge
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garnered a 1 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , translating to 2 @.@ 0 million viewers according to Nielsen Media Research . This made the episode the network 's best series premiere ever . Critical reviews of the pilot episode were mostly positive , with Metacritic awarding it 62 out of 100 points . Pilot was nominated for a Primetime Emmy award for Outstanding Art Direction for a Minseries or Movie in 2012 . This episode is rated TV @-@ MA ( LSV ) .
= = Plot = =
= = = 1978 = = =
A young Addie ( Katelyn Reed ) stares up at an old mansion when two troublesome twins Brian and Troy ( Kai and Bodhi Schulz ) arrive , planning to enter the house . Addie warns them not to enter the house , but they ignore her warning and enter the house anyway . While they wreak havoc , Brian discovers a dying animal and the twins find an open door to the basement . They enter the basement where they find jars containing animal remains and human fetuses . After complaining about the smell , Brian leaves the basement only to find that his brother has gone silent . He searches for him and finds him with his throat slit , gasping for air . The Infantata ( Ben Woolf ) appears behind him and kills him off screen .
= = = 2011 = = =
Having previously suffered a miscarriage , Vivien ( Connie Britton ) visits a fertility doctor . Arriving home , Vivien hears a noise and immediately dials 911 to report a burglary but when she investigates , she finds her husband Ben ( Dylan McDermott ) having sexual intercourse with Hayden ( Kate Mara ) one of his students .
Nine months later , the family leaves Boston and drive to Los Angeles . Their teenage daughter Violet ( Taissa Farmiga ) is unhappy about the move . They come across a newly restored mansion where they are taken on a tour by the real estate agent Marcy ( Christine Estabrook ) . She mentions the deaths of the previous owners , a gay couple named Chad and Patrick who died from an apparent murder / suicide . The family decides to buy the house and move in .
On the first day , Vivien meets next door neighbour Constance ( Jessica Lange ) and her daughter Adelaide ( Jamie Brewer ) who has Down syndrome . She also comes across the house 's maid Moira O ' Hara ( Frances Conroy ) who appears to be a young , seductive maid ( Alexandra Breckenridge ) in Ben 's mind . Vivien re @-@ hires Moira . On that same night , Ben fights with Vivien , trying to apologize for his infidelity . Afterwards the two make love .
On her first day of school , Violet is harassed by a bully named Leah ( Shelby Young ) with her friends , Abby ( Bianca Lawson ) and Becca ( Christian Serratos ) who later fight her in the cafeteria . Ben begins therapy sessions with a possibly psychotic boy named Tate ( Evan Peters ) , who begins a relationship with Violet . To help Violet with her bullying problem , he suggests scaring her in the house . After his shower , Ben finds Moira masturbating . He does the same thing but is caught by a burnt Larry ( Denis O 'Hare ) .
Bringing Leah to the house for drugs , Violet leads her into the basement where Tate sits on a rocking chair . He and the Infantata attack Leah and scare Violet who is terrified of Tate and tells him to leave .
In the attic , Vivien finds a latex gimp suit . While in bed , she finds a man in the gimp suit who she believes to be Ben but is in fact the " Rubber Man " , and the two have sex . Downstairs a sleepwalking Ben is drawn to the stove and tries to burn the house down , but Constance stops him . The next day , Larry approaches Ben . He tells him that he killed his family by setting them on fire , and warns Ben that if his family doesn 't leave the house , they will die . Ben declines and tells him to stay away from him .
At the house , Vivien announces to Ben that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development history = = =
Series co @-@ creators Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk began working on American Horror Story before their Fox series Glee began production . Murphy wanted to do the opposite of what he 'd done previously and thus began his work on the series . He stated : " We 're doing some squeaky clean , sweet , optimistic , non @-@ cynical piece , I wanted to do something that sorta tapped into the different side of my personality . " Falchuk was intrigued by the idea of putting a different angle on the horror genre , stating that their main goal in creating the series was to scare viewers . He said : " You want people to be a little bit off balance afterwards . " The dark tone of the series was influenced by the 1970s ABC soap opera Dark Shadows , which Murphy 's grandmother forced him to watch when he was younger to toughen him up . In addition , the series draws inspiration from classic horror films such as Roman Polanski 's Rosemary 's Baby and Stanley Kubrick 's The Shining .
In February 2011 , FX officially announced that it had ordered a pilot for a possible series from Murphy and Falchuk , with both as episode writers and Murphy as director . Dante Di Loreto was announced as executive producer . Production on the series began in April 2011 . On July 18 , 2011 , FX officially announced the project had been picked up to series . On August 3 , 2011 , it was announced that Tim Minear , Jennifer Salt , James Wong and Jessica Sharzer had joined the series as writers .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Casting announcements began in March 2011 , with Connie Britton first to be cast , portraying female lead Vivien Harmon . Britton stated that she took a risk in taking the role of Vivien . When Ryan Murphy presented the role to her he said : " This is something we 've never seen you do before . It will be turning what you 've just been doing on its ear . " She was intrigued by what he had presented her and ultimately decided to take the part . Denis O 'Hare joined the cast in late March as Larry Harvey . Jessica Lange joined the cast in April as Constance , marking her first regular role on television . Lange was attracted to the role because it didn 't require a 22 episode commitment . " That was huge for me ! " she said . " I wasn 't about to commit to , you know , six months . It was cable , rather than network ... I 've been offered network [ shows ] before , and determined not to do it , just because I can 't make that kind of time commitment . "
Dylan McDermott was cast as the lead , Ben Harmon , in late April 2011 . His character was initially described as " a handsome and masculine but sensitive therapist who loves his family but has hurt his wife . " McDermott stated that he wanted to do the role to break away from his previous role as Bobby Donnell in the ABC series The Practice . " This was exactly why I wanted to do this show – to change it up and do a different kind of character , " he said . " People think of me as the guy from The Practice ... I wanted to turn that [ notion ] on its head and hopefully I 'm doing that [ with this show ] . "
In May 2011 , Taissa Farmiga and Evan Peters were the last lead actors to be cast , portraying Violet Harmon and Tate Langdon , respectively . Farmiga said that she loved Violet " immediately " and that " she had spunk to her , she had attitude . " Ryan Murphy has described Tate as the " true monster " of the series , adding : " To Evan 's great credit and the credit of the writers , I think Evan 's done an amazingly difficult job making a monster sympathetic . "
The pilot episode was shot on location in a house in Country Club Park , Los Angeles , California , which serves as the haunted house and crime scene in the series . Designed and built around 1908 by Alfred Rosenheim , the president of the Los Angeles chapter of the American Institute of Architects , the Tudor or Collegiate Gothic @-@ style single family home was previously used as a convent . The series is filmed on sets that are an exact replica of the house . Details such as Lewis Comfort Tiffany stained glass windows , and hammered bronze light fixtures , were re @-@ created to preserve the look of the house .
= = Promotion = =
As part of the promotion for the series , FX launched a " House Call " campaign , in which viewers at home could sign up and come face @-@ to @-@ face with a character from the series . Prior to the series premiere , FX released several clues to shine light on the series . They were offered on the show 's official YouTube channel . Ten clues were released , entitled " Cello " , " Baby " , " Couples " , " Coffin " , " Lying Down " , " Fire " , " Stairs " , " Melt " , " Red Cello " and " Rubber Bump " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , the premiere of American Horror Story was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 18 million household viewers and gained a 1 @.@ 6 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 , according to Nielsen Media Research . These were the best numbers FX had ever received for a series premiere . Taken together with equally strong numbers for the station 's returning original series – Sons of Anarchy , It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia and The League – the episode helped make October the most @-@ watched month on FX ever . The pilot episode aired on November 7 , 2011 across Europe and Latin America on Fox International Channels , ranking # 1 or # 2 among all Pay @-@ TV in most metered markets across Latin America and Europe for its time slot . In the UK , it premiered on non @-@ terrestrial channel FX , with 128 @,@ 200 viewers . The episode was seen by 3 @.@ 2 million viewers total in 59 countries .
The pilot episode scored 62 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly awarded the pilot episode a B + , stating : " American Horror Story is pretty much all scare , all the time : a whole lotta screams , sex , jolts , mashed faces , psychotic behavior , and dead babies . " Chuck Barney of the San Jose Mercury News said : " Most TV shows , after all , quickly fade from memory . This one will haunt your dreams . " Hank Stuever from The Washington Post said in his review that " overdoing things is one of Murphy 's trademark flaws , but this show has a captivating style and giddy gross @-@ outs . " IGN TV 's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot episode contained a lot of " style over substance " but that it was also " totally watchable . " Fowler went on to write that it was a " haunting , subversive television experiment " and enjoyed the references to Amityville Horror , The Shining and Twin Peaks . Not all reviews were favorable . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the series a D- , saying : " It is so far over the top that the top is a microscopic speck in its rearview mirror , and so full of strange sounds , sights and characters that you likely won 't forget it — even though many of you will wish you could . "
= Ultime grida dalla savana =
Ultime grida dalla savana ( 1975 ) ( English : Final Cry of the Savanna ) , also known as La Grande caccia and by its English title Savage Man Savage Beast , is a Mondo documentary directed by Antonio Climati and Mario Morra . Filmed all around the world , its central theme focuses on hunting and the interaction between man and animal . More specifically , the film documents various forms of hunting that can be found in the world and how humans and animals can both become the hunter or prey . Like many Mondo films , the filmmakers claim to document real , bizarre and violent behavior and customs , although some scenes were actually staged . It is narrated by Italian novelist Alberto Moravia .
This was the first film of Climati 's and Morra 's Savage Trilogy , which also includes Savana violenta ( This Violent World ) and Dolce e selvaggio ( Sweet and Savage ) . The best known film of the trilogy , Ultime grida dalla savana became influential in exploitation cinema by use of cinematographic techniques that were repeated in numerous subsequent Mondo films . Two scenes in particular , a lion attack on a tourist in Namibia and the murder of an indigenous man by a group of mercenaries in South America , have gained notori
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chicken well – suited to small farmyard and backyard flocks .
= 2001 UEFA Cup Final =
The 2001 UEFA Cup Final was a football match between Liverpool of England and Alavés of Spain on 16 May 2001 at the Westfalenstadion in Dortmund , Germany . The showpiece event was the final match of the 2000 – 01 edition of Europe 's secondary cup competition , the UEFA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their third UEFA Cup final , after their appearances in 1973 and 1976 . It also represented the first European final they reached since being banned from Europe following the Heysel Stadium disaster . Alavés were appearing in their first European final .
Each team had to progress through six knockout rounds playing 12 matches in total to reach the final . Liverpool 's matches were mainly close affairs , none of their ties were won by more than two goals . The fourth round and semi @-@ final ties against Roma and Barcelona were won 1 – 0 . In contrast , Alavés ties ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories . They won their first round tie against Gaziantepspor by one goal , whereas they beat Kaiserslautern 9 – 2 in the semi @-@ final .
Watched by a crowd of 48 @,@ 050 , Liverpool took an early lead when Markus Babbel scored in the fourth minute . They extended their lead in the 16th minute when Steven Gerrard scored . Midway through the first half , Iván Alonso scored to bring Alavés within a goal of levelling the match . A few minutes before the end of the first half , Liverpool went 3 – 1 up when Gary McAllister scored from the penalty spot . Minutes after the start of the second half , Javi Moreno scored twice to level the match at 3 – 3 . Liverpool went in front again in the 76th minute when Robbie Fowler scored . With a minute remaining in the match , Alavés equalised thanks to Jordi Cruyff . The match went into extra time , with the first half goalless . With the match heading for a penalty shoot @-@ out , Delfí Geli headed into his own net , as a result , Liverpool won on the golden goal rule . The victory meant Liverpool completed a Treble of Football League Cup , FA Cup and UEFA Cup .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Cup by finishing fourth in the 1999 – 2000 FA Premier League . Their opposition in the first round were Rapid București of Romania . The first leg was held at Rapid 's home ground Stadionul Giuleşti @-@ Valentin Stănescu , Liverpool won 1 – 0 , Nick Barmby scored the winning goal . The second leg at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield finished 0 – 0 , which meant that Liverpool won the tie 1 – 0 on aggregate to progress to the second round . Liverpool 's opposition in the second round was Slovan Liberec of the Czech Republic . The first leg at Anfield was heading for a 0 – 0 draw , until the 87th minute when Emile Heskey scored to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 victory . The second leg was at Liberec 's home ground , the Stadion u Nisy . Liberec took the lead in the first half to level the tie at 1 – 1 . Midway through the first half , Liverpool equalised to make it 1 – 1 on the night and 2 – 1 in their favour in aggregate . Two further goals in the second half by Barmby and Michael Owen , before a late Liberec goal ensured Liverpool won the match 3 – 2 to progress to the third round after a 4 – 2 aggregate victory .
Liverpool 's opponents in the third round were Olympiacos of Greece . The first leg was held at Olympiacos ' home ground , the Karaiskakis Stadium . Liverpool were heading for a 2 – 1 victory courtesy of goals from Barmby and Steven Gerrard , until Olympiacos equalised in the last minute to earn a 2 – 2 draw . The second leg at Anfield was won 2 – 0 by Liverpool , with a goal scored in each half by Barmby and Heskey respectively . The victory ensured Liverpool won the tie 4 – 2 on aggregate to progress to the fourth round .
Liverpool 's opposition in the fourth round were Italian side Roma . The first leg was held at Roma 's home ground the Stadio Olimpico , where Liverpool had won the European Cup twice in 1977 and 1984 . Incidentally , Roma were the team Liverpool beat to win the European Cup in 1984 . Liverpool were once again successful at the Stadio Olimpico , as they won 2 – 0 courtesy of two Michael Owen second half goals . The second leg at Anfield was a close affair . Roma scored in the 70th minute to take the lead , they now needed to score another goal to take the match into extra @-@ time . They looked like they had the opportunity to do so , when the referee awarded a penalty towards the end of the match after he had adjudged that Markus Babbel had handled the ball . However , moments later , he reversed his decision and instead awarded Roma a corner @-@ kick . Roma were unable to score the necessary goal following the incident and Liverpool progressed to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
Portuguese side Porto were the opposition in the quarter @-@ finals . The first leg in Portugal ended 0 – 0 . Liverpool won the second leg at Anfield 2 – 0 with Danny Murphy and Michael Owen scoring in the first half to progress to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 0 aggregate victory . Liverpool were drawn against Spanish side Barcelona in the semi @-@ finals . Liverpool defended resolutely during the first leg at Barcelona 's ground the Camp Nou to earn a 0 – 0 draw . The second leg at Anfield was equally close , until the 44th minute when Liverpool were awarded a penalty . Gary McAllister scored the subsequent penalty to put Liverpool 1 – 0 up in the match and the tie . However , a Barcelona goal would see them progress as a result of the away goals rule . Liverpool managed to see out the 90 minutes without conceding a goal to progress to their first European final , since they were banned from participating in Europe following the Heysel Stadium disaster at the 1985 European Cup Final .
= = = Alavés = = =
Alavés qualified for the UEFA Cup by finishing sixth during the 1999 – 2000 La Liga . They were drawn against Turkish team Gaziantepspor in the first round . The first leg at Alavés ' home ground the Estadio Mendizorroza finished 0 – 0 . However , the second leg was more entertaining . The match contained seven goals , Alavés won the match 4 – 3 to progress to the second round . Alavés ' opposition in the second round were Lillestrøm of Norway . The first leg was at Lillestrøm 's home ground the Åråsen Stadion . Alavés won the match 3 – 1 with goals from Begona , Óscar Téllez and Cosmin Contra . The second leg in Spain was a 2 – 2 draw , which ensured that Alavés won the tie 5 – 3 on aggregate to progress to the third round . Another Norwegian team , Rosenborg were their opposition . The first leg in Spain was a 1 – 1 draw . The second leg held at Rosenborg 's ground the Lerkendal Stadion . Alavés took an early lead when Rosenborg player Bent Inge Johnsen scored an own goal . Alavés scored a further two goals in the second half , with Rosenborg scoring a late goal to win the match 3 – 1 and progress to the fourth round courtesy of a 4 – 2 aggregate victory .
The opposition in the fourth round were Italian team Internazionale , who had won the competition three times . The first leg in Spain saw Internazionale go ahead 3 – 1 midway through the second half after Álvaro Recoba scored twice and Christian Vieri scored . Alavés fought back to equalise in the 73rd minute after goals from Óscar Téllez and Iván Alonso securing a 3 – 3 draw . The second leg at Internazionale 's home ground the San Siro appeared to heading for a 0 – 0 draw until the 78th minute when Jordi Cruyff scored . A further goal from Ivan Tomić ensured a 2 – 0 victory for Alavés . This meant that they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals at the expense of the three @-@ time winners due to a 5 – 3 aggregate victory .
Fellow Spanish side Rayo Vallecano were the opposition in the quarter @-@ finals . Alavés won the first leg at home 3 – 0 . Rayo took a 2 – 0 lead in the second leg at their ground the Estadio Teresa Rivero , but a late Cruyff goal ensured that Alavés would progress to the semi @-@ finals . Their opposition in the semi @-@ finals were German team Kaiserslautern , the first leg in Spain saw four penalties awarded . Three were awarded to Alavés and one to Kaiserslautern , all were scored and a further two goals for Alavés ensured the match finished 5 – 1 to Alavés .
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@ win match for Liverpool if they wanted to finish in third place in the league and claim the final UEFA Champions League qualification place . The subsequent match was won 4 – 0 by Liverpool to secure their place in the 2001 – 02 UEFA Champions League . Winning the UEFA Cup entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup against Champions League winners Bayern Munich . Liverpool won the match 3 – 2 to secure their second Super Cup victory .
= E.V.O. : Search for Eden =
E.V.O. : Search for Eden , originally released in Japan as 46 Okunen Monogatari : Harukanaru Eden e ( 46億年物語 はるかなるエデンへ , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : To Distant Eden " ) , is a side @-@ scrolling action video game developed by Almanic Corporation and published by Enix for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Released in 1992 for Japanese audiences , the game was later translated and released in North America in 1993 . Combining traditional platforming mechanics with experience and leveling mechanics originating from role playing games , E.V.O. involves the player navigating a creature through a number of side @-@ scrolling levels while undergoing bodily evolution to cope with ever @-@ changing environments . The game is heavily based on Almanic 's original title , 46 Okunen Monogatari : The Shinka Ron , released exclusively in Japan for the PC @-@ 9801 home computer in 1990 .
Spanning a period of over a billion years , the game 's story involves Gaia , daughter of the sun and mystical embodiment of the Earth , guiding the player through five distinct geological periods of the planet 's history . Beginning the game as a fish , the player must travel across the planet defeating enemies and gaining the strength to evolve into more powerful and complex organisms before eventually earning a chance to enter the paradise realm of Eden , becoming Gaia 's immortal partner . Crystals with the ability to influence evolution are laden throughout the player 's quest , with the mystery of their origin becoming a secondary factor to the main story .
= = Gameplay = =
E.V.O. is a side @-@ scrolling platformer action game where players must navigate a creature of their own design across a number of environments resembling Earth 's past . The game is divided into five distinct geological periods : the Cambrian Period and the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era ( " The World Before Land " ) from 500 million years ago to 450 million years ago , then the Carboniferous period ( " Early Creatures of Land " ) , the Mesozoic Era ( " Age of Dinosaurs " ) , the late Neogene period ( " Ice Age " ) , and finally the early Quaternary period ( " Early Man " ) . Each period has its own map screen , which is divided into various levels . While each era takes historical liberties with both its inhabitants and time frames , the player 's choices for evolution are dependent on the current era of play , ranging from aquatic bodies during the Age of Fish to mammalian physiology during the Age of Man . During the first two eras you are forced to gain a new body to progress , but once you reach the Age of Dinosaurs , a side quest will give you the option to remain as a reptile , or become a bird , gaining the ability of flight . As you enter the Ice Age as a bird or reptile , you are immediately given the option to become a mammal . You can finish the game as a reptile , bird , or mammal and the outcome is still the same , only the interaction dialogue is affected by your choices .
As the player progresses through each level , other organisms are encountered who must be confronted by biting , ramming them with horns , or jumping on them until they are defeated . Defeated enemies leave behind meat which the player can consume to grant them " evolution points " used towards upgrading specific body parts . The body of the character controlled by the player is divided into eight sections which can be upgraded by spending evolution points , making them stronger as well as changing their appearance . New abilities such as tail swings , greater jumping ability and increased movement speed can also be obtained through evolution .
During gameplay , the player will also encounter crystals that either display hints and tips , grant large amounts of Evolution Points or transform their character into a unique body for a limited time . As the player takes damage from enemy creatures , one may restore health at any time by either consuming the meat of their foes , eating nearby plant life , or by undergoing selective evolution . At the end of each level , the player must face a stronger boss character in order to progress , requiring much more effort to defeat than a typical foe . There is no game over mechanism , if the player 's character loses all their health points the player is revived by Gaia and sent back to the game 's map screen with a deduction of roughly half of their Evolution Points . The game utilizes a built @-@ in battery backup save system for storing game data . The player may record progress directly to the cartridge to be continued at another time , and store up to fifty previously created creatures using the game 's built @-@ in " Book of Life " feature . Creatures stored in this index have the option to be recalled at any time when the player encounters special crystals during the quest .
= = Story = =
E.V.O. tells a mythical saga of life 's evolution on Earth , with a subtext of a creation myth and polytheistic evolution . The player takes the role of one of many billions of lifeforms created by Gaia , the nurturing and benevolent daughter of Sol , the Sun . Among the creatures known as life , there is a competition to evolve , and the best lifeform will eventually be granted the privilege of entering the Garden of Eden and becoming the husband and partner of Gaia . As the game progresses , it soon becomes apparent some mysterious external force is interfering with evolution on Earth in a destructive manner . Strange crystals not native to Gaia appear across the planet , and creatures that eat the crystals are transformed into monstrously powerful beings that dominate all other lifeforms , overconsume resources and disrupt the flow of evolution . In each Age the player character is tasked with confronting the species transformed by the crystals and defeating them so that the evolution of life can continue as intended .
In the final Age , the Age of Eden , the player learns a mysterious entity is controlling the world 's other lifeforms and sending them against the player . This entity turns out to be Bolbox , a lifeform that has evolved into a freakish and evil advanced being by consuming the crystals , believing itself to be the first human , but in reality is a gigantic single @-@ celled organism . In the game 's final battle , the player and Bolbox fight to determine who will gain entry into Eden and become Gaia 's partner . Bolbox is defeated , and the player joins Gaia in Eden and is granted the gift of intelligence . It is also revealed the crystals were introduced to Earth by an advanced civilization on Mars , who misguidedly wished to help Earth by speeding its evolution with the crystals . Upon realizing the dangers the crystals create , the Martians decide to leave Earth alone and observe until it becomes advanced enough for them to interact with .
= = Development = =
E.V.O. was developed by Almanic Corporation in early 1992 under the Japanese title 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ Harukanaru Eden e ~ ( literally , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : To Distant Eden " ) and was headed by project director Takashi Yoneda , who had designed Quintet 's Actraiser three years prior . The title was largely based on the company 's earlier successful role @-@ playing game 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ The Shinka Ron ~ ( literally , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : The Theory of Evolution " ) , released for the NEC PC @-@ 9801 home computer in 1990 , and carries over much of the game 's theme , designs and story . Although the design staff had opted to give a fantastic rather than scientific representation of evolutionary theories and planet development , the crew was assisted by teachers from local schools to provide information on geology and biology to the programmers . While some of the game 's designers were similar to that of the original PC @-@ 9801 title , much of the staff for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version was made up of a younger , less experienced crew , which Yoneda stated made things " interesting " during development .
The North American version was translated and marketed by Enix America Corporation . While originally planned for a March 1993 release , the game was beset by last @-@ minute delays for several months until the following June . The company would later hold a promotional contest where players could send in photographs of their favorite customized creatures for a chance to win a free Enix game .
= = = Music = = =
The music for E.V.O. was originally composed by Koichi Sugiyama for 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ The Shinka Ron ~ . Motoaki Takenouchi , a former student of Sugiyama 's , adapted the music for E.V.O .. In late 1992 , select pieces from the game were performed by the Tokyo City Philharmonic Orchestra during their second annual Game Music Concert series in Tokyo , Japan . Two of these pieces , " Great Hymn of Nature , Earth " and " Sorrow " were made available on the Orchestra Game Music Concert 2 album the following November . In December of the same year , an official soundtrack for E.V.O. was released exclusively in Japan by Apollon Records . Rather than featuring the same instrumentation present in the game , the 46 Okunen Monogatari Symphonic Synth Suite soundtrack was composed of music also re @-@ recorded and arranged by Takenouchi .
= = Reception = =
The game received mild but generally positive reviews during its initial release in North America . GamePro magazine praised the game 's originality and overall design but found fault with the visual presentation of the title , stating " although this game has an interesting concept , the sluggish game play and average graphics may make you return to the caves . " The publication also found the background music lacking , stating the game 's compositions ranged from " soothing " to " annoying " . Nintendo Power called attention to the game 's ingenuity and theme , remarking that " [ t ] he idea of this game is great and the weird creatures you can evolve can be both bizarre and hilarious . " However , the magazine felt the game 's representation of the concept of evolution was too fanciful , also stating the process of obtaining power @-@ up items being " tedious " . Nintendo Power would later give the game an honorable mention during its " Top Titles of 1993 " awards segment as one of the most innovative games of the year .
Allgame was even less positive about the game , giving it two stars out of five . They praised the challenge that the bosses presented , and the quantity of creatures the player could evolve into , but noted that the game was " marred by mediocre graphics and sluggish gameplay . " Although not officially released in Europe , the game was covered in an import review by Super Play in late 1993 and although they found the game 's strategy components to be " top @-@ notch " , the rest of the game was regarded as " very mediocre " , garnering only a 47 % average score .
More contemporary reviews of the game were largely positive . In his 2001 collector 's guide Video Game Bible , author Andy Slaven called the game " wildly underrated ( and highly original ) " . In February 2007 , IGN ranked E.V.O. second in its list of the greatest " Prehistoric Games " of all time , stating " [ n ] o other title before or since has so effectively captured the essence of evolutionary theory in videogame form . " The website additionally likened the title to the then @-@ upcoming and highly anticipated Spore by Maxis Games , calling E.V.O. the " original success story " in life @-@ simulation gaming and the standard for which it would be judged .
= Vanilla Ice =
Robert Matthew Van Winkle ( born October 31 , 1967 ) , known by his stage name , Vanilla Ice , is an American rapper , actor and television host . Born in South Dallas , and raised in Texas and South Florida , Ice released his debut album , Hooked , in 1989 on Ichiban Records , before signing a contract with SBK Records , a record label of the EMI Group which released a reformatted version of the album under the title To the Extreme . Ice 's 1990 single " Ice Ice Baby " was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts .
Although Vanilla Ice was successful , he later regretted his business arrangements with SBK , which had paid him to adopt a more commercial appearance to appeal to a mass audience and published fabricated biographical information without his knowledge . After surviving a suicide attempt , Ice was inspired to change his musical style and lifestyle . While his later , less mainstream albums failed to chart or receive much radio airplay , Ice has had a loyal underground following . In 2009 , Ice began hosting The Vanilla Ice Project on DIY Network . His latest album WTF – Wisdom , Tenacity & Focus was released in August 2011 . Ice is currently signed to Psychopathic Records .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert Matthew Van Winkle was born in Dallas , Texas , on October 31 , 1967 . Van Winkle has never known his biological father ; he was given the family name of the man his mother was married to at the time of his birth . When Van Winkle was four , his mother divorced . Afterward , he grew up moving between Dallas and Miami , where his new stepfather worked at a car dealership . Hip hop had an impact on Van Winkle at an early age , saying " It 's a very big passion of mine because I love poetry . I was just heavily influenced by that whole movement and it 's molded me into who I am today . " Between the ages of 13 and 14 , Van Winkle practiced breakdancing , which led to his friends nicknaming him " Vanilla " , as he was the only one in the group that was not African American . Although he disliked the nickname , it stuck . Shortly afterward , Van Winkle started battle rapping at parties and because of his rhymes , his friends started calling him " MC Vanilla . " However , when he became a member of a breakdance troupe , Van Winkle 's stage name was " Vanilla Ice " combining his nickname " Vanilla " with one of his breakdance moves ; " The Ice " . When Ice 's stepfather was offered a better job in Carrollton , Texas , he moved back to Texas with his mother . He attended R. L. Turner High School for a short time before dropping out . When Ice was not learning to ride motorbikes , he was dancing as a street performer with his breakdancing group , now called The Vanilla Ice Posse . Ice wrote " Ice Ice Baby " at the age of 16 , basing its lyrics on a weekend he had with friend and disc jockey D @-@ Shay in South Florida . The lyrics describe Ice and Shay on a drug run that ends in a drive @-@ by shooting while praising Ice 's rhyming skills .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1985 – 1989 ) = = =
In 1985 , he was focusing all of his energy on motocross , winning three championships . After breaking his ankle during a race , Ice was not interested in racing professionally for some time , using his spare time to perfect his dance moves and creating his own while his ankle was healing . Ice used his beatboxing and breakdancing skills as a street performer with his friends at local malls during this time . One evening he visited City Lights , a South Dallas night club , where he was dared to go on stage by his friend Squirrel during an Open Mic . He won the crowd over and was asked by City Lights manager John Bush if he wanted to perform regularly , which he accepted . Ice would be joined on stage with his disc jockey D @-@ Shay and Zero as well as Earthquake , the local disc jockey at City Lights . The Vanilla Ice Posse or The V.I.P. would also perform with Ice on stage . As a performer for City Lights , Ice opened up for N.W.A , Public Enemy , The D.O.C. , Tone Lōc , 2 Live Crew , Paula Abdul , Sinbad and MC Hammer .
In January 1987 , Ice was stabbed five times during a scuffle outside of City Lights . After spending ten days at the hospital , Ice signed a contract with the owner of City Lights , Tommy Quon and his management company , Ultrax . Two years later , Ice would open for EPMD , Ice @-@ T , Stetsasonic , and Sir Mix @-@ A @-@ Lot on the Stop the Violence Tour . Quon saw commercial potential in Ice 's rapping and dancing skills . Buying studio time with Quon 's earnings from City Lights , they recorded songs that had been perfected on stage by Ice and his acquaintances with various producers , including Khayree . The two year production was distributed by an independent record company called Ichiban Records in 1989 . " Play That Funky Music " was released as the album 's first single , with " Ice Ice Baby " appearing as the B @-@ side . Tommy Quon personally sent out the single to various radio stations around the US , but the single was seldom played and when it was , it did not get the reaction Quon was hoping for . When disc jockey Darrell Jaye in Georgia played " Ice Ice Baby " instead of the single 's A @-@ side , the song gained a quick fanbase and other radio stations followed suit . Quon financed $ 8 @,@ 000 for the production of a music video for " Ice Ice Baby " , which received heavy airplay by The Box , increasing public interest in the song .
Following the success of " Ice Ice Baby " , record producer Suge Knight and two bodyguards arrived at The Palm in West Hollywood , where Ice was eating . After shoving Ice 's bodyguards aside , Knight and his own bodyguards sat down in front of Ice , staring at him before finally asking " How you doin ' ? " Similar incidents were repeated on several occasions . Eventually , Knight showed up at Ice 's hotel suite on the fifteenth floor of the Bel Age Hotel , accompanied by a member of the Oakland Raiders . According to Ice , Knight took him out on the balcony by himself , and implied that he would throw him off the balcony unless he signed the publishing rights to the song over to Knight ; Knight used Ice 's money to help fund Death Row Records .
= = = Mainstream success ( 1990 – 1993 ) = = =
On the basis of Ice 's good looks and dance moves , Public Enemy tried to convince their producer , Hank Shocklee , to sign Ice to Def Jam , but Ice later signed a contract with SBK Records in 1990 . SBK remixed and re @-@ recorded Hooked under the title To the Extreme . The reissue contained new artwork and music . According to Ice , SBK paid him to adopt a more commercial , conventional appearance . This led Ice to later regret his business agreements with SBK .
To the Extreme became the fastest selling hip hop album of all time , spending sixteen weeks at # 1 on the Billboard 200 and selling eleven million copies . SBK Record executive Monte Lipman stated that he received calls from radio stations reporting over 200 phone calls requesting Ice Ice Baby . SBK wanted Ice on the road as soon as possible . MC Hammer , an old acquaintance from his club days , had Ice on as an opening act on his tour . Reviews of To the Extreme were mixed . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Mim Udovitch gave the album a B , citing " Ice Ice Baby " , " Play That Funky Music " , " Dancin ' " and " It 's a Party " as the album 's highlights . Robert Christgau gave the album a C − rating , writing that Ice 's " suave sexism , fashionably male supremacist rather than dangerously obscene , is no worse than his suave beats " . Criticizing the technique and style of Vanilla Ice , Allrovi reviewer Steve Huey wrote :
Ice 's mic technique is actually stronger and more nimble than MC Hammer 's , and he really tries earnestly to show off the skills he does have . Unfortunately , even if he can keep a mid @-@ tempo pace , his flow is rhythmically stiff , and his voice has an odd timbre ; plus , he never seems sure of the proper accent to adopt . He 's able to overcome those flaws somewhat in isolated moments , but they become all too apparent over the course of an entire album .
In late 1990 , Ice began an eight @-@ month relationship with Madonna , and appeared in photographs for her book , Sex . In the height of Ice 's popularity , SBK licensed a 12 " doll which was made by THQ . In January 1991 , he was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live . Ice branched out into the film industry with an appearance in the film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II : The Secret of the Ooze , which he later called " one of the coolest experiences " of his career . Ice was very secretive about his personal life , with the intention of protecting his family . When a Dallas Morning News reporter asked Ice what his mother 's profession was , he replied " None of your fucking business " . In an attempt to rectify this , his former label wrote a fake biography in his name and tried to pass it off as his official life story without his knowledge . While on tour in 1991 , Ice found out that SBK had instigated the publication of the biography which detailed false biographical information , including claims that he had attended school with Luther Campbell and exaggerating his living conditions in Miami , which Ice later had to debunk by himself .
Ice 's second major release was the live album Extremely Live , released in March 1991 . The album was a live recording during Vanilla Ice 's performance in Miami during his To The Extreme tour . Premiering new songs like Rollin ' in My 5 @.@ 0 , Road To My Riches and Satisfaction , the album peaked at # 30 on the Billboard 200 , but it received mainly negative reviews , with Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne calling it " one of the most ridiculous albums ever released " , comparing it to The Best of Marcel Marceau , an album which consisted of two sides of silence opened by brief applause . According to Browne , Extremely Live " affords you the chance to hear inane stage patter [ ... ] and
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ny accepted an invite the 2013 World Championship event in Finland / Sweden and was selected as Team U.S. Captain . He led the largely unheralded U.S. team , in claiming their country 's first medal at the Championships since 2004 , with shootout victory over Finland for Bronze on May 19 , 2013 . Stastny finished the tournament in second place in individual scoring with 15 points in 10 games , resulting in selection to the World Championship All @-@ Star Team .
= = Style of play = =
Stastny is a left @-@ handed center and was one of the few NHL players known to use a wood stick since 2005 , preferring it through his first four seasons in the NHL . However , he made the switch to a graphite stick to begin his 2010 – 11 NHL season . He considers himself a playmaker , a characteristic he says he inherited from his father . Former Avalanche captain Joe Sakic , who played with Paul and Peter Stastny , sees similarities between the two , namely their strong skating and ability to see the game . Former Avalanche coach Joel Quenneville , who faced Peter during his playing career , has said Paul plays in a similar way and complimented his hockey sense . George Gwozdecky , Stastny 's coach at the University of Denver , has complimented his intelligence , ability to pass and see the ice . Although it has been said that Stastny is a slow skater , Gwozdecky too feels he is a strong skater . Terry Frei of ESPN has said that " ... his game isn 't flashy and eye @-@ popping as much as it is heady , intuitive and efficient " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
= Cerebellum =
The cerebellum ( Latin for " little brain " ) is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control . It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language , and in regulating fear and pleasure responses , but its movement @-@ related functions are the most solidly established . The cerebellum does not initiate movement , but contributes to coordination , precision , and accurate timing . It receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain , and integrates these inputs to fine @-@ tune motor activity . Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement , equilibrium , posture , and motor learning .
Anatomically , the cerebellum has the appearance of a separate structure attached to the bottom of the brain , tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres . Its cortical surface is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves , in striking contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex . These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion . Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement , the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells . This complex neural organization gives rise to a massive signal @-@ processing capability , but almost all of the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum .
In addition to its direct role in motor control , the cerebellum is necessary for several types of motor learning , most notably learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships . Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum . These models derive from those formulated by David Marr and James Albus , based on the observation that each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input : one comprises thousands of weak inputs from the parallel fibers of the granule cells ; the other is an extremely strong input from a single climbing fiber . The basic concept of the Marr – Albus theory is that the climbing fiber serves as a " teaching signal " , which induces a long @-@ lasting change in the strength of parallel fiber inputs . Observations of long @-@ term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for theories of this type , but their validity remains controversial .
= = Structure = =
At the level of gross anatomy , the cerebellum consists of a tightly folded layer of cortex , with white matter underneath and a fluid @-@ filled ventricle at the base . At the microscopic level , there are four deep nuclei embedded in the white matter . Each part of the cortex consists of the same small set of neuronal elements , laid out in a highly stereotyped geometry . At an intermediate level , the cerebellum and its auxiliary structures can be separated into several hundred or thousand independently functioning modules called " microzones " or " microcompartments " .
= = = Gross anatomy = = =
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa . The fourth ventricle , pons and medulla are in front of the cerebellum . It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater , the tentorium cerebelli ; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons . Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon , which also includes the pons ; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or " hindbrain " . Like the cerebral cortex , the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres ; it also contains a narrow midline zone ( the vermis ) . A set of large folds is , by convention , used to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller " lobules " . Because of its large number of tiny granule cells , the cerebellum contains more neurons than the total from the rest of the brain , but takes up only 10 % of the total brain volume . The number of neurons in the cerebellum is related to the number of neurons in the neocortex . There are about 3 @.@ 6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex , a ratio that is conserved across many different mammalian species .
The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that most of its volume is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter : the cerebellar cortex . Each ridge or gyrus in this layer is called a folium . It is estimated that , if the human cerebellar cortex were completely unfolded , it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long and averaging 5 centimeters wide — a total surface area of about 500 square cm , packed within a volume of dimensions 6 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm . Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter , made up largely of myelinated nerve fibers running to and from the cortex . Embedded within the white matter — which is sometimes called the arbor vitae ( tree of life ) because of its branched , tree @-@ like appearance in cross @-@ section — are four deep cerebellar nuclei , composed of gray matter .
Connecting the cerebellum to different parts of the nervous system are three paired cerebellar peduncles . These are the superior cerebellar peduncle , the middle cerebellar peduncle and the inferior cerebellar peduncle , named by their position relative to the vermis . The superior cerebellar peduncle is mainly an output to the cerebral cortex , carrying efferent fibers to upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex . The fibers arise from the deep cerebellar nuclei . The middle cerebellar peduncle is connected to the pons and receives all of its input from the pons mainly from the pontine nuclei . The input to the pons is from the cerebral cortex and is relayed from the pontine nuclei via transverse pontine fibers to the cerebellum . The middle peduncle is the largest of the three and its afferent fibers are grouped into three separate fascicles taking their inputs to different parts of the cerebellum . The inferior cerebellar peduncle receives input from afferent fibers from the vestibular nuclei , spinal cord and the tegmentum . Output from the inferior peduncle is via efferent fibers to the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation . The whole of the cerebellum receives modulatory input from the inferior olivary nucleus via the inferior cerebellar peduncle .
= = = = Subdivisions = = = =
Based on the surface appearance , three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum : the anterior lobe ( above the primary fissure ) , the posterior lobe ( below the primary fissure ) , and the flocculonodular lobe ( below the posterior fissure ) . These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal ( in humans , top to bottom ) . In terms of function , however , there is a more important distinction along the medial @-@ to @-@ lateral dimension . Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe , which has distinct connections and functions , the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum . A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis . ( Vermis is Latin for " worm " . )
The smallest region , the flocculonodular lobe , is often called the vestibulocerebellum . It is the oldest part in evolutionary terms ( archicerebellum ) and participates mainly in balance and spatial orientation ; its primary connections are with the vestibular nuclei , although it also receives visual and other sensory input . Damage to this region causes disturbances of balance and gait .
The medial zone of the anterior and posterior lobes constitutes the spinocerebellum , also known as paleocerebellum . This sector of the cerebellum functions mainly to fine @-@ tune body and limb movements . It receives proprioceptive input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord ( including the spinocerebellar tract ) and from the cranial trigeminal nerve , as well as from visual and auditory systems . It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that , in turn , project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem , thus providing modulation of descending motor systems .
The lateral zone , which in humans is by far the largest part , constitutes the cerebrocerebellum , also known as neocerebellum . It receives input exclusively from the cerebral cortex ( especially the parietal lobe ) via the pontine nuclei ( forming cortico @-@ ponto @-@ cerebellar pathways ) , and sends output mainly to the ventrolateral thalamus ( in turn connected to motor areas of the premotor cortex and primary motor area of the cerebral cortex ) and to the red nucleus . There is disagreement about the best way to describe the functions of the lateral cerebellum : It is thought to be involved in planning movement that is about to occur , in evaluating sensory information for action , and in a number of purely cognitive functions , such as determining the verb which best fits with a certain noun ( as in " sit " for " chair " ) .
= = = Microanatomy = = =
Two types of neuron play dominant roles in the cerebellar circuit : Purkinje cells and granule cells . Three types of axons also play dominant roles : mossy fibers and climbing fibers ( which enter the cerebellum from outside ) , and parallel fibers ( which are the axons of granule cells ) . There are two main pathways through the cerebellar circuit , originating from mossy fibers and climbing fibers , both eventually terminating in the deep cerebellar nuclei .
Mossy fibers project directly to the deep nuclei , but also give rise to the following pathway : mossy fibers → granule cells → parallel fibers → Purkinje cells → deep nuclei . Climbing fibers project to Purkinje cells and also send collaterals directly to the deep nuclei . The mossy fiber and climbing fiber inputs each carry fiber @-@ specific information ; the cerebellum also receives dopaminergic , serotonergic , noradrenergic , and cholinergic inputs that presumably perform global modulation .
The cerebellar cortex is divided into three layers . At the bottom lies the thick granular layer , densely packed with granule cells , along with interneurons , mainly Golgi cells but also including Lugaro cells and unipolar brush cells . In the middle lies the Purkinje layer , a narrow zone that contains the cell bodies of Purkinje cells and Bergmann glial cells . At the top lies the molecular layer , which contains the flattened dendritic trees of Purkinje cells , along with the huge array of parallel fibers penetrating the Purkinje cell dendritic trees at right angles . This outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex also contains two types of inhibitory interneuron : stellate cells and basket cells . Both stellate and basket cells form GABAergic synapses onto Purkinje cell dendrites .
= = = = Purkinje cells = = = =
Purkinje cells are among the most distinctive neurons in the brain , and one of the earliest types to be recognized — they were first described by the Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně in 1837 . They are distinguished by the shape of their dendritic tree : The dendrites branch very profusely , but are severely flattened in a plane perpendicular to the cerebellar folds . Thus , the dendrites of a Purkinje cell form a dense planar net , through which parallel fibers pass at right angles . The dendrites are covered with dendritic spines , each of which receives synaptic input from a parallel fiber . Purkinje cells receive more synaptic inputs than any other type of cell in the brain — estimates of the number of spines on a single human Purkinje cell run as high as 200 @,@ 000 . The large , spherical cell bodies of Purkinje cells are packed into a narrow layer ( one cell thick ) of the cerebellar cortex , called the Purkinje layer . After emitting collaterals that affect nearby parts of the cortex , their axons travel into the deep cerebellar nuclei , where they make on the order of 1 @,@ 000 contacts each with several types of nuclear cells , all within a small domain . Purkinje cells use GABA as their neurotransmitter , and therefore exert inhibitory effects on their targets .
Purkinje cells form the heart of the cerebellar circuit , and their large size and distinctive activity patterns have made it relatively easy to study their response patterns in behaving animals using extracellular recording techniques . Purkinje cells normally emit action potentials at a high rate even in the absence of the synaptic input . In awake , behaving animals , mean rates averaging around 40 Hz are typical . The spike trains show a mixture of what are called simple and complex spikes . A simple spike is a single action potential followed by a refractory period of about 10 ms ; a complex spike is a stereotyped sequence of action potentials with very short inter @-@ spike intervals and declining amplitudes . Physiological studies have shown that complex spikes ( which occur at baseline rates around 1 Hz and never at rates much higher than 10 Hz ) are reliably associated with climbing fiber activation , while simple spikes are produced by a combination of baseline activity and parallel fiber input . Complex spikes are often followed by a pause of several hundred milliseconds during which simple spike activity is suppressed .
= = = = Granule cells = = = =
Cerebellar granule cells , in contrast to Purkinje cells , are among the smallest neurons in the brain . They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain : In humans , estimates of their total number average around 50 billion , which means that about 3 / 4 of the brain 's neurons are cerebellar granule cells . Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex . A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites , each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw . These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells .
The thin , unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper ( molecular ) layer of the cortex , where they split in two , with each branch traveling horizontally to form a parallel fiber ; the splitting of the vertical branch into two horizontal branches gives rise to a distinctive " T " shape . A human parallel fiber runs for an average of 3 mm in each direction from the split , for a total length of about 6 mm ( about 1 / 10 of the total width of the cortical layer ) . As they run along , the parallel fibers pass through the dendritic trees of Purkinje cells , contacting one of every 3 – 5 that they pass , making a total of 80 – 100 synaptic connections with Purkinje cell dendritic spines . Granule cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter , and therefore exert excitatory effects on their targets .
Granule cells receive all of their input from mossy fibers , but outnumber them by 200 to 1 ( in humans ) . Thus , the information in the granule cell population activity state is the same as the information in the mossy fibers , but recoded in a much more expansive way . Because granule cells are so small and so densely packed , it is difficult to record their spike activity in behaving animals , so there is little data to use as a basis for theorizing . The most popular concept of their function was proposed in 1969 by David Marr , who suggested that they could encode combinations of mossy fiber inputs . The idea is that with each granule cell receiving input from only 4 – 5 mossy fibers , a granule cell would not respond if only a single one of its inputs were active , but would respond if more than one were active . This combinatorial coding scheme would potentially allow the cerebellum to make much finer distinctions between input patterns than the mossy fibers alone would permit .
= = = = Mossy fibers = = = =
Mossy fibers enter the granular layer from their points of origin , many arising from the pontine nuclei , others from the spinal cord , vestibular nuclei etc . In the human cerebellum , the total number of mossy fibers has been estimated at about 200 million . These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei . Within the granular layer , a mossy fiber generates a series of enlargements called rosettes . The contacts between mossy fibers and granule cell dendrites take place within structures called glomeruli . Each glomerulus has a mossy fiber rosette at its center , and up to 20 granule cell dendritic claws contacting it . Terminals from Golgi cells infiltrate the structure and make inhibitory synapses onto the granule cell dendrites . The entire assemblage is surrounded by a sheath of glial cells . Each mossy fiber sends collateral branches to several cerebellar folia , generating a total of 20 – 30 rosettes ; thus a single mossy fiber makes contact with an estimated 400 – 600 granule cells .
= = = = Climbing fibers = = = =
Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus on the contralateral side of the brainstem via climbing fibers . Although the inferior olive lies in the medulla oblongata and receives input from the spinal cord , brainstem and cerebral cortex , its output goes entirely to the cerebellum . A climbing fiber gives off collaterals to the deep cerebellar nuclei before entering the cerebellar cortex , where it splits into about 10 terminal branches , each of which gives input to a single Purkinje cell . In striking contrast to the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ plus inputs from parallel fibers , each Purkinje cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber ; but this single fiber " climbs " the dendrites of the Purkinje cell , winding around them and making a total of up to 300 synapses as it goes . The net input is so strong that a single action potential from a climbing fiber is capable of producing an extended complex spike in the Purkinje cell : a burst of several spikes in a row , with diminishing amplitude , followed by a pause during which activity is suppressed . The climbing fiber synapses cover the cell body and proximal dendrites ; this zone is devoid of parallel fiber inputs .
Climbing fibers fire at low rates , but a single climbing fiber action potential induces a burst of several action potentials in a target Purkinje cell ( a complex spike ) . The contrast between parallel fiber and climbing fiber inputs to Purkinje cells ( over 100 @,@ 000 of one type versus exactly one of the other type ) is perhaps the most provocative feature of cerebellar anatomy , and has motivated much of the theorizing . In fact , the function of climbing fibers is the most controversial topic concerning the cerebellum . There are two schools of thought , one following Marr and Albus in holding that climbing fiber input serves primarily as a teaching signal , the other holding that its function is to shape cerebellar output directly . Both views have been defended in great length in numerous publications . In the words of one review , " In trying to synthesize the various hypotheses on the function of the climbing fibers , one has the sense of looking at a drawing by Escher . Each point of view seems to account for a certain collection of findings , but when one attempts to put the different views together , a coherent picture of what the climbing fibers are doing does not appear . For the majority of researchers , the climbing fibers signal errors in motor performance , either in the usual manner of discharge frequency modulation or as a single announcement of an ' unexpected event ' . For other investigators , the message lies in the degree of ensemble synchrony and rhythmicity among a population of climbing fibers . "
= = = = Deep nuclei = = = =
The deep nuclei of the cerebellum are clusters of gray matter lying within the white matter at the core of the cerebellum . They are , with the minor exception of the nearby vestibular nuclei , the sole sources of output from the cerebellum . These nuclei receive collateral projections from mossy fibers and climbing fibers as well as inhibitory input from the Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex . The four nuclei ( dentate , globose , emboliform , and fastigial ) each communicate with different parts of the brain and cerebellar cortex . ( The globose and the emboliform nuclei are also referred to as combined in the interposed nucleus ) . The fastigial and interposed nuclei belong to the spinocerebellum . The dentate nucleus , which in mammals is much larger than the others , is formed as a thin , convoluted layer of gray matter , and communicates exclusively with the lateral parts of the cerebellar cortex . The flocculonodular lobe is the only part of the cerebellar cortex that does not project to the deep nuclei — its output goes to the vestibular nuclei instead .
The majority of neurons in the deep nuclei have large cell bodies and spherical dendritic trees with a radius of about 400 μm , and use glutamate as their neurotransmitter . These cells project to a variety of targets outside the cerebellum . Intermixed with them are a lesser number of small cells , which use GABA as a neurotransmitter and project exclusively to the inferior olivary nucleus , the source of climbing fibers . Thus , the nucleo @-@ olivary projection provides an inhibitory feedback to match the excitatory projection of climbing fibers to the nuclei . There is evidence that each small cluster of nuclear cells projects to the same cluster of olivary cells that send climbing fibers to it ; there is strong and matching topography in both directions .
When a Purkinje cell axon enters one of the deep nuclei , it branches to make contact with both large and small nuclear cells , but the total number of cells contacted is only about 35 ( in cats ) . Conversely , a single deep nuclear cell receives input from approximately 860 Purkinje cells ( again in cats ) .
= = = = Compartments = = = =
From the viewpoint of gross anatomy , the cerebellar cortex appears to be a homogeneous sheet of tissue , and , from the viewpoint of microanatomy , all parts of this sheet appear to have the same internal structure . There are , however , a number of respects in which the structure of the cerebellum is compartmentalized . There are large compartments that are generally known as zones ; these can be divided into smaller compartments known as microzones .
The first indications of compartmental structure came from studies of the receptive fields of cells in various parts of the cerebellar cortex . Each body part maps to specific points in the cerebellum , but there are numerous repetitions of the basic map , forming an arrangement that has been called " fractured somatotopy " . A clearer indication of compartmentalization is obtained by immunostaining the cerebellum for certain types of protein . The best @-@ known of these markers are called " zebrins " , because staining for them gives rise to a complex pattern reminiscent of the stripes on a zebra . The stripes generated by zebrins and other compartmentalization markers are oriented perpendicular to the cerebellar folds — that is , they are narrow in the mediolateral direction , but much more extended in the longitudinal direction . Different markers generate different sets of stripes , the widths and lengths vary as a function of location , but they all have the same general shape .
Oscarsson in the late 1970s proposed that these cortical zones can be partitioned into smaller units called microzones . A microzone is defined as a group of Purkinje cells all having the same somatotopic receptive field . Microzones were found to contain on the order of 1000 Purkinje cells each , arranged in a long , narrow strip , oriented perpendicular to the cortical folds . Thus , as the adjoining diagram illustrates , Purkinje cell dendrites are flattened in the same direction as the microzones extend , while parallel fibers cross them at right angles .
It is not only receptive fields that define the microzone structure : The climbing fiber input from the inferior olivary nucleus is equally important . The branches of a climbing fiber ( usually numbering about 10 ) usually activate Purkinje cells belonging to the same microzone . Moreover , olivary neurons that send climbing fibers to the same microzone tend to be coupled by gap junctions , which synchronize their activity , causing Purkinje cells within a microzone to show correlated complex spike activity on a millisecond time scale . Also , the Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone all send their axons to the same small cluster of output cells within the deep cerebellar nuclei . Finally , the axons of basket cells are much longer in the longitudinal direction than in the mediolateral direction , causing them to be confined largely to a single microzone . The consequence of all this structure is that cellular interactions within a microzone are much stronger than interactions between different microzones .
In 2005 , Richard Apps and Martin Garwicz summarized evidence that microzones themselves form part of a larger entity they call a multizonal microcomplex . Such a microcomplex includes several spatially separated cortical microzones , all of which project to the same group of deep cerebellar neurons , plus a group of coupled olivary neurons that project to all of the included microzones as well as to the deep nuclear area .
= = Function = =
The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from examining the consequences of damage to it . Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show , above all , problems with motor control , on the same side of the body as the damaged part of the cerebellum . They continue to be able to generate motor activity , but it loses precision , producing erratic , uncoordinated , or incorrectly timed movements . A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger for a target at arm 's length : A healthy person will move the fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory , whereas a person with cerebellar damage will reach slowly and erratically , with many mid @-@ course corrections . Deficits in non @-@ motor functions are more difficult to detect . Thus , the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is to calibrate the detailed form of a movement , not to initiate movements or to decide which movements to execute .
Prior to the 1990s the function of the cerebellum was almost universally believed to be purely motor @-@ related , but newer findings have brought that view into question . Functional imaging studies have shown cerebellar activation in relation to language , attention , and mental imagery ; correlation studies have shown interactions between the cerebellum and non @-@ motor areas of the cerebral cortex ; and a variety of non @-@ motor symptoms have been recognized in people with damage that appears to be confined to the cerebellum . In particular , the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome has been described in adults and children . Estimates based on functional mapping of the cerebellum using functional MRI suggest that more than half of the cerebellar cortex is interconnected with association zones of the cerebral cortex .
Kenji Doya has argued that the function of the cerebellum is best understood not in terms of what behaviors it is involved in , but rather in terms of what neural computations it performs ; the cerebellum consists of a large number of more or less independent modules , all with the same geometrically regular internal structure , and therefore all , it is presumed , performing the same computation . If the input and output connections of a module are with motor areas ( as many are ) , then the module will be involved in motor behavior ; but , if the connections are with areas involved in non @-@ motor cognition , the module will show other types of behavioral correlates . Thus the cerebellum has been implicated in the regulation of many differing functional traits such as affection , emotion and behavior . The cerebellum , Doya proposes , is best understood as predictive action selection based on " internal models " of the environment or a device for supervised learning , in contrast to the basal ganglia , which perform reinforcement learning , and the cerebral cortex , which performs unsupervised learning .
= = = Principles = = =
The comparative simplicity and regularity of the cerebellar anatomy led to an early hope that it might imply a similar simplicity of computational function , as expressed in one of the first books on cerebellar electrophysiology , The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine by John C. Eccles , Masao Ito , and János Szentágothai . Although a full understanding of cerebellar function has remained elusive , at least four principles have been identified as important : ( 1 ) feedforward processing , ( 2 ) divergence and convergence , ( 3 ) modularity , and ( 4 ) plasticity .
Feedforward processing : The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain ( especially the cerebral cortex ) in that the signal processing is almost entirely feedforward — that is , signals move unidirectionally through the system from input to output , with very little recurrent internal transmission . The small amount of recurrence that does exist consists of mutual inhibition ; there are no mutually excitatory circuits . This feedforward mode of operation means that the cerebellum , in contrast to the cerebral cortex , cannot generate self @-@ sustaining patterns of neural activity . Signals enter the circuit , are
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. 210 Euston Road . Its library holds about half a million books , including more than 6 @,@ 000 Sanskrit manuscripts and the largest collection of Hindi and Punjabi medical documents in Europe . Its objects were transferred on permanent loan to the Science Museum in 1976 . The University College London Hospital 's archives are at No 250 Euston Road .
The Midland Grand Hotel , fronting St Pancras station , was designed by George Gilbert Scott . It was built mainly with red bricks with a tower at one end and a spire at the other . It closed in 1935 and was repeatedly threatened with demolition until it was Grade I listed in 1967 . It was used as offices and a major restoration was undertaken in the early 1990s . The hotel reopened as the St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel in 2011 .
Camden Town Hall , formerly St Pancras Town Hall opened in 1937 . The Euston Theatre of Varieties was based at No. 37 – 43 . It was renamed the Regent Theatre in 1922 , and converted to a cinema in 1932 . It was demolished in 1950 so that the town hall could be extended .
The headquarters of the Religious Society of Friends , better known as the Quakers , is at the Friends House , No. 173 Euston Road . It was built between 1925 – 7 and holds the society 's library dating back to 1673 , including George Fox 's journal covering the foundation of Pennsylvania . Euston Road School was opened at No. 314 in 1934 by William Coldstream , Victor Pasmore and Claude Rogers to encourage artwork in an atmosphere different to traditional art schools . The school struggled and closed by the start of World War II . It was demolished in the early 1960s ; the cover shot of the Beatles ' Twist and Shout EP was taken on its remains after demoliion .
The British Library moved to No. 96 Euston Road in 1999 into a new complex designed by Colin St John Wilson and opened by Queen Elizabeth II . It was built using more than ten million bricks and covers a floor area of 112 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Although it was given a critical reception by architectural critics , visitors have enjoyed the welcoming entrance and praised its internal arrangements . It caters for around 16 @,@ 000 daily visitors .
= = Cultural references = =
In Oscar Wilde 's The Picture of Dorian Gray , the characters Sibyl and James Vane live at a " shabby lodgings " on Euston Road .
The street is referenced as a property in the United Kingdom edition of the board game Monopoly , which features famous London areas on its gameboard , it is a part of the pale blue set , including Pentonville Road and the only space named after a building , The Angel , Islington .
= French destroyer Léopard =
The French destroyer Léopard was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer built for the French Navy during the 1920s . She became a training ship in the mid @-@ 1930s before serving as a convoy escort during World War II before the Germans invaded France in May 1940 . After that time , she bombarded advancing German forces near the northern French coast and took part in the Dunkirk evacuation . After the surrender of France , she was seized by the British in July and turned over to the Free French .
Léopard escorted convoys in the Western Approaches in 1940 – 41 before beginning a year @-@ long conversion into an escort destroyer . She helped to sink a German submarine before liberating the island of La Réunion in late 1942 . She ran aground near Benghazi just a few weeks after being transferred to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ 1943 . Salvage attempts failed and her wreck was abandoned after it broke in half .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 12 May 1927 , Léopard reached 35 @.@ 59 knots ( 65 @.@ 91 km / h ; 40 @.@ 96 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Léopard , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire . She was laid down on 14 August 1923 at their shipyard at Saint @-@ Nazaire , launched on 29 September 1924 , commissioned on 15 June 1927 , completed on 13 October and entered service on 15 November . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Léopard was assigned to the 4th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the Second Squadron ( 2ème Escadre ) based at Brest upon completion , together with her sister ships Lynx and Jaguar . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 . The next year , the ship was present when the fleet was reviewed by the President of France , Albert Lebrun , in Cherbourg on 20 July 1933 . About a year later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . On 15 July 1935 , Léopard and her sister Chacal of the 8th DL were assigned to the Naval School ( Ecole Navale ) at Brest . On 12 April 1937 , the 8th DL was redesignated as the 2nd Large Destroyer Division ( 2ème division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) ; their sister Jaguar joined them in September .
= = = World War II = = =
By 7 September 1939 , Léopard was no longer a part of the 2nd DCT and was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In early 1940 , the ship had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed ; in addition two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability .
By 22 May Léopard was reassigned to the 2nd DCT when the unit was tasked to carry demolition teams to the northernmost French ports ; the ship arrived at Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer that evening . Together with Chacal and eight smaller destroyers , Léopard bombarded advancing German troops as they approached the defenses of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , firing the last shots of the battle at midday on 24 May . On 28 May , a special flotilla was constituted under the command of Admiral Marcel Landriau , with his flag on the aviso Savorgnan de Brazza , with these ships and a number of smaller units to support the ongoing evacuation of Dunkirk . On 3 June , the contre @-@ torpilleur rescued 19 British soldiers from a boat and delivered them to England .
In mid @-@ June , Léopard defended the approaches to Cherbourg and sailed to Portsmouth on 19 June , after the port surrendered to the Germans . The ship was still there when Operation Catapult , a British operation to capture or disable the ships of the French Navy lest the Germans seize them and use them against the British , began on 3 July . She was handed over to the Free French Naval Forces on 31 August . Command of Léopard was given to Lieutenant ( Lieutenant de vaisseau ) Jules Evenou , who went by the nom de guerre of " Jacques Richard " .
= = = = Service with the Free French = = = =
Léopard was commissioned by the Free French on 3 September although she was under repair until November as the British dockyards were very congested . During this time , the British took the opportunity to improve her anti @-@ aircraft suite . A QF 4 in ( 102 mm ) Mk V AA gun replaced the two 13 @.@ 2 mm machinegun mounts on the platform abaft the rear funnel , the 13 @.@ 2 mm guns on the forecastle were moved to positions abreast the fore funnel , and a pair of 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) Mk II " pom @-@ pom " light AA guns were added on platforms on the side of the forward superstructure . Upon the completion of this refit , she was assigned to convoy escort duties in the Western Approaches . On 24 February 1941 , Léopard rescued 39 survivors of a British cargo ship .
On 8 May 1941 , she began a lengthy conversion into an escort destroyer at Kingston upon Hull . Her forward boiler and its funnel were removed and replaced by additional oil storage and additional accommodation for her ratings . They reduced her maximum speed to 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) , but increased her fuel storage to 780 metric tons ( 770 long tons ; 860 short tons ) which raised her range to 4 @,@ 200 nmi ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) , and her crew to 234 ratings . Her troublesome depth charge chutes were sealed off and their machinery was removed ; her stern had to be rebuilt to accommodate two rails at the stern , each with a dozen 251 @-@ kilogram ( 553 lb ) Mk VIIH heavy depth charges , plus an additional four stored below decks . Her two existing depth charge throwers were replaced by four improved Thornycroft Mk IV throwers . The ship carried a total of twenty @-@ four 191 @-@ kilogram ( 421 lb ) Mk VII light depth charges for the throwers . To compensate for the weight of the additional depth charges , her aft torpedo tubes were removed . The 4 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a single 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA gun and two others replaced the " pom @-@ pom " s . These were moved to positions on the upper deck that had formerly been occupied by the 75 mm guns and another gun was added on top of the aft superstructure . A pair of quadruple mounts for Vickers 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) AA machineguns were added on the forward superstructure . A Type 291 search radar was also added .
While escorting Convoy OS33 on 11 July 1942 , the frigate HMS Spey spotted the German submarine U @-@ 136 on the surface and made multiple attacks after the U @-@ boat dived . Léopard joined her , as did the sloop HMS Pelican and they sank the submarine at coordinates 33 ° 28 ′ N 23 ° 28 ′ W. The next day Léopard collided with the sloop HMS Lowestoft and had her bow stove in by the British ship . She was repaired in South Africa in September – October .
= = = = = Liberation of La Réunion = = = = =
Léopard had been selected to convince the Vichy government of La Réunion to join the Free French in June , but the collision and her consequent repairs delayed her mission . On the night of 27 / 28 November , she arrived off the island with 80 troops aboard . They were landed successfully and seized control of Saint @-@ Denis , Réunion , the island 's capital , although the governor fled into the interior . A coast @-@ defense battery engaged the contre @-@ torpilleur and she fired back , with men killed on both sides . The Vichy hold @-@ outs surrendered on the 30th and Léopard remained in the Indian Ocean escorting convoys until March 1943 .
She was briefly refitted at Diégo @-@ Suarez , Madagascar from 13 March to mid @-@ April when she was transferred to the Mediterranean . Léopard arrived in Alexandria , Egypt , on 12 May and screened a convoy to Malta shortly afterwards . She departed on 24 May with a convoy returning to Alexandria and accidentally ran aground near Benghazi three days later after aerial attacks disrupted the convoy . The Allies attempted to refloat her , but they failed and the wreck broke in two on 19 June and was declared a total loss on 1 July .
= French minelaying cruiser Pluton =
Pluton was a fast minelaying cruiser built for the French Navy in the late 1920s . She was also able to carry 1 @,@ 000 troops on her mine deck as a fast troop transport . Shortly after completion she was modified and became a gunnery training ship , replacing the elderly armored cruiser Gueydon . Shortly before the beginning of World War II , she reverted to her original role and most of the gunnery training equipment was removed . She was sent to Casablanca , in French Morocco , when the war began to lay a minefield , but the order was cancelled a day later and she was ordered to disembark her naval mines . She exploded while landing her still @-@ fuzed mines on 13 September 1939 .
= = Design = =
The Marine Nationale decided to build a fast minelayer as part of its 1925 Naval Programme after the British HMS Adventure made her debut in the early 1920s . Pluton was similar in many respects , also being armed with four single destroyer @-@ caliber guns , but was smaller and faster . She could also be used as a fast transport for up to 1 @,@ 000 troops . The sides of the mine deck were normally open to the weather , but metal panels could be used to close it off when carrying troops .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Pluton was 152 @.@ 5 m ( 500 ft 4 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 15 @.@ 5 m ( 50 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 2 m ( 17 ft 1 in ) . Her longitudinally framed hull was subdivided by 15 transverse watertight bulkheads . Duralumin was extensively used in the superstructure to save weight , but this resulted in corrosion problems and strength issues . She was fitted with a single counterbalanced rudder powered by an electric motor that was too weak for the job . Her turning circle was 875 m ( 957 yd ) with 25 ° of rudder at 27 kn ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , larger than that of the 8 @,@ 000 t ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) light cruiser Duguay @-@ Trouin which was 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) longer . She was totally unarmored and relied upon her watertight subdivision for survival .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Pluton had a two @-@ shaft unit machinery layout with alternating boiler and engine rooms . Her Bréguet single @-@ reduction impulse geared steam turbines were designed for 57 @,@ 000 shp ( 43 @,@ 000 kW ) , but made 64 @,@ 705 shp ( 48 @,@ 251 kW ) on trials . Four small @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines at a pressure of 20 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 000 kPa ; 280 psi ) . An auxiliary boiler was fitted to heat or cool the ship 's magazines and provide drinking water . Each propeller shaft drove a three @-@ bladed 4 @.@ 08 m ( 13 ft 5 in ) bronze three @-@ bladed propeller for a designed speed of 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , but she achieved 31 @.@ 4 kn ( 58 @.@ 2 km / h ; 36 @.@ 1 mph ) on trials . 1 @,@ 150 t ( 1 @,@ 130 long tons ) of fuel oil was carried which was originally calculated to provide an endurance of 7 @,@ 770 nmi ( 14 @,@ 390 km ; 8 @,@ 940 mi ) at 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , but it was revised downwards to 4 @,@ 510 nmi ( 8 @,@ 350 km ; 5 @,@ 190 mi ) once she entered service because the demands of her auxiliary machinery had been seriously underestimated . Two 200 @-@ kilowatt turbo generators provided electricity at 235 volts . Two 100 @-@ kilowatt diesel generators were mounted in the aft engine room to provide power while in harbor and a third was installed in a special compartment on the first deck for emergency use .
= = = Armament = = =
Pluton was originally intended to carry two single turrets , one each fore and aft , with 203 mm ( 8 in ) guns , four 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and four light 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) AA guns . However four 138 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns were substituted for the 203 mm guns before construction began and six more 37 mm guns were added in lieu of the 75 mm guns during construction although the baseplates for the 75 mm guns were retained for future use .
The four 138 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns were on M1924 mounts with gun shields . Two guns each were fore and aft in superfiring positions on the centerline . Their elevation limits were -10 ° to + 35 ° and they had a 270 ° arc of fire . Their rate of fire was a nominal eight to nine rounds per minute , but proved to be considerably less in service . They had a maximum range of about 18 @,@ 200 m ( 19 @,@ 900 yd ) with a 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . 150 rounds were provided for each gun . One powder and one shell magazine served each pair of guns , each of which had their own individual hoist .
Ten 37 mm / 50 cal semi @-@ automatic AA guns were carried by Pluton . Two were fitted on the foredeck , six amidships between the funnels and two on a platform at the stern . 10 @,@ 000 rounds were carried with 144 rounds in ready @-@ use boxes near each gun . The guns could depress 15 ° and elevate to 80 ° . They fired 0 @.@ 725 kg ( 1 @.@ 60 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 810 m / s ( 2 @,@ 657 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was less than 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . All of these guns — except for the pair on the stern — were removed shortly after Pluton was commissioned in 1932 .
Twelve obsolete 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 315 in ) Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns were carried in six twin mounts . Two mounts were on top of the bridge , two atop the after boiler room ventilator housing and two just forward of the tripod mainmast . 48 @,@ 000 rounds were provided for them . They were removed shortly after Pluton was commissioned in 1932 .
Pluton was designed to carry 220 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) Sautter @-@ Harlé mines , but had space for 30 extra , for a total of 250 . They were carried on the first deck , or mine deck , using a system of four rails along the sides of the ship and moved via chain @-@ drives . Each pair of rails converged on a turntable at the forward end of the rails and a transverse spur connected the two turntables . The spur facilitated loading mines from one side of the ship and allowed mines to be moved to each of the rails . The rails ended in four ramps at the stern of the ship that sloped down at a 30 ° angle to minimize the shock of impact when the mines were released from the chain drive . Up to 270 of the smaller Bréguet B4 mines could be carried .
= = Service = =
She entered service with the French Mediterranean Fleet in 1932 . Pluton experienced many teething problems , particularly with the machinery . Shortly after she was commissioned the Navy decided to give her an extra role as a gunnery training ship and she entered Toulon Dockyard for the necessary modifications on 24 October 1932 . Quarters for 40 men were added on the mine deck . Most of the 37 @-@ mm AA guns and all of the 8 mm machine guns were replaced by four 50 @-@ caliber 75 mm Canon de 75 mm Mle 22 or 24 AA guns and 12 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Hotchkiss machine guns on six twin mounts , two mounts where the 37 mm guns had been mounted on the foredeck and four between the funnels . The 75 mm guns had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) at a rate of fire of 8 – 18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Hotchkiss guns had a cyclic rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 200 and 250 rounds per minute to allow for reloading its 30 @-@ round magazines . They had a theoretical ceiling of 4 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) . A simple fire @-@ control director was added for the 138 mm guns and 15 additional rangefinders were installed for use by the Rangefinding School .
Pluton spent much of 1933 – 1935 in dockyard hands after finishing her first round of modifications on 27 April 1933 . She was refitted four times during this period to add more gunnery equipment and to rectify some of her defects . These included reinforcement of her superstructure where it had been damaged by the muzzle blast from her 138 mm guns and replacement of her corroded aluminum ladders and booms with steel ones . A high @-@ angle fire @-@ control director for her 75 mm guns was added , two of her 75 mm gun were converted to powered , remotely controlled mounts , gun shields were added to the 75 mm guns to protect their crews from blast and facilities for another 40 men was installed on her mine deck .
In 1936 , an experimental twin 13 @.@ 2 mm gun mount with a gun shield was added between the starboard 75 @-@ mm guns and more rangefinders were added to bring her total up to 31 . Her boilers and condensers were repaired in a refit between 25 November 1936 and 13 March 1937 . Later that year Pluton had a major refit that involved repair of her turbines , replacement of her 138 mm fire @-@ control director by one of the type used by the 8 @,@ 000 t ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) light cruisers and the transfer of the foredeck 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns to positions on the forward superstrucut . Her last refit , from 15 November 1938 – 15 February 1939 , retubed two boilers , enclosed the AA director to protect it from the weather , improved the remote control of the 138 mm guns and added gun shields to each of the twin 13 @.@ 2 mm mounts .
Pluton was transferred to Lorient on 10 May 1939 when the French Navy formed the 5e Escadre there which controlled all training ships and planned to convert her into a full @-@ time training ship as consort to the training cruiser Jeanne d 'Arc on 1 June 1940 . She would have been renamed La Tour d 'Auvergne at that time , as the name Pluton was reserved for mine warfare ships in the French Navy .
As war approached , it was decided to retain her as a minelayer and most of the extra fire control equipment was removed . She was transferred to Brest as part of the reorganization of the 5e Escad
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manager Steve Kurtz , Aguilera expressed interest in recording a Spanish @-@ language album before she recorded her debut studio album Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) . Producer Rudy Pérez was approached during the recording sessions of Mi Reflejo and asked to produce a number of tracks . After agreeing , he produced many songs including the Jorge Luis Piloto written piece " Falsas Esperanzas " .
" Falsas Esperanzas " is an uptempo Latin song that incorporates elements from Tropical music . Instrumentation of the track comes from a horn done by Venezuelan @-@ American musician by Ed Calle and a few Tropical elements , including a " snazzy " piano performance by Cuban musician Paquito Hechavarría . " According to music critic Kembrew McLeod , the track features ' bouncy rhythms ' and ' splashes of horns ' . " Sun @-@ Sentinel editor Sean Picolli wrote that the song 's refrain contains a see @-@ saw effect with the lines " No me des ... No me digas ... " ( English : " Don 't give me ... Don 't tell me ... " ) . These lines hint toward lyrical themes pertaining to relationship troubles as well as defiance .
= = Release and reception = =
" Falsas Esperanzas " was released as the third single from Mi Reflejo on July 2 , 2001 in Spain and on July 3 , 2001 in the United States . A remix of the song was released in Germany on July 17 , 2001 . It peaked at number seven on the Dutch Tipparade chart and number fifteen in Spain . Patty Gettelman from Orlando Sentinel thought that the piece had more Latin influence than contemporary Latin hits such as Ricky Martin 's " La Vida Loca " or Lou Bega 's " A Little Bit of Mambo " . David Browne , writing for Entertainment Weekly felt that " Falsas Esperanzas " left Aguilera " room to growl like a " blues singer " . Sonic.net editor Kembrew McLeon lauded the song as one of Aguilera 's best uptempo songs that " breathe [ s ] life into the album " . Picolli praised the song as the album 's best track , noting : " a dizzy Vegas showstopper ... that scoots along on Aguilera 's high @-@ flying harmonies and a defiant chorus " . " Falsas Esperanzas " was later included on the Spanish edition of Aguilera 's greatest hits album Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ( 2008 ) . The song also served as the main theme for the Mexican telenovela Como en el cine .
= = Live performances = =
In December 2000 , she held a one @-@ hour special show on ABC and performed " Falsas Esperanzas " , it was later recorded in a video release entitled My Reflection . Aguilera also gave a performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards in February , performing " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " and " Falsas Esperanzas " Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine called Aguilera 's Grammy performance " remarkably mainstream " . During her 2003 Justified and Stripped Tour , her first co @-@ headlining tour with Justin Timberlake , she performed a medley of " Falsas Esperanzas " and " Contigo en la Distancia " . At the end of the performance , a male dancer ripped off the skirt she wore , revealing " tiny " denim shorts underneath . Later , she " saucily " replied , " Just because my album name is Stripped , doesn 't mean you can take my clothes off " . She also performed the medley during the tour 's extension , The Stripped Tour in late 2003 ; it was later included in the DVD release Stripped Live in the U.K ..
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= John L. Helm =
John LaRue Helm ( July 4 , 1802 – September 8 , 1867 ) was the 18th and 24th governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky , although his service in that office totaled less than fourteen months . He also represented Hardin County in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly and was chosen to be the Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives four times . In 1838 his sole bid for federal office ended in defeat when his opponent , Willis Green , was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives .
Helm was first elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1826 ; between 1826 and 1843 he served eleven one @-@ year terms in the state house . In 1844 he was elected to the state senate , where he served continuously until he was chosen as the Whig Party nominee for lieutenant governor on a ticket with John J. Crittenden , famous for the Crittenden Compromise . The Whigs won the general election and Helm was elevated to governor on July 31 , 1850 , when Crittenden resigned to accept an appointment as United States Attorney General in President Millard Fillmore 's cabinet . After his service as governor Helm became president of the struggling Louisville and Nashville Railroad . He invested thousands of dollars of his own money in the project and convinced residents along the line 's main route to buy stock in the company . In 1859 the line was completed , but the next year Helm resigned over of differences with the board of directors regarding a proposed branch that would extend the line to Memphis , Tennessee .
Although he openly opposed secession during the American Civil War , federal military forces labeled Helm a Confederate sympathizer . In September 1862 , he was arrested for this alleged sympathy , but Governor James F. Robinson recognized him as he was being transported to a prison in Louisville and had him released . After the war Helm identified with the Democratic Party , and in 1865 Hardin County voters returned him to the state senate . In 1867 he was the state 's Democratic candidate for governor . Despite his failing health , Helm made a vigorous canvass of the state and won the general election . He was too weak to travel to Frankfort for his inauguration , so state officials administered the oath of office at his home on September 3 , 1867 . He died five days later .
= = Early life = =
In 1780 Helm 's grandfather , Thomas Helm , emigrated to Kentucky from Prince William County , Virginia and founded the settlement of Helm Station near Elizabethtown , Kentucky in Hardin County , where John L. Helm was born on July 4 , 1802 . He was the eldest of nine children born to George B. Helm , a farmer and politician , and Rebecca LaRue Helm , a descendant of a prominent local pioneer family .
Helm attended the area 's public schools and studied with noted educator Duff Green . When Helm was 14 his father fell on hard financial times and Helm returned to work on the family farm . In 1818 he took a better @-@ paying job in the office of Samuel Haycraft , the circuit court clerk of Hardin County . While there he read law with Haycraft , then entered the law office of Ben Tobin in 1821 .
At about this time Helm 's father traveled to Texas to enter into business and rebuild his finances , but he died there in 1822 , leaving Helm responsible for his mother and siblings . He was admitted to the bar in 1823 , the same year Meade County , Kentucky was formed . There were no lawyers in the county yet , so although Helm continued living in Hardin County he was made Meade 's county attorney . His practice grew rapidly and he was soon able to pay off his father 's debts and purchase the Helm homestead . Between 1832 and 1840 he built " Helm Place " on this land and it remained his home for the rest of his life .
In 1823 Helm called on Representative Benjamin Hardin . While Hardin and Helm discussed business , Hardin 's 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Lucinda , entered the room to show her father a map she had drawn . Helm later claimed it was love at first sight , and began to pursue Lucinda 's affections . They courted for seven years , married in 1830 and had six daughters and five sons together . One of his sons , Benjamin Hardin Helm , was a Confederate general in the Civil War and was killed at the Battle of Chickamauga .
= = Political career = =
The major political issue in Kentucky during Helm 's legal training was the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . Reeling from the panic of 1819 , Kentuckians had demanded debt relief . In response , the Kentucky General Assembly passed an act that granted debtors a grace period of two years in repaying their debts unless their creditors would accept payment in the devalued notes of the Bank of the Commonwealth . The Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down the law , claiming it was in violation of the Contract Clause of the U.S. Constitution . The angered legislature attempted to impeach the justices on the Court of Appeals , but lacked the necessary two @-@ thirds majority . Instead , they abolished the Court of Appeals and replaced it with a new court , which was stocked with more sympathetic justices by pro @-@ relief governor John Adair . Both courts claimed to be Kentucky 's court of last resort .
Throughout 1825 Helm made speeches and distributed pamphlets in Hardin and surrounding counties , espousing the Old Court position . In 1826 he campaigned as a Whig for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . Helm won the election , and at the age of twenty @-@ four became one of the youngest members to serve in the Kentucky General Assembly . An Old Court majority was elected to both houses of the General Assembly in 1826 , which then passed legislation abolishing the New Court .
Helm was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1827 and 1830 , and was re @-@ elected every year from 1833 to 1837 . He served as Speaker of the House in 1835 and 1836 . In 1837 there was a three @-@ way race for speaker between Helm , James Turner Morehead and Robert P. Letcher . After nine ballots Helm withdrew , and Letcher was elected speaker .
Helm made his only run for federal office in 1838 and was defeated by Willis Green for a seat in the United States House of Representatives . He returned to the Kentucky House in 1839 and was re @-@ elected in 1842 and 1843 , serving as Speaker of the House both years . In 1843 , the Kentucky General Assembly proposed to create a new county from part of Hardin County and name it Helm County in honor of John L. Helm . Because of the few dissenting votes on this question , Helm declined the honor and proposed instead that the county be called LaRue County after his mother 's family , many of whom still lived in the proposed county . Helm 's suggestion was unanimously adopted .
= = = Lieutenant governor and governor = = =
In 1844 Helm was elected to the Kentucky Senate , where he served until 1848 . That year he was the Whig candidate for lieutenant governor on a ticket with John J. Crittenden . Helm defeated Democrat John Preston Martin in the general election . The major political question in the state during Helm 's time as lieutenant governor was whether to adopt a new state constitution . As a state senator in 1848 , Helm had voted to allow the state 's citizens to decide the matter in a referendum , but after seeing the document produced by the constitutional convention , he opposed its ratification . In an address to the state senate in 1850 he declared , " I was for reform , and not for revolution . I was for amending the Constitution , and not for obliterating every vital principle in contained . " He especially opposed creating an elective judiciary . His antagonism to the constitution put him at odds with his father @-@ in @-@ law , Benjamin Hardin . The two did not reconcile until 1852 , as Hardin lay on his deathbed . The new constitution was adopted in 1850 , and in June of that year Helm encouraged the people to accept it .
Governor Crittenden resigned on July 31 , 1850 to accept President Millard Fillmore 's appointment as attorney general , and Helm ascended to the governorship . As governor , Helm vetoed a legislative plan to cover deficits in the public school fund by drawing money from the state 's sinking fund , but the General Assembly overrode the veto . He urged the legislature to fund a survey of the state 's mineral reserves and a census of the state 's agricultural and manufacturing resources . He called for spending on internal improvements and for raising judges ' salaries to attract more qualified jurists to the bench . He also sought a ban on the carrying of concealed deadly weapons . The legislature did not act on any of these proposed reforms . The only part of Helm 's agenda that did progress through the General Assembly was election reform .
= = President of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad = =
Helm was a presidential elector for Winfield Scott in the 1852 presidential election . After this he took twelve years off from politics . As early as 1836 , Helm had advocated the construction of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . On October 2 , 1854 , he became the railroad 's second president . The previous president had been forced out of that position after a disagreement with Louisville 's board of aldermen , and construction of the line had almost been abandoned .
Helm worked diligently to convince residents along the line 's main route of the economic benefits it would bring . He persuaded many of them to help clear and grade land for the line and accept company stock as payment , and succeeded in selling stock subscriptions to people in the same area . Rising labor costs and troubles transporting materials raised expenses far above the projected budget , and at one point Helm personally redeemed $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 530 thousand as of 2016 ) of the company 's bonds . Meanwhile , some observers accused Helm of mismanaging the company . The company 's fortunes improved in 1857 when the city of Louisville provided $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 @.@ 62 million as of 2016 ) in financial aid and the line was completed on October 18 , 1859 . Due to Helm 's influence , the railroad 's charter required all trains traveling through Elizabethtown to stop there .
By the time the line was finished there were public calls from inside and outside the company for Helm to resign , mostly because of his support for a proposed Memphis branch of the railroad . To complete the branch , the Louisville and Nashville would have to complete a line from Bowling Green to Guthrie , Kentucky . There it would join a line owned by the Memphis and Ohio Railroad that began across the state line at Clarksville , Tennessee and extended to Memphis . Supporters believed the branch would economically help both Louisville and Memphis and would lessen their dependence on trade along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers . Opponents argued that the project was simply a ploy to whip up new support for the struggling railroad . Helm endorsed the Memphis branch in his annual report in 1857 .
On February 4 , 1860 , two members of the company 's board of directors wrote a letter requesting Helm 's resignation ; they claimed they had voted for his re @-@ election as president of the company with the understanding that he would resign when the main line between Louisville and Nashville was finished . Helm maintained that he felt an obligation to the citizens of Logan County – many of whom he had personally sold stock to – to remain president until the Memphis branch through their county was built . The rift between Helm and the directors continued to widen , however . Helm resigned on February 21 , 1860 , and was replaced by James Guthrie . The Memphis branch was completed on September 24 , 1860 .
= = Civil War and second term as governor = =
On January 8 , 1861 Helm chaired a meeting in Louisville that advocated for Kentucky 's neutrality in the Civil War . Helm was an outspoken opponent of secession , but also denounced the election of Abraham Lincoln and his use of military force to subdue the southern states . Because Helm did not condemn his son , Benjamin , for joining the Confederate Army , federal authorities classified him as a southern sympathizer .
After learning of the arrest of former governor Charles S. Morehead by federal authorities , Helm fled to Bowling Green , fearing his own arrest . Through the intervention of Warner Underwood he was able to return home on the condition that he swear an oath of allegiance to the Constitution . Nevertheless , federal soldiers repeatedly entered his home , encouraging his slaves to abandon him , and consuming or destroying his crops . Because the state 's courts were closed on account of the war , he was unable to earn a living by practicing law . In short order his once @-@ substantial fortune was expended , and he resorted to borrowing money to support his family .
In September 1862 Helm and several other citizens from Hardin County were arrested by Colonel Knox . After several days of confinement in Elizabethtown the prisoners were conducted to Louisville . By chance , Kentucky governor James F. Robinson recognized Helm in the group and negotiated with General Jeremiah Boyle to get him released . Shortly after returning home Helm learned of Benjamin 's death at the Battle of Chickamauga .
After the war Helm identified with the Democratic Party , and he returned to the state senate in 1865 . During his tenure he chaired the Committee on Federal Relations and fought against punitive and restrictive laws against ex @-@ Confederates . On January 22 , 1866 he presented to the state senate a protest against the actions of the United States Congress during the Civil War . It denounced the Reconstruction Amendments on the grounds that they granted powers to the federal government that were reserved for the states , and that they were passed while many southern states were not represented in Congress . He also decried the creation and operation of the Freedmen 's Bureau . On January 29 , 1867 , Helm introduced legislation to organize a meeting in Louisville to rally support for President Andrew Johnson and his efforts to restore the Union .
The state Democratic Convention met on February 22 , 1867 in Frankfort and chose Helm and John W. Stevenson as the party 's candidates for governor and lieutenant governor , respectively . Helm resigned his seat in the state senate to accept the nomination . Though his health was frail , he determined to canvass the entire state . He continued his call for an end to Civil War bitterness and proscriptions against those who had sided with the Confederacy . He won the general election over Republican Sidney Barnes and a third party candidate , Judge William B. Kinkead .
The strenuous campaign took a decisive toll on Helm 's already weakened body . He was too weak to travel to Frankfort for his inauguration , so the oath of office was administered at his home on September 3 , 1867 . Helm 's secretary of state read the governor 's inaugural address at the Hardin County Courthouse . In it Helm repeated his intent to remove political disabilities from ex @-@ Confederates . He also charged that Congress was meddling in the affairs of the states . Though he promised protections for blacks , he opposed the idea of black suffrage .
Helm died on September 8 , 1867 , just five days after his inauguration . He was buried in a family graveyard at Helm Place . Helm Place was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 9 , 1976 .
= Tufted tit @-@ tyrant =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant ( Anairetes parulus ) is a species of bird in the tyrant flycatcher family Tyrannidae . This species is found in western South America ; its range stretches from southern Colombia south along the Andes mountains to Tierra del Fuego . It prefers to live in upper montane forests and shrublands ; however , it is a habitat generalist and can be found across a wide range of ecosystems . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has three subspecies , including the nominate subspecies Anairetes parulus parulus , A. p. aequatorialis , and A. p. patagonicus , and is very closely related to the Juan Fernández tit @-@ tyrant . It is very small with a distinctive and conspicuous crest . The bird 's head is black overall with white supraloral and postocular stripes . Its dull grayish @-@ brown back contrasts with its white throat and breast that are covered with black streaks and pale , unmarked yellow underbelly . There are few noticeable differences in plumage between the subspecies . It is a vocal flycatcher with a broad repertoire of songs .
This tit @-@ tyrant defends its territory only against other tit @-@ tyrants and , except for the southernmost population , is non @-@ migratory . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant feeds mainly on a variety of insects that it hunts on or from small shrubs , typically by perch gleaning . It normally hunts in pairs . The breeding season varies for this bird depending on its geographical location . Two to three eggs are normally laid twice a year in a cup @-@ shaped nest made of root fibers , grasses , and lichens and lined with small feathers . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is listed as a species of least concern due to its large range and population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant 's genus , Anairetes , is in the tyrant flycatcher family Tyrannidae and is believed to be most closely related to the tyrannulet genera Mecocerculus and Serpophaga ; however , there is no definitive evidence supporting this claim . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant was described as Muscicapa parulus by Heinrich von Kittlitz in 1830 from a specimen collected near Valparaíso , Chile . It was later moved from the genus Muscicapa , which today solely contains Old World flycatchers , to Anairetes ; however , this genus was too similar to the pre @-@ existing genus Anaeretes , so Harry Church Oberholser erected the genus Spitzitornis for it and the other tit @-@ tyrants . However , Spitzitornis was eventually abolished and the tit @-@ tyrants were returned to Anairetes . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is believed to form a superspecies with the Juan Fernández tit @-@ tyrant . Members of the genus Anairetes are commonly known as tit @-@ tyrants because their active foraging behavior and crests are reminiscent of the true tits in the family Paridae , while the genus itself is part of the tyrant flycatcher family . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is known in Spanish as the Cachudito , which means " little longhorn " in reference to the bird 's crest .
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has three described subspecies . Anairetes parulus aequatorialis is the northernmost subspecies and is found in the Andes from southern Colombia to western Bolivia and northern Argentina . It was described by Hans von Berlepsch and Władysław Taczanowski in 1884 . The nominate subspecies , A. p. parulus , is found in western Chile and in southwest Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego and was described by Kittlitz in 1830 . The third subspecies , A. p. patagonicus , is found in western Argentina and was described by Austrian ornithologist Carl Eduard Hellmayr in 1920 .
= = Description = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is a small bird , averaging 9 @.@ 5 to 11 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) in length and weighing about 6 grams ( 0 @.@ 21 oz ) . Its long , recurved crest is typically conspicuous and is often parted , giving the impression that the bird has two crests . The crest 's feathers are black and emerge from the center of the bird 's black crown , although occasionally there is a small patch of white hidden by the crest . The head is black overall with a white supraloral and postocular stripe . The bird 's iris is creamy white to pale yellow and the bill is black . This tit @-@ tyrant 's back is a dull , grayish brown , and the wings and tail are a duskier shade of this color . The wings also feature two narrow white wingbars , while the outer tail feathers are white . The throat and breast are white and covered in dark gray to black streaks , which thin out further down the breast and along the sides . The belly is a pale yellow which fades as the plumage becomes more worn , while the bird 's legs are black . Males and females are similar in appearance , although females are typically smaller and may have smaller crests . Juvenile tufted tit @-@ tyrants are duller in coloration and have a shorter crest ; the juvenile 's wingbars are also buffy and there is no hidden white spot on the crown .
There are few variations in plumage between the three subspecies . Anairetes parulus aequatorialis tends to be browner than the nominate subspecies in its upperparts , with broader and more extensive breast streaks and broader and more distinct white wingbars . A. p. patagonicus has more variation from the nominate subspecies as it is paler gray overall , particularly on the crown , and the wingbars and breast streaks are broader and more distinct . A. p. patagonicus 's underbelly is also a paler yellow to white .
This flycatcher has a loud , high @-@ pitched song . It is also known to give a fast chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chidi @-@ didi song , and occasionally single notes of chuit are made in a slow series of calls . When foraging in pairs , tufted tit @-@ tyrants have been observed using a perr @-@ reet call to stay in contact with each other . The species ' contact call has been described as a pluit @-@ pluit . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is also known to give a long , weak trill .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has been recorded in Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Chile . It is mostly restricted to the Andes mountains throughout the northern portions of its range , while in the south its range broadens to include the coast . It has also been recorded as a vagrant in the Falkland Islands . It is the most abundant and widely distributed of the tit @-@ tyrant species .
Its preferred habitat is upper montane forests and shrublands . Despite this preference , it is a habitat generalist and is also found in elfin forest , the edges of cloud forests , Polylepis woodland , brushy forests with Chusquea bamboo , disturbed humid scrub , temperate forests , and dry thorn scrub . It seems to move back into fire @-@ stricken areas at a normal rate for páramo birds , neither colonizing recently burned areas nor waiting for the area to completely recover . This tit @-@ tyrant is most frequently found between 1 @,@ 8
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the ANU in 1946 , Garran became its first graduate when he was awarded an honorary doctorate of laws . He had already been awarded such an honorary doctorate from the University of Melbourne in 1937 and later receiving one from his alma mater , the University of Sydney in 1952 . Garran served on ANU 's council from 1946 until 1951 . Garran 's influence on Canberra is remembered by the naming of the suburb of Garran , Australian Capital Territory , and his link with ANU is remembered by the naming of a chair in the university 's School of Law , by the naming of the hall of residence Burton & Garran Hall and by the naming of Garran house at Canberra Grammar School for his work with that school .
Garran died in 1957 in Canberra . He was granted a state funeral , the first given to a public servant of the Government of Australia . He was survived by his four sons ; his wife Hilda had died in 1936 . His memoirs , Prosper the Commonwealth , were published posthumously in 1958 , having been completed shortly before his death .
= = Legacy = =
Garran 's " personality , like his prose , was devoid of pedantry and pomposity and , though dignified , was laced with a quizzical turn of humour . " His death " marked the end of a generation of public men for whom the cultural and the political were natural extensions of each other and who had the skills and talents to make such connections effortlessly . " At his death , Garran was one of the last remaining of the people involved with the creation of the Constitution of Australia .
Former Prime Minister John Howard , in describing Garran , said :
" I wonder though if we sometimes underestimate the changes , excitements , disruptions and adjustments previous generations have experienced . Sir Robert Garran knew the promise and reality of federation . He was part of the establishment of a public service which , in many ways , is clearly recognisable today . "
Garran 's friend Charles Daley , a long time civic administrator of the Australian Capital Territory , emphasised Garran 's contribution to the early development of the city of Canberra , particularly its cultural life , remarking at a celebratory dinner for Garran in 1954 that :
" There has hardly been a cultural movement in this city with which Sir Robert has not been identified in loyal and inspiring support , as his constant aim has been that Canberra should be not only a great political centre but also a shrine to foster those things that stimulate and enrich our national life ... his name will ever be inscribed in the annals , not only of Canberra , but of the Commonwealth as clarum et venerabile nomen gentibus .
However Garran is perhaps best remembered as an expert on constitutional law , more so than for his other contributions to public service . On his experience of Federation and the Constitution , Garran was always enthusiastic :
" I 'm often asked ' has federation turned out as you expected ? ' Well yes and no . By and large the sort of thing we expected has happened but with differences . We knew the constitution was not perfect ; it had to be a compromise with all the faults of a compromise ... But , in spite of the unforeseen [ sic ] strains and stresses , the constitution has worked , on the whole , much as we thought it would . I think it now needs revision , to meet the needs of a changed world . But no @-@ one could wish the work undone , who tries to imagine , what , in these stormy days , would have been the plight of six disunited Australian colonies . "
= = = Memorials = = =
The Canberra suburb of Garran , established in 1966 , was named after him .
In 1983 , the former Patent Office building - now occupied by the Federal Attorney General 's Department - was renamed Robert Garran Offices . The art deco building is within the Parliamentary Triangle of Canberra , and was constructed in 1932 at the corner of Kings Avenue and National Circuit , in Parkes , Australian Capital Territory .
= Tropical Storm Cyprien =
Severe Tropical Storm Cyprien ( JTWC designation : 08S ) was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that caused minor damage in Madagascar . Forming on December 30 , 2001 , Cyprien quickly strengthened in a slightly favorable environment . By January 2 , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) according to Météo @-@ France and 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Later that day the storm made landfall in Morombe , at a weaker intensity , and dissipated early on January 3 . Throughout the affected areas , Cyprien destroyed 957 structures , leaving 1 @.@ 16 billion Malagasy franc ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 181 @,@ 000 ) in damages . No fatalities were reported ; however two people were listed as missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
On December 26 , a cold front exited Mozambique in southeastern Africa into the Mozambique channel . Upon reaching open waters , the front developed an area of convection and later a circulation just inland from the coast on December 27 . The front dissipated but the circulation remained as a distinct low pressure area . Although there was high wind shear in the area , good divergence allowed for convection to continue developing . On December 30 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , designated the system as a tropical disturbance . Over the next two days , convection became increasingly organized , with banding features developing by December 31 . That day , MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , and around 0900 UTC , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Decreasing wind shear and moderate outflow would allow the system to intensify into a tropical storm .
On January 1 , 2002 , the JTWC classified the depression as a tropical storm , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 08S . The system rapidly organized shortly after and was further upgraded to a moderate tropical storm by Météo @-@ France at 0600 UTC , at which time the Meteorological Service of Madagascar gave it the name Cyprien . In response to a mid to upper @-@ level subtropical high pressure area , the storm tracked in a general eastward direction at 16 km / h ( 10 mph ) . Several hours after being named , the JTWC assessed Cyprien to have reached its peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . QuickSCAT satellite passes indicated areas of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds early on January 2 , prompting Météo @-@ France to upgrade Cyprien to a severe tropical storm , with winds peaking at 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) . By this time , the central barometric pressure fell to 980 hPa ( mbar ) .
Later on January 2 , the combination of the subtropical ridge to the north , an approaching mid @-@ latitude trough and moderate to strong westerlies caused Severe Tropical Storm Cyprien to turn towards the southwest . Slight weakening took place shortly before the storm made landfall in Morombe ; maximum winds decreased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h 10 @-@ minute winds ) . Increased wind shear and interaction with land caused the deep convection to become substantially displaced to the east from the center of circulation . Early on January 3 , Cyprien was downgraded to a tropical depression by both agencies ; however , some areas were still reporting gale @-@ force winds . It turned to the northeast over land , dissipating late on January 3 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
The precursor to Cyprien dropped heavy rainfall in Mozambique , including 92 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in Beira .
Due to the low @-@ intensity of the storm , damages in southwestern Madagascar were moderate . Cyprien produced wind gusts as strong as 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Heavy rains also fell throughout the region , peaking at 232 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) . The hardest hit area was the city of Morombe ; a total of 900 people in the city were affected by the storm and two people were reportedly missing . Following an assessment of the storm 's impact , 180 homes and 16 administrative buildings were found to have been destroyed by Cyprien . Damages in the area amounted to 1 @.@ 1 billion Malagasy franc ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 172 @,@ 507 ) . North of Morombe , the city of Morondava also sustained significant damage ; roughly 1 @,@ 000 people were affected and 661 homes were destroyed . Numerous homes were inundated by floodwaters . Officials reported that floodwaters persisted until January 9 . Damages in the city amounted to 60 million MGF ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 9 @,@ 287 ) . In all , damages from the storm amounted to 1 @.@ 16 billion MGF ( 2002 MGF ; ~ US $ 181 @,@ 000 ) .
Following Cyprien , the Government of Madagascar did not request international assistance in post @-@ storm recovery . By January 10 , a cargo plane carrying 65 million MGF ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 10 @,@ 062 ) worth of relief supplies was deployed to the affected regions . The supplies , consisting of medical supplies , tents , and one tonne of rice , were given to local authorities to be distributed to the affected population . Sanitary items were also distributed by the government to avoid an outbreak of water @-@ borne diseases such as diarrhea and cholera .
= HMS Warrior ( 1905 ) =
HMS Warrior was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . Warrior was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and remained there for the rest of her career . She was heavily damaged during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , after which she withdrew and was later abandoned and sank in a rising sea .
= = Description = =
Warrior displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk II or Mk V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in casemates of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms . The ship also mounted three submerged 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes , one of which was mounted in the stern .
= = Service = =
Warrior was ordered as part of the 1903 – 04 naval construction programme as the first of four armoured cruisers . She was laid down on 5 November 1903 at Pembroke Dockyard , launched on 25 November 1905 and completed on 12 December 1906 . On completion , Warrior was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Squadron in the Channel Fleet until 1909 , when she was transferred to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron . In 1913 the ship was transferred to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . She was involved in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau at the outbreak of World War I , but was ordered not to engage them . Warrior participated in the Allied sweep which led to the sinking of the Austro @-@ Hungarian light cruiser SMS Zenta during the Battle of Antivari in August 1914 . A few days later she was ordered to Suez to defend the Suez Canal against any Turkish attack and remained there until 6 November when she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ship to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast . This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel .
Warrior joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot . At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was in front of the Grand Fleet , on the right side . At 5 : 47 p.m. , the squadron flagship , HMS Defence , and Warrior spotted the German II Scouting Group and opened fire . Their shells felt short and the two ships turned to port in pursuit , cutting in front of the battlecruiser HMS Lion , which was forced to turn away to avoid a collision . Shortly afterwards they spotted the disabled German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden and closed to engage . When the two ships reached a range of 5 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 000 m ) from Wiesbaden they were spotted in turn at 6 : 05 by the German battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger and four battleships who were less than 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) away . The fire from the German ships was heavy and Defence blew up at 6 : 20 . Warrior was hit by at least fifteen 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) and six 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) shells , but was saved when the German ships switched their fire to the battleship HMS Warspite when its steering jammed and caused Warspite to make two complete circles within sight of much of the High Seas Fleet .
Warrior was heavily damaged by the German shells , which caused large fires and heavy flooding , although her engines continued running for long enough to allow her to withdraw to the west . She was taken in tow by the seaplane tender HMS Engadine who took off her surviving crew of 743 . She was abandoned in a rising sea at 8 : 25 a.m. on 1 June when her upper deck was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the water , and subsequently foundered .
= HMS Black Prince ( 1861 ) =
HMS Black Prince was the third ship of that name to serve with the Royal Navy . She was the world 's second ocean @-@ going , iron @-@ hulled , armoured warship , following her sister ship , HMS Warrior . For a brief period the two Warrior @-@ class ironclads were the most powerful warships in the world , being virtually impregnable to the naval guns of the time . Rapid advances in naval technology left Black Prince and her sister obsolete within a short time , however , and she spent more time in reserve and training roles than in first @-@ line service .
Black Prince spent her active career with the Channel Fleet and was hulked in 1896 , becoming a harbour training ship in Queenstown , Ireland . She was renamed Emerald in 1903 and then Impregnable III in 1910 when she was assigned to the training establishment in Plymouth . The ship was sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Black Prince was 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars and 420 feet ( 128 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 58 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . The ship displaced 9 @,@ 137 long tons ( 9 @,@ 284 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 20 psi ( 138 kPa ; 1 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 5 @,@ 772 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 304 kW ) during Black Prince 's sea trials in September 1862 and the ship had a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 6 knots ( 25 @.@ 2 km / h ; 15 @.@ 7 mph ) under steam alone . The ship carried 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
The ironclads were ship rigged and had a sail area of 48 @,@ 400 square feet ( 4 @,@ 497 m2 ) . Black Prince could only do 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) under sail , 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower than her sister Warrior .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Warrior @-@ class ships was intended to be 40 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 19 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to ten rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , twenty @-@ six 68 @-@ pounders , and four rifled breech @-@ loading 40 @-@ pounder guns .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The shell of the 40 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading gun was 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in diameter and weighed 40 pounds ( 18 @.@ 1 kg ) . The gun had a maximum range of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) . In 1863 – 64 the 40 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by a heavier version with the same ballistics . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Black Prince was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with twenty @-@ four 7 @-@ inch and four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship also received four 20 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns for use as saluting guns . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The sides of Black Prince were protected by an armour belt of wrought iron , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered the middle 213 feet ( 64 @.@ 9 m ) of the ship . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable . The armour extended 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below it . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of teak .
= = Construction and service = =
Black Prince was ordered on 6 October 1859 from Robert Napier & Sons in Govan , Glasgow for the price of £ 377 @,@ 954 . The ship was laid down on 12 October 1859 and launched 27 February 1861 . Her completion was delayed by a drydock accident at Greenock while fitting out , which damaged her masts . She steamed to Spithead in November 1861 with only jury @-@ rigged fore and mizzenmasts . The ship was commissioned in June 1862 , but was not completed until 12 September 1862 . Black Prince was assigned to the Channel Fleet until 1866 , then spent a year as flagship on the Irish coast . Overhauled and rearmed in 1867 – 68 , she became guardship on the River Clyde . The routine of that duty was interrupted in 1869 when she and Warrior towed a large floating drydock from Madeira to Bermuda .
Black Prince was again refitted in 1874 – 75 , gaining a poop deck , and rejoined the Channel Fleet as flagship of Rear Admiral Sir John Dalrymple @-@ Hay , second @-@ in @-@ command of the fleet . In 1878 Captain H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh took command and the ship crossed the Atlantic to participate in the installation of a new Governor General of Canada . Upon her return Black Prince was placed in reserve at Devonport , and , reclassified as an armoured cruiser , she was reactivated periodically to take part in annual fleet exercises . Black Prince was hulked in 1896 as a harbour training ship , stationed at Queenstown , and was renamed Emerald in 1903 . In 1910 the ship was moved to Plymouth and renamed Impregnable III when she was assigned to the training school HMS Impregnable before she was sold for scrap on 21 February 1923 .
= Phil H. Bucklew =
Phil Hinkle Bucklew ( December 18 , 1914 – December 30 , 1992 ) was a professional American football player who went on to become a United States Navy officer . He served in one of the Navy 's first special warfare units during World War II . While serving in the European Theater , he was twice awarded the Navy Cross , the second highest decoration in the United States Military .
After World War II , Bucklew completed his PhD at Columbia University and went on to command SEAL Team One . In the early stages of the Vietnam War he authored a report in which he predicted the Vietcong would make use of the intercoastal waterways and rivers as routes for supplies and personnel . Although it was initially dismissed , this report was later used as a source to increase the use of Navy SEALs in direct action missions . In 1969 Bucklew retired as a Captain and worked as a consultant for a shipbuilding company in the private sector .
Bucklew died in 1992 after a series of strokes . He is known as the " Father of Naval Special Warfare " and the Phil Bucklew Naval Special Warfare Center in Coronado , California bears his name .
= = Early life = =
Bucklew was born and raised in Columbus , Ohio where he attended Columbus North High School . He went on to attend Xavier University in Cincinnati , where he earned fame as a football player ( fullback , punter , and tight end ) . After college , Bucklew played for the Cleveland Rams in 1937 and 1938 . In 1939 , Bucklew left the Rams and founded the Columbus Bullies ; he was their coach for two years , until the United States entered World War II in 1941 .
= = Naval career = =
= = = World War II = = =
Bucklew volunteered for military service in the Naval Reserve on December 8 , 1941 , the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . He reported to Norfolk , Virginia for his training and commission as an Ensign . He soon joined the Navy Scouts and Raiders , an elite force of combat swimmers who scouted beaches for amphibious landings . As an Ensign , he served with the Scouts and Raiders in Operation Torch ( the invasion of North Africa ) in November 1942 . In July 1943 , he commanded a " Scout Boat " during the landings on Sicily ( Operation Husky ) and was awarded his first Navy Cross . Bucklew participated in the landings at Salerno , Italy ( Operation Avalanche ) , where he was awarded the Silver Star .
Bucklew and his unit were transferred to England to support the imminent invasion of Normandy . In January 1944 , Bucklew and another S & R officer , Grant Andreasen , swam ashore at night to collect sand samples from the target beach , which would be later referred to as Omaha Beach . The mission planners needed to know whether the sand would support heavy vehicles . On another occasion , Bucklew and Andreasen were brought within 300 yards of the beach by a kayak paddled by a British Commando . They swam the rest of the way and hid in the water to watch and time sentry patrols , before going ashore to collect more sand samples and other useful intelligence .
On D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1944 , Bucklew commanded a scout boat , assigned to lead the first wave of tank @-@ carrying landing craft to Omaha Beach . The landing craft were accompanied by DD tanks . While he was still out at sea , Bucklew saw that the sea conditions were too dangerous for launching the DD tanks . Unfortunately , his radio report was ignored and most of the DD tanks foundered . Bucklew was awarded a second Navy Cross while leading the first wave of tank @-@ carrying landing craft to the beach in his scout boat . On that occasion he had to combat both heavy surf and enemy fire . He remained on station as a guide boat all day , directing assault waves and giving supporting fire against German positions . He rescued many soldiers , whose landing craft were destroyed , from drowning . Bucklew laid down in the bow of his boat and pulled the drowning men from the water using the strength of his arms .
Bucklew 's final assignment during World War II took him to China , where he scouted the Chinese coast and later moved inland to help train and equip Chinese guerrillas to fight the Japanese . Bucklew moved from one partisan group to another , gathering intelligence on the Japanese along the way . Due to his large size and inability to speak Chinese , the partisans disguised him as a deaf mute . The Japanese learned of this " American Spy " and labeled him " Big Stoop " . When his mission was complete he was debriefed in Calcutta , India .
Three of his closest friends in the Scouts also had athletic backgrounds : John Tripson , formerly a Detroit Lions all @-@ pro tackle , Robert Halperin , who had played quarterback for Knute Rockne 's Notre Dame football team and in the NFL , and Jerry Donnell , a football player who was killed in action at the Battle of Anzio .
= = = Post World War II = = =
In 1946 , Bucklew married his fiancée , Helen Nagel , and left active duty for two years to complete his Ph.D. in Education at Columbia University . At Columbia , Bucklew worked as a Navy ROTC instructor and coached the football team . He returned to active duty in 1948 before completing his Ph.D , serving at various bases in the United States , Korea , and Vietnam . In June 1951 , LCDR Bucklew was assigned as commanding officer of Beach Jumper Unit 2 , at the Naval Amphibious Base , Little Creek , Virginia and served in that capacity until late 1955 . In 1952 the U.S. Navy turned its PT boats over to the South Korean Navy . These boats flew under the Korean flag but were manned by American sailors under the command of Bucklew . In 1955 , then @-@ Lieutenant Commander Bucklew was assigned to a Naval Advisory Group in Korea , operating from a base off Inchon . This group , with the help of the CIA , conducted infiltration , harassment , and psychological operations against North Korea .
In 1962 , after 20 years of service , Bucklew was facing mandatory retirement due to staff reductions within the Navy . However , with the creation of the SEAL Teams under President John F. Kennedy , Bucklew was selected to command Naval Special Warfare Group One , which consisted of SEAL Team 1 , Underwater Demolition Teams 11 and 12 , and BSU @-@ 1 ( Boat Support Unit ) . Ironically , Bucklew never qualified at BUD / S himself .
= = = Vietnam = = =
In early 1964 , before American forces became actively engaged in South Vietnam , Captain Bucklew , at the behest of CINCPAC Admiral Harry D. Felt , took part in an exploratory mission to determine what could be done to counter waterborne infiltration of South Vietnam . Bucklew and his staff traveled the Mekong Delta , interviewing dozens of Vietnamese military personnel and their American advisors . At the Cambodian border , Bucklew witnessed the Vietcong openly moving supplies by sampan inside Cambodia , despite its neutrality . In his report to CINCPAC , Bucklew described the totality of the Communist infiltration effort , criticized the South Vietnamese response as inefficient and inadequate , and suggested that halting the Vietcong would require a coastal blockade augmented by extensive patrolling of the internal rivers along the Cambodian frontier , in addition to the Mekong and Bassac . The " Bucklew Report " further recommended that the Navy establish " a viable means of controlling the rivers by implementing barricades , curfews , checkpoints , and patrols . "
The Navy initially disregarded Bucklew 's conclusion , placing emphasis on seaborne infiltration of South Vietnam by the North Vietnamese and the Vietcong . After the Navy launched Operation Market Time , it refused to consider the implications of the Bucklew report . Ironically the effectiveness of Market Time caused the North Vietnamese and Vietcong to do what Bucklew predicted in greater force : make use of the rivers along the Cambodian frontier to move logistics into a region where countermeasures were nonexistent . Hence , the Vietcong was able to conclude the build @-@ up
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@-@ INSTR stab @-@ 3p / 3p
kaffimik tor @-@ tar @-@ poq " She usually drinks coffee "
coffee @-@ INSTR drink @-@ usually @-@ 3p
Piitaq savim @-@ mik tuni @-@ vara " I gave Peter a knife "
Peter @-@ ABS knife @-@ INSTR give @-@ I / 3p
It is also used to express the meaning of " give me " and for forming adverbs from nouns :
imer @-@ mik ! " ( give me ) water "
water @-@ INSTR
sivisuu @-@ mik sinip @-@ poq " He slept late "
late @-@ INSTR sleep @-@ 3p
The allative case describes movement towards something .
illu @-@ mut " towards the house "
It is also used with numerals and the question word qassit to express the time of the clock , and in the meaning " amount per unit " :
qassi @-@ nut ? – pingasu @-@ nut . " When ? " – " At three o 'clock "
when @-@ ALL three @-@ ALL
kiilu @-@ mut tivi krone @-@ qar @-@ poq " It costs 20 crowns per kilo "
kilo @-@ ALL twenty crown @-@ have @-@ 3p
The locative case describes spatial location :
illu @-@ mi " in the house "
The ablative case describes movement away from something or the source of something :
Rasmussi @-@ mit allagarsi @-@ voq " He got a letter from Rasmus "
Rasmus @-@ ABL receive.letter @-@ 3p
tuttu @-@ mit nassuk " ( antler ) horn from a rein @-@ deer "
rein.deer @-@ ABL horn
The prosecutive case describes movement through something as well as the medium of writing or a location on the body . It is also used to describe a group of people such as a family as belonging to the modified noun .
matu @-@ kkut iser @-@ poq " He entered through the door "
door @-@ PROS enter @-@ 3p
su @-@ kkut tillup @-@ paatit ? " Where ( on the body ) did he hit you ? "
where @-@ PROS hit @-@ 3p / YOU
palasi @-@ kkut " the priest and his family "
priest @-@ PROS
The equative case describes similarity of manner or quality . It is also used for deriving language names from nouns denoting nationalities , i.e. " like a person of x nationality [ speaks ] " .
nakorsatut suli @-@ sar @-@ poq " he works as a doctor "
doctor @-@ EQU work @-@ HAB @-@ 3p
Qallunaa @-@ tut " Danish language ( like a Dane ) "
dane @-@ EQU
= = = = Possession = = = =
In Greenlandic possession is marked on the noun which agrees with the person and number of its possessor . The possessor is in the ergative case . There are different possessive paradigms for all of the different cases . Table 4 gives the possessive paradigm for the absolutive case of illu " house " . Below are given examples of the use of the possessive inflection , the use of the ergative case for possessors and the use of fourth person possessors .
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ a " Anda 's house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 3p / POSS
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ ni taku @-@ aa " Anda sees his own house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 4p / POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ a taku @-@ aa " Anda sees his ( the other man 's ) house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 3p / POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
= = Vocabulary = =
Greenlandic vocabulary is mostly inherited from Proto @-@ Eskimo – Aleut , but it has also taken a large number of loans from other languages , especially from Danish . Early loans from Danish have often become acculturated to the Greenlandic phonological system , for example the Greenlandic word palasi " priest " is a loan from the Danish " præst " . But since Greenlandic has an enormous potential for the derivation of new words from existing roots , many modern concepts have Greenlandic names that have been invented rather than borrowed , e.g. qarasaasiaq " computer " which literally means " artificial brain " . This potential for complex derivations also means that Greenlandic vocabulary is built on very few roots which combined with affixes come to form large word families . For example the root for " tongue " oqaq is used to derive the following words :
oqarpoq ' says'
oqaaseq ' word'
oqaluppoq ' speaks'
oqaasilerisoq ' linguist'
oqaasilerissutit ' grammar'
oqaluttualiortoq ' author'
oqaasipiluuppaa ' harangues him'
oqaloqatigiinneq ' conversation'
oqaatiginerluppaa ' speaks badly about him'
Lexical differences between dialects are often considerable . This is due to the earlier cultural practice of imposing taboo on words which had served as names for a deceased person . Since people were often named after everyday objects , many of these have changed their name several times because of taboo rules , causing dialectal vocabulary to diverge further .
= = Orthography = =
Greenlandic is written with the Latin script . The alphabet :
A E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V
To spell loanwords from other languages , especially from Danish and English , the additional letters B , C , D , X , Y , Z , W , Æ , Ø and Å are used . Greenlandic uses the symbols " ... " and » ... « as quotation marks .
From 1851 and until 1973 Greenlandic was written in the alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt . This alphabet employed the special character kra ( Κʻ / ĸ ) which was replaced by q in the 1973 reform . In the Kleinschmidt alphabet , long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by means of diacritics on the vowels ( in the case of consonant gemination , the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant ) . For example , the name Kalaallit Nunaat was spelled Kalâdlit Nunât . This scheme uses a circumflex accent ( ˆ ) to indicate a long vowel ( e.g. , ât / ît / ût , modern : aat , iit , uut ) , an acute accent ( ´ ) to indicate gemination of the following consonant : ( i.e. , á , í , ú modern : a ( kk ) , i ( kk ) , u ( kk ) ) ] and , finally , a tilde ( ˜ ) or a grave accent ( ` ) , depending on the author , indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant ( e.g. , ãt , ĩt , ũt or àt , ìt , ùt , modern : aatt , iitt , uutt ) . The letters ê and ô , used only before r and q , are now written er / eq and or / oq in Greenlandic . The spelling system of Nunatsiavummiutut , spoken in Nunatsiavut in northeastern Labrador , is derived from the old Greenlandic system .
Technically , the Kleinschmidt orthography focused upon morphology : the same derivational affix would be written in the same way in different contexts , despite its being pronounced differently in different contexts . The 1973 reform replaced this with a phonological system : Here , there was a clear link from written form to pronunciation , and the same suffix is now written differently in different contexts . The differences are due to phonological changes . It is therefore easy to go from the old orthography to the new ( cf. the online converter ) whereas going the other direction would require a full lexical analysis .
= = = Sample text = = =
Inuit tamarmik inunngorput nammineersinnaassuseqarlutik assigiimmillu ataqqinassuseqarlutillu pisinnaatitaaffeqarlutik . Silaqassusermik tarnillu nalunngissusianik pilersugaapput , imminnullu iliorfigeqatigiittariaqaraluarput qatanngutigiittut peqatigiinnerup anersaavani .
" All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood . " ( Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights )
= = Cited literature = =
= Battersea Power Station =
Battersea Power Station is a decommissioned coal @-@ fired power station located on the south bank of the River Thames , in Nine Elms , Battersea , an inner @-@ city district of South West London . It comprises two individual power stations , built in two stages in the form of a single building . Battersea A Power Station was built in the 1930s , with Battersea B Power Station to the east in the 1950s . The two stations were built to a nearly identical design , providing the long @-@ recognized four @-@ chimney layout . The station ceased generating electricity in 1983 , but over the past 50 years it has become one of the best known landmarks in London and is Grade II * listed . The station 's celebrity owes much to numerous popular culture references , which include the cover art of Pink Floyd 's 1977 album Animals and its appearance in the 1965 Beatles ' film , Help ! .
The station is one of the largest brick buildings in the world and is notable for its original , lavish Art Deco interior fittings and decor . The building has remained largely unused since its closure and the condition of the structure has been described as " very bad " by English Heritage , which included it in its Heritage at Risk Register . The site was also listed on the 2004 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund .
Since the station 's closure numerous redevelopment plans were drawn up from successive site owners . In 2004 , when a redevelopment project by Parkview International stalled , the site was sold to the administrators of Irish company Real Estate Opportunities ( REO ) , who bought it for £ 400 million in November 2006 with plans to refurbish the station for public use and build 3 @,@ 400 homes across the site . This plan fell through due to REO 's debt being called in by its creditors , the state @-@ owned banks in the UK and Ireland , and the site was subsequently placed on sale in December 2011 to the open property market through commercial estate agent Knight Frank . It has received interest from a variety of overseas consortia , most seeking to demolish or partly @-@ demolish the structure . The combination of an existing debt burden of some £ 750 million , the need to make a £ 200 million contribution to a proposed extension to the London Underground , requirements to fund conservation of the derelict power station shell and the presence of a waste transfer station and cement plant on the river frontage made a commercial development of the site a significant challenge .
On 7 June 2012 , Knight Frank announced that administrators Ernst & Young had entered into an exclusivity agreement with Malaysia ’ s SP Setia and Sime Darby and were working towards a timely exchange and completion of the site and associated land . Completion of the £ 400 million sale took place in September 2012 , and the redevelopment intends to implement the Rafael Vinoly design which had gained planning consent from Wandsworth Council in 2011 . In January 2013 the first residential apartments went on sale . Construction on Phase 1 was due to commence in 2013 , with completion due in 2016 / 17 .
= = History = =
Until the late 1930s electricity was supplied by municipal undertakings . These were small power companies that built power stations dedicated to a single industry or group of factories , and sold any excess electricity to the public . These companies used widely differing standards of voltage and frequency . In 1925 Parliament decided that the power grid should be a single system with uniform standards and under public ownership . Several of the private power companies reacted to the proposal by forming the London Power Company . They planned to heed parliament 's recommendations and build a small number of very large stations .
The London Power Company 's first of these super power stations was planned for the Battersea area , on the south bank of the River Thames in London . The proposal was made in 1927 , for a station built in two stages and capable of generating 400 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity when complete . The site chosen was a 15 @-@ acre ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) plot of land which had been the site of the reservoirs for the former Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company . The site was chosen for its proximity to the River Thames for cooling water and coal delivery , and because it was in the heart of London , the station 's immediate supply area .
The proposal sparked protests from those who felt that the building would be too large and would be an eyesore , as well as worries about the pollution damaging local buildings , parks and even paintings in the nearby Tate Gallery . The company addressed the former concern by hiring Sir Giles Gilbert Scott to design the building 's exterior . He was a noted architect and industrial designer , famous for his design of the red telephone box , and of Liverpool Anglican Cathedral . He would go on to design another London power station , Bankside , which now houses Tate Modern art gallery . The pollution issue was resolved by granting permission for the station on the condition that its emissions were to be treated , to ensure they were " clean and smokeless " .
Construction of the first phase , the A Station , began in March 1929 . The main building work was carried out by John Mowlem & Co , and the structural steelwork erection carried out by Sir William Arrol & Co . Other contractors were employed for specialist tasks . Most of the electrical equipment , including the steam turbine turbo generators , was produced by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers in Trafford Park , Manchester . The building of the steel frame began in October 1930 . Once completed , the construction of the brick cladding began , in March 1931 . Until the construction of the B Station , the eastern wall of the boiler house was clad in corrugated metal sheeting as a temporary enclosure . The A Station first generated electricity in 1933 , but was not completed until 1935 . The total cost of its construction was £ 2 @,@ 141 @,@ 550 . Between construction beginning in 1929 and 1933 , there were six fatal and 121 non @-@ fatal accidents on the site .
After the end of the Second World War , construction began on the second phase , the B Station . The station came into operation gradually between 1953 and 1955 . It was nearly identical to the A Station from the outside and was constructed directly to its east as a mirror to it , which gave the power station its now familiar four @-@ chimney layout . The construction of the B Station brought the site 's generating capacity up to 509 megawatts ( MW ) , making it the third largest generating site in the UK at the time , providing a fifth of London 's electricity needs ( with the remainder supplied by 28 smaller stations ) . It was also the most thermally efficient power station in the world when it opened .
The A Station had been operated by the London Power Company , but by the time the B Station was completed , the UK 's electric supply industry had been nationalised , and ownership of the two stations had passed into the hands of the British Electricity Authority in 1948 . In 1955 , this became the Central Electricity Authority , which in turn became the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1957 .
On 20 April 1964 , the power station was the site of a fire that caused power failures throughout London , including at the BBC Television Centre , which was due to launch BBC Two that night . The launch was delayed until the following day at 11 am .
= = Design and specification = =
Both of the stations were designed by a team of architects and engineers . The team was headed by Dr. Leonard Pearce , the chief engineer of the London Power Company , but a number of other notable engineers were also involved , including Henry Newmarch Allott , and T. P. O 'Sullivan who was later responsible for the Assembly Hall at Filton . J. Theo Halliday was employed as architect , with Halliday & Agate Co. employed as a sub @-@ consultant . Halliday was responsible for the supervision and execution of the appearance of the exterior and interior of the building . Architect Sir Giles Gilbert Scott was involved in the project much later on , consulted to appease public reaction , and referred to in the press as " architect of the exterior " . The station was designed in the brick @-@ cathedral style of power station design , which was popular at the time . Battersea is one of a very small number of examples of this style of power station design still in existence in the UK , others being Uskmouth and Bankside . The station 's design proved popular straightaway , and was described as a " temple of power " , which ranked equal with St Paul 's Cathedral as a London landmark . In a 1939 survey by The Architectural Review a panel of celebrities ranked it as their second favourite modern building .
The A Station 's control room was given many Art Deco fittings by architect Halliday . Italian marble was used in the turbine hall , and polished parquet floors and wrought @-@ iron staircases were used throughout . Owing to a lack of available money following the Second World War , the interior of the B Station was not given the same treatment , and instead the fittings were made from stainless steel .
Each of the two connected stations consists of a long boiler house with a chimney at each end and an adjacent turbine hall . This makes a single main building which is of steel frame construction with brick cladding , similar to the skyscrapers built in the United States around the same time . The station is the largest brick structure in Europe . The building 's gross dimensions measure 160 metres ( 520 ft ) by 170 metres ( 560 ft ) , with the roof of the boiler house standing at over 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . Each of the four chimneys is made from concrete and stands 103 metres ( 338 ft ) tall with a base diameter of 28 ft tapering to 22 ft at the top . The station also had jetty facilities for unloading coal , a coal sorting and storage area , control rooms and an administration block .
The A Station generated electricity using three turbo alternators ; two 69 megawatt ( MW ) Metropolitan @-@ Vickers British Thomson @-@ Houston sets , and one 105 MW Metropolitan @-@ Vickers set , totalling 243 MW . At the time of its commissioning , the 105 MW generating set was the largest in Europe . The B Station also had three turbo alternators , all made by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers . This consisted of two units which used 16 MW high pressure units exhausting to a 78 MW and associated with a 6 MW house alternator , giving these units a total rating of 100 MW . The third unit consisted
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of the station building as a power station , fuelled by biomass and waste . The station 's existing chimneys would be utilised for venting steam . The former turbine halls would be converted to shopping spaces , and the roofless boiler house used as a park . An energy museum would also be housed inside the former station building . The restoration of the power station building would cost £ 150 million .
Eco @-@ dome
A plastic built " eco @-@ dome " was to be built to the east of the power station . This building was originally planned to have a large 300 metres ( 980 ft ) chimney , but this has now been abandoned in favour of a series of smaller towers . The eco @-@ dome would house offices , and aim to reduce energy consumption in the buildings by 67 % compared to conventional office buildings , by using the towers to draw cool air through the building . 3 @,@ 200 new homes would also be built on the site to house 7 @,@ 000 people .
Consultation process
In June 2008 a consultation process was launched , which revealed that 66 % of the general public were in favour of the plans . At an event at the station on 23 March 2009 , it was announced that REO were to submit the planning application for their proposal to Wandsworth Council . These plans have now been shelved due to the latest financial crisis to hit the site .
Planning consent
The Council gave planning consent on 11 November 2010 . REO hoped for construction to begin in 2011 , but this has now been delayed to 2012 . The station structure itself is expected to be repaired and secure by 2016 , with completion of the whole project by 2020 . Plans now include the construction of 3 @,@ 400 apartments and 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space . Approximately 28 @,@ 000 inhabitants and 25 @,@ 000 workers are expected to occupy the space once complete .
Lenders allow more time
Reuters reported on 1 September 2011 that lenders would allow more time for a new equity partner to be found :
" Lenders to the owner of Battersea Power Station in London waived a debt maturity deadline yesterday while talks with potential new equity partners for its redevelopment continued , a source close to the process told Reuters . AIM @-@ listed Real Estate Opportunities is seeking a partner for the 5 @.@ 5 billion pound ( $ 9 billion ) development , and its senior lenders Lloyds and Ireland 's National Asset Management Agency have already extended a deadline once relating to the 400 million pounds REO paid for the site in 2006 . ' The banks have nothing to gain by calling the debt in . Talks with new equity partners continue , and an announcement may come in the next few weeks , ' the source said " .
However , in November 2011 , Lloyds and NAMA called in the debt and the REO scheme collapsed into administration . A new buyer is now being sought for the site .
Controversy
On 19 September 2011 , the Irish Independent reported concern over an alleged donation of 23 @,@ 000 Euro by a developer to Britain 's Conservative Party .
= = = Farrell and Partners Urban Park proposal = = =
In February 2012 , Sir Terry Farrell 's architectural firm put forward a proposal to convert the power station site into an " urban park " with an option to develop housing at a later date . In this vision , Farrells propose to demolish all but the central boiler hall and chimneys and display the switching equipment from the control rooms in ' pods ' . However , this plan is unlikely to bear fruit due to the Grade 2 listing status of the site . The bid failed to make the shortlist of final bidders considered by the administrators .
= = = Chelsea F.C. Interest = = =
On 9 November 2008 , Chelsea Football Club were reported to be considered moving to a new purpose built stadium at the power station . The proposed stadium was to hold between 65 @,@ 000 and 75 @,@ 000 fans and feature a retractable roof . The proposals were designed by HOK Sport , the same company who designed Wembley Stadium . However , the Chelsea FC scheme was seriously in doubt due to concerns for the preservation of the site and the collapse of the REO scheme in late November 2011 .
= = = 2012 redevelopment plans = = =
Following the failure of the REO bid to develop the site , in February 2012 , Battersea Power Station was put up for sale on the open market for the first time in its history . The sale was conducted by commercial estate agent Knight Frank on behalf of the site 's creditors . In May 2012 , several bids were received for the landmark site , which was put on the market after Nama and Lloyds Banking Group called in loans held by Treasury Holdings ' Real Estate Opportunities ( REO ) . Bids were received from Chelsea F.C. with other interested parties including a Malaysian interest , SP Setia , London & Regional , a company owned by the London @-@ based Livingstone brothers and housebuilder Berkeley . If sold , the new owner would have to pay £ 500 million for the power station , including £ 325 million to cover the debts held by Nama and Lloyds , and a £ 100 million contribution to the Northern line extension . If the sale is unsuccessful , the agent would have a duty to maintain and preserve the site in line with its listed status .
On 7 June 2012 , Knight Frank announced that administrators Ernst & Young had entered into an exclusive agreement with Malaysian developers SP Setia and Sime Darby , who were given 28 days to conduct due diligence and agree the final terms of the deal . Completion of the sale to the Malaysian consortium took place in September 2012 . The redevelopment of the site will use the existing Vinoly master plan which intends to position the Power Station as the central focus of the regenerated 40 @-@ acre site , housing a blend of shops , cafes , restaurants , art and leisure facilities , office space and residential accommodation . The plan includes the restoration of the historic Power Station itself , the creation of a new riverside park to the north of the Power Station and the creation of a new High Street which is designed to link the future entrance to Battersea Power Station tube station with the Power Station . The redevelopment is hoped to bring about the extension of the existing riverside walk and facilitate access directly from the Power Station to Battersea Park and Chelsea Bridge .
Restoration of the Grade II * listed Power Station is an early priority in the development . Work commenced in 2013 and plans include the restoration of the art deco structure internally and externally , reconstruction of the chimneys , and refurbishment of the historic cranes and jetty as a new river taxi stop . The plan includes over 800 homes of varying sizes , and sales of residential apartments in Phase 1 of the redevelopment began in January 2013 with around 75 per cent of townhouses and apartments being sold within four days . Construction work on Phase 1 , called Circus West , is being undertaken by Carillion and commenced in 2013 alongside work on the Power Station . The full redevelopment consists of seven main phases , some of which are planned to run concurrently . Phase 1 is due to complete in 2016 / 17 with the Northern line extension and requisite new Battersea Power Station terminal anticipated to complete in 2020 .
In October 2013 , Frank Gehry was appointed joint architect with Foster + Partners to design " Phase 3 " of the scheme , which will provide " the gateway to the entire development and the new Northern line extension " .
= = In popular culture = =
Battersea Power Station has become an iconic structure , being featured in or used as a shooting location for many films , television programmes , music videos and video games . One of the station 's earliest appearances on film was in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1936 film Sabotage , which shows the station before the construction of the B station . The interior of the A station 's control room was used for the " Find The Fish " segment of Monty Python 's 1983 film The Meaning of Life .
It also appears during the first daylight attack on London sequence in the 1969 movie , Battle of Britain , in the movie as in real life used as a navigational landmark by the attacking Luftwaffe bombers . More recently in October 2007 , the power station was used as a filming location for the Batman movie , The Dark Knight . The station 's stripped , empty interior was used as a setting for a burnt out warehouse . A closeup of the station can be seen as stand @-@ in for the exterior of a London railway station in the Michael Radford 's 1984 film Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four . The station appears repurposed as the Ministry of Arts in the film Children of Men , in which a floating pig appears , an homage done for the amusement of its proprietor .
The station has appeared numerous times in the long @-@ running British science fiction series Doctor Who . It appeared briefly in the episode The Dalek Invasion of Earth in 1964 , which saw the station in the 22nd century with two chimneys demolished , and a nearby nuclear reactor dome . It appeared again in the 2006 Doctor Who episodes " Rise of the Cybermen " and " The Age of Steel " as the base to which Londoners are drawn to be converted into Cybermen .
The Battersea Power Station Community Group think one of the main reasons for the power station 's worldwide recognition is that it appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd 's 1977 album Animals , on which it was photographed with the group 's inflatable pink pig floating above it . The photographs were taken in early December 1976 and the inflatable pig was made by the German company Ballon Fabrik and Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw . The inflatable pig was tethered to one of the power station 's southern chimneys , but broke loose from its moorings and , to the astonishment of pilots in approaching planes , drifted into the flight path of Heathrow Airport . Police helicopters tracked its course , until it landed in Kent . Video footage of the photoshoot was used in the promotional video for the song " Pigs on the Wing " . The album was officially launched at an event at the power station .
In recent years , the power station has been used for various sporting , cultural and political events . Since 22 August 2009 , the station has been used as a venue on the Red Bull X @-@ Fighters season . On 13 April 2010 the station was used as the venue for the launch of the Conservative Party 's 2010 general election manifesto . Between 6 and 7 May 2010 , the station site was used by Sky News in their coverage of the election .
= Constitution of Virginia =
The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia is the document that defines and limits the powers of the state government and the basic rights of the citizens of the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia . Like all other state constitutions , it is supreme over Virginia 's laws and acts of government , though it may be superseded by the United States Constitution and U.S. federal law as per the Supremacy Clause .
The original Virginia Constitution of 1776 was enacted in conjunction with the Declaration of Independence by the first thirteen states of the United States of America . Virginia was an early state to adopt its own Constitution on June 29 , 1776 , and the document was widely influential both in the United States and abroad . In addition to frequent amendments , there have been six major subsequent revisions of the constitution ( by Conventions for the constitutions of 1830 , 1851 , 1864 , 1870 , 1902 , and by commission for 1971 amendments ) . These new constitutions have been part of , and in reaction to , periods of major regional or social upheaval in Virginia . For instance , the 1902 constitution included provisions to disfranchise African Americans , who in 1900 made up nearly 36 % of the state 's population . They did not regain suffrage until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Historic constitutions = =
= = = 1776 = = =
The preparation of the first Virginia Constitution began in early 1776 , in the midst of the early events of the American Revolution . Among those who drafted the 1776 Constitution were George Mason and James Madison . Thomas Jefferson was Virginia 's representative to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia at the time , and his drafts of the Virginia constitution arrived too late to be incorporated into the final document . James Madison 's work on the Virginia Constitution helped him develop the ideas and skills that he would later use as one of the main architects of the United States Constitution .
The 1776 Constitution declared the dissolution of the rule of Great Britain over Virginia and accused England 's King George III of establishing a " detestable and insupportable tyranny " . It also established separation of governmental powers , with the creation of the bicameral Virginia General Assembly as the legislative body of the state and the Governor of Virginia as the " chief magistrate " or executive . The accompanying Virginia Declaration of Rights , written primarily by Mason , focuses on guarantees of basic human rights and freedoms and the fundamental purpose of government . It , in turn , served as a model for a number of other historic documents , including the United States Bill of Rights .
Critically , the 1776 Constitution limited the right to vote primarily to property owners and men of wealth . This effectively concentrated power in the hands of the landowners and aristocracy of Southeastern Virginia . Dissatisfaction with this power structure would come to dominate Virginia 's constitutional debate for almost a century .
= = = 1830 = = =
By the 1820s , Virginia was one of only two states that limited voting to landowners . In addition , because representation was by county rather than population , the residents of increasingly populous Western Virginia ( the area that would become West Virginia in 1863 ) had grown discontented at their limited representation in the legislature . Pressure increased until a constitutional convention was convened in 1829 – 1830 . This convention became largely a contest between eastern Virginia planters of the slaveholding elite and the less affluent yeomen farmers of Western Virginia . Issues of representation and suffrage dominated the debate . Delegates to the convention included such prominent Virginians as James Madison , James Monroe , John Tyler , and John Marshall .
The convention ultimately compromised by loosening suffrage requirements . It also reduced the number of delegates and senators to the Virginia General Assembly . The resulting constitution was ratified by a popular majority , though most of the voters in the western part of the state ended up voting against it . Thus , the underlying intrastate tensions remained , and would have to be addressed later .
= = = 1851 = = =
As of the 1840 census , the majority of the white residents of the state lived in western Virginia , but they were underrepresented in the legislature because of the continued property requirement for voting ; not all held sufficient property to vote . This compounded their dissatisfaction with the apportionment scheme adopted in 1830 , which was based on counties rather than population , thus giving disproportionate power to the fewer , but propertied whites who lived in the eastern part of the state and kept a grip on the legislature . As the state legislature also elected the governor and lieutenant governor , and the United States senators , Western Virginians felt they had little influence on state leadership . Their attempts to win electoral reform in the Virginia legislature were defeated each time . Some began to openly discuss the abolition of slavery or secession from the state . Ultimately , the eastern planters could not continue to ignore their discontent , and a new constitutional convention was called to resolve the continuing tensions .
The most significant change adopted in the 1851 Constitution was elimination of the property requirement for voting , resulting in extension of the suffrage to all white males of voting age . The 1851 Constitution established popular election for the governor , the newly created office of lieutenant governor , and all Virginia judges , rather than the election of the top two state officers by the legislature , or political appointment for judges . Because of these changes , the 1851 Virginia Constitution became known as the " Reform Constitution " .
= = = 1864 = = =
When in 1861 , the Virginia legislature voted for secession in the events leading up to the American Civil War , all of the western and several of the northern counties dissented They set up a separate government with Francis H. Pierpont as governor . During the Civil War , this separate or " restored " government approved the creation of West Virginia as a separate state ( which was admitted to the Union in 1863 ) and in 1864 it approved a new Constitution . The constitution was the product of a divided state and government ; it was the first since the original 1776 Constitution to be adopted by the legislature without a popular vote .
The 1864 Constitution abolished slavery in Virginia , disfranchised men who had served in the Confederate government , recognized the creation of the State of West Virginia , and adjusted the number and terms of office of the members of the Virginia Assembly .
The foreword to the current Virginia Constitution does not include the 1864 Constitution in its list of previous constitutions . It notes that the 1864 Constitution was drafted under wartime conditions and was of uncertain legal status .
= = = 1870 = = =
After the end of the Civil War , Virginia came briefly under military rule during Reconstruction , with the district commanded by John M. Schofield . Pursuant to federal Reconstruction legislation , Schofield called for a new constitutional convention to meet in Richmond from December 1867 to April 1868 . In protest of freedmen 's suffrage , many of Virginia 's conservative whites refused to participate in voting for delegates . As a result , Republicans led by Judge John Curtiss Underwood dominated the convention . Opponents called the result the " Underwood Constitution " or the " Negro Constitution " , as it gave freedmen suffrage .
Significant provisions included expanding the suffrage to all male citizens over the age of 21 , which included freedmen ; establishing a state public school system for the first time , with mandatory funding and attendance ; and providing for judges to be elected by the General Assembly rather than by popular vote . Controversy over clauses that continued the temporary disfranchisement of former Confederate government members delayed the adoption of the Constitution . An eventual compromise provided for separate voting on the disfranchisement clauses and the rest of the Constitution ; the former failed to win approval . The remainder of the Underwood Constitution was ratified by a popular vote of 210 @,@ 585 to 9 @,@ 136 , and went into effect in 1870 .
= = = 1902 = = =
In the late nineteenth century , white Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South . They passed Jim Crow laws establishing racial segregation in public facilities and restricting the lives of blacks . Beginning with Mississippi in 1890 , legislatures began to ratify new constitutions , amendments or electoral laws that disfranchised African @-@ American voters , devising means such as poll taxes , literacy tests and residential requirements that passed Supreme Court review but worked against poor blacks and many poor whites . By the turn of the 20th century , six Southern states had essentially eliminated the black vote , and pressure mounted among whites in Virginia to do the same , ostensibly as a way to stop electoral fraud and corruption . The 1901 constitutional convention met in this climate . Members were focused on restricting black voting rights without violating the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution or disfranchising poor whites . Led by the future Senator Carter Glass , the convention created requirements that all prospective voters had to pay poll taxes or pass a literacy test administered by white registrars . An exemption was granted , in a kind of grandfather clause , for military veterans and sons of veterans , who were virtually all white . The changes effectively disfranchised black voters , though many illiterate whites were also unable to meet the new requirements . In 1900 blacks made up nearly 36 % of the population . In succeeding elections , the Virginia electorate was reduced by nearly half as a result of the changes . Voter turnout would not return to 1904 levels until 1952 within a statewide population almost twice the size . The small electorate was key to maintaining the dominant Democratic Organization in power for sixty years .
Other significant provisions of the 1902 Constitution imposed racial segregation in public schools ( which already existed on a de facto basis ) and abolished the county court system . The Constitution provided for the creation of the State Corporation Commission to regulate the growing power of the railroads . Because of concern over African @-@ American opposition , the convention did not honor its pledge to have the proposed constitution put to popular vote . Like the 1864 Constitution by the Loyalist government during the Civil War , the legislature adopted the 1902 Constitution without ratification by the electorate . It was in effect far longer than any previous Virginia constitution .
= = Current constitution ( 1971 ) = =
As a result of the Civil Rights Movement challenging the restrictions and discrimination practiced against blacks exercise of constitutional rights , a series of US Supreme Court cases , beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 , the 24th Amendment , and federal legislation : the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 had overturned the most controversial aspects of the 1902 Constitution – the provisions restricting voting by African Americans and mandating school segregation . Combined with the election of Governor Mills Godwin in 1965 , there was impetus for governmental change . Godwin strongly advocated the loosening of the strict constitutional restrictions on state @-@ issued bonds and borrowing , and used his power and popularity to push for a new constitution . In 1968 a joint resolution of the Virginia General Assembly approved a new commission , chaired by former Governor Albertis Harrison , to revise the constitution .
The Commission on Constitutional Revision presented its report and recommendations to Governor Godwin and the General Assembly in January 1969 , and continued to work with them to draft a final consensus version . The proposed Constitution was overwhelmingly approved by the voters of Virginia ( who by then included African @-@ American men and women , following passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid @-@ 1960s ) and took effect on July 1 , 1971 .
The current Constitution of Virginia consists of twelve Articles :
= = = Article I – Bill of Rights = = =
Article I contains the entire original Virginia Declaration of Rights from the 1776 Constitution . Several of the sections have been expanded to incorporate concepts from the United States Bill of Rights , including the right to due process , the prohibition against double jeopardy , and the right to bear arms . Like the Federal Constitution , the Virginia Bill of Rights , in § 17 , states that the listing of certain rights is not to be construed to exclude other rights held by the people .
In 1997 , a Victims ' Rights Amendment was added to the Virginia Bill of Rights as § 8 @-@ A. In Nobrega v. Commonwealth
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= = Early life and education = =
Han Sai Por was born on 19 July 1943 in Singapore during the Japanese occupation . She was one of six children of a poor couple , and her family were squatters living in Changi in a house made of cardboard boxes and coconut leaves . Nonetheless , Han had a happy childhood , and went to a nearby beach to make figurine animals out of sand . This experience helped her to appreciate nature and instilled in her a sense of adventure and exploration . At ten years of age , Han was introduced to Michelangelo 's sculptures through a book given to her by her mother .
Han was educated at Yock Eng High School ( now Yuying Secondary School ) and subsequently at the Singapore Teachers ' Training College between 1965 and 1968 . While working as a teacher , she attended part @-@ time courses at the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts ( NAFA ) from 1975 to 1977 . Having saved some money , she went to the United Kingdom where she studied fine art at the East Ham College of Art ( 1979 – 1980 ) and the Wolverhampton College of Art ( 1980 – 1983 ) , receiving a B.A. ( Hons . ) in Fine Art from the latter . She worked as a cook , hotel maid , waitress and street artist to support herself .
Han returned to Singapore in 1983 and was one of the two pioneer teachers appointed to the new Arts Elective Programme at the Nanyang Girls ' High School . In 1987 , to support her personal artistic endeavours , Han also began to teach part @-@ time at NAFA , the LASALLE @-@ SIA College of the Arts ( both 1987 – 1993 ) , and the National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological University ( 1994 – 1996 ) . Subsequently , she pursued further studies in landscape architecture at Lincoln University in Lincoln , Canterbury , in New Zealand .
= = Artistic career = =
Han has participated in exhibitions locally and abroad , including events in China , Denmark , Japan , Malaysia , New Zealand and South Korea . Over 24 hours between New Year 's Eve 1989 and New Year 's Day 1990 , she took part in The Time Show organized by The Artists Village , which has been described as " definitely a high point in the history of art in Singapore when an exceptionally wide spectrum of artists expressing in an equally wide range of mediums participated in a single art event " . Han 's first solo exhibition was Four Dimensions at the National Museum Art Gallery from 18 to 28 February 1993 . Other solo shows she has given in Singapore are Rainforest ( Plastique Kinetic Worms , 1999 ) and 20 Tonnes – Physical Consequences ( Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ARTrium , 2002 ) .
Han became a full @-@ time sculptor in 1997 . Her works can be found around the world : Childhood Dream ( 1992 ) at the Uchinomi @-@ cho Town Hall Garden on the island of Shōdoshima in Kagawa Prefecture , Japan ; Pisces ( 1993 ) at the Yashiro Hoshi @-@ no Choukoku Centre Park in Osaka , Japan ; Spirit of Nature III ( 1990 ) at the Kuching Waterfront Development in Sarawak , Malaysia ; Towards Peace ( 1987 ) in the Kuala Lumpur Lake Gardens , Malaysia ; and Cactus , Tropical Leaves ( both 1994 ) and The Wave of Life at the Embassy of Singapore in Washington , D.C. In Singapore , sculptures commissioned from her can be seen at Capital Tower ( Shimmering Pearls I , 1999 ) , the Defence Science Organisation National Laboratories ( Tropical Brain Forest , 2003 ) , the Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay ( Seed Series , 1998 ) , the National Museum of Singapore ( 20 Tonnes , 2002 ; and Seeds , 2006 ) , One Marina Boulevard ( Progressive Flows , 2004 ) , Orchard MRT Station ( Goddess of Happiness , 1985 ) , Revenue House ( Spring , 1996 ) , Singapore Changi Airport Terminal 3 ( Flora Inspiration , 2007 ) , Singapore Changi Airport VIP Complex ( Singapore – A Garden City , 2004 ) , Suntec City Mall ( Chinese Zodiac Medallions , 1995 ) , UOB Plaza ( Two Figures , 1993 ) , and Woodlands Regional Library ( Rain Forest ) .
In 2001 , Han was the founding President of the Sculpture Society ( Singapore ) , and remains its Honorary President . In May 2009 , she was the first artist in residence at the Society 's Sculpture Pavilion at Fort Canning Park where she worked on sculptures made from the trunks of tembusu trees . The project , sponsored by the Asia Pacific Breweries Foundation Inspire Programme , was intended to provide sculptors and installation artists with studio space and a chance to interact with the public in a park environment . Han was a member of the Fourth Singapore Note and Coin Advisory Committee between 1 July 2008 and 30 June 2011 , where her duties included advising the Monetary Authority of Singapore on designs for new currency .
In 2005 , with the assistance of the National Arts Council ( NAC ) and the Jurong Town Corporation ( JTC ) , she relocated from Seletar Air Base to Workloft @ Wessex , a walk @-@ up apartment in Wessex Estate which had been converted by JTC from an army camp into an artists ' village .
= = Art = =
Han is probably best known for her stone sculptures with organic forms ; she sees her sculpture has having " a force or inner life inside struggling to get out " . Having a preference for granite and marble , she has said : " Stone is one of my favourite materials . In the erosion of rock by wind and water are found original , vital qualities which express the significance of life . " Han often purchases stone using her own resources from quarries in China , Italy , Japan , Malaysia and Singapore . The cost of just the material for solo exhibition pieces can be up to S $ 20 @,@ 000 . Nonetheless , she is motivated by the encouragement , recognition and acknowledgement her art she receives from others . Examples of Han 's sculptures of this genre include Growth ( 1985 ) , a set of five pear @-@ shaped forms in white marble ; Spirit of Nature ( 1988 ) , three black granite ovoid and spheroid forms ; Object C ( 1992 ) , a pale grey granite object resembling a canoe ; and Seeds ( 2006 ) , large kernels carved from sandstone excavated from Fort Canning Hill during the National Museum 's redevelopment . Art historian and critic T.K. Sabapathy has commented that Han is concerned with the uneasy relation between men and nature in the modern era , and has expressed a desire for people to realize that " [ we ] are part of nature and not apart from nature " . In addition , he has said :
Her sculptures appear to embody forces whose origins are to be found in the very beginnings of the art of sculpture . What we have here , especially in the works carved out of stone , is sculpture in its embryonic form . Her works are made up of compact , entirely solid mass of material which she shapes but does not perforate or open up . They are the outcome of a single @-@ minded concentration on mass and volume . This approach leads to the creation of what can be described as kernel sculpture . The works have the strength and durability of primal or elementary forms . They retain the presence and weight of the monolith , and appeal to us with their provocative simplicity . In all these respects Han reasserts the fundamental qualities of sculpture , namely , a sensation of volume and material , tactile quality and ponderability . ... [ Her works ] radiate energy and materiality which , together , appear to be continually forming and re @-@ forming into new and surprising configurations ; essential to them is the indivisible or continuous single surface . These works beckon us to enter into realms that are stable , tranquil and sublime . Han gives her fellow man an affirmative , uplifting view of life .
Beyond Han 's sculptures which embrace organic forms , she has also designed geometric pieces . Four Dimensions ( 1993 ) was made up of ten geometrical structures , including single objects ( such as Tetrahedron – Tetrahedron Interpenetration ) and opened @-@ up planes ( Cubic Triangle ) connected with each other through the use of angles , and light and shadow . Han said : " My works are based on the concept of mathematical logic . The idea is to show how each step is based on the previous one so that the geometrical forms progress in logical sequence ... The fourth dimension is abstract . It cannot be seen or touched . It contains the feelings and talents of Mankind . We wish to possess this space and to open it up for all people to share . " Sabapathy was somewhat critical of these works , saying that they dealt only with techniques and fabrication and did not " disclose fresh insights into space and its articulation " . He expressed the hope that Han would stay the course and deepen her investigation beyond form into an exploration of light , colour and materials to " create environments in which form , space and time can be seen to be related in ever @-@ changing yet intelligent systems " .
20 Tonnes , first exhibited in 2002 in the atrium of the MICA Building ( formerly the Old Hill Street Police Station ) and now permanently installed in front of the National Museum , consists of a row of six ridged monolithic granite blocks with a smaller block at either end , all hewn from a single rock . Han called the work " an explanation of nature 's physical reaction when it is impacted by force , gravity and energy " , and commented : " When I am working on stone , the immediate context is physical , the force of hammering , chiseling and drilling hard stone creates heat and energy . The reaction of the particles causes sparks and waves of sound . The appearance of the stone is the result , the consequent physical reaction . Understanding the character of nature through the physical context has become part of my sculpture . "
According to art curator Tay Swee Lin , Han 's sculptures " exude smooth , sensual lines that are quietly engaging and tactile " , and her art " is a testimony of beauty with meditative quietness belying a resilience and strength that stone and metal encompass . The artist 's personal relationship with her art is one that is complete – her sculptures are crafted by hand from start to finish ; painstakingly carved , sanded and polished . ... In land scarce Singapore , Han 's work encapsulates the appreciation and understanding of the delicate balance of nature that exists in an urban environment . "
In the catalogue accompanying her Four Dimensions exhibition , Han said : " Postmodernism accepts the facts that art does not follow any rigid man @-@ made rules . If the artist says , ' this is art ' then it is art , provided only that the artist can demonstrate a valuable idea or concept . Art needs man to judge and decide whether it is indeed art . "
= = Awards and honours = =
In 1988 , Han won the Best Entry Award from the Singapore National Theatre Trust for her participation in a show entitled Basics at the National Museum Art Gallery . She was awarded a scholarship for the Portland Sculpture Park on the Isle of Portland in Dorset , England , by the Arts Council of Great Britain and the National Arts Council ( NAC ) in 1990 . Together with the installation artist S. Chandrasekaran , she helped to transform an old limestone quarry into a sculpture park , creating a work called Flow through the Rocks . In 1993 she received sponsorship from the Singapore International Foundation to attend the International Painting and Sculpture Symposium in Gulbarga ( Kalburgi ) in Karnataka , India , and served on the NAC 's Arts Resource Panel between 1993 and 1994 .
In 1995 , Han was conferred the Cultural Medallion for Art by the Minister for Communications , Information and the Arts . In her award citation , she was described as " a consummate carver " with " arduous and physically demanding relationships with materials " who had " always been passionate and emphatic about sculpture " . She was also a finalist for the Women Inspire Awards 2002 , and the winner of the sculpture and painting section at the 11th Triennale – India organized by the Lalit Kala Akademi ( National Academy of Art of India ) in 2005 for her Bud , Leaf and Seed Series . The following year , she won the Outstanding City Sculpture Award in China .
In September 2008 , Han was one of seven Cultural Medallion winners to receive an $ 80 @,@ 000 grant from the NAC 's CM Grant programme to fund a project involving site @-@ specific installations based on Singapore flora .
= = Major exhibitions = =
Some of the information in the table above was obtained from Han Sai Por , Women in the Arts , Singapore ( WITAS ) , 2000 , archived from the original on 14 June 2009 , retrieved 12 June 2009 .
= = Works = =
Han , Sai Por ( 1993 ) , Four Dimensions : A Sculptural Installation , Singapore : Sheen 's Gallery , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 4392 @-@ 6 .
Han , Sai Por ( 2002 ) , Sculpture , Singapore : Art @-@ 2 Gallery , OCLC 225985814 .
Han , Sai Por ( 2005 ) , Han Sai Por , Singapore : National Arts Council , OCLC 233928427 .
= Provisional Legislature of Oregon =
The Provisional Legislature of Oregon was the single @-@ chamber legislative body of the Provisional Government of Oregon . It served the Oregon Country of the Pacific Northwest of North America from 1843 until early 1849 at a time when no country had sovereignty over the region . This democratically elected legislature became the Oregon Territorial Legislature when the territorial authorities arrived after the creation of the Oregon Territory by the United States in 1848 . The body was first termed the Legislative Committee and later renamed the House of Representatives . Over the course of its six @-@ year history the legislature passed laws , including taxation and liquor regulation , and created an army to deal with conflicts with Native Americans .
Many of the legislators would become prominent figures during the territorial years of Oregon . At first the body was a small committee of nine people , but the group was altered when the Organic Laws of Oregon were revised in 1845 with the legislative branch of the Provisional Government becoming the Oregon House of Representatives with a minimum of 13 members . Once the government was dissolved in 1849 , all the laws remained in effect , except for the one that authorized the minting of coins . Territorial Governor Joseph Lane nullified that law , because it was in conflict with Article I , Section 8 of the United States Constitution , giving Congress the sole right to coin money , thus ending production of the Beaver Coins .
= = Background = =
On May 2 , 1843 , by a vote of 52 to 50 , the European American settlers of the Oregon Country ( mainly those from the Willamette Valley ) , created a provisional government at Champoeg . In May and June , a nine @-@ person committee met in Oregon City and drafted the Organic Laws of Oregon as a pseudo @-@ constitution that was subsequently ratified on July 5 , 1843 . This document created the government and authorized a provisional legislature of nine people .
= = 1843 = =
On May 16 , the nine @-@ person committee of James A. O 'Neil , Robert Moore , William H. Gray , William P. Dougherty , David Hill , Robert Shortess , Thomas J. Hubbard , Robert Newell , and Alanson Beers met for three days to draft laws . The group met again for two days starting on June 16 , with George LeBreton serving as the recorder and Moore as the chairman for both sets of meetings . The laws drafted became the Organic Laws of Oregon and were ratified on July 5 . Committees on land claims , appropriations , military , the judiciary , and districting were also formed at that meeting .
The organic laws were based on the laws of Iowa Territory . The document outlined the legislative branch and its powers , vested in a unicameral or single body . At that time the title of the legislature was the Legislative Committee and it consisted of nine elected representatives apportioned by population to the four established districts ( which later became counties ) . The Organic Laws required the legislature to meet in June and December of each year .
= = 1844 = =
The first meeting of the 1844 legislature took place June 18 at the home of Felix Hathaway in Oregon City . This session lasted until June 27 , and another session was held from December 16 to 21 at the residence of John E. Long , also in Oregon City . At the December meeting , Executive Committee members Peter G. Stewart and Osborne Russell presented a message to the group regarding the opposing claims of the United States and Great Britain .
Among the laws passed during the 1844 session was the " Lash Law " , which banned Blacks from living in the territory with violators subject to 20 – 39 lashes across the back every six months , until the person left the region .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented ( McCarver served as the speaker of the body with John E. Long as the recorder ) :
= = 1845 = =
The 1845 legislature met three different times , under two different structures . First , from June 24 to July 5 , 1845 , the legislature met in Oregon City , first at the home of John E. Long and then the home of Theophilus R. Magruder , with Morton M. McCarver serving as the speaker of the group . After this , the Organic Laws were replaced with the Organic Act of 1845 , which altered the legislature in several ways . First the number of representatives was increased to include a minimum of 13 and a maximum of 61 . Second , the name was changed to the House of Representatives . All members of the body were to be elected by popular vote with vacancies filled using special elections . The body also received new powers to impeach any civil official by a 3 / 4ths vote , apportion the legislators among the districts , create post offices , levy taxes , declare war , organize and call out the militia , create lower courts , pass laws concerning the general welfare of the region , regulate trade with the Native Americans , regulate liquor sale and manufacture , and regulate the police power of the government , among other powers . Meetings continued to be in June and December .
With these changes , a special session of the legislature met August 5 until August 20 in Oregon City . On August 11 , 1845 at the introduction of Jesse Applegate the body passed a law against dueling within a half hour that Governor Abernethy also signed within 30 minutes of the bill 's introduction . A new legislature met beginning on December 2 , with Robert Newell serving as the speaker of the body through December 10 and Henry A. G. Lee assuming the post until the conclusion of the session on December 19 . Polk District was created during the session , with the bill passed on December 19 . John E. Long served as the recorder and Theophilus R. Magruder as the sergeant at arms for the group . The same people who served in the summer session also served in the December session .
These sessions of the legislature designated Oregon City as the official capital and introduced income and property taxes that replaced an 1843 subscription program used to finance the government 's activities . Other business included a ban on hard liquor , the incorporation of Oregon City , approval for the Barlow Road around Mount Hood , incorporation of the Multnomah Circulating Library , and incorporation of the Oregon Institute . At the meetings John E. Long served as the recorder , Frederick Prigg as the clerk , a Mr. Shaw as the sergeant at arms , and two people as chaplains .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = 1846 = =
After hearing the news that the United States had informed Britain it would be ending its obligations under the Treaty of 1818 and looking for a division of the Oregon Country , the legislature scaled back its agenda . One piece of legislation passed was a pilotage law that set standards and licensed boat pilots at the mouth of the Columbia River . The 1846 legislature met in the home of Henry Montgomery Knighton in Oregon City from December 1 through 19 , with Asa Lovejoy serving as the speaker and leader . Noah Huber served as a clerk and Knighton as sergeant at arms .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = 1847 = =
In 1847 the legislature met from December 7 to 28 at the Methodist Church in Oregon City . On the second day of this meeting at Main and Seventh streets , news of the Whitman massacre , which occurred on November 29 , 1847 , was delivered to the legislature by Governor Abernethy . This event would dominate the remainder of the session as the Provisional Government worked with the Hudson 's Bay Company to send an army east to Walla Walla . Forty @-@ two men under the command of Henry A. G. Lee were sent immediately to The Dalles in what was the beginning of the Cayuse War . A large force under the command of Cornelius Gilliam was then organized and sent to punish those responsible for the massacre . On December 23 , the group created Benton District out of the southern section of Polk District , naming the new district for Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton . In the legislature , Robert Newell was chosen as the speaker of the group with Calvin W. Cook as clerk .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = Final sessions = =
The Provisional Legislature met for two sessions in late 1848 and early 1849 . The first session , from December 5 to December 13 , never formally organized as so many of the representatives had traveled south for the California Gold Rush . Beginning on February 5 , a session was organized that conducted the final business of the Provisional Government . The session lasted until February 16 . During this session a law forbidding the sale of firearms and supplies to Native Americans was repealed , and a law was passed to authorize the minting of gold coins . The law concerning the coins allowed for the creation of the Beaver Coins , which had a higher gold content than United States minted coins . Less than a month later , when the new territorial governor Joseph Lane arrived , however , he rescinded the law as unconstitutional and the coins were collected and removed from circulation . For the legislative session Ralph Wilcox was chosen as speaker , but he resigned from the post . Stephen Meek served as the doorkeeper , William G. T ’ Vault as a clerk , and William Holmes as sergeant at arms .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = Oregon Territory = =
On June 15 , 1846 , the Oregon Treaty was signed with Great Britain , which settled the dispute over sovereignty of the Oregon Country . On August 13 , 1848 the United States Congress created the Oregon Territory out of the land between California and the 49th parallel ( this served as the border with Britain 's North American colonies ) and west of the Rocky Mountains . A new bicameral territorial legislature was created with an upper chamber Council and lower chamber House . These bodies met for the first time on July 16 , 1849 , with some members of the provisional legislature continuing into the new government , including David Hill , Asa Lovejoy , Samuel Parker , and Absalom J. Hembree . Upon statehood in 1859 , the territorial legislature would be transformed into the Oregon Legislative Assembly .
= Brazilian ironclad Tamandaré =
The Brazilian ironclad Tamandaré was an armored gunboat built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the mid @-@ 1860s . She bombarded the Paraguayan fortifications blocking access up the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers as well as bombarding Paraguayan positions in support of the Brazilian Army . The ship participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and was badly damaged . After Tamandaré was repaired she provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war , aside from bombarding Paraguyan capital of Asunción once . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Tamandaré was decommissioned in 1879 and scrapped afterwards .
= = Design and description = =
Tamandaré was designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for a small , simple , shallow @-@ draft armored ship capable of withstanding heavy fire . She was one of three armored gunboats , together with Barroso and Rio de Janeiro , built to the same general plan , although each ship varied significantly in size and armament . The ship is best characterized as a central battery design because the casemate did not extend the length of the ship . A bronze ram , 1 @.@ 4 meters ( 4 ft 7 in ) long , was fitted . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . For sea passages the ship 's freeboard could be increased to 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) by use of removable bulwarks 1 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 ft 7 in ) high . On riverine operations , the bulkwarks , and the ship 's masts , were usually removed .
The ship measured 51 @.@ 36 meters ( 168 ft 6 in ) long overall , with a beam of 9 @.@ 19 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) and had a mean draft of 2 @.@ 44 meters ( 8 ft 0 in ) . Tamandaré normally displaced 754 metric tons ( 742 long tons ) and 845 metric tons ( 832 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew numbered 120 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Tamandaré had a single John Penn & Sons 2 @-@ cylinder steam engine taken from the British @-@ built wooden gunboat Tietê and proved unreliable in service . The engine , which drove a single 2 @-@ bladed propeller , was powered by two tubular boilers that produced a total of 273 indicated horsepower ( 204 kW ) which gave the ship a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The ship 's funnel was mounted directly in front of her casemate . Tamandaré carried enough coal for six days ' steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Tamandaré mounted one 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader , three 68 @-@ pounder and two 12 @-@ pounder smoothbore guns in her casemate . To minimize the possibility of shells or splinters entering the casemate through the gunports they were as small as possible , allowing only a 24 ° -arc of fire for each gun . The rectangular , 9 @-@ metre ( 29 ft 6 in ) casemate had two gun ports on each side as well as the front and rear .
The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed a nominal 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The exact type of 12 @-@ pounder gun is not known . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of Tamandaré was made from three layers of wood , each 203 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The ship had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 1 @.@ 52 meters ( 5 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters ( 4 in ) covering the machinery and magazines , 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) elsewhere . The curved deck , as well as the roof of the casemate , was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The casemate was protected by 102 millimeters of armor on all four sides , backed by 609 millimeters ( 24 @.@ 0 in ) of wood capped with a 102 mm layer of peroba hardwood .
= = Service = =
Tamandaré was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 31 May 1865 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 21 June 1865 , completed on 16 September and cost £ 40 @,@ 506 . The ship arrived at Corrientes on 16 March 1866 ; the next day she sailed for the confluence of the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers to begin operations against the Paraguayans . On 26 March she bombarded the defenses of Itapirú and sank one Paraguayan boat ( chata ) . During her bombardment on the following day , a shell entered one of her gun ports , despite the chain curtain that protected it , and killed 14 men , including her captain , Lieutenant Mariz e Barros , and wounded 20 . The ship bombarded Curuzu Fort , downstream of Curupaity , on 1 September in company with the ironclads Rio de Janeiro , Brasil , Lima Barros , Barroso , and the monitor Bahia . Between 24 and 29 December Barroso , Tamandaré , Brasil , and 11 gunboats bombarded Curuzu Fort again .
On 8 January 1867 Tamandaré , Bahia and Colombo bombarded Paraguayan fortifications at Curupaity . The Brazilians broke through the river defenses at Curupaity during daylight on 15 August 1867 with Barroso , Tamanadaré , and eight other ironclads . The ships were hit 256 times , but not seriously damaged , and only suffered 10 killed and 22 wounded . Tamandaré 's engines broke down while she was in front of the guns and she had to be towed to safety by the ironclad Silvado . They were quickly repaired and Tamandaré bombarded Paraguayan artillery batteries at Timbó that commanded the Paraguay River north of Humaitá the next day . The Paraguayans repeated the operation again on 9 September with much the same result . On 26 September the Paraguyans moved a large @-@ caliber gun below Humaitá and bombarded the Brazilian squadron , but it was silenced by gunfire from Tamandaré and Bahia .
On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads , including Tamandaré , sailed past Humaitá at night . Three Pará @-@ class river monitors , Rio Grande , Alagoas and Pará , were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . Both Tamandaré , which had taken an estimated 120 hits , and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking . Tamandaré was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid @-@ March . On 25 November the ship bombarded the Paraguyan capital of Asunción . Tamandaré and Alagoas destroyed the artillery batteries at Timbó on 23 March 1869 . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla , based in Ladário , after the war . Tamandaré was decommissioned on 18 April 1879 and scrapped afterwards .
= Independence Day ( 1996 film ) =
Independence Day ( sometimes styled as ID4 ) is a 1996 American epic , science fiction film . Directed and co @-@ written by Roland Emmerich , it is now considered a significant turning point in the history of the Hollywood blockbuster . The film focuses on disparate groups of people who converge in the Nevada desert in the aftermath of a calamitous attack by an ostensibly powerful extraterrestrial race from an unknown origin . Along with the rest of the human population , they launch a last @-@ ditch counterattack on July 4 – the same date as the Independence Day in the United States .
While promoting Stargate in Europe , Emmerich came up with the idea for the film when fielding a question about his own belief in the existence of alien life . He and Devlin decided to incorporate a large @-@ scale attack having noticed that aliens in most invasion films travel long distances in outer space only to remain hidden when reaching Earth . Shooting began in July 1995 in New York City , and the film was officially completed on June 20 , 1996 .
The film was scheduled for release on July 3 , 1996 , but began showing on July 2 ( the same day the film 's story begins ) in many theaters the result of a high level of anticipation among moviegoers . The film grossed over $ 817 @.@ 4 million worldwide , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film of 1996 , and briefly , the second highest @-@ grossing film worldwide of all time behind 1993 's Jurassic Park . As of June 2016 , it ranks 55th among the highest @-@ grossing films worldwide , and was at the forefront of the large @-@ scale disaster film and sci @-@ fi resurgence of the mid @-@ 1990s . The film received positive reviews upon its release , with critics praising its groundbreaking special effects , musical score , patriotic theme , and acting , which focused primarily on the performances of
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marsh rice rats ; the animal has been proposed as a model for research on the disease in humans . The identity of the bacterial agent remains unknown . Vitamin E , fluoride , and iodide protect against bone loss associated with this disease in the rice rat and a high @-@ sucrose diet increases the severity of periodontitis . A case of kyphosis has been observed in a North Carolina marsh rice rat .
= = = Population dynamics = = =
The population density of the marsh rice rat usually does not reach 10 per ha ( 4 per acre ) . The weather may influence population dynamics ; in the Everglades , densities may exceed 200 per ha ( 80 per acre ) when flooding concentrates populations on small islands , In the Florida Keys , population density is less than 1 per ha ( 0 @.@ 4 per acre ) . On Breton Island , Louisiana , perhaps an atypical habitat , home ranges in males average about 0 @.@ 37 hectares ( 0 @.@ 91 acres ) and in females about 0 @.@ 23 hectares ( 0 @.@ 57 acres ) . A study in Florida found male home ranges to average 0 @.@ 25 hectares ( 0 @.@ 62 acres ) and female 0 @.@ 33 hectares ( 0 @.@ 82 acres ) .
Population size is usually largest during the summer and declines during winter , although populations in Texas and Louisiana may be more seasonally stable . Animals also often lose weight during winter . Population size varies dramatically from year to year in southern Texas . In coastal Mississippi , a study found that storms probably do not cause the population to decline substantially and in Texas inundation of its habitat did not significantly influence population density . However , another study in Mississippi found that flooding did cause a marked decline in rice rat abundance .
In the northern part of its range , the species often occurs with the meadow vole ( Microtus pennsylvanicus ) , but there is no evidence that they compete with each other . In the south , the hispid cotton rat ( Sigmodon hispidus ) and the rice rat regularly occur together ; water levels are known to influence relative abundance of these two species in Florida . The cotton rat is mainly active during the day , which may help differentiate its niche from that of the rice rat .
= = = Diet = = =
The marsh rice rat takes both vegetable and animal food , and is more carnivorous than most small rodents are ; dominant food items vary seasonally . Plants eaten include species of Spartina , Salicornia , Tripsacum , and Elymus , among others ; it mainly eats seeds and succulent parts . A 2004 study found that it prefers Spartina alterniflora that have been fertilized with nitrogen and mainly eats the inner tissue of the stem , perhaps because nitrogen @-@ fertilized plants contain much less dimethylsulfoniopropionate in their inner tissues . The marsh rice rat was a major pest on rice plantations , feeding on the rice when it was newly planted . It also eats the fungus Endogone at times .
Animals that are important to the marsh rice rat 's diet include insects , fiddler crabs , and snails , but the species is known to eat many other animals , including fish , clams , and juvenile Graptemys and Chrysemys turtles . They scavenge on carcasses of muskrats , deermice , and sparrows , and may be the most important predator on eggs and young of the marsh wren . Rice rats also eat eggs and young of the seaside sparrow ( Ammodramus maritimus ) and are aggressive towards the sparrow , apparently leading it to avoid nesting in Juncus in a seaside salt marsh in Florida . On islands in North Carolina , rice rats consume eggs of Forster 's tern ( Sterna forsteri ) . They have been observed preying on alligator eggs in Georgia .
Laboratory studies have found that rice rats assimilate 88 % to 95 % of the energy in their food . They lose weight when fed on Spartina , fiddler crabs , or sunflower seeds alone , but a diet consisting of several of those items or of mealworms is adequate to maintain weight . In an experiment , marsh rice rats did not show hoarding behavior , but wild rice rats have been observed carrying food to a nest . Even when they live in uplands , they mostly eat water plants and animals , although they consume some upland plants .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Breeding occurs mostly during the summer . Some studies report that breeding ceases entirely during the winter , but winter breeding occurs as far north as Virginia . This is primarily because photoperiod influences their circadian rhythm which determines breeding . In both Texas and Virginia , there is less variation in reproductive activity in females than in males . In the south of its range , animals may breed less when the summer is at its warmest . The duration of the estrous cycle ranges from 6 to 9 days , with an average of 7 @.@ 72 days . Estrus occurs again after a litter is born . A 1970 study reported that copulatory behavior in the marsh rice rat is similar to that in laboratory brown rats . Before mating starts , " the male pursues the running female from behind . " The male then repeatedly mounts and dismounts the female ; not all mounts result in an ejaculation . Penetrations only last for about 250 ms , but during mating the penetrations and the intervals between them become longer . Even when a male is satiated after mating , it is able to copulate again when a new female is introduced ( the Coolidge effect ) . Partly because of resistance by the female , the frequency of ejaculation during mating is rather low in marsh rice rats as compared to laboratory rats , hamsters , and deermice .
After a gestation of about 25 days , three to five young are usually born , although litter sizes vary from one to seven . Females may have up to six litters a year . Newborns weigh 3 to 4 g ( about 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 15 oz ) and are blind and almost naked . About as many males as females are born . The external ears ( pinnae ) soon unfold and on the first day claws are visible and the young emit high @-@ pitched squeaks . On the second day , they are able to crawl and during the third to fifth days the whiskers and eyelids develop . On the two subsequent days , the mammae and incisors become visible and the animals become more active . Between the eighth and eleventh day , the eyes open , the fur develops , and the young begin to take solid food . Weaning occurs on the eleventh to twentieth day according to different studies . There is considerable variation in reported body masses at different ages , perhaps because of geographic variation . Sexual activity commences when the animals are about 50 to 60 days old . In the wild , rice rats usually live for less than a year ; one study suggested that the average lifespan is only seven months .
= = Human interactions = =
The marsh rice rat is generally of little importance to humans , which is perhaps why it is not as well @-@ studied as some other North American rodents . In 1931 , Arthur Svihla noted that virtually no information had been published on the habits and life history of the marsh rice rat since the 1854 publication of Audubon and Bachman 's description . Writing on Everglades mammals , Thomas E. Lodge notes that although the name " rat " may associate it unpleasantly with the introduced black and brown rats , its appearance is more endearing , even cute . J.S. Steward proposed the marsh rice rat as a model organism in 1951 to study certain infections that other rodents used at the time are not susceptible to . The marsh rice rat is quite susceptible to periodontitis and has been used as a model system for the study of that disease .
The marsh rice rat is the primary host of the Bayou virus ( BAYV ) , the second most common agent of hantavirus infections in the United States . About 16 % of animals are infected and the virus is most prevalent in old , heavy males . The virus may be transmitted among rice rats through bites inflicted during fights . It is also present in rice rat saliva and urine and human infections may occur because of contact with these excreta . Two related hantaviruses , Catacama virus and Playa de Oro virus , are known from Oryzomys couesi in Honduras and western Mexico , respectively . An arenavirus normally associated with woodrats ( Neotoma ) has also been found in Florida marsh rice rats . Antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi , the bacterium that causes Lyme disease in the United States , have been found in marsh rice rats in Virginia , Maryland , North Carolina , and Tennessee . Another pathogenic bacterium , Bartonella , is known from Georgia marsh rice rats .
The 2009 IUCN Red List assesses the conservation status of the marsh rice rat as " Least Concern " , because it is a common , widespread , and stable species without major threats that occurs in several protected areas . The Florida Keys form is rare and in decline and is threatened by competition with the black rat , predation by domestic cats , habitat loss , and loss of genetic variation ; it is considered endangered . At the northern edge of its distribution , the marsh rice rat is listed as threatened in Illinois and whether it persists in Pennsylvania is unclear ; it probably formerly occurred in tidal marshes on the Delaware River . In Illinois , its population may have regenerated because wetlands have been developed to protect waterfowl and shorebirds and because suitable wetlands often develop in abandoned coal @-@ mining operations . A 2001 study projected that climate change would reduce the range of the marsh rice rat in Texas , where it is now common but may become threatened by habitat loss in the future . A study at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant found that rice rats accumulate more PCBs but less heavy metal than white @-@ footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ) .
= SM U @-@ 23 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 23 or U @-@ XXIII was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 23 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 23 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . In February 1918 , U @-@ 23 was sunk with all hands by the Italian torpedo boat [ [ Italian torpedo boat Airone ( 1907 ) | Airone ] ] while attempting an attack on the Italian transport Memfi . U @-@ 23 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 23 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 23 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Hungarian UBAG yard in Fiume . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 23 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes ( 191 short tons ) surfaced and 210 tonnes ( 231 short tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 23 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 23 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 23 was launched on 5 January 1917 , but It is not known with certainty when U @-@ 23 was commissioned . Author Paul Halpern reports that U @-@ 23 and her three sisters all entered service between August and November 1917 . Although there are no specific reports of problems with U @-@ 23 , the U @-@ 20 class as a whole suffered from unreliable engines which compounded the poor handling characteristics of the boats . On 21 February 1918 , Linienschiffsleutnant Klemens Ritter von Bézard , U @-@ 23 's only commanding officer , was guiding the boat in an attack on the Italian transport Memfi in the Straits of Otranto . U @-@ 23 came under attack by the Italian torpedo boat Airone which first tried to ram the U @-@ boat , and then deployed an explosive paravane . When the paravane contacted the submerged U @-@ 23 , it blew debris into the air , sinking the submarine with all hands . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 23 had no wartime successes .
= Reginald Pinney =
Major @-@ General Sir Reginald John Pinney , KCB ( 2 August 1863 – 18 February 1943 ) was a British Army officer who served as a divisional commander during the First World War . While commanding a division at the Battle of Arras in 1917 , he was immortalised as the " cheery old card " of Siegfried Sassoon 's poem " The General " .
Pinney served in South Africa during the Boer War with the Royal Fusiliers , and at the outbreak of the First World War was given command of a brigade sent to reinforce the Western Front in November 1914 . He led it in the early part of 1915 , taking heavy losses at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle . That September he was given command of the 35th Division , a New Army division of " bantam " soldiers , which first saw action at the Battle of the Somme ; after three months in action , he was exchanged with the commander of the 33rd Division .
He commanded the 33rd at Arras in 1917 , with mixed results , and through the Spring Offensive in 1918 , where the division helped stabilise the defensive line after the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was routed . After the war , he retired to rural Dorset , where he served as a local justice of the peace , as High Sheriff for the county , and as a Deputy Lieutenant ; he was also the ceremonial colonel of his old regiment , the Royal Fusiliers .
= = Early career = =
Reginald Pinney was born in 1863 in Clifton , Bristol , the eldest son of the Reverend John Pinney , vicar of Coleshill , Warwickshire , and his wife , Harriet . His paternal grandfather was Charles Pinney , a prominent merchant and former mayor of Bristol , whilst his maternal grandfather , John Wingfield @-@ Digby , was a previous vicar of Coleshill ; an uncle , John Wingfield @-@ Digby , would later be the Conservative MP for North Dorset . John and Harriet Pinney had five more children , four sons and a daughter , before Harriet 's death in 1877 . At least one of Reginald 's brothers , John , also passed into the Army , joining the Central India Horse .
After four years at Winchester College , Pinney entered the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst in 1882 . He passed out of the Academy and was appointed to the Royal Fusiliers ( 7th Foot ) as a lieutenant on 6 February 1884 . He spent five years with his regiment before attending the Staff College , Camberley in 1889 – 90 ; after leaving Camberley , he was promoted to captain in December 1891 . From 1896 to 1901 he served on the staff as the deputy assistant adjutant @-@ general at Quetta , in India , with a promotion to major in December 1898 . He married Hester Head in 1900 ; the couple had three sons and three daughters .
Pinney saw active service in the Boer War , arriving in South Africa in November 1901 as second @-@ in @-@ command of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers . He served with the battalion until the end of the war , following which he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel and given command of the 4th Battalion , with a brevet promotion to colonel in 1906 . He relinquished command of the battalion in 1907 , going on to half pay , and later took up the position of assistant adjutant @-@ general in Egypt in 1909 . He held this posting until 1913 , aged fifty , when he was transferred to command a reserve unit , the Devon and Cornwall Brigade of the Wessex Division in the Territorial Force .
= = Brigadier in France = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , an Expeditionary Force of seven regular divisions was mobilised for service in France . At the same time , the Territorial Force was activated to replace them for home defence duties . The Expeditionary Force represented almost all the regular units stationed in the United Kingdom , but only about half the strength of the regular Army ; the remainder was scattered in various stations around the Empire , mainly in India and the Mediterranean . These units were withdrawn as quickly as they could be replaced by Indian or Territorial units , and formed into new divisions to reinforce the Expeditionary Force .
The Wessex Division — now numbered as the 43rd — had been assigned for duty in India to free up regular units there , with its staff and support units held back to form the framework of the new 8th Division , which was formed from returning regular battalions . As a result , Pinney was relieved from command of his Territorial brigade in October and assigned to command the newly formed 23rd Brigade , made up from three battalions that had been on garrison duty in Malta and one from Egypt . All were regular units , with very few reservists , but having spent a long period in colonial stations they were considered as only partially trained compared to the units serving with the Expeditionary Force .
The 8th Division was sent to France in November 1914 ; immediately after arrival , two battalions were deployed to hold a section of the front line for a week during the closing stages of the First Battle of Ypres . However , the brigade did not see its first major action under Pinney 's command until 10 March 1915 , when it was committed to action as part of the Battle of Neuve Chapelle . The 23rd Brigade met heavy resistance when it began its attack , due to a failure by the divisional artillery to bombard a large section of the defenders ' trenches ; the 2nd Middlesex , making a frontal attack , were wiped out almost completely . The other lead battalion of the brigade , the 2nd Cameronians , was enfiladed from the undamaged sector and took heavy losses , losing almost all its officers and retreating in confusion . Pinney quickly learned of this — he was only two hundred yards from the front line — and decided to continue the attack . As he was not able to call for artillery support , the only possible approach was to send in the two reserve battalions . The second assault suffered heavy casualties at the outset , and quickly had to be called off when it was discovered that the corps artillery was about to fire on the positions being attacked ; the Devonshires and West Yorkshires were withdrawn , having taken high casualties and achieved little . After this , the attack continued to bog down , and whilst there was some success elsewhere in the divisional sector , nothing more was achieved by 23rd Brigade . Following Neuve Chapelle , the brigade was reinforced with two Territorial battalions . At the Battle of Aubers on 9 May , 23rd Brigade was held in reserve by 8th Division and so escaped the heavy casualties of the two attacking brigades . Around noon a scratch force of all available infantry was pushed forward by the divisional commander to support these two brigades , including some units of Pinney 's brigade .
= = Divisional command = =
Pinney relinquished command of the brigade to Travers Clarke in late June , when he was promoted to major @-@ general and returned to England to take command of the newly formed 35th Division , a New Army volunteer division . The division was mainly drawn from industrial areas of Northern England , with a high proportion of " bantams " , men who were under the normal regulation height of 5 ft 3 in ( 160 cm ) for Army service . Among the officers Pinney first encountered in the 35th was Bernard Montgomery , recently posted as brigade major of the 104th Brigade , who would later serve under him as the GSO2 in the 33rd Division .
The division was transferred to France in early 1916 , in preparation for the summer offensive of that year . It moved into the line in February , and Pinney ordered a series of small raids in company or battalion strength through the following months . The 35th was deployed for the Battle of the Somme , assigned to XIII Corps in Fourth Army . It was held in reserve during the Battle of Albert , the opening phases of the attack in early July , but fought in the Battle of Bazentin Ridge and the subsequent attacks on High Wood , where it took heavy casualties ; in a week , one brigade lost a thousand men , a third of its strength . The division rested for a week in early August , but returned to the line almost immediately . At the end of the month , a badly planned and potentially suicidal attack on Falgemont Farm was cancelled by Pinney at the last minute when the " facts were pointed out " by Montgomery , and a new plan substituted ; the attacking battalion took the farm with light casualties . Following this , it was withdrawn to a quiet sector of the line .
In September , Major @-@ General Herman Landon , commanding the neighbouring 33rd Division was relieved of his command . It was arranged that he would exchange with Pinney in the 35th Division , and the transfer was made on 23 September . The decision to rotate commanders appears to have been a desire to give Landon a less active command , as the 35th was occupying a relatively quiet sector ; presumably , it was felt that Pinney was a more effective commander for an active division . When Pinney met the officers of one of his new battalions in early October 1916 , they recorded that he seemed " pleasant and human " , and " not too old " . However , some of his habits were unpopular ; most gallingly to his men , he stopped the regular issue of rum in the division shortly after taking command , replacing it with tea instead . The infantry were greatly displeased , with one NCO describing him as " a bun @-@ pinching crank , more suited to command of a Church Mission hut than troops " . There was some justification to the jibe ; as well as being teetotal , Pinney did not smoke , and was devoutly religious . The most lasting description of him was written in this period by Siegfried Sassoon , then an officer in one of the 33rd 's battalions , who used Pinney as the subject of his satirical poem " The General " .
The 33rd was a New Army division of the same wave as the 35th , but it had lost its original New Army composition ; by late 1916 , it was composed equally of Territorial , Regular and New Army battalions . Rather than the 35th 's bantams , the 33rd had originally been formed from " Pals battalions " , units drawn from local communities so that men could serve alongside their friends and colleagues , and the Public Schools Battalions , made up of former pupils of the elite public schools . Many of the initial units had been transferred out — or , in the case of the latter units , disbanded so that their men could be trained as officers — but a number of these close @-@ knit units still remained in the division .
Following Pinney 's arrival the division was withdrawn for two months to reorganise , missing the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette , and saw some fighting in the very end of the fighting on the Somme when a " pretentious " plan produced by the divisional command to capture a German trench system at night failed . The 33rd remained on the Somme front until March 1917 , when it was transferred to Amiens to participate in the Arras Offensive . Here , the division fought at the Second Battle of the Scarpe in late April , where it took 700 prisoners but suffered heavy losses . This was followed by a series of attacks on the Hindenburg Line in late May , the first of which , on the night of 20 May , was masterminded by Pinney — one observer noted that " his tail is right up over his back ... he was out for a gamble with his troops and he had it " , though sadly added that despite its great success , he still refused to authorise an issue of rum . A second attack on 27 May was a complete failure ; Pinney later explained the attack as having been a distraction in support of the coming Battle of Messines , an interpretation greeted with some cynicism by observers .
Following the fighting around Arras , the 33rd was moved to Nieuwpoort , Belgium , as part of the build @-@ up for the planned Operation Hush , a breakthrough along the coastal front coupled with an amphibious landing behind German lines . After the operation was cancelled , the division remained at Niewpoort , where Pinney was hospitalised and temporarily relinquished command . He remained in hospital for two months , during which time he missed heavy fighting by the 33rd at the Battle of Passchendaele . After VIII Corps Commander Hunter @-@ Weston had sacked the current divisional commander , Philip . R. Wood , for lack of aggression ( unjustifiably , in Simon Robbins ’ view ) , Pinney returned to the division on 30 November , amid rumours that he had got the return posting through personal influence .
The division remained in reserve until April 1918 , when German forces attacked as part of the Spring Offensive . During the Battle of the Lys , the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was effectively wiped out , leaving a two @-@ mile wide gap in the British lines . The 33rd was ordered into position , and Pinney personally commanded the divisional machine @-@ gun battalion , which — with the assistance of various stragglers from retreating units — helped turn back a heavy German attack at the Battle of Hazebrouck on 12 and 13 April . For his service in April , Pinney , along with the commanders of the 12th , 55th and 61st Divisions , was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . The 33rd was used to train the American 30th Infantry Division through the summer , but went over to the offensive in September , seeing action at the Battle of the St Quentin Canal , the Battle of Cambrai , and the Battle of the Selle . At the Selle , Pinney organised a dawn attack with improvised bridges , allowing the 33rd to force a bridgehead and successfully clear the opposing bank in a short time . The division finished the war in the Sambre valley , and began demobilisation . In February 1919 , with the division mostly demobilised , Pinney retired from the Army , aged fifty @-@ six , after thirty @-@ five years service .
= = Retirement = =
Following the end of his Army career , Pinney took up residence at Racedown Manor , in the village of Broadwindsor , Dorset , where he lived the life of a retired country gentleman . He became a Justice of the Peace and Deputy Lieutenant for the county , and served as its High Sheriff in 1923 . He did not return to an active Army post , though he held the ceremonial colonelcy of the Royal Fusiliers from 1924 to 1933 , as well as the honorary colonelcy of the Dorset Coastal Brigade , Royal Artillery , and the 4th ( Territorial ) Battalion of the Dorsetshire Regiment .
Pinney died on 18 February 1943 , survived by his wife and five of his children . All three of his sons served in the Second World War ; his eldest son , Bernard , was killed in action in November 1941 , commanding J Battery Royal Horse Artillery at Sidi Rezegh in North Africa . His daughter Rachel was part of the notorious " Ferguson 's Gang " who hit the headlines in the interwar years with masked appearances with bags of money to save properties for the National Trust . A scholarship fund , to provide access to higher education for the children of Dorset ex @-@ servicemen , was established in Pinney 's name in June 1943 , and remains in existence .
= Al @-@ Mundhir III ibn al @-@ Harith =
Al @-@ Mundhir ibn al @-@ Ḥārith ( المنذر بن الحارث ) , known in Greek sources as ( Flavios ) Alamoundaros ( Φλάβιος Ἀλαμούνδαρος ) , was the king of the Ghassanid Arabs from 569 to circa 581 . A son of Al @-@ Harith ibn Jabalah , he succeeded his father both in the kingship over his tribe and as the chief of the Byzantine Empire 's Arab clients and allies in the East , with the rank of patricius . Despite his victories over the rival Persian @-@ backed Lakhmids , throughout Mundhir 's reign his relations with Byzantium were lukewarm due to his staunch Monophysitism . This led to a complete breakdown of the alliance in 572 , after Mundhir discovered Byzantine plans to assassinate him . Relations were restored in 575 and Mundhir secured from the Byzantine emperor both recognition of his royal status and a pledge of tolerance towards the Monophysite Church .
In 580 or 581 , Mundhir participated in an unsuccessful campaign against the Persian capital , Ctesiphon , alongside the Byzantine general ( and future emperor ) Maurice . The failure of the campaign led to a quarrel between the two and Maurice accused Mundhir of treason . Byzantine agents captured Mundhir , who was brought to Constantinople but never faced trial . His arrest provoked an uprising among the Ghassanids under Mundhir 's son al @-@ Nu 'man VI . When Maurice ascended the throne in 582 , Mundhir was exiled to Sicily although , according to one source , he was allowed to return to his homeland after Maurice 's overthrow in 602 .
Mundhir was the last important Ghassanid ruler ; in 584 , the Byzantines would break up the Ghassanid federation . A capable and successful military leader , his rule also saw the strengthening of Monophysitism and a cultural flowering among the Arabs under his rule .
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white with aura @-@ like blue and pink hues to full blown color . Around the middle of the video , she is joined by two alter egos of her female friends , who also dance around the pole . The blonde Spears and her friends , while watching the dancing , later draw their attention to an attractive man sitting with his friends at a table across the bar .
The music video received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly said " The moral of the story is , if you ’ re going to build an entire video around a stripper pole , then you better work said pole like a nine @-@ to @-@ five . Drop it like it ’ s hot . [ ... ] Alas , in the case of " Gimme More , " I ’ ve seen sexier pole work during an afternoon of fly @-@ fishing " . Andrei Harmsworth of Metro commented " To her credit , the video is slightly less disappointing than her mimed performance of the track at the Video Music Awards last month but it is still smeared with the same smutty hallmarks " . Dose said the video " sucks less than you think " and added " Spears appears lucid , sometimes happy , and awards @-@ worthy editing makes her appear to be standing upright competently throughout " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said the lightning effects and digital body enhancement of the video " indicate a predilection toward maintaining an image that no longer reflects reality . It doesn 't point to an artist who refuses to evolve , but rather one who doesn 't know how — or isn 't being allowed to . " IGN writer Sketch Longwood called it one of Spears ' hottest videos , adding that she " proves to be quite skilled in the art of teasingly slinking around . " While reviewing the alternate version of the video in July 2011 , Becky Bain of Idolator stated that " Spears 's last few videos — particularly the joyfully silly clip for ' I Wanna Go ' — more than make up for the travesty that was the pop star 's video for ' Gimme More ' [ ... ] The stripper concept was a poor choice , the barely @-@ there outfits were ill @-@ fitting , the ' choreography ' was a joke , the editing was sloppy . "
An alternative version of the video leaked online on July 18 , 2011 , and included new scenes , which featured Spears strutting down the street in a black outfit and laying down in a zebra @-@ print bed with a cat . The scenes of blonde Spears were cut . Becky Bain of Idolator said that " Neither the deleted nor added parts add or subtract anything from the experience . This video was kind of doomed no matter how it was edited together . "
= = Live performances = =
= = = MTV Video Music Awards = = =
After days of media speculation , it was confirmed on September 6 , 2007 , that Spears would open the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at the Pearl Theatre in the Palms Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada , on September 9 , 2007 . It was also announced that she was going to perform " Gimme More " , with a magic act from illusionist Criss Angel in some parts of the performance . However , the bit is thought to have been rejected by the show 's organizers at the last minute . The executive producer of the 2007 VMAs Jesse Ignjatovic contacted Spears since she wanted to start the show in " a very big and dramatic way " , and was confident that Spears would deliver and set the tone for the rest of the night . She also said Spears was excited after she was approached by MTV to perform . On September 7 , 2007 , Spears started rehearsing at the Pearl Theater . An exclusive video from the rehearsal was posted on MTV.com the following day . The performance began with a close @-@ up of the back of Spears 's head , and continued with Spears turning to the camera and lip synching the first lines of Elvis Presley 's 1958 song " Trouble " , " If you 're lookin ' for trouble , you came to the right place / If you 're lookin ' for trouble , look right in my face . " " Gimme More " began , and the camera panned out to reveal Spears wearing a black , jewel @-@ encrusted bikini and black boots . She was accompanied by male and female dancers dressed in black outfits . Several pole dancers danced in smaller stages around the audience . The backdrop videos featured images of chandeliers floating and silhouettes of women , which were compared by Gil Kaufman of MTV to the gun barrel and title sequence of the James Bond series . At the end of the performance , Spears smiled and thanked the audience before leaving the stage .
The performance was universally panned by critics . Jeff Leeds of The New York Times said that " no one was prepared for Sunday night ’ s fiasco , in which a listless Ms. Spears teetered through her dance steps and mouthed only occasional words in a wan attempt to lip @-@ synch her new single " . Vinay Menon of the Toronto Star commented Spears " looked hopelessly dazed . She was wearing the expression of somebody who had been deposited at the Palms Casino Resort by a tornado , one that promptly twisted away , taking her clothing and sense of purpose . [ ... ] [ She was ] lumbering , in slow motion , as if somebody had poured cement into her streetwalker boots " . David Willis of BBC stated her performance would " go down in the history books as being one of the worst to grace the MTV Awards " . The day after the performance , American blogger Chris Crocker posted a video in YouTube titled " Leave Britney alone ! " , in which he cried and defended Spears 's performance , explaining that he did not want her to spiral out of control like Anna Nicole Smith , who had died in February 2007 . Within the first 24 hours of its posting , the video accumulated over 2 million views . " Leave Britney alone ! " turned Crocker into an internet celebrity , and was featured on television shows such as The View and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . It was also parodied by dozens of other YouTube users , most famously by actor Seth Green . An editor for YouTube said " the melodramatic two @-@ minute clip made Crocker an instant YouTube star " and named it one of the top videos of 2007 . Wired named it the top video of 2007 .
= = = Other performances = = =
During Spears 's 2009 concert tour The Circus Starring Britney Spears , the LAZRtag Remix of " Gimme More " was used in a martial arts @-@ inspired interlude between the first and second act . On March 25 , 2011 , Spears performed a special show at Rain Nightclub in Las Vegas . The setlist of the show consisted of three songs from her seventh studio album , Femme Fatale , including " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " . During the performance of " Big Fat Bass " , Spears wore a latex bodysuit and elements of " 3 " , " Gimme More " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " were also included . On March 27 , 2011 , " Big Fat Bass " was also performed at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 , and the same day , Spears performed the set at Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
Spears also performed " Gimme More " at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . After the performance of " If U Seek Amy " , a video interlude in which a stalker talked about femme fatales in history saw the beginning of the third section . Spears returned to the stage wearing a golden bikini and made her entrance in a boat whose individual parts were wheeled by dancers in Egyptian costumes . Matt Kivel of Variety said , " the crowd reacted wildly to all of it : screaming out the chorus to ' I 'm a Slave 4 U , ' pulsating along to the twitch of ' Gimme More ' and going absolutely ballistic for the brief , two @-@ verse rendition of ' ... Baby One More Time . ' " Craig S. Semon of Telegram & Gazette called it the most over the top number of the show , adding , " She delivered the banal , brain @-@ numbing chorus [ ... ] while her dancers ( looking like extras from ' Stargate ' ) paraded around in Egyptian garb and basked in the glow of pyrotechnic sparks . " Spears also performs the song at her residency show , Britney : Piece of Me , which began in 2013 .
= = Cover versions and samples = =
" Gimme More " has been covered by many artists and a great number of amateurs . In late 2007 , American singer @-@ songwriter Marié Digby posted an acoustic cover of " Gimme More " along with a cover of Rihanna 's " Umbrella " in her YouTube account . Both became viral hits , with " Gimme More " gaining more than 300 @,@ 000 views in two weeks . Shortly after , Digby became the eighth most subscribed @-@ to artist on YouTube . She joked about the situation saying , " I could have done a karaoke video to [ ' Gimme More ' ] , but I just had my stripper pole taken out the other day from my living room , and it just wouldn 't have been the same " . The same year , Australian pop singer Sia released an acoustic version of the song . Swedish metal band Machinae Supremacy covered the song on their third studio album Overworld , released on February 13 , 2008 . Matthieu De Ronde of Archaic Magazine commented " [ it is ] one of the most unexpected covers of all time , [ ... ] this track has been given a somewhat comical but enjoyable makeover , but who said that metal couldn ’ t be fun ? " . American singer @-@ songwriter Christopher Dallman played a cover of the song during many of his concerts in 2007 . Two years later , he showed his version to his producer Rachel Alina , who prompted him to release an EP of Spears 's covers . The EP , titled Sad Britney , was released on November 9 , 2009 , and also contained covers of " Radar " , " Toxic " and " ... Baby One More Time " . It became Dallman 's first record to chart on iTunes . He also released a music video for " Gimme More " , which was criticized by Spears 's fans who thought Dallman was making fun of her . He explained , " There have been a few folks who have misinterpreted what I was doing and thought that I was somehow making fun of her , which really isn ’ t the case . I have such a place in my heart for Britney " .
" Gimme More " has been sampled in many songs , including Girl Talk 's " Give Me a Beat " ( 2008 ) and Charles Hamilton 's " Devil In A Light Pink Dress " ( 2009 ) . In the episode " Michael Scott Paper Company " of the television series The Office , the character of Michael Scott is driving his convertible listening to Lady Gaga 's " Just Dance " ( 2008 ) . When he stops the car , he looks into the camera and says " It 's Britney , bitch " , mistaking Gaga for Spears . During an episode of the television series Kath & Kim , the character of Brett Craig screams the catch phrase before starting a fight in a bar . During a skit in a 2008 episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show , in which Ellen DeGeneres and Spears sang Christmas carols through a neighborhood , DeGeneres said the catch phrase when knocking on a door . " It 's Britney , bitch " was also included in a video backdrop during the performance of " Human Nature " in Madonna 's 2008 @-@ 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . In the video , Spears was trapped in an elevator and tried to get out . At the end of the performance , the doors opened to reveal Spears saying the catch phrase . On November 6 , 2008 in the Los Angeles show at Dodger Stadium , Spears joined Madonna onstage halfway through the performance . In 2012 , " Gimme More " was covered on Glee during its second Britney Spears tribute episode . " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " features " Gimme More " which is performed by Heather Morris and heavily parodies Britney 's infamous 2007 MTV Music Video Awards performance. will.i.am 's single " Scream & Shout " ( which features Spears herself ) samples the phrase " Britney , bitch ! " . Rapper Jay @-@ Z sampled the line " It 's Britney , bitch ! " in " BBC " , a song on his 2013 album Magna Carta Holy Grail .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Background Vocals , Lead Vocals – Britney Spears
Producer – Nate " Danja " Hills
Vocal producer – Jim Beanz
Mixer and additional programming – Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica
Background vocals – Keri Hilson , Jim Beanz , Danja
Additional editing – Ron Taylor
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Germanus ( cousin of Justinian I ) =
Germanus ( Greek : Γερμανός ; died 550 ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general , one of the leading commanders of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) . Germanus was Emperor Justinian 's cousin , and a member of the ruling dynasty . He held commands in Thrace , North Africa , and the East against Persia , and was slated to command the final Byzantine expedition against the Ostrogoths . Having married into the Gothic Amal royal line through his second wife Matasuntha and a distinguished service record , at the time of his sudden death , he was considered the probable heir to Emperor Justinian .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early career = = =
Germanus was born before 505 , the nephew of Emperor Justin I ( r . 518 – 527 ) and thus cousin of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , and not his nephew , as is often erroneously stated . According to a statement in Jordanes 's Getica , Germanus was a descendant of the noble Roman clan of the Anicii . The exact nature of his connection , however , if indeed it is anything more than a literary device to indicate noble descent , is unclear . Theodor Mommsen hypothesized that his mother could have been a daughter of Anicia Juliana . During the reign of Emperor Justin I , he was raised to high office ( he is recorded as a vir illustris in a 519 letter addressed to him by Pope Hormisdas ) , eventually being appointed as magister militum per Thraciae . In this capacity , he scored a crushing victory over an invasion of the Antae .
By 536 , he was raised to the honorary consulate and the rank of patricius , and held the post of magister militum praesentalis . In that year , he was sent to North Africa to succeed Solomon as military commander , with the task of suppressing a large @-@ scale mutiny of the Byzantine troops led by Stotzas . His tenure there , described by Procopius , was a thorough success . By appearing conciliatory and paying the arrears , he won over a large part of the mutinous army . He then defeated the remaining rebels under Stotzas at the Battle of Scalas Veteres in the spring of 537 and stabilized the situation by suppressing another conspiracy amongst his troops and restoring discipline .
Germanus was recalled by Emperor Justinian in 539 , and sent to Antioch in 540 at the outbreak of the Lazic War with Sassanid Persia . Heavily outnumbered by the Persians , he retreated to Cilicia and was unable to prevent the catastrophic sack of Antioch in the same year . In the next year , as Belisarius assumed command in the East , Germanus returned to Constantinople .
= = = Conspiracy of Artabanes = = =
By 548 , he was acknowledged as the most influential of Emperor Justinian 's relatives and his heir apparent , although this was never formally recognized . In that year , his position was strengthened further by the death of Empress Theodora , who disliked him intensely . His stature at court was such that a plot was hatched by the disaffected general Artabanes and his kinsman Arsaces to assassinate Emperor Justinian and replace him with Germanus . The conspirators thought Germanus amenable to their plans , since he had been dissatisfied with Emperor Justinian 's meddling in the settling of the will of his recently deceased brother Boraides .
The conspirators first told Justin , Germanus 's eldest son , of their intentions . He , in turn , informed his father , who then held counsel with the comes excubitorum , Marcellus . In order to find out more of their intentions , Germanus met the conspirators in person , while a trusted aide of Marcellus , named Leontius , was concealed nearby and listened in . Marcellus then informed Emperor Justinian , and the conspirators were arrested , but treated with remarkable leniency . At first , Germanus and his sons too were suspected , until the testimony of Marcellus cleared them .
= = = High command and death = = =
In the meantime , the Gothic War in Italy against the Ostrogoths had been going badly for the Byzantine Empire , with the Gothic king Totila having wrested most of the peninsula back from the Byzantine troops . In 549 , Emperor Justinian decided to send a major expeditionary force to Italy with Germanus as its head . Soon , however , he changed his mind and appointed the patricius Liberius instead , before cancelling the expedition altogether .
In 550 , however , Emperor Justinian did finally appoint Germanus as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of an Italian expedition . Installing his base at Serdica ( modern Sofia , Bulgaria ) , he began assembling an army . According to Procopius , his fame was such that soldiers , both Byzantines and barbarians , flocked to his banner . Even a Slav invasion headed for Thessalonica allegedly diverted itself towards Dalmatia at the news of his taking up command in Thrace . Germanus also took a step that he hoped would significantly decrease the resistance he would face from the Ostrogoths : he took as his second wife Matasuntha , the former queen of the Goths , granddaughter of Theodoric the Great and last surviving heir of the royal Amal line . Contemporary accounts certainly suggest that this move , combined with news of the massive preparations , produced an effect among the Goths in Italy , as well as the numerous Byzantine defectors in their ranks , some of whom sent messages promising to return to Byzantine allegiance upon his arrival .
In addition , this marriage , which was endorsed by Emperor Justinian himself , marked Germanus out as the heir to both the East Roman and the Gothic realms . It was not to be , however : only two days before the army was to set out , in the early autumn of 550 , he fell ill and died . His demise dashed any hopes for the reconciliation of Goth and Roman in Italy , and led to further years of bloodshed , until the peninsula was definitively conquered by the Byzantines .
Germanus is given a very favourable treatment in the work of Procopius , he openly praises him for his virtue , justice , and generosity , as well as for his energy and ability both as a soldier and an administrator .
= = = Family = = =
Germanus had a brother named Boraides and perhaps also a brother named Justus . From his first marriage to a lady called Passara , he had two sons and a daughter :
Justin , born probably in circa 525 / 530 , became consul in 540 and general towards the end of Emperor Justinian 's reign .
Justinian , general .
Justina , born in circa 527 , who married in 545 the general John , nephew of the general and rebel Vitalian .
From his later marriage to Matasuntha , he had a son , also called Germanus , born posthumously ( late 550 / early 551 ) . Nothing further is known of him with certainty , although he can possibly be identified with the patricius Germanus , a leading senator in the reign of Emperor Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) whose daughter married Maurice 's eldest son Theodosius . Michael Whitby identifies the younger Germanus with Germanus , a son @-@ in @-@ law of Tiberius II Constantine and Ino Anastasia .
= Ireland King of Arms =
Ireland King of Arms was the title of an officer of arms to the King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1392 until the accession of Henry VII as King of England in 1485 . A king of arms is the highest of the three levels of officers of arms , and usually enjoys heraldic jurisdiction over a geographical area . Despite the name Ireland King of Arms did not appear
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filled with rain water . The surface is covered only three to seven months of the year , but the water is usually just 4 inches ( 10 cm ) deep . Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to the limestone , and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries . When flooded , the marl can support a variety of water plants , and dwarf cypresses may grow for hundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height . Solution holes may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry , and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails , as well as larval amphibians which feed young wading birds . Where the predominant soil is peat , a water @-@ marsh community exists . Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie , although its plants are less diverse . These regions tend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes .
Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies ; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season . Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates , turtles , fish , small mammals , and birds during extended drought periods . Alligators feed upon animals that visit the hole .
= = = Tropical hardwood hammock = = =
Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropical hardwood hammocks . They may rise between 1 and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 and 0 @.@ 91 m ) above water level in freshwater sloughs , sawgrass prairies , or pineland . These islands illustrate the difficulty of characterizing the climate of the Everglades as tropical or subtropical . Hammocks in the northern portion of the Everglades consist of more temperate plant species , but closer to Florida Bay the trees are tropical and smaller shrubs are more prevalent . Tropical trees like the West Indian mahogany ( Swietenia mahagoni ) were probably spread by birds carrying seeds from the West Indies .
These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires or limestone plateaus rising several inches above the surrounding peat . Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that grow in very dense clumps , such as southern live oak ( Quercus virginiana ) , gumbo limbo ( Bursera simaruba ) , royal palm ( Roystonea ) , and willow bustic ( Dipholis salicifolia ) . Near the bases of hammocks sharp saw palmettos ( Serenoa repens ) flourish , making the hammocks very difficult to penetrate . Water in sloughs flow around the islands creating moats . Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire , hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover ; the moats are therefore essential for protection . Islands vary in size , but most range between 1 and 10 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 and 4 @.@ 05 ha ) ; the water slowly flowing around them limits their size and gives them a teardrop appearance from above . The height of the trees is limited by factors such as frost , lightning , and wind : the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet ( 17 m ) .
Florida strangler figs ( Ficus aurea ) are common in hammocks , and find particular ease in rooting at the heads of cabbage palms ( Sabal palmetto ) . After taking root into the ground , they build complex frameworks around the host tree , eventually squeezing out light and nutrients , and essentially taking its place . A variety of invertebrates including beetles , ants , spiders , and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs , owls and other birds of prey , snakes , rodents , bobcats , and raccoons . There are more than 50 varieties of tree snails in the Everglades ; the color patterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks .
Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber , particularly by shipbuilders seeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood ( Krugiodendron ferreum ) . The largest and most mature of these trees had been removed by the late 18th century . Seminoles made their villages in hammocks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ; they lived in groups of chickees numbering half a dozen , with one central chickee for cooking and another for eating . Dugout canoes , cookware , stills , and sewing machines may still be found in remote locations .
= = = = Bayheads and willowheads = = = =
Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soil present . The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called humus , made of decaying plant matter and moisture trapped by the structure of the trees . When peat forms the layer atop the limestone of a tree island , bayheads develop , dominated by bay trees such as sweetbay magnolia ( Magnolia virginiana ) and others like swamp holly ( Ilex decidua ) , wax myrtle ( Myrica cerifera ) , and cocoplum ( Chrysobalanus icaco ) . Willowheads , dominated by willow trees ( Salix caroliniana ) , take hold where the hydroperiod is long , usually around solution or alligator holes , and may surround the holes , giving them a donut appearance from above .
= = Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge = =
The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two areas of poorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee : the Eastern Flatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big Cypress Swamp . The predominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine forest , but there are also cypress swamps and sloughs in the Eastern Flatwoods . Along the eastern border of the Everglades is the Atlantic Coastal Ridge , rising 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in elevation , and curving to the southwest , gradually decreasing in elevation until it meets Taylor Slough . The Coastal Ridge prevents Everglades water from flowing into the Atlantic Ocean to the east , directing it southwesterly into Florida Bay . The South Florida metropolitan area is located on a portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge , and much of the landscape has changed drastically within the past 100 years as a result of urban growth .
= = = Pine rockland = = =
Pine rocklands ( also called pinelands ) are found on uneven limestone substrates that contain pinnacles and solution holes . There are three primary locations of pine rocklands : the Miami Ridge , which runs from Miami into Long Pine Key near the main entrance of Everglades National Park ; the lower Florida Keys ; and the Big Cypress Swamp . The most significant feature of the pine rockland ecosystem is the South Florida slash pine ( Pinus elliotti var densa ; also called Dade County pine ) that reaches a height of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) . Pine rockland communities require fire for maintenance ; they have adapted to promote and resist fire at the same time . These communities are located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod , although some floors may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time . The sandy floor of the pine rocklands is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable . South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat . Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor , and opens pine cones to germinate seeds . A period without significant fire can turn pineland into hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines . The understory shrubs in pine rocklands include fire @-@ resistant species like saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ) , cabbage palm ( Sabal palmetto ) , and West Indian lilac ( Tetrazygia bicolor ) . The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are herbs , of which two dozen species exist . These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms allowing for quick sprouts after charring .
Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse . In some forests , 15 species of birds can be found . Common among them are the pine warbler ( Dendroica pinus ) , the red @-@ bellied woodpecker ( Melanerpes carolinus ) , and the eastern meadowlark ( Sturnella magna ) . More than 20 species of reptiles and amphibians have been noted , such as the green anole ( Anolis carolinensis ) , southern leopard frog ( Rana sphenocephala ) , and southern black racer ( Coluber constrictor priapus ) . Mammals such as the critically endangered Florida panther ( Puma concolor coryi ) , Florida black bear ( Ursus americanus floridanus ) , and several types of bats also live in the pine rocklands .
Before urban development of the South Florida region , pine rocklands covered around 161 @,@ 660 acres ( 654 @.@ 2 km2 ) in Miami @-@ Dade County . Pine forests were extensively cleared by urban developers and the lumber industry in the 1930s and 1940s . Within Everglades National Park , 19 @,@ 840 acres ( 80 @.@ 3 km2 ) of pine rockland communities are protected , but outside the park , 1 @,@ 780 acres ( 7 @.@ 2 km2 ) of pine forests remain as of 1990 , averaging 12 @.@ 1 acres ( 0 @.@ 049 km2 ) in size . Dade County pine has a remarkable longevity and has proven to be termite @-@ resistant , though dense enough to make driving nails difficult . In 1984 they were protected by a county ordinance , after many pine areas had been depleted . A misunderstanding of fire 's role also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests , as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks . Today prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years .
= = The Big Cypress = =
West of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp , commonly called " The Big Cypress " , referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees . It takes up the majority of Collier County ; at its most limited measurement , the swamp measures 1 @,@ 200 square miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km2 ) , but its hydrological boundary is nearly twice as large . The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) at its highest point and slopes gradually to the coastline for approximately 35 miles ( 56 km ) . Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress is the abundance of trees it is considered a swamp , rather than a marsh where grass is the main characteristic .
The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches ( 140 cm ) of water in the rainy season . Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz , creating a sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation . The majority of trees are bald cypress ( Taxodium distichum ) and not true cypresses ( Cupressaceae ) . Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions , with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water , called " knees " .
Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years ; some giants grow to 130 feet ( 40 m ) and are 500 years old . Still , they may be only seventh- or eighth @-@ generation cypresses . Few massive trees survived the logging operations that took place in the 1930s and 1940s . As a result , much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or state agencies that include Big Cypress National Preserve , Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary , Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve and two Indian reservations .
= = = Cypress head = = =
Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida , such swamps — as well as portions of sawgrass marshes — can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods . Hardwood hammocks and pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem . Much like tree islands that are colloquially referred to as " heads " , cypress trees grow in formations that resemble domes , with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center , rooted in the deepest peat . As the peat thins out , cypresses continue to grow , but are smaller and thinner , giving the small forest the appearance of a dome . They also grow in strands , slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs . Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes , such as red maple ( Acer rubrum ) , swamp bay ( Persea palustris ) , and pop ash ( Fraxinus caroliniana ) . If cypresses are removed , hardwoods take over , and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest .
Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight , plants such as orchids , bromeliads , and ferns thrive in cypress domes and strands . Orchids bloom throughout the year in cypress heads , and bromeliads appear in many varieties ; on Fakahatchee Strand alone , thirteen species have been documented . Bromeliads collect moisture from rain and humidity in the bases of their leaves , which also nurture frogs , lizards and various insects . Wood storks ( Mycteria americana ) nest almost exclusively in cypress forests and in the past 100 years have seen a dramatic decline , probably due to lack of reproduction tied to controlled water . Wood storks ' reproductive cycles coincide with the dry season , when small fish and amphibians are trapped in shallow pools and puddles . When water from canals or locks is released too soon or not at all , storks are unable to find enough food for themselves and their offspring . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 wood storks nested in The Big Cypress in the 1930s , but by the 1990s less than 2 @,@ 000 were counted .
= = Mangroves and coastal prairie = =
Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flows to the ocean . At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water , mangrove trees thrive , adapted as they are to both kinds of water . This brackish mixture of water and mangrove systems , crisscrossed by hundreds of tidal creeks , harbors a very productive ecosystem . The depth of these zones is dependent on how much water flows from the Everglades . In the wet season , fresh water pours into Florida Bay and sawgrass appears near the coastline . In dryer years , salt water creeps inland to the coastal prairie , an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water . Mangrove trees grow in fresh water ecosystems when the salt water flows far enough inland . The Everglades have the most extensive contiguous system of mangroves in the world . The mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands cover almost 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 km2 ) .
= = = Mangroves = = =
Three species of mangrove trees exist in the region : red ( Rhizophora mangle ) , black ( Avicennia germinans ) , and white ( Laguncularia racemosa ) , although all are from different families . All have the same characteristics : they are tolerant of salt , brackish , and fresh water ; they grow in oxygen @-@ poor soil ; and they can survive drastic water @-@ level changes . Black and white mangroves excrete salt from under their leaves , and red mangroves filter the salinity of sea water . All species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms . Red mangroves , for example , have far @-@ reaching roots that trap sediments . The trees not only stabilize coastlines , but add land as more sand and decaying vegetation is trapped in the root systems . All three mangroves also absorb the energy of waves and storm surges .
The estuaries act as fisheries for fry and nurseries for crustaceans . Shrimp , oysters , crabs , whelks , cockles , and snails thrive in these waters , as do primordial horseshoe crabs ( Limulus polyphemus ) . The region supports a $ 59 million @-@ a @-@ year Tortugas pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus duorarum ) industry , and a $ 22 million @-@ a @-@ year stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria ) industry . Between 80 and 90 percent of species that are harvested commercially in Florida are born or spend time in the shallow waters near the Everglades . Oysters and mangroves work in tandem to build up the coastline . The sand around the coastline has minute white particles of quartz and fine shells . When currents are right , oysters grow in colonies or beds , and deposit their shells , reinforcing the bed . Mangrove seeds , called propagules , are full embryos and float in water until they reach a favorable location and take root , often on oyster beds . They shed skin and litter , ensuring other trees will not compete for space and nutrients .
Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds . Wading birds , such as roseate spoonbills ( Platalea ajaja ) , egrets , and tricolored herons ( Egretta tricolor ) use the mangroves as a nursery , due to the proximity of food sources and the protection offered from most prey . Thousands of birds can nest in the mangroves at once , making a noisy and messy colony , but their droppings fertilize the mangrove trees . Shorebirds like rails , terns and gulls ; diving birds such as pelicans and grebes ; and birds of prey such as ospreys , hawks and vultures are among the more than 100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young .
= = Florida Bay = =
Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built by mangroves — and there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay — the ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of the Everglades . More than 800 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park , representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries . There are approximately one hundred keys in Florida Bay , many of which are mangrove forests . Larger islands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks . The outer rims of the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of the intertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes .
The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates ideal conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that foster animal life in the bay . Sea turtles and manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) eat the grass , while invertebrates such as worms , clams , and other mollusks consume algae formations and microscopic plankton . Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore , and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay . The Calusa Indians had various uses for shells of marine invertebrates , due to the lack of dense rock with which to make tools . They used the horse conch ( Pleuroploca gigantea ) , left @-@ handed whelk ( Busycon contrarium ) , and the Florida crown conch ( Melongena corona ) as drinking vessels , picks , hammers , knives and awls .
Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves . Shrimp , spiny lobsters , and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton ; they in turn feed larger predators such as sharks , rays , barracuda , and king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla ) . Due to shallow water and abundant sunlight , Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges , although the majority of the state 's reefs are closer to the Florida Keys . Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as the Great white heron ( Ardea herodias ) , which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 ( only 146 were counted afterward ) . After recovering to number more than 2 @,@ 000 , they were further endangered by Hurricane Donna in 1960 , which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent .
Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds . However , since 1932 , sea levels have been rising at a rate of 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) per 100 years . Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline , seas may be rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build .
= = Biodiversity = =
Ecosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient . Author Michael Grunwald wrote about the observations of the Everglades ' first American visitors : " If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting , the Everglades was a complex drama , and everything in it had a role . " An estimated 11 @,@ 000 species of seed @-@ bearing plants and 400 species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades , but slight variations in water levels affect many organisms and reshape land formations . The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies on the number of species present : the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem .
For example , Florida apple snails ( Pomacea paludosa ) are an amphibious fresh water mollusk . They have a single gill and lung , and live on stalks of sawgrass in water depths no more than 20 inches ( 51 cm ) . They are the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite ( Rostrhamus sociabilis ) and limpkin ( Aramus guarauna ) as well as the raccoon , otter , and young alligator . Apple snails lay their eggs on sawgrass stalks about 6 inches ( 15 cm ) above the water line , and they are intolerant of being submerged for long periods of time . When the eggs hatch , young snails must enter the water quickly or face death . When water levels are too low or rise too quickly while snail eggs are developing , apple snails do not flourish , affecting the many reptiles , mammals , and birds that feed on them . With regard to the ecology of trophic dynamics , or food chains , the 174 species of invertebrates play a vital role in the Everglades . Crayfish , insects , scorpions , and other invertebrates also support a web of animals .
The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wildlife is freshwater fish . Few places in the Everglades stay submerged from one year to the next , so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital to the survival of fish , and the animal community as a whole . Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds , alligators , and otters , and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate . Young amphibians also play an important role in the food chain . Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or access to reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals . Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in the Everglades , and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations .
These smaller animals support communities of larger animals , including 70 species of land birds that breed within the Everglades , and 120 water birds , of which 43 breed in the area . Many of these birds go on to migrate through the West Indies and North America . Several dozen species of mammals also thrive in the region , from tiny bats and shrews to midsize raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , otters ( Lontra canadensis ) , opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ) , and foxes . The largest include white tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) , the Florida black bear , and the Florida panther .
Although slight changes in water level affect many species , the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with each change . Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural , caused by fire or storms , and some are induced by humans , such as urban encroachment , the introduction of exotic species , and rapid global warming . Environmental conditions in the Everglades favor no particular species . Some species , such as snail kites and apple snails , do well in wet conditions , but wood storks and Cape Sable seaside sparrows ( Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis ) do well in dryer circumstances .
= = Human impact = =
= = = Development = = =
People have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years . Within the past 100 years however , they have changed the natural landscape dramatically . Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by large drainage projects intended to create more land . The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding of the intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades . The South Florida metropolitan area grew exponentially , causing problems in ecosystems throughout the Everglades . By the 1990s , the diminishing quality of life in many of these urban areas was linked to the degraded local environment . The State of Florida and the U.S. government devised and passed a plan in 2000 to restore as much of the Everglades to pre @-@ drainage conditions as possible . It is the costliest and most comprehensive environmental restoration project in history .
= = = Invasive species = = =
Humans have also adversely impacted the ecology of the Everglades by introducing numerous invasive species , which may prey on or compete with native species . A spectacular and particularly damaging example of this phenomenon is the recent proliferation of the Burmese python in the Everglades , as well as elsewhere in Florida . First observed in the wild in 1979 and not again until 1995 , they have increased alarmingly since 2000 . By 2011 , decreases of 87 @.@ 5 % , 94 @.@ 1 % , 98 @.@ 9 % and 99 @.@ 3 % in sightings of bobcats , white @-@ tailed deer , opossums and raccoons , respectively , were reported in park road surveys , while rabbits were no longer being seen at all .
= North Acropolis , Tikal =
The North Acropolis of the ancient Maya city of Tikal in Guatemala is an architectural complex that served as a royal necropolis and was a centre for funerary activity for over 1300 years . The acropolis is located near the centre of the city and is one of the most studied of Maya architectural complexes . Excavations were carried out from 1957 to 1969 by the University of Pennsylvania , directed by Edwin M. Shook and William Coe .
The first traces of human activity at the site date to approximately 800 BC , with the first structures being built about 350 BC . Around 250 AD the complex underwent a major redevelopment with the construction of a massive basal platform that supported a cluster of temples ; this was followed around AD 450 by the addition of a row of four pyramids on a terrace to the south of the main platform .
A number of royal tombs have been excavated that have been identified with named kings , including the tombs of Yax Nuun Ayiin I ( ruled AD 379- c . 404 ) , Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II ( ruled 411 @-@ 456 ) , Wak Chan K 'awiil ( ruled 537 @-@ 562 ) and " Animal Skull " ( ruled c . 593 @-@ 638 ) . An early tomb in the North Acropolis has been tentatively identified as that of the dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook ( ruled c . 90 ) .
A large number of stone monuments were placed in the North Acropolis . By the 9th century AD these included 43 stelae and 30 altars ; 18 of these monuments were sculpted with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits . A number of these monuments show the influence of the great city of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico .
= = Development = =
The earliest traces of working of the limestone bedrock under the basal platform of the acropolis date to about 800 BC , consisting of deep cuts into the rock associated with refuse from domestic and ceremonial activity . The first structures in what became the North Acropolis were built around 350 BC , towards the end of the Middle Preclassic period ( c . 1000 @-@ 300 BC ) .
= = = Late Preclassic period = = =
During the Late Preclassic ( c . 300 BC - AD 250 ) , a 49 @-@ metre ( 161 ft ) wide causeway was built to unite the North Acropolis with the Mundo Perdido complex to the southwest . The earliest dated architecture in the North Acropolis was built in the second century BC and consisted of a low basal platform to the north with two smaller platforms immediately to the south , which were forerunners of the triadic pyramid complex formed by the later Temples 22 , 23 and 24 . These were not the first structures to be built since the remains of earlier versions of the platforms have been identified underneath but these suffered such extensive destruction prior to the building of the 2nd century BC version that no physical sequence can be reconstructed .
In the 1st century AD the complex underwent a major expansion . At this time there was a gradual shift in focus from the major Preclassic Mundo Perdido complex to the North Acropolis , which was marked out as the new ceremonial centre of the city and received the first royal burials , so far not conclusively identified with named rulers .
= = = Classic period = = =
During the Classic period ( c . AD 250 @-@ 900 ) the royal dynasty of Tikal developed the complex into a royal necropolis , with each successive ruler superimposing new temples over earlier structures . Around AD 250 , the pre @-@ existing architecture was demolished and a new basal platform was built , supporting four corbel @-@ vaulted structures . Around AD 400 the complex was expanded southwards from its original basal platform with the addition of a row of tall pyramids that divided the original architecture from Tikal 's main plaza . Towards the end of the 7th century , King Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I ordered the construction of a new version Temple 33 , possibly to house the remains of Nuun Ujol Chaak , his father . This new building completely blocked the entrance to the North Acropolis , formerly ending its role as the preferred burial ground of Tikal 's kings . Around AD 734 king Jasaw Chan K 'awiil was entombed in Temple I on the east side of the plaza , ending the tradition of interring rulers within the North Acropolis .
= = = Postclassic period = = =
Funerary activity continued as late as the Postclassic ( c . 900 @-@ 1525 ) . Towards the end of Tikal 's dwindling occupancy , during the 10th or 11th centuries , squatters were mining the North Acropolis in search of jade grave goods in the elite tombs ; some of the easier @-@ to @-@ find burials were located and looted at this time .
= = Structures = =
The North Acropolis closes off the Great Plaza on the north side . The basal platform of the North Acropolis covers an area of just under 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) ; measuring approximately 100 by 80 metres ( 330 by 260 ft ) . It stands 9 metres ( 30 ft ) above its bedrock foundation and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) above the Great Plaza , and is accessed by a number of stairways on its south side . During the Preclassic period , the facades of many of the temples were decorated with brightly coloured stucco ornamentation , including giant masks flanking some of the access stairways . By the Early Classic , eight temple @-@ pyramids stood upon the platform , each with an access stairway flanked by masks , a small summit shrine and an elaborate roof comb .
= = = Basal platform = = =
Most of the structures upon the basal platform underwent two consecutive construction phases during the Early Classic , except Temple 22 which underwent three phases of construction . The structures upon the basal platform all date to the Early Classic period and were laid out in a symmetrical arrangement over the course of three centuries . This forms the greatest concentration of pure Early Classic architecture at Tikal , using construction methods distinct from that of the major Late Classic temples around the Great Plaza . The Early Classic construction involved the complete finishing of the basal platform as a distinct architectural unit before the additional structures were built upon it .
Temple 20 ( Structure 5D @-@ 20 ) is located upon the northwest corner of the basal platform and looks outwards to the north . It is estimated to date to approximately AD 550 .
Temple 21 ( Structure 5D @-@ 21 ) forms a pair with Temple 20 ; it is located upon the northeast corner of the basal platform and also looks outwards to the north ; it is thought to date to around AD 550 .
Temple 22 ( Structure 5D @-@ 22 ) is a south @-@ facing building located centrally on the north side of the basal platform . Temple 22 underwent three principal phases of construction . The earliest version of this structure was built around AD 250 ; a second version of the temple was built over it around AD 350 ; this version was decorated with giant stucco masks . The final version of the temple dates to the 5th century AD . Temple 22 has been extensively investigated by archaeologists with portions of the 5th @-@ century architecture being stripped away to expose the earlier versions . A tomb in the Temple 22 was looted at some point during the Postclassic period .
Temple 23 ( Structure 5D @-@ 23 ) has been partially restored and dates to the middle of the 3rd century AD . It is situated on the centre of the west side of the basal platform , facing east .
Temple 24 ( Structure 5D @-@ 24 ) dates to around AD 250 . It forms a pair with Temple 23 , being located on the east side of the basal platform , facing west . Temple 24 has not been explored by archaeologists .
Temple 25 ( Structure 5D @-@ 25 ) is located on the southwest corner of the basal platform ; it was first built around AD 250 and underwent a second Early Classic construction phase that completely covered the earlier version .
Temple 26 ( Structure 5D @-@ 26 ) is the central building in the North Acropolis , located centrally on the south side of the basal platform overlooking the terrace ; the earliest version of this structure dates to approximately AD 250 . Temple 26 has been fully excavated and restored . A tomb in the structure was looted at some time during the Postclassic period . The northern portion of the structure stood over a Late Preclassic tomb ( Burial 85 ) dated to around AD 100 , which has been tentatively identified as that of dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook .
Temple 27 ( Structure 5D @-@ 27 ) forms a pair with Temple 25 . It is situated on the southeast corner of the basal platform . Archaeologists presume that this structure underwent the same two Early Classic construction phases as its twin . It was built around AD 250 .
Building 28 ( Structure 5D @-@ 28 ) is an unusual building at the top of an access stairway on the east side of the basal platform . It appears to have been a guardroom controlling access from the east terrace . The chamber originally contained curtained doorways and benches against the walls . The width of the building completely blocked access from the stairway ; this forced visitors to pass through the chamber , where their presence could be scrutinised and passage beyond blocked if necessary . This route may have become important when Temple 33 was built ,
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@-@ ion battery pack with 136 kW of peak power , and a genset consisting of a small 1 @.@ 0 L , 3 @-@ cylinder turbocharged flex @-@ fuel capable engine linked to a 53 kW ( 71 hp ) generator . General Motors called this genset an electric vehicle ( EV ) range extender . The vehicle was propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 120 kW ( 160 hp ) delivering 236 lb ft ( 320 Nm ) of motoring torque . The concept car featured several advanced materials from GE Automotive Plastics which allowed GM to reduce the vehicle weight up to 50 percent .
The Volt concept featured a 12 US gal ( 45 L ; 10 @.@ 0 imp gal ) fuel capacity providing the vehicle a total driving range of around 640 mi ( 1 @,@ 030 km ) , which considered a gasoline fuel efficiency of about 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) and a 40 mi ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range . According to General Motors estimates , a daily drive of 60 mi ( 97 km ) , combined with an overnight recharge to support the first 40 all @-@ electric miles , would yield an effective gasoline fuel economy of 150 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 180 mpg @-@ imp ) . General Motors also emphasized that the Volt would further reduce dependence on imported oil if E85 ethanol was used instead of gasoline to power the on @-@ board generator engine . Robert Lutz added that if the driver used E85 , " the fuel economy figure became 525 miles per ( equivalent ) petroleum gallon " , as only 15 % of gasoline is used in this blend . General Motors also noted that actual production of the Volt depended on further battery development , because the required rechargeable batteries needed to make the Volt a viable vehicle did not exist in the market and had yet to be developed . The concept car was actually powered by two 12 @-@ volt conventional car batteries , just enough power to allow the vehicle to move at low speeds in the stand .
= = First generation ( 2010 – 2015 ) = =
= = = Production model = = =
The production design model officially unveiled on September 16 , 2008 , as part of General Motors centennial celebration at the Wintergarden headquarters in Detroit . The production model differed greatly in design from the original concept car . The carmaker cited necessary aerodynamic changes needed to reduce the concept car 's high drag coefficient of Cd = 0 @.@ 43 down to a more efficient Cd = 0 @.@ 28 , though still somewhat higher than the Toyota Prius Cd = 0 @.@ 25 . Another reason was the use of General Motors ' new global compact vehicle platform Delta II to keep costs reasonable , and shared with the 2010 model year Chevrolet Cruze . Another significant difference from the concept car is the seating , as the production Volt seats four rather than five passengers . This change was due to the higher @-@ than @-@ usual central tunnel that runs from the front console to the rear seat that houses the car 's T @-@ shaped battery pack .
After the concept was put into the pipeline for production , General Motors began looking for a partner to develop the Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery pack . The carmaker evaluated about twenty @-@ five different battery cell chemistries and constructions from around two dozen lithium @-@ ion battery makers around the world . Due to their more promising cell technologies , two companies were selected in June 2007 , Compact Power ( CPI ) , which uses a lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn2O4 ) cell made by its parent company , LG Chemical ; and Continental Automotive Systems , which uses lithium iron phosphate based cylindrical cells made by A123Systems . By the end of October 2007 CPI ( LG Chem ) delivered their finished battery pack prototypes , and A123 delivered theirs by January 2008 . General Motors testing process was conducted at the laboratory the carmaker had created for the GM EV1 program . The battery packs included monitoring systems designed to keep the batteries cool and operating at optimum capacity despite a wide range of ambient temperatures . In order to make sure the battery pack would last ten years and 150 @,@ 000 miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) expected for the battery warranty , the Volt team decided to use only half of the 16 kWh capacity to reduce the rate of capacity degradation , limiting the state of charge ( SOC ) up to 80 % of capacity and never depleting the battery below 30 % . General Motors also was expecting the battery could withstand 5 @,@ 000 full discharges without losing more than 10 % of its charge capacity .
In April 2008 General Motors started extensive battery testing . In two years the carmaker put the battery packs to the equivalent of 150 @,@ 000 real @-@ world miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) and ten years of use . The durability of the battery pack was tested for a broad range of extreme ambient conditions including a shaker table to simulate potholes and a thermal chamber , to simulate temperatures varying from 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , typical of the Southwest deserts , to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) typical of the Alaska tundra . In April 2008 the lithium @-@ ion battery pack was placed in Chevrolet Malibus fitted with the Volt powertrain to be used as test mules for further real @-@ world testing . In October 2008 General Motors chose CPI ( LG Chemical ) to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt . In July 2008 General Motors confirmed that a non @-@ turbocharged , 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder engine would be used as the range extender , and that the intention was to build it in Flint , Michigan . In April 2009 , General Motors allowed journalists to test the Volt powertrain in the body of Chevrolet Cruze sedans used as test mules which lacked the range @-@ extending generator at the GM Technical Center in Warren , Michigan .
The first pre @-@ production test car based on the final Volt design was built in June 2009 , in Warren , Michigan , and by October 2009 , 80 Volts had been built and were tested under various conditions . On March 31 , 2010 , the first factory @-@ built Volt was produced at the Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant in order to test the production line and for quality control purposes , both of the tooling and the pre @-@ production vehicles produced before regular production began .
Tony Posawatz was the Volt Vehicle Line Director from 2006 to 2012 , and he was known as employee # 1 and led the team from concept to production .
Official introduction
General Motors held a ceremony at its Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant on November 30 , 2010 , to introduce the first Chevrolet Volt off the assembly line . The first Volt built for retail sale was earmarked for display at General Motors ' Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights , Michigan . The second unit was offered at a public auction , with an opening bid of US $ 50 @,@ 000 and it was won by Rick Hendrick who paid US $ 225 @,@ 000 . The proceeds went to fund math and sciences education in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation . Deliveries to retail customers in the United States began in mid December 2010 . Volt deliveries began in Canada in September 2011 . The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place in November 2011 . The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera , was released to retail customers in Europe in February 2012 . Deliveries of the right @-@ hand drive Vauxhall Ampera in the UK began in May 2012 . The Holden Volt was released in Australia in December 2012 .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = = Drivetrain = = = =
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt has a 16 kWh / 45 A · h ( 10 @.@ 4 kWh usable ) lithium @-@ ion battery pack that can be charged by plugging the car into a 120 @-@ 240 VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772 @-@ compliant charging cord . No external charging station is required . The Volt is propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 111 kW ( 149 hp ) delivering 273 lb · ft ( 370 N · m ) of torque . Capacity of the battery pack was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh ( 10 @.@ 9 kWh usable ) for 2013 models , which increased the all @-@ electric range from 35 to 38 mi ( 56 to 61 km ) . Other specifications remained the same . The battery pack capacity was increased to 17 @.@ 1 kWh for 2015 models . This incremental upgrade is likely to reflect in an improvement in range over previous model years , but as of July 2014 , the 2015 Volt has not been re @-@ certified with the EPA .
While driving , after the Volt battery has dropped to a predetermined threshold from full charge , a small naturally aspirated 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder gasoline fueled internal combustion engine ( Opel 's Family 0 ) with approximately 80 hp ( 60 kW ) , powers a 55 kW generator to extend the Volt 's range . The vehicle also has a regenerative braking system . The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor , with the excess going to the batteries , depending on the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels .
The Volt requires premium gasoline with a minimum 91 or octane rating because the higher octane rating fuel permits the 10 @.@ 5 : 1 compression ratio engine to utilize more ignition timing advance in order to maximize its fuel efficiency by 5 to 10 % as compared to regular gasoline . For users who drive mostly in electric mode and to avoid maintenance problems caused by storing the same gasoline in the tank for months , the 2011 Volt has a sealed and pressurized fuel tank to avoid evaporation , and as a result , the fuel filler has to be depressurized before opening the tank . Also the engine management system monitors the time between engine running and it is programmed to prompt the driver to run past the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range before recharging in order to consume some gasoline . If the driver does not run on gasoline , the system will automatically run the maintenance mode which starts the engine to consume some of the aging fuel and circulate the fluids within the engine . A configuration with an E85 flex @-@ fuel capable engine is under development and was expected to be available in 2013 .
Operating and driving modes
The Voltec drivetrain has three power converting elements :
Primary traction electric motor / generator , provides good acceleration for driving at lower speeds and regeneration for braking , its maximum output of 111 kW setting the maximum output of the whole system .
Secondary electric motor / generator , works primarily as generator capable of producing 55 kW or when necessary acts as a motor assisting the primary electric motor .
Internal combustion engine of 63 kW power , engaged when the batteries reach the predetermined threshold .
These units are connected via a planetary gear and three electrically controlled hydraulic clutches to provide power output for propulsion in any of four programmed operating modes :
Single motor electric – The primary motor runs solely on battery power , maximum propulsion power is 111 kW .
Dual motor electric – At higher vehicle speeds the secondary motor engages over the planetary gear such that it reduces the speed of the primary motor . This facilitates higher efficiency and better mileage for the combined system , without increasing the maximum power .
Single motor extended – The battery reaches its minimum charge which triggers the combustion engine . The engine drives the secondary motor which now works as a generator , via the charging electronics , to keep the minimum battery charge level . The primary motor can still provide its 111 kW for short acceleration , albeit not sustained .
Dual motor extended – The electric motors are used again in dual configuration with increased efficiency at higher speeds . Additionally the gasoline engine contributes propulsion power via the planetary gear . While power is drained from the battery the amount is less than in mode 2 for the same propulsion power , thus extending the range .
The drivetrain permits the Volt to operate as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity has been depleted to a defined level , at which time it commences to operate as a series hybrid design where the gasoline engine drives the generator , which keeps the battery at minimum level charge and provides power to the electric motors . The full charge of the battery is replenished only by loading it on the electrical grid .
While in this series mode at higher speeds and loads , ( typically above 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) at light to moderate loads ) the gasoline engine can engage mechanically to the output from the transmission and assist both electric motors in driving the wheels , in which case the Volt operates as a power @-@ split or series @-@ parallel hybrid . After its all @-@ electric range has been depleted , at speeds between 30 to 70 miles per hour ( 48 to 113 km / h ) , the Volt is programmed to select the most efficient drive mode , which improves performance and boosts high @-@ speed efficiency by 10 to 15 percent .
While operating modes are switched automatically the Volt allows the driver to choose from three drive modes : normal , sport and mountain . The mountain mode , which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions , increases minimum battery state of charge ( SOC ) to around 45 % , thus maintaining performance on steep and long grades . The driver will hear more engine noise due to the higher rate of power generation required to maintain this mode . The sport mode causes the engine to rev higher , and the response to the throttle pedal is quicker . The Ampera has an additional option , the " City Mode " or " battery hold " , allowing the driver to save the energy currently stored in the battery for use when traveling in urban areas or restricted zones . The 2013 model year Volt includes a " Hold " option to provide the same choice .
= = = = Battery = = = =
The 2011 Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery ( Li @-@ ion ) battery pack weighs 435 lb ( 197 kg ) and " consists of 288 individual cells arranged into nine modules . Plastic frames hold pairs of lithium @-@ ion cells that sandwich an aluminum cooling fin . The design and construction of that aluminum plate was critical to ensuring an even temperature distribution with no hot or cool spots across the flat , rectangular cell . The battery pack has its own cooling circuit that is similar to , but independent from , the engine cooling system . "
For the 2011 / 2012 model years , the battery pack stores 16 kWh of energy but it is controlled or buffered via the energy management system to use only 10 @.@ 3 kWh of this capacity to maximize the life of the pack . For this reason the battery pack never fully charges or depletes , as the software only allows the battery to operate within a state of charge ( SOC ) window of 65 % , after which the engine kicks in and maintains the charge near the lower level . The minimum SOC varies depending on operating conditions . When more power is required , such as mountain mode , the lower limit of the SOC will rise to 45 % to ensure there is enough power available . The battery capacity was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh for the 2013 model year , the SOC window will be increased to use 10 @.@ 8 kWh of the total battery energy , and the buffer to ensure battery life will not be reduced . These changes will increase the Volt 's all @-@ electric range but charging will take slightly longer . The improved battery performance and durability were achieved through minor changes to the material composition of the battery cell chemistry .
Despite containing near identical energy ( + / - 0 @.@ 5 kWh ) , the Volt 's battery pack is over 70 % lighter than the EV1 's original 1 @,@ 310 lb ( 590 kg ) , 16 @.@ 5 kWh AC Delco lead @-@ acid battery pack , mainly because the Volt uses higher specific energy Li @-@ ion batteries . Li @-@ ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect .
Because batteries are sensitive to temperature changes , the Volt has a thermal management system to monitor and maintain the battery cell temperature for optimum performance and durability . The Volt 's battery pack provides reliable operation , when plugged in , at cell temperatures as low as − 13 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) and as high as 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) . The Volt features a battery pack that can be both warmed or cooled . In cold weather the battery coolant is electrically heated during charging or operation in order to provide full power capability ; in hot weather the battery coolant can be chilled utilizing the vehicle 's air @-@ conditioning system preventing over @-@ temperature damage .
The Volt 's battery is guaranteed by General Motors for eight years or 100 @,@ 000 miles ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) , and will cover all 161 battery components . GM estimates that the Volt batteries will degrade by 10 to 30 % after 8 years or 100 @,@ 000 miles . GM has applied for a patent that may allow technicians to quickly and cheaply recover some of the performance of degraded battery packs . The Volt ’ s battery management system runs more than 500 diagnostics at 10 times per second , allowing it to keep track of the Volt ’ s battery pack in real @-@ time , 85 % of which ensure the battery pack is operating safely and 15 % monitor battery performance and life .
The Volt uses a plug specification published in 2009 , SAE J1772 @-@ 2009 , that is considered a standard for electric cars in North America . Depending on in @-@ car settings a full charge will take approximately 10 hours ( 12A setting ) to as much as 14 hours ( 8A setting ) from a standard North American 120 V , 15 A outlet and about 4 hours from a 240 VAC source and suitable 240V EVSE . The Volt comes with a 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) charging cord suitable for the standard household power outlet in its country of sale . If plugged in , recharging can be controlled remotely through a smartphone application .
= = = = Others = = = =
In order to save energy , the Volt will sometimes heat the seats instead of blowing heated air through HVAC system , as heating the vehicle 's cabin draws significant power , and can even exceed what is needed to move the vehicle on occasions . A power @-@ saving stereo system uses amplifiers that switch on and off rapidly to save power . It uses 50 percent less energy . The system is also lighter because the use of high grade neodymium magnets .
= = = Performance = = =
The Volt has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . According to Edmunds.com road tests , the Volt 's 0 to 60 mph ( 0 – 97 km / h ) acceleration time is 9 @.@ 2 seconds running on electric @-@ only mode , and 9 @.@ 0 seconds with the gasoline engine assisting propulsion . Motor Trend reports the Volt 's quarter mile ( 402 m ) time is 16 @.@ 9 sec @ 84 @.@ 3 mph ( 135 @.@ 7 km / h ) , while Edmunds reports a quarter mile ( 402 m ) time of 16 @.@ 8 sec @ 81 @.@ 5 mph ( 131 @.@ 2 km / h ) in electric @-@ only operation , and 16 @.@ 6 sec @ 85 @.@ 5 mph ( 137 @.@ 6 km / h ) with the gasoline engine assisting . Motor Trend reports a 60 to 0 mph ( 97 to 0 km / h ) braking distance of 112 ft ( 34 m ) and Edmunds.com of 124 ft ( 38 m ) .
= = = = Range = = = =
= = = = = United States = = = = =
2011 – 2012 model years
According to General Motors the Volt 's all @-@ electric range with fully charged batteries varies from 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) depending on terrain , driving technique , and temperature . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) official all @-@ electric range is 35 miles ( 56 km ) with an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 810 kJ / km ) . This range is based on the agency 's five @-@ cycle tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls . The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 379 miles ( 609 @.@ 9 km ) according to EPA tests .
The Volt 's nominal usable battery capacity is 10 @.@ 3 kWh . The Volt 's fuel tank capacity is 9 @.@ 3 US gallons ( 35 L ; 7 @.@ 7 imp gal ) . Aside from charge sustaining modes of operation , the battery capacity is completely used first , and then the fuel is consumed . In the event that the car is operated until it runs out of gasoline , the gasoline @-@ powered generator shuts down , and the Volt continues to operate , tapping into a reserve portion of
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1080s , when , in a period of ample rainfall , Chacoan culture was expanding . Its layout featured a smaller , squarer profile ; it also lacked the open plazas and separate kivas of its predecessors . Larger , squarer blocks of stone were used in the masonry ; kivas were designed in the northern Mesa Verdean tradition . Two miles down the canyon is Peñasco Blanco ( " White Bluff " ) , an arc @-@ shaped compound built atop the canyon 's southern rim in five distinct stages between 900 and 1125 . A nearby cliff painting ( the " Supernova Platograph " ) may record the sighting of the SN 1054 supernova on July 5 , 1054 .
Hungo Pavi , located 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Una Vida , measured 872 feet ( 266 m ) in circumference . Initial probes revealed 72 ground @-@ level rooms , with structures reaching four stories in height ; one large circular kiva has been identified . Kin Nahasbas , built in either the 9th or 10th century , is sited slightly north of Una Vida , positioned at the foot of the north mesa . Limited excavation of it has taken place . Tsin Kletzin ( " Charcoal Place " ) , a compound located on the Chacra Mesa and positioned above Casa Rinconada , is 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) due south of Pueblo Alto , on the opposite side of the canyon . Nearby is Weritos Dam , a massive earthen structure that scientists believe provided Tsin Kletzin with all of its domestic water . The dam worked by retaining stormwater runoff in a reservoir . Massive amounts of silt accumulated during flash floods would have forced the residents to regularly rebuild the dam and dredge the catchment area .
Deeper in the canyon , Una Vida ( " One Life " ) is one of the three oldest great houses ; construction began around 900 . Comprising at least two stories and 124 rooms , it shares an arc or " D " -shaped design with its contemporaries , Peñasco Blanco and Pueblo Bonito , but has a unique " dog leg " addition made necessary by topography . It is located in one of the canyon 's major side drainages , near Gallo Wash , and was massively expanded after 930 . Wijiji ( " black greasewood " ) , comprising just over one hundred rooms , is the smallest of the great houses . Built between 1110 and 1115 , it was the last Chacoan great house to be constructed . Somewhat isolated within the narrow wash , it is positioned 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from neighboring Una Vida . Directly north are communities even more remote : Salmon Ruins and Aztec Ruins , sited on the San Juan and Animas Rivers near Farmington , were built during a thirty @-@ year wet period commencing in 1100 . Some 60 miles ( 97 km ) directly south of Chaco Canyon , on the Great South Road , lies another cluster of outlying communities . The largest , Kin Nizhoni , stands atop a 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) mesa surrounded by marshy bottomlands .
Casamero Pueblo is located on McKinley County Road 19 , near Tecolote Mesa , a red sandstone mesa . It was connected to its nearby outlier , Andrews Ranch , by a Chacoan road . Chaco Canyon , Aztec Ruins , Salmon Ruins , and Casamero Pueblo are on the Trail of the Ancients Scenic Byway .
= = Ruins = =
= = = Great houses = = =
Immense complexes known as " great houses " embodied worship at Chaco . The Chacoans used masonry techniques unique for their time , and their building constructions lasted decades and even centuries . As architectural forms evolved and centuries passed , the houses kept several core traits . Most apparent is their sheer bulk ; complexes averaged more than 200 rooms each , and some enclosed up to 700 rooms . Individual rooms were substantial in size , with higher ceilings than Anasazi works of preceding periods . They were well @-@ planned : vast sections or wings erected were finished in a single stage , rather than in increments . Houses generally faced the south , and plaza areas were almost always girt with edifices of sealed @-@ off rooms or high walls . Houses often stood four or five stories tall , with single @-@ story rooms facing the plaza ; room blocks were terraced to allow the tallest sections to compose the pueblo 's rear edifice . Rooms were often organized into suites , with front rooms larger than rear , interior , and storage rooms or areas .
Ceremonial structures known as kivas were built in proportion to the number of rooms in a pueblo . One small kiva was built for roughly every 29 rooms . Nine complexes each hosted an oversized great kiva , each up to 63 feet ( 19 m ) in diameter . " T " -shaped doorways and stone lintels marked all Chacoan kivas . Though simple and compound walls were often used , great houses were primarily constructed of core @-@ and @-@ veneer walls : two parallel load @-@ bearing walls comprising dressed , flat sandstone blocks bound in clay mortar were erected . Gaps between walls were packed with rubble , forming the wall 's core . Walls were then covered in a veneer of small sandstone pieces , which were pressed into a layer of binding mud . These surfacing stones were often placed in distinctive patterns . The Chacoan structures altogether required the wood of 200 @,@ 000 coniferous trees , mostly hauled — on foot — from mountain ranges up to 70 miles ( 110 km ) away .
= = = Uses = = =
The meticulously designed buildings composing the larger Chacoan complexes did not emerge until around AD 1030 . The Chacoans melded pre @-@ planned architectural designs , astronomical alignments , geometry , landscaping , and engineering into ancient urban centers of unique public architecture . Researchers have concluded that the complex may have had a relatively small residential population , with larger groups assembling only temporarily for annual ceremonies . Smaller sites , apparently more residential in character , are scattered near the great houses in and around Chaco . The canyon itself runs along one of the lunar alignment lines , suggesting the location was originally chosen for its astronomical significance . If nothing else , this allowed alignment with several other key structures in the canyon .
Turquoise was very important to the people of Chaco . Around 200 @,@ 000 pieces of turquoise have been excavated from the ruins at Chaco Canyon , and workshops for local manufacture of turquoise beads have been found . The turquoise was used locally for grave goods , burials and ceremonial offerings . Over 15 @,@ 000 turquoise beads and pendants accompanied two burials at Pueblo Bonito .
Around this time , the extended Ancestral Puebloan ( Anasazi ) community experienced a population and construction boom . Throughout the 10th century , Chacoan building techniques spread from the canyon to neighboring regions . By AD 1115 at least 70 outlying pueblos of Chacoan provenance had been built within the 25 @,@ 000 square miles ( 65 @,@ 000 km2 ) composing the San Juan Basin . Experts speculate the function of these compounds , some large enough to be considered great houses in their own right . Some suggest they may have been more than agricultural communities , perhaps functioning as trading posts or ceremonial sites .
Thirty such outliers spread across 65 @,@ 000 square miles ( 170 @,@ 000 km2 ) are connected to the central canyon and to one another by an enigmatic web of six Chacoan road systems . Extending up to 60 miles ( 97 km ) in generally straight routes , they appear to have been extensively surveyed and engineered . Their depressed and scraped caliche beds reach 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide ; earthen berms or rocks , at times composing low walls , delimit their edges . When necessary , the roads deploy steep stone stairways and rock ramps to surmount cliffs and other obstacles . Though their purpose may never be certain , archaeologist Harold Gladwin noted that nearby Navajo believe that the Anasazi built the roads to transport timber ; archaeologist Neil Judd offered a similar hypothesis .
= = Archaeoastronomy = =
= = = Sun Dagger = = =
Two whorl @-@ shaped etchings near the top of Fajada Butte compose the " Sun Dagger " petroglyph , itself tucked behind the eponymous rock panels of the " Three @-@ Slab Site " . They are symbolically focal .
It consists of two spirals : one principal and one ancillary . The latter left @-@ hand spiral captured both spring and fall equinoxes ; its artifice was revealed by a descending spear of light , itself filtered through the slabs , that shined upon it and split it in two . The former and larger whorl to its right was lit by the titular " sun dagger " , which bisected it through another interplay of slab and sun . It struck it , brilliantly , as the summer sun attains its solstice midday peak . The Chacoans were said to be marking , as artist , " Sun Dagger " discoverer , and leading proponent Anna Sofaer puts it , " the middle of time " . Each turn of the 9 @.@ 25 @-@ turn large spiral was found to mark one year in the 18 @.@ 6 @-@ year " lunar excursion cycle " of the rising mid @-@ winter full moon . This record is kept by a slab @-@ cast lunar shadow whose edge strikes in succession each ring . As the full " minimum moon " closest to the winter solstice rises , the shadow 's edge precisely strikes the center of the larger spiral ; it steps outward year by year , ring by ring , until it strikes the outermost edge of it during the full " maximum moon " , again in mid @-@ winter .
Fajada Butte bears five other petroglyphs — including a carving of a " rattlesnake " , other spirals , and a rectangle — that are conspicuously lit by contrasts between sunbeams and shadows during equinoxes or solstices . Public access to the butte was curtailed when , in 1989 , erosion from modern foot traffic was found to be responsible for one of the three screening slabs at the " Sun Dagger " site shifting out of its ancient position ; the assemblage of stones has thus lost some of its former spatial and temporal precision as a solar and lunar calendar . In 1990 the screens were stabilized and placed under observation , but the wayward slab was not moved back into its original orientation .
= = = Alignments = = =
Some parties have advanced the theory that at least 12 of the 14 principal Chacoan complexes were sited and aligned in coordination , and that each was oriented along axes that mirrored the passing of the Sun and Moon at visually pivotal times . The first great house known to evince fastidious proportioning and alignment was Casa Rinconada : the twinned " T " -shaped portals of its 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) radius great kiva were north @-@ south collinear , and axes joining opposing windows passed within 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) of its center . The great houses of Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl were found by the " Solstice Project " and the U.S. National Geodetic Survey to be sited along a precisely east @-@ west line , an axis that captures the passage of the equinox sun . The lines perpendicularly bisecting their principal walls are aligned north @-@ south , implying a possible intent to mirror the equinox midday . Pueblo Alto and Tsin Kletsin are also north @-@ south aligned . These two axes form an inverted cross when viewed from above ; its northbound reach is extended another 35 miles ( 56 km ) past Pueblo Alto by the ramrod @-@ straight Great North Road , a pilgrimage route that modern @-@ day Pueblo Indians believe to be an allusion to myths surrounding their arrival from the distant north .
Two shared @-@ latitude but diametrically opposed complexes , Pueblo Pintado and Kin Bineola , are located some 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the core buildings of the central canyon . Each lie on a path from the central canyon that is collinear with the passage and setting of the full mid @-@ winter " minimum moon " , which recurs every 18 @.@ 6 years . Two other complexes that are less distant from Pueblo Bonito , Una Vida and Peñasco Blanco , share an axis collinear with the passage of the full " maximum moon " . The terms " minimum " and " maximum " refer to the azimuthal extreme points in the lunar excursion cycle , or the swings in direction relative to true north that the setting full moon exhibits . It takes roughly 9 @.@ 25 years for the rising or setting full moon nearest to winter solstice to proceed from its maximum azimuthal north , or " maximum extremum " , to its southernmost azimuth , known as " minimum extremum " .
Reasons for the alignments have been offered :
As these people would view the heavens ... there was an order of things up there . What you had here ... contrasted to that . Some years it was too dry , too hot ... too windy , too cold . If there was a way to transfer the orderly nature of the cosmos down onto what seems to be chaos that exists here , then you begin to then integrate at this place both heaven and earth . And this would be ... the center place .
= = Photo gallery = =
= Masonic Hall , Taunton =
The Masonic Hall in Taunton , Somerset , is designated by Historic England as a Grade II * listed building . It was originally built in the early 19th century as St George 's Chapel , the first Roman Catholic chapel open for public worship in Taunton since the Reformation . The building , which forms the end of a terrace , features a series of prominent Ionic pilasters along the front and southern end .
Opened in 1822 , St George 's Chapel served Taunton 's growing Catholic community for over 35 years , before they moved to a larger church which was completed in 1860 . After being rented out for a time , when it was known as St George 's Hall , the building was then sold in 1878 to a company acting on behalf of a group of Freemasons , who purchased it to provide a home for the Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge . It now hosts nine different Lodges of the Freemasons .
= = History = =
= = = Catholic chapel = = =
Prior to the Reformation , Taunton had three Catholic churches ; the Church of St Peter and St Paul , which was part of Taunton Priory , and was destroyed during the Dissolution ; and the Churches of St Mary Magdalene and St James , which both became Anglican . The Roman Catholic Church all but died in Taunton ; one book records that prior to the 19th century , " there were no Papists in Taunton " . In 1787 , a Mission Rector was sent to Taunton . Four years later , Catholic chapels were legalised , and the rector registered a chapel in a house on Canon Street . Upon his death in 1818 , a new rector was appointed ; Rev. Samuel Fisher . The new rector immediately began raising money for a permanent church , which was opened on 3 July 1822 . The building was located on The Crescent , and was dedicated to Saint George . The church seated 200 ; greater than the estimated 120 Catholic resident in Taunton . This new church , known as St George 's Chapel , was the first public Roman Catholic church in Taunton since the Reformation .
Within 35 years , the congregation had swelled , and St George 's Chapel was no longer large enough to serve the Catholics of Taunton . The nearby Franciscan Convent purchased a plot of land adjacent to their own in 1858 , and St George 's Church was opened in April 1860 , to replace the chapel of the same dedication .
= = = Masonic Hall = = =
The chapel building was subsequently let out for various uses , and known as " St George 's Hall " . In 1878 , the hall was purchased by members of the Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge of the Freemasons , and named the Masonic Hall ; it was consecrated by Henry Herbert , 4th Earl of Carnarvon , the Provincial Grand Master of Somerset Freemasons in January the following year . The Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge had originally met in Ilminster after their constitution in 1788 , and moved to Taunton in 1797 , meeting at the London Inn . The owners of the building , though members of the Freemasons had purchased the property as a limited company , and also rented the building to other users : Richard Huish 's School taught their girl 's classes from there , and the cellars were used by a wine merchant .
After purchasing the building , the Masonic Hall Company , in addition to the necessary decorating , also commissioned a builder , William Templemen to carry out a number of structural changes ; the lobby was split into three rooms , to provide a " robing chamber " on one side , and a small waiting room on the other . Beyond the large main hall , what had been the vestry had a temporary partition removed , and a toilet added . The staircase down to the kitchen was moved , and in the kitchen itself a cooking range was installed . In the mid @-@ 1880s , an extension was made to the hall by the same builder ; a two @-@ storey building , of which the ground floor served as a warehouse . The extension replaced a previous building that had been deemed " unfit for repair " . The extension was completed at a cost of £ 337 and 10 shillings , slightly more than the initial estimate . By 1892 , the hall was no longer being used by the school , now known as Bishop Fox 's , for their girl 's lessons . Further renovations were carried out around that time at a cost of just over £ 180 .
The hall continued to be let out for various social functions , and is currently home to nine lodges of the Freemasons ; Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge , Lodge of St George , Taunton Deane Lodge , Queens College Lodge , Old Aluredian Lodge , Taunton School Lodge , Richard Huish Lodge , Vivary Lodge and the Emergency Services Lodge .
= = Architecture = =
The Masonic Hall sits at the southern end of a terrace . It has a stucco front , with two pairs of Ionic pilasters ; the larger ones frame the building , and appear to support an overhanging cornice with a decorative dentil finish . The smaller pilasters are either side of a large doorway , and are topped by a pediment . The double wooden doors have six panels , and are fronted by six steps which are almost the same width as the building . On the southern side of the building , more Ionic pilasters rise the height of the building , spread between four large windows .
The hall is designated by Historic England as a Grade II * listed building , and is considered to form a group with Numbers 1 – 11 and 15 – 20 The Crescent , which are both similarly Grade II * listed , and with the Grade II listed properties ; 21 and 22 The Crescent , Somerset County Club , Dragon Book Shop and Number 14 Bath Place .
= Clark Kent ( Smallville ) =
Clark Kent is a fictional character on the television series Smallville . The character of Clark Kent , first created for comic books by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1938 as the alternate identity of Superman , was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar . This is the fourth time the character has been adapted to a live @-@ action television series . Clark Kent has been played continually by Tom Welling , with various other actors portraying Clark as a child . The character has also appeared in various literature based on the Smallville series , all of which are completely independent of the television episodes . As of 2011 , Smallville 's Clark Kent has appeared in eighteen young adult novels .
In the series , Clark Kent attempts to live the life of a normal human being , and struggles with keeping the secret of his alien heritage from his friends . He has an on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with Lana Lang through the first seven seasons , the trials of which are based on his lack of honesty about his secret . In contrast to previous incarnations of the character , this Clark Kent starts out best friends with Lex Luthor , whom he meets after saving the latter 's life . The pair 's friendship eventually deteriorates into hatred for one another . In Smallville , Clark 's powers appear over time , as he is not aware of all of them at the start of the show ; for instance , his heat vision and super breath do not develop until season two and six , respectively .
When developing Smallville 's version of Clark Kent , the producers decided to strip him down to the " bare essence " of Superman ; he is also fallible , which allows the audience to see his humanity , but that he is also " ... good to the core " . In the series , he has been seen by critics , and intentionally portrayed by the filmmakers , as a symbolic representation of Jesus Christ . Tom Welling has been nominated for multiple Teen Choice and Saturn Awards for his portrayal of Clark Kent since the show 's first season .
= = Role in Smallville = =
Clark Kent first appears in the pilot episode of Smallville as a teen with superhuman abilities that he uses to help others . Clark is adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent ( John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) as an infant , when he crash lands on Earth on the day of the Smallville meteor shower in 1989 . Twelve years later , trying to find his place in life after being told he is an alien by his adoptive father , Clark saves the life of Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) , the son of billionaire Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , and the pair become quick friends . During season one , Clark struggles with the burden of keeping his powers a secret from those close to him . In particular , he is afraid to open up to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) for fear that she would not accept him if she learned of his supernatural abilities .
In the season two episode " Rosetta " , Clark learns of his Kryptonian heritage , including his native language , his birth name ( Kal @-@ El ) , and his birth father 's Jor @-@ El ( Terence Stamp ) plan for him to rule the world . Fearful that he will not be able to control his own destiny , Clark runs away to Metropolis in the season two finale , leaving behind Lana , with whom he had started to develop a romantic relationship . In the season three premiere , three months later , Clark is brought home by Jonathan , who has agreed to allow Jor @-@ El to take Clark at an undetermined time in the future . In the season three finale , a girl calling herself Kara arrives at the Kent farm and claims to be from Krypton . After Kara predicts that Clark 's friends are destined to leave or betray him , Clark decides to leave Smallville for good . When Jonathan attempts to intervene , Jor @-@ El threatens to kill him . To save his adoptive father 's life , Clark agrees to go through with his decision to leave .
In the season four premiere , Clark returns to Smallville . He has been " reprogrammed " by Jor @-@ El to seek out the three stones of knowledge so he may fulfill his destiny . He meets Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) , who is investigating the supposed death of her cousin , and Clark 's best friend , Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) . Clark , with help from his mother , regains control over his mind and consciously refuses to look for the stones . In the season four finale , a " great evil " is awakened in space after Clark defies Jor @-@ El 's instructions and fails to obtain the three stones of knowledge . With a new meteor shower hitting Smallville , Clark finds the remaining stones and is transported to the Arctic , where the three stones create the Fortress of Solitude .
In the season five premiere , Clark interrupts his training to return to Smallville , but when he fails to return to the Fortress before the Sun sets , he is stripped of his powers . In the episode " Hidden " , Clark begins an honest relationship with Lana , but is killed trying to save the town from a resident who hopes to kill all of the " ... meteor freaks " . Jor @-@ El resurrects Clark , but warns him that someone he loves will eventually have to take his place . Clark worries about who will be sacrificed in return for him being saved . In the episode " Reckoning " , Lana is killed . Unwilling to accept this , Clark turns back time to save her . As a result , it is Clark 's adoptive father that becomes the sacrifice when he suffers a fatal heart attack . In the season five finale , Clark battles Brainiac ( James Marsters ) , a Kryptonian artificial intelligence in the form of a man . Clark fights to stop Brainiac from releasing the Kryptonian criminal Zod from the Phantom Zone . Clark fails , and becomes himself imprisoned in the Phantom Zone , while Zod escapes and sets out to conquer Earth .
In the season six premiere , Clark escapes the Phantom Zone — inadvertently releasing several of the prisoners in the process — and returns to Smallville , where he fights and defeats Zod . The other Phantom Zone escapees become Clark 's primary focus in season six . He must also deal with Lana 's romantic relationship with Lex , which culminates in their engagement in the season six episode " Promise " . The season six finale reveals that the last of the Phantom Zone criminals is really a genetic experiment created by Kryptonian scientists . The escapee attacks Clark , cloning his DNA , and becomes Clark 's doppelgänger . In the season seven premiere , Clark , together with John Jones ( Phil Morris ) , defeats his doppelgänger . As the season continues , Clark discovers that a secret society known as Veritas was aware of his landing in Smallville during the first meteor shower and , moreover , possess a device that supposedly allows them to control him . In the season seven finale , Clark is confronted by Lex at the Fortress of Solitude . Lex has discovered Clark 's secret and possesses the Veritas device , which he uses , resulting in the Fortress collapsing on him and Clark .
In the season eight premiere , it is revealed that the Veritas device does not allow others to control Clark , but rather strips him of his powers . Wandering the globe with Russian gangsters , Clark is eventually found and rescued by Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) and John Jones , with the latter restoring Clarks powers . During season eight , Clark uses his new job at the Daily Planet to access advance information , which he uses to stop crime around the city . In subsequent episodes , Clark adopts the name " Red @-@ Blue Blur " as his superhero moniker . Toward the end of the season , Clark wrestles with the idea of having to kill Davis Bloome ( Sam Witwer ) , a new friend , after discovering that Davis is actually Doomsday , a genetically engineered creature created by General Zod to kill Clark and destroy Earth . In the season eight finale , Clark finds a way to separate Davis ' personality from that of Doomsday , and buries Doomsday a mile underground . When Davis subsequently kills Jimmy Olsen ( Aaron Ashmore ) , Clark decides that his human @-@ learned emotions have caused him the most trouble , as it was his compassion for Davis that led to Jimmy 's death . He vows that " Clark Kent is dead " .
The start of season nine reveals that Clark has begun training with Jor @-@ El , which is shown by his wearing his family crest on his chest when in his superhero persona . After realizing there are other Kryptonians on Earth , lacking special powers and led by Zod ( Callum Blue ) , Clark decides to help them adjust to living as humans . When Zod is shot and killed , Clark uses his own blood to bring him back to life , resulting in Zod regaining his Kryptonian powers . Zod enables the other Kryptonians to regain their powers as well , and unites them to destroy the world in order to turn it into a new Krypton . This season , Lois and Clark begin a romantic relationship , while Lois also assists " The Blur " in his heroic endeavors . Clark kisses Lois while he is " the Blur " in the season nine finale and unknowingly reveals to her the truth . Afterward , he convinces the Kryptonians to leave Earth for a new , uninhabited planet . Clark then sacrifices his own life to send Zod through a portal , far away from Earth .
Season ten begins with Clark stuck in the afterlife , where Jor @-@ El informs him that a great darkness is coming to Earth . Clark is unknowingly resurrected by Lois , who is now aware that he is " the Blur " . Jor @-@ El also informs Clark that he is not ready to be Earth 's true savior , as there are inner demons that Clark must overcome first . In the episode " Homecoming " , Clark is visited by Brainiac 5 , who shows Clark how his past has shaped his present , and will one day shape his future ; including a vision of Clark 's future self when he has fully embraced his destiny . In the episode " Isis " , Clark reveals his secret to Lois only to find out that she already knew he was " the Blur " , which is followed in a later episode by Clark proposing to Lois . Clark realizes that in order to be the hero the world needs , he will have to step out of the shadows and into the light . As a result , Clark makes the decision to turn " Clark Kent " into a real disguise — opting to wear eyeglasses and alter his mannerisms to be more shy and reserved — so that the Blur does not have to hide his face to the world . By the series finale , the darkness , which
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others can easily adapt to , not the other way around . " XXL positioned it at number 25 on their list of the best albums of 2013 . In December 2013 , HipHopDX placed it on their list of the top 25 albums of the year saying , " In a manner akin to Robert Johnson selling his soul to the devil to become a magician of a bluesman , Kid Cudi also clearly sold his soul to the demons that once claimed it in order to craft this album . There ’ s no singles here , just an intense and very listenable journey . " The Source ranked it at number 23 on their list , saying " it delivered , sonically and conceptually . The album was an honest representation of the maturation of Cudi ’ s space age sound and middle finger to the world attitude . "
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Indicud .
( co . ) denotes co @-@ producer .
Sample credits
" The Resurrection of Scott Mescudi " contains a excerpt from the film The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Unfuckwittable " contains an excerpt from the film The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Young Lady " contains a sample of " Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings " performed by Father John Misty .
" Immortal " contains a sample of " Congratulations " performed by MGMT . The song also contains excerpts from the films Billy Madison ( 1995 ) and The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Solo Dolo , Part II " contains a sample of " Going the Distance " performed by Menahan Street Band , which was originally composed by Bill Conti .
" Girls " contains an interpolation of " Pretty Girls " , written by Carl Brown , Shelly Goodhope , Tanesa Tavin , Daniel Brattain , Veronica Mendez , Darrell Mitchell , Albert Cota , Chantel Roquemore and Michael Monagan . The song also contains a sample of " Bitches ( Reply ) " performed by Dion " DJ Jimi " Norman .
" Beez " contains a sample of " Mind Playing Tricks on Me " performed by Geto Boys .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Indicud taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Prado Navarette v. California =
Prado Navarette v. California , 572 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2014 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court clarified when police officers may make arrests or conduct temporary detentions based on information provided by anonymous tips . In 2008 , police in California received a 911 call that a pickup truck was driving recklessly along a rural highway . Officers spotted a truck matching the description provided in the 911 call and followed the truck for five minutes , but did not observe any suspicious behavior . Nevertheless , officers conducted a traffic stop and discovered 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of marijuana in the truck . At trial , the occupants of the car argued that the traffic stop violated the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution , because the tip was unreliable , and officers did not personally observe criminal activity . Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the 911 call was reliable , and that officers need not personally observe criminal activity when acting upon information provided by an anonymous 911 call .
Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a " scathing " dissenting opinion , in which he argued that the tip was unreliable , and that the majority 's opinion threatened the freedom and liberty of all citizens . Likewise , many commentators have noted Navarette represented a departure from earlier precedent , and that the opinion opened the door for expansive new police powers . Some commentators have also noted that the case leaves open several important questions , including the unanswered question of whether anonymous reports of extremely dangerous behavior require fewer indicia of reliability before police may act upon those reports . Other scholars have argued it was highly unlikely that Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette were actually driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol when they were stopped by police .
= = Background = =
= = = Fourth Amendment guidelines for traffic stops = = =
Although criminal detentions usually require probable cause that the suspect has engaged in criminal activity , an officer may conduct a traffic stop if the officer has a reasonable , articulable suspicion that the driver is engaging in criminal activity . Officers may not rely upon a mere " hunch " , but the level of suspicion required to conduct a traffic stop is “ considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the evidence ” , and less than is necessary for probable cause . However , the Supreme Court of the United States has clarified that the reasonable suspicion required to justify a traffic stop depends upon " both the content of information possessed by police and its degree of reliability " , while taking into account “ the totality of the circumstances — the whole picture . ”
= = = Fourth Amendment searches and seizures based on anonymous tips = = =
In Illinois v. Gates , the Supreme Court established that courts should apply a " totality of the circumstances " test to determine whether an anonymous tip is sufficiently reliable to provide probable cause to issue an arrest warrant . Although officers in Gates did not personally witness any criminal activity , the Supreme Court held that the anonymous tip in question was reliable , because officers could verify several events predicted by the anonymous tip . Seven years after Gates , the Supreme Court held in Alabama v. White that an anonymous tip was sufficiently reliable to provide reasonable suspicion to justify a temporary detention , because the tip accurately predicted several key details . Although the Court conceded that White was a " close case " , the tip in question " exhibited sufficient indicia of reliability " to justify a temporary detention . The Court explained that if " an informant is shown to be right about some things , he is probably right about other facts that he has alleged , including the claim that the object of the tip is engaged in criminal activity . "
However , in Florida v. J.L. , the Supreme Court ruled that police officers did not have reasonable suspicion to detain a suspect based on an anonymous tip “ that a young black male standing at a particular bus stop and wearing a plaid shirt was carrying a gun . ” The Court held that the tip " lacked the moderate indicia of reliability present in White and essential to the Court ’ s decision in that case . The anonymous call concerning J.L. provided no predictive information , and therefore left the police without means to test the informant ’ s knowledge or credibility . ” The Court declined to create a " firearm exception " for anonymous tips , but the court noted in dicta that a tip describing a bomb threat need not bear the indicia of reliability otherwise required of other anonymous tips . The Supreme Court of California would later rely upon this " bomb exception " in People v. Wells , when it ruled that an anonymous tip that accurately described a vehicle “ weaving all over the roadway ” justified a traffic stop . The California court held that “ considerations of public safety and common sense ” permit officers to conduct traffic stops based on anonymous tips " to confirm the officer ’ s reasonable suspicion of intoxicated driving before a serious traffic accident can occur . ”
= = = Arrest and Trial of Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette = = =
On August 23 , 2008 , a California Highway Patrol ( " CHP " ) dispatcher in Humboldt County , California received a 911 call from an anonymous caller . According to the dispatcher , the caller reported a silver Ford F150 pickup with the license plate number " 8D94925 " ran them off the highway . The caller stated that the truck was last seen heading southbound on California State Route 1 . CHP dispatchers relayed the report to officers in the geographic area , and the vehicle was soon spotted traveling southbound at mile marker 66 near Fort Bragg , California . Officers pulled over the vehicle and discovered that Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette were the only occupants . After standing next to the cab of the pickup truck , the officers noticed " a very distinct smell of marijuana coming from the vehicle " . Officers then searched the vehicle and found four large bags containing 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of marijuana , an unopened box of oven bags , clippers , and fertilizer in the bed of the truck .
On August 26 , 2008 , a felony complaint was filed in Mendocino County Superior Court , charging Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette with transportation of marijuana in violation of section 11360 ( a ) of the California Health and Safety Code , and possession of marijuana for sale in violation of section 11359 of the California Health and Safety Code . On June 26 , 2009 , Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette filed a motion to suppress evidence , claiming that the traffic stop violated the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution , because officers " lacked reasonable suspicion of criminal activity " . However , the magistrate who presided over the suppression hearing , and the superior court , both rejected the motion . Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette subsequently pleaded guilty to transporting marijuana , and were sentenced to 90 days in prison and three years of probation .
Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette filed an appeal in the California Court of Appeal , but the court affirmed the judgment of the Superior Court . Relying on the " public safety " exception established in People v. Wells , the court held that " ongoing danger to other motorists [ justified ] the stop without direct corroboration of the vehicle 's illegal activity " . The court noted that the vehicle was traveling on an " undivided two @-@ lane road , thus raising the risk of a collision with oncoming traffic , which poses a particular risk to human life and limb . " However , the court also held that the " anonymous tip itself had several indicia of reliability — the content of the tip strongly suggested it came from the victim and the tipster accurately described the appearance , location and direction of the vehicle . " Lorenzo and Jose appealed again to the Supreme Court of California , but the Court declined to review their case . They then appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , which granted their petition for certiorari on October 1 , 2013 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the 911 call contained sufficient indicia of reliability to justify the traffic stop . Although he acknowledged that this was a " close case " , Justice Thomas concluded that indicia of the 911 caller 's reliability were stronger than those in Florida v. J.L. , where the Court held a " bare @-@ bones " tip was unreliable . Justice Thomas began his opinion by emphasizing that the Supreme Court had " firmly rejected the argument that reasonable cause for an investigative stop can only be based on the officer ’ s personal observation , rather than on information supplied by another person . ” By identifying the make , model , and license plate number of the pickup truck , Justice Thomas argued that " the caller necessarily claimed eyewitness knowledge of the alleged dangerous driving , " and that basis of knowledge supported the tip 's reliability . Furthermore , Justice Thomas concluded that " [ a ] driver ’ s claim that another vehicle ran her off the road , however , necessarily implies that the informant knows the other car was driven dangerously . " Justice Thomas also noted that the calls made through the 911 emergency system are particularly reliable , because calls are recorded and individuals may face prosecution for making false reports .
Justice Thomas also clarified that officers need not " rule out the possibility of innocent conduct " before making a traffic stop based on an anonymous tip . In light of the facts described in the 911 call , Justice Thomas argued that the reckless driving described in the 911 call " [ bear ] too great a resemblance to paradigmatic manifestations of drunk driving to be dismissed as an isolated example of recklessness . " He concluded that officers therefore acted reasonably " under these circumstances in stopping a driver whose alleged conduct was a significant indicator of drunk driving " . Justice Thomas noted that many drivers will behave more cautiously when followed by police officers , and he concluded that there was no need to conduct " [ e ] xtended observation " in this case , because " allowing a drunk driver a second chance for dangerous conduct could have disastrous consequences " .
= = = Dissenting opinion of Justice Scalia = = =
In his dissenting opinion , Justice Antonin Scalia argued that the majority 's opinion was a " freedom @-@ destroying cocktail . " Although he recognized anonymous tips may sometimes be reliable , he rejected the majority 's conclusion that " anonymous 911 reports of traffic violations are reliable so long as they correctly identify a car and its location . " He wrote , " [ t ] his is not my concept , and I am sure would not be the Framers ’ , of a people secure from unreasonable searches and seizures . " Justice Scalia argued that anonymous tips are inherently unreliable , because anonymous tipsters can " lie with impunity . " While he admitted 911 calls are , in fact , easily traceable , Justice Scalia argued that there was no evidence the 911 caller knew they could be identified when they placed the call . Additionally , Justice Scalia distinguished the tip in this case from the tip in White , where " the reliability of the tip was established by the fact that it predicted the target ’ s behavior in the finest detail — a detail that could be known only by someone familiar with the target ’ s business . " He argued that the general details provided in this case 's 911 call were unreliable , because " everyone in the world who saw the car would have that knowledge , and anyone who wanted the car stopped would have to provide that information . " Likewise , Justice Scalia argued that there was no evidence that the report of being run off the road was actually true .
Justice Scalia also criticized the majority 's conclusion that the tip provided reasonable suspicion that Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette were driving while drunk , because " the truck might have swerved to avoid an animal , a pothole , or a jaywalking pedestrian .... Or , indeed , he might have intentionally forced the tipster off the road because of some personal animus , or hostility to her ' Make Love , Not War ' bumper sticker . " Furthermore , Justice Scalia argued that one discrete instance of irregular driving does not give rise to the reasonable suspicion of an ongoing threat of an intoxicated driver on the road . Justice Scalia also argued that the anonymous tip 's claims of reckless driving were ultimately discredited by the fact that officers followed Lorenzo and Jose for five minutes , but observed nothing suspicious . He wrote , " I take it as a fundamental premise of our intoxicated @-@ driving laws that a driver soused enough to swerve once can be expected to swerve again — and soon . If he does not , and if the only evidence of his first episode of irregular driving is a mere inference from an uncorroborated , vague , and nameless tip , then the Fourth Amendment requires that he be left alone . " In his concluding remarks , Justice Scalia wrote " [ d ] runken driving is a serious matter , but so is the loss of our freedom to come and go as we please without police interference .... After today ’ s opinion all of us on the road , and not just drug dealers , are at risk of having our freedom of movement curtailed on suspicion of drunkenness , based upon a phone tip , true or false , of a single instance of careless driving . "
= = Subsequent developments = =
Many federal circuit courts and state supreme courts interpreting Navarette have affirmed the rule that officers need not personally corroborate incriminating details before making an arrest based on information provided by an anonymous tip . However , other courts interpreting Navarette have held that uncorroborated anonymous tips are not sufficient to provide reasonable suspicion of ongoing criminal activity . Additionally , courts in some jurisdictions have held that in order for officers to act upon an anonymous tip , the tip must provide a report of an ongoing crime , rather than a report of an isolated event that occurred in the past . Some courts have also rejected the assertion that the availability of caller information makes 911 calls inherently reliable . However , some courts have agreed with the notion that 911 calls are more reliable because callers may face criminal prosecution for making false reports . Other courts interpreting Navarette have held that the case established that less reliability is required when anonymous tips report " serious crime [ s ] or potential danger " .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
= = = Immediate reactions = = =
After the Court released its opinion , many commentators suggested that Navarette represented a significant expansion of the police 's power to stop drivers on the road . Lyle Denniston , for example , remarked that the Court 's opinion " gave police broad new authority . " In its review of cases from the 2013 term , the Harvard Law Review suggested that " Navarette may add to the police 's already expansive power , " and that the case " heralds unwarranted curtailment of Fourth Amendment protections . " Other commentators remarked that the case " seemed to lower the bar for assessments of anonymous tipsters . " Paul Kleven , attorney for Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette , said that the ruling " makes it easier for anonymous tipsters to call in and sic police on people they don 't like , " while a spokesperson for the California Attorney General 's office said " [ w ] e are pleased with the court 's ruling , which supports the hard work of law enforcement . "
= = = Scholarly analysis = = =
Scholars have observed that Navarette marked a departure from earlier precedent on the subject of anonymous tips , and some have argued that the case signifies a " dilution " of the Fourth Amendment 's reasonable suspicion standard . One analyst argued that this departure " could encourage passive and sloppy policing , for officers will be tempted to rely on easily acquired anonymous tips rather than engage in arduous collection of evidence . " Commentators have argued that Justice Kennedy 's endorsement of the reliability of anonymous 911 calls signified a departure from earlier decisions that analyzed the reliability of tips under a totality of the circumstances framework . These commentators suggest that this departure " increases the risk of fabricated tips . " Some analysts have also observed that the Court 's opinion left several questions unanswered from earlier anonymous tip cases , including the question of whether there was an exception for dangerous crimes , and that the Court " missed an opportunity to give lower courts some much needed guidance . " One commentator wrote , " [ t ] he time bomb mentioned in J.L. is still ticking " . Another commentator argued that because Lorenzo Prado Navarette 's driving was " irreproachable " for at least five minutes , " the probability that Lorenzo Navarette was legally drunk was surely less than the probability for the average daytime driver of a pickup truck ; indeed , it ostensibly was all but zero . "
= 2004 FA Community Shield =
The 2004 FA Community Shield was the 82nd FA Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup . It was contested on 8 August 2004 by Arsenal , champions of the 2003 – 04 Premier League , and Manchester United , who beat Millwall in the final of the 2003 – 04 FA Cup . Watched by a crowd of 63 @,@ 317 at the Millennium Stadium , Arsenal won the match 3 – 1 .
This was Manchester United 's 23rd Community Shield appearance and Arsenal 's 18th . Manchester United were without seven of their first @-@ choice players for the game , which meant David Bellion and Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba came into the starting 11 . Cesc Fàbregas started alongside Gilberto Silva in midfield for Arsenal as captain Patrick Vieira was absent . After a goalless first half , Arsenal took the lead when Gilberto scored in the 50th minute . Striker Alan Smith equalised for Manchester United soon after , but José Antonio Reyes put Arsenal back in front after United 's defenders failed to clear the ball . Mikaël Silvestre scored an own goal 11 minutes before the end that ensured Arsenal 's victory .
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson was complimentary of his opponents afterwards and was pleased there were no new injuries to report . Opposing manager Arsène Wenger praised Fàbregas 's performance and reiterated his desire to keep Vieira at Arsenal , after speculation regarding the player 's impending transfer to Real Madrid .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Community Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 , it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the fourth time ; it took over as the venue for the event while Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
Arsenal qualified for the 2004 FA Community Shield as winners of the Premier League . They finished their league campaign without a single defeat and earned the nickname " The Invincibles " , akin to the Preston North End team that went unbeaten in the inaugural Football League season . The other Community Shield place went to Manchester United who had defeated Millwall 3 – 0 in the 2004 FA Cup Final . This was the fifth meeting between the two clubs in the Community Shield ; Arsenal had won three of those meetings to Manchester United 's two .
Meetings between Manchester United and Arsenal were often eventful encounters , as both clubs vied for domestic honours . A goalless draw between the two clubs in September 2003 , in which Ruud van Nistelrooy missed a penalty in stoppage time , resulted in an altercation between both teams . Several Arsenal players were charged and fined accordingly by The Football Association ( FA ) for instigating the brawl ; the club was later fined £ 175 @,@ 000 , the largest ever given to a club by the FA .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson said in his press conference : " The game will be competitive . Prestige comes into it , pride comes into it , so it is always competitive when we play Arsenal . " He wanted to use the game as a means of preparing his team for their UEFA Champions League third qualifying round game against Dinamo București the following Wednesday . Ferguson was concerned about the state of his squad , with several first team players injured . He was irked that senior players Cristiano Ronaldo and Gabriel Heinze were absent , on duty for their respective national teams at the Summer Olympics : " Apparently , it 's supposed to be for amateurs , and money earned is put in trust , but we will be paying their wages while they are away so I don 't know what that 's all about . "
When asked about Arsenal 's unbeaten run and whether it would be repeated in English football , Ferguson replied :
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with France and America , commanding in turn the 74 @-@ gun ships HMS Albion , HMS Queen and HMS Northumberland , paying off Northumberland on 10 September 1818 . He was nominated a Companion of the Bath on 4 June 1815 , and was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 19 July 1821 . Walker was reportedly a cheerful and friendly officer , who won respect through his leniency and good nature . His commanding officer , William Young , once complimented him for keeping Bedford in a state of high discipline without once resorting to a flogging over a period of five months and three weeks . While in command of the Northumberland he was praised for his actions when he and his crew fought a fire that had broken out in Sheerness Dockyard , and which had threatened to destroy the entire yard . James Walker was twice married , at first to a daughter of General Sir John Irwin , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Ireland . The marriage did not produce any children and after her death Walker married Priscilla Sarah , the fourth daughter of the MP Arnoldus Jones @-@ Skelton . The couple had three sons ; the eldest , Melville , entered the army , while the two younger sons , Leven Charles Frederick and Thomas , followed their father into the navy . Rear @-@ Admiral James Walker died at Blatchington , near Seaford , Sussex on 13 July 1831 at the age of 67 , after a short illness .
= As I Lay Dying ( band ) =
As I Lay Dying is an American metalcore band from San Diego , California . Founded in 2000 by vocalist Tim Lambesis , the establishment of the band 's first full lineup , which included drummer Jordan Mancino , occurred in 2001 . As I Lay Dying has released six albums , one split album , and two compilation albums .
As I Lay Dying 's fourth studio album An Ocean Between Us peaked at No. 8 on the Billboard 200 , and No. 1 on the Top Rock chart . The band has performed at events such as Wacken Open Air , With Full Force , Soundwave Festival , Sounds of the Underground , Warped Tour , Bloodstock Open Air and Taste of Chaos . In 2007 , As I Lay Dying won the " Ultimate Metal God " award from MTV2 at the first annual " All That Rocks " special ; was named " Artist of the Year " at the San Diego Music Awards in 2005 , 2007 and 2008 ; and was nominated for a 2008 Grammy Award for the song " Nothing Left . " Their fifth studio album The Powerless Rise was written over a three @-@ year period , and was released in May 2010 to widespread critical acclaim . Their most recent album , Awakened , was released on September 25 , 2012 .
The band went on an indefinite hiatus in 2014 when Lambesis was incarcerated and sentenced to six years in prison . The remaining members formed Wovenwar with Oh , Sleeper vocalist and guitarist Shane Blay .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and first releases ( 2000 – 04 ) = = =
After leaving the band Society 's Finest , in which he played guitar , vocalist Lambesis formed As I Lay Dying in 2000 . Starting out as a duet with drummer Mancino , they first met as a band in February 2001 . They both were in the hardcore punk band Point of Recognition . The band 's name came from the novel of the same name by William Faulkner that was published in 1930 ; although the band 's lyrics and music are not directly inspired by the novel .
Shortly after the band 's formation , Pluto Records offered As I Lay Dying a recording contract and , after accepting the offer , the band entered the studio one month later to record their first album Beneath the Encasing of Ashes , released in June 2001 . The band then recorded five songs for a split album , again through Pluto Records , with San Diego post @-@ hardcore band American Tragedy .
As I Lay Dying realized it needed to expand to a five @-@ piece band to include another guitarist and a bassist . Mancino commented " we started going on tour and we needed obviously more people than that . " As Lambesis and Mancino were the only permanent members , the band recruited friends to perform with them and subsequently underwent several lineup changes : bassist Noah Chase departed in 2001 , while Brandon Hays , and his subsequent replacement Aaron Kennedy , departed in 2003 . During early 2003 , when As I Lay Dying 's Pluto Records contract expired , the band pursued deals with other record labels . After extensive touring and an increase in popularity , As I Lay Dying was offered a record deal with Metal Blade Records in March 2003 .
In July 2003 , the band 's second studio album Frail Words Collapse was released . Produced by Lambesis , the album peaked at No. 30 on Billboard 's Independent Albums chart and No. 41 on the Top Heatseekers chart . William York of Allmusic thought the band " doesn 't really add anything new to the mix from a musical standpoint " with the release , while also praising it for being " solid enough and well executed " with " adequate " production . Sherwin Frias of Jesus Freak Hideout had similar sentiments and commented " As I Lay Dying didn 't exactly break many boundaries in making this record " , but praised that each song is " executed so well ( and with such precision ) that nary a song misses its target . " Touring then occurred to promote the album , with support from bands Himsa , Shadows Fall , The Black Dahlia Murder , Killswitch Engage , In Flames , Sworn Enemy , and Hatebreed . Music videos for the songs " 94 Hours " and " Forever " received rotation on networks such as Fuse and MTV2 's Headbanger 's Ball .
= = = Mainstream success ( 2005 – 09 ) = = =
As I Lay Dying entered Big Fish recording studio in Encinitas , California , US in January 2005 to record their third studio album . Shadows Are Security was released in June of the same year and debuted at No. 1 on the Independent Albums chart . It was also the band 's first release to enter the Billboard 200 — at No. 35 — and sold about 275 @,@ 000 copies . Wade Kergan of Allmusic called it " one of the strongest releases of 2005 , " and commented that new guitarists Phil Sgrosso and Nick Hipa make the band " stronger . " Rod Smith of Decibel Magazine commented : " Tim Lambesis 's finely honed roar in bittersweet instrumental matrices augmented by occasional clean vocals by bassist Clint Norris . Guitarists Phil Sgrosso and Nick Hipa whip up a melodic cyclone on ' The Darkest Nights ' . " By this time , guitarist Evan White had quit the band for personal reasons after his mother died . All the singing was done by Dave Arthur of Kings to You , because it sounded more powerful in the studio in comparison to Clint Norris 's singing .
As I Lay Dying began touring to promote the new record by making appearances at Hell on Earth , Winter Headline Tour , and Ozzfest , as well as a tour with Slipknot and Unearth . The band was on the second stage alongside Rob Zombie , Killswitch Engage , Mastodon , The Haunted , and It Dies Today . The band raised its profile in 2006 through its support slot on the Taste of Chaos tour in the US , alongside bands such as Deftones , Thrice , Dredg , Funeral for a Friend , and Story of the Year . In May 2006 , Beneath the Encasing of Ashes and the songs from the split album were re @-@ released through Metal Blade Records as A Long March : The First Recordings . The album contained the original and re @-@ recorded versions of the songs from the split album — the band preferred to re @-@ release the material , as they didn 't want their fans paying large sums of money to listen to early releases . The re @-@ release peaked at No. 3 on the Independent Albums chart and No. 129 on the Billboard 200 chart . In mid @-@ 2006 , As I Lay Dying was the headline act at the Sounds of the Underground Festival .
Norris left the band on good terms in November 2006 with a desire to focus on his marriage . The band auditioned ten bassists , but none proved successful . Lambesis received demo tapes from a band called This Endearing , of which bassist Josh Gilbert was a member ; however , Lambesis chose to " sit on it " and waited for the band to record more material . This Endearing subsequently disbanded and Gilbert was recruited as As I Lay Dying 's new bassist .
In 2007 As I Lay Dying started recording a new album titled An Ocean Between Us , which was released on August 21 , 2007 . Debuting at No. 8 on the Billboard 200 and No. 1 on the Top Rock chart , with first @-@ week sales of 39 @,@ 000 units , the album was the highest charting release for the band .
Co @-@ produced by Killswitch Engage guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz and As I Lay Dying , and mixed by Colin Richardson , the album received generally positive reviews . Christa L. Titus of Billboard commented : " Whatever the differences between As I Lay Dying 's personal desires and what its fans demand , this album surely acts as a bridge , " praising the song " Comfort Betrays " for its guitar solo . Scott Alisoglu of Blabbermouth.net described the album as " a well @-@ rounded and often thrashy metalcore album , as the band has struck an effective balance between aggression and accessible melodies . " Thom Jurek of Allmusic praised the band for expanding its musical range by including melodic singing and choruses , as they had previously done on " Confined " from Shadows Are Security . It was the first time that bassist Gilbert recorded a studio album with the band .
To promote the album , As I Lay Dying performed at the Warped Tour 2007 in August , and toured through Europe in September with Darkest Hour , Himsa , and Maroon . The band was awarded the title " Ultimate Metal God " by MTV2 's " All That Rocks " special , and was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of " Best Metal Performance " for the song " Nothing Left " . The other Grammy Award nominees included winner Slayer , King Diamond , Machine Head , and Shadows Fall . The band played a portion of the 2008 Warped Tour , as well as the Taste of Chaos UK 2008 Tour with headliners Atreyu .
On April 9 , 2009 , the DVD This Is Who We Are was released in Europe , and was released in the US on April 14 , 2009 . The DVD was certified Gold in the US almost a month after its release .
= = = The Powerless Rise and Decas ( 2010 – 11 ) = = =
After recording through 2009 , the band 's fifth record The Powerless Rise was streamed on the MySpace Music website on May 7 , 2010 up until May 10 , 2010 . The album was officially released on May 11 , 2010 and received generally positive critical acclaim , with one critic saying : " Fans of metalcore in general , and As I Lay Dying in particular , will be more than satisfied with The Powerless Rise , as the band 's gradual progression and consistency makes this their best album . "
In 2010 the band toured in support of The Powerless Rise , headlining the majority of their shows . In the first half of the year , the band embarked on a US tour with Demon Hunter , blessthefall , and War of Ages . This was followed by a mid @-@ 2010 headlining tour titled " The Cool Tour " across the US , and a headlining tour across US / Canada that also featured All That Remains , Unearth , and Carnifex . The band 's final headline tour of the year was in Europe , with Heaven Shall Burn , Suicide Silence , and Sylosis .
In February 2011 , the band headlined a US tour with support from Winds of Plague and After the Burial . The band then toured in late April / early May with Trivium , in support of Disturbed , on the " Music as a Weapon " tour in Australia and New Zealand . Then at the end of May and beginning of June , the band headlined a few performances with Heaven Shall Burn .
On November 8 , 2011 , As I Lay Dying released a compilation , Decas , in honor of the band 's ten @-@ year anniversary . The album featured three new , original songs ; four cover versions of songs by bands such as Slayer , Judas Priest and Descendents ; a re @-@ recorded medley that uses parts of several songs taken from Beneath the Encasing of Ashes ; and four remixes , consisting of one song from each of their albums since Frail Words Collapse . The album 's first track " Paralyzed " was released as a lyric video on September 13 , 2011 , and as a free download on iTunes on November 7 , the day before the album 's release . The band embarked on the " A Decade of Destruction " tour , coinciding with the release of the album , from November to December 2011 .
= = = Awakened , Tim Lambesis ' trial ( 2012 – 14 ) = = =
On January 25 , 2012 , an announcement revealed that the band would be playing the Mayhem Festival 2012 with Slipknot , Slayer , Motörhead , Anthrax , The Devil Wears Prada , Asking Alexandria , Whitechapel , Upon A Burning Body , I , the Breather , Betraying the Martyrs , and Dirtfedd . The band announced in April 2012 that Bill Stevenson , who had previously worked with NOFX and Rise Against , would be the producer for their sixth album .
On June 22 , 2012 , the band announced that their sixth album would be titled Awakened and the first single " Cauterize " was released on June 25 , 2012 . On September 12 , 2012 , As I Lay Dying released their second single " A Greater Foundation " with a corresponding music video . The album was released on September 25 , 2012 and " Cauterize " was available on the band 's website as a free download for a 24 @-@ hour period . As I
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Lay Dying won the " Metal Band of the Year " award from Loudwire in 2012 , beating other well @-@ known bands , including Anthrax and Lamb of God . Subsequently , prior to his criminal charges , Lambesis started a new band entitled Pyrithion with guitarist Ryan Glisan , formerly of Allegaeon . They released one EP as a band .
On May 7 , 2013 , Lambesis was arrested in Oceanside , California , US after allegedly hiring an undercover detective to kill his estranged wife . The report was made by the San Diego County Sheriff 's Department , leaving the future of the band uncertain . On the following day , the band released a statement in which they said : " The legal process is taking its course and we have no more information than you do . There are many unanswered questions , and the situation will become clearer in the coming days and weeks . We 'll keep you informed as best we can . " They also stated that their thoughts were " with Tim , his family , and with everyone else affected by this terrible situation . " Eight days later , the band cancelled their mid @-@ 2013 tour with Killswitch Engage , stating that " we feel that it is best for the band to be off the road while the current situation gets sorted " . During the month of his initial arrest , Lambesis pleaded " not guilty " and his lawyer stated : " His thought processes were devastatingly affected by his steroid use . " On February 25 , 2014 Lambesis changed his plea from " not guilty " to " guilty " and consequently faced a potential sentence of nine years in prison .
Rather than continue on without Lambesis , Mancino , along with ex @-@ members Phil Sgrosso , Nick Hipa , and Josh Gilbert , decided to focus on a different style of music under a different band name , Wovenwar , with Shane Blay as the vocalist , This project took shape long before Lambesis ' plea. although Mancino still remains a member of As I Lay Dying . During this period of time Lambesis was also working on music and found time to release the third full length from Austrian Death Machine called Triple Brutal .
On May 16 , 2014 , Lambesis was sentenced to six years in prison , with 48 days credit for time served .
= = Musical style = =
As I lay Dying 's musical style is primarily described as metalcore and melodic metalcore . The band also has been referred to as thrash metal . Their music often mixes melodic death metal and hardcore punk together . In a review of Beneath the Encasing of Ashes , Bradley Torreano of Allmusic described the band 's sound as a blend of heavy metal , hardcore , and grindcore . RoughEdge described An Ocean Between Us and The Powerless Rise as incorporating classic metal into the AILD sound . Heavy metal writer Garry Sharpe @-@ Young described the band as a " Christian Hardcore act employing the Grind edged vocals of singer Tim Lambesis and a distinct hint of Scandinavian guitar chug . "
= = Christianity = =
Although As I Lay Dying has stated on numerous occasions that all of the members of the group are practicing Christians , the band is usually described by media as being in the metalcore genre , not Christian metal . This is largely because the band 's lyrics do not directly focus on pro @-@ Christian themes the way many praise music bands do nor do they treat their music as a direct extension of their private Christian worship or proselytizing efforts . For example , not once do the names God or Jesus appear in any As I Lay Dying song , nor do any of their songs explicitly invoke Christian doctrine or quote the Bible . Most songs tend to address broader spiritual concepts like existential angst or the struggle between reason and spirituality .
Lyricist and lead singer Tim Lambesis has given mixed commentary on the subject : when asked in 2008 if the members were " a Christian band " or " Christians in a band " , Lambesis stated on the band 's FAQ , " I 'm not sure what the difference is between five Christians playing in a band and a Christian band , If you truly believe something , then it should affect every area of your life . All five of us are Christians . I believe that change should start with me first , and as a result , our lyrics do not come across very ' preachy . ' Many of our songs are about life , struggles , mistakes , relationships and other issues that don 't fit entirely in the spiritual category . However , all of these topics are written about through my perspective as a Christian . " Furthermore , during an August 2010 radio interview on the Christian metal radio show The Full Armor of God Broadcast , Lambesis stated " I can only really write about what I 'm passionate about in life , so naturally my faith , my belief in the teachings of Jesus and His resurrection come across in our lyrics . "
However , in later years , Lambesis showed an increasing philosophical skepticism towards Christianity and religion in general : Court documents stated Lambesis emailed his wife Meggan in August 2012 , while on tour with As I Lay Dying , asking for a divorce and stating he " no longer believed in God " . In explaining some of the lyrics from Awakened , Lambesis stated that his studies of theology had led him to the conclusion that " tradition and truth are often at odds with each other " , and while he " didn 't hate all religious belief " , he was finding it " very difficult for to outline exactly who it is that 's worth siding with . " He also quoted the book Pagan Christianity by George Barna and Frank Viola , noting that both " Protestant and Catholic denominations have poisonous roots " .
While on house arrest in July 2013 , after being charged with soliciting his wife 's murder , Lambesis published a blog post in which he obliquely confirmed his previous loss of faith in Christianity . However , since his arrest it has been reported that Lambesis " has spent much of the last year reevaluating what originally convinced him to abandon belief in God . After much brokenness and repentance he sees things differently , considers himself a follower of Jesus , someone submitted to the will of God . "
In 2014 , Lambesis said that although they were marketed as a Christian band , the members privately considered themselves atheists . Former guitarist Nick Hipa calls these claims slanderous and defamatory .
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Beneath the Encasing of Ashes ( 2001 )
Frail Words Collapse ( 2003 )
Shadows Are Security ( 2005 )
An Ocean Between Us ( 2007 )
The Powerless Rise ( 2010 )
Awakened ( 2012 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
San Diego Music Awards
Artist of the Year ( 2005 )
Artist of the Year ( 2007 )
Artist of the Year ( 2008 )
Best Hard Rock ( 2011 )
Grammy Awards
Nominated for 2008 Best Metal Performance for the song " Nothing Left "
MTV2 Music Awards
Ultimate Metal God ( 2007 )
Hollywood Film Fest awards
Best Music Video for " The Sound of Truth " music video
Loudwire Music Awards
Metal Band of the Year ( 2012 )
= Unbroken ( Stan Walker song ) =
" Unbroken " is a song performed by Australian @-@ New Zealand recording artist Stan Walker . Written and produced by OneRepublic frontman Ryan Tedder , the song was released by Sony Music Australia on 12 April 2010 as the lead single from Walker 's second album , From the Inside Out . Walker felt privileged to record a song written by Tedder and complimented him , " He 's the man , one of the best songwriters and producers in the world . I am so blessed . " The piano @-@ based pop ballad received a mixed response from critics .
" Unbroken " was promoted by performances on Sunrise and Hey Hey It 's Saturday and a Matthew Chuang @-@ directed music video , filmed in Melbourne . The single peaked at number nine on the New Zealand Singles Chart and number twenty @-@ three on the ARIA Singles Chart , and lasted thirteen and seventeen weeks on the charts , respectively .
= = Background and composition = =
" Unbroken " was written and produced by OneRepublic leader Ryan Tedder , who was behind singles such as Beyoncé Knowles ' " Halo " ( 2009 ) and Leona Lewis ' " Bleeding Love " ( 2007 ) . " Unbroken " was recorded at Artisan Studios in Birmingham , England , and Phil Tan mixed the record at Soapbox Studios , Atlanta , Georgia . Walker was honoured by the opportunity to record a piece of Tedder 's work . Walker told the Daily Telegraph , " It is a privilege for me to record a song by the guy who wrote ' Halo ' for Beyoncé and ' Bleeding Love ' for Leona . He 's the man , one of the best songwriters and producers in the world . I am so blessed . " In an interview with MTV Australia he said , " The song is so amazing . When I first heard the song I was like this is a beat song and then I read the lyrics and that 's what won me over because it talks about my life , being nothing and being in pieces , but then becoming unbroken . " " Unbroken " is a piano @-@ driven pop music ballad , and features a repetitive chorus .
= = Release and reception = =
" Unbroken " was released as a one @-@ track digital download on 12 April 2010 in New Zealand , and was sent to Australian contemporary hit radio the same day . A digital extended play ( EP ) was released in several countries on 20 April 2010 ; it also contains an acoustic version of " Black Box " and an a capella version of " Unbroken " . The Compact Disc single for " Unbroken " was released in Australia on 24 April 2010 ; it features an Israel remix and the a cappella version of the song .
" Unbroken " received mixed reviews from music critics . Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald called it " chest @-@ beating and uplifting " , while Allmusic 's Jon O 'Brien saw the song as very similar to Tedder 's previous writings . " Unbroken " debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ nine on 19 April 2010 . The following week it jumped to number twelve , and moved into its peak position of number nine on 31 May 2010 . " Unbroken " spent a total of thirteen weeks on the New Zealand Singles Chart , including two weeks in the top ten and nine weeks in the top twenty . On 1 August 2010 the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified " Unbroken " gold , marking the sale of 7 @,@ 500 copies in New Zealand . " Unbroken " entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ seven , before reaching its peak of number twenty @-@ three in its fifth week . On 6 September 2010 the song fell out of the ARIA Singles Chart , having spent seventeen non @-@ consecutive weeks on the chart . " Unbroken " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , which denotes the shipment of 35 @,@ 000 units . It also spent twenty @-@ four weeks on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart , and peaked at number
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three .
= = Music video and live performances = =
The music video for " Unbroken " was shot in Melbourne and Sydney , Australia on 8 April 2010 and was directed by Matthew Chuang . It features Walker singing in various locations in Melbourne including Degraves Street and Flinders Lane . Walker said to MTV 's Clippin ' that shooting the video in public made him feel embarrassed and he found it difficult not to laugh during its filming .
The video opens with the camera rotating around Walker at an intersection as he slowly raises his head , before he is shown walking down a shop @-@ lined street . As the song begins , Walker starts singing in an empty narrow alleyway . Examples of broken people are shown , such as a girl being pushed around and teased before she plugs headphones into her ears , a man watching over a hospital patient , and individuals waiting for others to show up . Walker passes a bench of people reading newspapers with the respective headlines , " Attacked " , " War " , " When Will It End ? " and " Act of Hate " , while the final newspaper headline reads " Hope " . At the end of the video the now " unbroken " characters shot in Martin Place are shown to be content , and Walker makes his way down a darkened alley .
Walker performed " Unbroken " on Hey Hey It 's Saturday on 5 May 2010 . He also performed the song on Sunrise on 13 May 2010 .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Unbroken " – 4 : 34
" Unbroken " ( Israel remix ) – 3 : 46
" Unbroken " ( Acapella ) – 4 : 18
Digital EP
" Unbroken " – 4 : 34
" Black Box " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 28
" Unbroken " ( Acapella ) – 4 : 18
= = Personnel = =
Marcus Byrne – assistant engineering
Stuart Crichton – vocal production
Damien Lewis – assistant mixing
Phil Tan – mixing
Ryan Tedder – writing , production , engineering , programming and arrangement , piano , drum programming , backing vocals
Source :
= = Release history = =
= To the Stars ( novel ) =
To the Stars is a science fiction novel by L. Ron Hubbard . The novel 's story is set in a dystopian future , and chronicles the experiences of protagonist Alan Corday aboard a starship called the Hound of Heaven as he copes with the travails of time dilation from traveling at near light speed . Corday is kidnapped by the ship 's captain and forced to become a member of their crew , and when he next returns to Earth his fiancee has aged and barely remembers him . He becomes accustomed to life aboard the ship , and when the captain dies Corday assumes command .
Hubbard 's story was first published by John W. Campbell in two parts in a serialized format in 1950 in Astounding Science Fiction . It was first published in book format in 1954 under the title Return to Tomorrow , and was published in hardcover in 1975 under the same title . In 1997 , film producers were in the process of developing the work as a movie for Touchstone Pictures . Jazz musician Chick Corea released a 2004 album of the same name with music inspired by the story , and Galaxy Press reissued a hardcover edition of Hubbard 's novel the same year as a form of cross marketing .
The book was generally positively received , and garnered a 2001 nomination for a " Retro " Hugo Award for Best Novella . Publishers Weekly gave the book a positive review , calling it one of Hubbard 's " finest works " , and Alan Cheuse highlighted the work on National Public Radio 's program All Things Considered as a top literature holiday pick .
= = Plot = =
Protagonist Alan Corday is a young engineer , and is kidnapped from a spaceport called " New Chicago " and taken aboard the interstellar trading starship Hound of Heaven . The ship is commanded by a charismatic leader named Captain Jocelyn , who tells Corday to use his skills to help the Hound of Heaven in its travels between Earth and space colonies in other star systems . On the first page of the book 's prologue Hubbard cites " the basic equation of mass and time .... AS MASS APPROACHES INFINITY , TIME APPROACHES ZERO " , meaning that interstellar travelers at near light speed experience time relative to their environment , and when they return to their home star will find that decades or centuries may have passed . Six weeks of time aboard the ship amounts to roughly nine years experienced by those on Earth . Corday resists mingling with the culture aboard the starship , but when he returns home after travels with the Hound of Heaven he finds that his fiancee has aged and has trouble with her memory . Corday realizes his only home has become that of the starship . Captain Jocelyn is killed in an ambush on a dystopian Earth , and Corday takes command of the ship .
= = Publication history = =
To the Stars was first published in two parts in February and March 1950 in a serialized format by John W. Campbell in Astounding Science Fiction . Hubbard had previously written the story Ole Doc Methuselah for Astounding Science Fiction in 1947 , later published as a book in 1992 . In 1954 the story was published in book format by Ace Books in a paperback first edition , under the title Return to Tomorrow . Garland Publishing released a hardcover edition of Return to Tomorrow in 1975 .
In 1997 Hollywood producers were working on developing a film version of To the Stars . Producers Barbara Boyle and Michael Taylor were preparing to bring the book to the film screen for Touchstone Pictures , a division of Walt Disney Motion Pictures Group . Boyle and Taylor had previously worked with actor John Travolta on the film Phenomenon , and the project was planned to be part of Travolta 's vision to make films out of L. Ron Hubbard 's science fiction novels . Hubbard 's novel Battlefield Earth was first on his list , and Travolta starred in and helped fund the film version of the book which was released in 2000 . A film version of To the Stars had not yet begun production as of 2008 .
The jazz musician Chick Corea released a CD of the same name with music inspired by the story in 2004 , and Galaxy Press reissued a hardcover edition of Hubbard 's novel the same year as a form of cross marketing . According to Publishers Weekly , Corea 's soundtrack to the novel was issued by Galaxy Press to give the company 's " enormous marketing muscle " the ability to " tap into the vast Hubbard fan base " . Corea explains at his website how he was motivated to work on music inspired by the book . He comments that he was inspired by a scene from the book where Hubbard describes the Captain of the Hound of Heaven spaceship playing a melody on a piano .
= = Reception = =
To the Stars was nominated by the World Science Fiction Society for a " Retro " Hugo Award for Best Novella in 2001 , losing to The Man Who Sold the Moon by Robert A. Heinlein . The " To the Stars " science @-@ fiction magazine was published by Bridge Publications .
The book generally received positive reception from literature critics . Publishers Weekly described it as " golden SF from the Golden Age " , and The Harvard Crimson called it " one of the great classics " of the Golden Age of Science Fiction . A reviewer writing in Publishers Weekly commented : " Hubbard brilliantly evokes the vastness of space and the tragedy of those who would conquer it " , and called the book " one of his [ Hubbard 's ] finest works " . Alan Cheuse reviewed the book in the San Francisco Chronicle , writing : " As in a number of groundbreaking -- or time @-@ breaking , I suppose we ought to say -- works of science fiction , the science behind the story is more interesting than the fiction itself . Hubbard is a thinker who writes , rather than a writer who thinks , as most masters are . " Cheuse highlighted the book among his 2004 literature holiday picks in a piece for National Public Radio 's program All Things Considered : " Before he began founding new religions , Hubbard was one of the country 's most prolific pulp science fiction writers , and this book is one of his best . " Georges T. Dodds , columnist for WARP , newsletter / fanzine of the Montreal Science Fiction and Fantasy association writes " besides being among the earliest hard science fiction works to consider time @-@ dilation effects in long distance near @-@ light @-@ speed space travel , ( To The Stars ) is a pretty entertaining story . "
Barnes & Noble 's Explorations editor , Paul Goat Allen , put the book at number eight on his list of the top ten science fiction / fantasy novels for 2004 , writing : " After more than half a century , ' To the Stars ' is just as timely , just as awe @-@ inspiring , just as profoundly moving as it was in 1950 . " In a review of the book for the website SF Site , Georges T. Dodds writes : " To the Stars , besides being among the earliest hard science fiction works to consider time @-@ dilation effects in long @-@ distance near @-@ light @-@ speed space travel , is a pretty entertaining story . " Writing in the Marburg Journal of Religion , Marco Frenschkowski of the University of Mainz described the book as a " melancholy tale about interplanetary travel and the effects of time dilation " . University of California , Irvine physics professor and science fiction author Gregory Benford wrote positively of the book in an article for the science fiction website " Crows Nest " : " Writers had used Einstein 's special relativity theory before in stories , but Hubbard brought to his novel the compressed story telling and pulp skills that had stood him in over a decade of
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professional writing . "
Galaxy reviewer Groff Conklin described the 1954 edition as " a fast @-@ paced and grim adventure . . . just short of absurdity , but interesting nevertheless . " Anthony Boucher panned the novel , calling it " a surprisingly routine and plotless space opera . "
In addition to Chick Corea 's album , which is directly based on the novel , it was also referenced in the 1996 album Fantastic Planet by the band Failure , the cover art of which is based on the book cover of the first edition of Return to Tomorrow .
= Gregory of Nyssa =
Gregory of Nyssa , also known as Gregory Nyssen ( Greek : Γρηγόριος Νύσσης ; c . 335 – c . 395 ) , was bishop of Nyssa from 372 to 376 and from 378 until his death . He is venerated as a saint in Roman Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy , Lutheranism , and Anglicanism . Gregory , his elder brother Basil of Caesarea , and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus are collectively known as the Cappadocian Fathers .
Gregory lacked the administrative ability of his brother Basil or the contemporary influence of Gregory of Nazianzus , but he was an erudite theologian who made significant contributions to the doctrine of the Trinity and the Nicene Creed . Gregory 's philosophical writings were influenced by Origen . Since the mid @-@ twentieth century , there has been a significant increase in interest in Gregory 's works from the academic community , particularly involving universal salvation , which has resulted in challenges to many traditional interpretations of his theology .
= = Background = =
In the book of Acts , it depicts that at on the Day of Pentecost , that there were visiting Jews who were " residents of ... Cappadocia " in attendance . In the First Epistle of Peter , written after AD 65 , the author greets Christians who are " exiles scattered throughout … Cappodicia . " There is no further reference to Cappadocia in the rest of the New Testament .
Christianity arose in Cappadocia relatively late with no evidence of a Christian community before the late second century AD . Alexander of Jerusalem was the first bishop of the province in the early to mid third century , a period in which Christians suffered persecution from the local Roman authorities . The community remained very small throughout the third century : when Gregory Thaumaturgus acceded to the bishopric in c . 250 , according to his namesake , the Nyssen , there were only seventeen members of the Church in Caesarea .
Cappadocian bishops were among those at the Council of Nicaea . Because of the broad distribution of the population , rural bishops [ χωρεπισκοποι ] were appointed to support the Bishop of Caesarea . During the late fourth century there were around fifty of them . In Gregory 's lifetime , the Christians of Cappadocia were devout , with the cults of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste and Saint George being particularly significant and represented by a considerable monastic presence . There were some adherents of heretical branches of Christianity , most notably Arians , Encratites and Messalians .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Gregory was born around 335 , probably in or near the city of Neocaesarea , Pontus . His family was aristocratic and Christian - according to Gregory of Nazianzus , his mother was Emmelia of Caesarea , and his father , a rhetorician , has been identified either as Basil the Elder or as a Gregory . Among his eight siblings were St. Macrina the Younger , St. Naucratius , St. Peter of Sebaste and St. Basil of Caesarea . The precise number of children in the family was historically contentious : the commentary on 30 May in the Acta Sanctorum , for example , initially states that they were nine , before describing Peter as the tenth child . It has been established that this confusion occurred due to the death of one son in infancy , leading to ambiguities in Gregory 's own writings . Gregory 's parents had suffered persecution for their faith : he writes that they " had their goods confiscated for confessing Christ . " Gregory 's maternal grandmother , Macrina the Elder is also revered as a saint and his maternal grandfather was a martyr as Gregory put it " killed by Imperial wrath " under the persecution of the Roman Emperor Maximinus II . Between the 320 's to the early 340 's the family rebuilt its fortunes , with Gregory 's father working in the city of Neocaeaseria as an advocate and rhetorician .
Gregory 's temperament is said to be quiet and meek , in contrast to his brother Basil who was known to be much more outspoken .
Gregory was first educated at home , by his mother Emmelia and sister Macrina . Little is known of what further education he received . Apocryphal hagiographies depict him studying at Athens , but this is speculation probably based on the life of his brother Basil . It seems more likely that he continued his studies in Caesarea , where he read classical literature , philosophy and perhaps medicine . Gregory himself claimed that his only teachers were Basil , " Paul , John and the rest of the Apostles and prophets " .
While his brothers Basil and Naucratius lived as hermits from c . 355 , Gregory initially pursued a non @-@ ecclesiastical career as a rhetorician . He did however , act as a lector . He is known to have married a woman named Theosebia during this period , who is sometimes identified with Theosebia the Deaconess , venerated as a saint by Orthodox Christianity . This is controversial , however , and other commentators suggest that Theosebia the Deaconess was one of Gregory 's sisters .
= = = Episcopate = = =
In 371 , the Emperor Valens split Cappadocia into two new provinces , Cappadocia Prima and Cappadocia Secunda . This resulted in complex changes in ecclesiastical boundaries , during which several new bishoprics were created . Gregory was elected bishop of the new see of Nyssa in 372 , presumably with the support of his brother Basil , who was metropolitan of Caesarea . Gregory 's early policies as bishop often went against those of Basil : for instance , while his brother condemned the Sabellianist followers of Marcellus of Ancyra as heretics , Gregory may have tried to reconcile them with the church .
Gregory faced opposition to his reign in Nyssa , and , in 373 Amphilochius , bishop of Iconium had to visit the city to quell discontent . In 375 Desmothenes of Pontus convened a synod at Ancyra to try Gregory on charges of embezzlement of church funds and irregular ordination of bishops . He was arrested by imperial troops in the winter of the same year , but escaped to an unknown location . The synod of Nyssa , which was convened in the spring of 376 , deposed him . However , Gregory regained his see in 378 , perhaps due to an amnesty promulgated by the new emperor Gratian . In the same year Basil died , and despite the relative unimportance of Nyssa , Gregory took over many of his brother 's former responsibilities in Pontus .
He was present at the Synod of Antioch in April 379 , where he unsuccessfully attempted to reconcile the followers of Meletius of Antioch with those of Paulinus . After visiting the village of Annisa to see his dying sister Macrina , he returned to Nyssa in August . In 380 he travelled to Sebaste , in the province of Armenia Prima , to support a pro @-@ Nicene candidate for the election to the bishopric . To his surprise , he himself was elected to the seat , perhaps due to the population 's association of him with his brother . However , Gregory deeply disliked the relatively unhellenized society of Armenia , and he was confronted by an investigation into his orthodoxy by local opponents of the Nicene theology . After a stay of several months , a substitute was found - possibly Gregory 's brother Peter , who was bishop of Sebaste from 381 - and Gregory returned home to Nyssa to write books I and II of Against Eunomius .
Gregory participated in the First Council of Constantinople ( 381 ) , and perhaps gave there his famous sermon In suam ordinationem . He was chosen to eulogise at the funeral of Melitus , which occurred during the council . The council sent Gregory on a mission to Arabia , perhaps to ameliorate the situation in Bostra , where two men , Agapius and Badagius , claimed to be bishop . If this is the case , Gregory was unsuccessful , as the see was still contested in 394 . He then travelled to Jerusalem , where Cyril of Jerusalem faced opposition from local clergy due to the fact that he had been ordained by Acacius of Caesarea , an Arian heretic . Gregory 's attempted mediation of the dispute was unsuccessful , and he himself was accused of holding unorthodox views on the nature of Christ . His later reign in Nyssa was marked by conflict with his Metropolitan , Helladius . Gregory was present at a 394 synod convened at Constantinople to discuss the continued problems in Bostra . The year of his death is unknown .
= = Theology = =
The traditional view of Gregory is that he was an orthodox Trinitarian theologian , who was influenced by the neoplatonism of Plotinus and believed in universal salvation following Origen . However , as a highly original and sophisticated thinker , Gregory is difficult to classify , and many aspects of his theology are contentious among both conservative Eastern Orthodox theologians and Western academic scholarship . This is often due to the lack of systematic structure and the presence of terminological inconsistencies in Gregory 's work .
= = = Conception of the Trinity = = =
Gregory , following Basil , defined the Trinity as " one essence [ οὐσία ] in three persons [ ὑποστάσεις ] " , the formula adopted by the Council of Constantinople in 381 . Like the other Cappadocian Fathers , he was a homoousian , and Against Eunomius affirms the truth of the consubstantiality of the trinity over Eunomius ' Aristotelian belief that the Father 's substance is unengendered , whereas the Son 's is engendered . According to Gregory , the differences between the three persons of the Trinity reside in their relationships with each other , and the triune nature of God is revealed through divine action ( despite the unity of God in His action ) . The Son is therefore defined as begotten of the Father , the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father and the Son , and the Father by his role as progenitor . However , this doctrine would seem to subordinate the Son to the Father , and the Holy Spirit to the Son . Robert Jenson suggests that Gregory implies that each member of the Godhead has an individual priority : the Son has epistemological priority , the Father has ontic priority and the Spirit has metaphysical priority . Other commentators disagree : Morwenna Ludlow , for instance , argues that epistemic priority resides primarily in the Spirit in Gregory 's theology .
Modern proponents of social Trinitarianism often claim to have been influenced by the Cappadocians ' dynamic picture of the Trinity . However , it would be fundamentally incorrect to identify Gregory as a social Trinitarian , as his theology emphasises the unity of God 's will , and he clearly believes that the identities of the Trinity are the three persons , not the relations between them .
= = = Infinitude of God = = =
Gregory was one of the first theologians to argue , in opposition to Origen , that God is infinite . His main argument for the infinity of God , which can be found in Against Eunomius , is that God 's goodness is limitless , and as God 's goodness is essential , God is also limitless .
An important consequence of Gregory 's belief in the infinity of God is his belief that God , as limitless , is essentially incomprehensible to the limited minds of created beings . In Life of Moses , Gregory writes : " ... every concept that comes from some comprehensible image , by an approximate understanding and by guessing at the Divine nature , constitutes a idol of God and does not proclaim God . " Gregory 's theology was thus apophatic : he proposed that God should be defined in terms of what we know He is not rather than what we might speculate Him to be .
Accordingly , the Nyssen taught that due to God 's infinitude , a created being can never reach an understanding of God , and thus for man in both life and the afterlife there is a constant progression [ ἐπέκτασις ] towards the unreachable knowledge of God , as the individual continually transcends all which has been reached before . In the Life of Moses , Gregory speaks of three stages of this spiritual growth : initial darkness of ignorance , then spiritual illumination , and finally a darkness of the mind in mystic contemplation of the God who cannot be comprehended .
= = = Universalism = = =
Gregory seems to have believed in the universal salvation of all human beings . Gregory argues that when Paul says that God will be " all in all " ( 1 Cor . 15 : 28 ) , this means that though some may need long time of purification , eventually " no being will remain outside the number of the saved " and that " no being created by God will fall outside the Kingdom of God " . Gregory also described God 's work this way : " His [ God 's ] end is one , and one only ; it is this : when the complete whole of our race shall have been perfected from the first man to the last — some having at once in this life been cleansed from evil , others having afterwards in the necessary periods been healed by the Fire , others having in their life here been unconscious equally of good and of evil — to offer to every one of us participation in the blessings which are in Him , which , the Scripture tells us , ' eye hath not seen , nor ear heard , ' nor thought ever reached . " That this is what Gregory believed and taught is affirmed by most scholars . A minority of scholars have argued that Gregory only affirmed the universal resurrection .
In the Life of Moses , Gregory writes that just as the darkness left the Egyptians after three days , perhaps redemption [ ἀποκατάστασις ] will be extended to those suffering in hell [ γέεννα ] . This salvation may not only extend to humans ; following Origen , there are passages where he seems to suggest ( albeit through the voice of Macrina ) that even the demons will have a place in Christ 's " world of goodness " . Gregory 's interpretations of 1 Corinthians 15 : 28 ( " And when all things shall be subdued unto him ... " ) and Philippians 2 : 10 ( " That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow , of things in heaven , and things in earth , and things under the earth " ) support this understanding of his theology .
However , in the Great Catechism , Gregory suggests that while every human will be resurrected , salvation will only be accorded to the baptised , although he also states that others driven by their passions can be saved after being purified by fire . While he believes that there will be no more evil in the hereafter , it is arguable that this does not preclude a belief that God might justly damn sinners for eternity . Thus , the main difference between Gregory 's conception of ἀποκατάστασις and that of Origen would be that Gregory believes that mankind will be collectively returned to sinlessness , whereas Origen believes that personal salvation will be universal . This interpretation of Gregory has been criticized recently , however .
Attempting to reconcile these disparate positions , Orthodox theologian Mario Baghos notes that " when taken at face value the saint seems to be contradicting himself in these passages ; on the one hand he asserted the salvation of all and the complete eradication of evil , and , on the other , that the fire needed to purge evil is ‘ sleepless ’ , i.e. everlasting . The only solution to this inconsistency is to view any allusion to universal salvation in St Gregory as an expression of God ’ s intention for humanity , which is in fact attested to when his holy sister states that God has “ one goal [ … ] some straightway even in this life purified from evil , others healed hereafter through fire for the appropriate length of time . ” That we can choose either to accept or ignore this purification is confirmed by the saint ’ s many exhortations that we freely undertake the virtuous path . " Dr. Ilaria Ramelli has made the observation that for Gregory free will was compatible with universal salvation , since every person would eventually accept the good having gone through purification .
= = = Anthropology = = =
Gregory 's anthropology is founded on the ontological distinction between the created and uncreated . Man is a material creation , and thus limited , but infinite in that his immortal soul has an indefinite capacity to grow closer to the divine . Gregory believed that the soul is created simultaneous to the creation of the body ( in opposition to Origen , who believed in preexistence ) , and that embryos were thus persons . To Gregory , the human being is exceptional , being created in the image of God . Humanity is theomorphic both in having self @-@ awareness and free will , the latter which gives each individual existential power , because to Gregory , in disregarding God one negates one 's own existence . In the Song of Songs , Gregory metaphorically describes human lives as paintings created by apprentices to a master : the apprentices ( the human wills ) imitate their master 's work ( the life of Christ ) with beautiful colors ( virtues ) , and thus man strives to be a reflection of Christ . Gregory , in stark contrast to most thinkers of his age , saw great beauty in the Fall : from Adam 's sin from two perfect humans would eventually arise myriad .
Gregory was also one of the first Christian voices to say that slavery as an institution was inherently sinful . He believed that slavery violated mankind 's inherent worth , and the nature of humanity to be free ; a departure from classical , and Judeo @-@ Christian precedent which he rooted in Genesis , arguing that man was given mastery of animals but not of mankind . Although aspects of the slave system had been criticized by Stoics such as Seneca , this was the first and only sustained critique of the institution of slavery itself made in the ancient world .
In Homilies on Ecclesiastes , he wrote : " ' I got me slave @-@ girls and slaves . ' For what price , tell me ? What did you find in existence worth as much as this human nature ? What price did you put on rationality ? How many obols did you reckon the equivalent of the likeness of God ? How many staters did you get for selling that being shaped by God ? God said , Let us make man in our own image and likeness . If he is in the likeness of God , and rules the whole earth , and has been granted authority over everything on earth from God , who is his buyer , tell me ? Who is his seller ? To God alone belongs this power ; or , rather , not even to God himself . For his gracious gifts , it says , are irrevocable . God would not therefore reduce the human race to slavery , since he himself , when we had been enslaved to sin , spontaneously recalled us to freedom . But if God does not enslave what is free , who is he that sets his own power above God 's ? "
= = = Neoplatonism = = =
There are many similarities between Gregory 's theology and neoplatonist philosophy , especially that of Plotinus . Specifically , they share the idea that the reality of God is completely inaccessible to human beings and that man can only come to see God through a spiritual journey in which knowledge [ γνῶσις ] is rejected in favour of meditation . Gregory does not refer to any neoplatonist philosophers in his work , and there is only one disputed passage which may directly quote Plotinus . Considering this , it seems possible that Gregory was familiar with Plotinus and perhaps other figures in neoplatonism . However , some significant differences between neoplatonism and Gregory 's thought exist , such as Gregory 's statement that beauty and goodness are equivalent , which contrasts with Plotinus ' view that they are two different qualities .
Eastern Orthodox theologians are generally critical of the theory that Gregory was influenced by neoplatonism . For example , Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos argues in Life After Death that Gregory opposed all philosophical ( as opposed to theological ) endeavour as tainted with worldliness . This view is supported by Against Euthonius , where Gregory denounces Euthonius for placing the results of his systematic Aristotelean philosophy above the traditional teachings of the Church .
= = Feast Day = =
= = = Eastern Christianity = = =
10 January
= = = Roman Catholicism = = =
10 January
The Roman Martyrology commemorates the demise of St. Gregory Nyssa on 9 March .
In modern calendars which include the feast of St. Gregory such as the Benedictines , his feast day is observed on 10 January .
= = = Lutheran Church Missouri Synod = = =
10 January with Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzus .
= = = ELCA = = =
Feast day for Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( ELCA ) :
14 June , with Macrina , Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great .
= = = Anglican Communion = = =
19 July , with Macrina
= = Legacy = =
Gregory is revered as a saint . However , unlike the other Cappadocian fathers , he is not a Doctor of the Church . He is venerated chiefly in the East . His relics were held by the Vatican until 2000 , when they were translated to the Greek Orthodox church of St. Gregory of Nyssa , San Diego , California .
Gregory 's work received little scholarly attention in the West until the mid @-@ twentieth century , and he was historically treated as a minor figure in comparison to Basil the Great or Gregory of Nazianzus . As late as 1942 , Hans Urs von Balthasar wrote that his work was virtually unknown . In part due to the scholarship of Balthasar and Jean Daniélou , by the 1950s Gregory became the subject of much serious theological research , with a critical edition of his work published ( Gregorii Nysseni Opera ) , and the founding of the International Colloquium on Gregory of Nyssa . This attention has continued to the present day . Modern studies have mainly focused on Gregory 's eschatology rather than his more dogmatic writings , and he has gained a reputation as an unconventional thinker whose thought arguably prefigures postmodernism . Major figures in contemporary research include Sarah Coakley , John Zizioulas and Robert Jenson .
= = Commentary on Gregory = =
In 787 AD , the Seventh Ecumenical Council of the Church , ( also known as the Second Council of Nicea ) honored Gregory of Nyssa :
" Let us then , consider who were the venerable doctors and indomitable champions of the Church ... [ including ] Gregory Primate of Nyssa , who all have called the father of fathers . "
Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in his work on the history of evolutionary thought , From the Greeks to Darwin ( 1894 ) :
Among the Christian Fathers the movement towards a partly naturalistic interpretation of the order of Creation was made by Gregory of Nyssa in the fourth century , and was completed by Augustine in the fourth and fifth centuries . ... [ Gregory ] taught that Creation was potential . God imparted to matter its fundamental properties and laws . The objects and completed forms of the Universe developed gradually out of chaotic material .
Anthony Meredith writes of Gregory 's mystical and apophatic writings in his book Gregory of Nyssa ( The Early Church Fathers ) ( 1999 ) :
" Gregory has often been credited with the discovery of mystical theology , or rather with the perception that darkness is an appropriate symbol under which God can be discussed . There is much truth in this .... Gregory seems to have been the first Christian writer to have made this important point ... "
J. Kameron Carter writes about Gregory 's stance on slavery , in the book Race a Theological Account ( 2008 ) :
" What interests me is the defining features of Gregory 's vision of the just society : his unequivocal stance against ' the peculiar institution of slavery ' and his call for the manumission of all slaves . I am interested in reading Gregory as a fourth century abolitionist intellectual .... His outlook surpassed not only St. Paul 's more moderate ( but to be fair to Paul , in his moment , revolutionary ) stance on the subject but also those of all ancient intellectuals -- Pagan , Jewish and Christian - from Aristotle to Cicero and from Augustine in the Christian West to his contemporary , the golden mouthed preacher himself , John Crysotom in the East . Indeed , the world would have to wait another fifteen centuries -- until the nineteenth century , late into the modern abolitionist movement -- before such an unequivocal stance against slavery would appear again . "
= Odwalla =
Odwalla Inc . / oʊˈdwɔːlə / is an American food product company that sells fruit juice , smoothies and food bars . It was founded in Santa Cruz , California , in 1980 and is headquartered in Half Moon Bay , California .
The company experienced strong growth after its incorporation in 1985 , expanding its distribution network from California to most of North America , and went public in 1993 . A period of decline occurred as a result of a fatal outbreak of E.coli @-@ H7 in 1996 that was caused by using bruised fruit that had been contaminated . Odwalla originally sold unpasteurized juices , claiming that the process of pasteurization altered the flavor of the juice . Following the E.coli outbreak , Odwalla adopted flash pasteurization and other sanitization procedures . Odwalla recalled its juices and experienced a ninety @-@ percent reduction in sales following the event . The company gradually recovered and the following year became profitable again .
In 2001 , Odwalla was acquired by The Coca @-@ Cola Company for US $ 181 million and became a wholly owned subsidiary .
Odwalla 's range of products includes juices , smoothies , soy milk , bottled water , organic beverages , and several types of energy bars , known as " food bars " .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Odwalla was founded in Santa Cruz , California , in 1980 by Greg Steltenpohl , Gerry Percy , and Bonnie Bassett . Odwalla 's production facility is in Dinuba , California . The trio took the idea of selling fruit juices from a business guidebook , and they began by squeezing orange juice with a secondhand juicer in a shed in Steltenpohl 's backyard . They sold their product from the back of a Volkswagen van to local restaurants , employing slogans such as " soil to soul , people to planet and nourishing the body whole " .
The name for their start @-@ up , " Odwalla " , was taken from that of a character who guided " the people of the sun " out of the " gray haze " in the song @-@ poem " Illistrum " , a favorite of the founders , which was composed by Roscoe Mitchell and performed by the Art Ensemble of Chicago jazz group , of which Mitchell was a member . Steltenpohl , Percy , and Bassett related this to their products , which they believe " help humans break free from the dull mass of over @-@ processed foods so prevalent today " .
= = = Incorporation – 1996 = = =
Odwalla was incorporated in September 1985 after five years of growth and expanded to sell products in San Francisco in 1988 . Hambrecht & Quist Inc . , a venture capital firm in San Francisco , was one of Odwalla 's main investors at the time , investing several million dollars in the company . By 1992 , the company employed 80 people at its company headquarters in Davenport , California , and sold around 20 different flavors of juice for between $ 1 @.@ 50 and $ 2 @.@ 00 a pint . Odwalla went public in December 1993 ( NASDAQ : ODWA ) ; the company had 35 delivery trucks , almost 200 employees , and made about $ 13 million a year . Soon afterwards , Odwalla expanded into new markets when it bought two companies in the Pacific Northwest and Colorado .
Odwalla built a new production facility located in Dinuba , California , in 1994 in order to better meet production demands . The following year , the company moved its headquarters to Half Moon Bay , California .
Continual growth and outside investments during these years allowed the company to expand and grow : Odwalla 's revenue tripled from 1994 to 1995 , and in 1996 they made more than $ 59 million in sales , their highest ever . This constant growth made Odwalla one of the largest fresh @-@ juice companies in America by 1996 , when the company was selling its products to stores in seven states and parts of Canada . It was estimated that they would reach $ 100 million in sales by 1999 . Much of this growth resulted from the perception that Odwalla 's products were healthier than regular juice because of unpasteurization .
= = = From 1996 = = =
On October 7 , 1996 , Odwalla made a batch of apple juice using blemished fruit , resulting in one death and 66 sickened customers . Odwalla made and marketed unpasteurized fruit juices for the health segment of the juice market . This batch was contaminated with E. coli .
Despite a net loss for most of 1997 , Odwalla worked to rehabilitate its brand name . In addition to advertising its new safety procedures , Odwalla released its line of food bars ( its first solid food product line ) and entered the $ 900 million fruit bar market . Another new product was the Future Shake , a " liquid lunch " aimed at younger consumers . Because of these efforts , Odwalla was again profitable by the end of 1997 , reporting a profit of $ 140 @,@ 000 for the third quarter .
Having recovered , the company worked to expand geographically into markets like Philadelphia and Washington , D.C. , and by the end of 1998 reported that revenue had surpassed pre @-@ crisis levels . Growth continued over subsequent years , in part through the $ 29 million acquisition of Fresh Samantha , a large juice company based in Saco , Maine , in 2000 . This allowed Odwalla to expand into additional East Coast markets , but incurred high transportation costs as products had to be shipped across the United States from California . To address this problem the company announced plans to build a second production facility in Palm Beach County , Florida . However , facing difficulties in obtaining building permits and allocating sufficient funds , the project was first delayed and eventually cancelled . Odwalla produced and sold products under both its own and the Fresh Samantha brand names for a few years ; however , in 2003 , the company decided to stop selling juice under the Fresh Samantha name and to only sell Odwalla @-@ brand juice .
Odwalla was purchased by The Coca @-@ Cola Company in 2001 for $ 15 @.@ 25 a share , a deal which totalled $ 181 million and was unanimously approved by the Odwalla board of directors . Under the terms of the merger , Odwalla 's management stayed on as heads of the company , and it was " folded " into Coca @-@ Cola 's Minute Maid department . The acquisition was one of several similar mergers which were aimed at expanding Coca @-@ Cola 's product line to include non @-@ carbonated drinks . Odwalla benefited by obtaining up to a 124 @.@ 3 percent premium on shares of the company , as well as from the stability and strength that ownership by The Coca @-@ Cola Company offered . Odwalla also was able to expand into new markets because of Coca @-@ Cola 's well @-@ established distribution network .
Odwalla continued to grow following the acquisition . This growth resulted in part from new product releases , which included a line of PomaGrand pomegranate juice ( released at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival ) , two flavors of energy drinks , and three flavors of " Soy Smart " drinks , which contain soy protein , omega @-@ 3 fatty acids , and calcium .
Coca @-@ Cola promoted Odwalla products in 2006 when the company aimed at removing carbonated soda products in schools . Odwalla continued to have good growth in 2007 , when Coca @-@ Cola , squeezed by poor growth in its North American markets , issued a company @-@ wide hiring freeze ; Odwalla , because of its good performance , was one of the few exceptions to the rule .
= = Production = =
Odwalla uses what it characterizes as " fresh @-@ sourced " produce ( fruits and vegetables that have recently been harvested ) to make many of its products , as well as organic oats for food bars and certain tropical fruits in a frozen purée form , purchased from an outside source and blended with fruit juice . Because Odwalla uses fresh produce , some juices are seasonal . Fruit availability and price is also affected by adverse weather , disease , and natural disasters . Throughout the year , Odwalla juice colors and flavors change slightly because different types of fruit are used .
After the E. coli outbreak , Odwalla improved the safety of several of its production processes . Before the fruit enters the factory , it is washed , sorted and sanitized . Once it has reached the plant , the apples , carrots , and citrus fruits are separated and washed again . The fruit is pressed to get the juice , which is then flash pasteurized and bottled . A sample undergoes quality testing , and , if it passes , the batch is shipped in refrigerated trucks to various distribution centers in the United States . Odwalla juice has a relatively short shelf life compared to other beverages and thus must be refriger
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vehicle . Clemmons was identified later that day as a " person of interest " in the murders , but soon after was identified as a wanted suspect . Police identified no motive for the murders , and Detective Ed Troyer , Pierce County Sheriff ’ s Office spokesman , said , " We 're going to be surprised if there is a motive worth mentioning . " Police initially believed the suspect might have died from his injuries shortly after the shooting .
Clemmons went back to his house and told Hinton he had been shot by police , and Hinton allegedly gave Eddie and Douglas Davis a car to " get Clemmons out of here " . As they drove , Clemmons told the brothers he " had taken care of his business " . The Davis brothers took Clemmons to other friends , who bandaged his wounds . Later that day , police received a tip that Clemmons was seeking shelter from friends in Seattle . Police pulled over a white car they believed to have been transporting him , and the female driver admitted Clemmons was a friend and she had brought him to Seattle after he told her " he had killed a police officer or officers " .
Coffee shop employees who witnessed the shooting identified Clemmons as the shooter from a series of photos . Authorities sought him in what was considered one of the biggest manhunts the Seattle @-@ Tacoma area had ever seen , and Clemmons was considered the most wanted man in the Pacific Northwest . Authorities also surrounded the homes of Clemmons ' friends and family in order to prevent him from finding shelter , and to determine who was helping him . A Clemmons relative learned that Clemmons was coming to her home in the Leschi neighborhood in Seattle , informed the police and fled . Police locked down the house for 11 hours in the early morning of November 30 , believing Clemmons to be holed up inside . After several attempts to coax or force him out of the house , including use of a robot and flashbang grenades , police entered and discovered Clemmons was not inside . Later that day , police searched multiple locations in the Seattle and Tacoma areas , including a park where they found a handgun carried by Clemmons and his pickup truck , which had blood stains inside .
= = Death = =
On December 1 , 2009 , Clemmons was shot and killed by Seattle police officer Benjamin L. Kelly . Around 2 : 45 a.m. , Kelly was on patrol and stopped to investigate a broken @-@ down car on the side of the road , which was idling with its hood up . Kelly recognized the vehicle as having been reported stolen . While sitting in his patrol car and writing a report , Kelly noticed Clemmons approaching him and recognized him as the suspect in the Lakewood shooting . Kelly ordered him to stop and show his hands , but he instead began to flee around the disabled vehicle . Police claim that Clemmons reached into his waist area for a gun . Kelly fired several rounds at Clemmons and hit him at least twice , killing him . Clemmons was carrying a handgun that had belonged to Lakewood Officer Greg Richards . Kelly was placed on routine administrative leave following the shooting . Police later said Clemmons would have eventually died from the gunshot wound he sustained at the Lakewood shooting .
Since his death , multiple people have been arrested for helping Clemmons during and after the Lakewood shooting . Authorities claim the accomplices misled police about his whereabouts , gave him cell phones and money , applied first aid to his gunshot wounds and tried to help him leave the state . Among those arrested were Clemmons ' sister , who bandaged his wounds and provided him transportation . Authorities arrested five other people for assisting Clemmons : Letricia Nelson , Quiana Williams , Douglas Davis , Eddie Davis , and Ricky Hinton . Darcus Allen was arrested and charged with aggravated first @-@ degree murder for his alleged role as Clemmons ' getaway driver . Allen claims he did not know Clemmons ' plans when he drove him to the coffee shop , but authorities argued he had known for days that Clemmons planned to murder police officers .
A cell phone photograph taken of Clemmons ' shirtless dead body quickly spread among city residents and government employees , prompting questions over who took it and how it became circulated . If the photo was leaked by an employee of the city or emergency responder , the action may possibly violate their employment contract . Funeral arrangements were kept private by the family due to the circumstances of his crime .
= Hurricane Juan ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Juan was a large and erratic tropical cyclone that looped twice near the Louisiana coast , causing widespread flooding . It was the tenth named storm of the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season , forming in the central Gulf of Mexico in late October . Juan moved northward after its formation , and was subtropical in nature with its large size . On October 27 , the storm became a hurricane , reaching maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Due to the influence of an upper @-@ level low , Juan looped just off southern Louisiana before making landfall near Morgan City on October 29 . Weakening to tropical storm status over land , Juan turned back to the southeast over open waters , crossing the Mississippi River Delta . After turning to the northeast , the storm made its final landfall just west of Pensacola , Florida , late on October 31 . Juan continued quickly to the north and was absorbed by an approaching cold front , although its moisture contributed to a deadly flood event in the Mid @-@ Atlantic states .
Juan was the last of three hurricanes to move over Louisiana during the season , after Danny in August and Elena in early September . It formed rapidly in the northern Gulf of Mexico , allowing little time for thorough preparations or the evacuation of offshore oil rigs . As a result , nine people died in maritime accidents off Louisiana . Onshore , the hurricane dropped torrential rain totaling 17 @.@ 78 in ( 452 mm ) in Galliano , Louisiana . The combination of the rainfall and a high storm surge flooded 50 @,@ 000 houses and many communities in southern Louisiana , causing extensive agriculture losses . Damage in Louisiana alone approached $ 1 billion ( 1985 USD ) . Elsewhere , flooding in Texas forced the closure of roadways , while heavy rains damaged crops and houses in southern Mississippi . The outer rainbands of Juan spawned 15 tornadoes along the Florida Panhandle , causing over $ 1 million in damage . Overall , Juan directly inflicted about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in damage , making it among the costliest United States hurricanes , and there were 12 deaths . This excludes the effects from the subsequent flooding in the Mid @-@ Atlantic .
= = Meteorological history = =
The interaction between a tropical wave and a upper @-@ level low moving southeastward from Texas spawned a broad trough over the central Gulf of Mexico on October 24 . That day , there was a marked increase in convection , or thunderstorms . At the same time , the pressure gradient between the trough and a high pressure area over the southeastern United States produced winds of near gale force across the northern Gulf of Mexico . Early on October 26 , a tropical depression developed about 380 mi ( 610 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans . Within 12 hours , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Juan , based on satellite imagery and reports from the Hurricane Hunters . Initially , the structure was akin to that of a subtropical cyclone , with light winds near the center . Juan moved erratically at first , eventually tracking more steadily to the north @-@ northeast on October 27 . After turning to the northwest late on October 27 , Juan intensified into a hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters .
Under the effects of a larger upper @-@ level low , Juan slowed on October 28 while approaching the Louisiana coastline . At 1200 UTC that day , the hurricane attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After executing a loop just offshore southern Louisiana , Juan turned back to the east , making landfall at peak intensity near Morgan City at 1100 UTC on October 29 . Subsequently , Juan turned sharply to the northwest , executing another loop over southern Louisiana near Lafayette . Late on October 29 , the hurricane weakened to tropical storm status , emerging into Vermilion Bay early the next day with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Juan turned to the east , moving along the southern Louisiana coast and re @-@ organizing slightly .
On October 31 , the storm moved across the Mississippi Delta near Burrwood , Louisiana , and accelerated to the northeast , influenced by an approaching upper @-@ level trough . At 1200 UTC that day , Juan attained a secondary peak of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . In the subsequent six hours , the storm weakened slightly , making its final landfall just west of Pensacola , Florida with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) late on October 31 . After striking Florida , Juan turned to the north and weakened over land . After moving through Alabama , the storm became extratropical over Tennessee on November 1 . Although the Atlantic hurricane best track ceased tracking the circulation at 1800 UTC that day , Juan continued generally northward through the Ohio Valley , and the center eventually crossed into Canada . The energy from Juan helped spawn an occluded low in the Tennessee Valley , which produced more rainfall throughout the region . An approaching cold front absorbed the remnants of Juan on November 3 .
= = Preparations = =
Before Juan made landfall , about 100 people evacuated around Port Arthur , Texas . In Louisiana , about 6 @,@ 550 people evacuated , including only 700 of the 1 @,@ 900 residents on Grand Isle ; many of those who stayed behind there were trapped after the onslaught of the storm surge . About 6 @,@ 000 people evacuated in Mississippi due to the threat for flooding . Many schools were closed along the coast in Louisiana and Mississippi , and two beaches were closed both sides of the Brownsville , Texas shipping channel . On October 28 , governor Edwin Edwards declared a state of emergency for 13 Louisiana parishes , while officials issued flash flood watches for 42 of Louisiana 's 64 parishes . Governor George Wallace also declared a state of emergency for Alabama , and shelters were opened along the coast .
Due to the erratic motion and large size of Juan , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for large portions of the northern Gulf Coast . Around the time of landfall , hurricane warnings were issued from Port Arthur , Texas to Mobile , Alabama , with gale warnings farther to the east to Apalachicola , Florida and extending to the west to Port O 'Connor , Texas . The storm 's quick development left people generally unprepared . National Hurricane Center forecaster Neil Frank likened Juan to " a spinning top [ that ] will spin around unpredictably and do whatever it wants . "
= = Impact = =
While on its erratic path off the northern Gulf Coast , Juan killed 12 people , nine of whom offshore due to overturned oil rigs or boats . The hurricane directly caused about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in damage , making it the fourth costliest United States hurricane at the time without adjusting for inflation ; it was behind only Hurricane Frederic of 1979 , Hurricane Agnes of 1972 , and Hurricane Alicia of 1983 . The damage total included losses to the oil industry , wrecked crops , and overall flooding damage , mostly in Louisiana . According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , Juan injured 1 @,@ 357 people , mostly to a minor extent . Juan struck less than two months after Hurricane Elena hit the northern Gulf Coast , resulting in further damage to already ravaged areas .
For about five days , Juan and its precursor produced gale force winds along the northern Gulf of Mexico . The strongest winds in relation to Juan were on offshore oil rigs , with one rig recording peak sustained winds of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) and gusts to 110 mph ( 176 km / h ) . Juan also produced high waves waves that damaged several rigs , of which two were overturned . One of the rigs collapsed and fell onto an adjacent rig about 35 mi ( 56 km ) south of Leesville , Louisiana amid hurricane @-@ force winds and high seas . The collapsed rigs , built in 1956 and 1961 , were designed to withstand 45 ft ( 14 m ) waves that would accompany a 25 year storm at the time , though Juan produced waves approaching 70 ft ( 21 m ) . The combination of the waves and strong winds in advance of the storm prevented early evacuation of the oil rigs . A boat of evacuees overturned in the midst of the storm , killing one and hospitalizing two others ; the remaining workers were rescued by the United States Coast Guard , and overall the agency rescued at least 160 people . While conducting a search and rescue mission , a boat named Miss Agnes capsized about 60 mi ( 97 km ) south of Grand Isle , Louisiana ; two members of the crew went missing and were presumed killed , and two other occupants were rescued . A jackup rig capsized near the mouth of the Mississippi River , killing three . A rescue helicopter off the coast of Louisiana caused three severe injuries when the rescue basket blew onto the evacuated oil rig amid strong winds .
Because it looped twice near the coastline , Hurricane Juan brought extensive rainfall from eastern Texas to the western Florida Panhandle . In Texas , the highest precipitation total was 12 @.@ 84 in ( 326 mm ) at a station southwest of Alto . The highest rainfall related to Juan in the United States was 17 @.@ 78 in ( 452 mm ) , recorded in Galliano , Louisiana . Farther east , there were more reports of high rainfall , measured at 10 @.@ 52 in ( 267 mm ) and 12 @.@ 23 in ( 311 mm ) in Biloxi , Mississippi and Fairhope , Alabama , respectively . In Florida , the highest rainfall was 11 @.@ 71 in ( 297 mm ) near Pensacola . As well as the heavy rainfall , Juan produced heightened tides along the Gulf Coast , peaking at 8 @.@ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in Bayou Bienvenue in Louisiana . Tides peaked at around 3 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 m ) in the other coastal states , although offshore winds caused below @-@ normal tides in western Louisiana and Texas after Juan exited the area . The storm also spawned a few tornadoes , most of them weak . Two were in Mississippi , each damaging a mobile home and downing several trees , and at least three occurred in Alabama , causing isolated building and tree damage .
Hurricane Juan was one of the latest tropical cyclones in the year to affect Texas . The heavy rainfall from the storm caused flooding in the southeastern portion of the state , primarily in low @-@ lying areas and along bayous . The flooding forced several roads to close , but there was minimal housing damage . Tides reached about 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal near Galveston , causing coastal flooding and closing a portion of Texas State Highway 87 , but little beach erosion . Due to Juan 's structure being closer to a subtropical cyclone than a typical hurricane , it produced strong winds well away from its center , with gusts of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) reported along the Texas coast . The winds were strong enough to knock down trees and power lines , causing power outages . One person drowned in a boating accident off the Texas coast .
In Mississippi , heavy rain from Juan flooded about 340 homes and businesses , mainly in the southern portion of the state . High winds and waves damaged ports in Pass Christian and Long Beach . Several boats were damaged along the coast , and the seafood industry suffered losses . Beach erosion damaged coastal roads , leaving debris and marsh grass behind when the storm passed . The total storm cost in the state was estimated at $ 776 @,@ 000 . In neighboring Alabama , Juan only produced wind gusts of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , which caused little damage , but the storm 's rainfall contributed to Mobile recording its wettest October on record . The rains caused flooding along streets and low @-@ lying areas , but property generally escaped unscathed . The flooding did cause locally heavy crop damage ; some farmers lost 50 % of their soybean crop , and the pecan crop was damaged after earlier being affected by Hurricane Elena . Damage in the state was minor , estimated at over $ 65 @,@ 000 .
Farther east in Florida , high waves caused flooding , beach erosion , and the loss of seawalls previously damaged by Elena . The rough surf washed away a house on Captiva Island . The outskirts of Juan also spawned 15 tornadoes along the Florida Panhandle , causing $ 1 million in damage . The tornadoes injured six people , destroyed 19 buildings , and damaged about 40 others . One of the tornadoes struck Okaloosa Island and Fort Walton Beach , killing a dog and damaging two hotels along U.S. Route 98 .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Due to the cyclone 's slow movement over Louisiana , it dropped over 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rainfall across much of the southern portion of the state . The intense rainfall increased levels along rivers in southwestern Louisiana . High waves and a storm surge of 5 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) flooded low @-@ lying and coastal areas of southeastern Louisiana . The hurricane 's erratic path prevented farmers from harvesting crops for three days . The combination of flooding from rainfall and storm surge covered widespread areas of crop fields , mostly affecting soybean and sugar . Other crops in the state had previously been harvested . About 200 cattle drowned in Terrebonne Parish , and thousands were stranded . Crop damage was estimated at over $ 304 million , including $ 100 million to the soybean industry , with overall damage near $ 1 billion across the state . As well as its impact on crops , Juan severely affected the shrimp industry by washing many shrimp offshore and killing others . The storm left about $ 2 @.@ 9 million in damage to oil facilities in the state , including the cost of damaged pipelines . Overall , Juan flooded about 50 @,@ 000 houses in Louisiana , causing $ 250 million in property damage .
Near Port Fourchon in Lafourche Parish , the storm surge damaged portions of Louisiana Highways 1 and 3090 and flooded about 1 @,@ 200 homes , some to their roofs . Two levees in the parish were washed out and one was overtopped , inundating 100 houses near Lockport . In Terrebonne Parish , the powerful storm surge swept away parked cars , knocked a home off its foundation , and damaged a 300 ft ( 91 m ) portion of a levee . In the parish , 800 homes were flooded , and 15 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The storm surge also washed out a 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) portion of the levee protecting Grand Isle , and damaged another 14 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . The levee , built in 1984 , sustained $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages , which flooded the island with 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of ocean water . Most of the island lost power , and the city hall and high school , set up as shelters , utilized generators during the storm . In Jefferson Parish , which contains Grand Isle , the storm surge entered 2 @,@ 233 homes and inundated about 3 @,@ 100 cars . In Violet , a man drowned when he fell from his boat into a flooded canal , and another fisherman drowned in Atchafalaya Bay . The surge flooded a 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) section of Louisiana Route 23 in Plaquemines Parish , entering several homes , as well as a portion of Route 22 . Between Livingston and Ascension parishes , about 800 homes were flooded , and another 53 homes were flooded in Tangipahoa Parish . Waters from Lake Pontchartrain swept over Airline Highway and portions of a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high levee , flooding 250 nearby homes . The storm surge washed out three bridges and flooded 800 homes in St. Tammany Paris , while high waters killed a man in Slidell . One man was electrocuted and killed in Arnaudville when stepping on a downed wire .
While approaching its final landfall as a weak tropical storm , Juan created a storm surge of 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) along the Chandeleur Islands to its west , resulting in extensive beach erosion . The island chain is an important buffer to parts of mainland Louisiana against storms , but is frequently physically manipulated by intense hurricanes . Hurricanes Danny and Elena also impacted the islands in 1985 . Large portions of the Louisiana coastline lost 40 to 100 ft ( 12 to 30 m ) of beach due to the storm , with several new temporary inlets created along barrier islands .
= = = Inland and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
In the states inland from the Gulf Coast , Juan produced lighter rainfall than where its track moved across , but there were totals as high as 6 @.@ 65 in ( 169 mm ) in Arkansas . Rains directly from Juan extended into the southeastern United States , reaching 11 @.@ 17 in ( 284 mm ) on Grandfather Mountain in North Carolina , and through the Mid @-@ Atlantic with totals as high as 2 @.@ 82 in ( 72 mm ) in Bakerstown , Pennsylvania . Through the Midwestern United States , Juan dropped over 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rainfall in portions of Kentucky , Michigan , and Wisconsin .
The rains from Juan and the low it spawned in the Mid @-@ Atlantic moistened grounds across the region . The hurricane 's track helped bring a plume of moisture into the Mid @-@ Atlantic , which set the stage for a major flooding event when a low pressure area stalled on November 5 west of Washington , D.C. Major flooding occurred in Virginia and West Virginia , causing $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in damage and 62 deaths .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 29 , Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards requested that the state 's congressional delegation ask President Ronald Reagan for a disaster declaration . President Reagan responded and issued a disaster declaration on November 1 , which included the parishes of Ascension , Jefferson , Lafourche , Livingston , Plaquemines , Saint Bernard , Saint Charles , Saint John the Baptist , Saint Tammany , Tangipahoa , and Terrebonne , as well as the Lower Ninth Ward of New Orleans . The Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development estimated that highways in the state would require $ 3 million in repairs from damage wrought by the hurricane .
Oil companies lost two to three days of production due to being closed by the hurricane . The Louisiana National Guard assisted farmers by dropping hay to stranded cattle over a two @-@ week period . The American Red Cross ran out of funds while responding to the effects of Juan and the mid @-@
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Atlantic flooding , following the previous responses to hurricanes Elena and Gloria , as well as flooding in Puerto Rico ; this prompted an emergency fundraising appeal . The agency had provided about $ 8 million worth of assistance to families in southern Louisiana . Along the Apalachicola Bay , the series of hurricane strikes severely damaged the local oyster industry , leaving hundreds of oystermen out of work . The high waves caused by Juan prompted the United States Minerals Management Service to recommend increased inspections on older rigs and improve evacuation plans . Hurricane Juan was one in a series of hurricanes that struck Louisiana coast over many years that contributed to the loss of the coastal wetlands .
= LNER Gresley Classes A1 and A3 =
The London and North Eastern Railway LNER Gresley Classes A1 and A3 locomotives represented two distinct stages in the history of the British 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 " Pacific " steam locomotives designed by Nigel Gresley . They were designed for main line passenger services , initially on the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) , a constituent company of the London and North Eastern Railway after the amalgamation of 1923 , for which they became a standard design . The change in class designation to A3 reflected the fitting to the same chassis of a higher pressure boiler with a greater superheating surface and a small reduction in cylinder diameter , leading to an increase in locomotive weight . Eventually all of the A1 locomotives were rebuilt , most to A3 specifications , but no . 4470 was completely rebuilt as Class A1 / 1 .
The names for the locomotives came from a variety of sources . The first , Great Northern , was named after its parent company . Others were given the names of high @-@ ranking railway officials , but most were given the names of famous racehorses . One was named after the company 's most famous long @-@ distance passenger train , the Flying Scotsman . Flying Scotsman is the sole survivor of the class to be preserved .
= = Class A1 : Great Northern genesis = =
The new Pacific locomotives were built at the Doncaster " Plant " in 1922 to the design of Nigel Gresley , who had become Chief Mechanical Engineer of the GNR in 1911 . The intention was to produce an engine able to handle , without assistance , mainline express services that were reaching the limits of the capacity of the Ivatt large @-@ boilered Atlantics .
Gresley 's initial Pacific project of 1915 was for an elongated version of the Ivatt Atlantic design with four cylinders . Finally realising that he was in a design impasse , he took as a model the new American Pennsylvania Railroad class K4 Pacific of 1914 . This in turn had been updated from a series of prototypes scientifically developed in 1910 under Francis J. Cole , Alco 's Chief Consulting Engineer at Schenectady and the Pennsylvania 's K29 Alco prototype of 1911 , also designed by Cole . Descriptions of those locomotives appeared in the British technical press at the time and gave Gresley the elements necessary to design a thoroughly up @-@ to @-@ date locomotive .
= = Design features and construction history = =
The first two GNR Pacifics , 1470 Great Northern and 1471 Sir Frederick Banbury were introduced in 1922 . The Great Northern board ordered a further ten ' 1470 @-@ class ' locomotives , which were under construction at Doncaster at the time of the formation of the LNER in 1923 .
In line with the philosophy behind Cole 's Alco prototypes , the Gresley Pacifics were built to the maximum limits of the LNER loading gauge with a large boiler and wide firebox giving a large grate area . The firebox was set low and rested on the trailing carrying axle . However , unlike the Pennsylvania K4 , the firebox was not of the flat @-@ topped Belpaire variety , but a round @-@ topped one that was in line with Great Northern tradition . Features in common with the American types were the downward profile towards the back of the firebox and the boiler tapering towards the front . Heat transfer and the flow of gases were helped by use of a combustion chamber extending forward from the firebox space into the boiler barrel , along with a boiler tube length limited to 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) , features inherited from the K4 type but not present on the earlier Cole Prototypes . The boiler pressure was rated at 180 pounds per square inch ( 1 @.@ 24 MPa ) .
The 1470 @-@ class Pacific was the third Great Northern locomotive type to incorporate Gresley 's universal 3 @-@ cylinder layout . All three cylinders drove the middle coupled axle . The outside cranks were set at 120 ° , with the inside crank displaced by about 7 degrees to allow for the 1 : 8 inclination of the inside cylinder . Gresley conjugated valve gear derived the motion of the inside valve spindle from the two outside valve spindles : this eliminated an inaccessible middle set of valve gear between the frames . A feature of the K4 that had soon been abandoned by the Pennsylvania Railroad was an unusual three @-@ bar version of the Laird slide @-@ bar . However , Gresley adopted this type of slide @-@ bar for all his locomotives and it was later taken up by Bulleid for his Pacifics and by Riddles for the British Railways standard designs .
= = = LNER period = = =
The Great Northern Railway was incorporated into the newly formed LNER as a result of the 1923 Grouping . Gresley was appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the new company , which was the second largest of the " Big Four " railway companies in Britain . Realising the need for standardisation , Gresley adopted his GNR Pacific design as the standard express passenger locomotive for the LNER main line , designating it ' A1 ' within the LNER locomotive classification system . The choice was made after comparative trials with an equivalent North Eastern Railway Pacific , classified ' A2 ' . Between 1923 and 1925 , 51 A1 locomotives were built ; twenty by the North British Locomotive Company , and the remainder by Doncaster Works . However , Gresley 's Pacifics had been designed to work within the bounds of the Great Northern Railway , meaning maximum distances of less than 200 miles ( 322 km ) . After the grouping , the locomotives were required to have a far greater operating range .
= = = Early improvements = = =
In 1924 , number 4472 Flying Scotsman , renumbered and named for the occasion , was displayed at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley along with the first member of the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) Castle Class , number 4073 Caerphilly Castle . The latter weighed 19 @.@ 6 long tons ( 19 @.@ 9 t ; 22 @.@ 0 short tons ) less than the Pacific , but was claimed to be the most powerful locomotive in Britain with a tractive effort rated at 31 @,@ 825 lbf ( 141 @.@ 56 kN ) .
In the following months , the two railway companies ran comparative exchange trials between the two types from which the Great Western emerged triumphant with 4079 Pendennis Castle . The LNER learned valuable lessons from the trials which resulted in a series of modifications carried out from 1926 on number 4477 Gay Crusader . Changes to the valve gear included increased lap and longer travel , in accordance with Great Western practice ; this allowed fuller exploitation of the expansive properties of steam and reduced back pressure from the exhaust , transforming performance and economy ; the economies in coal and water consumption achieved were such that the 180 psi Pacifics could undertake long @-@ distance non @-@ stop runs that had previously been impossible . There followed a complete redesign of the valve gear , which was applied to 2555 Centenary in 1927 , with the rest of the class being modified in due course . Locomotives with modified valve gear had a slightly raised running plate over the cylinders in order to give room for the longer combination lever necessary for the longer valve travel . Another modification was made in 1927 when number 4480 Enterprise was fitted with a 220 psi ( 1 @.@ 52 MPa ) boiler . This was closely followed by two other locomotives which also incorporated variations in the cylinder diameter and superheater size for comparative purposes . This led Gresley to make a radical departure from Churchward practice by increasing the number of large tubes containing superheating elements , hence increasing the superheater surface area in contact with the hot gases , thus raising steam temperature . The presence of the larger superheater could be recognised from the square covers on either side of the smokebox , a feature that the locomotives retained throughout the rest of their existence .
At the 1925 British Empire Exhibition , Flying Scotsman was again exhibited ; but this time , the GWR sent Pendennis Castle .
= = Class A3 = =
The outcome of the various experiments and modifications made to the A1s in the late 1920s was a new Class A3 " Super Pacific " , the first example of which was number 2743 Felstead . This locomotive appeared in August 1928 with 220 psi ( 1 @.@ 52 MPa ) boiler , 19 @-@ inch ( 483 mm ) cylinders , increased superheat , long @-@ travel valves , improved lubrication and modified weight distribution . Another new development was the changeover from right- to left @-@ hand drive , less convenient for a right @-@ handed fireman , but more so for sighting signals , resulting in the modification of all earlier locomotives .
Twenty @-@ seven A3s were built from new , until 1935 , with little variation except for a new type of boiler with a " banjo dome " , an oval steam collector that was placed on top of the rear boiler ring . The first banjo dome was hidden beneath the casing of Cock o ' the North of 1934 ; it was subsequently used in the A4 streamliners . The last nine A3 Pacifics were constructed with the device in 1935 , and it became a standard fitting on all LNER large , wide @-@ firebox boilers that were applied to new locomotives until 1949 . It was also applied to replacement boilers on the A3s .
Although all of the original Class A1 locomotives were eventually rebuilt to Class A3 specifications , it was a drawn @-@ out process that lasted until 1949 ; 60068 Sir Visto was the last locomotive to be converted . The changeover to left @-@ hand drive took longer , and continued into the Fifties .
= = = Further experiments = = =
Despite having settled on a new standard type , Gresley continued to experiment on individual locomotives , in one of which experiments ACFI feedwater heaters were installed in A1 2576 The White Knight and A3 2580 Shotover . However , on the Pacifics the increase in efficiency was deemed insufficient and the apparatus was eventually removed . In 1935 , number 2544 Lemberg received Trofimoff piston valves of an ingenious design with automatically varying steam passages .
A3s 2747 Coronach and 2751 Humorist were subjected to smoke deflection trials following an accident on the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) due to poor visibility ; this included the modification of the upper smokebox area surrounding the chimney . Originally the whole smokebox wrapper was retained in order to form an air duct , with the exit behind the chimney , but this was found ineffective . The next stage , at least with 2751 , was to cut off the top part of the wrapper , but retaining the sloping plate that directed air flow upwards , and therefore lifting the smoke above the locomotive . The original chimney was replaced by a double stove @-@ pipe variety , and miniature deflector plates were added on either side , angled to concentrate the air flow when the locomotive was on the move .
Smoke @-@ lifting devices were not a priority with the normal single @-@ chimney Pacifics . However , with its double chimney and subsequent fitting of a double Kylchap exhaust in 1937 , Humorist continued to pose a problem in this regard and always had small wings on either side of the chimney . Finally , in the 1950s , it acquired the Peppercorn @-@ type of deflector plates .
= = = Tenders = = =
The original A1s were coupled to a traditional Great Northern type of tender with coal rails of a design that can be traced back to Stirling days . The A1 @-@ variant was a much @-@ enlarged eight @-@ wheel version carrying 8 long tons ( 8 @.@ 13 t ; 8 @.@ 96 short tons ) of coal and 5 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 23 @,@ 000 l ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water . In 1928 , a new special type of tender body was built for the new non @-@ stop Flying Scotsman train . This tender had a corridor connection and an access tunnel through the water tank . It was of a more modern design with high side sheets curved in at the top and had a coal capacity of 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 14 t ; 10 @.@ 08 short tons ) . In order to be able to pack an extra ton of coal , a single coal rail was provided on this particular series , but was later deemed unnecessary . Ten of these corridor tenders were built , and a non @-@ corridor version of similar design followed with 8 @-@ ton coal capacity and no coal rail . Further series of both types had disc wheels instead of the previous spoked variety .
= = Operational details = =
= = = Pre @-@ war performance = = =
The early A1 Pacifics were a match for the performances demanded of them in the early 1920s . They were certainly able to take loads single @-@ handed that were beyond the capacity of their Atlantic predecessors as was shown in a test run made by 1471 when it took a 20 @-@ coach train weighing 600 long tons ( 610 t ; 670 short tons ) over the 105 miles ( 169 km ) from London to Grantham at an average speed of 51 @.@ 8 miles per hour ( 83 @.@ 4 km / h ) . However this was at the cost of heavy coal consumption , and general performance was well below the ultimate potential of the design . This was largely due to a regression from the earlier 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 design , which was the first to have the standard Gresley conjugated motion combined with long valve travel . However , practical problems were experienced with components quickly suffering from premature wear , especially in the main bearing of the large 2 : 1 lever which had not yet been fitted with the very necessary ball race ; excessive ' play ' led to so much over @-@ travel of the middle valve , that it began to hit the end @-@ covers . In order to prevent this , when applying the gear to the Pacifics , Gresley fell back on the expedient of shortening valve travel even though that choked the exhaust at speed , was responsible for the heavy coal consumption , and negated most of the advantages gained by the locomotive 's revolutionary design . However , by incorporating the Great Western @-@ inspired valve modifications , the economies in coal and water consumption achieved were such that the 180 psi Pacifics could undertake long @-@ distance non @-@ stop runs that were previously impossible .
The first and most spectacular outcome occurred in 1928 , when the Pacifics were called upon daily to work the Flying Scotsman train non @-@ stop over the 392 miles ( 631 km ) between London and Edinburgh . Initially three A1s and two A3s took turns on this service . The modifications also gave the A1 locomotives greater speed potential , and the proof of this came in 1933 when a high @-@ speed 3 @-@ car diesel railcar service had been mooted . As this would have provided limited accommodation for passengers , it was proposed to use steam traction at similar service speeds with six carriages . A trial return run between London and Leeds was made with modified A1 locomotive number 4472 , Flying Scotsman ; on the return trip with 6 coaches weighing 208 long tons ( 211 @.@ 3 t ; 233 @.@ 0 short tons ) it attained 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) ( 160 km / h ) just outside Little Bytham in Lincolnshire for just over 600 yards ( 549 m ) . There were earlier claims to this speed , notably by the Great Western locomotive 3440 City of Truro , but this 1933 run is generally considered to be the first reliably recorded instance . On a later trial run to Newcastle upon Tyne and back in 1935 , A3 number 2750 Papyrus reached 108 miles per hour ( 174 km / h ) hauling 217 long tons ( 220 t ; 243 short tons ) at the same spot , maintaining a speed above 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) for 12 @.@ 5 consecutive miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) , the world record for a non @-@ streamlined locomotive , shared with a French Chapelon Pacific .
= = = Wartime service = = =
Along with all the Gresley 3 @-@ cylinder types , the Pacifics suffered from low wartime maintenance standards , conditions for which they had not been designed . Gresley 's sudden death in 1941 and an unsympathetic successor , Edward Thompson , did not help matters in this respect . In 1945 Thompson took the opportunity to rebuild the first of Gresley 's A1 Pacifics , Great Northern , to the LNER Class A1 / 1 specification with divided drive and separate valve gear for the inside cylinder . Thompson intended to rebuild to this configuration all the Gresley A1s that had not been converted to A3 standard ; in the meantime the remaining Gresley A1s were reclassified as A10s . The rebuilding of these locomotives as A1 / 1 never happened . Instead , the conversion to A3 standard continued . The A1 / 1 was at first classified as A1 , and reclassified as A1 / 1 when Arthur Peppercorn designed and constructed his own Class A1s in 1947 .
= = = Post @-@ war recovery and nationalisation = = =
The Gresley 3 @-@ cylinder drive arrangement continued to bring a number of practical problems , the root of which was probably the need for the inside cylinder to be steeply inclined in order to give space for the inside connecting rod to clear the leading coupled axle ; at the same time , the inside valve spindle had to be parallel with the outside ones from which it derived its motion . This problem had been overcome by what Holcroft called a " twist in the ports " ( the passages that carried steam in and out of the cylinders ) . A consequence was that the length of these passages was greater than that generally recommended , increasing " dead space " , and this was combined with a shorter exhaust passage . The net result would be rather different working conditions in the middle cylinder from those on the outside . A contributing problem was that any elongation of the outside valve spindles was multiplied by the conjugated valve gear . Although this had been anticipated at the design stage , the overall consequence was that the inside cylinder had a tendency to give more power than the other two as speed increased , leading to the overloading of the inside connecting rod bearings , especially the big @-@ end which was liable to overheat and fail . Various experiments were tried over the years to cure this chronic ailment , and it was only towards the end of the steam era that a real solution was found in Great Western methods of lubrication and manufacture for the big @-@ end bearing . Other problems persisted , such as a stiff , insensitive regulator and overall design flaws that hampered maintenance .
In spite of all this and the introduction of more recent Pacifics , in the middle of the 1950s Gresley types continued to have a quasi @-@ monopoly of East Coast Main Line express passenger services , and as the Sixties approached they went through yet another series of improvements comparable to those of the 1920s . The most significant of these was the fitting of the French double Kylchap exhaust system , which was entirely due to the persistence from 1956 of P. N. Townend , Assistant District Motive Power Superintendent at King 's Cross locomotive shed . These modifications greatly reduced exhaust back pressure , making the locomotives more economical and free @-@ running , and also kept the firetubes clean , reducing turn @-@ around time , so much so that they were able to fit into the more intensive diesel locomotive workings . The Kylchap arrangement was already being universally applied to the A4 streamlined Pacifics , though with the non @-@ streamlined A3 locomotives , the soft exhaust gave rise to smoke drift obscuring the driver 's forward vision . The solution came in the form of narrow German @-@ style smoke deflectors , which somewhat changed the appearance of the A3 locomotives in their latter days .
The prototype locomotive , number 60113 Great Northern , had been rebuilt by Edward Thompson into a virtually new design . The first to be withdrawn was 60104 Solario in 1959 , followed by 60095 Flamingo and 60055 Woolwinder in 1961 . Otherwise , the class remained intact until 1962 , and was still operating on express passenger work . The last class member to be withdrawn by British Railways was number 60052 , Prince Palatine in January 1966 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 26 May 1926 , during the General Strike , locomotive No. 2565 Merry Hampton was hauling an express passenger train which was deliberately derailed south of Cramlington , Northumberland .
On 10 December 1937 , no . 2744 Grand Parade was destroyed in the Castlecary rail accident when it ran into the rear of a standing train in snowy conditions . The driver and fireman survived with minor injuries although the locomotive and tender were buried under the four following coaches . 35 other passengers and railway crew were killed in the accident . As Class A3 locomotives were still in production at the time , a replacement was built with the same name and number .
On 9 August 1947 , locomotive No. 60 Persimmon was hauling a passenger train that was run into by another at Darlington , County Durham due to a signalman 's error . Twenty @-@ one people were killed and 188 were injured .
On 26 October 1947 , locomotive No. 66 Merry Hampton was hauling an express passenger train which was derailed at Goswick , Northumberland due to excessive speed through a crossover . Twenty @-@ eight people were killed and 65 were injured .
On 19 February 1949 , a freight train became divided at New Southgate , London . The rear portion was able to run back and cross from the down slow line to the down fast line due to a signalman 's error . Locomotive No. 60107 Royal Lancer was hauling a parcels passenger train that collided with the wagons .
On 5 August 1957 , locomotive No. 60036 Colombo was hauling a passenger train when it crashed into the buffers at York station .
On 15 December 1961 , an empty coaching stock train was in a rear @-@ end collision with a freight train at Conington , Huntingdonshire . Locomotive No. 60078 Night Hawk was hauling a freight train that ran into the wreckage . A third freight train then ran into the wreckage .
= = Preservation = =
The sole surviving member of the A3s and A1s is 4472 ( 60103 ) Flying Scotsman . The locomotive was withdrawn from service with British Railways in 1963 and was sold for preservation to Alan Pegler . After overhaul , Scotsman worked a number of railtours , including a non @-@ stop London – Edinburgh run in 1968 , the final year of steam traction on British Railways .
After a much @-@ publicised appeal in 2004 , Flying Scotsman was purchased by the National Railway Museum in York and is now part of the National Collection .
= = In fiction = =
In The Railway Series children 's books by the Rev. W. Awdry , the character Gordon the Big Engine is loosely based on an A1 . According to the Rev. Awdry , in The Island of Sodor : Its People , History and Railways , Gordon was a " hush @-@ hush " experimental prototype for Gresley 's Pacific locomotives for the GNR ( the so @-@ called A0 ) . Built in 1922 , Gordon was sold to the Fat Controller in 1923 , once testing was complete . Following problems with the conjugated valve gear , Gordon was substantially rebuilt in 1939 on a two @-@ cylinder chassis designed by the Fat Controller ( which explains why Gordon did not look exactly like an A1 in the books ) .
= = Models = =
Tri @-@ ang , and later Hornby , have produced ' OO ' -scale models of Flying Scotsman almost continuously since the 1960s . In the 2000s , Hornby also produced live steam examples , re @-@ using the chassis from the initial LNER Class A4 models . Other manufacturers have produced models in other scales , such as Minitrix ( N @-@ gauge ) and Bassett @-@ Lowke ( O @-@ gauge ) .
= Don Black ( baseball ) =
Donald Paul Black ( July 20 , 1917 – April 21 , 1959 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for six seasons in the American League with the Philadelphia Athletics and Cleveland Indians . In 154 career games , Black pitched 797 innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 34 – 55 , with 37 complete games , four shutouts , and a 4 @.@ 35 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born in Salix ,
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albums from 1985 to 2010 ; the author said , " Unlike Radiohead with OK Computer and Kid A , U2 took their post @-@ industrial , trad @-@ rock disillusionment not as a symbol of overall cultural malaise , but as a challenge to buck up and transcend ... Struggling to simultaneously embrace and blow up the world , they were never more inspirational . "
= = 20th anniversary releases = =
The 20th anniversary of Achtung Baby was marked by several releases in 2011 . At the band 's request , a documentary film about the album entitled From the Sky Down was produced . It was directed by Davis Guggenheim , who previously collaborated with the Edge for the documentary It Might Get Loud in 2008 . From the Sky Down documents the album 's difficult recording period , the band members ' relationships , and U2 's creative process . Archival footage and stills from the recording sessions appear in the film , along with unreleased scenes from Rattle and Hum . For the documentary , the band were filmed during a return visit to Hansa Studios and during rehearsals for the Glastonbury Festival 2011 . The film premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival , and in October , it was broadcast on multiple television networks worldwide .
On 31 October 2011 , Achtung Baby was reissued in five formats . In addition to a single @-@ disc release of the album , a deluxe edition includes a bonus disc of remixes and B @-@ sides from the album 's five singles , and a vinyl edition includes the album on two LPs with two additional LPs of remixes . The 10 @-@ disc " Super Deluxe " and " Über Deluxe " editions include : the Zooropa album ; three additional CDs with remixes , B @-@ sides , and outtakes from Achtung Baby and Zooropa ; a " kindergarten " disc with nascent versions of the album 's 12 songs ; and four DVDs containing From the Sky Down , Zoo TV : Live from Sydney , music videos , and documentaries . The " Über Deluxe " edition also contains the album on double vinyl , five 7 @-@ inch vinyl singles , and additional memorabilia , including a replica of Bono 's " Fly " sunglasses . The media initially announced that the reissue was a remastered release . However , the initial press release by U2 made no mention of " remastering " , and the band 's website later removed any mention of the reissue being a remaster . The Edge confirmed that the audio was " polish [ ed ] " , but that it was not fully remastered because the original recordings did not require it . " Blow Your House Down " , an outtake included in the deluxe editions , was released as a promotional single in October 2011 .
Q commissioned an Achtung Baby tribute album , entitled AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered , that was included in the magazine 's December 2011 issue . It features performances by Jack White , Depeche Mode , Damien Rice , Gavin Friday , Glasvegas , The Fray , Patti Smith , The Killers , Snow Patrol , Nine Inch Nails , and Garbage .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Bono , all music composed by U2 .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charting = =
= = Certifications = =
= Central Coast Mariners FC =
Central Coast Mariners Football Club is an Australian professional soccer club based in Gosford , on the Central Coast of New South Wales . It competes in the A @-@ League , under licence from Football Federation Australia ( FFA ) . The Mariners was founded in 2004 as one of the eight original A @-@ League teams . It was the first professional sports club from the Gosford region to compete in a national competition . Despite being considered one of the smallest @-@ market clubs in the league , Central Coast Mariners has claimed one A @-@ League Championship from four Grand Final appearances and topped the table to win the A @-@ League Premiership twice . The club has also appeared in the AFC Champions League four times .
The club plays matches at Central Coast Stadium , a 20 @,@ 059 @-@ seat stadium in Gosford ; its purpose @-@ built training facility , Mariners Centre of Excellence , is located in the suburb of Tuggerah . The facility is also home to a youth team that competes in the National Youth League . The English Football League One 's Sheffield United has invested in the Central Coast @-@ based club , and the Mariners has affiliation agreements with several international clubs .
The Mariners ' main supporters ' group is known as the Yellow Army , for the colour of the club 's home kit . The club shares a rivalry with Newcastle Jets , known as the F3 Derby , after the previous name of the motorway that connects the cities of the teams . Matt Simon is the Mariners ' all @-@ time leading goalscorer as of December 2014 , with 45 goals in all competitions . The team record for matches played is held by John Hutchinson , who has appeared in 263 games for the Mariners .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Central Coast Mariners ' bid for a franchise in the Football Federation Australia 's new A @-@ League competition was aimed at filling the one spot for a regional team that was designated by the FFA . Media speculation prior to the announcement of the franchises in the new league suggested that the Mariners ' bid may be favourable due to its new blood . Backing from former Australian international player and club technical director Alex Tobin , as well as Clean Up Australia personality Ian Kiernan — who would act as inaugural club chairman — also strengthened its proposal . As the only regional bidder , Central Coast was expected to make it into the league by default . Following a reported signed deal with the FFA , the club signed former Northern Spirit coach Lawrie McKinna as manager and Ian Ferguson , a former Rangers and Northern Spirit player , as coach . To aid the FFA 's goals of building the profile of the sport , the Mariners created formal links with local state league team Central Coast United . On 1 November 2004 , after much expectation , the club was announced as one of eight teams to become part of FFA 's domestic competition , the A @-@ League . The decision made Central Coast Mariners the first Gosford @-@ based professional sports team to play in a national competition .
At the time of the formation of the new league in 2004 , the club was owned by Spirits Sports and Leisure Group . The club announced its search for a star player under the league 's allowance for one star player outside of the $ 1 @.@ 5 million salary cap , insisting that the player should not look at the position as a retirement fund . Coach Lawrie McKinna sought interest from Australia national football team players Ante Milicic and Simon Colosimo , and announced that he may sign more than the three under @-@ 20 players required by league rules . Early concerns for the club focussed on concerns over financial stability , but after forming a partnership with technology company Toshiba and a cash injection from local businessman John Singleton , the club 's financial worries were eased . McKinna was keen to sign local player Damien Brown of Bateau Bay , formerly of the Newcastle Jets . In a decision which prompted the player to declare that he was " over the moon " , Brown became the first player to sign with the club . Club chairman Lyall Gorman was pleased that a local had become a " foundation player " and part of Brown 's role would be to assist with selection of younger players from the local area . By early December 2004 , the club had created a steady foundation of player signings and began negotiations with former Perth Glory striker Nik Mrdja , signing him later in the month as its star attacker . Mrjda was one of the most prominent players in the last season of the National Soccer League , scoring the final goal to secure Perth Glory 's finals win . The club 's management was reluctant to sign a star player outside of the $ 1 @.@ 5 million salary cap , stipulating that they " would have to contribute on the pitch and get people to come to the ground . "
= = = Lawrie McKinna era = = =
The Mariners ' inaugural season was considered a resounding success by many ; the team reached the 2006 A @-@ League Grand Final after finishing third during the regular season . Central Coast was defeated by Sydney FC 1 – 0 in front of a crowd of 41 @,@ 689 — a competition record at the time . The Mariners also won the 2005 Pre @-@ Season Cup , defeating Perth Glory in the final 1 – 0 . Before the 2006 – 07 A @-@ League season , the Mariners secured the services of then @-@ Australian international Tony Vidmar from NAC Breda for two years . This was the club 's first marquee signing , following the lead of Sydney FC ( Dwight Yorke ) and Adelaide United ( Qu Shengqing ) . Central Coast again reached the grand final in the 2006 Pre @-@ Season Cup , losing to Adelaide United 5 – 4 on penalties after the score was tied 1 – 1 after extra time . The Mariners then participated in the 2006 – 07 A @-@ League season , but was unable to gain a spot in the final series , finishing sixth after the regular season .
Club captain Noel Spencer was released by the Mariners , then signed to participate in the Asian Champions League by Sydney FC after the 2006 – 07 season , and Alex Wilkinson was appointed the new captain . Only 22 years of age at the time , Wilkinson had played every possible competitive match for the Mariners up to his appointment . In February 2008 , Central Coast Mariners signed an arrangement with English Football League Championship side Sheffield United . The partnership was one of several connections the Mariners made with foreign clubs ; other partner clubs included Ferencváros of Hungary , Chengdu Blades of China and São Paulo of Brazil . The agreement benefits the club by providing an opportunity for the youth programme and senior side to draw from the roster of Sheffield United through transfers . The teams also formed a property development joint venture , in the hopes that Central Coast could use its share of income to expand and bolster their Mariners Youth Academy .
The 2007 – 08 season saw Central Coast win its first premiership on goal difference ahead of Newcastle , following a final round that began with Central Coast and three other clubs level on 31 points . The final series began with a 2 – 0 loss to Newcastle in the first leg of its major semi @-@ final , but the Mariners forced the tie to extra time by holding a 2 – 0 lead in the second leg after 90 minutes . A 94th @-@ minute goal by Sasho Petrovski , who had scored earlier to level the tie , gave Central Coast a 3 – 2 win on aggregate , putting the Mariners through to the 2008 A @-@ League Grand Final . In a rematch with Newcastle , the Jets defeated Central Coast 1 – 0 in the Grand Final , which ended in controversy due to an uncalled handball against Newcastle in Central Coast Mariners penalty box during the closing seconds of the match . If called , the foul would have given Central Coast a penalty kick and a chance to equalise . As Mariners players disputed referee Mark Shield 's decision , goalkeeper Danny Vuković struck Shield on the arm , resulting in an immediate sending off and later suspension . Vuković was suspended from both domestic and international competition for nine months , with an additional six @-@ months ' suspended ban ; the latter period was reduced to three months on appeal . Despite further appeals , the ban was eventually confirmed by FIFA in June , to include banning the young keeper from competing at the 2008 Olympic Games . The ban lasted into October ; in response , Central Coast signed former Manchester United and Australian international keeper Mark Bosnich on a seven @-@ week contract .
Before the 2008 – 09 season , Central Coast was predicted to be among the A @-@ League leaders , but had a run of three losses in a row to end the regular season . Even with the losing streak , the club narrowly qualified for the finals , finishing in fourth , two points ahead of Sydney F.C. and Wellington Phoenix . Central Coast lost 4 – 1 on aggregate in their minor semi @-@ final against Queensland Roar , ending the team 's season .
= = = Graham Arnold and Phil Moss era = = =
In February 2010 , following the club 's 2009 – 10 season , McKinna chose to move into a new role , becoming Central Coast 's Football and Commercial Operations Manager . Socceroos assistant manager Graham Arnold was appointed as the club 's new manager , becoming its second manager . In the lead @-@ up to the 2010 – 11 season , numerous transfers resulted in changes to the club 's squad . The Mariners announced the signing of 2005 Under 20 's World Cup winner Patricio Pérez of Argentina in June 2010 , followed by Dutch defender Patrick Zwaanswijk . In July 2010 , it was announced that the Mariners ' women 's team would not compete in the 2010 – 11 W @-@ League competition . The club stated that financial reasons were behind the decision , after Football NSW withdrew its funding .
In spite of relatively low expectations in the lead up to the season , the 2010 – 11 season was more successful for the club than 2009 – 10 ; the A @-@ League and youth league teams both finished second in their respective leagues in the regular season . The senior team was then defeated by the premiers , Brisbane Roar , 4 – 2 on aggregate over two legs in the major semi @-@ final , before defeating Gold Coast United 1 – 0 in the Preliminary Final to qualify for the 2011 A @-@ League Grand Final against Brisbane . By reaching the Grand Final , the club also qualified for the 2012 AFC Champions League . In a championship match that the A @-@ League 's website called " classic " , Central Coast was defeated 4 – 2 in a penalty shootout after leading 2 – 0 with three minutes remaining in extra time to finish runners @-@ up for the third time .
The 2011 – 12 season was similarly successful , as the club won the premiership for the second time in its history with 51 points , two more than second @-@ place Brisbane . The club failed to qualify for a second successive Grand Final , though , losing 5 – 2 on aggregate to Brisbane in the major semi @-@ final and 5 – 3 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw with Perth Glory in the Grand Final Qualifier .
On 21 April 2013 , after three losses in Grand Finals , Central Coast won its first A @-@ League title , defeating first @-@ year side Western Sydney Wanderers 2 – 0 in the Grand Final at Allianz Stadium . Arnold re @-@ signed with the club for a further two seasons on 30 August 2013 , but on 14 November it was confirmed that he had signed a two @-@ year contract to become manager of J. League Division 1 side Vegalta Sendai , starting in January 2014 . Former assistant manager Phil Moss was named the new head coach . Mariners general manager Peter Turnbull left the club as well , and New Zealand international Michael McGlinchey moved to the J. League to play for Arnold 's new side . Central Coast finished the 2013 – 14 A @-@ League regular season in third place , behind runner @-@ up Western Sydney on goal difference . In the semi @-@ final , the Mariners ' championship hopes ended with a 2 – 0 loss to Western Sydney ; the game came three days after the team was eliminated from the 2014 AFC Champions League after losing to Japanese club Sanfrecce Hiroshima 1 – 0 to finish last in their group .
In what was Moss 's first pre @-@ season as coach , he did little to change what Arnold had built at the club . The only major changes in the side were with the addition of Senegalese international Malick Mané and Hungarian Richárd Vernes , and Marcos Flores leaving the club , with Mile Sterjovski retiring . Mariners began the season on a high , progressing to the semi @-@ finals of the 2014 FFA Cup and defeating local rivals Newcastle Jets 1 – 0 at home in the opening round of the A @-@ League . However the season soon turned with the team failing to secure a win for the remainder of the year . After their elimination from the 2015 AFC Champions League qualifying play @-@ off by Chinese side Guangzhou R & F and a continued poor league record after a short mid @-@ season break , the club stood down Moss as head coach . The decision was made on 6 March 2015 , with Mariners appointing technical director Tony Walmsley in an interim capacity and captain John Hutchinson in a dual player @-@ coach role , until the end of the season . Portuguese player Fábio Ferreira also joined the team at the tail end of the season . On 15 April Walmsley was announced as Mariners ' permanent technical director and head coach for the 2015 – 16 season . The announcement came despite a disappointing end to the season in which the club finished the league in eighth position .
= = Colours and badge = =
The home jersey worn by the Mariners is mostly yellow with sleeves that are navy blue . The away uniform is a mostly plain navy blue jersey with yellow as a secondary colour . In the 2011 – 12 season , the club had its kits manufactured by Hummel , as the A @-@ League 's Reebok deal had expired at the conclusion of the 2010 – 11 season . In September 2012 it was announced that the Mariners had signed a two @-@ year deal with Kappa for them to be the official apparel supplier . The team logo is a yellow football at the centre of a blue curling wave , which symbolises the beaches of the Central Coast .
Since 2012 , the Mariners have worn special pink kits for one match in October to raise money and awareness for Pink Ribbon Day , part of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month . The Mariners club collected donations at the ground , as well as auctioning the match @-@ worn kits on online auction site eBay with proceeds going to the charity .
= = Sponsorship = =
= = Stadium = =
Central Coast Mariners plays home games at Central Coast Stadium , Gosford . It is located in Grahame Park , between the Gosford Central Business District and the Brisbane Water foreshore . It is constructed to make the most of its location , being open at the southern end , giving filtered views of Brisbane Water through a row of large palm trees . It is within walking distance of Gosford railway station and is adjacent to the Central Coast Leagues Club .
While the stadium has a capacity of 20 @,@ 059 , the highest attendance for a Mariners game is 19 @,@ 238 against Newcastle Jets in round 19 of the 2007 – 08 season . Difficulties in drawing spectators led the Mariners to schedule matches in the 2013 – 14 and 2014 – 15 seasons away from Central Coast Stadium , at North Sydney Oval and Brookvale Oval . The club 's goal was to play closer to its fan base in north Sydney , which majority owner Michael Charlesworth estimated to be about 20 % of its total supporters . Following attendances at North Sydney Oval that were similar to those at Central Coast Stadium , Football Federation Australia CEO David Gallop suggested in December 2014 that it would be unlikely that the club would be permitted to continue playing in north Sydney .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
The active supporters ' group for the Mariners is called the Yellow Army , who sit in bay 16 of Central Coast Stadium during home games . In addition to the Yellow Army , there is a Central Coast Mariners Official Supporters Club , which was established during 2013 . The Central Coast region has about 300 @,@ 000 residents , which gives the Mariners the A @-@ League 's smallest local fan base . Accordingly , the Mariners acquired a small @-@ market image among commentators .
The Mariners developed a strong rivalry with Newcastle Jets throughout their first season , often referred to as the F3 Derby . The naming is a title previously used for the Sydney – Newcastle Freeway , the major motorway which joins the two clubs ' cities . The rivalry 's origins date back to before the teams played against each other in the A @-@ League . A May 2005 Oceania Club Championship qualification match , which went to a penalty shootout that the Mariners won , helped create hostility between the sides . In the game , a tackle by Central Coast 's Mrdja broke one of Newcastle player Andrew Durante 's legs , causing him to miss the following A @-@ League season ; Mrdja offered no apology for the tackle , upsetting Jets players . Fans of the clubs battled verbally before and after one 2011 derby match , leading the Newcastle Herald 's Josh Leeson to call their actions " immature and laughable . " In more recent seasons , the F3 Derby has gained less attention in the press than the derbies in Melbourne and Sydney , but Central Coast player Nicholas Fitzgerald maintains that " the players and fans still take it very seriously . "
Central Coast also have a rivalry with Sydney FC . Like Newcastle , Sydney FC is close in proximity to Central Coast . In 2006 , the Central Coast Express Advocate 's Richard Noone called the Central Coast – Sydney rivalry " Arguably A @-@ League 's fiercest " .
= = = Notable Supporters = = =
Julie Goodwin
= = Affiliated clubs = =
Through an investment in the Mariners by Sheffield United the club has the following international affiliations :
Sheffield United
São Paulo
Ferencváros
In addition , the club has a player development partnership with the following international clubs :
Everton
The club also has formal relationships with the following organisations in Australia :
Northbridge ( as North Shore Mariners Academy )
Western NSW Football ( as Western NSW Mariners FC )
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 13 July 2016Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Academy = = =
= = Club officials = =
= = = Management = = =
= = = Technical staff = = =
= = = Managers = = =
= = Records = =
John Hutchinson currently holds the team record for number of total games played with 268 matches in all competitions . Former captain Alex Wilkinson has the second most appearances for the club with 203 matches . Adam Kwasnik is the third most capped player with 158 appearances . As of 2014 , Central Coast 's all @-@ time highest goalscorers in all competitions is Matt Simon with 45 goals , one more than Adam Kwasnik . Daniel McBreen has scored the third most goals for the club with 29 . Central Coast 's highest attendance at its home stadium , Central Coast Stadium , is 19 @,@ 238 against Newcastle Jets in their round 19 match of the 2007 – 08 season . This was the second highest crowd at the ground for any sport since the first match at Central Coast Stadium in February 2000 .
= = Honours = =
A @-@ League Premiership
Premiers ( 2 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2011 – 12
Runners @-@ Up ( 2 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
A @-@ League Championship
Champions ( 1 ) : 2013
Runners @-@ Up ( 3 ) : 2006 , 2008 , 2011
A @-@ League Pre @-@ Season Challenge Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2005
Runners @-@ Up ( 1 ) : 2006
= East Coker ( poem ) =
East Coker is the second poem of T. S. Eliot 's Four Quartets . It was started as a way for Eliot to get back into writing poetry and was modelled after Burnt Norton . It was finished during early 1940 and printed for the Easter edition of the 1940 New English Weekly . The title refers to a small community that was directly connected to Eliot 's ancestry and was home to a church that was later to house Eliot 's ashes .
The poem discusses time and disorder within nature that is the result of humanity following only science and not the divine . Leaders are described as materialistic and unable to understand reality . The only way for mankind
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slaves , but who had delegated authority of plantation overseers .
= = = The plantations = = =
Although some plantation owners were enlightened or paternalistic , the slave population was on the whole poorly treated . Churches for whites existed from the inauguration of the colonies , but slaves were barred from worshipping before 1807 as colonists feared education and Christianisation would lead slaves to question their status and lead to dissatisfaction . Indeed , a Wesleyan missionary who arrived in 1805 wanting to set up a church for slaves was immediately repatriated by order of the governor . The London Missionary Society ( LMS ) entered Guyana shortly after the end of the slave trade at the behest of a plantation owner who believed that slaves ought to have access to religious teachings . Hermanus Post , a naturalised Englishman of Dutch descent , advocated teaching of religion and literacy . The idea , considered radical at the time , was supported by some who may have thought religion was to be offered as a consolation in place of emancipation . The colonial administration was hostile to the idea . It was written in the official journal , Royal Gazette , in 1808 : " It is dangerous to make slaves Christians , without giving them their liberty . " Others strongly opposed . Other plantation owners , who felt that teaching slaves anything other than their duties to their masters would lead to " anarchy , chaos and discontent " and precipitate the destruction of the colony . Post ignored these protestations and made facilities available for worship . The facilities were easily outgrown by popularity of worship within just eight months . The LMS contributed £ 100 ; Post gave the land and paid the balance , and a chapel with 600 @-@ person capacity was inaugurated on 11 September 1808 . He also had a house constructed for the minister at a cost of £ 1200 , of which £ 200 was subscribed by other " respectable inhabitants of the colony " . The first pastor , Reverend John Wray , arrived in February 1808 and spent five years there ; his wife operated a girls ' school for white children . After the chapel 's construction , the owner wrote of improvements :
They were formerly a nuisance to the neighbourhood , on account of their drumming and dancing two or three nights in the week , and were looked on with a jealous eye on account of their dangerous communications ; but they have now become the most zealous attendants on public worship , catechising , and private instructions . No drums are heard in this neighbourhood , except where the owners have prohibited the attendance of their slaves [ at the church ] . Drunkards and fighters have changed into sober and peaceable people , and endeavour to please those who are set over them .
Post sought to have more missionaries appointed to other places in the colony . However , Post died in 1809 , and was lamented by his slaves . Conditions of his slaves markedly deteriorated under new management – they were once again subject to whipping and forced to work on Saturdays and Sundays . Soon after Wray arrived in 1808 , he fought for the rights of slaves in the colony to attend church services which would take place nightly . When Governor Henri Guillaume Bentinck declared all meetings after dark illegal , Wray obtained the support of some plantation owners and managers . Armed with their testimonials , he sought to confront Bentinck but was refused audience . Wray went to London to appeal directly to the government .
When Wray was transferred to nearby Berbice at the end of his term , the mission was without a pastor for three years . John Smith , his replacement sent to the colony by the LMS , was equally welcomed by the slaves . Writing to the LMS , Smith said that the clergy was explicitly ordered to say nothing that would cause slaves ' disenchantment with their masters or dissatisfaction with their status . Many in the colony resented the presence of the preachers , whom they believed were spies to the abolitionist movement in London . They feared that the religious teachings and the liberal attitudes promoted would eventually cause slaves to rebel . Colonists interrupted services , threw stones at the churches , barred ministers ' access to certain plantations , refusing permission to build chapels on plantation land ; slaves were stopped from attending services at every turn . Smith received a hostile reception from the Governor John Murray and from most colonists . They saw his chapel services as a threat to plantation output , and feared greater unrest . Smith reported to the LMS the Governor had told him that " planters will not allow their negroes to be taught to read , on pain of banishment from the colony . "
Furthermore , religious instruction for slaves was endorsed by British Parliament , thus the plantation owners were obliged to permit slaves to attend despite their opposition . Colonists who attended were perceived by Smith to be disruptive or a distraction . Some overseers attended only to prevent their own slaves from attending . One of owners ' complaints was that slaves had too far to walk to attend services . When Smith had requested land to erect a chapel from John Reed , owner of " Dochfour " , the idea was vetoed by Governor Murray , allegedly because of complaints he had received about Smith . Colonists even perverted the intention of a circular from Britain which mandated giving slaves passes to attend services – on 16 August 1823 , the Governor issued a circular which required slaves to obtain owners ' special dispensation to attend church meetings or services , causing a sharp decline in attendance at services .
At about the same time , Smith wrote a letter back to George Burder , the Secretary of the LMS , lamenting the conditions of the slaves :
Ever since I have been in the colony , the slaves have been most grievously oppressed . A most immoderate quantity of work has , very generally , been exacted of them , not excepting women far advanced in pregnancy . When sick , they have been commonly neglected , ill treated , or half starved . Their punishments have been frequent and severe . Redress they have so seldom been able to obtain , that many of them have long discontinued to seek it , even when they have been notoriously wronged .
Da Costa noted that the slaves who rebelled all had motives which were underpinned by their status as chattels : the families of many were caught in the turbulent changes in ownership of plantations and feared being sold and / or split up ( as in the case of the slave Telemachus ) ; Christians frequently complained of being harassed and chastised for their belief or their worshipping ( Telemachus , Jacky Reed , Immanuel , Prince , Sandy ) ; female slaves reported being abused or raped by owners or managers ( Betsy , Susanna ) . Slaves were also often punished for frivolous reasons . Many managers / owners ( McTurk , Spencer ) would insist that slaves work on Sundays , and deny passes to attend church ; Pollard , manager of " Non Pareil " and " Bachelor 's Adventure " , was notoriously violent . Quamina complained of frequently being deprived of his legal day off and missing church ; unable to take care of his sickly wife , he found her dead one night after coming home . Jack Gladstone , a slave on " Success " , who did not work under a driver and enjoyed considerable freedom , learned of the debate about slavery in Britain , and had heard rumours of emancipation papers arriving from London .
Among the plantation owners , Sir John Gladstone , father of British Prime Minister William , who had built his fortune as a trader , had acquired plantations in Demerara in 1812 through mortgage defaults . This included half share in " Success " , one of the largest and most productive plantations there ; he acquired the remaining half four years later . Gladstone switched the crop from coffee to sugar , and expanded his workforce of slaves from 160 to more than 330 . Sir John would continue to acquire Demeraran plantations , often at fire sale prices after the rebellion and well into the decade , and his agents would be able to optimise his assets across the different properties . By the time emancipation was enacted in Britain in 1834 , he owned four plantations – " Vreedenhoop " , " Success " , " Wales " and " Vreedestein " .
John Smith , writing in his journal on 30 August 1817 , said that the slaves of " Success " complained about the work load and very severe treatment . Sir John Gladstone , believing that the slaves on his estates were properly treated , wrote a letter to the Missionary Society on 24 December 1824 to clear his name . He wrote that his intentions have " ever been to treat my people with kindness in the attention to their wants of every description , and to grant them every reasonable and practicable indulgence . " He stated that the work gangs were doubled from 160 after production shifted to sugar from coffee . Gladstone later maintained that
Even on Sugar Estates , the grinding [ of the canes ] ceases at sunset ; and the boilers , the only parties that remain longer , finish cleaning up before nine o 'clock ... Their general food , in addition to salt fish and occasionally salted provisions , consisted of plantains which they preferred to other food . Plantains were cultivated in the ordinary daily work of each estate , or purchased when deficient , and they were supplied with more than they could consume . The slaves were provided with clothing that was suitable for the climate and their situation ... They have the Sabbath and their other holydays to dispose of , for the purpose of religion , if so inclined .
Gladstone , who had never set foot on his plantation , had been deluded by his attorney in Demerara , Frederick Cort , into believing that it was seldom necessary to punish the slaves . He asserted they were generally happy and contented , and were able to make considerable money by selling the surplus produce of their provision grounds . Subsequent to the revolt , the secretary of the London Missionary Society warned Gladstone that Cort had been lying , but Gladstone continued to identify himself with Cort and his other agents . Robertson , his second son , inspected the estates from 22 November 1828 to 3 March 1829 , during which he observed that Cort was " an idler and a deceiver " who had mismanaged one estate after another . Only then was Cort dismissed . In Britain , Lord Howick and others criticised the concept of absentee landlords . Sir Benjamin d 'Urban , who took up his office of Lieutenant Governor of Essequibo and Demerara in 1824 , wrote to Earl Bathurst , Secretary of State for the Colonies , on 30 September 1824 , criticising " .. the injudicious managers under whom too many of the slaves are placed ; half educated men of little discretion , or command over their own caprices ; good planters perhaps – but quite unfit to have the charge of bodies of men , although they might take very proper care of cattle " .
= = The revolt = =
Slaves with the highest status such as coopers , and some other who were members of Smith 's congregation , were implicated in leading the rebellion against the harsh conditions and maltreatment , demanding what they believed to be their right . Quamina and his son Jack Gladstone , both slaves on " Success " plantation , led their peers to revolt . Quamina , a member of Smith 's church , had been one of five chosen to become deacons by the congregation soon after Smith 's arrival . In the British House of Commons in May 1823 , Thomas Fowell Buxton introduced a resolution condemning the state of slavery as " repugnant to the principles of the British constitution and of the Christian religion " , and called for its gradual abolition " throughout the British colonies " . In fact , the subject of these rumours were Orders in Council ( to colonial administrations ) drawn up by George Canning under pressure from abolitionists to ameliorate the conditions of slaves following a Commons debate . Its principal provisions were to restrict slaves ' daily working hours to nine and to prohibit flogging for female slaves .
Whilst the Governor or Berbice immediately made a proclamation upon receiving his orders from London , and instructed local parson John Wray to explain the provisions to his congregation , John Murray , his counterpart in Demerara , had received the Order from London on 7 July 1823 , and these measures proved controversial as they were discussed in the Court of Policy on 21 July and again on 6 August . They were passed as being inevitable , but the administration made no formal declaration as to its passing . The lack of formal declaration led to rumours that masters had received instructions to set the slaves free but were refusing to do so . In the weeks prior to the revolt , he sought confirmation of the veracity of the rumours from other slaves , particularly those who worked for those in a position to know : he thus obtained information from Susanna , housekeeper / mistress of John Hamilton of " Le Resouvenir " ; from Daniel , the Governor 's servant ; Joe Simpson from " Le Reduit " and others . Specifically , Simpson had written a letter which said that their freedom was imminent but which warned them to be patient . Jack wrote a letter ( signing his father 's name ) to the members of the chapel informing them of the " new law " .
Those on " Le Resouvenir " , where Smith 's chapel was situated , also rebelled . Quamina , who was well respected by slaves and freedmen alike , initially tried to stop the slave revolt , and urged instead for peaceful strike ; he made the fellow slaves promise not to use violence . As an artisan cooper who did not work under a driver , Jack enjoyed considerable freedom to roam about . He was able to organise the rebellion through his formal and informal networks . Close conspirators who were church ' teachers ' included Seaton ( at " Success " ) , William ( at " Chateau Margo " ) , David ( at " Bonne Intention " ) , Jack ( at " Dochfour " ) , Luke ( at " Friendship " ) , Joseph ( at " Bachelor 's Adventure " ) , Sandy ( at " Non Pareil " ) . Together , they finalised planning in the afternoon of Sunday 17 August for thousands of slaves to raise up against their masters the next morning .
Joe of " Le Reduit " had informed his master at approximately 6 am that morning of a coordinated uprising planned the night before at Bethel chapel which would take place that same day . Captain Simpson , the owner , immediately rode to see the Governor , but stopped to alert several estates on the way into town . The governor assembled the cavalry , which Simpson was a part of . Although the rebellion leaders had hoped for mass action by all slaves , the actual unrest involved about 13 @,@ 000 slaves over some 37 estates located on the east coast , between Georgetown and Mahaica . Slaves entered estates , ransacked the houses for weapons and ammunition , tied up the whites , or put some into stocks . The very low number of white deaths is cited as proof that the uprising was largely free from violence from the slaves . Accounts from witnesses indicate that the rebels exercised restraint , with only a very small number of white men were killed . Some slaves took revenge on their masters or overseers by putting them in stocks , like they themselves had been before . Slaves went in large groups , from plantation to plantation , seizing weapons and ammunition and locking up the whites , promising to release them in three days . However , according to Bryant , not all slaves were compliant with the rebels ; some were loyal to their masters and held off against the rebels .
The Governor immediately declared martial law . The 21st Fusiliers and the 1st West India Regiment , aided by a volunteer battalion , were dispatched to combat the rebels , who were armed mainly with cutlasses and bayonets on poles , and a small number of stands of rifles captured from plantations . By the late afternoon on 20 August , the situation had been brought under control . Most of the slaves had been rounded up , although some of the rebels were shot whilst attempting to flee . On 22 August 1823 , Lieutenant Governor Murray issued an account of the battles . He reported major confrontations on Tuesday morning at the Reed estate , " Dochfour " , where ten to fifteen of the 800 rebels were killed ; a skirmish at " Good Hope " felled " five or six " rebels . On Wednesday morning , six were killed at ' Beehive ' plantation , forty rebels died at Elizabeth Hall . At a battle which took place at " Bachelor 's Adventure " , " a number considerably above 1500 " were involved .
The Lieutenant @-@ Colonel having in vain attempted to convince these deluded people of their error , and every attempt to induce them to lay down their arms having failed , he made his dispositions , charged the two bodies simultaneously , and dispersed them with the loss of 100 to 150 . On our side , we only had one rifleman slightly wounded .
After the slaves ' defeat at " Bachelor 's Adventure " , Jack fled into the woods . A " handsome reward " of one thousand guilder was offered for his capture . The Governor also proclaimed a " FULL and FREE PARDON to all slaves who surrendered within 48 hours , provided that they shall not have been ringleaders ( or guilty of Aggravated Excesses ) " . Jack remained at large until he and his wife were captured by Capt. McTurk at " Chateau Margo " , after a three @-@ hour standoff on 6 September .
= = Trials = =
On 25 August , the Governor Murray constituted a general court @-@ martial , presided over by Lt.-Col. Stephen Arthur Goodman . Despite the initial revolt passing largely peacefully with slave masters locked in their homes , those who were considered ringleaders were tried at set up at different estates along the coast and executed by shooting ; their heads were cut off and nailed to posts . A variety of sentences were handed out , including solitary confinement , lashing , and death . Bryant ( 1824 ) records 72 slaves having been sentenced by court @-@ martial at the time of publication . He noted that 19 of the 45 death sentences had been carried out ; a further 18 slaves had been reprieved . Quamina was among those executed ; their bodies were hung up in chains by the side of a public road in front of their respective plantations and left to rot for months afterwards . Jack Gladstone was sold and deported to St Lucia ; Da Costa suggests that a letter Sir John had sent on his behalf resulted in clemency .
John Smith was arraigned in court @-@ martial before Lt. Col. Goodman on 13 October , charged with four offences : " promoting discontent and dissatisfaction in the minds of the Negro Slaves towards their Lawful Masters , Overseers and Managers , inciting rebellion ; advising , consulting and corresponding with Quamina , and further aiding and abetting Quamina in the revolt ; failure to make known the planned rebellion to the proper authorities ; did not use his best endeavours to suppress , detain and restrain Quamina once the rebellion was under way . " The officers on the court martial judging Smith included a young Captain Colin Campbell , later to become Field Marshal Lord Clyde .
Smith 's trial concluded one month later , on 24 November . Smith was found guilty of the principal charges , and was given the death sentence . Pending an appeal , Smith was transferred from Colony House to prison , where he died of " consumption " in the early hours of 6 February 1824 ; To minimise the risk of stirring up slave sentiment , the colonists interred him at 4 am . The grave went without markings to avoid it becoming a rallying point for slaves . The Royal reprieve arrived on 30 March . Smith 's death was a major step forward in the campaign to abolish slavery . News of his death was published in British newspapers , provoked enormous outrage and garnered 200 petitions to Parliament .
= = Aftermath = =
The rebellion took place a few months after the founding of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society , and had a strong impact on Britain . Although public sentiment initially favoured the colonists , it changed with revelations . The abolitionist debate which had flagged , was galvanised by the deaths of Smith and the 250 slaves . The Martial law in Demerara was lifted on 19 January 1824 . In Demerara and Berbice , there was considerable anger towards the missionaries that resulted in their oppression . Demerara 's Court of Policy passed an ordinance giving financial assistance to a church that was selected by plantation owners in each district . The Le Resouvenir chapel was seized and taken over by the Anglican Church .
Under pressure from London , the Demerara Court of Policy eventually passed an ' Ordinance for the religious instruction of slaves and for meliorating their condition ' in 1825 which institutionalised working hours and some civil rights for slaves . The weekend was to be from sunset on Saturday to sunrise on Monday ; field work was also defined to be from 6 am to 6 pm , with a mandatory two @-@ hour break . A Protector of Slaves was appointed ; whipping was abolished for women as was its use in the field . The rights to marriage and own property was legalised , as was the right to acquire manumission . Amendments and new ordinances continued to flow from London , each progressively establishing more civil rights for the slaves , but they were strongly resisted by the colonial legislature .
Many planters refused to comply with their provisions . The confrontation continued as the planters challenged on several occasions the right of British government to pass laws binding on the colony , arguing that the Court of Policy has exclusive legislative power within the colony . Plantation owners who controlled the voting of the taxes disrupted administration by refusing to vote the civil list .
In August 1833 , the British parliament passed the ' Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Colonies , for promoting the industry of manumitted slaves , and for compensating the persons hitherto entitled to the services of such slaves ' , with effect from 1 August 1834 . Plantation owners of British Guiana received £ 4 @,@ 297 @,@ 117 10s . 6 ½ d. in compensation for the loss of 84 @,@ 915 slaves .
= Calakmul =
Calakmul ( / ˌkɑːlɑːkˈmuːl / ; also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants ) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche , deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region . It is 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the Guatemalan border . Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands .
Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico . Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign , to be read " Kaan " . Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom . This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period . Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50 @,@ 000 people and had governance , at times , over places as far away as 150 kilometers . There are 6 @,@ 750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul ; the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site . Structure 2 is over 45 metres ( 148 ft ) high , making it one of the tallest of the Maya pyramids . Four tombs have been located within the pyramid . Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size . The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) and the whole of the site , mostly covered with dense residential structures , is about 20 square kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) .
Throughout the Classic Period , Calakmul maintained an intense rivalry with the major city of Tikal to the south , and the political manoeuvrings of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers .
Rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29 , 1931 , the find was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932 .
= = Etymology = =
Calakmul is a modern name ; according to Cyrus L. Lundell , who named the site , In Maya , ca means " two " , lak means " adjacent " , and mul signifies any artificial mound or pyramid , so Calakmul is the " City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids " . In ancient times the city core was known as Ox Te ' Tuun , meaning " Three Stones " . Another name associated with the site , and perhaps a larger area around it , is Chiik Naab ' . The lords of Calakmul identified themselves as k 'uhul kaanal ajaw , Divine Lords of the Snake , but the connection of the title to the actual site is ambiguous .
= = Location = =
Calakmul is located in Campeche state in southeastern Mexico , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) north of the border with Guatemala and 38 kilometres ( 24 mi ) north of the ruins of El Mirador . The ruins of El Tintal are 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway . Calakmul was about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the contemporary city of Oxpemul and approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) southwest of La Muñeca . The city is located on a rise about 35 metres ( 115 ft ) above a large seasonal swamp lying to the west , known as the El Laberinto bajo ( a Spanish word used in the region to denote a low @-@ lying area of seasonal marshland ) . This swamp measures approximately 34 by 8 kilometres ( 21 @.@ 1 by 5 @.@ 0 mi ) and was an important source of water during the rainy season . The bajo was linked to a sophisticated water @-@ control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a 22 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 sq mi ) area around the site core , an area considered as Inner Calakmul . The location of Calakmul at the edge of a bajo provided two additional advantages : the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant flint nodules . The city is situated
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on a promontory formed by a natural 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) high limestone dome rising above the surrounding lowlands . This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya . During the Preclassic and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto bajo , during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked .
At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest . During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall , although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala . Calakumul is now located within the 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 300 km2 ) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve .
= = Population and extent = =
At its height in the Late Classic period the city is estimated to have had a population of 50 @,@ 000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over 70 square kilometres ( 27 sq mi ) . The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . During the Terminal Classic the city 's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10 % of its former level .
The Late Classic population density of Calakmul has been calculated at 1000 / km ² ( 2564 per square mile ) in the site core and 420 / km ² ( 1076 per square mile ) in the periphery ( an area of 122 square kilometres ( 47 sq mi ) . Calakmul was a true urban city and not just an elite centre surrounded by commoner residences . The site core of Calakmul was known in ancient times as Ox Te ' Tuun ( " Three Stones " ) which may have been because of the triadic pyramid Structure 2 .
The Calakmul kingdom included 20 secondary centres , among which were large cities such as La Muñeca , Naachtun , Sasilha , Oxpemul and Uxul . The total population of these secondary centres has been estimated at 200 @,@ 000 . The kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites , mostly fairly small and consisting of a number of groups arranged around courtyards , although there are also larger rural sites situated on ridges along the edges of the bajos that include temples , palaces and stelae . The total rural population of the kingdom is calculated at 1 @.@ 5 million people . The entire population of the Calakmul kingdom , including the city itself and the rural population in the 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 sq mi ) area of the regional state , is calculated at 1 @.@ 75 million people in the Late Classic period .
The Emblem Glyph of Calakmul has a greater distribution than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city . The Glyph is also found in more hieroglyphic texts than any other Emblem Glyph , including that of Tikal . Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign , to be read " Kaan " . Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Snake Kingdom . At times the city had governance over places as far away as 150 kilometers .
= = Known rulers = =
The kings of Calakmul were known as k 'uhul kan ajawob ( / k ’ uːˈχuːl kän äχäˈwoɓ / ) ( " Divine Lords of the Snake Kingdom " ) . This list is not continuous , as the archaeological record is incomplete . All dates AD .
= = Emblem Glyph = =
At Calakmul 's peak in the 7th century , the polity was known as Kan . Interesting to know is that the title Kan was used at another place before Calakmul became a regional powerhouse . The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan . There is the idea that , after the collapse of the Mirador state , its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul , where they founded a new Kan polity . However , epigraphical studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake , but with a bat . It seems that a different polity ruled there . The Kan emblem glyph , before being associated with Calakmul , is found ( once ) at Dzibanché , a site more towards the east . Perhaps during the late 6th / early 7th century , the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital . After Calakmul 's power dwindled in the 8th century , after the rule of Yuknoom Took K 'awiil , it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence . Still , many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps .
= = History = =
Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Postclassic . The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador , Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic , when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities , and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region . Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands .
= = = Calakmul vs. Tikal = = =
The history of the Maya Classic period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul , likened to a struggle between two Maya " superpowers " . Earlier times tended to be dominated by a single larger city and by the Early Classic Tikal was moving into this position after the dominance of El Mirador in the Late Preclassic and Nakbe in the Middle Preclassic . However Calakmul was a rival city with equivalent resources that challenged the supremacy of Tikal and engaged in a strategy of surrounding it with its own network of allies . From the second half of the 6th century AD through to the late 7th century Calakmul gained the upper hand although it failed to extinguish Tikal 's power completely and Tikal was able to turn the tables on its great rival in a decisive battle that took place in AD 695 . Half a century later Tikal was able to gain major victories over Calakmul 's most important allies . Eventually both cities succumbed to the spreading Classic Maya collapse .
The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources . Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding . Calakmul 's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan . With few exceptions , Tikal 's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the female line and often the joint rule of king and queen .
= = = Preclassic = = =
Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period . The early history of Calakmul is obscure , although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past . This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe . This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities , with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the Mirador Basin and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities .
= = = Early Classic = = =
Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period . Early hieroglyphic texts from stelae found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non @-@ royal site ruler in 514 . After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century , although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time . The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed .
The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo , far north of Calakmul . A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives , their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che 'en I , although the exact context of the king 's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul . The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD . The nearby Quintana Roo site of El Resbalón has a jumbled hieroglyphic text , including a date in 529 , that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty .
By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far @-@ reaching political alliance , activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal . The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the Petén ; king Tuun K 'ab ' Hix of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of Naranjo in 546 . Another vassal of Tuun K 'ab ' Hix was taken captive by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Usumacinta River in 537 .
In 561 , the king now known as Sky Witness installed a ruler at the site of Los Alacranes . Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region . He became the overlord of the city of Caracol , to the south of Naranjo , which had previously been a vassal of Tikal . In 562 , according to a damaged text at Caracol , Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K 'awiil , thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal . This catastrophic defeat began a 130 @-@ year hiatus for Tikal , reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul . This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic . Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop , a site much further north in Quintana Roo . The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572 . The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king .
= = = Late Classic = = =
= = = = War with Palenque = = = =
Sky Witness was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder , who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K 'atun @-@ ending of 573 . First Axewielder ruled for about six years . In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul . Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak , lord of the small city of Santa Elena 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) east of Palenque , defeating Palenque 's queen Lady Yohl Ik 'nal and sacking the city . The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long @-@ lasting grudge against Calakmul . Lady Yohl Ik 'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years , although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul .
Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te ' K 'inich of that city that occurred before 583 . Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan . Palenque was now ruled by king Ajen Yohl Mat who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul , provoking the new invasion . The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city , Ajen Yohl Mat himself and Janab Pakal , a high @-@ ranking member of the royal family and possibly co @-@ ruler . Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later . Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul 's triumph . Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous war with Calakmul . The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy trade routes that passed through the western Maya region .
= = = = Rebellion at Naranjo = = = =
King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619 . Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk 'ab ' K 'ak ' to the Calakmul throne in 622 . Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved . Approximately at this time Naranjo , a vassal of Calakmul , broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul . Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626 , when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control . His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630 . In 631 Yuknoom Head , the new king of Calakmul , finally regained control of Naranjo . Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word k 'uxaj ( / k ’ uːˈʃäχ / ) meaning either " tortured " or " eaten " . Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636 , although the exact site is unknown .
= = = = Apogee = = = =
The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re @-@ located there in the 7th Century from another city . Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che 'en II , sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars . Yuknoom Che 'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636 . A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king . Yuknoom Che 'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core .
= = = = = Calakmul and Dos Pilas = = = = =
In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region , some 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) to its southwest , as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River . B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four , in 635 , and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother , the king of Tikal . In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord . B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che 'en II but , instead of being sacrificed , he was re @-@ instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king , and went on to attack Tikal in 657 , forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak , the then king of Tikal , to temporarily abandon the city . The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal , and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself . For some reason , B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal ; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas . Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672 , driving B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil into an exile that lasted five years . Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies , such as El Peru , Dos Pilas and Caracol . In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas , driving Tikal out and reinstalled B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil on his throne . In 679 Dos Pilas , probably aided by Calakmul , gained an important victory over Tikal , with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads .
Troubles continued in the east , with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol . Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo 's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682 , indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne . The patronage of Yuknoom Che 'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities , including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K 'inich B 'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king . The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá , where Motul de San José is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century , although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal . Yuknoom Che 'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at Cancuen , 245 kilometres ( 152 mi ) to the south , and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them , in 656 and 677 . King Yuknoom Che 'en II was involved , directly or indirectly , in the crowning of a king at Moral to the west in Tabasco and one of Yuknoom 's nobles supervised a ritual at Piedras Negras on the Guatemalan bank of the Usumacinta River . Yuknoom Che 'en II died in his eighties , probably at the beginning of 686 . When he died , Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands .
Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' succeeded Yuknoom Che 'en II , his crowning on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru . He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor . He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che 'en II 's reign . He retained the loyalty of K 'inich B 'alam of El Peru and B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693 , when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo at the age of five . However , the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity , as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal , which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul 's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute . Just four years later , in August 695 , the two states were once again at war . Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a Calakmul deity named Yajaw Maan . It is unknown what happened to Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' ; a stucco sculpture from Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the accompanying caption but it is not certain if the captive and the king are the same person . This event marked the end of Calakmul 's apogee , with diplomatic activity dropping away and fewer cities recognising Calakmul 's king as overlord . No stelae remain standing in the site core recording Yuknoom Yich 'aal K 'ak , although there are some in the Northeast Group and 2 broken stelae were buried in Structure 2 .
= = = = Later kings = = = =
The next ruler of Calakmul , Split Earth , is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal .
The next known king used a number of name variants , and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul . A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil . He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year , presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul . El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date . La Corona received a queen from Yuknoom Took ' . Naranjo also remained loyal . Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the k 'atun @-@ ending of 731 . A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city , probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736 , depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil .
= = = = = Calakmul and Quiriguá = = = = =
After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague , due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage . Wamaw K 'awiil is named at Quiriguá on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica . Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour Copán , and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , king of Copán , installed K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá 's throne as his vassal . By 734 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k 'ul ahaw , holy lord , instead of using the lesser term ahaw , subordinate lord ; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph . This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul . In 736 , only two years later , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K 'awiil of Calakmul , while Copán was one of Tikal 's oldest allies . The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant , falling between the accession of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow . This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá 's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley . It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne . In 738 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil . An inscription at Quiriguá , although difficult to interpret , suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738 , when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán 's patron deities . The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual .
In the Late Classic , alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support . The fact that Copán , a much more powerful city than Quiriguá , failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul . Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state , even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán . The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage : Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence .
= = = = Collapse = = = =
Five large stelae were raised in 741 , although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y. Calakmul 's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane , with two of the city 's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal . El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul 's once powerful alliance network , while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power .
In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished , paired with another with the portrait of a queen . A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B 'olon K 'awiil at about the same time . B 'olon K 'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789 . Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time , with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the Yucatán Peninsula .
A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved . Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810 . No monument was erected to commemorate the important Bak 'tun @-@ ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had alreadly collapsed at this time . Important cities such as Oxpemul , Nadzcaan and La Muñeca that were Calakmul 's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments , where before they had raised very few ; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889 . This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal . However , there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900 , possibly even later .
In 849 , Calakmul was mentioned at Seibal where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the K 'atun @-@ ending ceremony ; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself . However , it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date . A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th . A new stela was erected , although the date records only the day , not the full date . The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely . A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude , representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition . Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing .
Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core , suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul 's occupation . The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal , obsidian , jade and shell , indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city . The Yucatec @-@ speaking Kejache Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul .
= = = Modern history = = =
Calakmul was first reported by Cyrus Lundell in 1931 . A year later he informed Sylvanus Morley of the site 's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae . Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932 . In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae . Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche , working at Calakmul until 1994 . Calakmul is now the subject of a large @-@ scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History ( INAH ) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco .
= = Site description = =
The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) , an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures . The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than 20 square kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures . Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population , although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city .
The stone used in construction at the site is a soft limestone . This has resulted in severe erosion of the site 's sculpture . The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site . The innermost zone covers an area of approximately 1 @.@ 75 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 68 sq mi ) It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures , about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry . About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards . The city 's core was bordered on the north side by a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function .
Many commoners residences were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core , although some high @-@ status residences and public buildings were interspersed among these . The area between the residences was used for horticulture .
= = = Water control = = =
The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs . There are five major reservoirs , including the largest example in the Maya world , measuring 242 by 212 metres ( 794 by 696 ft ) . This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times .
Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul . The combined capacity of all the reservoirs is estimated at over 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 44 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) . This quantity of water could have supported 50 @,@ 0
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00 to 100 @,@ 000 people ; there is no evidence that the reservoirs were used to irrigate crops .
Aguada 1 is the largest of the reservoirs and has a surface area of 5 hectares ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Causeways = = =
Eight sacbe ( causeways ) have been located around Calakmul . Two of these have been mapped , three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing . They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7 . The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals , such as the great cities of El Mirador , El Tintal and Nakbe . Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest .
Sacbe 1 is 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) long and is lined and filled with stone . It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core . Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington .
Sacbe 2 is 70 metres ( 230 ft ) long . It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core . Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry . This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3 .
Sacbe 3 extends 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1 . It was first discovered in 1982 .
Sacbe 4 runs 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) southeast from the site core , it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982 .
Sacbe 5 runs westwards from the main watering hole , across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) or more towards Sasilhá .
Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto bajo and links Calakmul with El Mirador ( 38 @.@ 25 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 77 mi ) to the southwest ) and , beyond it , El Tintal ( an additional 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) .
Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6 . It is at least 5 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) long and runs across El Laberinto swamp .
Sacbe 8 is on the west side of the swamp and does not appear to cross it to the site core .
= = = Structures = = =
Structure 1 ( or Structure I ) is a 50 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 160 ft ) pyramid to the east of the site core . A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil in 731 . Because it was built on a low hill , Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2 , although this is not the case .
Structure 2 ( or Structure II ) is a massive north @-@ facing pyramid temple , one of the largest in the Maya world . Its base measures 120 metres ( 390 ft ) square and it stands over 45 metres ( 148 ft ) high . In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region , the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre @-@ existing temple in order to increase its bulk . The core of the building ( Structure 2A ) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period , with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure . In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid , covering an earlier stucco @-@ covered building on the north side . Three new shrines were built upon this extension ( Structures 2B , 2C and 2D ) , each of these shrines had its own access stairway . Structure 2B was the central shrine , 2C was to the east and 2D to the west . The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways , three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway . Structure 2 is similar in date , size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador , and associated ceramics are also similar . At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade , each of these contained stelae . In the 8th century AD , Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks . Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished . In the Late Classic a nine @-@ room palace was built on top of the pyramid , supporting a roof comb that had painted stucco bas @-@ relief decoration . The rooms were arranged in three groups of three , each room positioned behind the next . The entire Late Classic palace measured 19 @.@ 4 by 12 metres ( 64 by 39 ft ) . The front two rows of rooms ( Rooms 1 through to 6 ) were used for food preparation , metates and hearths were found in each of them . Room 7 , the southwest room , was a sweatbath .
Structure 3 ( or Structure III , also known as the Lundell Palace ) is southeast of Structure 4 , on the east side of the Central Plaza . It is a building with multiple rooms .
Structure 4 ( or Structure IV ) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza . It is divided into three sections , labelled Structures 4a , 4b and 4c . The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period . Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza , these buildings form an E @-@ Group that may have been used to determine the solstices and the equinoxes .
Structure 5 ( or Structure V ) is a large building located on the plaza to the north of Structure 2 . It was surrounded by 10 stelae , many dated to the 7th century AD although the building itself was first erected in the Preclassic period .
Structure 6 ( or Structure VI ) is on the west side of the Central Plaza and , together with Structures 4a , 4b and 4c , forms an E @-@ Group astronomical complex . In 1989 observations verified that on March 21 , the vernal equinox , the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure 6 .
Structure 7 ( or Structure VII ) is a temple pyramid on the north side of the Central Plaza . It faces south and stands 24 metres ( 79 ft ) high . Five plain stelae were erected on the south side of the pyramid . It underwent several construction phases from in the Late to Terminal Classic . The pyramid was topped by a three @-@ room temple that possessed a tall stucco @-@ covered roof comb . A patolli game board was carved into the floor of the outermost room of the temple .
Structure 8 ( or Structure VIII ) is a small building located on the north side of the Central Plaza , to the east of Structure 7 . It is associated with Stela 1 and its altar .
= = = Stelae , murals and ceramics = = =
Calakmul is one of the most structure @-@ rich sites within the Maya region . The site contains 117 stelae , the largest total in the region . Most are in paired sets representing rulers and their wives . However , because these carved stelae were produced in soft limestone , most of these stelae have been eroded beyond interpretation . Also many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul . These murals do not represent activities of the elite class . Rather , they depict elaborate market scenes of people preparing or consuming products such as atole , tamales , or tobacco as an ointment . Also items being sold were textiles and needles . These murals also have glyphs within them describing the actions occurring . The most prominent figure in these murals is identified as Lady Nine Stone ; she appears in many scenes . This brings a world of the Maya marketplace to vibrant life for archaeologists . Another highly beneficial resource to Maya archaeological understanding at Calakmul is the ceramic remains . The composition of the ceramic materials identifies the region or more specifically the polity that produced them . Ceramics with the snake emblem glyph found at several sites also give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul .
Stela 1 is associated with an altar and located by Structure 8 .
Stela 8 records the celebration of an event in AD 593 by Uneh Chan and was erected after his death .
Stela 9 is a thin slate monument dated to 662 . Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' and gives him his full royal title .
Stela 28 and Stela 29 were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul . They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names .
Stela 33 was erected by Yuknoom Che 'en II in 657 and records an event in the reign of Uneh Chan , who may have been his father . The event was celebrated in 593 .
Stela 38 stands at the base of Structure 2 .
Stela 42 is also located at the base of Structure 2 .
Stela 43 dates to AD 514 . It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2 . The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the k 'uhul chatan winik non @-@ royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin .
Stela 50 is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city . It bears a crude , clumsily executed portrait .
Stela 51 is the best preserved monument at Calakmul . It depicts Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil and dates to AD 731 .
Stela 54 dates to 731 and depicts a wife of Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil .
Stela 57 is a tall stela erected in 771 by B 'olon K 'awiil . It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13 .
Stela 58 is the second of a pair erected by B 'olon K 'awiil in 771 , the other being Stela 57 . It was erected to the east of Structure 13 .
Stela 61 is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took ' . It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909 , probably the latter .
Stela 62 was unfinished . It was carved to mark the K 'atun @-@ ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z.
Stela 76 and Stela 78 are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633 . They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head .
Stela 84 is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing . It probably dates to the early 10th century AD .
Stela 88 may have been paired with Stela 62 . The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown . B 'olon K 'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela . It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13 . Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century . Like Stela 84 , it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing .
Stela 114 dates to AD 435 , in the Early Classic . It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2 . The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411 .
Stela 115 and Stela 116 date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' . They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4 .
= = = Royal burial = = =
Tomb 4 was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul . The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with resin . The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic , a jade mosaic mask , shell and bone beads , spiny oyster shells , eccentric obsidian blades , fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects . One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' as its owner . The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours . The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it . Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th @-@ century king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' .
= U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky =
U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky is a concert film by Irish rock band U2 . It was recorded on 5 June 1983 at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Colorado , United States , on the group 's War Tour . Originally released in 1984 on videocassette , U2 Live at Red Rocks was the band 's first video release . It accompanied a 1983 live album entitled Under a Blood Red Sky , on which two tracks from the film appear . The video was directed by Gavin Taylor and produced by Rick Wurpel and Doug Stewart .
The film was arranged by U2 management to showcase the band 's live act and to promote them to American audiences . It depicts the band 's performance at Red Rocks on a rain @-@ soaked evening . The concert was almost cancelled because of the inclement weather , but the band had invested in the filming with Island Records and concert promoter Barry Fey and wished to proceed with the gig . The rain and the torch @-@ lit atmosphere of the surroundings made U2 's performance dramatic . Segments of U2 Live at Red Rocks were shown in regular rotation on MTV , and were also broadcast on other television networks .
Critics praised the concert and the video , and it subsequently became a best @-@ seller . The video , along with Under a Blood Red Sky , helped establish
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related to many issues in the field of education , culture , welfare , justice , public works , administration , religion and military . It could also impose supplementary taxes , up to 10 % of the direct tax .
= = = Marshal and Vice @-@ Marshal = = =
The position of ' Marshal ' was equivalent to the position of ' Speaker ' in Westminster @-@ style parliaments . The Marshal was considered the presiding officer of the Diet .
= = Notable members = =
Notable members of the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria include :
= Fata Morgana ( Sanctuary ) =
" Fata Morgana " is the third episode of the science fiction television series Sanctuary . The episode first aired on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on October 10 , 2008 . It subsequently aired on ITV4 in the United Kingdom on October 20 , 2008 . The episode , which is named after a mirage of the same name , was written by Damian Kindler . Martin Wood served as director .
" Fata Morgana " was originally released as the back half of the eight original Sanctuary webisodes in 2007 . In the episode , the Sanctuary team investigate an ancient crypt in an island off the Scottish coast and encounter three sisters with abnormal powers . " Fata Morgana " was met with a 1 @.@ 6 household rating and was generally well received by critics .
= = Plot = =
The team travels to a crypt in an island off the coast of Scotland that Helen Magnus ( Amanda Tapping ) believes to contain an elixir of life . However , the team is spotted and ambushed . After defeating the abnormal crypt Keepers , the team finds three women in comatose state . They are brought to the Sanctuary for study , where it is later determined that the sisters , Danu ( Miranda Frigon ) , Tatha ( Leah Cairns ) and Caird ( Laura Mennell ) , have been held in suspended animation for 1 @,@ 200 years . After the sisters awaken , Will Zimmerman ( Robin Dunne ) learns that they were taken to the crypt because of an incurable disease . However , Will believes they are delusional , partly due to their ability to speak perfect English for people from the Middle Ages ( according to director Martin Wood , they were able to speak English after some sort of " mind meld " between Will and Danu ) . The sisters also experience nightmares in which they destroy an entire village . The sisters eventually determine that these nightmares are in fact memories , and it was they who caused the destruction 1 @,@ 200 years ago .
After some research , Magnus determines that the sisters are the Morrígan , who were created with the intention of destroying man . Magnus also discovers ties to a powerful secret organization , the Cabal , who had put the sisters into the crypt to be used again in the future . Ashley Magnus ( Emilie Ullerup ) learns that the Cabal was formed in the seventh century with the intention of controlling every abnormal on Earth for their own benefit ; since going underground in the nineteenth century , its members have infiltrated several major organizations worldwide to continue their operation .
In the meantime , a group of Cabal mercenaries have captured several Keepers in Scotland and they release them to the Sanctuary in order to regain what they see as their " property " . Before and during the battle between Magnus and the Keepers , Will teaches the sisters about freedom , and sends them to a safe @-@ house . After killing the Keepers , the team are surrounded by the mercenaries . In the end , Danu , Caird and Tatha surrender to the mercenaries who in exchange spare the team 's lives . Will believes his teachings of freedom got to them , as they plan to escape from the mercenaries .
= = Production = =
" Fata Morgana " was originally released as the back half of the eight original webisodes . The episode was given an ancient and mythological feel to set the intended tone of Sanctuary . During the original writing , director and executive producer Martin Wood brought up the idea of incorporating the Morrígan from Irish mythology into the episode . Writer Damian Kindler researched the subject and named the episode after Fata Morgana as a reference to the Morrígan . During pre @-@ production , the producers decided that around half of the episode would contain footage from the webisodes , and the other half would be rewritten to improve the storyline . Since they felt that Ashley Magnus was previously underused , they included her more into the storyline . The ending from the original webisodes , where the sisters manage to escape , was also rewritten .
" Fata Morgana " was originally scheduled to be the fourth episode in the first season . However , it was moved up to the third after Amanda Tapping felt strongly that it would make a great start @-@ stand alone episode after " Sanctuary for All " . She also cited continuity reasons , as the characters appeared more comfortable with each other in the following episode , " Folding Man " . Filming started in January 2007 when they were filming the webisodes . The new scenes were filmed in June 2008 . The actors consciously played the characters more open to each other .
When Martin Wood became unavailable during one day of filming , Amanda Tapping filled in for him as director . Furthermore , a photo double stood in for Leah Cairns in some scenes when Cairns was unavailable to play Tatha . The outdoor scene that featured Kandyse McClure was filmed in the same slot as " Sanctuary for All " , because Wood wanted to use the present rain . One scene was filmed on the same set that was previously used in Stargate SG @-@ 1 . In total , " Fata Morgana " contained over 400 visual effects shots , more than any other episode in the first season . The scene where Ashley was sitting on the edge of a tall building was actually done by having Emilie Ullerup sitting on a green beam , and next to a wind machine . Every visual effects shot made for the " Fata Morgana " webisodes were remastered in the episode .
= = Reception = =
" Fata Morgana " was broadcast on October 10 on Sci Fi in the United States , and October 20 , 2008 on ITV4 in the United Kingdom . According to the Nielsen Galaxy Report , " Fata Morgana " received a household rating of 1 @.@ 6 after original airing in the United States ; this was a drop from the 2 @.@ 2 rating in " Sanctuary for All " . It was still placed second in the top ten Sci Fi Channel shows the week it aired , behind Ghost Hunters , which received a 2 @.@ 0 rating . In the United Kingdom , the episode was seen by 471 @,@ 000 , placing Sanctuary number two in the top ten ITV4 viewings the week it aired , behind a live UEFA Champions League game .
Reviews for the episode were generally positive . Tory Ireland Mell of IGN rated the episode an " outstanding " 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , calling it a " great episode , and completely fun to watch . " Mell praised the episode for its pace , action , choreographed fight sequences , visual effects and character development , but thought that Magnus and Ashley 's relationship was a little forced . Carma Spence @-@ Pothitt of Airlock Alpha reacted positively to the episode , particularly for its use of celtic mythology , how Damian Kindler and Martin Wood incorporates it into the storyline , and the introduction to the Cabal 's . Spence @-@ Prohitt was however , critical of the fact that " too much is being crammed into one . " Amber Spence of PopSyndicate also reacted positively to the episode , calling it a " much stronger showing than the [ somewhat convoluted ] premiere , " and that the action and pace were well executed to draw in the audience . Paul Simpson of Total Sci @-@ Fi gave a more mixed reaction to the episode , rating it 6 out of 10 . Though Simpson called it the first proper episode , he didn 't feel it was as strong as the pilot .
= Cameron Mitchell ( Stargate ) =
Lieutenant Colonel Cameron " Cam " Mitchell , USAF is a fictional character in the Canadian @-@ American military science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , a science fiction show about a military team exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices . Played by Ben Browder , Cameron Mitchell is introduced as a main character in the season 9 premiere " Avalon " , holding the military rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the United States Air Force . Learning of the SG @-@ 1 team 's off @-@ screen separation after the previous season , Mitchell is assigned as new commanding officer of SG @-@ 1 , which he remains throughout season 10 ( 2006 – 2007 ) and the direct @-@ to @-@ DVD films Stargate : The Ark of Truth and Stargate : Continuum ( 2008 ) .
The first episodes of season 9 show Mitchell 's struggle to reunite the former SG @-@ 1 members under his command . With the aid of Lt. Col. Samantha Carter , Dr. Daniel Jackson , the Jaffa Teal 'c , and the alien thief Vala Mal Doran , Mitchell attempts to stop the Ori threat to the Milky Way galaxy during the series ' run . Mitchell is an experienced fighter pilot and is often involved in close combat .
Despite Browder 's popularity as former lead in the sci @-@ fi TV series Farscape , Mitchell 's role as the SG @-@ 1 leader attracted some viewers ' resentment for taking over Carter 's former position . Browder noted a lack of Mitchell @-@ centric episodes and insufficient interaction between Mitchell and the other main characters . For his portrayal of Cameron Mitchell , Ben Browder was nominated for a Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actor on Television " in 2006 .
= = Role in Stargate SG @-@ 1 = =
= = = Character arc = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Cameron Mitchell is the son of Frank and Wendy Mitchell , long @-@ time residents of Auburn , Kansas . Mitchell occasionally mentions his Bible @-@ thumping grandmother in comparison and contrast to the Ori religion . As shown in Stargate : Continuum , Mitchell 's grandfather was the captain of the ship that transported the Alpha Gate from Egypt to the United States in the late 1930s .
Two episodes flash back to Mitchell 's past . As revealed in " Collateral Damage " , Mitchell 's father was a test pilot for the United States Air Force and lost both legs in an accident when Mitchell was a child . When Cameron Mitchell was a USAF Captain , he piloted an F @-@ 16 over the Middle Eastern desert and mistakenly bombed a vehicle containing innocent refugees rather than the enemy . The season 9 premiere " Avalon " flashes back to Lieutenant Colonel Mitchell during the events over Antarctica in season 7 's " Lost City " . Mitchell led a squadron of F @-@ 302 fighters against the forces of the arch villain Anubis and was shot down , resulting in severe injuries . During his recovery in the hospital , he received the Medal of Honor and was promised any assignment by Brigadier General Jack O 'Neill . Mitchell began reading all mission reports that the SG @-@ 1 team had filed .
In his first appearance in the season 9 premiere " Avalon " , Mitchell has fully recovered and opts to join SG @-@ 1 . When he learns that the original team has moved on to new assignments , he becomes the new SG @-@ 1 leader but fails to assemble a new team . After the alien Vala Mal Doran arrives on Earth , Dr. Daniel Jackson and the alien Teal 'c assist Mitchell for a treasure hunt on Earth that eventually sets off the Ori arc . Mitchell takes his place at the head of this provisional team rather reluctantly . Lieutenant Colonel Samantha Carter temporarily joins Mitchell 's team in season 9 's sixth episode , " Beachhead " , which ends with Vala 's disappearance . Mitchell officially reunites the former SG @-@ 1 team one episode later in " Ex Deus Machina " . Vala reappears in late season 9 and officially joins SG @-@ 1 under Mitchell 's command in season 10 's " Memento Mori " . Mitchell continues to lead SG @-@ 1 in Stargate : The Ark of Truth and is promoted to Colonel before his appearance in Stargate : Continuum ( where the credits mistakenly list him as " Lieutenant Colonel " ) .
= = = Characterization = = =
At the beginning of season 9 , Mitchell 's main motivation is to get the SG @-@ 1 team back together . Producer Robert C. Cooper wanted Cameron Mitchell to mirror the Stargate fandom and be a " super fan " of SG @-@ 1 and a " Stargate geek " , who is enthusiastic about exploring the galaxy . Nevertheless , Browder described Mitchell as a " stoic " character who " actually follows military protocol " ; the character has " a certain naïvety and innocence , even though he is neither particularly naïve or innocent " . Mitchell 's personality and attitude depends on his location ( on @-@ base and off @-@ world ) and the people around him . With Mitchell 's team demeanor becoming subtler in season 10 , Browder felt that the writers " finally figured out Mitchell 's only superpower is getting beat up and bleeding " .
Browder considered Mitchell to be more restrained than his former Farscape character John Crichton , who had higher emotional stakes and was " literally going insane through the process of the series . Mitchell 's focus was on his job , and on the fun of his job . But Crichton 's focus was on survival , and on the creation of a family . " Crichton was also the center of the Farscape narrative , whereas the SG @-@ 1 characters serve as nearly equal parts in an ensemble show . Browder did not view Mitchell as a substitute for Richard Dean Anderson 's role of Colonel Jack O 'Neill , the undisputed SG @-@ 1 team leader from seasons 1 through 7 . While O 'Neill 's approach was " normally couched in sarcastic terms " in later years , Mitchell is " more optimistic and has a wry sense about him that 's not so much sarcastic " .
= = = Relationships = = =
Mitchell maintains a level of decorum around General Landry ( Beau Bridges ) , but is more laid @-@ back around the SG @-@ 1 members . Michael Shanks ( Daniel Jackson ) and Browder did not want to repeat the " cliché [ d ] " original O 'Neill @-@ Daniel dynamic where views on military and diplomacy clash . The actors tried to find some commonality between the characters while trying to develop an entertaining rapport between them . By mid @-@ season 9 , their interaction had become playful , without being decidedly positive or antagonistic . Although Mitchell and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) are both warriors and leaders , Teal 'c is taken aback by Mitchell 's enthusiasm at first , as he is more used to O 'Neill 's reserved attitude . Teal 'c is unsure if he likes Mitchell , but Mitchell forces Teal 'c to interact with him . By not letting Teal 'c step back and observe , Mitchell makes Teal 'c an active part of the scene .
Because Ben Browder and Claudia Black ( Vala Mal Doran ) were well known for formerly starring as star @-@ crossed lovers in Farscape , the Stargate producers refrained from emphasizing the pairing of Mitchell and Vala beyond in @-@ jokes . The producers instead opted to further the comedic chemistry between Claudia Black and Michael Shanks . When Vala 's relationship with the SG @-@ 1 team members evolved in season 10 , the producers grew comfortable with pairing Browder 's and Black 's characters more often , and even teased ( and misled ) viewers about them " end [ ing ] up in a motel room bed together " in the episode " Memento Mori " , involving underwear , " handcuffs as well as creamy Twinkies " . A scene in the milestone episode " 200 " also parodied the show 's connection to Farscape .
Amanda Tapping ( Samantha Carter ) found that the introduction of the Ori threat inhibited major character and relationship development in season 9 . The characters are of equal rank , and regard each other with respect according to producer Joseph Mallozzi . They give each other fair weight in decision @-@ making , and Mitchell defers to Carter on all science @-@ related issues . Tapping 's favorite Mitchell @-@ Carter scenes were some " neat sibling @-@ type moments " in " Arthur 's Mantle " , and moments showing their history and friendship in " Line in the Sand " , " The Road Not Taken " , and Stargate : The Ark
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night spots as Mister Kelly 's in Chicago , the Village Vanguard in New York , Storyville in Boston , and finally a return to San Francisco and its showcase nightclub , the Hungry i , in June of that year .
At the same time , Werber was attempting to leverage the Trio 's popularity as a club act into a recording contract . Both Dot Records and Liberty Records expressed some interest , but each proposed to record the Trio on 45 rpm ( revolutions per minute ) singles only , whereas Werber and the Trio members both felt that 33 ⅓ rpm albums had more potential for the group 's music . Through Jimmy Saphier , agent for Bob Hope who had seen and liked the group at The Purple Onion , Werber contacted Capitol Records , which dispatched prominent producer Voyle Gilmore to San Francisco to evaluate the Trio 's commercial potential . On Gilmore 's strong recommendation , Capitol signed the Kingston Trio to an exclusive seven @-@ year deal .
The group 's first album , Capitol T996 The Kingston Trio , was recorded over a three @-@ day period in February 1958 and released in June that year , just as the Trio was beginning its engagement at the Hungry i . Gilmore had made two important supervisory decisions as producer — first , to add the same kind of " bottom " to the Trio 's sound that he had heard in live performance and consequently recruiting Purple Onion house bassist Buzz Wheeler to play on the album , and second to record the group 's songs without the secondary orchestral accompaniment that was nearly universal ( even for folk @-@ styled records ) at the time . The song selections on the first album reflected the repertoire that the musicians had been working on for two years — re @-@ imagined traditional songs inspired by The Weavers like " Santy Anno " and " Bay of Mexico , " calypso @-@ flavored tunes reminiscent of the hugely popular Harry Belafonte recordings of the time such as " Banua " and " Sloop John B " , and a mix of both foreign language and contemporary songwriter numbers , including Terry Gilkyson 's " Fast Freight " and " Scotch and Soda " , whose authorship remains unknown as of 2015 .
The album sold moderately well — including on @-@ site sales at the Hungry i during the Kingston Trio 's engagement there through the summer — but it was DJs Paul Colburn and Bill Terry at station KLUB in Salt Lake City whose enthusiasm for a single cut on the record spurred the next development in the group 's history . Colburn began playing " Tom Dooley " extensively on his show , prompting a rush of album sales in the Salt Lake area by fans who wanted to listen to the song , as yet unavailable as a single record . Colburn called other DJs around the country urging them to do the same , and national response to the song was so strong that a reluctant Capitol Records finally released the tune as a 45rpm single on August 8 , 1958 ; it reached the number 1 spot on the Billboard chart by late November , sold a million copies by Christmas , and was awarded a gold record on January 21 , 1959 . " Tom Dooley " also spurred the debut album to a number 1 position on the charts and helped the band earn a second gold record for the LP , which remained charted on Billboard 's weekly reports for 195 weeks .
The success of the album and the single earned the Kingston Trio a Grammy award for Best Country & Western Performance for " Tom Dooley " at the awards ' inaugural ceremony in 1959 . At the time , no folk music category existed in the Grammy 's scheme . The next year , largely as a result of The Kingston Trio and " Tom Dooley " , the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences instituted a folk category and the Trio won the first Grammy Award for Best Ethnic or Traditional Folk Recording for its second studio album At Large .
This was the beginning of a remarkable three @-@ year run for the Trio in which their first five studio albums achieved number 1 chart status and were awarded gold records . By 1961 , the group had sold more than eight million records , earning in excess of US $ 25 million for Capitol , roughly US $ 200 million in 2015 dollars . The Kingston Trio was responsible for 15 percent of Capitol 's total sales when Capitol also recorded among many other popular artists Frank Sinatra and Nat " King " Cole , both of whom were also producing high @-@ charting profitable albums . One indication of the Kingston Trio 's popularity during this era was that for five consecutive weeks in November and December 1959 , four Kingston Trio albums ranked in the top ten of Billboard 's Top LPs chart , an accomplishment unmatched by any artist before or since . The Trio also charted several single records during this time , made numerous television appearances , and played upwards of 200 engagements per year .
= = Change and a second phase , 1961 – 67 = =
Despite the Kingston Trio 's nearly unprecedented success in record sales , by early 1961 a rift developed and deepened between Guard on one side and Shane and Reynolds on the other . Guard had been referred to in the press and on the albums ' liner notes as the " acknowledged leader " of the group , a description never wholly endorsed by Shane and Reynolds , who felt themselves equal contributors to the group 's repertoire and success . Guard wanted Shane and Reynolds to follow his lead and learn more of the technical aspects of music and to redirect the group 's song selections , in part because of the withering criticism that the group had been getting from more traditional folk performers for the Trio 's smoother and more commercial versions of folk songs and for the money @-@ making copyrights that the Kingston group had secured for their arrangements of public domain songs . Shane and Reynolds felt that the formula for song selection and performance that they had painstakingly developed and rehearsed still served them well .
Furthermore , over $ 100 @,@ 000 appeared to be missing from the Trio 's publishing royalties ( an accounting error eventually rectified ) and that created an additional irritant to both sides : to Guard because he regarded it as inexcusable carelessness and to Shane and Reynolds because it highlighted what they perceived as Guard 's propensity to claim individual copyright for some of the group 's songs , including " Tom Dooley " ( though Guard eventually lost a suit over copyright for that number to Alan Lomax , Frank Warner , and Frank Proffitt ) and " Scotch and Soda " .
The situation became intolerable for all concerned , and Dave Guard resigned from the Kingston Trio in April 1961 , though pledging to fulfill group commitments through November of that year . Shane , Reynolds , and Werber bought out Guard 's interest in the partnership for $ 300 @,@ 000 to be paid over a number of years and moved to replace him immediately . The remaining Trio partners settled quickly on John Stewart , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old member of the Cumberland Three , one of the myriad of groups that sprang up hoping to imitate the Kingston Trio 's success . Stewart was already well @-@ acquainted with Reynolds and Shane , having sold two of his early songwriting efforts to the Trio , and he was a proficient guitarist , banjoist , and singer who seemed to the partners to be perfectly positioned to replace Guard . Stewart began rehearsing and recording with the group nearly immediately , commencing public appearances with the Trio in September 1961 .
According to Shane , " We did nearly as well with John as we did with Dave . " Six of the group 's next seven albums between 1961 and 1963 continued to place in Billboard 's Top Ten and several of the group 's most successful singles , including " Where Have All the Flowers Gone ? " and " Greenback Dollar " , charted as well .
Beginning in 1964 , however , the Kingston Trio 's dominance in record sales and in concert bookings began to wane , due partly to the number and popularity of the aforementioned imitators in the pop @-@ folk world but also to the rise of other major commercial folk groups like Peter , Paul and Mary whose music had a decidedly more political bent than the Trio 's . In addition , the British Invasion spearheaded by The Beatles , who were signed by EMI / Capitol just as the Trio 's seven @-@ year contract was running out , depressed sales of acoustic folk albums significantly , and Capitol did not make a serious effort to re @-@ sign the group . Werber secured a generous signing bonus from Decca Records , and the last four albums of the Kingston Trio 's first decade were released by that label . Without the production facilities of Capitol , however , and the expertise of Voyle Gilmore and engineer Pete Abbott , the Decca releases lacked the aural brilliance of the Capitol albums , and none of the four sold especially well .
By 1966 , Reynolds had grown weary of touring and Stewart wanted to strike out on his own as a singer @-@ songwriter , so the three musicians and Werber developed an exit strategy of playing as many dates as possible for a year with an endpoint determined to be a final two @-@ week engagement at the Hungry i in June 1967 . The group followed this strategy successfully , and on June 17 , 1967 , the Kingston Trio ceased to be an actively performing band .
= = Hiatus and the New Kingston Trio , 1967 – 1976 = =
Following the Hungry i engagement , Reynolds moved to Port Orford , Oregon and pursued interests in ranching , business , and race cars for the next twenty years . Stewart commenced a long and distinguished career as a singer @-@ songwriter , composing hit songs like " Daydream Believer " for The Monkees and " Runaway Train " for Rosanne Cash . He recorded more than 40 albums of his own , most notably the landmark California Bloodlines , and found chart success in the top forty with " Midnight Wind " , " Lost Her in the Sun " , and " Gold " , the latter reaching number 5 in 1979 .
Bob Shane decided to stay in entertainment , and he experimented with solo work . He recorded several singles , including a well @-@ received but under @-@ marketed version of the song " Honey " that later became a million @-@ seller for Bobby Goldsboro , and with different configurations with other folk @-@ oriented performers . Though finances were not an immediate concern — the Kingston Trio partners Werber , Shane and Reynolds still owned an office building , a restaurant , other commercial real estate , and a variety of other lucrative investments — Shane wanted to return to a group environment and in 1969 secured permission from his partners to use the mutually owned group name for another band , with Reynolds and Werber insisting only that Shane 's group be musically as accomplished as its predecessors and that Shane append " new " to the band 's title .
Shane agreed and organized two troupes under the name of " The New Kingston Trio " . The first consisted of guitarist Pat Horine and banjoist Jim Connor in addition to Shane and lasted from 1969 to 1973 , the second including guitarist Roger Gambill and banjoist Bill Zorn from 1973 until 1976 . Shane tried to create a repertoire for these groups that included both the older and expected Kingston Trio standards like " Tom Dooley " and " M.T.A. " but that would also feature more contemporary songs as well , including country and novelty tunes . The attempt did not meet with any significant success . The only full @-@ length album released by either group was The World Needs a Melody in 1973 ( though 25 years later FolkEra Records issued The Lost Masters 1969 – 1972 , a compilation of previously unreleased tracks from the Shane @-@ Horine @-@ Connor years ) , and its sales were negligible . Though both troupes of the New Kingston Trio made a limited number of other recordings and several television appearances , neither generated very much interest from fans or the public at large .
= = The third phase , 1976 – present = =
In 1976 , Bill Zorn left the New Kingston Trio to work as a solo performer and record producer in London . Shane and Gambill replaced him with George Grove , a professionally trained singer and instrumentalist from North Carolina who had been working in Nashville as a studio musician .
The same year , Shane secured from Werber and Reynolds the unencumbered rights to use the band 's original name of the Kingston Trio without the appended " new " in exchange for relinquishing his interest in the still @-@ profitable corporation , whose holdings included copyrights and licensing rights to many of the original Trio 's songs . Since 1976 , the various troupes headed and owned by Shane have performed and recorded simply as the Kingston Trio .
The Shane @-@ Gambill @-@ Grove Kingston Trio existed from 1976 through 1985 , when Gambill died unexpectedly from a heart ailment at the age of 45 . The nine years of this configuration was to that point the longest period of time that any three musicians had worked together as the Kingston Trio , and the group released two albums of largely original material .
It was during this period as well that PBS producers JoAnne Young and Paul Surratt approached Shane and the other principals of the original group with the idea of arranging a reunion concert that would be taped and used as a fundraiser for the network . Agreement was reached , and on November 7 , 1981 , Dave Guard , Nick Reynolds , and John Stewart joined the Shane @-@ Gambill @-@ Grove Trio and guest performers Mary Travers of Peter , Paul and Mary , Tom Smothers of the Smothers Brothers , and Lindsey Buckingham of Fleetwood Mac at the Magic Mountain amusement park north of Los Angeles for a show billed as " The Kingston Trio And Friends Reunion . " The different configurations of the Trio took turns performing sets of the group 's best @-@ known songs with all the artists joining onstage for a finale .
More than twenty years had passed since Dave Guard had left the group , but residual tension surfaced between Guard and Shane in an article in the Wall Street Journal that appeared in March 1982 following the national broadcast of the taped show . Guard implicitly disparaged Shane 's current group , and Shane asserted a distaste for performing again with Guard , who had spent the intervening decades living and performing in Australia , touring sporadically as a soloist , and writing about and teaching music . Despite the unpleasantness , Shane and Guard reconciled to a large degree ( even to the point of planning a possible reunion tour ) prior to Guard 's death at age 56 from lymphoma nine years later in March 1991 .
Following the 1985 death of Roger Gambill , Kingston Trio personnel changed several times , though Shane and Grove remained constants . Bob Haworth , a veteran folk performer who had worked as a member of The Brothers Four for many years , initially replaced Gambill from 1985 through 1988 and again from 1999 through 2005 . In 1988 , original member Nick Reynolds rejoined the band until his final retirement in 1999 . When heart disease forced Bob Shane 's retirement from touring in March 2004 , he was replaced by former New Kingston Trio member Bill Zorn . A year later , following Haworth 's departure , Grove and Zorn were joined by Rick Dougherty , who had performed for a time with Zorn as second @-@ generation members of another popular folk group from the 1960s , The Limeliters .
Both the Grove – Zorn – Haworth and Grove – Zorn – Dougherty troupes of the Kingston Trio have released original CDs and DVDs , and the latter configuration continues to tour extensively under the direction of the only surviving original member Bob Shane , now sole owner of the band . Capitol Records , Decca Records , Collector 's Choice Music , and Folk Era Records have released and continue to release compilations of older albums as well as previously unreleased tapes of both studio and live recordings from the Kingston Trio 's first ten years .
= = Folk music label = =
= = = Initial criticism = = =
Almost from its inception , the Kingston Trio found itself at odds with the traditional music community . Urban folk musicians of the time ( to whom Bob Dylan referred in Rolling Stone as " the left @-@ wing puritans that seemed to have a hold on the folk @-@ music community " ) frequently associated folk music with leftist politics and were contemptuous of the Trio 's deliberate political neutrality . Peter Dreier of Occidental College observed that " Purists often derided the Kingston Trio for watering down folk songs in order to make them commercially popular and for remaining on the political sidelines during the protest movements of the 1960s . " A series of scathing articles appeared over several years in Sing Out ! magazine , a publication that combined articles on traditional folk music with political activism . Its editor Irwin Silber referred to " the sallow slickness of the Kingston Trio " and in an article in the spring 1959 issue Ron Radosh said that the Trio brought " good folk music to the level of the worst in Tin Pan Alley music " and referred to them as " prostitutes of the art who gain their status as folk artists because they use guitars and banjos . " Following the Trio 's performance at the premier Newport Folk Festival in 1959 , folk music critic Mark Morris wrote : " What connection these frenetic tinselly showmen have with a folk festival eludes me ... except that it is mainly folk songs that they choose to vulgarize . "
Frank Proffitt , the Appalachian musician whose version of " Tom Dooley " the Trio rearranged , watched their performance of his song on a television show and wrote in reaction , " They clowned and hipswung . Then they came out with ' This time tomorrow , reckon where I ’ ll be / If it hadn 't a ' been for Grayson / I 'd a been in Tennessee . ' I began to feel sorty sick . Like I ’ d lost a loved one . Tears came to my eyes . I went out and bawled on the ridge . " Proffitt had learned the song from his father and his grandmother , who had known Tom Dula and Laura Foster , the killer and the victim in the actual 1866 murder related in the song . Both Proffitt and fellow North Carolina musician Doc Watson sang the older version of the tune , which had " a lively mocking tempo ... that retained some of the ghastliness and moral squalor of an actual murder , " according to folk historian Robert Cantwell , who also notes that the Kingston Trio 's version of the song left out several verses from the traditional lyric . The slower , harmonized Trio version of the Dooley song and other traditional numbers struck Proffitt as a betrayal of " the strange mysterious workings which has made Tom Dooly [ sic ] live ... " As recently as 2006 , folk traditionalist and influential banjo master Billy Faier remarked : " I hear and see very little respect for the folk genre " in their music and described the Trio 's repertoire as " a mishmash of twisted arrangements that not only obscure the true beauty of the folk songs from which they derive , but give them a meaning they never had . "
However , Trio members never claimed to be folksingers and were never comfortable with the label . The liner notes for the group 's first album featured a quotation from Dave Guard asserting that " We are not folksingers in the accepted sense of the word . " Guard later told journalist Richard Hadlock in Down Beat magazine : " We are not students of folk music ; the basic thing for us is honest and worthwhile songs that people can pick up and become involved in . " Nick Reynolds added in the same article : " We don 't collect old songs in the sense that the academic cats do ... We get new tunes to look over every day . Each one of us has his ears open constantly to new material or old stuff that 's good . " Bob Shane remarked years later : " To call the Kingston Trio folksingers was kind of stupid in the first place . We never called ourselves folksingers ... We did folk @-@ oriented material , but we did it amid all kinds of other stuff . But they didn 't know what to call us with our instruments , so Capitol Records called us folksingers and gave us credit for starting this whole boom . "
= = = 21st @-@ century perspectives = = =
Over the years , the Kingston Trio expanded its song selection beyond the rearranged traditional numbers , calypso songs , and Broadway show tunes that had appeared on its first several albums . In an obituary for Nick Reynolds ( d . October 1 , 2008 ) , Spencer Leigh wrote in Britain 's Sunday Independent :
Looking at their repertoire now , it is apparent that the Kingston Trio was far more adventurous than is generally supposed . They introduced " It Was A Very Good Year " in 1961 , later a standard for Frank Sinatra , and they were one of the first to spot the potential of English language versions of Jacques Brel 's songs by recording " Seasons in the Sun " in 1963 . They encouraged young songwriters including Hoyt Axton ( " Greenback Dollar " ) , Rod McKuen ( " Ally Ally Oxen Free " , " The World I Used to Know " ) and Billy Edd Wheeler ( " Reverend Mr Black " ) . Best of all , in 1962 they introduced listeners to one of the most poignant songs ever written , the anti @-@ war ballad " Where Have All The Flowers Gone ? " by Pete Seeger , formerly with the Weavers .
Further , Peter Dreier points out that " the group deserves credit for helping to launch the folk boom that brought recognition to older folkies and radicals like Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger , and for paving the way for newcomers like Joan Baez , Bob Dylan and Phil Ochs , who were well known for their progressive political views and topical songs . By the time these younger folk singers arrived on the scene , the political climate had changed enough to provide a wide audience for protest music . " The passage of time may well have made the controversy moot . Writing in the British daily The Guardian , again in an obituary for Reynolds , Ken Hunt asserted that " [ the Kingston Trio ] helped to turn untold numbers of people on to folk music ... [ T ] hey put the boom in folk boom . The Kingston Trio carried the torch overseas , most notably with their international hit of 1958 , Tom Dooley . They were the greatest of the bands to emerge after the McCarthy @-@ era blacklisting of folk musicians and breathed new air into the genre . "
= = Influence = =
= = = On folk and pop music = = =
The Kingston Trio 's influence on the development of American popular music has been considerable . According to music critic Bruce Eder writing for Allmusic.com :
In the history of popular music , there are a relative handful of performers who have redefined the content of the music at critical points in history — people whose music left the landscape , and definition of popular music , altered completely . The Kingston Trio were one such group , transforming folk music into a hot commodity and creating a demand — where none had existed before — for young men ( sometimes with women ) strumming acoustic guitars and banjos and singing folk songs and folk @-@ like novelty songs in harmony . On a purely commercial level , from 1957 until 1963 , the Kingston Trio were the most vital and popular folk group in the world , and folk music was sufficiently popular as to make that a significant statement . Equally important , the original trio — Dave Guard , Nick Reynolds , and Bob Shane — in tandem with other , similar early acts such as the Limeliters , spearheaded a boom in the popularity of folk music that suddenly made the latter important to millions of listeners who previously had ignored it .
Discussing his earliest musical influences in a 2001 Rolling Stone interview , Bob Dylan remembered :
There were other folk @-@ music records , commercial folk @-@ music records , like those by the Kingston Trio . I never really was an elitist . Personally , I liked the Kingston Trio . I could see the picture ... the Kingston Trio were probably the best commercial group going , and they seemed to know what they were doing .
In his autobiography Chronicles , Dylan added : " I liked The Kingston Trio . Even though their style was polished and collegiate , I liked most of their stuff anyway . "
In February of 1982 , Chicago Tribune writer Eric Zorn praised the Kingston Trio 's impact on the popular music industry , claiming that " for almost five years , they overshadowed all other pop groups in America . " He also noted that " five of their first six albums hit No. 1 on the charts , " and that they " so changed the course of popular music that their impact is largely felt to this day . "
Jac Holzman , co @-@ founder of the originally folk @-@ based Elektra Records , remarked that his formerly struggling company 's new @-@ found prosperity in the late 1950s resulted from " The Kingston Trio which has the ability to capture the interest of a large number of people who have never been conscious of folk music before . In this respect , the Kingston Trio has put us on the map . " Even some staunch traditionalists from both the urban and rural folk music communities had an affinity for the Kingstons ' polished commercial versions of older songs . In her memoir And A Voice To Sing With , singer and activist Joan Baez recalled that " Traveling across the country with my mother and sisters , we heard the commercial songs of the budding folk boom for the first time , the Kingston Trio 's ' Tom Dooley ' and ' Scotch and Soda . ' Before I turned into a snob and learned to look down upon all commercial folk music as bastardized and unholy , I loved the Kingston Trio . When I became one of the leading practitioners of ' pure folk , ' I still loved them ... " Arthel " Doc " Watson of North Carolina , one of the most respected and influential musicians performing traditional music , remarked , " I ’ ll tell you who pointed all our noses in the right direction , even the traditional performers . They got us interested in trying to put the good stuff out there — the Kingston Trio . They got me interested in it ! "
= = = On musicians = = =
Among the many other artists who cite the Kingston Trio as a formative influence in their musical careers are comedian , actor , and banjo player Steve Martin , Lindsey Buckingham of Fleetwood Mac , Timothy B. Schmit of The Eagles , pioneering folk @-@ rock artist Gram Parsons , Stephen Stills and David Crosby of Crosby , Stills , and Nash , The Beach Boys ' Al Jardine , Big Brother and the Holding Company founding member Peter Albin , Denny Doherty of The Mamas and the Papas , banjo master Tony Trischka , pop groups ABBA and The Bee Gees , Jefferson Airplane founding members Marty Balin and Paul Kantner , Buffalo Springfield founding member Richie Furay , Byrds co @-@ founder Gene Clark , roots musician and master mandolin player David Grisman , singer @-@ songwriters Tom Paxton , Harry Chapin , Jimmy Buffett , Tim Buckley , Steve Goodman ( composer of " The City Of New Orleans " ) , Steve Gillette , Michael Smith ( composer of " The Dutchman " ) , and Shawn Colvin , folk @-@ rock group We Five co @-@ founder Jerry Burgan , folk and rock
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meer " sold to Hermann Göring had been a forgery and was , therefore , not the cultural property of the Netherlands . Public prosecutor H. A. Wassenbergh brought charges of forgery and fraud and demanded a sentence of two years in prison .
The court commissioned an international group of experts to address the authenticity of van Meegeren 's paintings . The commission included curators , professors , and doctors from the Netherlands , Belgium , and England , and was led by the director of the chemical laboratory at the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium , Paul B. Coremans . The commission examined the eight Vermeer and Frans Hals paintings which van Meegeren had identified as forgeries . With the help of the commission , Dr. Coremans was able to determine the chemical composition of van Meegeren 's paints . He found that van Meegeren had prepared the paints by using the phenolformaldehyde resins Bakelite and Albertol as paint hardeners . A bottle with exactly that ingredient had been found in van Meegeren 's studio . This chemical component was introduced and manufactured in the 20th century , proving that the " Vermeers " and " Frans Halses " examined by the commission were in fact made by van Meegeren . The commission 's other findings suggested that the dust in the craquelure was too homogeneous to be of natural origin . The matter found in the craquelure appeared to come from India ink , which had accumulated even in areas that natural dirt or dust would never have reached . The paint had become so hard that alcohol , strong acids , and bases did not attack the surface , a clear indication that the surface had not been formed in a natural manner . The craquelure on the surface did not always match that in the ground layer , which would certainly have been the case with a natural craquelure . Thus , the test results obtained by the commission appeared to confirm that the works were forgeries created by van Meegeren , but their authenticity continued to be debated by some of the experts until 1967 and 1977 , when new investigative techniques were used to analyze the paintings ( see below ) .
On 12 November 1947 , the Fourth Chamber of the Amsterdam Regional Court found Han van Meegeren guilty of forgery and fraud , and sentenced him to a minimal one year in prison .
= = Death = =
While waiting to be moved to prison , van Meegeren returned to his house at 321 Keizersgracht , where his health continued to decline . During this last month of his life , he strolled freely around his neighborhood .
Van Meegeren suffered a heart attack on 26 November 1947 , the last day to appeal the ruling , and was rushed to the Valeriuskliniek hospital in Amsterdam . While at the hospital , he suffered a second heart attack on 29 December , and was pronounced dead at 5 : 00 pm on 30 December 1947 at the age of 58 . His family and several hundred of his friends attended his funeral at the Driehuis Westerveld Crematorium chapel . In 1948 , his urn was buried in the general cemetery in the village of Diepenveen ( municipality of Deventer ) .
= = Aftermath = =
After his death , the court ruled that Van Meegeren ’ s estate be auctioned and the proceeds from his property and the sale of his counterfeits be used to refund the buyers of his works and to pay income taxes on the sale of his paintings . Van Meegeren filed for bankruptcy in December 1945 . On 5 and 6 September 1950 , the furniture and other possessions in his Amsterdam house at Keizersgracht 321 were auctioned by order of the court , along with 738 other pieces of furniture and works of art , including numerous paintings by old and new masters from his private collection . The house was auctioned separately on 4 September , estimated to be worth 65 @,@ 000 guilders . The proceeds of the sale together with the house amounted to 123 @,@ 000 guilders . Van Meegeren ’ s unsigned The Last Supper I was bought for 2 @,@ 300 guilders , while Jesus among the Doctors ( which van Meegeren had painted while in detention ) sold for 3 @,@ 000 guilders ( about $ 800 or about $ 7 @,@ 000 today . ) Today the painting hangs in a Johannesburg church . The sale of the entire estate amounted to 242 @,@ 000 guilders ( $ 60 @,@ 000 , or about $ 500 @,@ 000 today ) .
Throughout his trial and bankruptcy , Van Meegeren maintained that his second wife Jo had nothing to do with the creation and sale of his forgeries . A large part of his considerable wealth had been transferred to her when they were divorced during the war and the money would have been confiscated if she had been ruled to be an accomplice . Van Meegeren told the same story to all authors , journalists , and biographers : " Jo didn ’ t know " , and apparently most believed him . Some biographers believe , however , that Jo must have known the truth . Her involvement was never proven and she was able to keep her substantial capital . Jo outlived her husband by many years , always in great luxury , until her death at the age of 91 .
= = = M. Jean Decoen 's objection = = =
M. Jean Decoen , a Brussels art expert and restorer , stated in his 1951 book that he believed The Supper at Emmaus and The Last Supper II to be genuine Vermeers . Decoen went on to state that conclusions of Dr. Paul Coremans 's panel of experts were wrong and that the paintings should again be examined . Daniel George van Beuningen was the buyer of The Last Supper II , Interior with Drinkers , and The Head of Christ , and he demanded that Dr. Paul Coremans publicly admit that he had erred in his analysis . Coremans refused and van Beuningen sued him , alleging that Coremans ’ s wrongful branding of The Last Supper II diminished the value of his " Vermeer " and asking for compensation of £ 500 @,@ 000 ( about $ 1 @.@ 3 million or about $ 10 million today ) . The trial was set for 2 June 1955 but was delayed owing to van Beuningen 's death on 29 May 1955 . Approximately seven months later , the court heard the case on behalf of van Beuningen 's heirs . The court found in favour of Coremans , and the findings of his commission were upheld .
= = = Further investigations = = =
In 1967 , the Artists Material Center at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh examined several of the " Vermeers " in their collection , under the direction of Robert Feller and Bernard Keisch . The examination confirmed that several of their paintings were in fact created using materials invented in the 20th century . They concluded that the " Vermeers " in their possession were modern and could thus be Van Meegeren forgeries . This confirmed the findings of the 1946 Coremans commission , and refuted the claims made by M. Jean Decoen . The test results obtained by the Carnegie Mellon team are summarized below .
Han van Meegeren knew that white lead was used during Vermeer ’ s time , but of course he had to obtain his stocks through the modern colour trade , which had changed significantly since the 17th century . During Vermeer ’ s time , Dutch lead was mined from deposits located in the Low Countries ; however , by the 19th century , most lead was imported from Australia and the Americas , and differed from the white lead that Vermeer would have used both in the isotope composition of the lead and in the content of trace elements found in the ores . Dutch white lead was extracted from ores containing high levels of trace elements of silver and antimony , while the modern white lead used by Van Meegeren contained neither silver nor antimony , as those elements are separated from the lead during the modern smelting process .
Forgeries in which modern lead or white lead pigment has been used can be recognized by using a technique called Pb ( Lead ) -210 @-@ Dating . Pb @-@ 210 is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of lead that is part of the uranium @-@ 238 Radioactive decay series , and has a half life of 22 @.@ 3 years . To determine the amount of Pb @-@ 210 , the alpha radiation emitted by another element , polonium @-@ 210 ( Po @-@ 210 ) , is measured . Thus it is possible to estimate the age of a painting , within a few years ' span , by extrapolating the Pb @-@ 210 content present in the paint used to create the painting .
The white lead in the painting The Supper at Emmaus had polonium @-@ 210 values of 8 @.@ 5 ± 1 @.@ 4 and radium @-@ 226 ( part of the uranium @-@ 238 radioactive decay series ) values of 0 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 3 . In contrast , the white lead found in Dutch paintings from 1600 – 1660 had polonium @-@ 210 values of 0 @.@ 23 ± 0 @.@ 27 and radium @-@ 226 values of 0 @.@ 40 ± 0 @.@ 47 .
In 1977 , another investigation was undertaken by the States forensic labs of the Netherlands using up @-@ to @-@ date techniques , including gas chromatography , to formally confirm the origin of six van Meegeren forgeries that had been alleged to be genuine Vermeers , including the Emmaus and the Last Supper . The conclusions of the 1946 commission were again reaffirmed and upheld by the Dutch judicial system .
In 1998 , A & E ran a program called Scams , Schemes & Scoundrels highlighting Van Meegeren 's life and art forgeries , many of which had been confiscated as Nazi loot . The program was hosted by skeptic James Randi and also featured the stories of Victor Lustig and Soapy Smith .
In July 2011 , the BBC TV programme Fake or Fortune investigated a copy of Dirck van Baburen 's The Procuress owned by the Courtauld Institute . Opinion had been divided as to whether it was a 17th @-@ century studio work or a van Meegeren fake . The programme used chemical analysis of the paint to show that it contained bakelite and thus confirmed that the painting was a 20th @-@ century fake .
= = Legacy = =
Van Meegeren played different roles , some of which were shrouded in fraudulent intentions , as he sought to fulfill his goal of besting his critics . Han ’ s father was said to have once told him , " You are a cheat and always will be . " On the other hand , his brothers and sisters perceived him as loyal , generous , and affectionate , and he was always loving and helpful to his own children . The question " what was his character " cannot be answered unequivocally . Indeed , recent works question many of the existing assumptions about van Meegeren and the motivations for his career in forgery . With Han van Meegeren , everything was double @-@ edged , and his character presents itself as fragments rather than unity . In 2008 , Harvard @-@ trained art historian Jonathan Lopez had become fluent in Dutch and published ' The Man who made Vermeers , Unvarnishing the legend of master Forger Han Van Meegeren ' . His extensive research confirmed that van Meegeren started to make forgeries , not so much by feeling misunderstood and undervalued by art critics as for the income that it generated , income which he needed to support his addictions and promiscuity . Lopez confirmed the veracity of Jan Spierdijk 's article in ' De Waarheid ' in which Spierdijk reported that the book ' Tekeningen 1 ' by van Van Meegeren was in Hitler 's library , signed by the artist and dedicated to the Führer .
Van Meegeren continued to paint after he was released from prison , signing his works with his own name . His new @-@ found popularity ensured quick sales of his new paintings , often selling at prices that were many times higher than before he had been unmasked as a forger . Van Meegeren also told the news media that he had " an offer from a Manhattan gallery to come to the U.S. and paint portraits ' in the 17th century manner ' at $ 6 @,@ 000 a throw . "
A Dutch opinion poll conducted in October 1947 placed Han van Meegeren ’ s popularity second in the nation , behind only the Prime Minister 's and slightly ahead of Prince Berhard , the husband of Princess Juliana . The Dutch people viewed Van Meegeren as a cunning trickster who had successfully fooled the Dutch art experts and , more importantly , Hermann Göring himself . In fact , according to a contemporary account , Göring was informed that his " Vermeer " was actually a forgery and " [ Göring ] looked as if for the first time he had discovered there was evil in the world " . Lopez indicates that Han van Meegeren 's defense during his trial in Amsterdam was a masterpiece of trickery , forging his own personality into a true Dutchman eager to trick his critics and also the Dutch people by pretending that he sold Christ and the Adulteress , a fake Vermeer , to Göring because he wanted to teach the Nazi a lesson . Van Meegeren remains one of the most ingenious art counterfeiters of the 20th century . After his trial , however , he declared , " My triumph as a counterfeiter was my defeat as [ a ] creative artist . "
= = List of forgeries = =
= = = Known forgeries = = =
List of known forgeries by Han van Meegeren :
A counterpart to Laughing Cavalier after Frans Hals ( 1923 ) once the subject of a scandal in The Hague in 1923 , its present whereabouts is unknown .
The Happy Smoker after Frans Hals ( 1923 ) hangs in the Groninger Museum in the Netherlands
Man and Woman at a Spinet 1932 ( sold to Amsterdam banker , Dr. Fritz Mannheimer )
Lady reading a letter 1935 – 1936 ( unsold , on display at the Rijksmuseum . )
Lady playing a lute and looking out the window 1935 – 1936 ( unsold , on display at the Rijksmuseum . )
Portrait of a Man 1935 – 1936 in the style of Gerard ter Borch ( unsold , on display at the Rijksmuseum . )
Woman Drinking ( version of Malle Babbe ) 1935 – 1936 ( unsold , on display at the Rijksmuseum . )
The Supper at Emmaus , 1936 – 1937 ( sold to the Boymans for 520 @,@ 000 – 550 @,@ 000 guldens , about $ 300 @,@ 000 or $ 4 Million today )
Interior with Drinkers 1937 – 1938 ( sold to D G. van Beuningen for 219 @,@ 000 – 220 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 120 @,@ 000 or $ 1 @.@ 6 million today )
The Last Supper I , 1938 – 1939
Interior with Cardplayers 1938 - 1939 ( sold to W. van der Vorm for 219 @,@ 000 – 220 @,@ 000 guldens $ 120 @,@ 000 or $ 1 @.@ 6 million today )
The Head of Christ , 1940 – 1941 ( sold to D G. van Beuningen for 400 @,@ 000 – 475 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 225 @,@ 000 or $ 3 @.@ 25 million today )
The Last Supper II , 1940 – 1942 ( sold to D G. van Beuningen for 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 600 @,@ 000 or $ 7 million today )
The Blessing of Jacob 1941 – 1942 ( sold to W. van der Vorm for 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 500 @,@ 000 or $ 5 @.@ 75 million today )
Christ with the Adulteress 1941 – 1942 ( sold to Hermann Göring for 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 624 @,@ 000 or $ 6 @.@ 75 million today , now in the public collection of Museum de Fundatie )
The Washing of the Feet 1941 – 1943 ( sold to the Netherlands state for 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 guldens about $ 500 @,@ 000 or $ 5 @.@ 3 million today , on display at the Rijksmuseum . )
Jesus among the Doctors September 1945 ( sold at auction for 3 @,@ 000 guldens , about $ 800 or $ 7 @,@ 000 today )
The Procuress given to the Courtauld Institute as a fake in 1960 and confirmed as such by chemical analysis in 2011 .
Posthumously , van Meegeren 's forgeries have been shown in exhibitions around the world , including exhibitions in Amsterdam ( 1952 ) , Basel ( 1953 ) , Zurich ( 1953 ) , Haarlem in the Kunsthandel de Boer ( 1958 ) , London ( 1961 ) , Rotterdam ( 1971 ) , Minneapolis ( 1973 ) , Essen ( 1976 – 1977 ) , Berlin ( 1977 ) , Slot Zeist ( 1985 ) , New York ( 1987 ) , Berkeley , CA ( 1990 ) , Munich ( 1991 ) , Rotterdam ( 1996 ) , The Hague ( 1996 ) and more recently at the Haagse Kunstkring , The Hague ( 2004 ) and Stockholm ( 2004 ) , and have thus been made broadly accessible to the public .
= = = Potential forgeries = = =
It is possible that other fakes hang in art collections all over the world , probably in the style of 17th @-@ century Dutch masters , including works in the style of Frans Hals and the school of Hals , Pieter de Hooch , and Gerard ter Borch . Jacques van Meegeren suggested that his father had created a number of other forgeries , during interviews with journalists regarding discussions with his father . Some of these paintings include :
Boy with a Little Dog and The Rommelpotspeler after Frans Hals . The Frans Hals catalogue by Frans L. M. Dony mentions four paintings by this name attributed to Frans Hals or the " school of Frans Hals " . One of these could easily be by van Meegeren .
A counterpart to Vermeer ’ s Girl with a Pearl Earring . A painting called Smiling Girl hangs in the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. ( bequest Andrew W. Mellon ) that could fit with Jacques ’ description and has been recognized by the museum as a fake . It was attributed to Theo van Wijngaarden , friend and partner of van Meegeren , but may have been painted by van Meegeren .
Lady with a Blue Hat after Vermeer which was sold to Baron Heinrich Thyssen in 1930 . Its present whereabouts are unknown .
= = Original artwork = =
Van Meegeren was a prolific artist and produced thousands of original paintings in a number of diverse styles . This wide range in painting and drawing styles often irritated art critics . Some of his typical works are classical still lifes in convincing 17th century manner , Impressionistic paintings of people frolicking on lakes or beaches , jocular drawings where the subject is drawn with rather odd features , Surrealistic paintings with combined fore- and backgrounds . Van Meegeren 's portraits , however , are probably his finest works .
Among his original works is his famous Deer , pictured above . Other works include his prize @-@ winning St. Laurens Cathedral ; a Portrait of the actress Jo Oerlemans ( his second wife ) ; his Night Club ; from the Roaring Twenties ; the cheerful watercolor A Summer Day on the Beach and many others .
= = = The forger forged = = =
Van Meegeren ’ s own work rose in price after he had become famous , and it consequently became worthwhile to fake his paintings , as well . Existing paintings obtained a signature " H. van Meegeren " , or new pictures were made in his style and falsely signed . When van Meegeren saw a fake like that , he ironically remarked that he would have adopted them if they had been good enough , but regrettably he had not yet seen one .
Later on , however , his son Jacques van Meegeren started to fake his father ’ s work . He made paintings in his father ’ s style – although of much lower quality – and was able to place a perfect signature on these imitations . Many fakes – both by Jacques and by others – are still on the market . They can be recognized by their low pictorial quality , but are not always regarded as such .
= Back to the Shack =
" Back to the Shack " is a song by the American rock band Weezer . It was released as the first single from their ninth studio album Everything Will Be Alright in the End on July 22 , 2014 . The song was sent to radio stations and uploaded to Weezer 's YouTube channel a day before the single 's official release . It was written in response to the band 's past several albums , with lead vocalist Rivers Cuomo wanting to return to their roots . The song received generally favorable reviews .
= = Background and composition = =
" Back to the Shack " was written by Rivers Cuomo and Jacob Kasher Hindlin . The song was produced by Ric Ocasek . Cuomo wrote a majority of the song , with Karl Koch describing Jacob Kasher Hindlin 's contribution to the song as " randomly singing out the title while hanging out on the couch listening to [ Rivers Cuomo ] strumming the song . It doesn 't take much to get half a songwriting credit . " At one point , the song was performed with the bridge containing the lyric " we belong in the rock zone " , before Cuomo , based on fan suggestions changed it from " rock zone " to " rock world " . Regarding the composition of the song , Cuomo stated that he " tried to find different melodies and different beats and all these different things . " Further , he stated that as he " couldn 't crack the code " they had to go ahead and record it anyway . Ocasek introduced a synth melody line to the song during this period .
Cuomo explained that the lyrics refer to how he feels bad for the direction the band has taken on some of their past material . He admitted that sometimes he " went over the edge " . He explained his desire to create " a classic alt @-@ rock record . " The word " shack " serves as a reference to Amherst house , a home where some of the original Weezer members had lived and recorded a few of their demos .
Lyrically , " Back to the Shack " deals with the theme of nostalgia and a wish to return " to [ the band 's ] 1994 roots " . Dave Lewis stated the song serves as a thematic continuation of two previous Weezer songs , " In the Garage " and " Memories " . It also deals with Weezer 's relationship with their fans and serves as " basically an apology for the past two decades and a promise to embrace their nerdy roots . " The song 's opening lines — " I 'm sorry guys , I didn 't realize that I needed you so much " — in particular reinforce this theme . The song has been categorized under alternative rock and power pop .
= = Critical reception = =
" Back to the Shack " received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Carolyn Menyes from Music Times regarded " Back to the Shack " to be instrumentally similar to the band 's second album Pinkerton , and stated that the song " features hooks for days , and the turn of events in the chorus is nothing short of a pure earworm . " Mike Ayers of The Wall Street Journal described the song as " three minutes of pure Weezer joy " , particularly for " its simple , yet heavy riffs and self @-@ deprecating lyrics " , while Spin critic Colin Joyce complimented the song for its " anthemic choruses and guitar anti @-@ heroics " . HitFix reviewer Dave Lewis called the song " generic rock " , although he went on to compliment the middle eight and considered the song as a whole to be " a lot more promising " , than their more recent releases .
Chris Payne of Billboard ranked it as the band 's fifth best lead single , beating out " Hash Pipe " , " ( If You 're Wondering If I Want You To ) I Want You To " , " Pork and Beans " , and " Memories " . Hilary Hughes of Fuse praised it as a return to the band 's old sound , saying " a promising look at what 's sure to be a satisfying listen for new and old fans alike . " Ian Rogers from The Vine commented that it " Sounds exactly like a highly professional , crassly commercial L.A. rock band performing a Weezer @-@ styled song about Weezer returning to their roots . "
= = Release and live performances = =
" Back to the Shack " was released as the first single from Everything Will Be Alright in the End on July 22 , 2014 . The day before its release , the song was sent to radio stations , and uploaded to the band 's YouTube channel .
Prior to release , the song was performed in February during the 2014 Weezer Cruise . The band performed it on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on July 23 , the song 's first performance on television . In August , the song was played during Musikfest .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Back to the Shack " was directed by Warren Fu and released on September 29 , 2014 . The video features the band playing the song on the moon .
= = Chart performance = =
= Feng Tianwei =
Feng Tianwei ( simplified Chinese : 冯天薇 ; traditional Chinese : 馮天薇 ; pinyin : Féng Tiānwēi , pronounced [ fə ̌ ŋ tjɛ ́ nwéi ] ) is a Singapore table tennis player . Born in China , she moved to Singapore under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme in March 2007 and commenced her international career in competitive table tennis the following month . She received Singapore citizenship in January 2008 .
Feng represented Singapore for the first time in the Olympic Games at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . On 15 August 2008 , the Singapore team comprising Feng and her teammates Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu defeated South Korea 3 – 2 in the semifinals . The team lost to China in the final , obtaining the silver medal . This was Singapore 's first Olympic medal in 48 years and its first as an independent nation .
On 30 May 2010 , the trio of Feng Tianwei , Wang Yuegu and Sun Beibei stunned the reigning champions China 3 – 1 in the Liebherr World Team Table Tennis Championships in Moscow , making Singapore world champion for the first time .
On 1 August 2012 , Feng defeated Kasumi Ishikawa of Japan 4 – 0 to win the women 's singles bronze medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Singapore 's first Olympic singles medal since the 1960 Summer Olympics . On 7 August 2012 , she was part of the women 's team with Li and Wang that achieved the bronze against South Korea . This was the first time Singapore had won two medals at an Olympic Games .
On 15 March 2015 , Feng defeated Zhu Yuling and Liu Shiwen at the 2015 Asian Cup in Jaipur to be crowned Asian Cup Champion for the first time . At the same time , she broke China 's 7 consecutive years of dominance in this tournament .
= = Early years = =
Feng Tianwei was born on 31 August 1986 in Harbin , Heilongjiang , People 's Republic of China . She is the only daughter of Feng Qingzhi , a granary worker , and his wife Li Chunping , an employee of a department store . Feng 's parents , who were poor , lived frugally for years to pay for her table tennis training . Her father suffered from multiple sclerosis , but she was not told how severe his illness was . He died in 2002 , weeks before Feng tried out for China 's national B squad . Although Feng topped the qualifying matches a month later and was called up for the national team in 2003 , she suffered from a long illness ; a source close to her said it was " because she missed her father too much " . Feng left China in 2005 to play in the Japanese professional league . While there she was spotted by Liu Guodong , then a coach with the Singapore Table Tennis Association , in 2006 . In March 2007 she was invited to train in Singapore under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme . She became a Singapore citizen in January 2008 .
= = Career as national player = =
Feng made her international début for Singapore in June 2007 as an under @-@ 21 player at the International Table Tennis Federation ( ITTF ) Pro Tour Volkswagen Korean Open . As a singles player , Feng was ranked 73rd in the world in August 2007 . Nonetheless , that month she achieved a silver medal in the singles at the ITTF Pro Tour Chinese Taipei Open , her comp
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" " the pivotal episode of The X @-@ Files . " Robert Goodwin said of the episode " Talk about offbeat . It 's very theatrical and grandiose . The trick was being careful that it didn 't become like a bad Vincent Price movie , but it worked out well . " Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A grade . Reviewers for website IGN named " Humbug " the tenth best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series . Topless Robot named it the sixth funniest episode of the series .
= Ann Romney =
Ann Lois Romney ( née Davies ; born April 16 , 1949 ) is the wife of American businessman and politician , Mitt Romney . From 2003 to 2007 , Romney was First Lady of Massachusetts , while her husband served as Governor .
She was raised in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , and attended the private Kingswood School there , where she dated Mitt Romney . She converted to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) in 1966 . She attended Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , married Mitt Romney in 1969 , and in 1975 received a Bachelor of Arts degree in French .
As First Lady of Massachusetts , Romney served as the governor 's liaison for federal faith @-@ based initiatives . She was involved in a number of children 's charities , including Operation Kids . She was an active participant in her husband 's U.S. presidential campaigns in 2008 and again in 2012 , when he was the Republican Party nominee .
Romney was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1998 and has credited a mixture of mainstream and alternative treatments with giving her a lifestyle mostly without limitations . In one activity , equestrianism , she has consequently received recognition in dressage as an adult amateur at the national level and competed professionally in Grand Prix as well . In 2008 , she was also diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ , a non @-@ invasive type of breast cancer . She underwent a lumpectomy in December of the same year and has since been cancer @-@ free .
Ann and Mitt Romney have five sons , born between 1970 and 1981 , and twenty @-@ three grandchildren .
= = Early life = =
Born Ann Lois Davies in Detroit on April 16 , 1949 , she was raised in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , by parents Edward Roderick Davies and Lois Davies . She has two brothers . Her father , originally from Caerau near Maesteg , Wales , was a self @-@ made businessman who in 1946 co @-@ founded Jered Industries , a maker of heavy machinery for marine use located in Troy , Michigan . He had also held the part @-@ time position of Mayor of Bloomfield Hills . Raised in the Welsh Congregationalists , he had become strongly opposed to all organized religion , although on her request the family very occasionally attended church , and she nominally identified as an Episcopalian . At times , she helped out at her father 's plant .
Ann Davies knew of Mitt Romney since elementary school . She went to the private Kingswood School in Bloomfield Hills , which was the sister school to the all @-@ boys Cranbrook School that he attended . The two were re @-@ introduced and began dating in March 1965 ; they informally agreed to marriage after his senior prom in June 1965 .
While he was attending Stanford University for a year and then was away starting two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of Mormon missionary duty in France , she decided on her own to convert to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints during 1966 . In doing so she accepted the guidance of Mitt 's father George Romney , the Governor of Michigan . George included her in Romney family events while Mitt was away ; she appreciated his treating her as an equal and picked him to baptize her .
Ann graduated from high school in 1967 and began attending Brigham Young University ( BYU ) . She also spent a semester at the University of Grenoble in France during her freshman year and was there during the 1968 Winter Olympics . The Mormon missionary rules allowed her only two brief visits with Mitt and very rare telephone calls with him . She involved herself in campus life at BYU , spending several days a week as a volunteer in the academic affairs office . While at BYU , she dated future business academic Kim S. Cameron . She sent Mitt a " Dear John letter " of sorts , while Mitt sent letters back imploring her to wait for him .
= = Marriage and children = =
Immediately after Romney 's return from France in December 1968 , the pair reconnected and agreed to get married as soon as possible . Ann Davies and Mitt Romney were married in a civil ceremony on March 21 , 1969 , at her Bloomfield Hills home , with a reception afterward at the Bloomfield Hills Country Club . It was presided over by Edwin B. Jones , a banker and Romney family friend then serving as an LDS Church Regional representative of the Twelve . Among the 250 – 300 guests were U.S. House Minority Leader Gerald Ford and automotive executives such as Semon Knudsen and Edward Cole , and President Richard Nixon sent congratulations . The following day the couple flew to Utah for a wedding ceremony inside the Salt Lake Temple ; her parents could not attend since they were non @-@ Mormons , but were present at a subsequent wedding breakfast held for them across the street . ( Both her brothers converted to Mormonism within a year of her doing so . Her mother converted just before her death in 1993 . Her father never did , but the family performed a baptism for the dead regarding him a year after his 1992 death . )
The couple 's first son was born in 1970 while both were undergraduates at BYU ( to where Mitt had transferred based upon her request ) . After Mitt graduated , the couple moved to Belmont , Massachusetts , so that he could attend Harvard Business School and Harvard Law School . Slowed down by parenthood , she later finished her undergraduate work by gaining a semester and half 's worth of credits via taking night courses at Harvard University Extension School . Ann Romney received a Bachelor of Arts degree with a concentration in French language from BYU in 1975 .
A stay @-@ at @-@ home mother , Romney raised the family 's five sons : Taggart ( known as " Tagg " , born in 1970 ) , Matthew ( " Matt " , 1971 ) , Joshua ( " Josh " , 1975 ) , Benjamin ( " Ben " , 1978 ) , and Craig ( 1981 ) . She faced criticism from her parents over her decision to marry and start a large family so young . She also felt snubbed by her peers , at a time when the feminist movement was blooming and educated women were establishing careers . She later said , " My parents were questioning my choices , my peers were . But [ ... ] I was pretty resolute , pretty confident in what I was doing . " She taught early morning seminary to them and other children while her husband worked , first in business , then in politics . She wanted to go on for a master 's degree , perhaps in art history , but first taking care of her children , and later her health issues , forestalled that . She was active in the local PTA and with the League of Women Voters . With a friend , she held local cooking classes for a brief period . Naturally athletic , she began playing tennis and became one of the best players around the local country clubs .
= = Early involvement in politics = =
Ann Romney ran for the position of town meeting representative in Belmont in 1977 . She studied local issues and engaged in door @-@ to @-@ door campaigning , and won the election .
It was partly due to her urging that her husband entered politics and ran in the 1994 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts against incumbent Democrat Ted Kennedy . The race constituted her first prolonged public exposure as she campaigned for him on a nightly basis . She was seen as superficial and too deferential to him and some columnists labelled her a " Stepford wife " . Late in that campaign , she gave a long interview to The Boston Globe . Her statement in it that she and her husband had never had a serious argument during their married years came in for ridicule , and her portrayal of the couple 's student years as financially impoverished , while they lived off of sales of George Romney 's stock and loans , made her seem privileged and naïve and brought a harsh public reaction . Boston University political science professor later said , " She definitely hurt him in that race . " Asked following her husband 's loss if she would be involved in future campaigns , Ann said , " Never . You couldn 't pay me to do this again . " She later termed the experience " a real education " .
= = Multiple sclerosis = =
During 1997 , Ann Romney began experiencing severe numbness , fatigue , and other symptoms , and just before Thanksgiving in 1998 , she was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis . Mitt Romney described watching her fail a series of neurological tests as the worst day of his life . He later said : " I couldn 't operate without Ann . We 're a partnership . We 've always been a partnership so her being healthy and our being able to be together is essential . " She initially experienced a period of severe difficulty with the disease , and later said : " I was very sick in 1998 when I was diagnosed . I was pretty desperate , pretty frightened and very , very sick . It was tough at the beginning , just to think , this is how I 'm going to feel for the rest of my life . "
Since then , she credits a mixture of mainstream and alternative treatments with giving her a lifestyle mostly without limitations . She initially used corticosteroids , including intravenously , and credited them with helping stop the progression of the disease . She then dropped them and other medications due to counterproductive side effects . She has partaken of reflexology , acupuncture , and craniosacral therapy , and has said , " There is huge merit in both Eastern and Western medicine , and I 've taken a little bit from both . " She is a board member for the New England chapter of the National Multiple Sclerosis Society .
= = Equestrianism = =
Romney is an avid equestrian , crediting her renewed involvement in it while in Park City , Utah ( where the couple had built a vacation home and where they lived when he was in charge of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games ) , for much of her recovery after her multiple sclerosis diagnosis and for her continued ability to deal with the disease . She has said that riding " saved my life " , explaining that , " I was losing most of the function of my right side . And I decided I needed to go back and do what I loved before I couldn 't do it anymore . " At first she could barely stay on a horse without getting tired , but gradually the muscle control required for riding proved directly beneficial , and psychologically , " Riding exhilarated me ; it gave me a joy and a purpose . When I was so fatigued that I couldn 't move , the excitement of going to the barn and getting my foot in the stirrup would make me crawl out of bed . " As a result , she said , " My desire to ride was , and is , so strong that I kept getting healthier and healthier . "
She has received recognition in dressage as an adult amateur at the national level , including earning her 2006 Gold Medal and 2005 Silver Medal at the Grand Prix level from the United States Dressage Federation . She also sometimes competes in professional dressage events and has broken the 60 % level at Grand Prix . Romney works with California trainer Jan Ebeling , who schools her and her horses in dressage and works with her importing new stock from Europe . The pair qualified for the Pan @-@ Am games in 2004 .
By 2011 , the horses she owned and kept at Ebeling 's Moorpark , California , stables , which she is a partner in , were valued at more than $ 250 @,@ 000 . The Romneys helped fund Ebeling 's aspirations for equestrian competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics , and Ann was present in Gladstone , New Jersey , in June 2012 when Ebeling , riding on the horse Rafalca ( co @-@ owned by him and Ann ) won a spot on the U.S. dressage team . At the London games in August 2012 , she watched the pair place 28th in the competition .
= = Charitable work = =
Ann Romney has been involved in a number of children 's charities , including having been a director of the inner city @-@ oriented Best Friends , which seeks to assist inner @-@ city adolescent girls . She advocated a celibacy @-@ based approach to the prevention of teen pregnancy . She worked extensively with the Ten Point Coalition in Boston and with other groups that promoted better safety and opportunities for urban youths .
She was an honorary board member of Families First , a parent education program in Cambridge , Massachusetts . She was a volunteer instructor of middle @-@ school girls at the multicultural Mother Caroline Academy in Boston .
She has said her interest in helping underprivileged children dates back to when she and her five boys saw a vehicle carrying a group of boys to a Massachusetts Department of Youth Services detention center . She began volunteering for the United Way of Massachusetts Bay soon after that , and by 2002 was serving as one of that organization 's board members . She was on the Faith in Action Committee for the United Way , working with local religious establishments to assist at @-@ risk children and helping to found United Way Faith and Action . Earlier , by 1996 , she was a member of the Massachusetts Advisory Board of Stand for Children .
During the 2002 Winter Olympics effort , she co @-@ chaired the Olympic Aid charity , which provides athletic activities and programs for children in war @-@ torn regions .
= = First Lady of Massachusetts = =
Romney joined in her husband 's campaign in the 2002 Massachusetts gubernatorial election from the start , and nominated him at the state party convention . A commercial entitled " Mitt and Ann " , highlighting their romance and marriage , began the campaign 's television advertising . She avoided media interviews like the one that plagued her in 1994 , but was a force behind the scenes during the eventually successful campaign .
In January 2003 , following his election , Romney became First Lady of Massachusetts , a position she held through January 2007 . In that role , she generally kept a low public profile , with by her husband 's initial indications no public role in administration or its policies . In 2006 , The Boston Globe characterized her as " largely invisible " within the state ( although by then she was becoming more visible outside the state , due to national appearances in connection with her husband 's possible presidential campaign ) . Romney was president of the Doric Docents , the volunteer tour directors who inform visitors to the State House about its architecture and history and the Massachusetts legislative process .
While Massachusetts First Lady , she was active in teenage pregnancy prevention efforts . In 2004 , she said she was in favor of stem cell research as long as it was done " morally and ethically " . One of her rare public appearances at the Massachusetts State House came in 2004 when she lobbied the legislature to raise awareness about multiple sclerosis .
In 2005 , the governor appointed his wife as head of a new special office whose purpose was to help the state 's faith @-@ based groups gain more federal monies in association with the White House Office of Faith @-@ Based and Community Initiatives . This came after the state had seen its share of faith @-@ based grants decline over the preceding three years . In this unpaid Governor 's Liaison position , Ann Romney was termed a " dynamo " by Jim Towey
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everybody has got high hopes for it . " Smith said that her favourite song on the album was her version of the Welsh hymn , " Calon Lân " . Other songs include Smith 's version of " Amazing Grace " , a cover of John Denver 's " Annie 's Song " , and a version of " The Way Old Friends Do " , rewritten for Smith by Björn Ulvaeus . Smith spoke about the song , saying " It was about divorce ... They didn 't think it was appropriate for me to sing about that , so Björn changed the lyrics so it 's about friendship . " The album was produced by Jon Cohen , who had previously worked with artists including the Operababes and Vanessa Mae .
Promotion began in January , with performances at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel and appearances at the debut of 2009 London revival of Oliver ! . A television advert and music video for " River of Light " were recorded to further publicise the release , and Smith appeared on the cover of April 's Classic FM Magazine . More promotional appearances in the weeks leading up to the release of Faryl included Loose Women , The Paul O 'Grady Show , BBC Radio 4 , Radio Five Live and BBC Breakfast . She also appeared at the Children 's Champion Awards and met Gordon Brown at 10 Downing Street . On the day of the release , there was an album signing in Smith 's hometown of Kettering , at the HMV branch . Smith said " I definitely want to be at home for the launch . I want to be surrounded by my friends and family because obviously , it 's a big deal for me . "
Pete Paphides , writing for The Times , said that the songs were performed " with power and restraint " and that the " arrangements by Jon Cohen suggest some kind of aesthetic endeavour beyond the basic thing for which they exist " . He compared it favourably to three other Mothering Sunday releases : Lionel Richie 's Just Go , Ronan Keating 's Songs for My Mother and Barry Manilow 's The Greatest Songs of the Eighties . He awarded Faryl 3 out of a possible 5 , the highest rating of the four . Retailers in the United Kingdom ordered more than 80 @,@ 000 copies of the album in the week before release , which Simon Cable , writing for the Daily Mail , noted was more copies than U2 's recent No Line on the Horizon . It also topped the Amazon.co.uk presale chart . On the day of the release the album was at the number one spot on the UK Albums Chart , based on presales alone . The album became the fastest @-@ selling classical solo album in British history , selling 20 @,@ 000 copies in the first four days . The previous record holder had been Hayley Westenra 's Pure . The first week resulted in sales of 29 @,@ 200 copies , which is higher than any other debut album of a classical singer . Faryl officially entered the charts at number six and rose to fourth place the next week . The success of the album left Smith the third Britain 's Got Talent contestant to achieve a top ten album , after Potts ( with One Chance ) and Johnston ( with One Voice ) .
In April 2009 Smith travelled to Los Angeles to begin her promotion of Faryl in the United States . She appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in early May as part of her promotional tour . Faryl was released in the US on 5 May . Smith said before the release that she did not expect it to sell as well as it did in the UK . She said that " in the US it 's a lot harder because I 'm not as well @-@ known . " Smith travelled back to the UK in early May , and , on 23 May , Faryl peaked at 31st place on Top Heatseekers Albums chart and at sixth place on the Classical Albums chart , remaining in the charts for one and 17 weeks respectively . Smith opened the 2009 Classical BRIT Awards , where , according to Elisa Roche of the Daily Express , she " captivated the best names in classical music " . She is the youngest performer ever to sing at the Classical BRITs . On 30 May , Smith became the youngest person to sing the United Kingdom national anthem , " God Save The Queen " , at an FA Cup final when she performed during the opening ceremony at the 2009 final , held in the Wembley Stadium . In June , Smith performed a duet with José Carreras at the Hampton Court Palace Festival , and in July , she attended the O2 Silver Clef Awards , winning the Classical Award .
In February 2010 , after the release of Smith 's second album , Faryl was nominated for a Classical BRIT Award in the album category . The category is voted for by the public , and the shortlist comprises the ten best @-@ selling classical albums of the previous year . Faryl lost to Only Men Aloud 's Band of Brothers . Smith also lost in the young British classical performer category to Jack Liebeck , a violinist . Smith became the youngest artist ever to receive a double nomination . In November , Smith was awarded the best classical award at the 2009 Variety Club awards , the youngest ever recipient in the awards ' 57 @-@ year history .
= = = Wonderland = = =
In July 2009 it was announced that Smith was hoping to release her second album later in the year . In an interview , she expressed surprise and pleasure that the label wanted her to do another album so soon after the first . In September , further details about the album were released , including its name , Wonderland , and planned release date , 30 November . Smith claimed that Faryl " was an introduction to me and an introduction for me to recording " , while Cohen , producer of both Faryl and Wonderland , said Smith had " matured as an artist since the first album and I have no doubt that once again , people will be astonished and moved by her performances " . The album , which was recorded at Sarm Studios in Notting Hill , London , was completed in early October , and is loosely based on Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland . Wonderland was released on 30 November . To publicise the album , Smith appeared on numerous radio shows , as well as television appearances including Ready Steady Cook , Blue Peter , the BBC News Channel , The Alan Titchmarsh Show and Sky News Sunrise .
Wonderland was well received by critics ; Paul Callan , reviewing the album for the Daily Express , described it as " a joy " . He compared it to other Christmas albums , saying that " [ t ] oo many are tired , much @-@ repeated carol selections . " He described Smith 's " control , tone and warmth " as " very moving " . Andy Gill , reviewing Wonderland for The Independent , gave a less positive review . He said that the influence of Alice in Wonderland was often hard to perceive and that Cohen and Smith had " sweetened the classical elements " . However , he praised the arrangements of " Adiemus " , " Barcarolle " , " Merry Christmas , Mr Lawrence " and " Blow The Wind Southerly " , but noted that on tracks including " Close To You " , " the lack of emotional weight is telling . " Overall , Gill gave Wonderland 3 out of 5 . However , the album failed to perform as well as Faryl ; it entered the British album charts at number 56 for the week ending 12 December before dropping to number 92 the following week and then out of the top 100 . After Wonderland , Smith 's contract with Universal ended , and she subsequently received less attention from the press . Smith described the break with the label as mainly her decision , as she needed to focus on her A levels , which would allow her to get to university , explaining in an interview that " It wasn 't like it ended horribly . "
Smith performed at the 2009 Royal Variety Performance in front of Queen Elizabeth II , where she sang " God Save the Queen " with The Soldiers . She later said that the experience , including subsequently meeting the Queen , as the highlight of her year . Smith also performed elsewhere with The Soldiers , including at St Paul 's Cathedral and Great Ormond Street Children 's Hospital .
= = = " The Prayer " and The Magic of a Thousand Strings = = =
In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Smith and 22 other classical musicians from the UK recorded a cover version of " The Prayer " , which was released for download on 14 March . The proceeds of the single went to the Disasters Emergency Committee . Smith said " It 's a real honour to be a part of something that is being done for the first time , and I hope that all music lovers get involved and help raise money for the campaign . I really hope that we can make a difference together to help the horrible situation that Haiti is in at the moment . " The group , dubbed " Classical Band Aid " , recorded the track at Metropolis Studios and were backed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Each vocalist in the group performed their own solo lines , and the entire group came together for the finale . " The Prayer " was the first ever classical charity single ; Smith noted that " Pop singers do things like this a lot but it 's unusual for classical singers to get involved so I 've been really excited . "
In the summer of 2010 Smith performed at various festivals and events . Her father stated that " because she is still so young , we don 't want her doing complete shows on her own and we don 't want her doing too much . " Appearances included the Mercedes @-@ Benz World Summer Concert in Weybridge on 4 July , That Glorious Noise charity concert in aid of muscular dystrophy in Cleethorpes on 17 July and the Last Night of the Kenwood Proms on 21 August , as well as the wedding of Eamonn Holmes and Ruth Langsford . Smith also opened the Serenata festival . Angela Young , reviewing the festival for the Bournemouth Daily Echo , said " Faryl Smith was my personal highlight of the Thursday night line @-@ up , her bizarrely powerful voice ( considering her diminutive size and age ) taking my breath away and it contrasted so well with her naivete as she said ' at least it 's not raining ' – just as the heavens opened . "
In October Smith performed for the first time in Ireland , at the National Concert Hall , Dublin . She continued to perform publicly throughout 2011 . In May , she performed at a Help for Heroes charity concert , which raised £ 2 @,@ 000 , and in both June and October , she performed at concerts to celebrate the 90th year of the Royal British Legion . She again appeared at the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod in July , where she sang with Russell Watson . Smith 's father described the appearance as " like a homecoming " , due to her previous appearance at the competition . In further charitable events later in the year , she raised £ 2 @,@ 700 for a hospice in Cransley , and performed in aid of the Salvation Army in Portsmouth . During the Christmas period , Smith performed for the Great Ormond Street Hospital Children 's Charity in their annual Christmas carol concert , and at the North Wales Choral Festival at Llandudno . She also appeared as a guest on Rhydian Roberts 's talent show on S4C in December . In 2012 , she performed with the Mousehole Male Voice Choir in Penzance , and in 2013 , she continued to perform locally in Kettering .
From 2012 – 3 , Smith performed several times with the International Harp Ensemble , a Surrey @-@ based group of harpists who produce a variety of different styles of harp music , including appearing with the group on a September episode of Songs of Praise . She also guest @-@ featured on the group 's 2012 album The Magic of a Thousand Strings , singing on five tracks . Further shows with the International Harp Ensemble were planned into 2014 . While working with the International Harp Ensemble , Smith began training with vocal coach Joy Mammen , who also teaches Lesley Garrett , as well as learning German and Italian , with the intention of moving from classical crossover towards opera . She continued to perform publicly in 2015 , singing at Wembley again in August .
= = Personal life = =
Smith was born in Kettering , Northamptonshire , England , on 23 July 1995 . She originally attended Henry Gotch Primary
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outstanding contribution in any field of science that has furthered the development and progress of the Navy or Marine Corps . " The Forrest Sherman @-@ class destroyer USS Parsons was named in his honor . Her keel was laid down by Ingalls Shipbuilding of Pascagoula , Mississippi on 17 June 1957 and was launched by his widow Martha on 17 August 1958 . When it was rechristened as a guided missile destroyer ( DDG @-@ 33 ) in 1967 , Clare , now a Naval officer herself , represented her family . Parsons was decommissioned on 19 November 1982 , stricken from the Navy list on 1 December 1984 , and disposed of as a target on 25 April 1989 . The Deak Parsons Center , headquarters of Afloat Training Group , Atlantic , in Norfolk , Virginia , was also named for him . Parsons ' portrait is among a series of paintings related to Operation Crossroads . His papers are in the Naval Historical Center in Washington , DC .
= Mario Party 5 =
Mario Party 5 ( Japanese : マリオパーティ5 , Hepburn : Mario Pāti Faibu ) is a party video game developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo . It is the second game in the Mario Party series for Nintendo GameCube . It was released in North America on November 10 , 2003 ; in Japan on November 28 , 2003 ; and in Europe and Australia on December 5 , 2003 . Mario Party 5 is the fifth installment in the Mario Party series .
The game is set in the fictional world of the Dream Depot , consisting of seven game boards . The single @-@ player " Story " mode involves the player winning multiple games against the Koopa Kids to prevent Bowser from conquering the Dream Depot . The main multiplayer game mode consists of four characters from Mario series playing a board game , with each board having a set theme . The game also features several minigames , which are played after every set of turns . Mario Party 5 introduces the " Super Duel " mode to the franchise , which requires players to assemble and control custom made battle vehicles which can be used in combat against other machines . The game features ten playable characters , with playable debuts to the series from Toad , Boo , and Koopa Kid .
Mario Party 5 received " average " reviews by the media ; reviewers enjoyed the new minigames of the series , although a perceived lack of originality was criticized . The game became part of the Nintendo Player 's Choice label in 2004 , and won the Console Children 's Award at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards .
= = Gameplay = =
Mario Party 5 retains the fundamental gameplay featured in previous installments , which is based upon a themed board game played by characters of the Mario series . The player 's objective is to obtain the most stars by the end of the board game , which are usually purchased when passing the designated star space on the game board . Coins are earned mainly by winning minigames , which occur after all players have rolled the die . " Party Mode " is the main multiplayer mode , and involves four characters competing in a standard board game either independently or in opposing pairs . As with its predecessors , players can adjust the number of turns in a game by multiples of five , and determine the difficulty of artificial intelligence opponents , among others .
Mario Party 5 features ten playable characters , including three additional characters to the series : Toad , Boo , and Koopa Kid . Hudson omitted Donkey Kong as a playable character from the series in this installment , instead featuring him in the " DK space " , which initiates an event granting the possibility of a star or coins whenever landed on . Like previous installments , blue and red spaces add or deduct three coins from players when they land on them . " Bowser spaces " return from Mario Party 4 . While the series ' predecessors used item shops as a means to obtain items , Mario Party 5 introduces the capsule system . Capsules are containers that hold a single item which are acquired when passing the " Capsule Machine " on the board . The items contained within them serve a variety of purposes , from increasing the range of the die and thus movement , to deducting ten coins from an opponent . The capsules can only be thrown up to ten spaces ahead of the current position . During a game , the gameplay is altered for the last five turns with the options selected randomly via a roulette wheel ; such changes include tripling the coin benefit or deficit from coloured spaces .
The game 's boards incorporate the theme of the Dream Depot , with each having " Dream " at the end of the board 's title , except for the " Bowser 's Nightmare " board . Themes of the boards include dreams of toys and treasure hunting , among others . Each board consists of multiple types of spaces , some of which grant special types of minigames that cannot be accessed regularly . Some spaces , specifically " happening " spaces , will incorporate the relevant theme ; for example , a giant robot resembling Mecha Bowser will shoot any character back to the start when landing on its " happening " space in the Toy Dream board .
Players can choose to play minigames separate from the board game context via " Minigame Mode " . The minigames are categorized by their character structure , with " 4 @-@ player " , " 1 vs. 3 " , and " 2 vs. 2 " available . Besides these standard versions , there are also the " DK " and " Bowser " minigames , which are themed to reflect their titular character ; " Battle " minigames are retained from the previous three Mario Party games . " Duel " minigames , which involve two players competing against each other , are re @-@ introduced . The set of minigames are available without a structure ( " Free play " ) in this mode , but can be formatted into tournaments and separate objectives like in " Mini @-@ game circuit " , involving the characters winning minigames to reach the finish line first . A total of 75 minigames can be played , but they all must be unlocked via " Party mode " and " Story mode " before they can be played in " Minigame Mode " . In " Bonus mode " , a set of three larger games that do not appear in usual play can be accessed ; this involves a card @-@ based board game ( " Card party " ) , as well as Beach volleyball and Ice hockey .
Mario Party 5 introduced the " Super @-@ Duel Mode " , a game involving the player assembling and controlling a combat vehicle . Each component of the vehicle can be bought separately ; these do not necessarily have to fit with other parts stylistically , and contribute to the vehicle 's general statistics regarding fields such as health and speed . Once the vehicle is assembled and named , it can engage AI or human opponents in a single match or in tournaments . Variants of this are available , including a capture the flag mode and another requiring the player to shoot mechanical rabbits .
= = = Plot and setting = = =
The story mode in Mario Party 5 is completely different from the story modes of Mario Party 3 and Mario Party 4 . Players face three Koopa Kids ( red , green , and blue ) . The only way to defeat them and clear the board is to take all their coins away , mostly by beating them in minigames . Players must take all coins from a Koopa Kid to defeat him . If players lose all of the coins or don 't defeat the Koopa Kids within fifteen turns , the game is over . After players win five boards , they face Bowser in a final stage mini @-@ game called " Frightmare " , which is a one @-@ on @-@ one mini @-@ game with Bowser . There are four parts to the battle . First , players go against Mechakoopas ( robotic versions of Koopa Troopas ) . Next , players have to move and jump around to avoid three rings of fire for a short time . Then players face Bowser directly ; they must make him jump onto a tile three times to clear the third part . The final part of the minigame is the final battle , where Bowser grows . After throwing fireballs and hitting Bowser with them five times , the game is cleared and the final board is unlocked .
= = Development = =
Like its predecessors , Mario Party 5 was published by Nintendo and developed by Hudson Soft . It is the first Mario Party game to have Donkey Kong as a non @-@ playable character . It is also the first Mario Party game to have Wario wearing his current short @-@ sleeve shirt . It is the last Mario Party game where Daisy is voiced by Jen Taylor ; for later games , Jen Taylor is replaced by Deanna Mustard . It is the fifth and final Mario Party game to have Bowser 's sound effects from the first four Mario Party games .
Nintendo first unveiled the game at the E3 conference of 2003 , where eight mini @-@ games were available in a playable demonstration . Following release , Nintendo announced Mario Party 5 as a " Player 's Choice " title , which is a label for Nintendo titles that had sold more than one million copies to be sold at a bargain price . Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party Super Mario : The Mysterious Rolling Party is an arcade version of Mario Party 5 released exclusively in Japan in 2004 . It was developed by Capcom instead of Hudson Soft .
= = Reception = =
Mario Party 5 received " average " reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic .
Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner cited the example of coin redistribution in the game , which meant that " You could win every minigame and collect the most coins but still end up in last place " , when giving a second opinion of the game . While acknowledging issues relating to the waiting times during board games , IGN 's Peer Schneider praised this installment for relieving the problem slightly , specifically referring to the Mini Bowsers , who all take their turns at the same time in " Story " mode . The quantity and accessibility of the minigames was lauded by GameSpot , although the reviewer Ryan Davis proceeded to note " If you bought Mario Party 4 last year , Mario Party 5 is hard to recommend . " , noting a lack of change to the series formula . Generally , critics cited having a fun experience in Mario Party 5 , although the minigames received a more enthusiastic reaction than the actual board game , with GameSpy commenting that " the sheer volume can keep you compelled . If only you didn 't have to deal with all that BS in @-@ between " when referring to gameplay of the actual board game .
Features introduced in the game received a mixed response . The three games in " Bonus " mode were praised , although reviewers were least enthusiastic about " Card Party " , with GameSpot commenting that " This mode is proof that the minigames are really what make Mario Party fun , as it 's pretty dull . " The capsule system was generally criticised as the pertaining animations seemed to exacerbate the game 's slow place . Despite other reviewers ' claims that the capsule system contributed to the game 's dependence on chance , IGN commended the system for contributing to a more dynamic game board experience . The " Super Duel " mode was praised as a reasonably fun feature , although the gameplay was rated as " sluggish " . GameSpy noted the seemingly increased board sizes from previous installments , which apparently made obtaining stars and using ranged items more difficult
The game 's graphics received a mediocre response , with GameSpot commenting that the presentation is " starting to seem a bit antiquated " when noting that the character models did not seem to have been updated from Mario Party 4 . Despite this , IGN commented that Mario Party 5 " isn 't a bad looking game " , noting the level of detail and variety given to the game 's board game 's and maps . GameSpot noted that the game 's audio did fit the game , although they commented that it " is largely recycled from Mario Party 4 " . IGN criticized the " cheesy " and unadventurous soundtrack , as well as a lack of voice acting . The game won the Console Children 's Award at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards .
= Paweł Jasienica =
Paweł Jasienica was the pen name of Leon Lech Beynar ( 10 November 1909 – 19 August 1970 ) , a Polish historian , journalist and soldier .
During World War II , Jasienica ( then , Leon Beynar ) fought in the Polish Army , and later , the Armia Krajowa resistance . Near the end of the war , he was also working with the anti @-@ Soviet resistance , which later led to him taking up a new name , Paweł Jasienica , to hide from the communist government of the People 's Republic of Poland . He was associated with the Tygodnik Powszechny weekly and several other newspapers and magazines . He is best known for his 1960s books on Polish history — on the Kingdom of Poland under the Piast Dynasty , the Jagiellon Dynasty , and the elected kings of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Those books , still popular , played an important role in popularizing Polish history among several generations of readers .
Jasienica became an outspoken critic of the censorship in the People 's Republic of Poland , and as a notable dissident , he was persecuted by the government . He was subject to significant invigilation by the security services , and his second wife was in fact an agent of the communist secret police . For a brief period marking the end of his life , his books were prohibited from being distributed or printed .
= = Life = =
= = = Youth = = =
Beynar was born on 10 November 1909 in Simbirsk , Russia , to Polish parents , Mikołaj Beynar and Helena Maliszewska . His paternal grandfather , Ludwik Beynar , fought in the January Uprising and married a Spanish woman , Joanna Adela Feugas . His maternal grandfather , Wiktor Maliszewski , fought in the November Uprising . Both of his grandfathers eventually settled in the Russian Empire . His father , Mikołaj , worked as an agronomist . Beynar 's family lived in Russia and Ukraine — they moved from Simbirsk to a location near Bila Tserkva and Uman , then to Kiev until the Russian Revolution of 1917 , after which they decided to settle in the independent Poland . After brief stay in Warsaw , during the Polish – Soviet War , his family settled in Opatów , and in 1924 , moved to Grodno .
Beynar graduated from gymnasium ( secondary school ) in Wilno ( Vilnius ) and graduated in history from Stefan Batory University in Wilno ( his thesis concerned the January Uprising ) . At the university he was an active member of several organizations including Klub Intelektualistów ( Intellectuals ' Club ) and Akademicki Klub Włóczęgów ( Academic Club of Vagabonds ) . After graduating , he finished training for the officer cadet ( podchorąży ) in the Polish Army . From 1928 to 1937 he lived in Grodno , where he worked as a history teacher in a gymnasium ; later he was employed as an announcer for Polish Radio Wilno . Here also , Beynar embarked on his career as author and essayist , writing for a local newspaper , Słowo Wileńskie ( The Wilno Word ) . On 11 November 1934 he marred Władysława Adamowicz , and in 1938 his daughter Ewa was born . In 1935 he published his first history book - about king Zygmunt August , Zygmunt August na ziemiach dawnego Wielkiego Księstwa ( Sigismund Augustus on the Lands of the Former Grand Duchy [ of Lithuania ] ) .
= = = World War II = = =
During World War II , Beynar was a soldier in the Polish Army , fighting the German Wehrmacht when it invaded Poland in September 1939 . He commanded a platoon near Sandomierz and was eventually taken prisoner by the Germans . While in a temporary prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Opatów , he was able to escape with the help of some old school friends from the time his family lived there in the early 1920s . He joined the Polish underground organization , " Związek Walki Zbrojnej " ( Association for Armed Combat ) , later transformed into the " Armia Krajowa " ( " AK " ; the Home Army ) , and continued the fight against the Germans . In the resistance he had the rank of lieutenant , worked in the local Wilno headquarters and was an editor of an underground newspaper " Pobudka " . He was also involved in the underground teaching . In July 1944 he took part in the operation aimed at the liberation of Wilno from the Germans ( Operation Ostra Brama ) . In the wake of this operation , around 19 – 21 August , his partisan unit , like many others , was intercepted and attacked by the Soviets . He was taken prisoner ; sources vary as to whether he was to be exiled to Siberia or conscripted into the Polish People 's Army . Either way he escaped and rejoined AK partisans ( the Home Army 5th Wilno Brigade ) . For a while , he was an aide to Major Zygmunt Szendzielarz ( Łupaszko ) and was member of the anti @-@ Soviet resistance , Wolność i Niezawisłość ( WiN , Freedom and Independence ) . He was promoted to the rank of captain . Wounded in August 1945 , he left the Brigade before it was destroyed by the Soviets , and avoided the fate of most of its officers who were sentenced to death . While recovering from his wounds , he found shelter in the village of Jasienica .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After recovering from his wounds in 1945 , Beynar decided to leave the resistance , and instead began publishing in an independent Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny . It was then that he took the pen @-@ name Jasienica ( from the name of the place where he had received treatment for his injuries ) in order not to endanger his wife , who was still living in Soviet @-@ controlled Vilnius , Lithuania . Soon he became a member of the weekly 's staff and then an editor . In 1948 he was arrested by the Polish secret police ( Polish : Urząd Bezpieczeństwa ) but after several weeks was released after the intervention of Bolesław Piasecki from the PAX Association . In gratitude to Piasecki , he worked with PAX in the future , leaving Tygodnik Powszechny for PAX in 1950 . From 1950 he was a director of Polish Caritas charity . His essays were published in Dziś i Jutro , Słowo Powszechne , Życie Warszawy , Po Prostu . From at least this period till his death he would live in Warsaw . His wife Władysława died 29 March 1965 .
Over time he became increasingly involved in various dissident organizations . In December 1959 he became a vice president of the Union of Polish Writers ( Związek Literatów Polskich , ZLP ) . He also published in the magazine Świat ( 1951 – 1969 ) . In 1962 he was the last president of the literary discussion society , Klub Krzywego Koła . In 1966 he was a vice president of the PEN Club . While in the late 1940s and 1950s he focused mostly on journalistic activity , later he turned to writing popular history in book format . In the 1960s he wrote his most famous works , historical books about history of Poland - the Kingdom of Poland in the times of the Piast dynasty , the Jagiellonian dynasty , and the era of elected kings ( the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . His book on the Jagiellonian Poland was recognized as the best book of the year by the readers .
Jasienica was , however , very outspoken in his criticism of the censorship in the People 's Republic of Poland . On 29 February 1968 during a ZLP meeting , Jasienia presented a harsh critique of the government . These acts , and in particular his signing of the dissident Letter of 34 in 1964 against censorship and his involvement in the 1968 protests led to his being labeled a political dissident , for which he suffered government persecution . Partly as a response to government 's persecution of Jasienica , in 1968 the satirist Janusz Szpotański dedicated one of his anti @-@ government poems , Ballada o Łupaszce ( The Ballad of Łupaszko ) , written while Szpotański was in Mokotów Prison , to the writer . In the aftermath of the 1968 events , Polish communist media , and communist leader , Władysław Gomułka , on 19 March 1968 , alleged that in 1948 Jasienica was freed because he collaborated with the communist regime ; this allegation caused much controversy and damaged Jasienica 's reputation . He was subject to much invigilation by the security services . In December 1969 , five years after his first wife 's death , he became married again . This marriage , after his death , proven to be highly controversial , as his second wife was in fact a secret police informant before the marriage , and continued to write reports about him throughout their marriage . Since then , till his death , his books were prohibited from being distributed or printed .
Jasienica died from cancer on 19 August 1970 in Warsaw . Some publicists later speculated to what extent his death was caused by " hounding from the party establishment " . He is buried in Warsaw 's Powązki Cemetery . His funeral was attended by many dissidents and became a political manifestation ; Adam Michnik recalls seeing Antoni Słonimski , Stefan Kisielewski , Stanisław Stomma , Jerzy Andrzejewski , Jan Józef Lipski and Władysław Bartoszewski . Bohdan Cywiński read a letter from Antoni Gołubiew .
= = Work = =
Jasienica book publishing begun with a historical book , Zygmunt August na ziemiach dawnego Wielkiego Księstwa ( Sigismund Augustus in the lands of the former Grand Duchy ; 1935 ) . He is best known for his highly acclaimed and popular historical books from the 1960s about Piast Poland , Jagiellon Poland and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth : Polska Piastów ( Piast Poland , 1960 ) , Polska Jagiellonów ( Jagiellon Poland , 1963 ) and the trilogy Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów ( The Commonwealth of Both Nations , 1967 – 1972 ) . This trilogy made him one of the most popular Polish history writers . Throughout his life he avoided writing about modern history , to minimize the influence that the official , communist Marxist historiography would have on his works . This was also one of the reasons for the popularity of his works , which were seen as a rare , legally obtainable alternative to the official version of history . His books , publication of which resumed once again after his death , were labeled as " best @-@ selling " , and became the most reprinted postwar history of Poland .
His Dwie drogi ( Two ways , 1959 ) about the January Uprising of the 1860s represent the latest historical period he has tackled . His other popular historical books include Trzej kronikarze , ( Three chroniclers ; 1964 ) , a book about three medieval chroniclers of Polish history ( Thietmar of Merseburg , Gallus Anonymus and Wincenty Kadłubek ) , in which he discusses the Polish society through ages ; and Ostatnia z rodu ( Last of the Family ; 1965 ) about the last queen of the Jagiellon dynasty , Anna Jagiellonka . His Rozważania o wojnie domowej ( 1978 ; Thoughts on Civil War ) were the last book he has finished ; unlike majority of his other works , this book is ostensibly about the civil war ( Chouannerie ) in Brittany , France . This work does however contains numerous arguments applicable to more modern Polish history ; arguments that Jasienica thought would not be allowed by the censors if the book discussed Polish history .
In addition to historical books , Jasienica , wrote a series of essays about archeology - Słowiański rodowód ( Slavic genealogy ; 1961 ) and Archeologia na wyrywki . Reportaże ( Archeological excerpts : reports ; 1956 ) , journalistic travel reports ( Wisła pożegna zaścianek , Kraj Nad Jangtse ) and science and technology ( Opowieści o żywej materii , Zakotwiczeni ) . Those works were mostly created around the 1950s and 1960s .
His Pamiętnik ( Diary ) was the work that he begun shortly before his death , and that was never finished .
In 2006 , Polish journalist and former dissident Adam Michnik said that :
I belong to the generation ' 68 , a generation that has special debt to Paweł Jasienica - in fact he paid with his life for daring to defend us , the youth . I want for somebody to be able to write , at some point , that in my generation there were people who stayed true to his message . Those who never forgot about his beautiful life , his wise and brave books , his terrible tragedy .
Polish historian Henryk Samsonowicz echoes Michnik 's essay in his introduction to a recent ( 2008 ) edition of Trzej kronikarze , describing Jasienica as a person who did much to popularize Polish history . Hungarian historian Balázs Trencsényi notes that " Jasienica 's impact of the formation of the popular interpretation of Polish history is hard to overestimate " . British historian Norman Davies , himself an author of a popular account of Polish history ( God 's Playground ) , notes that Jasienica , while more of " a historical writer than an academic historian " , had " formidable talents " , gained " much popularity " and that his works would find no equals in the time of communist Poland . Samsonowicz notes that Jasienica " was a brave writer " , going against prevailing system , and willing to propose new hypotheses and reinterpret history in innovative ways . Michnik notes how Jasienica was willing to write about Polish mistakes , for example in the treatment of Cossacks . Ukrainian historian Stephen Velychenko also positively commented on Jasienica 's extensive coverage of the Polish @-@ Ukrainian history . Both Michnik and Samsonowicz note how Jasienica 's works contain hidden messages in which Jasienica discusses more contemporary history , such as in his Rozważania ....
= = Awards = =
Medals :
Order of Polonia Restituta , Grand Cross , awarded on 3 May 2007 ( posthumously )
Order of Polonia Restituta , Knight 's Cross , awarded on 22 July 1956
Cross of Valour , awarded by the Wilno Region Headquarters of Armia Krajowa in 1944 , confirmed by Polish Ministry of Defense in 1967
Armia Krajowa Cross , awarded in 1967 in London
Awards :
2007 laureate of Poland 's " Custodian of National Memory " Prize .
= Young Girls =
" Young Girls " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Bruno Mars . It was composed by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , Jeff Bhasker , and Emile Haynie for Mars ' second studio album Unorthodox Jukebox ( 2012 ) . " Young Girls " is a midtempo pop ballad , which incorporates elements of doo @-@ wop , and reminiscent of the song " It Will Rain " and Lana Del Rey 's work . Its music is largely based on drums , synths , piano and " bits of " electronic music . " Young Girls " was released as the first promotional single and later as the fifth overall single from Unorthodox Jukebox , being first serviced to Contemporary hit radio in Australia on November 26 , 2013 .
It received generally mixed to positive reviews . Many music critics noted the complex instrumental and praised Mars ' vocals on the record . Its lyrics , detail the fact of the singer being unable to resist to his attraction to young girls were met with criticism ; with reviewers calling it a " recognizing sin " and " impassioned shame " . The single was recognized as the Best Pop of 2013 at the MelOn Music Awards . Commercially , " Young Girls " charted in some countries , along with the released of its parent album , such as South Korea , where it reached number one , United Kingdom and Canada . Before it was cancelled as the second single it peaked in Australia and New Zealand at 62 and 23 , respectively . As the fifth single it reached the position of 19 in Canada and 32 in the United States . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting digital sales of over half a million copies in the US . The track was performed live on Saturday Night Live and occasionally on the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2015 ) .
= = Background and writing = =
During a MTV interview , Mars explained why the track was the first on the tracklist of the album " It really shows you what this album is going to be , and just where I was when I started this album " . He felt that anyone can easily relate to the record " There 's a moment in your life where you start going out every night , and it 's so fun , but then you start to lose yourself ; you get lost in the sauce " . The singer compared the song 's sentiment to " Lookin ' for Love In All the Wrong Places " , adding " It 's another confession " .
Mars stated that he wasn 't willing to stay too far from his roots when it comes to writing lyrics for his album . " I 'm not there yet ... to sing about politics " . He concluded , that writing and singing songs about girls is what he knows best , " I 'm not going to preach what I don 't know . As much as I love 2 Chainz 's " All I Want For My Birthday " .
A demo of the song , only featuring the vocals and an acoustic guitar , was exclusively released as bonus track on the Target edition of the album , on December 11 , 2012 . Almost a year later , on November 5 , 2013 , the demo of the song was also included on the deluxe edition of the album , released worldwide .
= = Production and release = =
" Young Girls " was written by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , Jeff Bhasker and Emile Haynie , while production was handled by the former three under their alias , The Smeezingtons , along with Bhasker and Haynie . The record was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California and David Kutch mastered it . " Young Girls " was recorded by Levine at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California . Charles Moniz served as the track 's additional engineer , while the engineering of the Big Drums was handled by Brent Kolapalo and Ken Lewis .
" Young Girls " was first performed on Saturday Night Live and was released as the first promotional single taken from Unorthodox Jukebo , on November 6 , 2012 on iTunes . Later , it was reported by Mars that the record was scheduled to be the second single from the album . This release involved little planning according to Mars " I felt [ it ] was good . None of these things are planned , which one goes first , which one goes second . One day I wake up and I say , ' You know what ? I want the world to hear this song that I wrote called ' Young Girls , ' and I put it out " . However , a week later , while performing " When I Was Your Man " on the third season finale of The Voice , he announced that the track played would be the second official single from the album . The fifth and overall single , " Young Girls " , was first liberated on Australian contemporary hit radio , on November 26 , 2013 , after being promoted by Mars in radio station , Nova . Subsequently , the song was released to United States and United Kingdom contemporary hit radios on December 10 ,
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