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built in 1999 , and Žirmūnai Bridge , built in 1965 . The Mindaugas Bridge was built in 2003 to link Žirmūnai with Vilnius ' Old Town . Passenger ferry transport on the Neris was active until the 1990s , but is now limited to occasional chartered sightseeing tours from the Mindaugas Bridge to Valakampiai in summer .
For some time in the first half of the 20th century , a narrow @-@ gauge railway traversed Žirmūnai following the approximate course of the modern Minties Street ; it crossed over the River Neris on a bridge located near the modern Šilas Bridge , as can be seen in the 1942 map of Vilnius .
= Gary Cooper =
Gary Cooper ( born Frank James Cooper ; May 7 , 1901 – May 13 , 1961 ) was an American film actor known for his natural , authentic , and understated acting style and screen performances . His career spanned thirty @-@ five years , from 1925 to 1960 , and included leading roles in eighty @-@ four feature films . He was a major movie star from the end of the silent film era through the end of the golden age of Classical Hollywood . His screen persona appealed strongly to both men and women , and his range of performances included roles in most major movie genres . Cooper 's ability to project his own personality onto the characters he played contributed to his appearing natural and authentic on screen . The screen persona he sustained throughout his career represented the ideal American hero .
Cooper began his career as a film extra and stunt rider and soon landed acting roles . After establishing himself as a Western hero in his early silent films , Cooper became a movie star in 1929 with his first sound picture , The Virginian . In the early 1930s , he expanded his heroic image to include more cautious characters in adventure films and dramas such as A Farewell to Arms ( 1932 ) and The Lives of a Bengal Lancer ( 1935 ) . During the height of his career , Cooper portrayed a new type of hero — a champion of the common man — in films such as Mr. Deeds Goes to Town ( 1936 ) , Meet John Doe ( 1941 ) , Sergeant York ( 1941 ) , The Pride of the Yankees ( 1942 ) , and For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1943 ) . In the post @-@ war years , he portrayed more mature characters at odds with the world in films such as The Fountainhead ( 1949 ) and High Noon ( 1952 ) . In his final films , Cooper played non @-@ violent characters searching for redemption in films such as Friendly Persuasion ( 1956 ) and Man of the West ( 1958 ) .
He married New York debutante Veronica Balfe in 1933 , and the couple had one daughter . Their marriage was interrupted by a three @-@ year separation precipitated by Cooper 's love affair with Patricia Neal . Cooper received the Academy Award for Best Actor for his roles in Sergeant York and High Noon . He also received an Academy Honorary Award for his career achievements in 1961 . He was one of the top ten film personalities for twenty @-@ three consecutive years , and was one of the top money @-@ making stars for eighteen years . The American Film Institute ( AFI ) ranked Cooper eleventh on its list of the twenty five greatest male stars of classic Hollywood cinema .
= = Early life = =
Frank James Cooper was born on May 7 , 1901 , at 730 Eleventh Avenue in Helena , Montana to English immigrants Alice ( née Brazier , 1873 – 1967 ) and Charles Henry Cooper ( 1865 – 1946 ) . His father emigrated from Houghton Regis , Bedfordshire and became a prominent lawyer , rancher , and eventually a Montana Supreme Court justice . His mother emigrated from Gillingham , Kent and married Charles in Montana . In 1906 , Charles purchased the 600 @-@ acre ( 240 ha ) Seven @-@ Bar @-@ Nine cattle ranch about fifty miles ( eighty kilometers ) north of Helena near the town of Craig on the Missouri River . Frank and his older brother Arthur spent their summers there and learned to ride horses , hunt , and fish . In April 1908 , the Hauser Dam failed and flooded the Missouri River valley along portions of the Cooper property , but Cooper and his family were able to evacuate in time . Cooper attended Central Grade School in Helena .
In the summer of 1909 , Alice , wanting her sons to have an English education , accompanied them to England and enrolled them in Dunstable Grammar School in Bedfordshire , where Cooper was educated from 1910 to 1912 . At Dunstable , Cooper studied Latin and French , and took several courses in English history . While he managed to adapt to the discipline of an English school and learned the requisite social graces , he never adjusted to the rigid class structure and formal Eton collars he was forced to wear . After completing confirmation classes , Cooper was baptized into the Anglican Church on December 3 , 1911 , at the Church of All Saints in Houghton Regis . Cooper 's mother accompanied her sons back to the United States in August 1912 , and Cooper resumed his education at Johnson Grammar School in Helena .
At the age of fifteen , Cooper injured his hip in a car accident and returned to the Seven @-@ Bar @-@ Nine ranch to recuperate by horseback riding at the recommendation of his doctor . The misguided therapy left him with his characteristic stiff , off @-@ balanced walk and slightly angled riding style . After attending Helena High School for two years , he left school in 1918 and returned to the family ranch to help raise their five hundred head of cattle and work full @-@ time as a cowboy . In 1919 , his father arranged for his son to complete his high school education at Gallatin County High School in Bozeman , Montana . His English teacher , Ida Davis , encouraged him to focus on academics , join the school 's debating team , and get involved in dramatics . His parents would later credit her for helping their son complete high school , and Cooper confirmed , " She was the woman partly responsible for me giving up cowboy @-@ ing and going to college . "
In 1920 , while still attending high school , Cooper took three art courses at Montana Agricultural College in Bozeman . His interest in art was inspired years earlier by the Western paintings of Charles Marion Russell and Frederic Remington . Cooper especially admired and studied Russell 's Lewis and Clark Meeting Indians at Ross ' Hole ( 1910 ) , which still hangs in the state capitol building in Helena . In 1922 , Cooper enrolled in Grinnell College in Iowa to continue his art education . Cooper did well academically in most of his courses , but was not accepted to the school 's drama club . His drawings and watercolors were exhibited throughout the dormitory , and he was named art editor for the college yearbook . During the summers of 1922 and 1923 , Cooper worked at Yellowstone National Park as a tour guide driving the yellow open @-@ top buses . Despite a promising first eighteen months at Grinnell , he left college suddenly in February 1924 , spent a month in Chicago looking for work as an artist , and then returned to Helena , where he sold editorial cartoons to the Independent , a local newspaper .
In the autumn of 1924 , Cooper 's father left the Montana Supreme Court bench and moved with his wife to Los Angeles to administer the estates of two relatives . At his father 's request , Cooper joined his parents in California on Thanksgiving Day , November 27 , 1924 . In the coming weeks , after working a series of unpromising jobs , Cooper met two friends from Montana , Jim Galeen and Jim Calloway , who were working as film extras and stunt riders in low @-@ budget Western films for the small movie studios on Poverty Row on Gower Street . They introduced him to another Montana cowboy , rodeo champion Jay " Slim " Talbot , who took him to see a casting director who offered him work . With the goal of saving enough money to pay for a professional art course , Cooper decided to try his hand at working as a film extra for five dollars a day , and as a stunt rider for twice that amount .
= = Career = =
= = = Silent films , 1925 – 28 = = =
In early 1925 , Cooper began his film career working in silent pictures such as The Thundering Herd and Wild Horse Mesa with Jack Holt , Riders of the Purple Sage and The Lucky Horseshoe with Tom Mix , and The Trail Rider with Buck Jones . He worked for several Poverty Row studios , including Famous Players @-@ Lasky and Fox Film Corporation . While his skills as a horseman led to steady work in Westerns , Cooper found the stunt work " tough and cruel " , sometimes resulting in injury to the horses and riders . Hoping to move beyond the risky stunt work and obtain acting roles , Cooper paid for a screen test and hired casting director Nan Collins to work as his agent . Knowing that other actors were using the name " Frank Cooper " , Collins suggested he change his first name to " Gary " after her hometown of Gary , Indiana . Cooper liked the name immediately .
Cooper also found work in a variety of non @-@ Western films , appearing , for example , as a masked Cossack in The Eagle ( 1925 ) , as a Roman guard in Ben @-@ Hur ( 1925 ) , and as a flood survivor in The Johnstown Flood ( 1926 ) . Gradually , he began to land credited roles that offered him more screen time , in films such as Tricks ( 1925 ) , in which he played the film 's antagonist , and the short film Lightnin ' Wins ( 1926 ) . As a featured player , he began to attract the attention of major film studios . On June 1 , 1926 , Cooper signed a contract with Samuel Goldwyn Productions for fifty
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, while he was eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the other guests seemed more interested in their food than in the film clips on the screen , and he therefore considered the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more of a restaurant than a theater , with the film reel simply being a gimmick . Appealing to EGV 's identity as a movie theater operator , Poolwaraluk said that the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe " can probably do a better job blending the cinema and the food together and also concentrate on both of them " . Like the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe features classic cars for seating , but , instead of showing film clips on a loop , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe shows entire short films .
In 2014 , NBCUniversal opened a new Universal Orlando hotel called Cabana Bay Beach Resort , which houses the Bayliner Diner , a restaurant that borrows its premise from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Both restaurants play old film footage on a loop .
= = Reception = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . Jack Hayes of Nation 's Restaurant News calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " wacky " and " on the cutting edge of sheer dining fun " . In USA Today 's list of the sixteen best restaurants in American amusement parks , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks fifteenth . Samuel Muston of The Independent writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " memorable in the best way " . In the Evansville Courier & Press , Pete DiPrimio writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks among the most unusual of the restaurants at Disney 's Hollywood Studios . In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World 2015 , Bob Sehlinger and Len Testa call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the most entertaining restaurant in Walt Disney World , writing that " everyone gets a kick out of this unusual dining room " .
Multiple reviewers have called the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more notable for being an attraction than a food destination . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In to Epcot 's Coral Reef Restaurant , writing that both restaurants " are great settings " where " eating is awful " . Sehlinger and Testa consider the prices too high , and the food too simple , although they praise the Reuben sandwich and the ribs . Schultz writes that the food is simple and that some of the beers are decent . The book DK Eyewitness Travel Guide : Walt Disney World Resort & Orlando also states that the food is more expensive than it is worth . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal shared this opinion as well , specifically singling out the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich as a ripoff , despite calling it delicious . Peggy Katalinich of the Tampa Bay Times writes that , although the food is mediocre , " Who cares ? Food is besides the point " . She goes on to argue that the prices are low , particularly for sandwiches . In Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando 2012 , Laura Lea Miller expresses disappointment that the menu no longer contains the playful item names it once did . She writes positively of the atmosphere , but considers the food mediocre . In the book Walt Disney World Resort : Also Includes Seaworld and Central Florida , Corey Sandler writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " a must @-@ see eatery ... for adults and adventurous kids " and that " the food is appropriate for a drive @-@ in theater — very ordinary , but that 's not really the reason you came " .
Some food items at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have been received favorably by reviewers . Rona Gindin and Jennifer Greenhill @-@ Taylor write highly of the restaurant 's hot @-@ fudge sundaes in Fodor 's 2012 Walt Disney World . In Plan Your Walt Disney World Vacation in No Time , Douglas Ingersoll writes very positively of the milkshakes , and argues that the sandwiches and burgers are better than at the fast food restaurants in the park . A reviewer for the United Kingdom 's The Sentinel also writes positively of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In 's milkshakes , and writes that , " if you chose to treat yourself to a good lunch in one of the Disney parks , then this is the one " .
Positive reviews of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have indicated diverse reasons for appreciating the restaurant . In Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel write that the restaurant has " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " . Shumaker and Saffel contend that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In provides a reasonable compromise when vegetarians and non @-@ vegetarians are looking to eat together , and that it is also suitable for both large and small families with young children . The restaurant tends to be popular with children , and it is common for people who lived through the 1950s to enjoy the restaurant for its nostalgia value . Paul Schultz of the Daily News writes , " Anyone who is a fan of trashy sci @-@ fi movies of the 1950s should check [ the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ] out " . In his book Sci @-@ Fi Movie Freak , Robert Ring calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In film clips " hokey " , while David Steele of The Rotarian calls them " classically awful " , and Rick Ramseyer of Restaurant Business Magazine calls them " campy " .
= The Elegance of the Hedgehog =
The Elegance of the Hedgehog ( French : L 'Élégance du hérisson ) is a novel by the French novelist and professor of philosophy Muriel Barbery . The book follows events in the life of a concierge , Renée Michel , whose deliberately concealed intelligence is uncovered by an unstable but intellectually precocious girl named Paloma Josse . Paloma is the daughter of an upper @-@ class family living in the upscale Parisian apartment building where Renée works .
Featuring a number of erudite characters , The Elegance of the Hedgehog is full of allusions to literary works , music , films , and paintings . It incorporates themes relating to philosophy , class consciousness , and personal conflict . The events and ideas of the novel are presented through the thoughts and reactions , interleaved throughout the novel , of two narrators , Renée and Paloma . The changes of narrator are marked by switches of typeface . In the case of Paloma , the narration takes the form of her written journal entries and other philosophical reflections ; Renée 's story is also told in the first person but more novelistically and in the present tense .
First released in August 2006 by Gallimard , the novel became a publishing success in France the following year , selling over two million copies . It has been translated into more than forty languages , and published in numerous countries outside France , including the United Kingdom ( Gallic Books , London ) and the United States ( Europa Editions , New York ) , and has attracted critical praise .
= = Plot = =
The story revolves mainly around the characters of Renée Michel and Paloma Josse , residents of an upper @-@ middle class Left Bank apartment building at 7 Rue de Grenelle – one of the most elegant streets in Paris . Divided into eight luxury apartments , all occupied by distinctly bourgeois families , the building has a courtyard and private garden .
The widow Renée is a concierge who has supervised the building for 27 years . She is an autodidact in literature and philosophy , but conceals it to keep her job and , she believes , to avoid the condemnation of the building 's tenants . Likewise , she wants to be alone to avoid her tenants ' curiosity . She effects this by pretending to indulge in concierge @-@ type food and low @-@ quality television , while in her back room she actually enjoys high @-@ quality food , listens to opera , and reads works by Leo Tolstoy and Edmund Husserl . Her perspective is that " [ t ] o be poor , ugly and , moreover , intelligent condemns one , in our society , to a dark and disillusioned life , a condition one ought to accept at an early age " .
Twelve @-@ year @-@ old Paloma lives on the fifth floor with her parents and sister whom she considers snobs . A precocious girl , she hides her intelligence to avoid exclusion at school . Dismayed by the privileged people around her , she decides that life is meaningless , and that unless she can find something worth living for , beyond the " vacuousness of bourgeois existence " , she will commit suicide on June 16 , her thirteenth birthday . Planning to burn down the apartment before dying , she also steals her mother 's pills . For the time being she journals her observations of the outside world , including her perceptions of Renée .
Paloma is the only tenant who suspects Renée 's refinement , and for most of the novel , the two " cross each other but don ’ t see each other " , in the words of Time Out reviewer Elisabeth Vincentelli . Although they share interests in philosophy and literature , nothing happens between them until the death of a celebrated restaurant critic who had been living upstairs . A cultured Japanese businessman named Kakuro Ozu , whom Renée and Paloma befriend , then takes a room in the same apartment building . Ozu comes to share Paloma 's fascination with Renée : that the concierge has the " same simple refinement as the hedgehog " .
Towards the end of the novel , Renée comes out of her internal seclusion , teaching young Paloma that not all adults pursue vanity at the expense of their intelligence and humanity . However , only shortly after Renée realizes that the beauty of life and her connections with the world makes life worth living , she dies in the same way as Roland Barthes ; she is struck down by a laundry van . This leaves Paloma and Ozu devastated but leads Paloma not to commit suicide .
= = Characters = =
= = = Renée Michel = = =
Renée Michel is a 54 @-@ year @-@ old widowed concierge . She has never been to college because she considers herself to always have been poor , discreet , and of no significance . Renée , however is self @-@ taught ; she reads works of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and Russian writer Leo Tolstoy ( and even names her cat " Leo " ) , disdains the philosophy of Edmund Husserl , adores 17th @-@ century Dutch paintings , likes Japanese art @-@ house films by Yasujirō Ozu , and listens to the music of composers Henry Purcell and Gustav Mahler .
Renée , who conceals her true self to conform to the lowly image of typical concierges , introduces herself as " a widow , short , ugly , chubby " , with " bunions on my feet and , on certain difficult mornings , it seems , the breath of a mammoth " . Her outward appearance is summarized by The Guardian reviewer Ian Samson as " prickly and bunioned " . When Paloma eventually discovers Renée 's identity , she describes the latter in her journal as having the " elegance of the hedgehog " — although like the spines of the hedgehog , she is covered in quills and prickly , within , she has in the words of the English translation of the book quoted by Viv Groskop " the same simple refinement as the hedgehog : a deceptively indolent little creature , fiercely solitary — and terribly elegant " .
= = = Paloma Josse = = =
Paloma Josse , an advanced soon to be twelve @-@ year @-@ old , belongs to one of the conventional families living in the posh apartment building where Renée works . Daughter of an important parliamentarian father ( a former government minister ) , and a Flaubert @-@ quoting mother , Paloma has a penchant for absurdism . She regards her sister 's scholarship as " cold and trivial " and deems her mother 's culture as conventional and useless . Paloma herself values Japanese works , and reads manga , haiku , and tanka . She keeps two diaries , one called " Journal of the Movement of the World " to record her observations of the world around her , and the other called " Profound Thoughts " to record her many and wide @-@ ranging reflections on art , poetry , people and herself . She is introspective , and truly kind , though she tries her best to avoid the inquisition of others . She understands many facets of the world that are unseen by others , and deeply understand the way the world works , and the many perils and pitfalls of adulthood and the many hypocrisies of modern society , and therefore resolves in not an all melodramatic way , to commit suicide . However , a drastic plot twist at the end of the tale opens to her an amazing new truth : beauty , that provides meaning to our lives .
= = = Minor characters = = =
Other characters developed by Barbery in the novel include Kakuro Ozu , the cultured Japanese businessman , and Manuela , a Portuguese cleaner . Ozu , a tenant , shares Paloma 's fascination with Renée 's masked intelligence and brings her out of her shell ( and also happens to set the entire book in forward motion ) , while Manuela is responsible for cleaning the apartments ' toilets and is Renée 's only real friend .
= = Content = =
= = = Style and character development = = =
Barbery developed the character of Renée because she was " inspired by the idea of a reserved , cultured concierge who turned stereotypes on their head and at the same time created a compelling comic effect " ; for the author , Renée " opened the door on a kind of social criticism " . In an interview with Time magazine , Barbery added that she created characters " who love the things [ she does ] , and who allowed [ her ] to celebrate that through them " . Barbery dedicates the book to her husband , Stéphane , a sociologist , with whom she wrote the book .
The novel 's two narrators , Renée and Paloma , alternate in each mostly short chapter , although the former dominates throughout . The novel consists of the " diaries " of the protagonists , and the heading styles and fonts change as it develops , signalling the change of the narrators ' character .
Most critics considered Barbery 's narrative presentation to be essayistic ; the individual chapters are more akin to essays than fiction , as The New York Times ' Caryn James expresses it , " so carefully build [ ing ] in explanations for the literary and philosophical references that she seems to be assessing what a mass audience needs " . The early pages of the novel contain a short critique by Renée on the topic of phenomenology .
= = = Themes = = =
Barbery incorporates several themes into the novel . References to philosophy , for instance , abound throughout , getting increasingly dense as the story progresses . Barbery confesses to having " followed a long , boring course of studies in philosophy " , and comments that " I expected it to help me understand better that which surrounds me : but it didn 't work out that way . Literature has taught me more . I was interested in exploring the bearing philosophy could really have on one 's life , and how . I wanted to illuminate this process . That 's where the desire to anchor philosophy to a story , a work of fiction , was born : to give it more meaning , make it more physically real , and render it , perhaps , even entertaining . "
Themes of class consciousness and conflict are also present in the book . Critics interpreted the stance the novel took against French class @-@ based discrimination and hypocrisy as quite radical , although some French critics found that this made the novel an unsubtle satire of fading social stereotypes . There are also literary allusions in the novel , referencing comic books , movies , music , and paintings .
= = Publication = =
The Elegance of the Hedgehog was first published in August 2006 under the title L 'élégance du hérisson by the leading French publisher Éditions Gallimard . The initial print run of the novel was 4000 copies , but by the following year , over a million had been produced . On September 25 , 2007 , Gallimard released the fiftieth reprint of the novel .
The French Voice program extended help to Gallimard in the translation of the novel to other languages and publication outside France . In partnership with the PEN American Center , French Voice funds the translation and publication of up to ten contemporary French and Francophone works each year . The Elegance of the Hedgehog was one of 30 works chosen between 2005 and 2008 by the organization , spearheaded by a committee in its selection process of professional experts .
The novel 's translation rights have been sold to 31 countries , and it has been translated to a half @-@ dozen languages . Novelist Alison Anderson translated L 'Élégance du hérisson into English as The Elegance of the Hedgehog , and this version was released in September 2008 by Europa Editions . Europa is an independent press based in Italy and New York , which focuses on translated works . In the United States , it will be among French novels receiving patronage from a major American writer , as yet unspecified . In the United Kingdom , the rights were bought by Gallic Books , a publisher specializing in French translations .
= = Reception = =
An acclaimed literary work , The Elegance of the Hedgehog has been considered by critics and press alike as a publishing phenomenon . Upon the novel 's release , it had received significant support from booksellers . The novel has earned Barbery the 2007 French Booksellers Prize , the 2007 Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde Reader 's Prize , and the Prix du Rotary International in France . The Elegance of the Hedgehog has been adapted into the film Le hérisson ( 2009 ) .
The novel was a best @-@ seller and long @-@ seller in France , amassing sales of 1 @.@ 2 million copies in hardback alone . It stayed on the country 's best @-@ seller for 102 straight weeks from its publication , longer than American novelist Dan Brown 's best @-@ selling books . According to reviewer Viv Groskop , the philosophical element in the novel partly explains its appeal in France , where philosophy remains a compulsory subject . Anderson agreed , commenting that the novel became popular in France because it is " a story where people manage to transcend their class barriers " . The novel also received a warm response in Korea , and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in Italy . The release of the novel helped increase the sales of Barbery 's first novel , Une Gourmandise .
A week after the novel was published in the United Kingdom , The Guardian ran an article about French best @-@ sellers published in English , focusing on The Elegance of the Hedgehog . In it , writer Alison Flood contended that " fiction in translation is not an easy sell to Brits , and French fiction is perhaps the hardest sell of all " . Promotions buyer Jonathan Ruppin predicted that the novel would struggle to gain a readership in the United Kingdom because , according to him , in the UK market " the plot is what people want more than anything else " and the novel 's storyline is not its central aspect .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
The Elegance of the Hedgehog was well received by critics . In the earliest known review , for the Italian newspaper La Repubblica , Maurizio Bono writes that " [ t ] he formula that made more than half a million readers in France fall in love with [ The Elegance of the Hedgehog ] has , among other ingredients : intelligent humor , fine sentiments , an excellent literary and philosophical backdrop , taste that is sophisticated but substantial " . French magazine Elle reviewer Natalie Aspesi pronounced it one of " the most exhilarating and extraordinary novels in recent years " . Aspesi , however , tagged the novel 's title as " most curious and least appealing " . Praising the novel in his review for The Guardian , Ian Samson wrote that " The Elegance of the Hedgehog aspires to be great and pretends to philosophy : it is , at least , charming . " In an earlier review in the same paper , Groskop opined that the novel is a " profound but accessible book ... which elegantly treads the line between literary and commercial fiction " . She added that " clever , informative and moving , it is essentially a crash course in philosophy interwoven with a platonic love story " . A review in The Telegraph conjectured that " [ i ] f [ the novel were ] a piece of furniture , it would be an Ikea bestseller : popular , but not likely to be passed down the generations " . A review in The Times Literary Supplement went further , calling the book " pretentious and cynical , with barely any story . It reads more like a tract than a novel , but lacks even a tract ’ s certainty of purpose . The characters are problematic : most are puppets , and those that aren ’ t are stereotypes " .
Michael Dirda of The Washington Post complimented Barbery , saying , " Certainly , the intelligent Muriel Barbery has served readers well by giving us the gently satirical , exceptionally winning and inevitably bittersweet Elegance of the Hedgehog . " Louise McCready of The New York Observer praised Anderson 's translation of the novel as " smooth and accurate " . Caryn James of The New York Times hailed the novel as " studied yet appealing commercial hit " , adding that it " belongs to a distinct subgenre : the accessible book that flatters readers with its intellectual veneer " . Los Angeles Times ' Susan Salter Reynolds wrote that " [ The Elegance of the Hedgehog ] is a high @-@ wire performance ; its characters teeter on the surreal edge of normalcy . Their efforts to conceal their true natures , the pressures of the solitary mind , make the book hum " .
= = Film adaptation = =
The novel was adapted into a film The Hedgehog ( Le hérisson ) released in France in July 2009 , starring Josiane Balasko as Renée Michel , Garance Le Guillermic as Paloma Josse , and Togo Igawa as Kakuro Ozu , with a score by Gabriel Yared . The rights for the film were bought by NeoClassics Film and it was released by the company in America on August 19 . Its reception at festivals was positive and it won the Filmfest DC 2011 , the Best of Fest Palm Springs 2011 , the Seattle International Film Festival 2010 , and the 2010 Col @-@ Coa Film Festival . Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times called it " Whimsical and touching ... Mona Achache 's adaptation is wistful perfection " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times said it " suggests a sort of Gallic Harold and Maude " .
= The Dougy Center =
The Dougy Center , The National Center for Grieving Children & Families is a nonprofit organization based in Portland , Oregon that offers support groups and services to grieving children and young adults . Its peer support program and network of children 's grief services make the organization the first of its kind in the United States . 500 independent programs around the world are based on its model , more than 300 of which have staff who were trained by the organization 's staff . The Dougy Center serves 400 children and 250 adults from the Portland metropolitan area each month , free of charge . Its main building is located in the Creston @-@ Kenilworth neighborhood , and its satellite locations in Canby and Hillsboro are called The Dougy Center Walker 's House and The Dougy Center Linklater Commons , respectively .
The organization was founded in 1982 by Beverly Chappell , in tribute to Dougy Turno , who died of a brain tumor at age thirteen . In August 1981 , Dougy wrote a letter to Elisabeth Kübler @-@ Ross , a pioneer in near @-@ death studies , on the subject of his own death . This prompted Kübler @-@ Ross to connect Chappell with Dougy and his family , and Chappell to create support groups for grieving children . Since its establishment , more than 20 @,@ 000 children and their family members have received support from the organization .
In 2009 , an unidentified arsonist destroyed the center . Construction on a new building began in April 2012 , but in the interim , the center operated in Northeast Portland . Following $ 4 @.@ 5 million in construction costs , the current 11 @,@ 750 @-@ square @-@ foot facility opened in February 2013 in its original location .
= = Mission and model = =
The Dougy Center , established in 1982 in Portland , Oregon offers support groups and services to grieving children . It has been described as a " safe haven where grief is normal " , and is assisted by support groups , professional staff , and trained volunteer facilitators . Groups are separated by age ( for example , the " Littles " group is for children ages 3 – 5 ) and type of death . Through a peer support model , children are encouraged to talk and play with one another , sharing their experiences in the process . Its peer support program and network of children 's grief services make the organization the first of its kind in the United States . 500 independent programs around the world are based on its model , more than 300 of which have staff who were trained by the organization 's staff . Its Summer Institute offers training for the leaders of other grief support programs .
The center serves 400 children and 250 adults each month , focusing its efforts on children and teens ( ages 3 – 18 ) and young adults ( ages 19 – 30 ) . Since its establishment , more than 20 @,@ 000 children and their family members in the Portland metropolitan area have benefited from The Dougy Center , free of charge . Support groups are offered in Canby , Hillsboro , and Portland . In 2004 , 140 volunteer facilitators donated more than 10 @,@ 500 hours of service to the center . The organization employs a staff of around fifteen individuals , and is supported by an advisory board and board of directors .
The Dougy Center 's main building contains round rooms designed with " creative " tunnels , some geared towards specific age groups ; interactive features , such as slides and toys ; and an art room . There exists a popular " Volcano Room " , which contains gymnastics padding , a punching bag , and soft objects , allowing children to " express their feelings in whatever form they 're comfortable with " .
The organization has satellite locations in Canby and Hillsboro , called The Dougy Center Walker 's House and The Dougy Center Linklater Commons , respectively . As of 2011 , the Hillsboro location serves 45 children and teens in three groups .
The Dougy Center is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization that has various revenue streams . According to Partnership Northwest , the center receives little government financial support and depends on donations from businesses , foundations , and individuals . In 2012 , the center received more than $ 10 @,@ 000 from Regence Blue Cross Blue Shield and the Portland Rose Festival , via the Regence Grand Floral Walk . Other funding sources have included a concert headlined by a local singer @-@ songwriter . The Dougy Center hosts an annual Reflection Benefit , which includes a silent auction , dinner , and live auction . Porsche Boxsters have been raffled off at the benefit for fifteen years . In April 2010 , Oregon Public Broadcasting sponsored a benefit event at Oaks Amusement Park called " Cookies with Cookie Monster " , featuring a walkaround plush Cookie Monster . The event raised awareness for a program from the producers of Sesame Street called " When Families Grieve " .
= = History = =
Beverly Chappell founded The Dougy Center in 1982 in tribute to Dougy Turno , who died of a brain tumor at age thirteen . In August 1981 , Dougy wrote a letter to psychiatrist and author Elisabeth Kübler @-@ Ross , a pioneer in near @-@ death studies , on the subject of his own death . This prompted Kübler @-@ Ross to connect Chappell with Dougy and his family , and Chappell to create support groups for grieving children . Despite Kübler @-@ Ross ' early influence on the organization , The Dougy Center does not subscribe to the Kübler @-@ Ross model ( a series of five emotional stages experienced by survivors of an intimate 's death : denial , anger , bargaining , depression and acceptance ) and has even expressed skepticism about the model .
In June 2009 , an unidentified arsonist destroyed the center . According to Schuurman , the center suffered three arson attempts previously : a fire burned the professional building three months prior and was followed by the discovery of a soda can filled with flammable liquid , then the burning down of the center 's play structure . Building and content losses were estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 . Business and financial records , as well as program materials were lost in the fire . The organization spent a year attempting to recover a " fair " insurance settlement , during which the building remained vacant and was subjected to vandalism ( stolen copper pipes resulted in a flooded basement ) . Deconstruction and demolition of the building began in May 2010 , following receipt of a $ 1 @.@ 2 million settlement . During the construction of the new center , which began in April 2012 , the center operated on Northeast Glisan Street near 22nd Avenue in Northeast Portland and reportedly never cancelled a single support meeting .
On February 2 , 2013 , the center hosted a celebration to commemorate the completion and grand opening of its new facility . The 11 @,@ 750 @-@ square @-@ foot building , located at its original site on Southeast 52nd Avenue in Portland 's Creston @-@ Kenilworth neighborhood , cost $ 4 @.@ 5 million and was designed by Scott Edwards Architecture and built by Bremik Construction . Donations and the insurance settlement supplied seventy percent of the construction costs .
= = Reception = =
In 2013 , Schuurman was awarded the Clinical Practice Award by Association for Death Education and Counseling , one of the oldest organizations in the field of dying , death and bereavement . In 2014 , the center 's reconstructed building design earned Scott Edwards Architecture an Award of Merit ( also known as the Building Industry Community Spirit award ) at the Gold Nugget Awards , which recognize " design excellence of U.S. and international projects submitted by builders , developers , architects and land planners " . The firm also received the Against All Odds Award at the 2014 Design Excellence Awards , presented by the Oregon chapter of the International Interior Design Association .
= = Publications = =
35 Ways to Help a Grieving Child . 35 Maneras de ayudar a un niño angustiado o apenado ( in Spanish ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 08 @-@ 0 .
Helping Children Cope with Death . ISBN 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 00 @-@ 5 . Cómo ayudar a un niño a sobrellevar una muerte ( in Spanish ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 09 @-@ 7 .
Helping the Grieving Student : A Guide for Teachers . 1998 . ISBN 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 01 @-@ 3 .
Helping Teens Cope with Death . 1999 . ISBN 1 @-@ 890534 @
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-@ 02 @-@ 1 . Ayuda para adolescents sobrellevar una muerte de un querido ( in Spanish ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 12 @-@ 7 .
I wish I was in a lonely meadow ( 1999 )
We don 't like remembering them as a field of grass ( 1991 )
What About the Kids ? Understanding Their Needs in Funeral Planning & Services . 1999 . ISBN 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 04 @-@ 8 .
When Death Impacts Your School : A Guide for Administrators . 2000 . ISBN 1 @-@ 890534 @-@ 05 @-@ 6 .
= Test Track =
Test Track is a slot car attraction at Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake , Florida . The ride is a simulated excursion through the rigorous testing procedures that General Motors uses to evaluate its concept cars , culminating in a high @-@ speed drive around the exterior of the attraction . It closed for refurbishment on April 5 , 2012 and re @-@ opened on December 6 , 2012 . It is now sponsored by the Chevrolet brand rather than General Motors as a whole , who sponsored the attraction from 1999 until the refurbishment .
Test Track soft @-@ opened to the public December 19 , 1998 after a long delay due to problems revealed during testing and changes to the ride design which prevented the ride from opening on its original date , May 1997 . Instead , the attraction officially opened on March 17 , 1999 . Test Track replaced World of Motion , though it uses the same ride building .
Before the 2012 refurbishment , guests rode in " test vehicles " in a GM " testing facility " and were taken through a series of assessments to illustrate how automobile prototype evaluations are conducted . The highlight of the attraction was ( and still is ) a speed trial on a track around the exterior of the Test Track building at a top speed of 64 @.@ 9 miles per hour ( 104 @.@ 6 km / h ) making it one of the fastest Disney theme park attractions ever built . After the 2012 refurbishment , guests design their own car in the Chevrolet Design Studio . Then they board a " Sim @-@ Car " and are taken through the " digital " testing ground of the " SimTrack " . Throughout the ride , guests see how their designs performed in each individual test . After the ride , guests can see how their car did overall , film a commercial , and race their designs .
General Motors is the last @-@ surviving " original eight " Epcot sponsor while not counting Communicore and / or Innoventions ( referring to those attractions being built and opened from Epcot 's opening day 1982 until 1989 with Wonders of Life ; General Electric dropped sponsorship for Horizons in 1993 whereas Kraft also permanently terminated their sponsorship for The Land pavilion the same year thus becoming the first companies to drop sponsorship at Epcot . It was then followed by United Technologies when they yanked sponsorship of The Living Seas in 1998 . Metlife followed suit for its Wonders of Life sponsorship in 2001 , followed by both Exxonmobil and AT & T pulling their sponsorship for Universe of Energy and Spaceship Earth in 2004 , respectively . Six years later , in 2010 , Kodak too declined to renew their sponsorship for Journey into Imagination and instead simply letting it permanently lapse owing to that company 's then @-@ bankruptcy phase ) .
= = History = =
= = = Test Track ( March 1999 – April 2012 ) = = =
World of Motion was an attraction that was located in the current building of Test Track and was sponsored by General Motors . When the sponsorship expired , GM was in the process of conducting lay @-@ offs and cutbacks forcing the company to question whether or not to sign another sponsorship agreement . Upon deciding to sign another agreement , GM wanted Disney to construct a new ride ( in the location of World of Motion ) that focused specifically around their automobiles , rather than the fanciful history of transportation from the pre @-@ historic ( animal transportation ) to modern age ( automobiles , planes , etc . ) previously housed in the space . In 1976 , Disney Imagineers had visited the Milford Proving Ground ( owned by General Motors ) and later made a second trip to the facility and worked with GM to create Test Track . After numerous problems encountered during the construction of the ride , Test Track soft @-@ opened on December 19 , 1998 but didn 't officially open until March 17 , 1999 , nearly 2 years after the original scheduled opening date .
After World of Motion had closed on January 2 , 1996 , everything inside the ride building was removed . After , new track was constructed outside of the building which is used as the high @-@ speed test for Test Track . Work inside the building also continued at the same time . It was scheduled to open 19 months after World of Motion 's closing , in May 1997 , but after numerous problems rose , the ride opening was delayed by nearly 2 years . Also , the cars used on the ride were designed to resemble the look of a test car that is used to go through multiple safety tests .
Over the course of the construction of Test Track , numerous problems occurred causing delays in the ride opening . One problem that Imagineers had to overcome was that the wheels used on the ride vehicles could not stand up to the demand of the ride course and speed . This problem was resolved but a second , more severe problem caused the ride to be delayed by over a year . In order for Test Track to run with the highest hourly capacity possible , twenty @-@ nine ride vehicles would be needed . The ride programming system could only handle operating a maximum of six cars over the layout of the ride . One by one , programmers were able to get the computer system able to run twenty @-@ nine ride vehicles all at once . After these problems were resolved , Test Track soft @-@ opened to the public on December 19 , 1998 . The ride was still prone to breakdowns and didn 't officially open until March 17 , 1999 .
= = = Test Track Presented by Chevrolet ( December 2012 – present ) = = =
On January 6 , 2012 , Disney Parks announced plans to renovate Test Track during the second and third quarters of the year and re @-@ open the ride by fall 2012 . As part of the update , Test Track 's sponsor became General Motors ' Chevrolet marque instead of GM as a whole . The new additions include a pre @-@ show area where guests " design " a new car for testing in the Chevrolet Design Center , then they will board Test Track 's existing six @-@ passenger ride vehicles , to be known as " SimCars " , to see how their design fares on the Center 's driving course . The experience concludes in a renovated showroom featuring current and future Chevrolet products . Also , the ride vehicles used on the original Test Track , will remain the same but receive new " skin " . On April 27 , 2012 , Walt Disney 's social media manager Jennifer Fickley @-@ Baker released a set of concept design photos . Within the photos , it was confirmed that the ride will have 4 main tests : capability , efficiency , responsiveness , and power . The ride closed on April 15 , 2012 and soon later , barriers were placed along all walk @-@ ways leading to either the entrance or exit of the ride . Also , a musical show called " Test Track All Stars " has been added in front of the former main entrance to Test Track . The refurbished attraction first opened to guests during a soft opening on December 3 , 2012 . The grand re @-@ opening took place on December 6 , 2012 , and has since received generally mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews .
= = Ride overview = =
= = = 1999 – 2012 = = =
= = = = Queue = = = =
During the first part of the queue , guests viewed a sample repair and test shop . As guests entered the queue in the welcome center they were shown tests performed on cars and parts before being released . The queue wound by different tests for tires and car doors , an anechoic chamber for radio receivers , and an area for crash test dummies to be tested . At the end of the queue a group of guests would be brought into a briefing room where they were shown automobile testing facilities and examples of tests being performed . The host , Bill McKim ( John Michael Higgins ) told the guests that they would take part in some of these tests and also told the technician Sherrie what tests to set up . Small videos of each test were shown as he spoke . He finally told her to choose one final " surprise test , " and a video of a car crashing into a barrier was shown as a door opened for guests to enter the interior queue .
= = = = Ride = = = =
Upon reaching the end of the second queue , guests were loaded into test cars . Upon dispatching from the loading dock , the car was brought through an accelerated hill climb . Next , the car 's suspension was tested over different types of road surfaces , including German and Belgian blocks & cobblestones . Next , the car 's anti @-@ lock braking system was turned off and the car tried to navigate a course of cones , knocking many over in the process . The anti @-@ lock brakes were then turned back on and a similar cone course was navigated easily . Guests were shown a video overlay of the difference . Then , the cars were brought through 3 environmental chambers : a heat chamber , a cold chamber , and a corrosion chamber .
The handling of the car was then tested . It climbed a set of hills with blind turns while increasing its speed by 10 % each time . At the top , the car almost crashes into an oncoming semi @-@ truck before swerving out of the way . The car was now brought to the final test shown in the briefing room : the barrier test . The car lined up across from a barrier and began to accelerate towards it . Just before hitting the barrier a series of flashes occurred , where a picture of the guests was taken , and the barrier opened to a track outside . The car took a lap around the building with banked turns and a max speed of 64 @.@ 9 mph ( 104 @.@ 6 km / h ) . As the car returned to the loading dock , a thermal scan was taken of the guests and shown on a large screen .
Like many Disney attractions , Test Track exited into a themed gift shop featuring merchandise associated with the attraction . Guests could also view and purchase photos taken of their vehicle on the ride or scan their Photopass to view or purchase the photos later . There was also an area where there was a showroom of all new , prototype , or legendary GM vehicles .
= = = = Post Show : The Assembly Experience = = = =
Experience designer Bob Rogers and the design team BRC Imagination Arts , were commissioned to create the new post show experience entitled : " The Assembly Experience . " The Assembly Experience is a walk @-@ through environment , giving guest the illusion that they are on the floor of a vast automotive assembly plant . Automotive doors , seats and engines glide overhead on assembly line chainveyors , while simulated automotive die @-@ press caused the floor to " rumble " as each automotive part was pressed . Video monitors provided real GM workers a chance to tell EPCOT visitors how they felt about their products and their work .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
= = = = Queue = = = =
The first queue uses the same area as the old but is themed to Chevrolet 's Design Studio . Riders pass by two concept cars , the Chevrolet Tru and the Chevrolet EN @-@ V. After , the standby queue leads to a section where a small model car is drawn on through projections while one of Chevrolet 's employees discusses the design process for cars . The standby queue goes by large touchscreens where riders can take tutorials on how to design a car . Once at the front of the queue , riders use their MagicBand , park ticket , or receive a white RFID card called a " design key " and wait for a set of doors to open leading into one of the two design studios . Once in the studio , riders have a set amount of time ( that depends on how busy the attraction is ) to design their own " Chevrolet Custom Concept Vehicle " that will be tested on the sim @-@ track . Once the time expires , riders move to the second queue which leads to the boarding area . For Fastpass + riders , the queue goes directly to the main design studios . For single riders , guests use their MagicBand , ticket , or a design key to select a pre @-@ designed car from one of the four performance attributes : Capability , Efficiency , Responsiveness or Power . Once 30 seconds expire , riders move to the same second queue . While waiting to board the sim @-@ cars , all guests must scan their MagicBand , ticket , or design key again at the gate to upload their Chevrolet Custom Concept Vehicle to the sim @-@ car .
= = = = Ride = = = =
After riders board the sim @-@ cars and the seat belts are fastened , the car that they designed will undergo four different tests : capability , efficiency , responsiveness , and power . In the capability test the car first connects to OnStar , then accelerates past a rain / snow projection and skids out of control . Next , the continuing path disappears and the sim @-@ car turns around to speed up again . A short time later , the sim @-@ car makes a sharp left turn as a lighting bolt strikes . The car then passes by a futuristic city . Following the capability test , the results of which car designs scored the best in the test are displayed . The sim @-@ car then begins the efficiency test . In the first part , the sim @-@ cars are scanned for " optimum eco @-@ efficiency " . The second test performs an aero @-@ dynamic test on the vehicle . Finally , a " hyper @-@ spectrum imaging " takes place . Again , after the test is complete , the best scores are displayed . The third test , responsiveness , is next . The sim @-@ car accelerates around hairpin turns with laser @-@ projected trees . It then enters a tunnel to encounter the 18 @-@ wheeler from the original version though it is now shown with lasers . When the vehicle exits the tunnel , the results for the responsiveness test are displayed and all of the test icons are displayed . The final test is power where the sim @-@ car stops for a moment then accelerates through flashing purple arches to a wall with the ride 's logo on it leading to the outside portion of the ride . As the sim @-@ car 's speed is increased , it makes a right turn , followed by a wide left , a straight section , and one final long left turn . When the test is complete , the vehicle returns to the loading station where the next riders board . Then , guests use their MagicBand , ticket , or design key that has their Chevrolet Custom Concept Vehicle that they made in the Design Studio to play games in the " Chevrolet Showroom . " There is also a shop located at the exit like the original version of the ride .
In the current version , many World of Motion logos can be found throughout the attraction , such as on trash bins , murals , and also the attraction 's main sign .
= Street , Somerset =
Street is a large village and civil parish in the county of Somerset , England . The 2011 census recorded the parish as having a population of 11 @,@ 805 . It is situated on a dry spot in the Somerset Levels , at the end of the Polden Hills , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ west of Glastonbury . There is evidence of Roman occupation . Much of the history of the village is dominated by Glastonbury Abbey until the Dissolution of the Monasteries , and indeed its name comes from a 12th @-@ century causeway from Glastonbury which was built to transport local Blue Lias stone from what is now Street to rebuild the Abbey , although it had previously been known as Lantokay and Lega .
The Society of Friends had become established there by the mid @-@ 17th century . One Quaker family , the Clarks , started a business in sheepskin rugs , woollen slippers and , later , boots and shoes . This became C & J Clark which still has its headquarters in Street , but shoes are no longer manufactured there . Instead , in 1993 , redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village , the first purpose @-@ built factory outlet in the United Kingdom . The Shoe Museum provides information about the history of Clarks and footwear manufacture in general .
The Clark family 's former mansion and its estate at the edge of the town are now owned by Millfield School , an independent co @-@ educational boarding school . Street is also home to Crispin School and Strode College .
To the north of Street is the River Brue , which marks the boundary with Glastonbury . South of Street are the Walton and Ivythorn Hills and East Polden Grasslands biological Sites of Special Scientific Interest . Street has two public swimming pools , one indoor which is part of the Strode complex , and the outdoor lido , Greenbank . Strode Theatre provides a venue for films , exhibitions and live performances . The Anglican Parish Church of The Holy Trinity dates from the 14th century and has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building .
= = History = =
The settlement 's earliest known name is Lantokay , meaning the sacred enclosure of Kea , a Celtic saint . In the Domesday Book it was recorded as Strate , and also Lega , a name still used throughout the country in the modern form , " Leigh " . The centre of Street is where Lower Leigh hamlet was , and the road called Middle Leigh and the community called Overleigh are to the south of the village . In the 12th century , a causeway from Glastonbury was built to transport stone from what is now Street for rebuilding Glastonbury Abbey after a fire , and Street 's name is derived from the Latin strata – a paved road . The causeway is about 100 yards ( 90 m ) north of a Roman road .
The parish of Street was part of the Whitley Hundred .
Quarries of the local blue lias stone were worked from as early as the 12th century to the end of the 19th century . It is a geological formation in southern England , part of the Lias Group . The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers , laid down in latest Triassic and early Jurassic times , between 195 and 200 million years ago . Its age corresponds to the Rhaetian to lower Sinemurian stages of the geologic timescale , thus fully including the Hettangian stage . It is the lowest of the three divisions of the Lower Jurassic period and , as such , is also given the name Lower Lias . It consists of thin blue argillaceous , or clay @-@ like , limestone . The Blue Lias contains many fossils , especially ammonites . Fossils discovered in the lias include many ichthyosaurs , one of which has been adopted as the badge of Street . There is a display of Street fossils in the Natural History Museum in London .
The churchyard of the Parish Church has yielded one Iron Age coin , however the origin and significance is unclear , although the Dobunni were known to have produced coins in the area . A number of Roman pottery fragments , now in the Museum of Somerset . Remains of Roman villas exist on the south edge of Street near Marshalls Elm and Ivythorn . Buried remains of a Roman road were excavated in the early 20th century on the flood @-@ plain of the river Brue between Glastonbury and Street . The parish churchyard is on the first flood @-@ free ground near the river Brue and was probably the first land to be inhabited . The form of the large churchyard suggests a lan , a sacred area of a kind that was built in the first half of the 6th century . Llan or Lan is a common place name element in Brythonic languages such as Welsh , Cornish , Breton , Cumbric , and possibly Pictish . The original meaning of llan in Welsh is " an enclosed piece of land " , but it later evolved to mean the parish surrounding a church .
One biography of St Gildas has the saint spending some time in Glastonbury Abbey , and moving to a site by the river , where he built a chapel to the Holy Trinity and there died . The Parish Church , now Holy Trinity , has at times been known as St Gildas ' church . Glastonbury Abbey controlled Street until the Dissolution .
Sharpham Park is a 300 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) historic park , approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Street , which dates back to the Bronze Age . The first known reference is a grant by King Edwy to the then Aethelwold in 957 . In 1191 Sharpham Park was conferred by the soon @-@ to @-@ be King John I to the Abbots of Glastonbury , who remained in possession of the park and house until the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539 . From 1539 to 1707 the park was owned by the Duke of Somerset , Sir Edward Seymour , brother of Queen Jane ; the Thynne family of Longleat , and the family of Sir Henry Gould . Edward Dyer was born here in 1543 . The house is now a private residence and Grade II * listed building . It was the birthplace of Sir Edward Dyer ( died 1607 ) an Elizabethan poet and courtier , the writer Henry Fielding ( 1707 – 54 ) , and the cleric William Gould .
Ivythorn Manor on Pages Hill was a medieval monastic house . It was rebuilt in 1488 for Abbot John Selwood of Glastonbury Abbey . After the dissolution of the monasteries it became a manor house owned by the Marshall and Sydenham families . Sir John Sydenham added a wing 1578 which was later demolished . By 1834 the house was largely ruined until its restoration around 1904 , and a west wing was added in 1938 . It is a Grade II * listed building .
= = Governance = =
The parish council is responsible for some local issues , and sets an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover its council ’ s operating costs . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The parish council also initiates projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , and consults with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council . Having previously been part of Street Urban District , the village now falls within the non @-@ metropolitan district of Mendip , which was formed on 1 April 1974 , under the Local Government Act 1972 , and is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . There are currently three wards of the Mendip Council in Street which elect councillors every four years . As of 2010 the two councillors for Street North are both Liberal Democrats , Street West has one Liberal Democrat councillor and Street South is represented by two councillors one of which is a Liberal Democrat and the other is independent of any political party .
Somerset County Council is responsible for the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , libraries , main roads , public transport , policing and fire services , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning .
There are three electoral wards in Street ( North , South and West ) . The total population equates to that shown above .
Street is in the Wells parliamentary constituency , which elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system . The current MP is James Heappey , elected in 2015 , of the Conservative Party . Street is also in the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation . Street is twinned with Isny im Allgäu , a town in south @-@ eastern Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany , and Notre Dame de Gravenchon in Normandy , France . Both twinnings are announced on the signs that welcome visitors to Street .
= = Geography = =
The River Brue marks the boundary with Glastonbury , to the north of Street . At the time of King Arthur , the Brue formed a lake just south of the hilly ground on which Glastonbury stands . This lake is one of the locations suggested by Arthurian legend as the home of the Lady of the Lake . Pomparles Bridge stood at the western end of this lake , guarding Glastonbury from the south , and it was here that Sir Bedivere is thought to have thrown the sword Excalibur into the waters after King Arthur fell at the Battle of Camlann . The old bridge was replaced by a reinforced concrete arch bridge in 1911 .
Before the 13th century , the direct route to the sea at Highbridge was blocked by gravel banks and peat near Westhay . The course of the river partially encircled Glastonbury from the south , around the western side ( through Beckery ) , and then north through the Panborough @-@ Bleadney gap in the Wedmore @-@ Wookey Hills , to join the River Axe just north of Bleadney . This route made it difficult for the officials of Glastonbury Abbey to transport produce from their outlying estates to the Abbey , and when the valley of the river Axe was in flood it backed up to flood Glastonbury itself . Sometime between 1230 and 1250 , a new channel was constructed westwards into Meare Pool north of Meare , and further westwards to Mark Moor . The Brue Valley Living Landscape is a conservation project based on the Somerset Levels and Moors and managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust .
The Walton and Ivythorn Hills biological Site of Special Scientific Interest south of the town lies at the end of the Polden Hills . This site is owned and managed by the National Trust . Walton and Ivythorn Hills support a complex mosaic of semi @-@ natural habitats which includes unimproved calcareous grassland , dense and scattered scrub and broadleaved woodland . Structural diversity within the habitats , together with the extensive areas of sheltered wood @-@ edge and scrub @-@ edge margins provide ideal conditions for many species of invertebrate . Butterflies , leafhoppers , spiders and soldier flies are particularly well represented . The great green bush cricket ( Tettigonia viridissima ) is also of interest . It is adjacent to the East Polden Grasslands which has typical examples of species @-@ rich , unimproved , calcareous grassland with scrub and amongst the many plant species found in this habitat is the early gentian ( Gentianella anglica ) , which is endemic to Britain . Its other main interest lies in its suitability as a habitat for the large blue butterfly ( Phengaris arion ) , which has been successfully reintroduced onto the site . There are two nationally scarce grasshopper species present ; rufous grasshopper ( Gomphocerippus rufus )
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) is located close by . From its location well above local human @-@ generated influences , the MLO monitors the global atmosphere , including the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO2 from the volcano .
The Yuan @-@ Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy ( AMiBA ) sits at an elevation of 11 @,@ 155 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) . It was established in October 2006 by the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics ( ASIAA ) to examine cosmic microwave background radiation .
= White House travel office controversy =
The White House travel office controversy , sometimes referred to as Travelgate , was the first major ethics controversy of the Clinton administration . It began in May 1993 , when seven employees of the White House Travel Office were fired . This action was unusual because although theoretically staff employees serve at the pleasure of the President and could be dismissed without cause , in practice , such employees usually remain in their posts for many years .
The White House stated the firings were done because financial improprieties in the Travel Office operation during previous administrations had been revealed by an FBI investigation . Critics contended the firings were done to allow friends of President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to take over the travel business and that the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted . Heavy media attention forced the White House to reinstate most of the employees in other jobs and remove the Clinton associates from the travel role .
Further investigations by the FBI and the Department of Justice , the White House itself , the General Accounting Office , the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , and the Whitewater Independent Counsel all took place over the subsequent years . Travel Office Director Billy Dale was charged with embezzlement but found not guilty in 1995 . In 1998 , Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated Bill Clinton of any involvement in the matter .
Hillary Clinton gradually came under scrutiny for allegedly having played a central role in the firings and making false statements about her role in it . In 2000 , Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Travelgate . He sought no charges against her , saying that while some of Clinton 's statements were factually false , there was insufficient evidence that these statements were either knowingly false or that she understood that her statements led to the firings .
= = The White House Travel Office = =
The White House Travel Office , known officially as either the White House Travel and Telegraph Office or the White House Telegraph and Travel Office , dates back to the Andrew Jackson administration and serves to handle travel arrangements for the White House press corps , with costs billed to the participating news organizations . By the time of the start of the Clinton administration , it was quartered in the Old Executive Office Building , and had seven employees with a yearly budget of $ 7 million . Staffers serve at the pleasure of the president ; however , in practice , the staffers were career employees who in some cases had worked in the Travel Office since the 1960s and 1970s , through both Democratic and Republican administrations .
Travel Office Director Billy Ray Dale had held that position since 1982 , serving through most of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations , and had started in the Travel Office in 1961 . To handle the frequent last @-@ minute arrangements of presidential travel and the specialized requirements of the press , Dale did not conduct competitive bidding for travel services , but relied upon a charter company called Airline of the Americas .
= = Initial White House actions = =
According to the White House , the incoming Clinton administration had heard reports of irregularities in the Travel Office and possible kickbacks to an office employee from a charter air company . They looked at a review by KPMG Peat Marwick which discovered that Dale kept an off @-@ book ledger , had $ 18 @,@ 000 of unaccounted @-@ for checks , and kept chaotic office records . White House Chief of Staff Mack McLarty and the White House counsels thus decided to fire the Travel Office staff and reorganize it . The actual terminations were done on May 19 , 1993 , by White House director of administration David Watkins . There was also a feeling among the White House and its supporters that the Travel Office had never been investigated by the media due to its close relationship with press corps members and the plush accommodations it afforded them and favors it did for them . ( Congress would later discover that in October 1988 , a whistleblower within the Travel Office had alleged financial improprieties ; the Reagan White House counsel looked into the claim but took no action . )
Republicans and other critics saw the events differently . They alleged that friends of President Bill Clinton , including his third cousin Catherine Cornelius , had sought the firings in order to get the business for themselves . Dale and his staff had been replaced with Little Rock , Arkansas @-@ based World Wide Travel , a company with a substantial reputation in the industry but with several ties to the Clintons . In addition , Hollywood producer and Inauguration chairman Harry Thomason , a friend of both Clintons , and his business partner , Darnell Martens , were looking to get their air charter company , TRM , the White House business in place of Airline of the Americas . The Clinton campaign had been TRM 's sole client during 1992 , collecting commissions from booking charter flights for the campaign . Martens wanted the White House to award TRM a $ 500 @,@ 000 contract for an aircraft audit , while also seeking Travel Office charter business as an intermediary which did not own any planes .
Attention initially focused on the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , since on May 12 , 1993 , a week before the firings , associate White House counsel William Kennedy had requested that the FBI look into possible improprieties in the Travel Office operation . FBI agents went there and , although initially reluctant , authorized a preliminary investigation . Deputy White House Counsel Vince Foster became worried about the firings about to take place and ordered the KPMG Peat Marwick review , asking the FBI to hold off in the meantime . The accounting review started on May 14 and the report was given to the White House on May 17 . KPMG was unable to do an actual audit , because there were so few records in the Travel Office that could be audited and because the office did not use the double @-@ entry bookkeeping system that audits are based upon . One KPMG representative later described the office as " an ungodly mess in terms of records " with ten years of material piled up in a closet . When the review came back with its reports of irregularities , Watkins went ahead with the terminations on May 19 .
= = Investigations = =
The travel office affair quickly became the first major ethics controversy of the Clinton presidency and an embarrassment for the new administration . Criticism from political opponents and especially the news media became intense ; the White House was later described as having been " paralyzed for a week " . The effect was intensified by cable television news and the advent of the 24 @-@ hour news cycle . Within three days of the firings , World Wide Travel voluntarily withdrew from the White House travel operation and were replaced on a temporary basis by American Express Travel Services . ( Later , after a competitive bid , American Express received the permanent role to book press charters . )
Various investigations took place .
= = = FBI = = =
The role of the White House staff in pressuring the FBI to launch an investigation had been heavily criticized ; on May 28 , 1993 , the FBI issued a report saying it had done nothing wrong in its contacts with the White House . ( This conclusion was reiterated by a March 1994 report by the Justice Department 's Office of Professional Responsibility . )
Meanwhile , the FBI investigation of the Travel Office practices themselves continued , soon focusing on Dale . During the summer of 1993 the other staffers of the office were informed that they were no longer a target of investigation .
= = = Clinton White House report = = =
On July 3 , 1993 , the White House issued its own 80 @-@ page report on the firings , one that the New York Times termed " strikingly self @-@ critical " . Co @-@ written by Chief of Staff McLarty , it criticized five White House officials , included McLarty himself , Watkins , Kennedy , Cornelius , and another , for dismissing the Travel Office members improperly , for appearing to pressure the FBI into its involvement , and for allowing friends of the Clintons to become involved in a matter with which they had a business stake . It said that the employees should instead have been placed on administrative leave . However , the White House said no illegal actions had occurred , and no officials would be terminated ; this did not satisfy Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole , who called for an independent investigation . As Chief of Staff McLarty personally apologized to the fired Travel Office employees — some of whom had all their personal documents and travel photographs related to years of service thrown out during the firing process — and said they would be given other jobs ( which five of them were ; Dale and his assistant director retired . ) The White House report also contained the initial indications of First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton 's involvement in the firings , saying that she had taken an interest in Travel Office mismanagement and had been informed two days in advance that the firings would take place . There was no indication of involvement from President Clinton himself , although he had earlier taken broad public responsibility for what had happened .
The travel office controversy was subsequently judged to have been a factor in Vince Foster 's depression and July 20 , 1993 , suicide . In his torn @-@ up resignation note from a few days before , he wrote " No one in The White House , to my knowledge , violated any law or standard of conduct , including any action in the Travel Office . There was no intent to benefit any individual or specific group . [ ... ] The press is covering up the illegal benefits they received from the travel staff " . ( In the last part , Foster may have been referring to lax customs treatment by the Travel Office of goods brought back from foreign trips by reporters . )
= = = GAO Report = = =
In July 1993 , Congress requested the non @-@ partisan General Accounting Office investigate the firings ; on May 2 , 1994 , the GAO concluded that the White House did have legal authority to terminate the Travel Office employees without cause , because they served at the pleasure of the president . However , it also concluded that Cornelius , Thomason , and Martens , who all had potential business interests involved , had possibly influenced the decision . Moreover , the GAO report indicated that First Lady Hillary Clinton played a larger role than previously thought before the firings , with Watkins saying she had urged " that action be taken to get ' our people ' into the travel office . " The First Lady , who had given a written statement to the inquiry , said she did " not recall this conversation with the same level of detail as Mr. Watkins . "
= = = Independent Counsel investigation begins = = =
Special prosecutor Robert B. Fiske tangentially investigated travel office events during the first half of 1994 , as part of investigating the circumstances surrounding Foster 's death .
In August 1994 , Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr took over from Fiske in investigating Whitewater , Foster , and indirectly the travel office matter . On July 22 , 1995 , Hillary Clinton gave a deposition under oath to the Independent Counsel that touched on travel office questions ; she denied having had a role in the firings , but was unable to recall many specifics of conversations with Foster and Watkins .
= = = Oversight Committee investigation begins = = =
In late 1994 , following the 1994 Congressional elections which switched Congress from Democratic to Republican control , the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , chaired by Pennsylvania Republican William Clinger , launched an investigation into the White House Travel Office firings . In October 1995 , the committee began hearings on the matter ; Clinger soon accused the White House of withholding pertinent documents and sought subpoenas to compel witnesses to appear .
= = = Private investigations = = =
Not all investigations were by governmental bodies . The magazine The American Spectator , which had a well @-@ established animus towards the First Couple , focused on the Travelgate story as one of many Clinton @-@ related matters it thought scandalous , describing it as " a story about influence @-@ peddling and sleazy deal @-@ making ... in the Clinton White House " . Spectator publisher R. Emmett Tyrrell , Jr. would claim that the magazine 's early Travelgate stories provided useful material to the congressional investigations . In general , Clinton administration controversies such as Travelgate allowed opinion magazines and political debate television shows to attract subscribers and viewers .
= = Prosecution and acquittal of Billy Dale = =
Meanwhile , as a consequence of the FBI investigation , former Travel Office Director Billy Dale was indicted by a federal grand jury on December 7 , 1994 , on two counts of embezzlement and criminal conversion , charged with wrongfully depositing into his own bank account $ 68 @,@ 000 in checks from media organizations traveling with the president during the period between 1988 and 1991 . He faced up to 20 years in prison if convicted . Dale 's attorneys conceded that funds had been co @-@ mingled , but stated that Dale had not stolen anything but rather used the monies for the substantial tips and off @-@ the @-@ book payments that the job required , especially in foreign countries , and that anything left over was used as a discount against future trips .
At the 13 @-@ day trial in October and November 1995 , prominent journalists such as ABC News ' Sam Donaldson and The Los Angeles Times ' Jack Nelson testified as character witnesses on Dale 's behalf . Much of the trial focused on the details of the movement of Travel Office funds into Dale 's personal account , and not on the political overtones of the case . The jury acquitted Dale of both charges on November 16 , 1995 , following less than two hours of deliberations .
= = A memo surfaces regarding Hillary Clinton = =
On January 5 , 1996 , a new development thrust the travel office matter again to the forefront . A two @-@ year @-@ old memo from White House director of administration David Watkins surfaced that identified First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton as the motivating force behind the firings , with the additional involvement of Vince Foster and Harry Thomason . " Foster regularly informed me that the First Lady was concerned and desired action . The action desired was the firing of the Travel Office staff . " Written in fall 1993 , apparently intended for McLarty , the Watkins memo also said " we both know that there would be hell to pay " if " we failed to take swift and decisive action in conformity with the First Lady 's wishes . " This memo contradicted the First Lady 's previous statements in the GAO investigation , that she had played no role in the firings and had not consulted with Thomason beforehand ; the White House also found it difficult to explain why the memo was so late in surfacing when all the previous investigations had requested all relevant materials . House committee chair Clinger charged a cover @-@ up was taking place and vowed to pursue new material .
These developments , following Hillary Clinton 's prior disputed statements about her cattle futures dealings and Whitewater , led to a famous exchange in which high @-@ profile New York Times columnist William Safire , who had endorsed Bill Clinton in the previous election , wrote that many Americans were coming to the " sad realization that our First Lady — a woman of undoubted talents who was a role model for many in her generation — is a congenital liar , " followed by White House Press Secretary Mike McCurry saying that " the President , if he were not the President , would have delivered a more forceful response to that — on the bridge of Mr. Safire 's nose . "
As a result of the discovery of the Watkins memo , and based upon a suggestion from the Office of Independent Counsel , on March 20 , 1996 , Attorney General Janet Reno requested that Whitewater Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr expand his inquiry to specifically include the travel office affair , in particular allegations that White House employees had lied about Hillary Clinton 's role in the firings , and that David Watkins or Hillary Clinton had made false statements in previous testimony to the GAO , Congress , or the Independent Counsel .
The Congressional investigation continued ; on March 21 , 1996 , Hillary Clinton submitted a deposition under oath to the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , again acknowledging concern about irregularities in the Travel Office but denying a direct role in the firings and expressing a lack of recollection to a number of questions . A battle of wills took place between the legislative and executive branches . On May 9 , 1996 , President Clinton refused to turn over additional documents related to the matter , claiming executive privilege . House committee chair Clinger threatened a contempt of Congress resolution against the president , and the White House partially backed down on May 30 , surrendering 1 @,@ 000 of the 3 @,@ 000 documents the committee asked for .
Meanwhile , the seven dismissed employees were back in the picture . In March 1996 the House voted 350 – 43 to reimburse them for all of their legal expenses ; in September 1996 , Democratic Senator Harry Reid led an unsuccessful attempt to block this measure . In May 1996 , the seven filed a $ 35 million lawsuit against Harry Thomason and Darnell Martens , alleging unlawful interference with their employment and emotional distress .
On June 5 , 1996 , Clinger announced that the committee 's investigations had discovered that the White House had requested access to Billy Dale 's FBI background check report seven months after the terminations , in what Clinger said was an improper effort to justify the firings . It was rapidly discovered that the White House had additionally gotten improper access to hundreds of other FBI background reports , many on former White House employees in Republican administrations ; thus was born the Filegate controversy .
The Senator Al D 'Amato @-@ chaired Senate Special Whitewater Committee , which had begun the previous year , issued its findings in a majority report on June 18 , 1996 ; it did not investigate Travelgate directly , but did say that " [ Hillary ] Clinton , upon learning of [ Vince ] Foster 's death , at least realized its connection to [ the ] Travelgate scandal , and perhaps to the Whitewater matter , and dispatched her trusted lieutenants to contain any potential embarrassment or political damage . " Minority Democratic members of the Committee derided these findings as " a legislative travesty , " " a witch hunt , " and " a political game . "
The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee issued its majority report on September 18 , 1996 , in which it accused the Clinton administration of having obstructed the committee 's efforts to investigate the Travelgate scandal . It portrayed Bill Clinton as being heavily involved in the travel office affair , more than any other investigation . The report 's chapter titles were lurid : " The White House Stonewalled All Investigations into the White House Travel Office Firings and Related Matters " , " The White House Initiated a Full @-@ Scale Campaign of Misinformation in the Aftermath of the Travel Office Firings and President Clinton Led the Misinformation Campaign from the First Days of the Travelgate Debacle " , " Foster 's Death Shattered a White House Just Recovering from an Abysmal First 6 Months of Administration " , and so forth . Democratic members of the Committee walked out in protest over the report , with ranking member Henry Waxman calling it " an embarrassment to you [ Chairman Clinger ] , this committee and this Congress " and " a crassly partisan smear campaign against President Clinton , Mrs. Clinton and this administration . " The following month Clinger forwarded the report , along with one on Filegate , to the Independent Counsel , suggesting that the testimony of several witnesses be looked at for possible perjury or obstruction of justice . Democrats said this was politically motivated in an attempt to influence the 1996 presidential election .
= = Independent Counsel findings = =
Almost two years passed . Independent Counsel Starr continued his investigation . Starr wanted access to notes that Vince Foster 's attorney took in a conversation with Foster about the travel office affair shortly before Foster 's suicide , but on June 25 , 1998 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 – 3 against Starr in Swidler & Berlin v. United States , stating that attorney – client privilege extends beyond the grave . In September 1998 Independent Counsel Starr released the famous Starr Report , concerning offenses that may have been committed by President Clinton as part of the Lewinsky scandal . It did not mention the travel office matter .
On November 19 , 1998 , Starr testified before the House
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Judiciary Committee in connection with the impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal . Here , for the first time , Starr exonerated President Clinton of complicity in the travel office affair , saying that while investigations were not complete , " the president was not involved in our ... investigation . " ( Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Filegate matter , and to say he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter ; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections . )
Starr explicitly did not exonerate Hillary Clinton , however ; her case remained unsettled . More time passed . By 2000 , she was a candidate for United States Senator from New York , and Starr had been replaced as Independent Counsel by prosecutor Robert Ray , who once worked for Rudy Giuliani , Clinton 's then @-@ opponent in the Senate race . Regardless , Ray vowed his investigation would have " no untoward effect on the political process . " Ray was determined to wrap up the case before the end of Bill Clinton 's term .
On June 23 , 2000 , the suspense ended when Ray submitted the final Independent Counsel report on the travel office affair under seal to the judicial panel in charge of the investigation and publicly announced that he would seek no criminal charges against Hillary Clinton . Ray said that she had , contrary to her statements , " ultimately influenced " the decision to fire the employees . However , " the evidence was insufficient to prove to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt that any of Mrs. Clinton 's statements and testimony regarding her involvement in the travel office firings were knowingly false , " and thus prosecution was declined . White House press secretary Joe Lockhart was critical of Ray 's statement : " By inappropriately characterizing the results of a legally sealed report through innuendo , the Office of Independent Counsel has further politicized an investigation that has dragged on far too long . "
Ray 's full 243 @-@ page report was unsealed and made public on October 18 , 2000 , three weeks before the Senatorial election . It confirmed that neither Hillary Clinton nor David Watkins would be indicted . It included some new detail , including a somewhat unsubstantiated claim from a friend of Watkins saying that the First Lady had told Watkins to " fire the sons of bitches . " Ray cited eight separate conversations between the First Lady and senior staff and concluded : " Mrs. Clinton ’ s input into the process was significant , if not the significant factor influencing the pace of events in the Travel Office firings and the ultimate decision to fire the employees . " Moreover , Ray determined Hillary Clinton had given " factually false " testimony when questioned by the GAO , the Independent Counsel , and Congress about the travel office firings , but reiterated that " the evidence was insufficient to prove beyond a reasonable doubt " that she knew her statements were false or understood that they may have prompted the firings .
Immediate reactions to the report differed . David E. Kendall , Hillary Clinton 's lawyer , said that Ray 's words were " highly unfair and misleading " and that Ray 's conclusions were inconsistent , that evidence regarding her innocence had been buried in the document , and that the report confirmed that her fears about financial improprieties in the Travel Office were warranted . On the other hand , Bill Powers , chair of the New York Republican State Committee , said the report " once again makes us question " the believability of Clinton , and Congressman Rick Lazio , her Republican opponent in the Senate election , said " We believe that character counts in public service . " New York Times columnist Safire updated his description of Hillary Clinton to " habitual prevaricator " , saying " the evidence that she has been lying all along is damning " and comparing her dark side to that of Richard Nixon , in whose White House he had once worked .
Regardless , after 7 ½ years , Travelgate was finally over .
= = Legacy = =
In the legal aftermath , Swidler & Berlin v. United States became an important Supreme Court decision . The length , expense , and results of the Travelgate and the other investigations grouped under the Whitewater umbrella turned much of the public against the Independent Counsel mechanism . As such , the Independent Counsel law expired in 1999 , with critics saying it cost too much with too few results ; even Kenneth Starr favored the law 's demise .
Opinions would differ over the legacy of the affair . Some agreed with Safire , who had said that Hillary Clinton was " a vindictive power player who used the FBI to ruin the lives of people standing in the way of juicy patronage . " Conservative commentator Barbara Olson would entitle her highly unflattering 1999 book Hell to Pay : The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton , in reference to Clinton 's Travelgate phrase . However , these had little effect on Hillary Clinton 's career , as she won the 2000 election to the Senate , won re @-@ election in 2006 , became a strong contender for the Democratic Party nomination in the 2008 presidential election , then served as U.S. Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 , and then ran for president again in 2016 .
Bill Clinton later described the allegations and investigation as " a fraud " , while in her 2003 autobiography Hillary Clinton gave short shrift to the matter , never mentioning Billy Dale by name and saying that " ' Travelgate ' ... was perhaps worthy of a two- or three @-@ week life span ; instead , in a partisan political climate , it became the first manifestation of an obsession for investigation that persisted into the next millennium . " Many in the Clinton inner circle would always believe that political motivations had been behind the investigation , including an attempt to derail Hillary Clinton 's role in the 1993 health care reform plan . But associate White House counsel William Kennedy would also later reflect that some of it was just " pure palpable hatred of the Clintons . It started and it never quit . "
= Paid in Full ( album ) =
Paid in Full is the debut album of American hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim , released on August 25 , 1987 , by Island @-@ subsidiary label 4th & B 'way Records . The duo recorded the album at hip hop producer Marley Marl 's home studio and Power Play Studios in New York City , following Rakim 's response to Eric B. ' s search for a rapper to complement his disc jockey work in 1985 . The album peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Billboard 200 chart and produced five singles , " Eric B. Is President " , " I Ain 't No Joke " , " I Know You Got Soul " , " Move the Crowd " , and " Paid in Full " .
Paid in Full is credited as a benchmark album of golden age hip hop . Rakim 's rapping , which pioneered the use of internal rhymes in hip hop , set a higher standard of lyricism in the genre and served as a template for future rappers . The album 's heavy sampling by Eric B. became influential in hip hop production . The record has sold over a million copies and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified it platinum in 1995 . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 228 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Eric B. and Rakim met in 1985 after Eric B. looked for a rapper to complement his turntable work at the New York City radio station WBLS . After Rakim responded to Eric B. ' s search for " New York 's top MC " , Eric B 's friend and roommate Marley Marl allowed him to use his home studio . The first track they recorded , " Eric B. Is President " , was released as a single on the independent Zakia Records in 1986 . After Def Jam Recordings founder Russell Simmons heard the single , the duo were signed to Island Records and began recording the album in Manhattan 's Power Play Studios in early 1987 . Rakim wrote his songs in approximately one hour while listening to the beat . He then recorded his vocals in the booth by reading his lyrics from a paper . In 2006 , Rakim revealed , " When I hear my first album today I hear myself reading my rhymes but I 'm my worst critic . " The duo completed the album in one week . They have said that they worked in 48 @-@ hour shifts and recorded in single takes in order complete the album within budget . In a 2008 interview with AllHipHop , Eric B. stated , " [ T ] o sit here and say we put together this calculated album to be a great album would be a lie . We were just doing records that felt good . "
The album 's success led to a contract with Uni Records and MCA Records in 1988 , who released their second album , Follow the Leader . Eric B. & Rakim are credited as officially producing Paid in Full . Although Marley Marl claimed to have produced two tracks ( " My Melody " and " Eric B. Is President " ) , Eric B. has argued that Marley Marl was only an engineer . In 2003 , Eric B. alleged the duo had not been fully paid for their work , and filed a lawsuit against the Island Def Jam Music Group , Lyor Cohen , and Russell Simmons .
= = Music = =
Rakim 's rhyming deviated from the simple rhyme patterns of early 1980s hip hop . His free @-@ rhythm style ignored bar lines and had earned comparisons to Thelonious Monk . The New York Times ' Ben Ratliff wrote that Rakim 's " unblustery rapping developed the form beyond the flat @-@ footed rhythms of schoolyard rhymes " . While many rappers developed their technique through improvisation , Rakim was one of the first to demonstrate advantages of a writerly style , as with for instance his pioneering use of internal rhyme . Unlike previous rappers such as LL Cool J and Run @-@ D.M.C. who delivered their vocals with high energy , Rakim employed a relaxed , stoic delivery . According to MTV , " We 'd been used to MCs like Run and DMC , Chuck D and KRS @-@ One leaping on the mic shouting with energy and irreverence , but Rakim took a methodical approach to his microphone fiending . He had a slow flow , and every line was blunt , mesmeric . " Rakim 's relaxed delivery resulted from his jazz influences ; he had played the saxophone and was a John Coltrane fan . His subject matter often covered his own rapping skills and lyrical superiority over other rappers .
Allmusic editor Steve Huey characterized Rakim for his " complex internal rhymes , literate imagery , velvet @-@ smooth flow , and unpredictable , off @-@ the @-@ beat rhythms . " Pitchfork Media writer Jess Harvell described his rapping as " authoritative , burnished , [ and ] possessing an unflappable sense of rhythm " . Paid in Full , which contains gritty , heavy , and dark beats , marked the beginning of heavy sampling in hip hop records . Of the album 's ten tracks , three are instrumentals . As a disc jockey , Eric B. had reinstated the art of live turntable mixing . His soul @-@ filled sampling became influential in future hip hop production . Music critic Robert Christgau noted that Eric B. had incorporated " touches of horn or whistle deep in the mix " of his sampled percussion and scratches .
= = Singles = =
" Eric B. Is President " was released as the first single with " My Melody " as the B @-@ side . It peaked at number 48 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and number forty on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales . The track sparked debate on the legality of unauthorized sampling when James Brown sued to prevent the duo 's use of his music . PopMatters ' Mark Anthony Neal called it " the most danceable hip @-@ hop recording " of 1986 . According to Touré of The New York Times , " It is Rakim 's verbal dexterity as well as his calm , deep voice and dark tone that has made this song a rap classic : ' I came in the door / I said it before / I 'll never let the mic magnetize me no more / But it 's bitin ' me / Fightin ' me / Invitin ' me to rhyme / I can 't hold it back / I 'm looking for the line / Takin ' off my coat / Clearin ' my throat / The rhyme will be kickin ' it / Til I hit my last note . ' " The second single , " I Ain 't No Joke " , peaked at number 38 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . Described as one of the album 's " monumental singles " , Michael Di Bella wrote in the All Music Guide to Rock that " Rakim grabs the listener by the throat and illustrates his mastery of the rhyming craft " .
The third single , " I Know You Got Soul " , peaked at number 39 on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , number 34 on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales , and number 64 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . The track 's production contains " digitized cymbal crashes , breathing sounds , and a bumping bass line . " The song popularized James Brown samples in hip hop songs . The British band M | A | R | R | S sampled the line , " Pump up the volume " , on their number one UK single , " Pump Up the Volume " . Rolling Stone ranked it at number 386 on " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The fourth single , " Move the Crowd " , peaked at number three on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart and number 25 on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales . The track 's B @-@ side , " Paid in Full " , was released as a single in 1987 and later remixed by the production duo Coldcut . The remix used several vocal samples , most prominently " Im Nin 'Alu " by Israeli singer Ofra Haza . In 2008 , the song was ranked at number 24 on VH1 's " 100 Greatest Hip Hop Songs " .
= = Reception and influence = =
In a contemporary review for The Washington Post , Mark Jenkins highlighted the single " Eric B. Is President " but was unimpressed by the rest of Paid in Full : " Its beats are monotonous , and the attempts to take ' jazz and the quiet storm ' and ' convert into hip @-@ hop form ' fall flat . " Robert Christgau from The Village Voice said it has " four groundbreaking masterworks " in " I Ain 't No Joke " , " I Know You Got Soul " , " Paid in Full " , and " Eric B. Is President " , but was less enthusiastic about the other six songs : " They 're pure , innovative , in @-@ your @-@ face--no doubt . But they 're also turntablism with spoken decoration , of small use to anyone who hasn 't internalized the ' real ' hip hop aesthetic . " In the newspaper 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll , it was named the 27th best album of 1987 .
Paid in Full was released during what became known as the golden age hip hop era . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Sasha Frere @-@ Jones called it " one of hip @-@ hop 's perfect records " , while Alex Ogg considered it to be the duo 's magnum opus in his book The Men Behind Def Jam . Rakim 's rapping on the album set a blueprint for future rappers and helped secure East Coast hip hop 's reputation for innovative lyrical technique . Author William Cobb stated in To the Break of Dawn that his rapping had " stepped outside " of the preceding era of old school hip hop and that while the vocabulary and lyrical dexterity of newer rappers had improved , it was " nowhere near what Rakim introduced to the genre " . The New York Times ' Dimitri Ehrlich , who described the album as " an artistic and commercial benchmark " , credited Rakim for helping " give birth to a musical genre " and leading " a quiet musical revolution , introducing a soft @-@ spoken rapping style " . Allmusic 's Steve Huey declared Paid in Full one of hip @-@ hop 's most influential albums and " essential listening " for those interested in the genre 's " basic musical foundations " . MTV ranked it at number one in " The Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Albums of All Time " , stating it raised the standards of hip @-@ hop " both sonically and poetically " and described it as " captivating , profound , innovative and instantly influential " . The album is broken down track @-@ by @-@ track by Rakim in Brian Coleman 's book Check the Technique .
In 2003 , Rolling Stone listed Paid in Full at number 228 on " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , calling it " Ice @-@ grilled , laid @-@ back , diamond @-@ sharp : Rakim is a front @-@ runner in the race for Best Rapper Ever , and this album is a big reason why . " Similarly , Blender magazine included the album in its " 500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die " . Time magazine listed it as one of the eighteen albums of the 1980s in its " All @-@ TIME 100 " albums ; editor Alan Light acknowledged the record changed the " sound , flow , and potential " of hip hop and that if Rakim is " the greatest MC of all time , as many argue , this album is the evidence " . Jess Harvell of Pitchfork Media complimented Rakim for an " endless display of pure skill " and described the album as " laidback and funky " , but believed it contained " too much filler to get a free ' classic ' pass " . Pitchfork Media placed Paid in Full at number fifty @-@ two in its " Top 100 Albums of the 1980s " ; editor Sam Chennault wrote that Rakim inspired a generation of MCs and " defined what it meant to be a hip @-@ hop lyricist " . Slant Magazine listed the album at # 32 on its list of " Best Albums of the 1980s " saying " For his part , Rakim didn 't need to rely on macho jargon and trite gangsterisms for his self @-@ aggrandizing sermons ; he would simply reel off line after line of spellbinding wordplay , influencing an entire decade of tongue @-@ twisting MCs in the process . "
Rakim is credited with influencing rappers including the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Jay @-@ Z , 50 Cent , and Nas , who cited Paid in Full as one of his favorite albums . 50 Cent told NME that Paid in Full was the first album he bought : " I used to get my grandmother 's tape recorder – the one she used to tape church services – and record hip @-@ hop off the radio . And , with Eric B. & Rakim , I think that was the first moment where I felt like , ' I 've got to own this . This is crucial . "
On July 11 , 1995 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album platinum . As of December 1997 , it has sold over a million copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and officially produced by Eric B. & Rakim .
= = Personnel = =
Information taken from Allmusic .
Art direction – Ruth Kaplan
Engineer – Patrick Adams
Executive producer – Robert Hill
Mastering – Herb Powers
Photography – Ron Contarsy
Producer – Eric B. & Rakim
Remixing – Marley Marl
= = Chart history = =
= = Reissues = =
= The Boat Race 1969 =
The 115th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1969 . Held annually , it is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race featured the heaviest oarsman in the history of the event in Cambridge 's David Cruttenden . It was won by Cambridge who passed the finishing post four lengths ahead of Oxford , securing Cambridge 's second consecutive victory . The winning time of 18 minutes 4 seconds was the third fastest in modern Boat Race history .
In the reserve race , Goldie beat Isis , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 63 victories to Oxford 's 51 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
The race was umpired by Alastair Graham who had rowed for Oxford , while the timekeepers for the race were Dickie Burnell and G. G. H. Page . Oxford 's coach was Derek Drury while Cambridge were led by Lou Barry .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 lb ( 86 @.@ 5 kg ) , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . At 15 st 11 lb , Cambridge 's number four David Cruttenden was the heaviest oarsman to have ever participated in the race , half a stone heavier than American rower Josh Jensen who rowed for Oxford in the 1967 race . Cambridge 's Robin Winckless and Nick Hornsby were rowing in their third Boat Race , while Chris Powell and Graeme Hall were also returning Light Blues . Peter Saltmarsh returned for Oxford , making his third appearance in the event . Australian Ashton Calvert , the Oxford cox , was the only non @-@ British competitor registered in the race .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . With helicopters hovering above the start , Douglas Calder of The Times reported that it was unlikely that either the crews could hear the umpire nor the umpire hear the crews at the start ; instead just the flag dropping notified the strokes of the start . Cambridge took an early lead , and their advantage was compounded when the umpire warned Oxford at Beverley Brook to move away to avoid a clash of oars . Cambridge were two seconds ahead at the Mile Post ; through rough water , the Light Blue boat coped better and extended their lead to six seconds ahead at Hammersmith Bridge , and at least a length clear of Oxford . While the conditions improved beyond Hammersmith , Cambridge continued to extend their lead , and held an advantage of eight seconds ahead at Chiswick Steps , increasing to eleven seconds ahead at Barnes Bridge . Cambridge won by four lengths and 14 seconds , in a time of 18 minutes 4 seconds , the third fastest time in the history of the event on the Championship Course , bettered only in the 1934 and 1948 races . Oxford 's coach Derek Drury was philosophical in defeat : " That 's the way the cookie crumbles . "
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by two lengths and in a time of 18 minutes 50 seconds , in their third consecutive victory . In the 24th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their seventh consecutive victory .
= Seasons in the Abyss =
Seasons in the Abyss is the fifth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . It was released on October 9 , 1990 , through Def American Records , and later through American Recordings after the record label changed its name . The album 's recording sessions began in March 1990 . The sessions began at Hit City West , Hollywood Sound , and in June , the sessions ended at Record Plant in Los Angeles , California . It was the band 's last studio album to feature original drummer Dave Lombardo until 2006 's Christ Illusion .
The musical style of the album is similar and was compared by critics to the band 's previous two albums : South of Heaven and Reign in Blood . The album 's reception was generally positive . It peaked number 18 in the United Kingdom and also charted on the Billboard 200 at number 40 . It was certified gold in the United States and Canada .
= = Recording and production = =
The album was recorded from January to June 1990 in two separate studios : Hit City West , Hollywood Sound , and Record Plant in Los Angeles , California . Seasons in the Abyss was produced by Rick Rubin , who had also produced their previous two albums Reign in Blood and South of Heaven .
Track eight , " Temptation " , featured an overdub of lead vocalist Tom Araya 's singing ; the vocal arrangement on the track was unintentional . Araya sang the song twice : once the way he felt it sounded best ; the second time at the insistence of Kerry King the way he thought it should be sung . By accident both tracks were played back simultaneously on the instrumental background , and the producer suggested that both vocal tracks should be used on the album .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Nathan Brackett , author of The Rolling Stone Album Guide , Seasons in the Abyss continued the band 's sound as displayed in their first four albums . The songs on the album have complex guitar riffs that proceed at both " blinding speed " tempos and mid @-@ tempo hefts . Brackett said that the songs ' themes shy away from the " fantasy and into the hells here on Earth " and instead was " music to conquer nations by . "
The album combines " grim " vocals and " frenetic " guitars . Blabbermouth.net said that the album is " considered to be among the genre 's all @-@ time classics " . " War Ensemble " , " Dead Skin Mask " , and " Seasons In The Abyss " were described as setting the album 's standard and the songs , according to the site , produced a sound that could not be matched by anyone else .
AllMusic said that it combines the mid @-@ tempo grooves of South of Heaven with " manic bursts of aggression " à la Reign in Blood . Allmusic also said that when writing the album 's lyrics , Slayer " rarely turns to demonic visions of the afterlife anymore , preferring instead to find tangible horror in real life — war , murder , [ and ] human weakness . There 's even full @-@ fledged social criticism , which should convince any doubters that Slayer aren 't trying to promote the subjects they sing about . "
= = Release and reception = =
Slayer released Seasons in the Abyss on October 9 , 1990 , through Def American Records . Later that year it was released again through Warner Music Group . It was re @-@ released in 1994 through American Recordings . Although it was " unwelcome " to music shows and rock – radio outlets , it got substantial airplay on MTV 's now @-@ defunct " Headbangers Ball " . Seasons in the Abyss features Slayer 's first music video , filmed in Cairo .
The album received generally positive reviews by critics . CMJ New Music Report said that the album cover was " a culinary goof on the veteran metal band " . AllMusic 's Steve Huey said that it " brought back some of the pounding speed of Reign in Blood for their third major @-@ label album " , and addressed it to be " their most accessible album , displaying the full range of their abilities all in one place , with sharp , clean production " . Huey later wrote that the album " paints Reagan @-@ era America as a cesspool of corruption and cruelty , and the music is as devilishly effective as ever " .
J. D. Considine noted about " War Ensemble " : " it 's not a pretty song by any means . An aural blitzkrieg whose chorus climaxes with the lines , ' The final swing is not a drill / It 's how many people I can kill , ' it is filled with brutal images and blaring guitars , all propelled at the breathless pace of thrash metal . " Considine would later say that the album 's music " so accurately sums up the controlled panic of combat that the Army itself has been using Slayer songs to psych its troops for military maneuvers in the Saudi desert " . Mike Stagno from SputnikMusic said that the album was a well @-@ received return by Slayer . Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne said that listening to Seasons in the Abyss was " like listening to a single speed @-@ metal song — the world 's longest " .
The album peaked at number 40 on the Billboard 200 and number 18 on the UK Albums Chart . Seasons in the Abyss was certified gold in both the United States and Canada . The title track and " War Ensemble " earned Slayer its heaviest airplay on MTV to date . In an October 2007 interview , Evile frontman Matt Drake described Seasons in the Abyss as " the perfect mix " between the two styles ( " speed " and " slow material " ) showcased on Reign in Blood and South of Heaven respectively . Children of Bodom bassist Henkka T. Blacksmith hailed Seasons in the Abyss as " the best metal album ever " . The thrash / crossover supergroup S.O.D. released a single named " Seasoning The Obese " in tribute to the album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Slayer
Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Rick Rubin – production
Andy Wallace – co @-@ production , engineering , mixing
Larry Carroll – artwork , illustrations
Chris Rich – assistant engineer
David Tobocman – assistant engineer
Allen Abrahamson – assistant engineer
Robert Fisher – graphic design
Rick Sales – management
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Sunny Bak – photography
Marty Temme – photography
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Croatia national football team =
The Croatia national football team ( Croatian : Hrvatska nogometna reprezentacija ) represents Croatia in international football . The team is controlled by the Croatian Football Federation , the nation 's governing body of football . A FIFA @-@ sanctioned national side previously represented the short @-@ lived Banovina of Croatia and Independent State of Croatia in nineteen friendly matches between 1940 and 1944 . This team was dissolved in 1945 as Croatia became a constituent federal republic of SFR Yugoslavia . In the period between 1945 and 1990 , Croatia was ineligible to field a separate team for competitive matches ; local players instead played for the Yugoslavia national football team .
The modern Croatian team was formed in 1990 , shortly before Croatia 's independence from Yugoslavia , and by 1993 had gained membership in FIFA and UEFA . The team played their first competitive matches in the successful qualifying campaign for UEFA Euro 1996 , leading to their first appearance at a major tournament . In Croatia 's FIFA World Cup debut in 1998 the team finished third and provided the tournament 's top scorer , Davor Šuker . Since becoming eligible to compete in international tournaments , Croatia have failed to qualify for only one World Cup ( in 2010 ) and one European Championship ( in 2000 ) .
Most home matches are played at the Maksimir Stadium in Zagreb , with some fixtures also taking place at the Poljud Stadium in Split or at other , smaller venues , such as Kantrida Stadium in Rijeka or Gradski Vrt in Osijek . The team was undefeated in its first 36 home competitive matches at Maksimir , the run ending with a heavy defeat to England in September 2008 . The team 's traditional nickname is Vatreni ( " The Blazers " ) .
The team was named FIFA 's " Best Mover of the Year " in 1994 and 1998 , the only team — along with Colombia — to win the award more than once . On admission to FIFA , Croatia was ranked 125th in the world ; following the 1998 World Cup campaign , the side rose to third place in the rankings , making it the most volatile team in FIFA Rankings history .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ independence = = =
Association football was first introduced to Croatia by English expatriates working on industrial projects in Rijeka and Županja in 1873 . By 1907 , local clubs had been established in Croatia and a modern edition of the sport 's laws was translated and published . Before the nation 's independence , Croatian footballers played for the national teams of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ( 1919 – 39 ) and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( 1945 – 90 ) , though during periods of political upheaval , ethnically Croatian sides occasionally formed to play unofficial matches . A hastily arranged Croatian side , managed by Hugo Kinert , played a few matches in 1918 – 19 .
In 1940 , Jozo Jakopić led an unofficial national team representing the Banovina of Croatia ( part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in four friendly matches , against Switzerland and Hungary . Following invasion by the Axis powers , the Croatian Football Federation became briefly active , joining FIFA on 17 July 1941 , representing the Independent State of Croatia . The side , led by Rudolf Hitrec , went on to play 15 friendly matches , 14 of those as a member of FIFA . Croatia 's first recorded result as a FIFA member was a 1 – 1 draw with Slovakia on 8 September in Bratislava . The Independent State of Croatia continued playing matches until 1945 and the end of World War II , when SR Croatia was formed as constituent part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia .
From 1950 to 1956 , unofficial Croatian teams were briefly active — they won games against Indonesia and a Yugoslav team playing as " Serbia " . The Yugoslavia squad at the 1956 Summer Olympics included Croatian footballers , as did Yugoslavia in World Cup and European Championship tournaments up to 1990 .
= = = Official formation = = =
The last Yugoslav team to field a considerable Croatian contingent played against Faroe Islands on 16 May 1991 , days before Croatia 's independence referendum . However , an unofficial Croatian team was formed shortly before , and played the team 's first modern international game , against the United States on 17 October 1990 at Maksimir Stadium . The game , which Croatia won 2 – 1 , was one of three games played under caretaker manager Dražan Jerković . The match against the American side also marked the introduction of Croatia 's national jersey , inspired by the chequered design of the country 's coat of arms . Although Croatia was still officially part of Yugoslavia until its independence declaration on 8 October 1991 , this team already served as a de facto national side . Croatia went on to win two more friendly games under Jerković , against Romania in December 1990 and Slovenia in June 1991 .
On 3 July 1992 , Croatia was re @-@ admitted to FIFA , playing its first official matches in the modern era against Australia in Melbourne , Adelaide and Sydney
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. This team was led by Stanko Poklepović as part of an international exhibition tour ; in April 1993 , Vlatko Marković was appointed as manager . Croatia finally gained admission into UEFA in June 1993 , which was too late for the national team to enter the 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifiers , as these already commenced the year before . Marković only led the team in one match , a home win against Ukraine in June 1993 , before being dismissed in February 1994 and replaced by Miroslav Blažević the following month . The team 's performances before Croatia 's official independence were not recorded by FIFA , so they entered the World Rankings in 125th place . Blažević led Croatia 's qualifying campaign for Euro 1996 , beginning with the nation 's first post @-@ independence competitive victory , a 2 – 0 win over Estonia on 4 September 1994 . Their first competitive defeat came on 11 June 1995 in a 1 – 0 away loss to Ukraine during the same qualifying campaign . They eventually finished first in their qualifying group and won FIFA 's 1994 Best Mover of the Year award as they moved up to 62nd in the rankings by the end of the year .
= = = Golden Generation ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
Goran Vlaović scored the team 's first goal at a major tournament , a late winner against Turkey at the City Ground in Nottingham in their first group match at Euro 96 . After their opening victory , Croatia beat reigning champions Denmark 3 – 0 , but went on to lose against Portugal by the same scoreline in their final group fixture . Croatia still advanced to the knockout stage , but were beaten in the quarter @-@ finals 1 – 2 by Germany , who went on to win the tournament .
In spite of the quarter @-@ final exit , Blažević continued to lead Croatia in the 1998 World Cup qualifying campaign , which ended successfully after an aggregate victory against Ukraine in the two @-@ legged play @-@ off . In the group stage of the World Cup , Croatia beat Jamaica and Japan but lost to Argentina , before defeating Romania to reach a quarter @-@ final tie against Germany , then ranked second in the world . Though regarded as underdogs , Croatia won 3 – 0 with goals from Robert Jarni , Goran Vlaović and Davor Šuker , all after Christian Wörns had been sent off . Croatia then faced the host nation , France , in the semi @-@ final . After a goalless first @-@ half , Croatia took the lead , only to concede two goals by opposing defender Lilian Thuram and lose 1 – 2 . In the third @-@ place match , Croatia beat the Netherlands 2 – 1 , with Davor Šuker winning the Golden Boot award for scoring the most goals of the tournament with six goals in seven games . Croatia 's performance in 1998 was among the best debut performances in the World Cup ( equaling Portugal 's third place debut finish at the 1966 World Cup ) , and as a result , Croatia rose to number three in the January 1999 FIFA World Rankings , their highest ranking to date . For their achievements , the team of the 1990s was dubbed the " Golden Generation . " A considerable portion of this squad ( Jarni , Štimac , Boban , Prosinečki and Šuker ) , previously won the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship with the Yugoslavia under @-@ 20 team .
Despite good performances in their first two major competitions , Croatia 's qualifying campaign for Euro 2000 was less successful , as they finished third in their qualifying group behind Yugoslavia and Republic of Ireland , and thus failed to qualify . Both fixtures against archenemies Yugoslavia ( the rump state later renamed Serbia and Montenegro ) ended in draws , which prevented Croatia from qualifying for the tournament .
= = = Jozić and Barić period ( 2000 – 04 ) = = =
Although Blažević continued his tenure in spite of failure to qualify for Euro 2000 , he resigned in October 2000 following draws against Belgium and Scotland in the first two games of the 2002 World Cup qualifiers . His successor at the helm of the national team was Mirko Jozić , who previously led the Yugoslavia under @-@ 20 team to a World Cup triumph in 1987 . Despite the retirement of many Golden Generation players , Croatia went unbeaten during the rest of the qualifiers . They opened their 2002 World Cup campaign with a narrow loss to Mexico before producing a surprise 2 – 1 victory over Euro 2000 finalists Italy in the next fixture , giving life to hopes of passing through to the knockout stage . However , they lost their final group fixture to Ecuador and were eliminated . Jozić then resigned , and was replaced in July 2002 by Croatian @-@ Austrian Otto Barić , the team 's first manager born outside the Balkans .
During Barić 's tenure , most of the remaining players from the Golden Generation squad were gradually replaced by younger players over the course of the Euro 2004 qualifiers . Croatia went on to qualify for the tournament with a playoff victory against Slovenia , winning 2 @-@ 1 on aggregate after Dado Pršo 's decisive late goal in the second leg . At the finals tournament in Portugal , Croatia drew 0 – 0 with Switzerland and 2 – 2 with reigning champions France only to lose to England 2 – 4 and suffer another elimination in the group stage . Barić 's two @-@ year contract ended in June 2004 and was not renewed .
= = = Kranjčar period ( 2004 – 06 ) = = =
Former Croatia international Zlatko Kranjčar , appointed to succeed Barić in July 2004 , led the team through the 2006 World Cup qualifiers without losing a single match and topping the group ahead of Sweden and Bulgaria . However , local media outlets accused him of nepotism for selecting his son Niko Kranjčar for the national squad . At the 2006 World Cup , Croatia lost their opening game to Brazil and drew 0 – 0 with Japan after Darijo Srna missed a first @-@ half penalty . A 2 – 2 draw with Australia , in which three players were sent off , confirmed Croatia 's exit in the group stage . The game was also notable for a mistake by referee Graham Poll , who gave three yellow cards to Croatian defender Josip Šimunić , failing to send him off after his second offense . He later stated that he mistook Šimunić for an Australian player due to his Australian accent . Poll was heavily criticised for losing control of the match , and retired from refereeing shortly afterwards .
= = = Bilić period ( 2006 – 12 ) = = =
In July 2006 , the Croatian Football Federation replaced Kranjčar with Slaven Bilić , who played for the national team during their Golden Generation era . Bilić , who previously managed the under @-@ 21 team between 2004 and 2006 , introduced a host of young players into the squad , which ultimately proved successful . His first game was a friendly away victory against 2006 World Cup champions Italy . After controversially suspending Darijo Srna , Ivica Olić and Boško Balaban for missing a curfew after a turbofolk nightclub outing , Bilić led the team through qualifiers for Euro 2008 . Croatia topped their group , losing only one game to Macedonia and beating England twice , who as a result failed to qualify for the first time since 1984 .
Shortly before the European Championships , first @-@ choice striker Eduardo , who was the team 's top goalscorer during qualifying , suffered a compound fracture while playing for Arsenal in the Premier League . Bilić was forced to alter his final Euro 2008 squad significantly and recruited Nikola Kalinić and Nikola Pokrivač , neither of whom had yet played competitive games for the national team . The team received criticism after poor attacking performances in warm @-@ up games against Scotland and Moldova , but at the tournament they beat Austria , Germany and Poland in the group stages to reach the quarter @-@ finals with maximum group points for the first time in their tournament history . Niko Kovač remained team captain at what was expected to be his final international tournament , except in the final group fixture when Dario Šimić temporarily held the captain 's armband . Croatia 's campaign ended dramatically when they lost a penalty shoot @-@ out to Turkey , with Luka Modrić , Mladen Petrić and Ivan Rakitić all missing their penalties . Croatia left the tournament with records for fewest goals conceded ( 2 ) , fewest games lost ( 0 ) , and earliest goal ( in the fourth minute of their opening game against Austria ; this was also the all @-@ time earliest successful penalty at the European Championship Finals ) .
Following the tournament , Bilić renewed his contract , becoming the first manager since Blažević to lead Croatia to successive tournaments . Croatia were again drawn to play England in the qualifying stages for the 2010 World Cup ; the tie was voted the most anticipated of the campaign on FIFA.com. After a home win against Kazakhstan Croatia lost at home to England , ending a 14 @-@ year unbeaten home record . The team was eventually weakened due to a number of key players ' injuries and went on to suffer their heaviest defeat in history , losing 5 – 1 to England at Wembley Stadium . Although Croatia defeated Kazakhstan in their final qualifying fixture , they were ultimately eliminated as Ukraine , who had previously defeated group leaders England , beat Andorra to win second place in the group . Bilić was once again heavily expected to resign as national coach , but instead vowed to renew his contract and remain in charge .
Despite heavy loss of form , which also saw the team fall outside the top ten in the FIFA rankings , Croatia were placed in the top tier of teams for the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying draw ; Croatia was previously a candidate to co @-@ host the tournament with Hungary which would have allowed the team to qualify automatically , but UEFA eventually chose Poland and Ukraine as hosts instead . Despite being top @-@ seeds in their qualifying group , Croatia finished second behind Greece , settling for a play @-@ off against Euro 2008 rivals Turkey . Croatia proceeded to beat Turkey 3 – 0 on aggregate , with all three goals coming in the away leg in Istanbul , thereby qualifying for the 2012 European championship . In the proceeding group @-@ stage draw for the tournament , Croatia were placed in the third tier of teams , and were eventually grouped with Ireland , Italy and defending champions Spain .
In the buildup towards the UEFA Euro 2012 tournament , the team 's first major competition since their 2008 run at the same event , manager Slaven Bilić formally agreed a deal to manage Russian club Lokomotiv Moscow , thereby announcing he would resign from the national team when the tournament ended . Croatia opened their campaign with a comfortable 3 – 1 victory over the Republic of Ireland , with striker Mario Mandžukić scoring twice . Mandžukić continued his run at the tournament with an equaliser in the 1 – 1 draw against Italy , which was marred by controversial fan reactions and referee decisions from English official Howard Webb . In their last group match , Croatia suffered a 0 – 1 defeat to Spain . The late Spanish goal by Jesús Navas , along with Italy 's victory over the Republic of Ireland in the final round , forced Croatia to exit the tournament in the group stage once again . Upon his formal departure , Bilić was also praised for his long @-@ standing service to the national side . Jutarnji List daily labelled him as Croatia 's only manager to depart on such positive terms and credited him for his strong revival of the national side during his six @-@ year tenure .
= = = Štimac , Kovač and Čačić period ( 2012 – present ) = = =
Following Bilić 's departure , former player and pundit Igor Štimac was appointed manager of the national team . Croatia 's all @-@ time top goalscorer Davor Šuker also took over as president of the Croatian Football Federation ( HNS ) after the death of Vlatko Marković ended a 14 @-@ year tenure . Štimac 's managerial campaign was unsuccessful , as the team endured a succession of poor performances and narrowly finished second in their 2014 World Cup qualifying group . After only a year of his appointment , Štimac was replaced by former captain Niko Kovač , who previously managed the under @-@ 21 youth side . Kovač led the team to a 2 – 0 aggregate victory against Iceland in the qualifying playoffs for the 2014 World Cup , with both goals coming in the home leg in Zagreb .
At the World Cup , Croatia were drawn with host @-@ nation Brazil , Mexico and Cameroon . In the opening game of the tournament , Croatia lost 3 – 1 to Brazil . The match garnered heavy media attention as Japanese referee Yuichi Nishimura was scrutinized for a number of controversial decisions . In their second game , Croatia won 4 – 0 against Cameroon , but did not progress from the group as they lost 3 – 1 to Mexico in their final fixture .
In the Euro 2016 qualifying campaign , Croatia were drawn against Italy , Bulgaria , Norway , Azerbaijan and Malta . Following a goalless away draw against Azerbaijan and an away defeat to Norway , in early September 2015 , the Executive Committee of the Croatian Football Federation unanimously decided to terminate Kovač 's contract . On 21 September 2015 , Ante Čačić was named as the head coach of the Croatian national team . On 13 October 2015 , Croatia qualified for the finals by finishing as runners up in group H. Under Čačić , Croatia broke the record for most goals scored in one match , by beating San Marino in a friendly 10 – 0 .
In Group D of UEFA Euro 2016 , Croatia were drawn against Turkey , Czech Republic , and Spain . They defeated Turkey 1 @-@ 0 , on a goal by Luka Modrić , and drew 2 @-@ 2 against the Czechs in a match marred by fans throwing flares on the pitch during the 86th minute . They ended group play by defeating Spain 2 @-@ 1 on an 87th @-@ minute goal by Ivan Perišić , handing the Spanish their first loss in Euro competition since Euro 2004 and winning the group for Croatia .
= = Colours = =
Croatia 's initial jersey was designed in 1990 by painter Miroslav Šutej , who also designed the nation 's coat of arms . Although slightly altered by manufacturer Lotto ( the 1998 jersey was a white jersey with the chequers on the right side , like a flying flag ) and Nike since its original release , the chequered motif was adopted as a symbol of national identity and similar designs are used by all Croatian national sports teams .
= = = Kit history = = =
= = Stadium = =
The majority of home matches take place at the Stadion Maksimir in Zagreb , which is also the home @-@ ground of local football club Dinamo Zagreb . The venue , built in 1912 and refurbished in 1997
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outskirts of the village and dumped on designated land . Among the items found were glass bottles engraved with the Star of David , mezuzot , painted window sills , and the armrests of chairs found in synagogues , in addition to an ornamental swastika .
= = Responses to Kristallnacht = =
= = = From the Germans = = =
The reaction of non @-@ Jewish Germans to Kristallnacht was varied . Many spectators gathered on the scenes , most of them in silence . The local fire departments confined themselves to prevent the flames spreading to neighbouring buildings . In Berlin , police Lieutenant Otto Bellgardt barred SA troopers from setting the New Synagogue on fire , earning his superior officer a verbal reprimand from the commissioner . The British historian Martin Gilbert believes that " many non @-@ Jews resented the round up " , his opinion being supported by German witness Dr. Arthur Flehinger who recalls seeing " people crying while watching from behind their curtains " . The extent of the damage was so great that many Germans are said to have expressed their disapproval of it , and to have described it as senseless .
In an article released for publication on the evening of 11 November , Goebbels ascribed the events of Kristallnacht to the " healthy instincts " of the German people . He went on to explain : " The German people is anti @-@ Semitic . It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race . " Less than 24 hours after the Kristallnacht Adolf Hitler made a one hour long speech in front of a group of journalists where he managed to completely ignore the recent events on everyone 's mind . According to Eugene Davidson the reason for this was that Hitler wished to avoid being directly connected to an event that he was aware that many of those present condemned , regardless of Goebbels 's unconvincing explanation that Kristallnacht was caused by popular wrath .
In 1938 , just after Kristallnacht , the psychologist Muller @-@ Claudius interviewed 41 randomly selected Nazi Party members on their attitudes towards racial persecution . Of the interviewed party @-@ members 63 % expressed extreme indignation against it , while only 5 % expressed approval of racial persecution , the rest being noncommittal . A study conducted in 1933 had then shown that 33 % of Nazi Party members held no racial prejudice while 13 % supported persecution . Sarah Ann Gordon sees two possible reasons for this difference . First , by 1938 large numbers of Germans had joined the Nazi Party for pragmatic reasons rather than ideology thus diluting the percentage of rabid antisemites ; second , the Kristallnacht could have caused party members to reject Antisemitism that had been acceptable to them in abstract terms but which they could not support when they saw it concretely enacted . During the Kristallnacht several Gauleiter and deputy Gauleiters had refused orders to enact the Kristallnacht , and many leaders of the SA and of the Hitler Youth also openly refused party orders , while expressing disgust . Some Nazis helped Jews during the Kristallnacht .
As it was aware that the German public did not support the Kristallnacht , the propaganda ministry directed the German press to portray opponents of racial persecution as disloyal . The press was also under orders to downplay the Kristallnacht , describing general events at local level only , with prohibition against depictions of individual events . In 1939 this was extended to a prohibition on reporting any anti @-@ Jewish measures .
The vast majority of the German public disapproved of the Kristallnacht as for example evidenced by the torrent of reports attesting to this by diplomats in Germany .
The US ambassador to Germany reported :
In view of this being a totalitarian state a surprising characteristic of the situation here is the intensity and scope among German citizens of condemnation of the recent happenings against Jews .
To the consternation of the Nazis the Kristallnacht affected public opinion counter to their desires , the peak of opposition against the Nazi racial policies was reached just then , when according to almost all accounts the vast majority of Germans rejected the violence perpetrated against the Jews . Verbal complaints grew rapidly in numbers , and for example the Duesseldorf branch of the Gestapo reported a sharp decline in anti @-@ Semitic attitudes among the population .
There are many indications of Protestant and Catholic disapproval of racial persecution ; for example the Catholic church had already distributed Pastoral letters critical of Nazi racial ideology , and the Nazi regime expected to encounter organised resistance from it following Kristallnacht . The Catholic leadership however , just as the various Protestant churches , refrained from responding with organised action . While individual Catholics and Protestants took action , the churches as a whole chose silence publicly . Nevertheless , individuals continued to show courage , for example a Parson paid the medical bills of a Jewish cancer patient and was sentenced to a large fine and several months in prison in 1941 , and a Catholic nun was sentenced to death in 1945 for helping Jews . A Protestant parson spoke out in 1943 and was sent to Dachau concentration camp where he died after a few days .
Martin Sasse , Nazi Party member and bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia , leading member of the Nazi German Christians , one of the schismatic factions of German Protestantism , published a compendium of Martin Luther 's writings shortly after the Kristallnacht ; Sasse " applauded the burning of the synagogues " and the coincidence of the day , writing in the introduction , " On 10 November 1938 , on Luther 's birthday , the synagogues are burning in Germany . " The German people , he urged , ought to heed these words " of the greatest anti @-@ Semite of his time , the warner of his people against the Jews . " Diarmaid MacCulloch argued that Luther 's 1543 pamphlet , On the Jews and Their Lies was a " blueprint " for the Kristallnacht .
= = = From the global community = = =
Kristallnacht sparked international outrage . It discredited pro @-@ Nazi movements in Europe and North America , leading to eventual decline of their support . Many newspapers condemned Kristallnacht , with some comparing it to the murderous pogroms incited by Imperial Russia in the 1880s . The United States recalled its ambassador ( but did not break off diplomatic relations ) while other governments severed diplomatic relations with Germany in protest . The British government approved the Kindertransport program for refugee children . As such , Kristallnacht also marked a turning point in relations between Nazi Germany and the rest of the world . The brutality of the pogrom , and the Nazi government 's deliberate policy of encouraging the violence once it had begun , laid bare the repressive nature and widespread anti @-@ Semitism entrenched in Germany , and turned world opinion sharply against the Nazi regime , with some politicians calling for war . The private protest against the Germans following Kristallnacht was held on 6 December 1938 . William Cooper , an Aboriginal Australian , led a delegation of the Australian Aboriginal League on a march through Melbourne to the German Consulate to deliver a petition which condemned the " cruel persecution of the Jewish people by the Nazi government of Germany " . German officials refused to accept the tendered document .
After the Kristallnacht , Salvador Allende , Gabriel González Videla , Marmaduke Grove , Florencio Durán and other members of the Congress of Chile sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews . A more personal response , in 1939 , was the oratorio A Child of Our Time by the English composer Michael Tippett .
= = Kristallnacht as a turning point = =
Kristallnacht changed the nature of persecution from economic , political , and social to physical with beatings , incarceration , and murder ; the event is often referred to as the beginning of the Holocaust . In the words of historian Max Rein in 1988 , " Kristallnacht came ... and everything was changed . "
While November 1938 predated overt articulation of " the Final Solution " , it foreshadowed the genocide to come . Around the time of Kristallnacht , the SS newspaper Das Schwarze Korps called for a " destruction by swords and flames . " At a conference on the day after the pogrom , Hermann Göring said : " The Jewish problem will reach its solution if , in any time soon , we will be drawn into war beyond our border — then it is obvious that we will have to manage a final account with the Jews . "
Specifically , the Nazis managed to achieve in Kristallnacht all the theoretical targets they set for themselves : confiscation of Jewish belongings to provide finances for the military buildup to war , separation and isolation of the Jews , and most importantly , the move from the antisemitic policy of discrimination to one of physical damage , which began that night and continued until the end of World War II . The event showed the public attitude was not solidly behind the perpetrators . Many Germans at the time found the pogroms troubling , because they equated them with the days of the SA street rule and lawlessness . The British Embassy in Berlin and British Consular offices throughout Germany received many protests and expressions of disquiet from members of the German public about the anti @-@ Jewish actions of the time .
= = Modern responses = =
Many decades later , association with the Kristallnacht anniversary was cited as the main reason against choosing 9 November ( " Schicksalstag " ) , the day the Berlin Wall came down in 1989 , as the new German national holiday ; a different day was chosen ( 3 October 1990 , German reunification ) . The avant @-@ garde guitarist Gary Lucas 's 1988 composition " Verklärte Kristallnacht " , which juxtaposes the Israeli national anthem , " Hatikvah " , with phrases from " Deutschland Über Alles " amid wild electronic shrieks and noise , is intended to be a sonic representation of the horrors of Kristallnacht . It was premiered at the 1988 Berlin Jazz Festival and received rave reviews . ( The title is a reference to Arnold Schoenberg 's 1899 work " Verklärte Nacht " that presaged his pioneering work on atonal music ; Schoenberg was an Austrian Jew who would move to the United States to escape the Nazis ) .
On its 40th anniversary in 1978 , members of two fraternities at the University of Florida gathered in front of the fraternity house of Tau Epsilon Phi and " shouted expressions like ' F _ _ _ the Jews , ' " and " Your mother was bright but she was a lampshade . "
Kristallnacht was the inspiration for the 1993 album Kristallnacht by the composer John Zorn . The German power metal band Masterplan 's debut album , Masterplan ( 2003 ) , features an anti @-@ Nazism song entitled " Crystal Night " as the fourth track . The German band BAP published a song titled " Kristallnaach " in their Cologne dialect , dealing with the emotions of the Kristallnacht .
Kristallnacht was the inspiration for the 1988 composition Mayn Yngele by the composer Frederic Rzewski , of which he says : " I began writing this piece in November , 1988 , on the 50th anniversary of the Kristallnacht ... My piece is a reflection on that vanished part of Jewish tradition which so strongly colors , by its absence , the culture of our time " .
Kristallnacht has been depicted on the screen in a number of Holocaust @-@ themed films and television shows , among them 1978 's Holocaust ( TV miniseries ) and 1990 's Europa Europa .
= Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban =
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third novel in the Harry Potter series , written by J. K. Rowling . The book follows Harry Potter , a young wizard , in his third year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Along with friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , Harry investigates Sirius Black , an escaped prisoner from Azkaban who they believe is one of Lord Voldemort 's old allies .
The book was published in the United Kingdom on 8 July 1999 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 8 September 1999 by Scholastic Inc . Rowling found the book easy to write , finishing it just a year after she had begun writing it . The book sold 68 @,@ 000 copies in just three days after its release in the United Kingdom , and since has sold over three million in the country . The book won the 1999 Whitbread Children 's Book Award , the Bram Stoker Award , the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel , and was short @-@ listed for other awards , including the Hugo .
The film adaptation of the novel was released in 2004 , grossing more than $ 796 million and earned notable critical acclaim . Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban were also released for several platforms , and most obtained favourable reviews .
= = Plot = =
Harry is back at the Dursleys , where he sees on Muggle television that a prisoner named Sirius Black has escaped . Harry involuntarily inflates Aunt Marge when she comes to visit after she insults Harry and his parents . This leads to his running away and getting picked up by the Knight Bus . He travels to Diagon Alley , where he meets Cornelius Fudge , the Minister for Magic , who asks Harry to stay in Diagon Alley for the remaining three weeks before the start of the school year at Hogwarts .
The night before he is expected to leave for Hogwarts , Harry learns that the escaped prisoner , Sirius Black , is a convicted murderer , and it is believed that he wants to murder Harry . On the way to Hogwarts , a Dementor boards the train , causing Harry to faint , but he is helped by the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , Remus Lupin . Harry , Ron , and Hermione learn that the Dementors will be patrolling the school in an attempt to protect Harry from Black .
At Hogwarts , Harry has several problems with the Dementors , including an episode at a Quidditch match , during which he faints and falls off his broomstick from around 50 feet in the air . His broom is smashed by the Whomping Willow . Working with Harry outside class , Lupin teaches him the Patronus Charm to repel Dementors .
On an illegal visit to the village of Hogsmeade ( thanks to the Invisibility Cloak and the The Marauder 's Map , given to him by George Weasley and Fred Weasley ) , Harry overhears some of his teachers talking with Fudge about Black , saying that Black was a friend of Harry 's parents , but he betrayed them and gave Voldemort access to their house , and that he also killed thirteen Muggles and his former friend Peter Pettigrew .
Ron and Hermione 's friendship later suffers when Ron believes that Hermione 's cat , Crookshanks , ate his rat , Scabbers . At Christmas , Harry receives a mysterious present , a late @-@ model Firebolt broom . Fearing it might be cursed , Hermione reports the gift to Professor McGonagall , which leads to bad feelings between her and Ron and Harry .
Ron , Hermione , and Harry join the effort to save Hagrid 's hippogriff , Buckbeak , from being executed for attacking Draco Malfoy ,
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atory Edition , with a blue and purple border . On 1 November 2010 , they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by Clare Mellinsky and in July 2013 a new adult cover illustrated by Andrew Davidson , both these editions were designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited .
Beginning on 27 August 2013 , Scholastic will release new covers for the paperback editions of Harry Potter in the United States to celebrate 15 years of the series . The covers were designed by the author and illustrator Kazu Kibuishi .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
The film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in 2004 and was directed by Alfonso Cuarón from a screenplay by Steve Kloves . The film débuted at number one at the box office and held that position for two weeks . It made a total of $ 796 @.@ 7 million worldwide , which made it the second highest @-@ grossing film of 2004 behind Shrek 2 . However , among all eight entries in the Harry Potter franchise , Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the lowest . The film ranks at number 471 in Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time .
= = = Video games = = =
Three unique video games by different developers were released in 2004 by Electronic Arts , loosely based on the book :
= Sajmište concentration camp =
The Sajmište concentration camp ( pronounced [ sâjmiːʃtɛ ] ) was a Nazi concentration and extermination camp during World War II . It was located at the former Belgrade fairground site near the town of Zemun , in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) . The camp was organized and operated by SS Einsatzgruppen units stationed in occupied Serbia . It became operational in September 1941 and was officially opened on 28 October of that year . The Germans dubbed it the Jewish camp in Zemun ( German : Judenlager Semlin ) . At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942 , thousands of Jewish women , children and old men were brought to the camp , along with 500 Jewish men and 292 Romani women and children , most of whom were from the Serbian towns of Niš , Smederevo and Šabac . Women and children were placed in makeshift barracks and suffered during numerous influenza epidemics . Kept in squalid conditions , they were provided with inadequate amounts of food and many froze to death during the winter of 1941 – 42 . Between March and May 1942 , the Germans used a gas van sent from Berlin to kill thousands of Jewish inmates .
With the gassings complete , it was renamed Zemun concentration camp ( German : Anhaltelager Semlin ) and served to hold one last group of Jews who were arrested upon the surrender of Italy in September 1943 . During this time it also held captured Yugoslav Partisans , Chetniks , sympathizers of the Greek and Albanian resistance movements , and Serb peasants from villages in other parts of the NDH . An estimated 32 @,@ 000 prisoners ( mostly Serbs ) passed through the camp during this period , 10 @,@ 600 of whom were killed or died due to hunger and disease . Conditions in Sajmište were so poor that some began comparing it to Jasenovac and other large concentration camps throughout Europe . In 1943 and 1944 , evidence of atrocities committed in the camp was destroyed by the units of SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel , and thousands of corpses were exhumed from mass graves and incinerated . In May 1944 , the Germans transferred control of the camp over to the NDH , and it was closed that July . Estimates of the number of deaths at Sajmište range from 20 @,@ 000 to 23 @,@ 000 , with the number of Jewish deaths estimated at 7 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 . It is thought that half of all Serbian Jews perished at the camp .
Most of the Germans responsible for the operation of the camp were captured and brought to trial . Several were extradited to Yugoslavia and executed . Camp commander Herbert Andorfer and his deputy Edgar Enge were arrested in the 1960s after many years of hiding . Both were given short prison sentences in West Germany and Austria , respectively , though Enge never served any time given his old age and poor health .
= = Background = =
The site that became the Sajmište concentration camp during World War II had originally been an exhibition centre built by the Belgrade municipality in 1937 in an attempt to attract international commerce to the city . The centre 's modernist pavilions featured elaborate displays of industrial progress and design from European countries , including Germany . Its architectural centerpiece was a large tower which was used by Philips to transmit the earliest television broadcasts in Europe . Much of the centre stood empty and unused until the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . The country was dismembered following the invasion , with Serbia being reduced to its pre @-@ 1912 borders and placed under a government of German military occupation . Milan Nedić , a pre @-@ war politician who was known to have pro @-@ Axis leanings , was then selected by the Germans to lead the collaborationist Government of National Salvation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . The civilian administration in the country was headed by SS @-@ Gruppenführer Harald Turner , who commanded the Einsatzgruppen Serbien . Originally led by SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs , and later by SS @-@ Gruppenführer August Meyszner with SS @-@ Standartenführer Emanuel Schäfer as his deputy , the group was responsible for ensuring internal security , fighting opponents of the occupation , and dealing with Jews .
Meanwhile , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( " leader " ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate . " NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani populations living within the borders of the new state . The territory of the former Belgrade municipality was divided between occupied Serbia and the NDH . Zemun , the area where the Sajmište fairgrounds were located , came under Croatian control . The occupation of Zemun would last until late 1944 , and saw the Ustaše relentlessly persecute the district 's non @-@ Croat population , especially Serbs , Jews and Romanis . By the end of the war , more than one @-@ quarter of the municipality 's pre @-@ war population of 65 @,@ 000 had perished .
A large @-@ scale uprising erupted in Serbia following the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 . Although they took no part in the rebellion , Jews were targeted for retaliatory execution by the Germans . The Germans soon implemented a number of anti @-@ Jewish laws , and by the end of August 1941 , all Serbian Jewish males were interned in concentration camps , primarily at Topovske Šupe in Belgrade .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
In the fall of 1941 , Turner ordered that all Jewish women and children in Serbia be concentrated in a camp . At first the Germans considered creating a ghetto for the Jews in the Gypsy quarter of Belgrade , but this idea was quickly dismissed due to the area being considered " too filthy and unhygenic . " When several other plans to intern the Jewish and Romani populations of Belgrade failed , a concentration camp was established on a peninsula surrounded on three sides by the Sava river , and located in full view of Belgrade 's central Terazije Square . The camp was positioned in a manner which made escape almost impossible . It was located near administrative and police centres , as well as the Belgrade central railway station , which allowed for the efficient transport of Jews to the camp from the many towns in the region . Its purpose was to detain Jewish women and children that the Germans claimed " endangered " public safety and the Wehrmacht .
The Germans dubbed Sajmište the " Jewish camp in Zemun " ( German : Judenlager Semlin ) . The camp was intended to hold as many as 500 @,@ 000 people captured from rebels areas across occupied Yugoslavia . The name " Semlin " was derived from the German word for the former Austro @-@ Hungarian frontier town of Zemun , where the camp was located . Despite being located on the territory of the NDH , it was controlled by the German military police apparatus in occupied Serbia . NDH authorities did not object to its establishment and told the Germans that it could be located on NDH territory as long as its guards were German rather than Serb . Soon after the camp was established , SS @-@ Scharführer Edgar Enge of the Belgrade Gestapo became its commander . Initially , the campgrounds held about 500 male Jewish inmates who were given the task of running the camp 's so @-@ called " self @-@ administration " and were made responsible for distributing food , dividing up labour , and organizing a Jewish guard force which patrolled along the camp . The exterior of the camp , however , was guarded on a rotation basis by twenty @-@ five members of Reserve Police Battalion 64 . By October , all male Jewish inmates and most male Romani inmates were killed . Most were executed in four major waves , with frequent killings occurring in mid @-@ September and between 9 and 11 October . On each occasion , inmates were told that they were being transported to a camp in Austria with better labour conditions but were instead taken to Jabuka in the Banat or to a firing range on the outskirts of Belgrade , where they were killed . Sajmište officially opened on a wider scale on 28 October 1941 . The last of the initial male Jewish inmates were killed on 11 November .
= = = Judenlager Semlin = = =
At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942 , approximately 7 @,@ 000 Jewish women , children and old men were brought to the camp , along with a further 500 Jewish men and 292 Romani women and children . Most of these people were from the outlying Serbian towns , primarily Niš , Smederevo and Šabac . Women and children were placed in makeshift barracks that were barely heated , and whose windows were shattered due to German bombing raids carried out during the invasion of Yugoslavia . Originally constructed as fair pavilions , the largest of these barracks held up to 5 @,@ 000 prisoners . Inmates suffered during numerous influenza epidemics , slept on wet straw or bare floorboards , and were provided with inadequate amounts of food . Starvation was widespread , and Jewish inmates appealed unsuccessfully to Serbian authorities for more food to be provided to the camp . Consequently , a high number of detainees , especially children , died in late 1941 and early 1942 , with many inmates freezing to death in one of the coldest winters on record . The Romani inmates were kept in far more miserable conditions than their Jewish counterparts . They also slept on straw in an unheated hall , but were kept separate from non @-@ Romani prisoners . The majority of Romani inmates were released after six weeks of detention . Most Jewish inmates remained detained , with the exception of ten Jewish women who were married to Christian men .
In January 1942 , SS @-@ Untersturmführer Herbert Andorfer was appointed to replace the inexperienced Enge as commander of the camp . Enge was subsequently made Andorfer 's deputy . That month , German military authorities demanded the camp be cleared of Jews in order to accommodate the growing number of captives taken in battles with the Partisans . By February the camp held about 6 @,@ 500 inmates , ten percent of whom were Romani . In early March , Andorfer was informed that a gas van had been sent to the camp from Berlin . The Sauer van had been delivered upon the request of the German military administration chief in Serbia , Harald Turner . Stricken with guilt over having to play a central role in the murder of the Jewish inmates , some of whom he had developed good relations with , Andorfer requested a transfer ; this was denied . In order to ensure the quickness and efficiency of the gassings , he made announcements intended to convince the prisoners that they were going to be transferred to another , better @-@ equipped camp . He went so far as to post fictitious camp regulations , and announced that prisoners would be allowed to take their bags with them . Many detainees registered for the supposed transfer , hoping to escape the camp 's terrible living conditions . Inmates who had volunteered to leave the previous evening climbed into the van the next day in groups of between 50 and 80 . The drivers of the van , SS @-@ Scharführers Meier and Götz , distributed candy to children in order to win their affection . Afterwards , the doors of the van were sealed shut . The van then followed a small car driven by Andorfer and Enge , before crossing the border into German @-@ occupied Serbia . It was here that one of the drivers exited the van and crawled underneath it , diverting its exhaust into the interior of the vehicle and killing the inmates with carbon monoxide gas . The van was then taken to the Avala firing range , where corpses were dumped into mass graves freshly dug by Serbian and Romani prisoners . Such gassings became routine , and the gas van arrived every day except Sunday . Rumours quickly circulated about the gassings , with news reaching German troops stationed in Belgrade and even some Serbians . Consequently , the gas van was nicknamed the " soul killer " ( Serbian : dušegupka ) by the Serb population exposed to these rumours . It is thought that the gassings took the lives of as many as 8 @,@ 000 inmates , mostly women and children . The seven Serbian prisoners that had participated in unloading the murdered inmates from the van were shot after the gassings stopped , but the gravedigger , a Serb named Vladimir Milutinović , survived . " Eighty @-@ one or eighty @-@ two trenches were prepared and I helped dig all of them , " he recalled . " At least 100 people [ fit ] into each trench [ ... ] These ones were only for those suffocated in the truck . We dug a different set for those who were shot . "
Few inmates remained in the camp after the gassings stopped , mostly non @-@ Jewish women who had been married to Jews . They were released several days later , after being sworn to secrecy . Apart from Sajmište inmates , the 500 patients and staff of the Belgrade Jewish Hospital , as well as Jewish prisoners from the nearby Banjica concentration camp , were also killed in the gas van . The last Jewish prisoner in Sajmište was killed on 8 May 1942 , and the gas van used at the camp was returned to Berlin on 9 June 1942 . It received a technical upgrade there , and was then transferred to Belarus where it was used to gas Jews in Minsk . Shortly after leading the extermination of the Jewish inmates in Sajmište , Andorfer and Enge were assigned different Security Police roles . Andorfer later received an Iron Cross 2nd Class for running the camp , and won a promotion .
= = = Anhaltelager Semlin = = =
With the extermination of the original Jewish inmates completed , the camp was renamed Zemun concentration camp ( German : Anhaltelager Semlin ) and served to hold one last group of Jews who were arrested upon the surrender of Italy in September 1943 . It also held captured Yugoslav Partisans , Chetniks , sympathizers of the Greek and Albanian resistance movements , and Serb peasants from villages in the Croatian Ustaše @-@ controlled regions of Srem and Kozara , where they had been detained in the Jasenovac concentration camp . During this period , Montenegrin separatist leader Sekula Drljević became the camp 's administrator . Conditions deteriorated to such an extent that some began comparing it to Jasenovac and other large concentration camps throughout Europe . The camp became the main transit point for Yugoslav prisoners and detainees on their way to labour locations and concentration camps in Germany . An estimated 32 @,@ 000 mostly Serb prisoners passed through Sajmište during this period , 10 @,@ 600 of whom were killed or died due to hunger and disease .
Alarmed by the fact that the campgrounds could easily be seen from across the Sava , in late 1943 , the new German ambassador to Serbia proposed that the camp be moved deeper into NDH territory , because its " [ continuing existence ] before the eyes of the people of Belgrade was politically intolerable for reasons of public feeling . " His requests were ignored by German authorities . By the end of 1943 , the Germans made an effort to erase all traces of the atrocities committed in the camp by burning records , incinerating corpses , and destroying other pieces of evidence . This task was undertaken by SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel ,
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to the invading French troops under Napoleon . The propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels chose the historical subject as suitable for the worsening situation facing Nazi Germany when it was filmed from October 1943 to August 1944 . At over eight million marks , using thousands of soldiers as extras and 100 railway wagonloads of salt to simulate snow , it was the most costly German film made during the war . The actual siege ended with the surrender of the town ; in the film , the French generals abandon the siege .
For Japan , the war began with the undeclared war and invasion of China in 1937 , which the Japanese authorities called " The China Incident " . The government dispatched a " pen brigade " to write and film the action in China with " humanist values " . Tomotaka Tasaka 's Mud and Soldiers ( 1939 ) for instance , shot on location in China , Kōzaburō Yoshimura 's Legend of Tank Commander Nishizumi , and Sato Takeshi 's Chocolate and Soldiers ( 1938 ) show the common Japanese soldier as an individual and as a family man , and even enemy Chinese soldiers are presented as individuals , sometimes fighting bravely . Once war with the United States was declared , the Japanese conflict became known as the Pacific War . Japanese film critics worried that even with Western film techniques , their film output failed to represent native Japanese values . The historian John Dower found that Japanese wartime films had been largely forgotten , as " losers do not get reruns " , yet they were so subtle and skilful that Frank Capra thought Chocolate and Soldiers unbeatable . Heroes were typically low @-@ ranking officers , not samurai , calmly devoted to his men and his country . These films did not personalise the enemy and therefore lacked hatred , though Great Britain could figure as the " cultural enemy " . For Japanese film @-@ makers , war was not a cause but more like a natural disaster , and " what mattered was not whom one fought but how well " . Asian enemies , especially the Chinese , were often portrayed as redeemable and even possible marriage partners . Japanese wartime films do not glorify war , but present the Japanese state as one great family and the Japanese people as an " innocent , suffering , self @-@ sacrificing people " . Dower comments that the perversity of this image " is obvious : it is devoid of any recognition that , at every level , the Japanese also victimized others . "
= = = Films made after the war = = =
According to Andrew Pulver of The Guardian , the public fascination with war films became an " obsession " , with over 200 war films produced in each decade of the 1950s and 1960s . War film production in the United Kingdom and United States reached its zenith in the mid 1950s . Its popularity in the United Kingdom was brought on by the critical and commercial success of Charles Frend 's The Cruel Sea ( 1953 ) . Like others of the period , The Cruel Sea was based on a bestselling novel , in this case the former naval commander Nicholas Monsarrat 's story of the battle of the Atlantic . Others , like The Dam Busters ( 1954 ) , with its exciting tale of the inventor Barnes Wallis 's unorthodox bouncing bomb and its distinctive theme music , were true stories . The Dam Busters became the most popular film in Britain in 1955 , and remained a favourite as of 2015 with a 100 % score on Rotten Tomatoes , though , partly because it celebrated an " exclusively British [ victory ] " , it failed to break into the American market . A large number of war films were made in the 1955 @-@ 58 period in particular . In 1957 alone , Bitter Victory , Count Five and Die , The Enemy Below , Ill Met by Moonlight , Jet Pilot , Men in War , The One That Got Away and Seven Thunders , and the highly successful , critically acclaimed pictures The Bridge on the River Kwai , which won the Academy Award for Best Picture that year , and Paths of Glory were released . Some , such as Bitter Victory , focused more on the psychological battle between officers and egotism rather than events during the war . The Bridge on the River Kwai brought a new complexity to the war picture , with a sense of moral uncertainty surrounding war . By the end of the decade the " sense of shared achievement " which had been common in war films " began to evaporate " , according to Pulver .
Hollywood films in the 1950s and 1960s could display spectacular heroics or self @-@ sacrifice , as in the popular Sands of Iwo Jima ( 1949 ) starring John Wayne . U.S. Marines considered Sands of Iwo Jima visually authentic , but found Lewis Milestone 's Battle Cry ( 1955 ) , with its attention to the lives of the men , the more realistic film . The formula for a successful war film consisted , according to Lawrence Suid , of a small group of ethnically diverse men ; an unreasonable senior officer ; cowards became heroic , or died . Jeanine Basinger suggests that a traditional war film should have a hero , a group , and an objective , and that the group should contain " an Italian , a Jew , a cynical complainer from Brooklyn , a sharpshooter from the mountains , a midwesterner ( nicknamed by his state , " Iowa " or " Dakota " ) , and a character who must be initiated in some way " . Films based on real commando missions , like The Gift Horse ( 1952 ) based on the St. Nazaire Raid , and Ill Met by Moonlight ( 1956 ) based on the capture of the German commander of Crete , inspired fictional adventure films such as The Guns of Navarone ( 1961 ) , The Train ( 1964 ) and Where Eagles Dare ( 1968 ) . These used the war as a backdrop for spectacular action .
Darryl F. Zanuck produced the 178 minute documentary drama The Longest Day ( 1962 ) , based on the first day of the D @-@ Day landings , achieving commercial success and Oscars . It was followed by large @-@ scale but thoughtful films like Andrei Tarkovsky 's Ivan 's Childhood ( 1962 ) , and quasi @-@ documentary all @-@ star epics filmed in Europe such as Battle of the Bulge ( 1965 ) , Battle of Britain ( 1969 ) , The Battle of Neretva ( 1969 ) , Midway ( 1976 ) and A Bridge Too Far ( 1977 ) . In Lawrence Suid 's view , The Longest Day " served as the model for all subsequent combat spectaculars " . However , its cost also made it the last of the traditional war films , while the controversy around the help given by the U.S. Army and Zanuck 's " disregard for Pentagon relations " changed the way that Hollywood and the Army collaborated .
Zanuck , by then an executive at 20th Century Fox , set up an American @-@ Japanese co @-@ production for Richard Fleischer 's Tora ! Tora ! Tora ! ( 1970 ) to depict what " really happened on December 7 , 1941 " in the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor . The film , panned by Roger Ebert and the New York Times , was a major success in Japan . Its realistic @-@ looking attack footage was reused in later films such as Midway ( 1976 ) , The Final Countdown ( 1980 ) , and Australia ( 2008 ) . The story was revisited in Pearl Harbor ( 2001 ) , described by the New York Times as a " noisy , expensive and very long new blockbuster " , with the comment that " for all its epic pretensions ( as if epic were a matter of running time , tumescent music and earnest voice @-@ over pronouncements ) , the movie works best as a bang @-@ and @-@ boom action picture " .
Steven Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan ( 1998 ) uses hand @-@ held camera , sound design , staging and increased audio @-@ visual detail to defamiliarise viewers accustomed to conventional combat films , so as to create what film historian Stuart Bender calls " reported realism " , whether or not the portrayal is genuinely more realistic . Jeanine Basinger notes that critics experienced it as " groundbreaking and anti @-@ generic " , with , in James Wolcott 's words , a " desire to bury the cornball , recruiting poster legend of John Wayne : to get it right this time " ; and that combat films have always been " grounded in the need to help an audience understand and accept war " . Its success revived interest in World War II films . Others tried to portray the reality of the war , as in Joseph Vilsmaier 's Stalingrad ( 1993 ) , which the New York Times said " goes about as far as a movie can go in depicting modern warfare as a stomach @-@ turning form of mass slaughter . "
= = = Military – film industry relations = = =
Many war films have been produced with the cooperation of a nation 's military forces . After the Second World War , the United States Navy provided ships and technical guidance for films such as Top Gun . The U.S. Air Force assisted with The Big Lift , Strategic Air Command and A Gathering of Eagles , which were filmed on Air Force bases ; Air Force personnel appeared in many roles . Critics point out that the film Pearl Harbor 's US @-@ biased portrayal of events is a compensation for technical assistance received by the US armed forces ; the premiere was actually held on board a U.S. Navy carrier . In another case , the U.S. Navy objected to elements of Crimson Tide , especially mutiny on board an American naval vessel , so the film was produced without their assistance . Film historian Jonathan Rayner observes that such films " have also clearly been intended to serve vital propagandist , recruitment and public relations functions " .
= = National traditions = =
= = = Chinese = = =
The first Chinese war films were newsreels like Battle of Wuhan ( 1911 ) and Battle of Shanghai ( 1913 ) . Still in films such as Xu Xinfu 's Battle Exploits ( 1925 ) , war featured mainly as background . Only with the Second Sino – Japanese War from 1937 onwards did war film become a serious genre in China , with nationalistic films such as Shi Dongshan 's Protect Our Land ( 1938 ) The Chinese Civil War , too , attracted films such as Cheng Yin 's From Victory to Victory ( 1952 ) . A more humanistic film set in the same period is Xie Jin 's The Cradle ( 1979 ) , while more recent large @-@ scale commercial films include Lu Chuan 's City of Life and Death ( 2009 ) . Chinese directors have repeatedly attempted to cover the atrocities committed by the Japanese during the Nanking massacre ( 1937 – 1938 ) , with films such as the political melodrama Massacre in Nanjing , Mou Tun Fei 's docudrama Black Sun : The Nanking Massacre , and the " contrived Sino – Japanese romance " Don 't Cry , Nanking . Zhang Yimou 's epic Chinese film Flowers of War ( 2011 ) , based on Geling Yan 's novel , portrays the violent events through the eyes of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl .
= = = Indonesian = = =
Many Indonesian films deal with the occupation of the archipelago by the Japanese during the Second World War . Teguh Karya 's Doea Tanda Mata ( Mementos , literally " Two Eye Marks " , 1985 ) covers the limited nationalist resistance to Dutch colonial rule in the 1930s . A third group of films such as Enam Djam di Jogja ( Six Hours in Yogyakarta , 1951 ) and Serangan Fajar ( Attack at Dawn , 1983 ) covers the Indonesian war of independence ( 1945 – 1949 ) . Two other films about the same period portray the Indonesian equivalent of the Chinese Long March : Usmar Ismail 's Darah dan Doa ( The Long March , literally " Blood and Prayer " , 1950 ) and Mereka Kembali ( They Return , 1975 ) . Each of these films interprets the past from the perspective of its own time .
The more recent Merdeka ( Freedom ) trilogy ( 2009 – 2011 ) , starting with Merah Putih ( " Red and White " , the colours of the flag of the new Indonesia ) , revisits the campaign for independence through the lives of a diverse group of cadets who become guerillas .
Karya 's November 1828 ( 1979 ) looks at Indonesia 's struggle for independence through historical drama about the Java or Diponegoro War ( 1825 – 1830 ) , though the colonial enemy was the same , the Dutch . Deanne Schultz considered it " a valuable interpretation " of Indonesian history that " embodies the best of popular Indonesian cinema . " It was the first Indonesian film to become well @-@ known internationally .
= = = Russian = = =
War has been Russian cinema 's major genre , becoming known indeed as the " cinema front " , and its war films ranged from grim portrayals of atrocities to sentimental and even quietly subversive accounts . Leonid Lukov 's popular and " beautiful " Two Warriors ( 1943 ) depicted two stereotypical Soviet soldiers , a quiet Russian and an extrovert southerner from Odessa , singing in his dugout .
The many Russian films about the Second World War include both large @-@ scale epics such as Yury Ozerov 's Battle of Moscow ( 1985 ) and Mikhail Kalatozov 's more psychological The Cranes are
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Flying ( 1957 ) on the cruel effects of war ; it won the 1958 Palme d 'Or at Cannes .
= = = Japanese = = =
See also Japanese war films , and the section on animated films
Japanese directors have made popular films such as Submarine I @-@ 57 Will Not Surrender ( 1959 ) , Battle of Okinawa ( 1971 ) and Japan 's Longest Day ( 1967 ) from a Japanese perspective . These " generally fail to explain the cause of the war " . In the decades immediately after the Second World War , Japanese films often focused on human tragedy rather than combat . From the late 1990s , films started to take a positive view of the war and of Japanese actions . These nationalistic films , including Pride ( 1998 ) , Merdeka 17805 ( 2001 ) , and The Truth about Nanjing ( 2007 ) , have emphasized positive traits of the Japanese military and contended that the Japanese were victims of post @-@ war vindictiveness and viciousness . Such films have , however , drawn protest for revisionism . The Eternal Zero ( 2013 ) narrates the tale of a Zero fighter pilot who is considered a coward by his comrades , as he returns alive from his missions . It broke the record takings for a Japanese live action film , and won the Golden Mulberry at the Udine Far East Film Festival , but was criticised for its nationalistic sympathy with kamikaze pilots .
= = Subgenres = =
= = = Documentary = = =
The wartime authorities in both Britain and America produced a wide variety of documentary films . Their purposes included military training , advice to civilians , and encouragement to maintain security . Since these films often carried messages , they grade into propaganda . Similarly , commercially produced films often combined information , support for the war effort , and a degree of propaganda . Newsreels , ostensibly simply for information , were made in both Allied and Axis countries , and were often dramatised . More recently , in the Iran @-@ Iraq War , Morteza Avini 's Ravayat @-@ e Fath ( Chronicles of Victory ) television series combined front @-@ line footage with commentary .
= = = Propaganda = = =
Sergei Eisenstein 's 1938 historical drama Alexander Nevsky depicts Prince Alexander 's defeat of the attempted invasion of the Russian city of Novgorod by the Teutonic Knights . By April 1939 the film had been seen by 23 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people . In 1941 the director and three others were awarded the Stalin Prize for their contributions . The film features a musical score by the classical composer Sergei Prokofiev , described as " the best ever composed for the cinema " . Russell Merritt , writing in Film Quarterly , describes it as a " war propaganda film " . A 1978 Mondadori poll placed Alexander Nevsky among the world 's 100 best motion pictures .
During the Second World War , film propaganda was widely used . Kenneth Clark advised the British government that " If we renounced interest in entertainment as such , we might be deprived of a valuable weapon for getting across our propaganda " ; he suggested using documentaries about the war and the war effort ; celebrations of Britishness ; and films about British life and character . Michael Powell and Clark agreed on a story about survivors of a U @-@ boat crew , imbued with brutal Nazi ideology , travelling across Canada and meeting various kind , tolerant and intelligent Canadians , to encourage America into the war . The resulting film , 49th Parallel ( 1941 ) , became the top film at British offices that year . Entertaining films could carry messages about the need for vigilance , too , as in Went the Day Well ? ( 1942 ) or the avoidance of " careless talk " , as in The Next of Kin ( 1942 ) .
In America , Charlie Chaplin 's The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) clearly satirised fascism . Michael Curtiz 's Casablanca ( 1943 ) was not simply a romance between the characters played by Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman , but vilified the Nazis and glorified resistance to them . Frank Capra 's Why We Fight series ( 1942 – 1945 ) won the 1942 Academy Award for best documentary , though it was designed to " influence opinion in the U.S. military " .
During the Cold War , " propaganda played as much of a role in the United States ' struggle with the Soviet Union as did the billions of dollars spent on weaponry . " Face to Face with Communism ( 1951 ) dramatised an imagined invasion of the United States ; other films portrayed threats such as communist indoctrination .
= = = Submarine = = =
Submarine films have their own particular meanings and conventions , concerned specifically with giving the effect of submarine warfare . A distinctive element in this subgenre is the soundtrack , which attempts to bring home the emotional and dramatic nature of conflict under the sea . For example , in Wolfgang Petersen 's 1981 Das Boot , the sound design works together with the hours @-@ long film format to depict lengthy pursuit with depth charges , the ping of sonar , and threatening sounds such as of the propellors of enemy destroyers and torpedoes . Classic films in the genre include The Enemy Below ( 1957 ) and Run Silent , Run Deep ( 1958 ) , both based on novels by naval commanders . Run Silent , Run Deep is a movie full of tension , both with the enemy and between the contrasting personalities of the submarine Commander and his Lieutenant , played by Clark Gable and Burt Lancaster .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
A popular subgenre of war films in the 1950s and 1960s was the prisoner of war film . The genre was popularised in Britain with major films like Guy Hamilton 's The Colditz Story ( 1955 ) and John Sturges 's The Great Escape ( 1963 ) . They told stories of real escapes from German prisoner of war camps such as Stalag Luft III in the Second World War . Despite episodes of danger and human tragedy , these films delight in a continual boyish game of escape and ingenuity , celebrating the courage and the defiant spirit of the prisoners of war , and treating war as fun . David Lean 's Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) was judged best picture at the Oscars ; it took the genre from chilly German prisons to the heat of a camp in Thailand . It was the first , too , to use lush colour to bring out the British stiff upper lip of the colonel , played by Alec Guinness in an Oscar @-@ winning performance . The " definitive " Oscar @-@ winning Hollywood prisoner of war film was Billy Wilder 's Stalag 17 ( 1953 ) , while the brief but powerful prison camp scenes of The Deer Hunter ( 1977 ) lend an air of tragedy to the whole of that film .
= = = Comedy = = =
Charlie Chaplin 's Shoulder Arms ( 1918 ) set a style for war films to come , and was the first comedy about war in film history . British cinema in the Second World War marked the evacuation of children from London with social comedies such as Those Kids from Town ( 1942 ) where the evacuees go to stay with an earl ( a country nobleman ) , while in Cottage to Let ( 1941 ) and Went the Day Well ? ( 1942 ) the English countryside is thick with spies . Gasbags ( 1941 ) offered " zany , irreverent , knockabout " comedy making fun of everything from barrage balloons to concentration camps . Abbott and Costello 's Buck Privates was successful in America , leading to many further wartime comedies .
= = = Animated = = =
Winsor McCay 's The Sinking of the Lusitania ( 1918 ) was a silent First World War film . At 12 minutes long , it was the longest animated film made at that time . It was probably the first animated propaganda film to be made ; it remains the earliest serious animated drama that has survived . Through World War II , animated propaganda shorts remained influential in American cinema . The Walt Disney Company , working with the American armed forces , produced 400 @,@ 000 feet of war propaganda films between 1942 and 1945 , including Der Fuehrer 's Face ( 1943 ) and Education for Death ( 1943 ) .
Japanese anime films from the 1960s onwards addressed national memories of war . Akira ( 1988 ) moves from the atomic destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to apocalyptic visions of global conflict ; Grave of the Fireflies ( 1988 ) is elegiac on the effect of war on children . Barefoot Gen ( 1983 ) portrays the bombing of Hiroshima through the eyes of a child , but reviewers consider it a less well made film than Grave of the Fireflies with " stomach @-@ churning detail " bizarrely paired with crude artwork , giving it the look of a " Saturday morning Warner Brothers cartoon " .
= = = Anti @-@ war = = =
The anti @-@ war genre began with films about the First World War . Films in the genre are typically revisionist , reflecting on past events and often generically blended . Lewis Milestone 's All Quiet on the Western Front ( 1930 ) was unquestionably powerful , and an early anti @-@ war film , portraying a German point of view ; it was the first film ( in any genre ) to win two Oscars , best picture and best director . Andrew Kelly , analysing All Quiet on the Western Front , defined the genre as showing : the brutality of war ; the amount of human suffering ; the betrayal of men 's trust by incompetent officers . War and anti @-@ war films often prove difficult to categorize as they contain many generic ambiguities . While many anti @-@ war films criticize war directly through depictions of grisly combat in past wars , some films such as Penn 's Alice 's Restaurant criticized war obliquely by poking fun at such things as the draft board . The number of anti @-@ war films produced in America dipped sharply during the 1950s because of McCarthyism and the Hollywood Blacklist . The end of the Hollywood Blacklist and the introduction of the MPAA rating system marked a time of resurgence for films of all type including anti @-@ war films in the States . Robert Eberwein names two films as anti @-@ war classics : Jean Renoir 's prisoner of war masterpiece La Grande Illusion ( The Grand Illusion , 1937 ) , and Stanley Kubrick 's Paths of Glory ( 1957 ) . The critic David Ehrenstein notes that Paths of Glory established Kubrick as the " leading commercial filmmaker of his generation " and a world @-@ class talent . Ehrenstein describes the film as an " outwardly cool / inwardly passionate protest drama about a disastrous French army maneuver and the courtmartial held in its wake " , contrasting it with the " classic " All Quiet on the Western Front 's story of an innocent " unstrung by the horrors of war " .
= = = Mixed genres = = =
Some later war films combined black comedy and anti @-@ war sentiment , as in the anti @-@ war farces of Mike Nichols 's Catch @-@ 22 ( 1970 ) , based on Joseph Heller 's satirical novel about the Second World War , and Robert Altman 's MASH ( 1970 ) , set in Korea , reflecting the attitudes of an increasingly sceptical public .
Other genres were combined in Franklin J. Schaffner 's Patton ( 1970 ) , about real life General George S. Patton , where combat scenes were interleaved with commentary about how he waged war , showing good and bad sides to a command . It and MASH became the two most profitable war / anti @-@ war films made up to that time ; and Patton won seven Academy Awards .
= Sarah Kerrigan =
Sarah Louise Kerrigan , the self @-@ styled Queen of Blades , is a fictional character in Blizzard Entertainment 's StarCraft franchise . The character was created by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , and her appearance was originally designed by Metzen . Sarah Kerrigan is voiced by Glynnis Talken Campbell in StarCraft and Brood War , and by Tricia Helfer in StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty , StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm and StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void .
Kerrigan first appears in StarCraft as a twenty @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old female Terran Ghost , a psychic trained both physically and mentally as an expert espionage agent and assassin . Initially the second @-@ in @-@ command of Sons of Korhal , a revolutionary movement against the oppressive Confederacy of Man , she is captured by the insectoid Zerg and infested , turning her into a human / Zerg hybrid completely under the control of the Zerg Overmind . She becomes one of the Zerg 's most powerful agents , but during the Brood Wars , she replaces the Overmind following its destruction at the end of the great war , and gains control of the Zerg to seek dominance over the galaxy . Kerrigan 's life before her infestation is further explored in the Starcraft novels Uprising and Liberty 's Crusade , while Queen of Blades elaborates on her infested character .
As one of the major characters of the series , Kerrigan has been critically praised for her believability and character depth . Kerrigan is frequently featured in lists of both the top computer gaming enemies and top female characters ; a survey by GameSpot in 2010 declared her to be the greatest gaming villain , and Complex ranked her as the most evil woman in gaming in 2012 .
= = Character design = =
The character of Kerrigan was created by Blizzard Entertainment 's Chris Metzen and James Phinney , with her physical appearance designed by Metzen . Kerrigan was not originally intended to be a major character , and was only meant to appear on a single level . Initially based around the character Tanya Adams in the Command & Conquer : Red Alert series , Kerrigan was named after Nancy Kerrigan , who at the time was involved in a feud with Tonya Harding . However , Kerrigan 's character grew on the developers , who decided to give a far greater role to the throw @-@ away character . Kerrigan 's self @-@ proclaimed title is the " Queen of Blades " , which is gradually introduced to other characters to the point where it is synonymous with her . Chris Metzen has explained that it was meant to be an honorific title ; a blade is a weapon designed to rip enemies to pieces , making the title fitting for Kerrigan , who evolved to be the greatest agent of the Zerg Overmind .
In an interview Glynnis Talken Campbell , Kerrigan 's voice actress from Starcraft and StarCraft : Brood War , described Kerrigan 's change in personality during her infestation as " going from good girl to bad girl " , and has said it was more of a change in personality than voice when providing her voice work . Kerrigan 's voice also consisted of many grunts , growls and screams , and her unique infested voice was provided by doubling up Campbell 's voice . She has also claimed that , were she to pen a StarCraft film or novel , she would rather have Kerrigan 's relationship with Jim Raynor — the series ' primary male protagonist — portrayed as one of admiration , sacrifice , and " them saving each other 's butts " than actual romance due to StarCraft 's action @-@ oriented nature . Whilst Campbell had confirmed that she would return to voice the character in StarCraft II , and had voiced the character in several promotional trailers , it was later reported that a new voice actress had been hired for Kerrigan and that Campbell was no longer involved with the project . Tricia Helfer was soon revealed to be the actress in question , voicing Kerrigan in StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty and StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm .
= = Personality = =
Having been conscripted into the Confederate Ghost program as a child due to her psychic potential , Kerrigan is described in the manual for StarCraft as never having been given the chance for a normal life . Her rigorous training and the use of neural implants to control her mental abilities leave her withdrawn and introverted . Despite this , Kerrigan exhibits qualities of courage and daring , and is an effective tactician . She is also described as a moral character , exemplified in her opposition to Arcturus Mengsk using the Zerg against the Confederacy . However , after her transformation by the Zerg , Kerrigan is freed from her inhibitions — as well as her neural conditioning — and indulges her darker traits ( though Heart of the Swarm implies that at least part of her villainy was due to the influence of a fallen Xel 'naga named Amon ) . Her attitude , combined with her natural intelligence , makes her extremely calculating and manipulative . A hint of her former moral sensitivity is to be noted when towards the end of the Zerg campaign of Brood War , she states how she feels weary of slaughter for the first time since her transformation . Kerrigan has also become far more physically aggressive , relishing close quarters combat so much that at one point in the novel Queen of Blades , she begins absent @-@ mindedly licking the blood of her victims from her fingers .
One of the core elements of Kerrigan 's personality is that of her manipulation by others , and her lack of identity . Her reversion to human form by Raynor allowed her to finally develop an identity for herself , though found her emotions torn between a man that she loved ( Raynor ) and a man that she despised ( Mengsk ) .
= = Depiction = =
As a character with different incarnations , special powers , transformations , three unique personas , and utimate almagamation of 4 separate alien species , Kerrigan gains multiple aspects and aliases as the series progresses .
= = = Ghost Operative = = =
Prior to her infestation , Kerrigan is described as being a graceful and deadly woman , exceedingly agile and athletic , possessing jade @-@ green eyes and brilliant red hair usually worn as a ponytail . The novel Queen of Blades describes her facial features as being too strong to be classified as beautiful , but instead as striking and completely fitting for her personality . Kerrigan is rarely seen out of her armor , a form @-@ fitting hostile environment suit specifically designed for Ghost operatives and equipped with a personal cloaking device , but when off @-@ duty , she is described as wearing a soft work shirt , worn cotton pants with a dusty leather jacket , and high leather boots . Even then , it is uncommon for Kerrigan to be unarmed : she is always equipped with at least a combat knife .
= = = Queen of Blades = = =
Kerrigan 's infestation by the Zerg signaled a major overhaul for her appearance . Despite maintaining her stature , build , and facial features , she is described in Queen of Blades as having mottled green skin , covered in a glossy protective carapace . Kerrigan 's eyes are bright yellow as opposed to her natural green , and her hair has transformed into stalks , described as being segmented like an insect 's legs . Kerrigan 's fingers are stated to now contain extendible claws . A pair of skeletal wings has also grown from her back , consisting of elongated segmented spikes that reach down to the level of her knees . Kerrigan is seen using these wings as a melee weapon , tearing opponents apart .
= = = Agent of Prophecy = = =
Kerrigan ascended into Xel 'naga form by merging her essence with Ouros , insignaling a final overhaul for her appearance .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In StarCraft : The Great War = = =
Sarah Kerrigan appears in StarCraft : The Great War halfway through the first chapter of the game . She and Confederate officer Jim Raynor are tasked by Arcturus Mengsk , the leader of the militant rebel group Sons of Korhal , with starting a revolution on the fringe colony world of Antiga Prime by assassinating the presiding officers of the ruling Confederacy of Man . In response , the Confederacy blockades the planet as the insectoid Zerg Swarm begin to invade the surface , and Mengsk orders a skeptical Kerrigan to plant a psi emitter — stolen Confederate technology that attracts Zerg to it — to lure the Zerg into breaking the blockade , allowing the Sons of Korhal to escape . The Sons of Korhal then directly attack the Confederate capital world Tarsonis . During the attack , Mengsk , without consulting his officers , uses the psi emitters to ensure the complete destruction of the planet by the Zerg . The Zerg are subsequently attacked by the Protoss , a race of psionic aliens who attempt to stop further Zerg advancement and conquest . Kerrigan is sent with a detachment of troops to stop the Protoss from interfering with the Zerg rampage , but her position is overrun by the Zerg and she is abandoned by Mengsk . She was eventually captured for infestation after she ran out of ammo . As Raynor deserts Mengsk in disgust , Kerrigan is presumed dead .
However , Kerrigan does not perish , and as the second chapter begins , the player is charged by the Zerg hive mind , the Overmind , to protect a chrysalis it claims will be its greatest creation . The chrysalis eventually hatches on the Zerg world Char to reveal Kerrigan having been infested with Zerg DNA , making her a powerful hybrid of both Zerg and Terran genetics . Raynor , drawn to Char by psychic dreams cast by Kerrigan during her incubation , fails in an attempt to rescue her , but is spared as Kerrigan does not see him as a threat , and possibly due to any lingering affection she had for him . After breaking into a Terran science vessel and reversing the neural conditioning from her training as a psionic agent , Kerrigan is able to sense the presence of the Protoss fleet commander Tassadar on Char . Tassadar diverts Kerrigan 's attention long enough for his companion Zeratul to assassinate Zasz , one of the Zerg commanders , with psionic energies the Zerg are unfamiliar with . This causes a temporary mental link between Zeratul and the Overmind , who uses this momentary contact with Zeratul 's memories to locate the Protoss homeworld Aiur . The Overmind immediately launches the bulk of the Zerg Swarm in an invasion , although Kerrigan remains behind on Char to hunt down Tassadar and Zeratul .
= = = In StarCraft : Brood War = = =
Kerrigan 's character is more central to StarCraft : Brood War ( 1998 ) , as in the wake of the Overmind 's death at the hands of Tassadar in the conclusion of StarCraft , Kerrigan regains her independence from the Zerg hive mind and dedicates her efforts to becoming the sole leader of the Zerg Swarm . She presents herself on the Protoss colony world Shakuras , where she informs Zeratul and the Protoss of a new Overmind growing on Char , manipulating them into destroying Zerg forces running rival to her goals . She also gains an ally in an apparently infested Samir Duran , who infiltrates the newly arrived forces of the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) and attempts to sabotage their mission to enslave the Zerg and seize control of the sector of the galaxy . However , the UED is successful in capturing the new Overmind , and Kerrigan exploits the threat of the UED to forge an alliance with Mengsk , Raynor and his new Protoss allies , turning around the war against the UED . However , Kerrigan quickly betrays this alliance and strikes at the armies of Raynor and Mengsk , heavily damaging both groups . Accompanied by Duran , Kerrigan returns to Shakuras to abduct the Protoss leader Raszagal , using her to blackmail Zeratul into killing the new Overmind on Char , after which all Zerg fall under Kerrigan 's control — around this time , she begins her self @-@ proclamation as the Queen of Blades . Zeratul attempts to rescue Raszagal , but kills her when he realizes her mind has been destroyed by Kerrigan 's brainwashing . Kerrigan , surprised by his actions , allows him to live . Soon after , Kerrigan 's position on Char is attacked by a vengeful Protoss fleet , the remnants of the UED 's invasion force and a mercenary fleet commanded by Mengsk . Despite being outnumbered , Kerrigan 's forces prevail , crippling her enemies and eradicating the UED fleet , thereby securing a dominant position in the sector .
= = = In StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty = = =
Kerrigan returns in StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty ( 2010 ) . At BlizzCon 2007 , Chris Metzen explained that in the years after Brood War , Kerrigan relocated to Char , pulling back most of the Zerg , and has since been quiet . She has the power to wipe out all her enemies but has not , creating a tense state of peace in the sector . Metzen also indicated an interest in exploring if there was any humanity left in Kerrigan or if she is beyond redemption in her current state . He revealed that Kerrigan 's withdrawal has little to do with any suspicion she has of Duran , who is revealed towards the end of Brood War to be conducting secret experiments on creating a Protoss / Zerg hybrid ; she does not know much about him , but in the time after Brood War , she is beginning to piece together the puzzle surrounding his motives . At BlizzCon 2008 , Kerrigan made two brief appearances in cinematic trailers , one during an attack on a Terran city that was captured on video , and again in a series of caverns where Zeratul was studying ancient runes ; in the latter , Kerrigan implies she has been waiting for his arrival .
In StarCraft II , Kerrigan launches an attack on the Terran Dominion colonies . At first , her motives seem to be revenge - however , later it is discovered that she is pursuing various pieces of a Xel 'naga artifact of great power . Coincidentally , these are the same artifacts that Jim Raynor is pursuing at the request of his recently freed friend Tychus Findlay and his benefactor , the Moebius Foundation . Raynor 's forces and Kerrigan constantly bump heads throughout this pursuit , with Kerrigan displaying her now trademark character traits of arrogance and a hunger for power . Raynor soon learns from Valerian Mengsk , son of Arcturus Mengsk and the real face behind the Moebius Foundation , that the Xel 'naga artifacts he has been pursuing , when pieced together , have the power to return Kerrigan to her human form . At one point , Zeratul suddenly appears on board Raynor 's ship and hands to him a crystal containing memories from his recent ventures . The memories on the crystal chronicle Zeratul 's campaign to discover the truth behind an ancient Xel 'naga prophecy , a quest which leads him to run into Kerrigan many times in the process . It is through these memories that Raynor learns just how important it is to ensure that Kerrigan does not perish , for she is the chosen person to help win the coming battle against the Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids . Through Zeratul 's crystal , Raynor is also granted the vision of a possible future , one without Kerrigan , where the Protoss are rendered extinct shortly after the Terrans are annihilated . After seeing this vision , Raynor mounts an invasion on Char in collaboration with Dominion forces to eliminate the Zerg forces on the planet . The Xel 'naga artifact releases an energy blast that wipes the Zerg infection clean off the planet . When Raynor and Findlay seek Kerrigan in the ruins , she is found to have mostly returned to her human form , with only her hair remaining Zerg @-@ like . However , Raynor is forced to kill Findlay when he attempts to assassinate Kerrigan , under orders from his " benefactor " , who is revealed to be Arcturus Mengsk . Raynor then carries the weakened Kerrigan over the ruined battlefield to safety .
= = = In StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm = = =
Her next appearance was in StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , where she is the central character , and it tells the story of her further fate , and of the Zerg Swarm as well . Once again a human , Kerrigan is brought by Raynor to a secret research facility run by Valerian Mengsk to determine how much of her skill at controlling Zerg remains from her time as the Queen of Blades . However , the facility is attacked by Dominion forces and while Kerrigan and Valerian manage to escape , Raynor becomes trapped . After returning to look for him , Kerrigan hears Mengsk 's announcement that he was captured and executed . To enact revenge against Mengsk , Kerrigan , while traveling through the sector to reunite the Zerg Swarm under her control , is approached by Zeratul . Zeratul tells her to travel to Zerus , the original homeworld of the Zerg , where the primal Zerg are in a constantly evolving state . Kerrigan , initially reluctant , is convinced after Zeratul tells her there she can obtain enough power to move on with her vengeance plans . On Zerus , Kerrigan learns that Amon stole a large portion of the Zerg from Zerus and bound them to a single overriding will , making them Amon 's slaves as part of his plot to destroy both the Zerg and Protoss and remake life in his own image . Kerrigan enters a chrysalis in the first Zerg spawning pool and emerges , transforming again into the primal Queen of Blades . She also realizes that Amon 's lingering taint was partially responsible for the crimes she committed during the Brood War . Mengsk contacts Kerrigan and reveals that Raynor was not killed , but is held as a hostage instead , threatening to kill him should she wage war against the Dominion . With help from Valerian and Raynor 's Raiders , Kerrigan manages to rescue Raynor , but is rejected by him for renouncing the human self that he worked so hard to restore . Now in full control of the Zerg Swarm once again , Kerrigan launches an attack on the Dominon 's main world , Korhal , to defeat Mengsk . She is assisted by Valerian , who convinces her to give an opening for the civilians to escape , and is later assisted by Raynor 's forces as well . Confronting Mengsk face to face , Kerrigan is almost defeated when he uses the Xel 'naga artifact to attack her , but Raynor stops him , allowing her to kill Mengsk with her own hands . Kerrigan and Raynor make their peace and it is shown that they will always look out for each other , hinting an everlasting affection between the two . With the Dominion 's leader destroyed , Kerrigan bids Raynor and Valerian farewell and starts to prepare herself and her swarm for " the greatest battle they 'll ever face " .
= = = In StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void = = =
During the events of Legacy of the Void , Kerrigan enters into an alliance with Artanis while investigating the Xel 'Naga " homeworld " Ulnar , which the pair discover is in fact a colossal space station . Some time after Artanis 's reclamation of the Protoss homeworld , Aiur , Kerrigan sends a psionic call to Raynor and Artanis : she proposes an alliance to permanently defeat Amon , since he will only arise again in a few thousand years if he is not dealt with . During the assault of the Void by the joint forces of the Terran Dominion , Zerg Swarm and Protoss Dae 'laam , the full context of Zeratul 's prophecy about Kerrigan is made clear : only a fellow Xel 'Naga is capable of killing Amon , and Kerrigan is the only one who can ascend to that status currently . With the remainder of the joint armada , Kerrigan is successful in killing Amon during her psychic backlash in the void . Two years later , Kerrigan in her human form ( or what appears to be such ) , returns to Raynor and disappears with him at her side .
= = = In novels = = =
Kerrigan appears in several StarCraft novels that greatly expand her backstory before the first StarCraft game . The novel Uprising portrays Kerrigan 's training as a Ghost assassin from an early age , where she is subjected to intense psychological abuse from her Confederate trainer , Lieutenant Rumm . When she was a young girl , an accident , most likely involving her powers , kills her mother and puts her father in a vegetative state . Consequently , Kerrigan is terrified to use her psionic abilities , and refuses Rumm 's demands to show her power , even when he threatens to kill her father . Kerrigan is eventually subdued with mental implants and used as a top Confederate assassin until she is rescued by Arcturus Mengsk . The novels Liberty 's Crusade and Queen of Blades provide novelisations for Kerrigan 's actions in Episodes I and II of StarCraft respectively . Liberty 's Crusade develops the implied relationship between Jim Raynor and Kerrigan , while Queen of Blades serves to demonstrate Kerrigan 's complete transformation by the Zerg , her removal of her inhibitions and morality , and its effect on her former love , Raynor .
In addition , Kerrigan briefly appears in Gabriel Mesta 's Shadow of the Xel 'naga , set between StarCraft and Brood War , in which she attempts to secure a
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Xel 'naga artifact on the independent colony world Bhekar Ro , but fails when it eradicates her forces . Kerrigan is also observed in Shadow Hunters , the second novel in The Dark Templar Saga , a trilogy that acts as a precursor to StarCraft II . After sensing a nexus of joined human minds caused by protagonist Jake Ramsey at the end of the first novel , Kerrigan sends Zerg forces to its location , infesting the half @-@ dead body of a Dominion @-@ funded black marketeer , Ethan Stewart . As the attack is the first Zerg activity for years , it inadvertently raises the suspicions of Arcturus Mengsk , who wonders what could have motivated it .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Dwight Schrute dresses as Kerrigan for a halloween party on a season 8 episode of The Office .
= = Reception = =
Kerrigan has been received positively by critics . IGN 's review of StarCraft drew note to the evolution of Kerrigan 's character through the story , labelling it as unforgettable and describing her transformation as " chilling " . In 2006 , IGN ranked Kerrigan the fifth most memorable villain in gaming , listing the various exploits she committed after becoming infested , including conquering the Zerg race , infesting many worlds , and betraying her allies . Kerrigan was included among the 50 greatest female characters in the history of video games by Tom 's Games in 2007 , which described her " sexy , sinister and sympathetic " personality as amounting to one of the " most fascinatingly complex and memorable characters of all time . " A 2010 GameSpot poll ranked Kerrigan as the number one video game villain . At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , Tricia Helfer won " Best Performance by a Human Female " for her voicing of Kerrigan in StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . In 2012 , she was ranked as 23rd " hottest " fictional woman of the year by UGO Entertainment , and as the most evil woman in video gaming by Complex ( up from second place in 2011 ) ; Complex also included her among " coolest " video game villains overall , where she placed 16th . That same year , Cheat Code Central featured the relationship between Kerrigan and Raynor among the " kickass gaming couples " and stated the relationship as one of the rockiest in video games , also including Kerrigan on the list of top ten " badass " women of video games . GamesRadar similarly praised Kerrigan 's role as an antagonist , putting her in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at number 20 , stating " She is every kind of badass . " In 2013 , Liz Lanier of Game Informer included Kerrigan among top ten female villains in video games , stating that " Kerrigan is as brutal as she is misunderstood . While once a skilled psychic terran , her captures by Zerg leads to her transformation into the Queen of Blades . With the rare ability to be both merciless and sympathetic , the leader of the swarm is an unforgettable villian . "
= SMS Prinz Adalbert ( 1901 ) =
For other ships of the same name , see SMS Prinz Adalbert
SMS Prinz Adalbert ( " His Majesty 's Ship Prince Adalbert " ) was an armored cruiser built in the early 1900s for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , named after Prince Adalbert of Prussia , former Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Prussian Navy . She was the lead ship of her class , which included a second ship , Friedrich Carl . Prinz Adalbert was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . Her keel was laid in April 1900 , and she was launched in June 1901 . Her completion in January 1904 had been delayed by a surplus of construction projects at the Imperial Dockyard . She was armed with a main battery of four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , a significant improvement over the previous armored cruiser , Prinz Heinrich , which carried only two such guns . The ship was capable of a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Upon commissioning , Prinz Adalbert served as a gunnery training ship , a role she held for the majority of her career . She trained with the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) , later renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) , throughout the early 1900s , and she made several visits to foreign countries . After the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , she was assigned to the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic and was tasked with protecting the German coast from Russian attacks . After her sister ship was sunk in November 1914 , she became the flagship of the cruiser squadron in the Baltic . She conducted operations against Russian forces , including bombarding the port of Libau in support of the German Army . She was torpedoed by a British submarine in July 1915 , but was able to return to port and was repaired . She was torpedoed a second time on 23 October 1915 ; the torpedo detonated her ammunition magazines and destroyed the ship . She sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; only three men were rescued from a crew of 675 . This proved to be the worst German naval disaster in the Baltic during the war .
= = Construction = =
Prinz Adalbert displaced 9 @,@ 087 t ( 8 @,@ 943 long tons ) as built and 9 @,@ 875 t ( 9 @,@ 719 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 126 @.@ 5 m ( 415 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 6 m ( 64 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 43 m ( 24 ft 5 in ) forward . She was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , with steam provided by fourteen coal @-@ fired boilers . The engines developed 17 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 880 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 4 knots ( 38 km / h ; 23 mph ) on trials . She carried up to 1 @,@ 630 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of up to 5 @,@ 080 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 410 km ; 5 @,@ 850 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 35 officers and 551 enlisted men .
She was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns arranged in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the superstructure , a significant improvement over the preceding design , Prinz Heinrich , which carried only two guns in single turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns and four 45 cm ( 18 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow , one in the stern , and one on each beam . The ship was protected by a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) armored belt consisting of Krupp cemented armor , along with an armored deck that was 40 to 80 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . Her main battery turrets had faces 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Adalbert was ordered under the provisional name " B " and built at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel under construction number 27 . Her keel was laid in April 1900 and she was launched on 22 June 1901 . The launching ceremony was attended by the Kaiser , Wilhelm II , his wife Kaiserin Augusta Victoria , his brother Admiral Prince Heinrich and Wilhem 's son , Prince Adalbert of Prussia . The ceremony of christening the ship was performed by Princess Irene of Prussia , wife of Prince Heinrich , who then delivered a speech . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded slowly , in large part the result of the Imperial Dockyard attempting to build too many ships at once , but the work was eventually completed by 12 January 1904 . Prinz Adalbert was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy the same day for sea trials , with Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Hermann Jacobsen in command ; the ship was slated for service as a gunnery training ship . She had cost the Imperial German Government 16 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 Goldmarks . Sea trials were completed by 30 May , after which Prinz Adalbert began her duties as a gunnery training ship .
In September , the ship took part in the annual autumn maneuvers with the rest of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) . A special training unit consisting of reserve ships , training ships like Prinz Adalbert , and a flotilla of torpedo boats was created in early 1905 ; Prinz Adalbert was the flagship of the unit from 1905 to 1907 , flying the flag of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Hugo Zeye . Prinz Adalbert and the light cruiser Berlin escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern to Sweden for a visit to King Oscar II in July 1905 . The following month , she joined the light cruisers Undine and Nymphe for training maneuvers off Swinemünde ; the exercises were to test the ships against a simulated night attack by torpedo boats . The tests were observed by Konteradmiral Ludwig Schröder , the Inspector of Naval Weapons , aboard Prinz Adalbert . Wilhelm II boarded Prinz Adalbert for the conclusion of the exercises , in which the ship towed an old torpedo boat filled with cork while the light cruisers and torpedo boats fired on it with live shells . Prinz Adalbert did not participate in the 1905 autumn maneuvers , though she was present for the naval review at the end of the exercises on 13 September . In February 1906 , the tender Fuchs was assigned to support Prinz Adalbert . From 17 to 28 June , the cruiser served as the flagship of Prince Heinrich , then the commander of the Baltic Sea Naval Station . During this period the ship traveled to Norway to take part in the coronation festivities for King Haakon VII .
The cruiser again took part in the autumn maneuvers in 1907 and 1909 . During the latter maneuvers , Prinz Adalbert took part in the Reserve Division , commanded again by Zeye , who had now been promoted to Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) . The ship served as the flagship of the III Scouting Group , under Konteradmiral Johannes Merten , who would go on to command the Ottoman fortifications at the Dardanelles during World War I. In March 1910 and March 1911 , Prinz Adalbert conducted gunnery tests in the northern North Sea and visited Tórshavn and Vestmanna in the Faeroe Islands . She visited Ålesund in Norway in July and August that year . The ship 's first period in service came to an end in September , following a large naval review in the Kiel roadstead for Wilhelm II and Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , which began on 5 September . Prinz Adalbert was then decommissioned in Kiel on the 29th , with the armored cruiser Blücher taking her place as the fleet 's gunnery training ship . After a lengthy overhaul , Prinz Adalbert returned to service on 1 November 1912 , again with the artillery school . She was based in Sonderburg , where she replaced the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , Prinz Adalbert was brought into front @-@ line service with the fleet , and Kapitän zur See Andreas Michelsen took command of the ship . She was assigned to the IV Scouting Group , under the command of Konteradmiral Hubert von Rebeur @-@ Paschwitz . On 26 August , she was sent to rescue the light cruiser Magdeburg , which had run aground earlier that day , though she was recalled after the Germans received word that Magdeburg 's crew had been forced to scuttle the ship . Prinz Adalbert was transferred to the North Sea on 7 September and was tasked two days later with protecting the minelaying cruisers Nautilus and Albatross and the auxiliary minelayer Kaiser while they laid a minefield to protect the southern entrance to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . The ship was briefly detached to guard the Great Belt after the Germans received false intelligence suggesting that British warships would try to penetrate the Baltic . She then joined the High Seas Fleet for a sortie into the North Sea on 2 – 4 November .
After her sister ship Friedrich Carl was sunk in November 1914 , Prinz Adalbert was detached from the III Scouting Group to replace her in the Coastal Defense Division in the Baltic on 29 November . She became the flagship for Admiral Ehler Behring , the commander of the cruiser detachment in the Baltic , on 7 December . On the 15th , she sortied with the light cruisers Augsburg , Lübeck , Amazone , and Thetis and several torpedo boats for a reconnaissance sweep toward the Åland Islands ; the ships returned to port on 18 December without having engaged Russian forces . Another sweep followed on 27 – 29 December , this time to cover a sortie by the Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleship of the V Battle Squadron toward Gotland . On 6 January 1915 , Prinz Adalbert , Thetis , Augsburg , Lübeck , and several torpedo boats and U @-@ boats went on a patrol toward Utö , where they discovered a Russian base for submarines . The Germans planned to attack the base with the torpedo boats and Thetis , since she had the shallowest draft , but due to a miscommunication , the attack was not carried out .
On 22 January 1915 , Prinz Adalbert , in company with Augsburg and several torpedo boats , conducted another reconnaissance sweep toward the Åland Islands . While on the return voyage , she bombarded Russian positions at Libau . She ran aground off Steinort during the operation , and Augsburg struck a mine off Bornholm . After being freed from her grounding , the ship was repaired ; Michelsen temporarily served as the detachment commander in place of Behring from 13 February to 9 March , when the ship was ready to return to service . Behring returned to Prinz Adalbert on 20 March . In the meantime , the Russians had briefly captured Memel . The Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) detached the II Battle Squadron , II Scouting Group , and two flotillas of torpedo boats from the High Seas Fleet to reinforce the forces in the Baltic . The ships began to make diversionary attacks to support the German Army 's campaign to retake Memel ; Prinz Adalbert supported one such operation , a raid of the II Scouting Group into the Bothnian Sea to attack Russian merchant shipping on 23 March . The following day , the ships from the High Seas Fleet were recalled to the North Sea , leaving Behring 's cruisers alone once again .
Behring conducted one last operation from 13 to 17 April , with Prinz Adalbert , Thetis , and Lübeck , to support the minelayer Deutschland , which laid a minefield off Dagö . On the 20th , the Admiralstab instituted a reorganization of the Baltic Sea forces , and Behring was replaced with Konteradmiral Albert Hopman . At the same time , Michelsen was promoted to Hopman 's chief of staff , with his place as Prinz Adalbert 's commanding officer being taken by Kapitän zur See Wilhelm Bunnemann . The ship remained the flagship of the unit , and Hopman made his first cruise aboard the vessel from Kiel to Danzig on 27 April . At this time , Generalfeldmarschall ( General Field Marshal ) Paul von Hindenburg , the commander in chief of German forces on the Eastern Front , ordered a major assault on Libau . Hopman ordered his forces to support an attempt by the German Army to seize the city . The pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the IV Battle Squadron and the IV Scouting Group were allocated to Hopman 's command to provide additional support to the operation . The attack took place on 7 May , and consisted of Prinz Adalbert and the armored cruisers Roon and Prinz Heinrich , the elderly coast defense ship Beowulf , and the cruisers Augsburg , Thetis , and Lübeck . They were escorted by a number of destroyers , torpedo boats , and minesweepers . The bombardment went as planned , though the destroyer V107 struck a mine in Libau 's harbor , which blew off her bow and destroyed the ship . German ground forces were successful in their assault and they took the city .
On 1 July , the minelayer SMS Albatross , escorted by the cruisers Roon , Augsburg , and Lübeck and seven destroyers , laid a minefield north of Bogskär . While returning to port , the flotilla separated into two sections ; Augsburg , Albatross , and three destroyers made for Rixhöft while the remainder of the unit went to Libau . Augsburg and Albatross were intercepted by a powerful Russian squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Bakhirev , consisting of three armored and two light cruisers . Commodore Johannes von Karpf , the flotilla commander , ordered the slower Albatross to steam for neutral Swedish waters and recalled Roon and Lübeck . Albatross was grounded off Gotland and Augsburg escaped , and the Russian squadron briefly engaged Roon before both sides broke contact . Upon being informed of the situation , Hopman sortied with Prinz Adalbert and Prinz Heinrich to support von Karpf . While en route , the cruisers encountered the British submarine E9 , which scored a hit on Prinz Adalbert . The torpedo hit below the conning tower , caused severe damage , and killed ten men . Hopman transferred to the torpedo boat V99 while Michelsen remained aboard Prinz Adalbert to oversee the return to port . The ship took on some 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water ; her draft increased significantly , which prevented her from being able to put in to Danzig . She instead had to make the journey back to Kiel for repairs , which she reached on 4 July .
Repairs were finally completed by September 1915 . On 21 September , Prinz Adalbert joined a sortie to the Gulf of Finland with the battleships Braunschweig , Elsass , Mecklenburg , Schwaben , and Zähringen and the light cruiser Bremen . They encountered no Russian forces and returned to port on the 23rd . Another operation followed on 5 October ; this was in company with Prinz Heinrich and Bremen , and was to cover a minelayer as it laid a field to the northwest of Östergarn . The ships completed their mission the next day and returned to port without incident . On 19 October , Hopman transferred his flag to Roon and ordered Prinz Adalbert to take up a patrol between Fårö and Dagerort . The ship was steaming some 20 miles west of Libau , en route to her patrol area , in company with a pair of destroyers on 23 October when she was intercepted by the submarine E8 . E8 fired a spread of torpedoes at a range of approximately 1 @,@ 200 m ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) , detonating the ship 's ammunition magazine . The massive explosion destroyed the ship , which sank immediately with the loss of 672 crew . There were only three survivors . The sinking was the greatest single loss of life for the German Baltic forces during the war .
= Marita Covarrubias =
Marita Covarrubias is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . She was initially introduced as an informant , leaking diplomatic information to FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder to aid his investigation of paranormal cases , dubbed X @-@ Files . However , she was revealed to be an agent of the secretive Syndicate , although ultimately betraying that organization on several occasions . Introduced in the fourth season opener " Herrenvolk " , the character remained a recurring presence until the series ' finale , " The Truth " .
The character of Marita Covarrubias was portrayed by Laurie Holden in all her appearances . She was introduced as a replacement for Steven Williams ' character X , after the latter was killed by a Syndicate assassin . The character has received mixed criticism , being compared unfavorably to similar characters from the series .
= = Conceptual history = =
The X @-@ Files ' creator Chris Carter felt it would be " more interesting for Mulder 's next contact to be a woman " , noting that he " wanted there to be some suspicion about whether Mulder would become involved with her romantically . X , the character who had previously filled Covarrubias ' role as an informant in the series , had originally been cast as a female character . However Natalija Nogulich , the actress cast in that role , was replaced by Steven Williams after shooting her first scene .
When auditioning for the role of Marita Covarrubias , Laurie Holden was not allowed access to an episode script , instead simply being told that her character worked for the United Nations and had an air of " intelligent seriousness " . The actress had never seen the series before she auditioned for the part , and was required to audition using only three pages of scripted material from what would be her debut episode . Holden was required to learn Russian for the episode " Patient X " , and commented that roughly fifteen seconds of screen @-@ time took hours to rehearse . The voice coach responsible for instructing Holden and Nicholas Lea in their Russian dialogue tested their proficiency by asking them to speak to Russian @-@ speaking friends of his over the telephone . Holden felt that the two @-@ part episode " Two Fathers " and " One Son " offered her " cold , emotionless , private " character a chance to come across as " vulnerable , exposed and raw " .
= = Character arc = =
Marita Covarrubias is introduced as an informant to Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) after the death of his former source , X ( Steven Williams ) . X scrawls the letters " SRSG " in his own blood as he dies , leading Mulder to the Special Representative to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . Covarrubias uses her diplomatic connections to help Mulder infiltrate the Russian province of Krasnoyarsk , allowing him to reach the site of the Tunguska event . However , it is later seen that Covarrubias is working for The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and the Syndicate .
During the fifth season , the Syndicate discovered that Covarrubias had betrayed them and was providing information to Mulder . As a result , Syndicate scientists infect her with black oil in order to test a vaccine they had been working to create . In the following season , Covarrubias is discovered by FBI agent Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) at a decontamination chamber . She begs him to help her escape the facility , addressing him by name as well as giving him information about the whereabouts of his mother , Cassandra . Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , a former Syndicate agent now acting alone , is also present at the facility . He declines to help the pair , and leaves Covarrubias for dead .
Covarrubias returns in the seventh season episode " Requiem " , restored to health . She makes contact with Krycek at the behest of The Smoking Man , who wishes to resume the work of the now @-@ eradicated Syndicate . Having been given the location of a downed UFO , she and Krycek betray The Smoking Man , instead going to FBI assistant director Walter Skinner and Mulder to inform them about the craft . They later turn on The Smoking Man , pushing him down a flight of stairs and leaving him for dead .
In the series finale " The Truth " , Skinner seeks Covarrubias as a witness in Mulder 's trial for murder . After Skinner fails to track her down , the ghost of X hands Mulder a scrap of paper with her new address on it . She is called upon to testify , and speaks about her involvement with the Syndicate to some extent . However , when pressed for further information about the continuation of the conspiracy she clams up , and at Mulder 's request is dismissed from the stand for fear that if she divulges certain knowledge , she would be killed .
= = Reception = =
The character of Marita Covarrubias has been met with generally negative criticism . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , felt that the character was " used so perfunctorily since her introduction " that her appearances added little to the episodes she featured in , describing her as a " bad parody " of the earlier characters Deep Throat and X. Debra Warlick , writing for Cinefantastique , felt that Holden 's acting in " One Son " was " heart breaking [ sic ] " , but found that she had " unfortunately " been used simply to convey a plot point to other characters . Also writing for Cinefantastique , Paula Vitaris noted that Covarrubias " is a problematic character " , adding that " she never breaks out of her function as a plot device " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , felt that Covarrubias ' introduction in " Herrenvolk " was ill @-@ timed , noting that it " deflates the importance " of X 's death in the episode .
Writer Frank Spotnitz has described Covarrubias , along with Alex Krycek , as " young , attractive , vital [ and ] dangerous " compared to the other , older , characters working for the Syndicate . Holden has compared the character to Mata Hari , adding that " you can 't really read what she 's saying or what her intentions are " . During the series ' initial broadcast run , fans referred to Covarrubias as " UNblonde " , a reference to her United Nations posting and her dyed hair .
= 2005 – 06 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2005 – 06 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the fifth least @-@ active on record . The Météo @-@ France office on the island of Réunion tracked 13 tropical disturbances , of which six intensified into a moderate tropical storm . Three of these systems proceeded to attain tropical cyclone status – reaching 10 minute maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center also tracked eight storms in the basin . Activity was below normal due to a powerful Walker circulation , which increased convection over the neighboring Australian basin , but suppressed activity in the western Indian Ocean . As a result , most of the storms developed near or entered from the Australian basin , crossing 90 ° E to enter the South @-@ West Indian Ocean .
A series of four short @-@ lived systems occurred from September to November in the northeastern portion of the basin . These were followed by the first named storm – Alvin – which was renamed after it crossed from the Australian region as Tropical Cyclone Bertie in late November . After another short @-@ lived disturbance in late December , there was a tropical disturbance in the Mozambique Channel in January that killed 26 people when it brought heavy rainfall to Mozambique . Later in the month , Tropical Cyclone Boloetse took an erratic track across Madagascar , killing six people when it brushed the island 's southwest coast . In February , there was a small , short @-@ lived unnamed tropical storm that presented difficulties to warning agencies in determining its structure . Intense Tropical Cyclone Carina was the strongest system of the season , attaining peak 10 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) in the open waters of the eastern portion of the basin . Sprawling Tropical Storm Diwa brought six months ' worth of rainfall to the drought @-@ ridden island of Réunion , reaching 2 @,@ 943 mm ( 115 @.@ 9 in ) in the mountainous peaks . The rains led to flooding and landslides that killed 10 people directly or indirectly . Two of the deaths occurred when a saturated cliff collapsed onto a coastal road . The final storm , Elia , dissipated on April 17 after previously entering from the Australian basin .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Météo @-@ France 's meteorological office in Réunion ( MFR ) – the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the South @-@ West Indian Ocean – tracked and named all tropical cyclones from the east coast of Africa to 90 ° E , and south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region , also issued advisories for storms during the season .
There were 13 tropical disturbances in the season that were monitored by the MFR . Since the agency began operations in the early 1990s , this season had the second @-@ least number of disturbances that received warning , only behind the 2000 – 01 season . Since the advent of satellite imagery in 1967 , this season was the fifth least @-@ active in terms of storm days and the number of cyclones . There were six systems that attained the intensity of a moderate tropical storm , which has 10 minute sustained winds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , below the average of nine . There were 30 days in which a moderate tropical storm was active , less than the average of 48 . Three tropical storms attained tropical cyclone status , or 10 minute winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , and there were 10 days in which these systems were active ; this is half the average of 20 days , continuing the trend since the 2000 – 01 season of fewer stronger systems . The season was very similar to the 1998 – 99 season ; both had late starts for the first named storm , drought conditions over much of the basin , and low activity . The third named storm , Carina , did not occur until late February , which at the time was the latest such date since naming began in 1960 .
In general , storms in the season formed in the basin 's periphery or north of the Mascarene Islands . No systems developed in the Mozambique Channel , an unusual occurrence . The overall lack of activity was due to a strong Walker circulation over Indonesia , which increased convection over the Australian region , but suppressed convection over the Indian Ocean . The Intertropical Convergence Zone – typically a major contributor to tropical cyclogenesis – was rarely active . Conditions became generally more favorable in February and March , when four of the six tropical storms occurred . The general lack of thunderstorms over the basin caused drought @-@ like conditions . Pierrefonds Airport on Réunion recorded just 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) of rainfall from November to January , a record minimum . The island also recorded its third @-@ highest average atmospheric pressure from November to April .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Bertie @-@ Alvin = = =
In the middle of November , a westerly wind burst produced an area of convection southwest of Sumatra , which spawned a circulation at 2º S on November 16 . Two days later , the BoM classified the system as a tropical low to the north of the Cocos Islands . The low moved southwestward , quickly intensifying , prompting the BoM to name it Bertie . The storm moved southwestward and intensified due to favorable water temperatures and atmospheric conditions , reaching winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on November 22 while just east of 90º E. The track shifted nearly due south , and the eye moved along the dividing line between the Australian and south @-@ west Indian Ocean basins . Early on November 24 , the cyclone crossed 90º E and was renamed Alvin ; at the time , the system was beginning to weaken due to cooler waters from upwelling and increased wind shear .
The MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) within the basin , making it an intense tropical cyclone ; it was the third consecutive year in which there was a November storm of such intensity . The JTWC , which designated Alvin as Tropical Cyclone 03S , estimated 1 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . A building ridge to the south turned the storm to the west @-@ northwest . By November 25 , the increased wind shear had exposed the circulation from the convection , indicative of rapid weakening , and on that day Alvin was downgraded below tropical cyclone status . On the next day , the storm weakened to tropical depression status after nearly all of the convection was gone , prompting the JTWC to cease issuing advisories . The residual circulation remained well @-@ defined with only temporary increases in convection . The MFR stopped issuing warnings on December 3 , after Alvin had passed south of Diego Garcia , although the circulation continued westward and was still visible north of Madagascar on December 10 .
= = = Tropical Disturbance 07 = = =
The Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) produced an area of convection northeast of Madagascar on December 29 , which had an association circulation . On January 1 , the system moved across northern Madagascar and subsequently entered the Mozambique Channel . It continued quickly to the southwest , passing north of Europa Island , and was classified as Tropical Disturbance 7 late on January 3 . It continued intensifying and organizing until moving ashore Mozambique near Vilankulo , and the system nearly attained tropical depression stage . The system followed the country 's coastline , bending southward toward the capital Maputo . On January 7 , the disturbance moved offshore , but the system soon moved back overland and dissipated later that day over Swaziland . The system brought heavy rainfall to Inhambane Province , reaching 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) in Inhambane . The rains resulted in flooding but also alleviated drought conditions in Mozambique . The rains also caused the Mutamba River to
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position with him was a life job if the employee did his work faithfully . Mr. Phillips said he had known men at DuQuoin 21 years ago that were still in the service of Capt. Halliday . He told how Capt. Halliday watched the careers of young men who were striving to get ahead in life , and how he helped them to get on by opening the way for them without ever letting them see his hand . All this he told and more of the man whom he termed the best friend Cairo ever had .
At the conclusion of the service , the remains were conveyed to Beech Grove Cemetery . A thousand people went out from Cairo in two long trains and several hundred from Mound City , Mounds , and surrounding towns were already gathered there .
The acting pallbearers were all heads of departments of the various institutions , which Capt. Halliday controlled , as follows : George F. Ort , C. B. S. Pennebaker , L. P. Parker , Wood Rittenhouse , R. L. Redman , Norton Renfro , John Forrester , of St. Johns , and James Forrester , of Hallidayboro . The honorary pallbearers were chosen as follows : R. H. Cunningham , R. Bross , Andrew Lohr , C. Pink , Judge William H. Green , J. M. Lansden , William B. Gilbert , P. G. Schuh , Judge J.P. Robarts , P. J. Thistlewood , Walter Warder , Charles Galigher , John Hodges , M. F. Gilbert , N. B. Thistlewood , C. O. Patier , P. W. Barclay , M. J. Howley , Sol . A. Silver , Samuel Hastings , John A. Miller , F. Nordman , Sr. , J. B. Reed , Louis Herbert , F. D. Rexford , of Centralia .
As the service at the grave was concluded the freshly made mound was literally covered from sight by the beautiful floral offerings , which were sent in great profusion by friends of the deceased . Quite a number of men of prominence came here to pay their respects to the memory of the deceased . They came from Chicago , St. Louis , Memphis , Pittsburg , and New Orleans , as well as from smaller and less distant places . Among the number were Capts . Sam and Harry Brown , of Pittsburg ; Capts . Henry C. Haarstick , and J. S. Nauson , of St. Louis , rivermen of prominence and associates of Capt. Halliday ; also John Markley and wife of Chicago ; Judge Youngblood and Barr , of Carbondale ; Judge Monroe C. Crawford , of Jonesboro ; Capt. William K. Murphy , of Pinckneyville ; Senator Pleas T. Chapman , of Vienna ; Maj. Daniel Hogan and family of Mound City ; and numerous others .
Capt. Halliday was not a lodge man . His interest were far too numerous to allow him to devote any time to secret societies . Nevertheless , he found time to devote to Cairo ’ s interests . He was a member of the Cairo Board of Trade , and a member of the Board of Directors of the Cairo Public Library . In both of these organizations he rendered efficient aid and his counsel was always sought . The Board of Trade met and prepared a memorial , setting forth the value the deceased had been to the organization and to Cairo , which was adopted . The Library board met and Judge William H. Green addressed them in an appropriate manner , paying a just tribute to the worth of Capt. Halliday and his assistance to the educational life of the city . The city council also met and passed appropriate resolutions , and attended the funeral in a body .
CAIRO WILL MISS HIM
The death of Capt. William P. Halliday is a great loss to Cairo . It will take the people of this city a long time to appreciate how much of a friend he was . His resources were so great and his willingness to help was always to be relied upon . Cairo has won a great reputation as a host , but it was because she had a Capt. Halliday . When there was any entertainment of distinguished guests to be planned , it was done on a magnificent scale because Capt. Halliday ’ s purse was drawn upon for such a large part of the bill . In this way Cairo won fame as a hospitable city . She was able to outdo her rivals who had no Capt. Hallidays . Now Cairo will have to fall back on a plane with the others . In a business way , he was a great help to the city . Everything he owned , he improved and beautified . He employed large numbers of men and always paid good wages . He was in every movement to advance the city ’ s interests and often it needed just his influence to carry the project through . But where he will be missed the most will be among those people who have been sharers of his bounty . Their name is legion . He gave quietly , but he gave liberally . It was true of him that he did not let his right hand know what his left hand did . Very frequently the recipient of his bounty could only guess from whence the gift came . He aided the needy in distress in thousands of ways . He seemed to have some occult way of finding out that people needed assistance at certain times , and then he knew how to come to their aid without offending . Hundreds whom the public would never dream had needed his assistance blessed his name as they gazed upon his features for the last time , because he came to them in a substantial way at a critical time . This is where and by whom he will be missed the most . Truly he was a great man .
= Hurricane Gabrielle ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Gabrielle was a deadly tropical cyclone that caused nine fatalities in the United States and Canada , despite remaining hundreds of miles offshore . The tenth tropical cyclone , seventh named storm , and third hurricane of the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season , Gabrielle developed on August 30 from a tropical wave near the west coast of Africa . Under favorable conditions , the depression intensified and became Tropical Storm Gabrielle early on the following day . Rapid strengthening occurred thereafter , with Gabrielle reaching hurricane intensity early on September 1 . After becoming a hurricane , further intensification was steady , though by September 5 , Gabrielle peaked as a moderate Category 4 hurricane . On the following day , Gabrielle began to slowly level @-@ off in intensity , while gradually curving northward . After weakening to a Category 2 hurricane , the storm passed east of Bermuda on September 8 .
Gabrielle eventually decelerated , and by early on September 10 , it curved westward and weakened to a tropical storm . Gabrielle re @-@ curved northeastward on September 11 and began paralleling Nova Scotia . It further weakened to a tropical depression on September 12 and was then absorbed by a developing storm near Newfoundland on September 13 . Due to its large size , Gabrielle produced swells and high tides in the Lesser Antilles , Bermuda , the East Coast of the United States , and Atlantic Canada . Rough seas along the East Coast of the United States caused one fatality in Maine , two in Massachusetts , one in New Jersey , and four in New York . In Nova Scotia , large waves swept one man to sea and eventually caused his drowning .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 28 and entered into the Atlantic Ocean . Initially , the wave had moderate amounts of deep convection and was already well organized , which allowed it to quickly become a tropical cyclone . Based on ship reports , the wave was classified as Tropical Depression Ten beginning at 1200 UTC on August 30 . Located 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 609 km ) southeast of Tropical Storm Felix , the depression tracked westward as a high pressure ridge formed between the two storms . Satellite imagery showed the depression developing a good outflow pattern . As a result , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gabrielle on August 31 . It was noted that by as early as 1200 UTC later that day , Gabrielle was already rather large and well @-@ defined . Gabrielle continued to move westward at 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) , and by early on September 1 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . However , the storm was not operationally upgraded to a hurricane until late on September 2 ; Gabrielle was then located about 625 miles ( 1006 km ) west of Cape Verde .
After becoming a hurricane on September 1 , Gabrielle continued to intensify , but at a slower pace . By 1200 UTC on September 2 , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane while centered about halfway between the Leeward Islands and Cape Verde . Early on the following day , Gabrielle became a major hurricane when it reached Category 3 intensity . Later on September 3 , a ridge of high pressure formed a wedge between Gabrielle and Hurricane Felix . At 2046 UTC on September 3 , a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration reconnaissance aircraft flight reported a pressure of 937 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) , which was the lowest barometric pressure recorded in association with Gabrielle . It was later noted that the aircraft may not have entered the area with the most intense winds . Although barometric pressures slowly increased , Gabrielle continued to intensify , and by September 4 , it became a Category 4 hurricane . Later that day , a trough extending from the Atlantic Canada southeastward to the Florida / Georgia border caused Gabrielle to recurve northwestward .
At 0000 UTC on September 5 , Gabrielle reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , though the barometric pressure was slightly higher than late on September 3 . A hurricane hunter aircraft flown into the storm on September 5 reported that hurricane force winds extended 100 miles ( 161 km ) from the center and tropical storm force winds 250 miles ( 402 km ) . At the time , Gabrielle was recurving west @-@ northwest at 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) . Hours later , another recon flight into Gabrielle revealed that the barometric pressure was slowly rising and the eye began to expand which is sign that the storm was slowly weakening . However , forecasters were unsure if the weakening was temporary or definite , prompting one meteorologist to say that " Gabrielle may have reached its peak intensity , but its too early to tell " , to explain the uncertainty of Gabrielle ’ s strength and if the storm will strengthen even further . The storm passed northeastward of the Leeward Islands and turned northward in response to a weakening in the ridge of high pressure caused by Hurricane Felix . Early on September 7 , Gabrielle was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane . Only six hours later , the storm further weakened to a Category 2 hurricane .
While a Category 2 hurricane , Gabrielle passed east of Bermuda early on September 8 . Further weakening occurred and later that day , the storm was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . By early on September 9 , Gabrielle began decelerating as it interacted with a frontal trough extending north to south across the western Atlantic Ocean , before becoming stationary about 475 miles ( 764 km ) southeast of Cape Cod , Massachusetts on the following day . At 0600 UTC on September 10 , Gabrielle weakened to a tropical storm . While being downgraded to a tropical storm , Gabrielle began drifting slowly westward in an area of weak steering well south of the jet stream . The storm later turned back eastward , ahead of an approaching cold front . On September 12 , Gabrielle further weakened to a tropical depression , while being forced northeastward by a frontal trough . The depression lost most of its tropical characteristics , and by 1800 UTC on September 13 , it merged with a storm system developing near Newfoundland on September 13 .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center stated in its forecast on September 3 that Gabrielle had a 10 percent chance of affecting the Leeward Islands in three days . On September 5 , meteorologists forecast the storm to bypass north of the Virgin Islands and told the press that it is too early to suggest that the storm might hit the United States four or five days ahead of its current position . As Hurricane Gabrielle moved west @-@ northwest , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center advised residents along the East Coast of the United States to monitor the storm because of its large size and strong swells it is producing . When Gabrielle , recurved northwestward , the National Hurricane Center forecast the outer edge of the hurricane to graze Bermuda , bringing tropical storm force winds and strong waves to the island . In Bermuda , cruise ships and other water craft were advised of rough seas and many residents rushed to stores to buy emergency supplies .
= = Impact = =
Although Gabrielle remained far from land throughout its duration , its large size caused swells in the Lesser Antilles , the East Coast of the United States , Bermuda , and Atlantic Canada . Minor to moderate coastal flooding damage occurred in the Leeward Islands and the British Virgin Islands . Along the East Coast of the United States , rough seas caused one fatality in Maine , two in Massachusetts , one in New Jersey , and four in New York . Additionally , swells in Atlantic Canada caused one drowning fatality in Nova Scotia .
= = = Lesser Antilles and Bermuda = = =
In Barbados , Gabrielle brought 10 feet ( 3 m ) waves and flooding to the island nation , causing minor damage . There were no fatalities or injuries . In Dominica and Guadeloupe , waves from Gabrielle caused severe beach erosion along the north and east coasts of the island but moderate damage was reported . However , the erosion brought by Gabrielle and later Hurricane Hugo resulted loss of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) of beach . The Caribbean islands of Nevis and British Virgin Islands also sustained minor to moderate beach erosion . In Bermuda , waves of 10 – 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 – 6 m ) were reported .
= = = United States = = =
Waves between 5 and 13 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 meters ) were reported along the East Coast of the United States from Florida to Maryland . A weather buoy in Outer Banks , North Carolina reported swells up to 10 feet ( 3 meters ) . One death occurred by drowning in New Jersey . A 37 ‑ year ‑ old man was reported missing in New York City and presumed dead after his houseboat capsized in the heavy surf . Another houseboat also capsized , drowning a 58 ‑ year ‑ old woman . On shore , a large wave swept two fishermen into the sea , where they drowned . Overall , four fatalities occurred in the state of New York . In Rhode Island two teenagers were rescued by the United States Coast Guard after being swept into the water by the waves .
Near Boston , Massachusetts , a 25 ‑ year ‑ old man was reported missing in the Ipswich River north of Cape Ann after a motorboat capsized in the rough surf ; two other occupants including an infant were rescued . Elsewhere in the state , two deaths were reported , both of which were related to rough surf . The United States Coast Guard rescued two surfers in New Hampshire , while looking for a swimmer who was reported missing earlier . In Tenants Harbor , Maine , a 19 ‑ year ‑ old woman drowned after slipping off a rock shoreline . Two men who were with her tried to rescue the woman but to no avail as the rough seas overpowered them . The men themselves were later rescued by the crew of a fishing boat . Overall , Gabrielle caused eight fatalities along the East Coast of the United States .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
Just offshore of Nova Scotia , waves reached 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height ; a buoy near Shearwater measured swells up to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . Along the coastline , waves were about two stories high . In Gill Cove , two men walking near the shore were swept away by a large wave ; one made it safely back to the coastline , though the other was lost and subsequently drowned . Rough sea also lashed Newfoundland , which caused 20 ships to be sheltered in the St. John 's harbor .
= Galloway cattle =
The Galloway is one of the world 's longest established breeds of beef cattle , named after the Galloway region of Scotland , where it originated , during the 17th century . It is now found in many parts of the world , such as Canada , the USA and Australia .
It is now found in many parts of the world , being exported to Canada in 1853 , the US in 1882 and Australia in 1951 . The breed enjoyed success during the 1950s but this subsided during the foot and mouth crisis . Today , the breed is enjoying a revival , due to the demands of the beef market . The breed is considered average size and they have a thick coat , due to the climate of their native Scotland .
= = Etymology = =
Galloway was an ancient region located in the south @-@ west of Scotland . The word ' Galloway ' is derived from the words Gallovid , or Gaul . The Gauls were the south of Scotland .
= = History = =
The Galloway breed comes from the cattle native to the south @-@ west region of Scotland , first fully developed in the 17th century . Originally there was much variation within this breed , including many different colours and patterns . The original Galloway herd book only registered black cattle , but the recessive gene for red colour persisted in the population , and eventually dun Galloways were also allowed into the herd book . As a result , although black is still the most common colour for Galloways , they can also be red and several shades of dun . In 1877 the Galloway Cattle Society was formed .
The Galloway was introduced in Canada in 1853 , first registered in 187
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and each abdominal segment is fringed with short spines . After about two weeks , metamorphosis is complete , the pupal case splits along the thorax and the adult fly emerges . Males usually appear first , but when both sexes have emerged , mating takes place , courtship starting in the air and finishing on the ground . The female needs to feed on blood before depositing her egg mass .
= = = As disease vectors = = =
Tabanids are known vectors for some blood @-@ borne bacterial , viral , protozoan and worm diseases of mammals , such as the equine infectious anaemia virus and various species of Trypanosoma which cause diseases in animals and humans . Species of the genus Chrysops transmit the parasitic filarial worm Loa loa between humans , and tabanids are known to transmit anthrax among cattle and sheep , and tularemia between rabbits and humans .
Blood loss is a common problem in some animals when large flies are abundant . There are anecdotal reports of horse @-@ fly bites leading to fatal anaphylaxis in humans , an extremely rare occurrence .
= = = Management = = =
Controlling horse @-@ flies is difficult . Malaise traps are most often used to capture them and these can be modified with the use of baits and attractants that include carbon dioxide or octenol . A dark shiny ball suspended below them that moves in the breeze can also attract them and forms a key part of a modified " Manitoba trap " that is used most often for trapping and sampling Tabanidae . Cattle can be treated with pour @-@ on pyrethroids which may repel the flies , and fitting them with insecticide impregnated eartags or collars has had some success in killing the insects .
= = Horse @-@ fly bites = =
Humans find horse @-@ fly bites painful . There is usually a weal ( raised area of skin ) around the site and other symptoms may include urticaria ( a rash ) , dizziness , weakness , wheezing , and angioedema ( a temporary itchy , pink or red swelling occurring around the eyes or lips ) ; a few people experience an allergic reaction . The site of the bite should be washed and a cold compress applied . Scratching the wound should be avoided and an antihistamine preparation can be applied . In most cases , the symptoms subside within a few hours but if the wound becomes infected , medical advice should be sought .
= = In literature = =
The Ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus has a gadfly pursue and torment Io , a maiden associated with the moon , watched constantly by the eyes of the herdsman Argus , associated with all the stars : " Io : Ah ! Hah ! Again the prick , the stab of gadfly @-@ sting ! O earth , earth , hide , the hollow shape — Argus — that evil thing — the hundred @-@ eyed . " William Shakespeare , inspired by Aeschylus , has Tom o 'Bedlam in King Lear , " Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame , through ford and whirlpool , o 'er bog and quagmire " , driven mad by the constant pursuit . In Antony and Cleopatra , Shakespeare likens Cleopatra 's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly : " The breeze [ gadfly ] upon her , like a cow in June / hoists sail and flies " , where " June " may allude not only to the month but also to the goddess Juno who torments Io ; and the cow in turn may allude to Io , who is changed into a cow in Ovid 's Metamorphoses .
The physician and naturalist Thomas Muffet wrote that the horse @-@ fly " carries before him a very hard , stiff , and well @-@ compacted sting , with which he strikes through the Oxe his hide ; he is in fashion like a great Fly , and forces the beasts for fear of him only to stand up to the belly in water , or else to betake themselves to wood sides , cool shades , and places where the wind blows through . " The " Blue Tail Fly " in the eponymous song was probably the mourning horse @-@ fly ( Tabanus atratus ) , a tabanid with a blue @-@ black abdomen common to the southeastern United States .
= O ' Horten =
O ' Horten is a 2007 Norwegian film directed by Bent Hamer . The film 's title character Odd Horten is a habit @-@ bound train driver , who is about to retire . On the day of his retirement he ends up in an unexpected situation , and is forced to reconsider his life . As in other films by Hamer , the themes are loneliness and old age , and the courage to take chances . O ' Horten has been described as a film without a strong plot or a clear chronology .
The film 's main cast consists mainly of senior Danish and Norwegian actors , including Bård Owe , Espen Skjønberg , and Ghita Nørby . There are also several cameos from various well @-@ known Norwegians , such as ski jumper Anette Sagen in her first film role . The music was composed by John Erik Kaada . Generally well received by critics , it was chosen for Un Certain Regard at the Cannes Film Festival . Skjønberg was awarded an Amanda Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role .
= = Plot = =
Odd Horten is an overcautious 67 @-@ year @-@ old man about to retire after forty years as a train driver on the route between Oslo and Bergen . As he awakes , he goes through a meticulous daily routine , as he prepares for his second @-@ to @-@ last time driving the train to Bergen . When he gets there , he makes small talk with Svea , who owns the boarding house where he stays when there and whom he now may never see again .
Back in Oslo , his colleagues throw him a farewell party , but Odd — a timid man — is uncomfortable with the attention . As the party moves to a co @-@ worker 's apartment , he ends up getting accidentally locked out . He climbs up a scaffold , trying to reach the apartment window , and ends up in a young boy 's room . The boy asks him to stay and wait for him to fall asleep , but Odd falls asleep first . He oversleeps in the unfamiliar room and arrives too late for the train he was to drive on his final working day . He is left standing on the platform without any fixed points in his life , with nothing but a life of emptiness stretching out before him .
A number of scenes then follow whose exact sequence is unclear . Odd goes to visit his mother at the retirement home , which only makes him more unhappy : his mother is senile and spends her days staring emptily out the window , and the visit reminds him of his own impending old age . While Odd is at a restaurant , police come in and arrest the cook . At the shop where he normally buys his pipe tobacco , he learns that the owner has died . He decides to sell his boat , leading to misadventures when the buyer , who works at an airport , asks Odd to meet him there inside the secure zone . Odd goes to the local swimming pool , but his shoes were removed when the facility closed ; as he is leaving , he finds a pair of red high @-@ heeled boots and walks away in them .
By chance he then runs into another man his age , the far more spontaneous Trygve Sissener , who has fallen asleep in the snow @-@ covered street . The two spend the evening in conversation over a few drinks at Sissener 's house , and Odd is led to realisations about his own life . It emerges that his mother — a free @-@ spirited woman — was a ski jumper , but Odd himself never had the courage to try the sport . He now feels as if he has let her down , by never having the courage to seize the day and try new things .
In the early morning Sissener suggests the two go driving blindfolded . The stunt goes surprisingly well , but as Sissener pulls over the car , he dies . Odd is now left with responsibility for Sissener 's dog and with an urgency to live life to the fullest . He makes his way up to the Holmenkollen ski jump , where he sees a vision of his mother as a young woman , doing the jump . He comes to a decision and starts to do the ski jump . Odd , for the first time no longer wearing his railwayman 's jacket , rides the train to Bergen , where Svea is happily waiting for him on the platform .
= = Main cast = =
Bård Owe as Odd Horten : The " O " in O ' Horten stands for " Odd " . The name " Odd " is a quite common boys ' name in Norway , and does not carry the same meaning as the English word " odd " , though the film and the character 's bizarre qualities have been pointed out by some . Though not intentionally meant as a pun , Hamer himself has said : " I know the meaning of the word in English , and that doesn 't hurt . " Born in Norway , Owe has spent most of his professional career in Denmark , where he is known to a contemporary audience primarily from Lars von Trier 's The Kingdom . His career , however , goes all the way back to Carl Theodor Dreyer 's classic Gertrude from 1964 . Owe has also done much theatre and television work , yet after acting in over thirty films , this was his first leading role .
Espen Skjønberg as Trygve Sissener : Trygve lives alone in one of the finer parts of Oslo , and when he meets Odd he is happy to have someone to share a few drinks with . Skjønberg has been a presence in Norwegian theatre and film since 1945 , and debuted on film as a child , as early as 1937 . He has received several awards , among them an honorary Amanda in 2004 .
Ghita Nørby as Mrs. Deinboll : Mrs. Deinboll works at the store where Odd buys his tobacco . Nørby is a well @-@ established actress in Denmark , where she has been referred to as " the first lady of Danish theatre " . She had also worked in Norway prior to O ' Horten ; in 1996 she played the role of Marie Hamsun in the film Hamsun .
Henny Moan as Svea : Henny Moan plays the part of the old lady who owns the boarding house where Odd lives when he is in Bergen . There is a special connection between the two . Moan has acted in films since 1955 , and at the time O ' Horten was made , she had just retired from a long career at the theatre .
Bjørn Floberg as Flo
Kai Remlov as Steiner Sissener
Per Jansen as Train driver
Bjarte Hjelmeland as Conductor
Trond Viggo Torgersen as Opsahl
Anette Sagen as Young Vera Horten
= = Production = =
The film contains several cameos from well @-@ known actors and other celebrities , made possible by Hamer 's high standing as a director . His previous film was the international production Factotum , based on the novel by Charles Bukowski , starring Matt Dillon , Lili Taylor , and Marisa Tomei . Some of the appearances are relatively brief ; Nørby , for instance , is on screen for less than three minutes , while the well @-@ known Norwegian entertainer Trond Viggo Torgersen appears for only 59 seconds . Before the film 's première on Boxing Day 2007 , a pre @-@ screening was held for journalists on 22 December . This was followed by dinner , attended by all the protagonists , at the restaurant Valkyrien
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in Oslo , where Odd Horten is also a regular customer in the film .
Among the more original castings was Anette Sagen , the world 's leading female ski jumper , in her first film role . Sagen , 22 at the time , played the part of 70 @-@ year @-@ old Owe 's ski jumping mother , although in a younger incarnation . Hamer had already considered Sagen for the role , when he ran into her by chance at the Holmenkollen Ski Museum . Without knowing to whom he was talking , Hamer mentioned that he was shooting a film in this location , and was planning to ask Anette Sagen to be in it . The reason the theme of ski jumping was chosen was that Hamer 's own mother performed the sport , and the film has been described as a tribute to all female ski jumpers . Sagen herself had also earlier been involved in a controversy over women 's access to professional venues and competitions . Incidentally , Sagen and Owe are also both from the Norwegian town of Mosjøen .
The two lonely old men make part of a recurring theme in Hamer 's films , as seen also in Eggs ( 1995 ) and Kitchen Stories ( 2003 ) . However , Hamer himself has described the film as equally much about women ; " the women who once gave birth to these men . " He also cites a great fascination with trains as an inspiration for the film 's setting , and claims that he had long wanted to make a film with this theme .
= = Reception = =
Norwegian newspapers Verdens Gang and Dagbladet both gave the film five out of six points . Verdens Gang 's Jon Selås called it " a little film about living " and praised it for its " applied existential philosophy " . Dagbladet 's Vegard Larsen had certain objections to a few unnecessary scenes , but nevertheless found that the film had met the high expectations created by Hamer 's previous films . Aftenposten 's Ingunn Økland , on the other hand , felt O ' Horten failed to live up to the director 's best work , and gave it only four points . She nevertheless pointed out the good qualities in the film , in particular the filming and the soundtrack by John Erik Kaada .
Foreign reviewers also gave the film generally positive reviews ; Duane Byrge of The Hollywood Reporter called it a " Warm story from frigid Norway " . Variety 's Alissa Simon wrote that it " lacks the fully developed characters and tightly constructed narrative of his more poignant and substantial Kitchen Stories " , but that it " nevertheless provides a warm and gently humorous divertissement " . She also found the production and score excellent . James Rocchi , writing for Cinematical , chose to highlight Bård Owe 's performance , and his " warm demeanor " and meticulous " capacity for double @-@ takes " . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum compared Owe to Jack Nicholson 's Warren Schmidt in the film About Schmidt . Like others , she also used Finnish director Aki Kaurismäki as a reference to describe Hamer 's particular cinematic style .
O ' Horten was picked for the Un Certain Regard @-@ section of the Cannes Film Festival . Here it was praised by one reviewer as " deliciously funny " in a festival that contained few happy stories . This marked the fourth time that Hamer was represented at Cannes , which makes him one of only two Norwegians to accomplish this feat . This instance , however , marked a step up for Hamer , as his previous appearances had been in the slightly less prestigious Directors ' Fortnight @-@ category . At the festival , the film was picked for international distribution by the distribution company Sony Pictures Classics . Hamer also won the Norwegian Film Critics ' Award in 2008 , thereby becoming the first director to win this award three times . At the Amanda Awards that year , O ' Horten was nominated for a number of awards – including " Best Film " and " Best Direction " – but won only two : " Best Sound " and " Best Actor in a Supporting Role " for Espen Skjønberg .
In spite of good critical reception , the film did not perform very well at the box office , with only about 35 @,@ 000 tickets sold domestically . Hamer expressed some disappointment with this , while hoping that the DVD @-@ release would fare better . Internationally , the film did somewhat better , and was sold to forty countries . By early August 2009 , the film had in fact been seen by more people in the United States than in Norway .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack of the film was released in 2008 , under the name Music from the Motion Picture O ' Horten . It was fully composed by Norwegian pop / experimental singer Kaada .
= Chestnut sparrow =
The chestnut sparrow ( Passer eminibey ) is a species of passerine bird in the sparrow family Passeridae . It is the smallest member of the sparrow family , at about 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . The breeding male has deep chestnut plumage and the female and juvenile are duller in appearance . Like its closest relatives in the genus Passer , the Arabian golden sparrow and the Sudan golden sparrow , it is gregarious , and is found in arid areas . Ranging through the east of Africa from Darfur to Tanzania , it is found in dry savanna , papyrus swamps , and near human habitation . Adults and juveniles both feed mostly on grass seeds , and fly in flocks , often with other species of bird , to find food . It nests in trees , building its own domed nests , and also usurping the more elaborate nests of weavers .
= = Description = =
Like the other members of the sparrow family , the chestnut sparrow is a small , chunky songbird with a thick bill suited to its diet of seeds . At 10 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length , it is the smallest member of the sparrow family . It weighs between 12 grams ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) and 17 grams ( 0 @.@ 60 oz ) . Wing length ranges from 6 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) in males and from 5 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 0 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) in females . The tail , bill , and tarsus lengths are about 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) , 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) , and 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) respectively .
The plumage of the breeding male is mostly a deep shade of chestnut in colour with black colouration on the face , wings , and tail . The chestnut colour is used descriptively in the common name . The breeding male is not easily confused with any other birds except the chestnut weaver , which is substantially larger and has white on its wings . The breeding male 's legs and feet are horn ( pale grey ) in colour . The non @-@ breeding male chestnut sparrow has white flecking on the upperparts , and much of its plumage is buff or whitish with chestnut crescent markings , until the bright chestnut of the breeding plumage is exposed by wear . The non @-@ breeding male 's bill fades to a dusky @-@ tipped horn , similar to that of females , but without dusky tones on the cutting edge of the mandible ( lower portion of beak ) .
Females have the same plumage pattern as males , though with somewhat duller colouration . The female has a grey head ; buff supercilium , chin , and throat ; black and warm brown upperparts ; and off @-@ white underparts . The bill of the female is pale yellow with the tip and cutting edge of mandible dusky . Juveniles are dull grey with a brown back , a pale yellow supercilium , and a pale horn bill . Females and juveniles have hints of chestnut on their supercilium , shoulders , and throat , by which they may be distinguished from other sparrows , such as the Kenya sparrow and the other rufous sparrows , which are common in much of the chestnut sparrow 's range ; or the house sparrow , which also occurs in parts of its range .
The basic call of the chestnut sparrow is a subdued chirp , with two recorded variations : a scolding threat call , rendered chrrrrit or chrrrrreeeerrrrrrrr and a chew chew flight call . Displaying males give a high twittering trill , rendered as tchiweeza tchiweeza tchi @-@ tchi @-@ tchi @-@ tchi- see @-@ see @-@ see @-@ seeichi .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described in 1880 , by Gustav Hartlaub in the Journal für Ornithologie , as Sorella Emini Bey . Hartlaub gave it the specific name Emini Bey in honour of the explorer Emin Pasha , who collected the type specimen in modern South Sudan or Uganda near Lado , and it is occasionally given the eponymous common name Emin Bey 's sparrow . Hartlaub 's unusual spelling of its specific epithet as two words led some to spell the name emini or emini @-@ bey . No subspecies are recognised , but one was described by British ornithologist George L. G. Van Someren in 1922 from Archers Post in central Kenya , as Sorella eminibey guasso .
Hartlaub considered the chestnut sparrow 's colouration and morphology to be distinct enough to allocate it to its own monotypic genus , Sorella . Although several authors have followed Hartlaub 's treatment , it is usually placed in the genus Passer . It is very similar to the two golden sparrows , from which it may have once been only clinally different . The male Arabian golden sparrow is almost entirely gold @-@ coloured , the male chestnut sparrow is mostly chestnut , and the male Sudan golden sparrow is intermediate . British ornithologist Richard Meinertzhagen considered these three species to be conspecific ; however , the range of the Sudan golden sparrow overlaps with that of the chestnut sparrow without any known interbreeding in a small area of Sudan . These species are similar in their behaviour , which is adapted to the unpredictable conditions of their arid habitat . In particular , they and the Dead Sea sparrow share a courtship display in which males quiver their wings above their body . This intense display is probably an adaptation to nesting in a clump of trees surrounded by similar habitat , where such an intense display may serve important purposes in keeping a colony together .
The chestnut and golden sparrows have been seen as highly primitive among the genus Passer , only distantly related to the house sparrow and the related " Palaearctic black @-@ bibbed sparrows " . In recognition of this they are sometimes placed in a separate genus or subgenus Auripasser . The courtship display of the Dead Sea sparrow was thought to have evolved separately in a similar environment from that of these species , in an example of convergent evolution . However , studies of sparrow mitochondrial DNA indicate that the chestnut and golden sparrows are either derived from or are the closest relatives of the Palaearctic black @-@ bibbed sparrows .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The chestnut sparrow is found in East Africa in mostly lower country from Darfur through Kordofan , South Sudan , Somalia , Uganda , and Kenya to north @-@ central Tanzania . Its range also extends northeast into the southwest and Great Rift Valley of Ethiopia . Like the golden sparrows , it is sometimes nomadic when not breeding . Vagrants have been recorded as far from their breeding range as Dar es Salaam . It is found mostly in dry savanna and in fields and villages , but unlike its relations the golden sparrows , it is sometimes found in swamps of papyrus ( certain Cyperus spp . ) . Its population has not been quantified , but it appears to be common across a very large range and it is assessed by the IUCN Red List as Least Concern for global extinction .
= = Behaviour = =
Chestnut sparrows are gregarious , and are only occasionally found away from flocks . They frequently associate with queleas and other weavers . Adults feed on grass seeds , and those near human habitations will also eat crumbs and other household scraps . Nestlings are fed mostly softer grass seeds , and small beetles are also recorded in their diet .
= = = Breeding = = =
The nesting behaviour of the chestnut sparrow chestnut sparrow has been the subject of confusion . Early reports described the chestnut sparrow 's nest as being a typical sparrow nest built in a tree ; later it was reported that chestnut sparrows had elaborate nests like those of weavers . In 1967 , the ornithologist Robert B. Payne studied chestnut sparrows in a grey @-@ capped social weaver colony in an acacia grove near Lake Magadi in southern Kenya , and in 1969 he reported his findings in the ornithological journal The Ibis . Payne found that chestnut sparrows only nested by usurping the nests of the social @-@ weavers . After reporting this , and noting that the distribution of the chestnut sparrow closely coincides with that of the social @-@ weavers of the genus Pseudonigrita , Payne suggested that the chestnut sparrow was an obligate nest parasite ( not a brood parasite , like many Old World cuckoos and cowbirds ) . Payne also noted in his paper that " Nest parasitism is generally thought to have been a stage in the evolutionary development of brood parasitism " , an idea that remains accepted , and suggested the chestnut sparrow could be evolving towards obligate brood parasitism . However , it is known that besides parasitising the nests of weavers or using their abandoned nests , the chestnut sparrow also builds its own nests . Nests built by the chestnut sparrow , like most sparrow nests , are untidy domed structures which are made of grass and lined with feathers . Its breeding season varies between different regions , following rains , and the breeding seasons of its hosts in areas where it parasitises nests ; as a result it has been recorded breeding in every month of the year across its range .
At Payne 's study locality the breeding season of the chestnut sparrow lagged behind that of its host . The sparrows began courting when the weavers started constructing their elaborate nests . Once the breeding season began , " the first impression was of the sparrows nesting and the grey @-@ capped social weavers unobtrusively skulking nearby " . Males displayed around the new weaver nests , crouching , raising and quivering their wings in a shallow V , and giving a high , twittering trill . The males were chased by the social @-@ weavers , but returned persistently , until joined by females . When a female came near a displaying male , the male would increase his rate of wing quivering , spread and depress his tail , and bow down his head , until his body formed an arc . This exaggerated display may be an adaptation related to pair formation in the absence of male nest @-@ building , and it may also serve to focus attention in breeding colonies and keep the birds in a colony together , as colonies are in clumps of trees surrounded by similar habitat .
During Payne 's study , copulation was seen only in the acacias , around the social @-@ weaver nests . Females would fly to displaying males and solicit copulation in typical sparrow fashion , crouching , quivering , and drooping their wings . When males saw displaying females , they would fly to them and mount them immediately . Males continued their wing quivering during copulation , and females would crouch , quiver , raise their head , and hold their tails horizontally . After a copulation the female would fly off and the male would continue displaying . During this courtship and afterwards , males and mated pairs would interfere with the social @-@ weavers ' nest building , until they drove the social @-@ weavers out . During Payne 's study period , " Chases and fights between the two species were seen nearly every minute of observation " , and the male sparrows spent about a fifth of their day annoying the social @-@ weavers . Little is recorded of incubation and fledging periods in the wild . In captivity the incubation period lasts for 18 to 19 days . Clutches typically contain three or four eggs , which are ovular , mostly coloured white or bluish @-@ white . Some observations indicate that nestlings are fed by the female alone .
= Providence ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Providence " is the tenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 10 , 2002 , and later aired in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 19 , 2003 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Carter . " Providence " helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 2 and was viewed by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; some reviewers enjoyed the story and the show 's way of integrating an absent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) into the storyline , whereas others felt the plot was ludicrous .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Scully , distrustful of both Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) , circumvents the FBI 's investigation into William 's kidnapping and performs her own , assisted by Reyes and The Lone Gunmen . Scully discovers that William has been taken by a UFO cult that believes William is destined to become the savior of mankind , but only if Fox Mulder is still alive . If Mulder is dead , William will lead the forces of evil : the alien invaders .
Co @-@ written and directed by Carter , the episode opens with a shot of a fire fight during the Gulf War and the Super Soldiers involvement therein . Many of the cast and crew were pleased with Carter 's directing , including Anderson and Gish . The episode makes reference to rubbings from an alien wreck , a direct continuation from the plots of the sixth season finale " Biogenesis " and the seventh season opener " The Sixth Extinction " .
= = Plot = =
Retired Lieutenant Colonel Zeke Josepho recounts a strange experience during the Persian Gulf War and how he claims it brought him to God : as his squad was ambushed during the Battle of Al Busayyah and on the verge of defeat , four mysterious men showed up and defeated the enemy with astonishing ease . While Josepho thinks of them as guardian angels , they are revealed to be the almost @-@ indestructible Super Soldiers . In the present , Josepho stands above the wreckage of a spacecraft in Canada .
At the FBI , Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) discloses to a room of agents that Dana Scully ’ s ( Gillian Anderson ) son
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William has been abducted . Follmer notes that The Lone Gunmen are identifying the woman who took the child and ran over John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) . However , Follmer leaves out any potential motive for these crimes , which causes a frustrated Scully to leave the room . Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) reveals that he put a cell phone in the baby ’ s belongings so they can track the Overcoat Woman ; Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) and Scully head out to find William . The two eventually find William 's car seat along with the cell phone in an abandoned SUV . Meanwhile , the Overcoat Woman reports to Josepho that she has William .
Scully goes to Agent Robert Comer , whom she was forced to shoot after his attempt on William 's life , and uses the alien artifact to heal him . Comer explains that Josepho believes a physical manifestation of God exists inside the spacecraft . According to an ancient prophecy , William is destined to become the savior of humanity , but only if Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is still alive . If he dies , William will instead lead the Colonists . Comer claims that Mulder was supposedly killed by the cult in order for the aliens to successfully invade ; he tried to kill William to prevent him from causing humanity 's destruction . Suddenly , a nurse and the Toothpick Man ( Alan Dale ) arrive and ask Reyes and Scully to leave . Comer ends up alone with the Toothpick Man .
Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) later reports to Reyes and Scully that Comer has died . Reyes accuses Toothpick Man and others in the room of killing Comer . Meanwhile , Scully visits Doggett , who warns her not to trust the cultists . However , Scully goes to meet Josepho near Calgary . Josepho claims to be protecting William , but demands Mulder 's head as collateral in exchange for the baby 's release . When Josepho returns to the wreck site , the Overcoat Woman relates that the aperture of the craft began to glow when William started crying . The craft soon rises up out of the ground . Looking on the site from a distance , Scully and Reyes see the craft burst out of an enclosure and into space , lighting the ground beneath it on fire as it goes . The two find an unharmed William among the charred bodies of the cultists .
At the FBI headquarters , Follmer asks Kersh to remove his name from the final report . Instead , Kersh rebukes him and goes in to see the Toothpick Man , who is revealed to be a Super Soldier .
= = Production = =
" Providence " was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz . A large portion of the episode , as well as the previous entry , was based on the ancient astronaut theory ; a theory that proposes intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans . The themes had previously been visited in the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc . This episode , as well as the one that proceeds it , plays around with questions concerning traditional religion and faith . About the plot , series co @-@ star Robert Patrick later joked : " The baby 's the Messiah . I don 't understand any of it . I 'm Episcopalian ; I don 't get it . "
Carter also directed the episode ; initially , the episode was supposed to have been helmed by another individual , but no one was ever selected . At the last minute , Carter took on the role . Due to time constraints , Carter was writing whole parts of the script while the episode was being filmed . Many of the cast and crew were pleased with Carter 's directing . Gillian Anderson said that she thought " Chris has directed some of our best episodes . He 's very even tempered , and he 's quiet and gentle and quite nice to have as a director , because that energy can 't help but pervade the rest of the set [ … ] He 's got a clear vision , and he 's good at communicating that . " Annabeth Gish noted that Carter 's directing was " very meticulous " and that he " knows exactly what he wants " .
The episode 's opening scene depicts a fire fight during the Gulf War . This sequence , which took two days to film , was shot on a dry expanse of land located an hour outside of Los Angeles . This area had been selected due to its resembles to an Iraqi desert . Series ' co @-@ executive producer Michelle MacLaren said : " We [ MacLaren and location manager Ilt Jones ] were way out in the desert and we drove around this corner of these hills and I felt like we had entered another country . It was so desolate , and there were these stone buildings that looked like a bomb had gone off in them . It was perfect . " To add authenticity to the shoot , several of the extras used during this scene were former US military personnel .
Unlike many of the sets featured on the show which were filmed on a Fox soundstage , the shot of the buried alien space craft was actually filmed in the hills near Simi Valley , California . Carter wanted a full @-@ scale mock @-@ up of the alien ship to be buried in the ground . This was unusual for the show ; usually , a small portion of the ship would have been buried in the ground and the rest would have been filled in either via digital graphics , or with a scale model . In this episode , however , all of the shots of the alien ship , sans the take off , were done practically . To create the otherworldly glow of the ship , over 100 lamps were hidden within the craft . In addition , the ship itself was covered in glyphs that are supposed to be part of an unknown alien language . This was accomplished by designing fictional characters and programming them into a computer . These were then printed as letters which could be applied to the ship 's hull .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Providence " first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 10 , 2002 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 5 @.@ 49 million households , and 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . " Providence " was the 56th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 10 . The episode eventually aired on BBC Two on January 19 , 2003 . " Providence " was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
" Providence " received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity awarded the episode a B + rating . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a 9 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode took the promising beginning of the last episode and delivered a strong and surprising larger meaning to the pieces of the mythology we ’ ve seen over the past few seasons . I ’ ve said it before , and I ’ ll say it again … those who bash these episodes simply because they relate to the “ new direction ” ought to be ashamed of themselves . With this kind of creativity , this series could easily end in a way that makes the entire series one seamless tapestry . " Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk concluded that " Providence " , along with the previous episode " Provenance " , " does a fairly good job without including Duchovny " due to its adherence to " the series ' main storyline [ about ] the government conspiracies . "
Other reviews were more negative . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . The called the entry " shallow and pretentious , and internally inconsistent " and derided its plot . They wrote that " at the centre of [ the show 's ] mythology [ is ] a situation dependent on Mulder and a baby . One of them is absent , and one of them can 't talk . " Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson criticized the line asking for Mulder 's head , but praised the episode 's teaser . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , also complimented the teaser sequence , calling it " glorious " , but was heavily critical of the rest of the episode 's " confused and impenetrable " story . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a largely negative review of the episode and derided its plot . He wrote that " as this series winds down , you would think Carter and Spotnitz would be in a hurry to resolve some of the myriad of questions they 've posed . Instead , ' Providence ' was just more of what we 've come to expect the past two seasons . "
= National Museum of Vietnamese History =
The National Museum of Vietnamese History ( Vietnamese : Viện Bảo tàng Lịch sử Việt Nam ; Hán tự : 院寶藏歷史越南 ) is located in the Hoan Kiem district of Hanoi , Vietnam . The museum building which was an archaeological research institution of the French School of the Far East under French colonial rule ( Louis Finot École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient EFEO ) of 1910 , was extensively refurbished in 1920 . It was redesigned between 1926 and 1932 by architect Ernest Hébrard . The museum was acquired by the Government of Vietnam in 1958 and then the artifact collections were expanded to cover eastern arts and national history .
The museum highlights Vietnam 's prehistory ( about 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 years ago ) up to the August 1945 Revolution . It has over 200 @,@ 000 exhibits displayed covering items from prehistory up to the 1947 revolution and founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam , arranged in five major sections .
= = Location = =
The museum is situated at the back of the Hanoi Opera House . It is in 1 Trang Tien Street , 216 Tran Quang Khai Street , Hanoi .
= = History = =
The museum building used to be the archaeological research institution of the French School of the Far East under French colonial rule ( Louis Finot École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient EFEO ) , which opened in 1910 . This was extensively refurbished in 1920 , and redesigned between 1926 and 1932 by the architect Ernest Hébrard . It is considered a blend of French colonial and traditional Vietnamese architecture , also called Indochina architecture . The museum was acquired by the Government of Vietnam in 1958 and then the artifact collections were expanded to cover eastern arts and national history . It was formally opened for public viewing on 3 September 1958 . The museum 's exhibits highlight Vietnam 's prehistory ( about 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 years ago ) up to the August 1945 Revolution .
= = Features = =
The museum is housed in a colonial French building which is a cupola shaped edifice in the shape of a pagoda . The design of the building is an amalgamation of French and Chinese architecture known as Indochina architecture . The building designed by Hebrard , incorporates double walls and balconies for a natural ventilation system and protection from sunshine . The exhibition area is more than 2 @,@ 200 square metres ( 24 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with exhibits arranged chronologically . It is divided into five major sections : Section 1 covers period from the prehistoric period from the Stone Age ( 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 years ) to 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 years ago ; Section 2 has displays from the time of nation building during the Tran Dynasty ; Section 3 has exhibits from the period of the Ho Dynasty to the August 1945 Revolution ; and Section 4 has artifacts of the Champa stone sculptures . The museum showcases Vietnam 's history with very large collection of about 200 @,@ 000 items , covering the Neolothic age , Bronze age , Sa Hunh , Oc Eo , and Hung periods , Ngyyen dynasty , Cham period , and also northern Vietnam 's Dong Son , a culture which existed about 1000 BC @-@ 100 AD . These exhibits are in the main building . The exhibits highlight communism and depict the rule of the French colonists as cruel .
= = Exhibits = =
Exhibits in the museum include Hung era and Neolothic mortuaries , Bronze Age implements such as axe heads , and Cham period artifacts . There is an intimidating sculpture of Quan Am , the Goddess of Mercy , which has 1 @,@ 000 eyes and arms . Also on display are the 13 Nguyễn dynasty emperor 's ornamented throne , dresses and other antiquities . These include the large Dong Son drums , which are symbolic of Vietnamese culture . At ground level the display consist of stone implements , pottery , and ornaments , up to 1400 AD . On the first floor the exhibits pertain to the monarchic reign from the time of the Dinh and Le eras of 900 ADs to Vietnam 's last emperors ; these are decorative items such as a chest of drawers inlaid with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , cylindrical containers of enamel ( these are funerary jars ) , ceramics and bright lacquer ware . There is a stele which was found during an archaeological excavation with an inscription at a monument labeled G1 , which is dedicated to God Harivamsesvara by Harivarman I ( ca . 1137 ) is preserved in the museum . The exhibits of new artifacts cover Central Vietnam , Central Highlands , South Vietnam and also an old shipwreck near Cu Lao Cham Island . The museum has signage in English , but this is inadequate to express all that is on display in the museum .
To popularize Vietnam 's history from the past to the present , the Museum administration organized an exhibition of 450 artifacts ( 416 from 13 Vietnamese museums and the balance from 8 European museums ) in Austria and Belgium from September 2003 to November 2004 . The Royal Museum of Arts and History ( Kingdom of Belgium ) and the Vienna Ethnology Museum ( Republic of Austria ) were associated with this exhibition , which was titled " Vietnam – Past and Present . "
= Show Your Hand =
" Show Your Hand " is a song by Welsh rock band Super Furry Animals and was the first single from their 2007 album , Hey Venus ! . The single was made available for download on 16 July 2007 as an iTunes exclusive and was later released in physical formats on 13 August in the UK . The track failed to penetrate the UK singles chart 's Top 40 , peaking at # 46 .
According to lead singer Gruff Rhys the track is " a song about gambling " and was originally going to be left off Hey Venus ! for being " too generic " before Rough Trade boss Geoff Travis persuaded the band to reconsider their decision . Critical reaction to the track was mixed with some reviewers claiming " Show Your Hand " was " ponderously mature " and " more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio " while others hailed the track as " classic Furries " .
Unlike the two other singles taken from Hey Venus ! , " Run @-@ Away " and " The Gift That Keeps Giving " , no music video was produced for " Show Your Hand " .
= = Origins and recording = =
In an interview with Pitchfork Media given before the release of Hey Venus ! , singer Gruff Rhys claimed " Show Your Hand " was " a song about gambling . There 's lots of card @-@ playing going on in the Super Furry Animals [ tour bus ] , which may have [ had ] a slight influence on the subject matter " . Rhys went on to state that the song was initially left off Hey Venus ! for being " too generic " :
A combination of pressure from Rough Trade 's Geoff Travis and Jeannette Lee ( " Where 's that song gone ? That 's our favorite song ! " ) and the addition of a French horn part , written by Cian Ciaran , resulted in the song finally taking its place on the record . Although the majority of the track was recorded at Miraval Studios , France along with the rest of Hey Venus ! , additional recording also took place with Chris Shaw who mixed the album . According to Cian Ciaran both b @-@ sides to " Show Your Hand " , namely " Aluminium Illuminati " and " Never More " , were originally recorded during sessions for 2003 's Phantom Power although " Aluminium Illuminati " was mentioned as a working title as early as May 2000 in connection with 2001 's Rings Around the World album .
= = Musical structure = =
" Show Your Hand " is 2 minutes 51 seconds long and is in the key of E minor . The song begins with a " Kevin Ayers @-@ style psych @-@ pop intro " ; " a Beatlesque harpsichord line " accompanied by intermittent bass and occasional strummed guitar chords with Rhys singing the lines " You 're perched so neatly on the fence , you 're keeping your cards all to yourself ... " as the songs builds to its first chorus on 30 seconds .
" Emphatic power chords " takes the song into the " rarefied soft @-@ rock territory " of the chorus with Rhys singing the title phrase four times before being joined by " sugar @-@ sweet harmonies from the Brian Wilson School of Spine @-@ Tingling Pop " on the last lines : " I 'm jumping off the fence , into your corner " . Another verse and chorus follow before the song 's middle 8 at 1 minute 31 seconds , a multi @-@ layered vocal take on a regular verse featuring just ' bah , bah , bahs ' in place of lyrics .
The song ends with a triple chorus ( the third of which features a key change to A major ) as " French horn counterpoints usher the song towards its climax " , the line " jumping off the fence " repeating three times before a staccato finish with Rhys singing " into your corner " , drawing out the last word .
= = Critical response = =
Although some critics hailed the track as a ' return to form ' for the band , with the Manchester Evening News describing the song as a " the best that the Furries have sounded in ages ... a return to the mellow @-@ but @-@ bouncy pop fare of their early albums Fuzzy Logic and Guerilla " , others pointed out that " Show Your Hand " is " ponderously mature " , rather " straightforward " and " more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio than [ that ] of a historically experimental band " . However , The Guardian stated that " Show Your Hand " " is the sort of music [ the Super Furry Animals ] do best - hazy , lazy sunshine pop " . And while Cokemachineglow believed the track " may not have the staying power or the immediate pull of the Super Furry Animals ' best singles " their reviewer conceded that " it 's not too far behind " .
The ' retro ' nature of the track was commented on by several critics with The Independent describing the track as being performed in a " sophisticated soft @-@ rock style " which recalls " the arrangements of The Association and Surf 's Up @-@ era Beach Boys " , Pitchfork Media calling the song " Zombies @-@ esque orchestral pop " , and Drowned in Sound describing " Show Your Hand " as " an almost Bacharachian gem " :
BBC Wales described " Show Your Hand " as " classic Furries " in a favourable review on their website to coincide with the release of the track as a single going on to state that it is :
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD ( RTRADSCD402 )
" Show Your Hand " – 2 : 51
" Aluminium Illuminati " – 2 : 37
" Never More " – 2 : 25
7 " ( RTRADS402 )
" Show Your Hand " – 2 : 51
" Never More " – 2 : 25
= = Personnel = =
= = Singles chart positions = =
= Kimigayo =
" Kimigayo " ( 君が代 ) is the national anthem of Japan . Its lyrics are the oldest among the world 's national anthems , and with a length of 11 measures and 32 characters " Kimigayo " is also one of the world 's shortest . Its lyrics are from a waka poem written in the Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) , and the current melody was chosen in 1880 , replacing an unpopular melody composed eleven years earlier . While the title " Kimigayo " is usually translated as His Imperial Majesty 's Reign , no official translation of the title or lyrics has been established in law .
From 1888 to 1945 " Kimigayo " served as the national anthem of the Empire of Japan . When the Empire was dissolved following its surrender at the end of World War II , the State of Japan succeeded it in 1945 . This successor state was a parliamentary democracy and the polity therefore changed from a system based on imperial sovereignty to one based on popular sovereignty . Emperor Hirohito was not dethroned , and " Kimigayo " was retained as the de facto national anthem . The passage of the Act on National Flag and Anthem in 1999 recognized it as the official national anthem .
= = Etymology = =
Following the meaning of the original Chinese , " kimi " has been used either as a noun to indicate an emperor or one 's lord ( i.e. , master ) since at least the Heian period ; as an honorific noun or suffix to indicate a person or most commonly as a friendly , informal word for " you . " For example , the protagonist Hikaru Genji ( 光源氏 ? ) of the Tale of Genji is also called " Hikaru no Kimi " or " Hikaru @-@ gimi " ( 光の君 or 光君 ? ) . But before Nara period , the emperor was often called " ōkimi " ( great lord ) ; so it is controversial whether the word " kimi " in " kimigayo " had meant emperor or not originally .
In Kamakura period , " Kimigayo " was used as a festive song among samurai and then became popular among the people in Edo period . In latter Edo period , " Kimigayo " was used in the Ōoku ( harem of Edo Castle ) and Satsuma @-@ han ( now Kagoshima Prefecture ) as a common festive new year song . In those contexts , " kimi " never meant the emperor but only the Tokugawa shogun , the Shimazu clan as rulers of the Satsuma @-@ han , guests of honour or all members of festive drinking party . After the Meiji Restoration , samurai from Satsuma @-@ han controlled the Imperial Japanese government and they adopted " Kimigayo " as the national anthem of Japan . From this time until the Japanese defeat in World War II , " Kimigayo " was understood to mean the long reign of the emperor . With the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947 , the emperor became no longer a sovereign who ruled by divine right , but a human who is a symbol of the state and of the unity of the people . The Ministry of Education did not give any new meanings for " Kimigayo " after the war ; this allowed the song to mean the Japanese people . The Ministry also did not formally renounce the pre @-@ war meaning of " Kimigayo " .
In 1999 , during the deliberations of the Act on National Flag and Anthem , the official definition of Kimi or Kimi @-@ ga @-@ yo was questioned repeatedly . The first suggestion was given by Chief Cabinet Secretary Hiromu Nonaka that , due to the new status of emperor as established in Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan , kimi meant the " emperor as the symbol of Japan " and the entire lyrics wish for the peace and prosperity of Japan . Then Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi confirmed this meaning with a statement on June 29 , 1999 :
" Kimi " indicates the Emperor , who is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people , and whose position is derived from the consensus @-@ based will of Japanese citizens , with whom sovereign power resides . And , the phrase " Kimigayo " indicates our State , Japan , which has the Emperor enthroned as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people by the consensus @-@ based will of Japanese citizens . And it is reasonable to take the lyric of " Kimigayo " to mean the wish for the lasting prosperity and peace of such country of ours .
Parties opposed to the Liberal Democratic Party , which was in control of the government at the time Obuchi was prime minister , strongly objected to the government 's meaning of kimi and " Kimigayo " . From the Democratic Party of Japan , members objected due to the lack of any historical ties to the meaning . The strongest critic was Kazuo Shii , the chairman of the Communist Party of Japan , who strongly claimed that " Japan " could not be derived from " Kimigayo " because the lyrics only mention wishing for the emperor for a long reign . Shii also objected to the use of the song as the national anthem because for a democratic nation , a song about the emperor is not appropriate .
= = History = =
= = = Empire of Japan ( 1868 – 1945 ) = = =
The lyrics first appeared in the Kokin Wakashū , a poetry anthology , as an anonymous poem . The poem was included in many anthologies , and was used in a later period as a celebration song of a long life by people of all social statures . Unlike the form used for the current national anthem , the poem originally began with " Waga Kimi wa " ( ' you , my lord ' ) instead of " Kimiga Yo wa " ( ' your reign ' ) . The first lyrics were changed during the Kamakura period , while the rest of the lyrics stayed the same . Because the lyrics were sung on formal occasions , such as birthdays , there was no sheet music for it until the 19th century .
In 1869 , John William Fenton , a visiting Irish military band leader , realized there was no national anthem in Japan , and suggested to Iwao Ōyama , an officer of the Satsuma Clan , that one be created . Ōyama agreed , and selected the lyrics . The lyrics may have been chosen for their similarity to the British national anthem , due to Fenton 's influence . After selecting the anthem 's lyrics , Ōyama then asked Fenton to create the melody . After being given just two to three weeks to compose the melody and only a few days to rehearse , Fenton debuted the anthem before the Japanese Emperor in 1870 . This was the first version of " Kimigayo " , which was discarded because the melody " lacked solemnity . " However , this version is still performed annually at the Myōkōji temple in Yokohama , where Fenton served as a military band leader . Myōkōji serves as a memorial to him .
In 1880 , the Ministry of the Imperial Household adopted a new melody composed by Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi . The composer is often listed as Hiromori Hayashi , who was their supervisor and Akimori 's father . Akimori was also one of Fenton 's pupils . Although the melody is based on a traditional mode of Japanese court music , it is composed in a mixed style influenced by Western hymns , and uses some elements of the Fenton arrangement . The German musician Franz Eckert applied the melody with Western style harmony , creating the second and current version of " Kimigayo " . The government formally adopted " Kimigayo " as the national anthem in 1888 and had copies of the music and lyrics sent overseas for diplomatic ceremonies . By 1893 , " Kimigayo " was included in public school ceremonies due to the efforts of the then Ministry of Education .
At the turn of the 20th century , " Kimigayo " was beginning to be closely associated with the idea of honoring the Emperor . It was also associated as a part of Japanese education . However , opinions expressed in an Osaka paper in 1904 calls " Kimigayo " a song for the imperial family and not the state as a whole . Uchimura Kanzo , a Christian leader in Japan , stated at the turn of the 20th century that " Kimigayo " is not the anthem of Japan by saying the song 's purpose is to praise the emperor . According to Kanzo , a national anthem should express the feelings of the people . The Japanese were not familiar with " Kimigayo " as the anthem until there was a surge of celebrations after victories in the First Sino @-@ Japanese and Russo @-@ Japanese Wars . Previously , papers were critical of fellow Japanese who could not sing " Kimigayo " properly at ceremonies overseas .
= = = Postwar Japan ( 1945 – present ) = = =
= = = = 1945 to 1999 = = = =
During the American occupation of Japan , there were no directives by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to restrict the use of " Kimigayo " by the Japanese government . This was different from the regulations issued that restricted the use of the Hinomaru flag . Along with the encouragement to use " Kimigayo " in the schools to promote defense education and patriotism , the national broadcaster NHK began to use the song to announce the start and ending of its programming .
= = = = Since 1999 = = = =
The Act on National Flag and Anthem was passed in 1999 , choosing both the Hinomaru and " Kimigayo " as Japan 's national symbols . The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of a school principal in Hiroshima who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the Hinomaru and " Kimigayo " .
Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party ( LDP ) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and " Kimigayo " official symbols of Japan in 2000 . His Chief Cabinet Secretary , Hiromu Nonaka , wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of Akihito as Emperor . This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official . In 1974 , with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis , Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei hinted at a law being passed legalizing both symbols .
Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito ( CGP ) , while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party ( SDPJ ) and Communist Party ( CPJ ) , who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era . The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public . Meanwhile , the Democratic Party of Japan ( DPJ ) could not develop party consensus on it . President of the DPJ , Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan . Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools .
Before the vote , there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet . Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that " Kimigayo " is a separate issue more complex than the Hinomaru flag . Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet . The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22 , 1999 , by a 403 to 86 vote . The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9 . It was enacted into law on August 13 .
= = Protocol = =
The lyrics and musical notation of the anthem are given in the second appendix of the Act on National Flag and Anthem . As for the sheet music itself , it displays a vocal arrangement with no mention of tempo and all of the lyrics in hiragana . The anthem is composed in 4 / 4 ( common time ) in the Dorian mode . The Act on National Flag and Anthem does not detail how one should show respect during performances of " Kimigayo " . In a statement made by Prime Minister Obuchi , the legislation will not impose new regulations on the Japanese people when it comes to respecting the flag or anthem . However , local government bodies and private organizations sometimes suggest or demand certain protocols be followed . For example , an October 2003 directive by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government required teachers to stand during the national anthem at graduation ceremonies . While standing , the teachers are required to sing " Kimigayo " while facing the Hinomaru . United States military personnel are required by regulations to render honors with a hand salute , or when in civilian dress , to place their right hand over their heart when " Kimigayo " , The Star @-@ Spangled Banner , or any other national anthem is performed . The Act on National Flag and Anthem also does not dictate when or where " Kimigayo " should be played . The anthem , however , is commonly played at sporting events inside of Japan , or at international sporting events where Japan has a competing team . At sumō tournaments , " Kimigayo " is played before the awards ceremony .
= = = Public schools = = =
Since the end of World War II , the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the Hinomaru and " Kimigayo " at schools under their jurisdiction . The first of these statements was released in 1950 , stating that it was desirable , but not required , to use both symbols . This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education . The Ministry not only took great measures to explain that both symbols are not formally established by law , they also referred to " Kimigayo " as a song and refused to call it the national anthem . It was not until 1977 that the Ministry referred to " Kimigayo " as the national anthem ( 国歌 , kokka ) of Japan . In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines , the LDP @-@ controlled government first demanded that the Hinomaru flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to " Kimigayo " . Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms .
The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that " on entrance and graduation ceremonies , schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the " Kimigayo " ( national anthem ) , given the significance of the flag and the song . " Additionally , the ministry 's commentary on 1999
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. At the next meeting , Dolim openly admits the death ( and Reptilian primacy ) and the Reptilian and Insectoid members leave . They soon launch the superweapon , escorted by Dolim with his flagship . With both Enterprise and friendly Xindi vessels in pursuit , Dolim kidnaps Sato and disappears into a subspace vortex .
= = Production = =
Filming on " The Council " began on February 12 , 2004 , and concluded on February 23 , having taken seven days to film with shooting placed on hold for Presidents ' Day . The exception to this was the scenes featuring Sphere @-@ Builders which were shot in conjunction with the following episode , " Countdown " , on February 26 . Manny Coto wrote " The Council " , his fifth episode for Enterprise . David Livingston directed the episode , which was his fourth of the season – tying Roxann Dawson for the most episodes during season three . It was the second time that Coto and Livingston had collaborated on an episode , having previously worked together on " Harbinger " .
A number of temporary sets were built for the episode , including those for the Xindi Council , which were meant to be originally created in @-@ universe by the extinct avian race of Xindi . The sets for Degra 's ship continued to be used , and the Enterprise sets still featured damage following the actions in earlier episodes . " The Council " featured a larger than normal number of guest actors to represent various members of the Xindi Council . These included Tucker Smallwood as the Primate Council Member ; He had previously appeared in the role earlier in the season in " The Xindi " and " Rajiin " . Smallwood had also appeared elsewhere in the genre in Space : Above and Beyond as Commodore Ross . Sean McGowan made his fourth and final appearance of the series in " The Council " , while Randy Oglesby also made his final appearance as Degra . Josette DiCarlo returned as a female Sphere @-@ Builder , after first appearing in " Damage " , while Mary Mara and Ruth Williamson both made their Enterprise debuts as other Sphere @-@ Builders .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Council " was first aired on May 12 , 2004 on UPN . It received a 3 @.@ 4 / 5 % share , meaning that it was seen by 3 @.@ 4 percent of all households , and 5 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . This translated to approximately 3 @.@ 35 million viewers . It was a slight increase on the ratings received by the previous episode " E ² " , which was viewed by a 3 @.@ 3 % audience share .
Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation , calling it a " taut , tense action episode " with predictable plot twists that still felt " wrenching " when revealed . Although she felt that the launch of the superweapon was outweighed by the murder of Degra , she found the episode " quite engrossing " and thought " The Council " demonstrated that Enterprise was " coming into its own " . Jamahl Epsicokhan , for his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , said that the death of Degra was a shame as he was the " season 's most pivotal and interesting character " . He said that the shot of the superweapon being launched was a " terrific and fearsome shot " , and gave the episode a score of 3 @.@ 5 / 4 . The episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects , but lost to the team that worked on the episode " Countdown " .
The first home media release of " The Council " was as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 .
= Bullet for My Valentine =
Bullet for My Valentine are a Welsh heavy metal band from Bridgend , formed in 1998 . The band is composed of Matthew Tuck ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) , Michael Paget ( lead guitar , backing vocals ) , Michael Thomas ( drums ) and Jamie Mathias ( bass guitar ) . Former members include Nick Crandle and Jason James ; both were on bass . They were formed under the name Jeff Killed John and started their music career by covering songs by Metallica and Nirvana . Jeff Killed John recorded six songs which were not released ; two of these tracks were reworked later in their career as Bullet for My Valentine . Financial difficulties dictated the name change , which was followed by a change in music direction . In 2002 , the band secured a five @-@ album deal with Sony BMG . The band has stated that their music is influenced by classic metal acts such as Metallica , Iron Maiden , and Slayer . The band is part of the Cardiff music scene .
Bullet for My Valentine 's debut album , The Poison , was released on 3 October 2005 in the United Kingdom and on 14 February 2006 in the United States to coincide with Valentine 's Day , in a nod to the band 's name . The album entered the US Billboard 200 at number 128 . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . The band made appearances at the Download Festival and Kerrang ! XXV , and undertook a US tour with Rob Zombie . Bullet for My Valentine 's second studio album , Scream Aim Fire , was released on 29 January 2008 and debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . The band 's third album , Fever , was released on 26 April 2010 and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 . On February 8 , 2013 , the band released their fourth studio album , Temper Temper , which peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 . The band has sold over one million albums in the United States and over 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 albums worldwide and are the most @-@ successful act in the Kerrang ! Awards category of " Best British Band " with three wins .
= = History = =
= = = Jeff Killed John and record deal ( 1998 — 2005 ) = = =
Jeff Killed John was the forerunner band to Bullet for My Valentine and was formed in 1998 by Matthew Tuck , Michael " Padge " Paget , Nick Crandle , and Michael " Moose " Thomas while studying music at Bridgend College . They started playing Nirvana and Metallica cover songs . In 1999 , the band released their first ever EP , Better Off Alone . They released another two @-@ track EP in 2002 , You / Play with Me , which was produced by Greg Haver . The EP was financed through the Pynci scheme for new Welsh musicians and the release garnered radio airplay on BBC Radio 1 's broadcast at Newport 's T.J. ' s . Jeff Killed John 's music followed the nu metal trend set by bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit . Shortly after , the band released another two @-@ track EP titled Eye Spy . In 2003 , their second EP was released titled Don 't Walk Away . This was a promotional cd and was shipped to different record companies , as well as being given out locally in Bridgend . Unfortunately they were not successful , probably due to their playing of " nu metal " genre type music , which was becoming less popular . Thus making Jeff Killed John , one of the millions affected by the nu metal genre . Bassist Crandle left the band on the eve of entering the recording sessions for the bands self @-@ titled EP and was replaced by Jason James . The band then changed their name to Bullet for My Valentine and reworked their musical strategy ; they decided to play heavy metal songs with " harmony guitars and big angelic choruses " according to frontman Tuck . Late 2003 , they released their final EP before record labels actually began to notice their potential . This happened due to the sudden change in their strategy and sound which , the band claims came " directly out of their heads . " Their self @-@ titled EP consisted of five songs ; most of the songs became precursors of tracks from The Poison .
Roadrunner Records showed interest in Bullet for My Valentine and offered the band a deal . The offer was ultimately turned down , and the band signed a five @-@ album record deal with Sony BMG and a UK licensing deal with Visible Noise . According to Tuck , they chose Sony because , " We thought that a lot more doors would be open to us . " A self @-@ titled EP was released on 15 November 2004 in the UK . Produced by Colin Richardson , it featured five tracks and marked the band 's first official release . A second EP , Hand of Blood , was released on 22 August 2005 through Trustkill Records and was only available in the US ; the release contained one extra track than the self @-@ titled EP , " 4 Words ( To Choke Upon ) . " Daniel Lukes of Decibel Magazine reviewed the EP by stating , " The worst part is that the music itself isn ’ t all that bad , for the genre . " He went on to comment that the band should be " embarrassed " about the release . Zeromag 's Josh Joyce complimented the band on " how technical they can get without confusing the kids . "
= = = The Poison ( 2005 — 07 ) = = =
Bullet for My Valentine 's debut album , The Poison , was released on 3 October 2005 in the UK and on Valentine 's Day , 2006 in the US . It entered the Billboard 200 at number 128 , and attained number 11 on the Independent Albums chart . On 30 January 2009 , the album was certified gold by the RIAA after 500 @,@ 000 copies were sold in the US . Four singles were released from The Poison : " 4 Words ( To Choke Upon ) " , " Suffocating Under Words of Sorrow ( What Can I Do ) " , " All These Things I Hate ( Revolve Around Me ) " , and " Tears Don 't Fall " . Bullet for My Valentine promoted the album by touring across the world . In 2005 , with increased popularity , they played on the larger Download Festival Snickers stage ; in 2006 , the band were moved to near the top of the main stage bill . Other tours included opening for Metallica and Guns N ' Roses in the summer of 2006 , the Vans Warped Tour and Earthday Birthday .
The band 's headline performance at Kerrang XXV , a one @-@ off gig at Brixton Academy in London on 28 January 2006 , was filmed for their first DVD , The Poison : Live at Brixton . During June 2007 , Tuck suffered from laryngitis , which let to an emergency tonsillectomy in July . Bullet for My Valentine were forced to cancel several shows , including supporting Metallica for three dates on their Sick of the Studio ' 07 tour on 29 June in Bilbao , 5 July in Vienna , and 8 July at the recently completed Wembley Stadium in London . Unable to speak , Tuck wrote that as soon as doctors cleared him he would be in the studio working on the band 's next album .
= = = Scream Aim Fire ( 2007 — 08 ) = = =
The band 's second studio album , Scream Aim Fire , was recorded at Sonic Ranch Studios and was produced by Colin Richardson . Tuck commented at the time , " It 's a lot more up tempo , a lot more aggressive " . The album was released in the US on 29 January 2008 . It sold 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 . Three songs were released as singles : " Scream Aim Fire " , " Hearts Burst into Fire " , and " Waking the Demon " .
In support of the new album , the band toured North America and Australia in the spring of 2008 for the Taste of Chaos tour alongside Atreyu , Blessthefall , and Avenged Sevenfold . Bullet for My Valentine cut short the Canada portion of the tour and flew back home to support the daughter of James who was in hospital . The band performed in North America again in the summer of 2008 as part of the No Fear Tour with Bleeding Through , Cancer Bats , and Black Tide . In late 2008 , the band toured Europe , supported by Lacuna Coil , Bleeding Through , and Black Tide . In December 2008 , Scream Aim Fire was re @-@ released with four bonus tracks that were recorded during the album 's studio sessions , but with re @-@ recorded vocal @-@ lines .
= = = Fever ( 2009 — 2011 ) = = =
Matt Tuck spoke to Daniel Marez of Metal Hammer in March 2009 about the band 's progress on writing and recording their third album . Tuck stated that there were four or five songs that were finished and that " usually we write and record 14 tracks that I then have to write vocal lines for , but this time I ’ m trying to write the vocals as I write the music " . Bullet for My Valentine confirmed in August 2009 that they were aiming for an early 2010 release for the new album , while Tuck stated that the upcoming record is " a lot more mature @-@ sounding , it 's a lot more classic . It 'll stand the test of time [ more ] than both the previous things we 've done " . In a January 2010 interview with Rock Sound , Tuck stated explained details for the album : it would be titled Fever , and the 11 @-@ track record would have a sound closer to The Poison rather than Scream Aim Fire and contain no ballads .
During the summer of 2009 , Bullet for My Valentine toured across the United States as part of the Mayhem Festival , alongside Killswitch Engage , Slayer , and Marilyn Manson on the main stage ; they also appeared on the UK leg of the Sonisphere tour at Knebworth , headlining the second stage . The band headlined the second stage at the Download Festival 2010 on the Friday night . The band was also confirmed for Nova Rock , Metaltown , Rock am Ring , Rock on the Range , The Bamboozle , Bilbao Live Festival , Fortarock and Graspop . In addition , Bullet for My Valentine also played alongside the Big Four on the Greek leg of Sonisphere . Fever was released on 27 April 2010 . A free download of a new track called " Begging For Mercy " was released on the band 's website on 14 February 2010 as part of a Twitter promotion . The song " Your Betrayal " was chosen as the lead single for the album and was set to release on 9 March 2010 , but , unexpectedly , was released earlier on 2 March 2010 as a digital single on iTunes Store . The second single is called " The Last Fight " and was released on 19 April . The album artwork for this studio album was released on the official website on 5 March 2010 . Bullet for My Valentine announced the start their US tour in support of Fever . It began on 30 April with the bands Airbourne and Chiodos as support . On 12 March the band released the music videos for " The Last Fight " and " Your Betrayal " . The band revealed the track listing on their website on 15 March , as well as other various sources that include an email to all of their subscribers on the mailing list . On 26 April the band played a secret show in London to celebrate the release of Fever . This was their only UK headline show until the end of the year .
= = = Temper Temper ( 2012 — 13 ) = = =
On 28 January 2011 , Michael Paget stated that the group had already drawn proportions for the next studio album and will sound a lot like Fever . He followed @-@ along with stating that the band plans to have the songs for it written within 2011 and will begin recording the album by the end of the year . A couple tracks left from the Fever sessions might be redone , re @-@ arranged and re @-@ recorded for the new record . The band played at Uproar Festival 2011 , after which they began writing material for a fourth studio album .
On 7 October , RCA Music Group announced it was disbanding Jive Records along with Arista Records and J Records . With the shutdown , the band ( and all other artists previously signed to these three labels ) will release their future material ( including their next studio album ) on the RCA Records brand . Also in October , frontman Matt Tuck announced that he will be working on a new side project which he has described as " metal as fuck " , influenced by bands such as Pantera and Slipknot . On 1 May 2012 , it was revealed that the project will be called AxeWound and will feature Liam Cormier , Mike Kingswood , Joe Copcutt and Jason Bowld . In May 2012 , it was announced that Bullet for My Valentine would be playing at the South African music festival Oppikoppi , as well as a once @-@ off gig in Cape Town alongside Seether and Enter Shikari . They were slated to play in the country for the Coke Zero Fest of 2009 , but pulled out at the last minute to record Fever . It was confirmed on 6 August that the final recording session of the band 's fourth studio record was complete , and that the album would be out sometime in late 2012 . Later that month on the 17th , the second line @-@ up for the Australian music festival Soundwave was announced , containing Bullet for My Valentine .
Bullet for My Valentine released the track “ Temper Temper ” on 25 November in the UK and 30 October worldwide across all digital providers . The song was debuted live by the band on Monday 22 October at BBC Radio 1 's Rock Week where they performed at Maida Vale studios . It was announced the day prior to the performance that the band 's fourth studio album would also be named Temper Temper . The release date was confirmed to be the 12 February 2013 .
The band began touring in support of Temper Temper on February 10 , 2013 and finished the tour on November 3 , 2013 . The tenth show of the tour , held at Birmingham 's O2 Academy , was filmed by music video website Moshcam.com.
= = = Venom and new record deal ( 2013 — present ) = = =
In an interview , Matt Tuck said that Bullet for My Valentine were going to start work on a new album before the Rule Britannia Tour which took place between 1 December 2013 till the 6 December 2013 in which the band played arenas in Britain supported by Young Guns and Asking Alexandria . In the interview Matt also said that they were strongly considering working with Terry Date , who has worked with bands such as Pantera and Deftones . He also said the band would bring back the thrash metal elements from Scream Aim Fire .
On 13 November 2013 , Bullet for My Valentine revealed though their Facebook page they were working on a new song . A short snippet of the song , titled " Raising Hell " , was released on Matt Tuck 's Vine profile on 15 November 2013 . The song was first played on 18 November 2013 via BBC Radio 1 's Rock Show . It was made available for streaming on 20 November 2013 , and a music video for the song was released a week later .
On 6 January 2014 , Matt announced on Twitter that the band were entering the studio to record a fifth album . In an interview with Kerrang ! on 21 January 2015 , Matt revealed that Bullet for My Valentine will be hitting the studio next month with producer Colin Richardson who produced both The Poison and Scream Aim Fire , rather than Terry Date , who was the suggested producer initially . Tuck also said that their fifth album will be their heaviest album yet .
On 9 February 2015 , Bullet for My Valentine announced the departure of bassist Jason James , adding that they would announce a replacement when they felt " the time was right . " They went on to say that until the announcement , they 'd be busy and focused on recording their new record .
It was announced on the band 's Facebook page on 11 May 2015 that a new song , " No Way Out , " would debut on BBC Radio 1 on 17 May 2015 . The band also revealed their fifth studio album to be titled Venom and their new bassist was going to be Jamie Mathias , formerly of metal band Revoker .
Venom was confirmed for release on 18 May 2015 , set for 14 August 2015 , the same day an expansive UK tour was announced . It was also revealed that Bullet For My Valentine will also headline London 's Camden Rocks festival which takes place on 30 May 2015 .
On 1 February 2016 , Bullet for My Valentine announced that drummer Michael Thomas will sit out for a few months . Jason Bowld from AxeWound will replace him .
On 1 April 2016 , the band announced that they have signed a new worldwide deal with Spinefarm Records .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Bullet for My Valentine has been described as hard rock , thrash metal , heavy metal and metalcore . The band describe two of their albums , The Poison and Fever , as having a " super dark " tone . Bullet for My Valentine member Matt Tuck said , " … we 're a hard rock band with metal influences , and I ’ ve said that from day one " . Kirk Miller of Decibel praised the band for the effort in synchronised song structures . When asked of their views on their looks , members of the band have stated that they would not change their sound or image for a commercial approach ; Tuck also said , " Without sounding harsh , we 're more interested in what our music sounds like than what our fucking hair looks like " .
The band has cited being influenced by bands such as Metallica , Annihilator , Pantera , Machine Head , Sepultura , AC / DC , Iron Maiden , Guns N ' Roses , Testament , Stuck Mojo , Korn , Slayer , Judas Priest , Megadeth , Alice In Chains , Nirvana , Led Zeppelin , Deep Purple , and Black Sabbath . According to Michael Thomas , these are the bands that inspire Bullet for My Valentine 's " catchy vocals , aggressive riffs , and melodies , " . Matt Tuck has stated in an interview , his songwriting is highly influenced by Bruce Springsteen , Bob Seger , and Bob Dylan . He goes on to say that " these bands just are proper old school songwriters "
= = Band members = =
Current
Matthew " Matt " Tuck – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1998 – present )
Michael " Padge " Paget – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1998 – present )
Michael " Moose " Thomas – drums , percussion ( 1998 – present )
Jamie Mathias – bass guitar , vocals ( 2015 – present )
Previous
Nick Crandle – bass guitar ( 1998 – 2003 )
Jason James – bass guitar , vocals ( 2003 – 2015 )
Touring musicians
Jason Bowld – drums , percussion ( 2016 – present )
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Poison ( 2005 )
Scream Aim Fire ( 2008 )
Fever ( 2010 )
Temper Temper ( 2013 )
Venom ( 2015 )
= = Awards and achievements = =
Welsh Music Award
Best Newcomer ( 2004 )
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
Best British Band ( 2006 , 2010 )
Kerrang ! Awards
Best Single for " Tears Don 't Fall " ( 2006 )
Best British Newcomer ( 2005 )
Best British Band ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 )
Headlined Kerrang ! ' s 25 @-@ year anniversary tour of the UK
Best Live Band ( 2010 )
= Jacob Little =
Jacob Little ( March 17 , 1794 – March 28 , 1865 ) was an early 19th @-@ century Wall Street investor and the first and one of the greatest speculators in the history of the stock market , known at the time as the " Great Bear of Wall Street " . Little was born in Newburyport , Massachusetts , and moved to New York City in 1817 , first clerking for Jacob Barker ; he then opened his own establishment in 1822 , and finally his own brokerage in 1834 . A market pessimist , Little made his wealth " bearing stocks " , at turns short selling various companies and at others cornering markets to extract profits from other short sellers . Through his great financial foresight Little amassed an enormous fortune , becoming one of the richest men in America and one of the leading financiers on Wall Street in the 1830s and 1840s , but his speculative activities irritated his peers and earned him few admirers . Little lost and remade his legendary fortune multiple times before losing it for good in 1857 ; although a great many owed him enormous debts , he was a generous creditor and never collected them , and at his deathbed in 1865 Little was penniless . Although well @-@ known on the stock market in his time , he was quickly forgotten after his death , and today has been relegated to relative obscurity .
= = Early life and background = =
Although much is known of Little 's investment activities in his adult life , little is known about his early years . Jacob Little was born in Newburyport , Massachusetts on March 17 , 1794 . The son of a successful local shipbuilder and of Quaker origin , Little exhibited a strong understanding of money and financial markets from an early age . In 1817 he emigrated to New York City and became a clerk in the store of Jacob Barker , a highly successful financier , merchant , and politically well @-@ connected founding member of the Democratic Party political machine Tammany Hall . Little spent five years in apprenticeship under Barker before moving out in 1822 to start his own business with $ 700 he had accrued over the length of his employment . He bought a small office in the basement of a Wall Street building , which served as his base of operations for the next twelve years , before moving out of his old office to a new one in the basement of the old exchange building in 1834 , from which he opened a brokerage — the start of his investment career .
= = Market operations = =
Little entered the stock market at a time when banking and stock @-@ brokerage was coming in of its own , progressing from a supportive activity to a profit @-@ motivated business in its own right . However , a large part of this growth came not from " solid " investors — those interested in the business ventures they funded — but from speculative " wheeler @-@ dealers " who would manipulate prices to profiteer from their holdings or , just as often , from those of others . By the eve of the American Civil War there were hundreds of such speculative brokerage firms on Wall Street ; warring cliques of bulls and bears would routinely drive prices artificially high and low , respectively , often in underhand ways that angered more legitimate stockbrokers .
Little was one of the earliest and most successful practitioners of market manipulation , making his fortune by leveraging both short sales and short sellers . In the former , he would sell stocks to other traders under contract to purchase it at a later date , betting that the market value would go down in the future and he could pocket the difference ( trade rules have changed , and short selling is more complicated than this today ) . In the latter he would execute the opposite maneuver , corner a market by buying up all of the bonds of a particular company or sector , up @-@ ticking the price so as to make a profit at the expense of any short sales
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the Gun " – 2 : 53
" So Seductive " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 34
Vinyl single
" So Seductive " – 3 : 34
" Live by the Gun " – 2 : 53
" So Seductive " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 34
CD single
" So Seductive " – 3 : 34
" Live by the Gun " – 2 : 53
" So Seductive " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 34
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits for " So Seductive " are adapted from the liner notes of Thoughts of a Predicate Felon .
Recording
Recorded at G @-@ Unit Studios , New York City .
Personnel
Tony Yayo – songwriting , vocals
50 Cent – songwriting , vocals
Punch – songwriting , production , instruments
Ky Miller – recording
Stu " Bassie " Brooks – additional bass
Steve Baughman – mixing
Brian " Big Bass " Gardner – mastering
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Anaphylaxis =
Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may cause death . It typically causes more than one of the following : an itchy rash , throat or tongue swelling , shortness of breath , vomiting , lightheadedness , and low blood pressure . These symptoms typically come on over minutes to hours .
Common causes include insect bites and stings , foods , and medications . Other causes include latex exposure and exercise . Additionally cases may occur without an obvious reason . The mechanism involves the release of mediators from certain types of white blood cells triggered by either immunologic or non @-@ immunologic mechanisms . Diagnosis is based on the presenting symptoms and signs after exposure to a potential allergen .
The primary treatment of anaphylaxis is epinephrine injection into a muscle , intravenous fluids , and positioning the person flat . Additional doses of epinephrine may be required . Other measures , such as antihistamines and steroids , are complementary . Carrying an epinephrine autoinjector and identification regarding the condition is recommended in people with a history of anaphylaxis .
Worldwide , 0 @.@ 05 – 2 % of the population is estimated to experience anaphylaxis at some point in life . Rates appear to be increasing . It occurs most often in young people and females . Of people who go to a hospital with anaphylaxis in the United States about 0 @.@ 3 % die . The term comes from the Ancient Greek : ἀνά ana " against " , and the Ancient Greek : φύλαξις phylaxis " protection " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Anaphylaxis typically presents many different symptoms over minutes or hours with an average onset of 5 to 30 minutes if exposure is intravenous and 2 hours if from eating food . The most common areas affected include : skin ( 80 – 90 % ) , respiratory ( 70 % ) , gastrointestinal ( 30 – 45 % ) , heart and vasculature ( 10 – 45 % ) , and central nervous system ( 10 – 15 % ) with usually two or more being involved .
= = = Skin = = =
Symptoms typically include generalized hives , itchiness , flushing , or swelling ( angioedema ) of the afflicted tissues . Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness . Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20 % of cases . Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva . The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen .
= = = Respiratory = = =
Respiratory symptoms and signs that may be present include shortness of breath , wheezes , or stridor . The wheezing is typically caused by spasms of the bronchial muscles while stridor is related to upper airway obstruction secondary to swelling . Hoarseness , pain with swallowing , or a cough may also occur .
= = = Cardiovascular = = =
Coronary artery spasm may occur with subsequent myocardial infarction , dysrhythmia , or cardiac arrest . Those with underlying coronary disease are at greater risk of cardiac effects from anaphylaxis . The coronary spasm is related to the presence of histamine @-@ releasing cells in the heart . While a fast heart rate caused by low blood pressure is more common , a Bezold – Jarisch reflex has been described in 10 % of cases where a slow heart rate is associated with low blood pressure . A drop in blood pressure or shock ( either distributive or cardiogenic ) may cause the feeling of lightheadedness or loss of consciousness . Rarely very low blood pressure may be the only sign of anaphylaxis .
= = = Other = = =
Gastrointestinal symptoms may include crampy abdominal pain , diarrhea , and vomiting . There may be confusion , a loss of bladder control or pelvic pain similar to that of uterine cramps . Dilation of blood vessels around the brain may cause headaches . A feeling of anxiety or of " impending doom " has also been described .
= = Causes = =
Anaphylaxis can occur in response to almost any foreign substance . Common triggers include venom from insect bites or stings , foods , and medication . Foods are the most common trigger in children and young adults while medications and insect bites and stings are more common in older adults . Less common causes include : physical factors , biological agents such as semen , latex , hormonal changes , food additives such as monosodium glutamate and food colors , and topical medications . Physical factors such as exercise ( known as exercise @-@ induced anaphylaxis ) or temperature ( either hot or cold ) may also act as triggers through their direct effects on mast cells . Events caused by exercise are frequently associated with the ingestion of certain foods . During anesthesia , neuromuscular blocking agents , antibiotics , and latex are the most common causes . The cause remains unknown in 32 – 50 % of cases , referred to as " idiopathic anaphylaxis . " Six vaccines ( MMR , varicella , influenza , hepatitis B , tetanus , meningococcal ) are recognized as a cause for anaphylaxis , and HPV may cause anaphylaxis as well .
= = = Food = = =
Many foods can trigger anaphylaxis ; this may occur upon the first known ingestion . Common triggering foods vary around the world . In Western cultures , ingestion of or exposure to peanuts , wheat , nuts , certain types of seafood like shellfish , milk , and eggs are the most prevalent causes . Sesame is common in the Middle East , while rice and chickpeas are frequently encountered as sources of anaphylaxis in Asia . Severe cases are usually caused by ingesting the allergen , but some people experience a severe reaction upon contact . Children can outgrow their allergies . By age 16 , 80 % of children with anaphylaxis to milk or eggs and 20 % who experience isolated anaphylaxis to peanuts can tolerate these foods .
= = = Medication = = =
Any medication may potentially trigger anaphylaxis . The most common are β @-@ lactam antibiotics ( such as penicillin ) followed by aspirin and NSAIDs . Other antibiotics are implicated less frequently , and the reactions to NSAIDs are agent specific meaning that those who are allergic to one NSAID can typically tolerate a different one . Other relatively common causes include chemotherapy , vaccines , protamine and herbal preparations . Some medications ( vancomycin , morphine , x @-@ ray contrast among others ) cause anaphylaxis by directly triggering mast cell degranulation .
The frequency of a reaction to an agent partly depends on the frequency of its use and partly on its intrinsic properties . Anaphylaxis to penicillin or cephalosporins occurs only after it binds to proteins inside the body with some agents binding more easily than others . Anaphylaxis to penicillin occurs once in every 2 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 courses of treatment , with death occurring in fewer than one in every 50 @,@ 000 courses of treatment . Anaphylaxis to aspirin and NSAIDs occurs in about one in every 50 @,@ 000 persons . If someone has a reaction to penicillins , his or her risk of a reaction to cephalosporins is greater but still less than one in 1 @,@ 000 . The old radiocontrast agents caused reactions in 1 % of cases , while the newer lower osmolar agents cause reactions in 0 @.@ 04 % of cases .
= = = Venom = = =
Venom from stinging or biting insects such as Hymenoptera ( ants , bees and wasps ) or Triatominae ( kissing bugs ) may cause anaphylaxis in susceptible people . Previous systemic reactions , which are anything more than a local reaction around the site of the sting , are a risk factor for future anaphylaxis ; however , half of fatalities have had no previous systemic reaction .
= = = Risk factors = = =
People with atopic diseases such as asthma , eczema , or allergic rhinitis are at high risk of anaphylaxis from food , latex , and radiocontrast agents but not from injectable medications or stings . One study in children found that 60 % had a history of previous atopic diseases , and of children who die from anaphylaxis , more than 90 % have asthma . Those with mastocytosis or of a higher socioeconomic status are at increased risk . The longer the time since the last exposure to the agent in question , the lower the risk .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction of rapid onset affecting many body systems . It is due to the release of inflammatory mediators and cytokines from mast cells and basophils , typically due to an immunologic reaction but sometimes non @-@ immunologic mechanism .
= = = Immunologic = = =
In the immunologic mechanism , immunoglobulin E ( IgE ) binds to the antigen ( the foreign material that provokes the allergic reaction ) . Antigen @-@ bound IgE then activates FcεRI receptors on mast cells and basophils . This leads to the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine . These mediators subsequently increase the contraction of bronchial smooth muscles , trigger vasodilation , increase the leakage of fluid from blood vessels , and cause heart muscle depression . There is also an immunologic mechanism that does not rely on IgE , but it is not known if this occurs in humans .
= = = Non @-@ immunologic = = =
Non @-@ immunologic mechanisms involve substances that directly cause the degranulation of mast cells and basophils . These include agents such as contrast medium , opioids , temperature ( hot or cold ) , and vibration . Sulfites may cause reactions by both immunologic and non @-@ immunologic mechanisms .
= = Diagnosis = =
Anaphylaxis is diagnosed on the basis of a person 's signs and symptoms . When any one of the following three occurs within minutes or hours of exposure to an allergen there is a high likelihood of anaphylaxis :
Involvement of the skin or mucosal tissue plus either respiratory difficulty or a low blood pressure causing symptoms
Two or more of the following symptoms after a likely contact with an allergen :
a . Involvement of the skin or mucosa
b . Respiratory difficulties
c . Low blood pressure
d . Gastrointestinal symptoms
Low blood pressure after exposure to a known allergen
Skin involvement may include : hives , itchiness or a swollen tongue among others . Respiratory difficulties may include : shortness of breath , stridor , or low oxygen levels among others . Low blood pressure is defined as a greater than 30 % decrease from a person 's usual blood pressure . In adults a systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mmHg is often used .
During an attack , blood tests for tryptase or histamine ( released from mast cells ) might be useful in diagnosing anaphylaxis due to insect stings or medications . However these tests are of limited use if the cause is food or if the person has a normal blood pressure , and they are not specific for the diagnosis .
= = = Classification = = =
There are three main classifications of anaphylaxis . Anaphylactic shock is associated with systemic vasodilation that causes low blood pressure which is by definition 30 % lower than the person 's baseline or below standard values . Biphasic anaphylaxis is the recurrence of symptoms within 1 – 72 hours with no further exposure to the allergen . Reports of incidence vary , with some studies claiming as many as 20 % of cases . The recurrence typically occurs within 8 hours . It is managed in the same manner as anaphylaxis . Pseudoanaphylaxis or anaphylactoid reactions are a type of anaphylaxis that does not involve an allergic reaction but is due to direct mast cell degranulation . Non @-@ immune anaphylaxis is the current term used by the World Allergy Organization with some recommending that the old terminology no longer be used .
= = = Allergy testing = = =
Allergy testing may help in determining the trigger . Skin allergy testing ( such as patch testing ) is available for certain foods and venoms . Blood testing for specific IgE can be useful to confirm milk , egg , peanut , tree nut and fish allergies .
Skin testing is available to confirm penicillin allergies , but is not available for other medications . Non @-@ immune forms of anaphylaxis can only be determined by history or exposure to the allergen in question , and not by skin or blood testing .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish anaphylaxis from asthma , syncope , and panic attacks . Asthma however typically does not entail itching or gastrointestinal symptoms , syncope presents with pallor rather than a rash , and a panic attack may have flushing but does not have hives . Other conditions that may present similarly include : scrombroidosis and anisakiasis .
= = = Post @-@ mortem findings = = =
In a person who died from anaphylaxis , autopsy may show an " empty heart " attributed to reduced venous return from vasodilation and redistribution of intravascular volume from the central to the peripheral compartment . Other signs are laryngeal edema , eosinophilia in lungs , heart and tissues , and evidence of myocardial hypoperfusion . Laboratory findings could detect increased levels of serum tryptase , increase in total and specific IgE serum levels .
= = Prevention = =
Avoidance of the trigger of anaphylaxis is recommended . In cases where this may not be possible , desensitization may be an option . Immunotherapy with Hymenoptera venoms is effective at desensitizing 80 – 90 % of adults and 98 % of children against allergies to bees , wasps , hornets , yellowjackets , and fire ants . Oral immunotherapy may be effective at desensitizing some people to certain food including milk , eggs , nuts and peanuts ; however , adverse effects are common . Desensitization is also possible for many medications , however it is advised that most people simply avoid the agent in question . In those who react to latex it may be important to avoid cross @-@ reactive foods such as avocados , bananas , and potatoes among others .
= = Management = =
Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency that may require resuscitation measures such as airway management , supplemental oxygen , large volumes of intravenous fluids , and close monitoring . Administration of epinephrine is the treatment of choice with antihistamines and steroids ( for example , dexamethasone ) often used as adjuncts . A period of in @-@ hospital observation for between 2 and 24 hours is recommended for people once they have returned to normal due to concerns of biphasic anaphylaxis .
= = = Epinephrine = = =
Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) is the primary treatment for anaphylaxis with no absolute contraindication to its use . It is recommended that an epinephrine solution be given intramuscularly into the mid anterolateral thigh as soon as the diagnosis is suspected . The injection may be repeated every 5 to 15 minutes if there is insufficient response . A second dose is needed in 16 @-@ 35 % of episodes with more than two doses rarely required . The intramuscular route is preferred over subcutaneous administration because the latter may have delayed absorption . Minor adverse effects from epinephrine include tremors , anxiety , headaches , and palpitations .
People on β @-@ blockers may be resistant to the effects of epinephrine . In this situation if epinephrine is not effective intravenous glucagon can be administered which has a mechanism of action independent of β @-@ receptors .
If necessary , it can also be given intravenously using a dilute epinephrine solution . Intravenous epinephrine however has been associated both with dysrhythmia and myocardial infarction . Epinephrine autoinjectors used for self @-@ administration typically come in two doses , one for adults or children who weigh more than 25 kg and one for children who weigh 10 to 25 kg .
= = = Adjuncts = = =
Antihistamines ( both H1 and H2 ) , while commonly used and assumed effective based on theoretical reasoning , are poorly supported by evidence . A 2007 Cochrane review did not find any good @-@ quality studies upon which to base recommendations and they are not believed to have an effect on airway edema or spasm . Corticosteroids are unlikely to make a difference in the current episode of anaphylaxis , but may be used in the hope of decreasing the risk of biphasic anaphylaxis . Their prophylactic effectiveness in these situations is uncertain . Nebulized salbutamol may be effective for bronchospasm that does not resolve with epinephrine . Methylene blue has been used in those not responsive to other measures due to its presumed effect of relaxing smooth muscle .
= = = Preparedness = = =
People prone to anaphylaxis are advised to have an " allergy action plan . " Parents are advised to inform schools of their children 's allergies and what to do in case of an anaphylactic emergency . The action plan usually includes use of epinephrine autoinjectors , the recommendation to wear a medical alert bracelet , and counseling on avoidance of triggers . Immunotherapy is available for certain triggers to prevent future episodes of anaphylaxis . A multi @-@ year course of subcutaneous desensitization has been found effective against stinging insects , while oral desensitization is effective for many foods .
= = Prognosis = =
In those in whom the cause is known and prompt treatment is available , the prognosis is good . Even if the cause is unknown , if appropriate preventative medication is available , the prognosis is generally good . If death occurs , it is usually due to either respiratory ( typically asphyxia ) or cardiovascular causes ( shock ) , with 0 @.@ 7 – 20 % of cases causing death . There have been cases of death occurring within minutes . Outcomes in those with exercise @-@ induced anaphylaxis are typically good , with fewer and less severe episodes as people get older .
= = Epidemiology = =
The number of people who get anaphylaxis is 4 – 100 per 100 @,@ 000 persons per year , with a lifetime risk of 0 @.@ 05 – 2 % . About 30 % of people get more than one attack .
Rates appear to be increasing : with the numbers in the 1980s being approximately 20 per 100 @,@ 000 per year , while in the 1990s it was 50 per 100 @,@ 000 per year . The increase appears to be primarily for food @-@ induced anaphylaxis . The risk is greatest in young people and females .
Currently , anaphylaxis leads to 500 – 1 @,@ 000 deaths per year ( 2 @.@ 4 per million ) in the United States , 20 deaths per year in the United Kingdom ( 0 @.@ 33 per million ) , and 15 deaths per year in Australia ( 0 @.@ 64 per million ) . Mortality rates have decreased between the 1970s and 2000s . In Australia , death from food @-@ induced anaphylaxis occur primarily in women while deaths due to insect bites primarily occur in males . Death from anaphylaxis is most commonly triggered by medications .
= = History = =
The term aphylaxis was coined by Charles Richet in 1902 and later changed to anaphylaxis due to its nicer quality of speech . In his experiments , Richet injected a dog with sea anemone ( Actinia ) toxin in an attempt to protect it . Although the dog had previously tolerated the toxin , on re @-@ exposure with the same dose three weeks later it developed fatal anaphylaxis . Thus instead of inducing tolerance ( prophylaxis ) , when lethal responses resulted from previously tolerated doses , he coined the word a ( without ) phylaxis ( protection ) . Ana means " against " in Ancient Greek , but ( as stated above ) the word was changed for sound . He was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on anaphylaxis in 1913 . The phenomenon itself however has been described since ancient times . The term comes from the Greek words ἀνά , ana , " against " , and φύλαξις , phylaxis , " protection " .
= = Research = =
There are ongoing efforts to develop sublingual epinephrine to treat anaphylaxis . Subcutaneous injection of the anti @-@ IgE antibody omalizumab is being studied as a method of preventing recurrence , but it is not yet recommended .
= St. Joseph Valley Parkway =
The St. Joseph Valley Parkway is a freeway in the U.S. states of Indiana and Michigan , serving as a bypass route around Elkhart , Mishawaka , and South Bend in Indiana and Niles in Michigan . The freeway runs to the south and west of Elkhart and South Bend and Niles and consists of segments of U.S. Route 31 ( US 31 ) and US 20 ; those two highway designations run concurrently at the southwestern rim of the South Bend metropolitan area . It continues north to run along the St. Joseph River valley .
The freeway was first built in Indiana in the 1960s , although plans in Michigan date back to the 1950s . Indiana completed its portion of the freeway in 1998 , while Michigan has opened its last segment in 2003 . Further plans , if completed , would extend the freeway from the current end to the north . The ultimate end will either be at the interchange between Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) and I @-@ 94 as originally planned , or another interchange immediately to the southwest . Environmental and other issues have forced a re @-@ evaluation of the original 1981 plans for the northern end of the freeway .
= = Route description = =
The Parkway begins where US 20 expands to a divided highway southeast of Elkhart . To the east in Indiana the freeway feeds into an undivided segment of US 20 at County Road 17 ( CR 17 ) . From there it runs westward along the south sides of Elkhart and Mishawaka . South of South Bend , US 31 joins the Parkway , and then the Parkway turns northward along the west side of South Bend . Along this segment , US 20 turns back west and leaves the Parkway . The Parkway meets the Indiana Toll Road which carries I @-@ 80 / I @-@ 90 before crossing the state line into Michigan . West of Niles , the Parkway meets US 12 and continues northwesterly running west of Berrien Springs . From there it runs northward to end at Napier Avenue east of St. Joseph . The St. Joseph Valley Parkway ends at Napier Avenue , but US 31 continues as a five @-@ lane highway west along Napier to connect with I @-@ 94 and the rest of the US 31 routing north of there on I @-@ 196 .
The Indiana Department of Transportation ( INDOT ) and the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) both maintain the sections of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway in their respective states . Additionally , both departments have listed their freeway segments as part of the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . The two departments conduct surveys to measure the traffic levels along their roadways . This measurement is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) which is a calculation of the traffic volume on a stretch of roadway for any average day of the year . INDOT 's figures for 2007 showed that 30 @,@ 753 vehicles used the freeway near its western end . The traffic volume drops to 19 @,@ 914 vehicles near the Indiana Toll Road . In Michigan , the levels drop as low as 7 @,@ 402 vehicles near the Napier Road interchange .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
The " St. Joseph Valley Parkway " name was chosen by local chambers of commerce in the fall of 1992 as the result of a local contest held by a group of local businesses . The name was officially adopted by Michigan in 1993 ( dedicated late 1995 ) and Indiana in 1995 ( dedicated in mid @-@ 1995 ) .
= = = Indiana section = = =
The first section of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway was completed between US 20 and State Road 2 ( SR 2 ) by 1962 . The freeway was extended to SR 23 and construction was started to extend it further to US 31 . The freeway was given the Bypass US 20 ( BYP US 20 ) designation at this time as well . This extension to US 31 was completed in the mid @-@ 1970s . The exit with the Indiana East – West Toll Road / I @-@ 80 / I @-@ 90 was finished in 1979 . The BYP US 20 designation was replaced by the US 31 designation in 1982 . Construction in the early 1990s extended the freeway in sections from US 31 / Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) to its current end with US 20 at CR 17 , with the portion from US 31 / Bus . US 31 to SR 331 ( Bremen Highway ) paved first , by 1991 . Ramps from Nimtz Parkway were completed in 1998 , and the portion in Elkhart was also named the " Dean R. Mock Expressway " in March 2002 .
= = = Michigan section = = =
A plan to relocate US 31 in Berrien County , Michigan , existed as early as 1952 . Planning to extend the South Bend Bypass northward into Michigan as a bypass of Niles began in 1967 . A report issued in 1970 detailed four routing corridors , spawning a lawsuit over how Berrien Springs would be bypassed . Construction was to begin in 1975 , but the Michigan State Highways Department delayed construction plans in 1972 , pushing the start to 1977 . The first section was completed in 1979 and ran from the state line north to US 12 . From there , US 31 was routed east along US 12 to Bus . US 12 and north along Bus . US 12 to the former routing of US 31 / US 33 . Final plans for the routing north to I @-@ 94 were approved in 1981 . Construction of the Niles Bypass was finished in 1987 , bringing the freeway north to Walton Road northwest of Niles . Bus . US 31 was created along the former routing in Niles and Walton Road was rebuilt as a state trunkline connection between the northern end of the freeway and the former two @-@ lane routing of US 31 . The Berrien Springs Bypass was opened in late 1992 . Since then , MDOT built a 9 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 6 km ) freeway segment north to Napier Avenue that was opened on August 27 , 2003 at a cost of $ 97 million ( equivalent to $ 137 million in 2015 ) .
= = Future = =
East of Benton Harbor , Michigan , the St. Joseph Valley Parkway extension was under study due to environmental , economical and historical site issues . One of the environmental concerns relates to the habitat of an endangered species , the Mitchell 's Satyr butterfly that has its habitat in the area of the freeway extension . The 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) habitat is home to the second @-@ largest population of the rare butterfly . This freeway connection was originally approved in 1981 as part of a final environmental impact study that included the freeway built from Niles northward to Napier Avenue . Since that approval , the butterfly was discovered in the Blue Creek Fen in the late 1980s , and it was listed an endangered species in 1992 . The listing stalled construction of the freeway north of Berrien Springs . The US Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) issued an opinion two years later that the freeway project would jeopardize the species . MDOT was given permission to modify the previously approved freeway to cross the Blue Creek on longer bridges ; the USFWS also required that any construction be done from elevated platforms , among other restrictions . In the interim , MDOT proceeded with construction of the southern portion of the last freeway segment , completing the freeway northward from Berrien Springs to the Napier Avenue interchange in August 2003 .
A revised environmental impact study to account for the butterfly 's habitat was approved in 2004 . The study compared the original proposal for this extension that involved connecting directly to I @-@ 196 at I @-@ 94 with a pair of alternate routines that involved connecting US 31 directly to BL I @-@ 94 at I @-@ 94 near Benton Harbor with auxiliary lanes to I @-@ 196 . The recommendation was to use the PA @-@ 2 version of the alternative connection to avoid the Blue Creek Fen . At the time the last freeway segment was opened in 2003 , MDOT expected the remaining segment would not take much longer to complete , but funding was not available for many years . Construction of the extension was not included for this reason in subsequent MDOT five @-@ year highway projects plans , although most of the design work and land acquisition was identified in 2013 as having been finished . Funding for the project was listed in the 2017 – 21 plan draft released in July 2016 , which split the remaining work into three phases . Until the freeway is complete , US 31 follows a stretch of Napier Avenue , which was upgraded in conjunction with the St. Joseph Valley Parkway opening to that point , westward to I @-@ 94 . The US 31 / I @-@ 94 / BL I @-@ 94 interchange will be converted to a cloverleaf interchange if a connection is completed in the future , and the St. Joseph Valley Parkway name has already been applied to this unbuilt section .
= = Exit list = =
= Caroline Street ( Key West ) =
Caroline Street is an iconic and historically significant local road on the island of Key West , Florida . It extends approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) northeastward to Grinnell Street from Whitehead Street at its southwest end . One of the oldest roads on the island , Caroline Street is surrounded by many old houses , inns , and historic landmarks , which are known for their seclusion from the street by dense landscaping . From its mostly residential origins between Whitehead and Elizabeth streets , Caroline becomes more commercial , punctuated by numerous businesses . Situated within the historic " Old Town " district , Caroline Street was part of the original infrastructural layout of the island at the time of its 1829 mapping by William Whitehead . Other than changes to both its termini , the majority of its route has remained unaltered since then . Caroline Street was named for a sibling of Whitehead ; his brother , John , became interested in the island after a shipwreck left him stranded in 1819 . The street and some of its surrounding area have been subject to long @-@ term improvement and beautification efforts , beginning chiefly in 1996 .
= = Route description = =
At its southwesternmost point , Caroline Street begins on Whitehead Street at the Presidential Gates to the Truman Annex , the site of a former naval base that opened to the public in 1986 . Caroline Street 's terminus on Whitehead is two blocks away from the southern terminus of U.S. Route 1 . Between Whitehead and Telegraph Lane just a few hundred feet to the northeast , Caroline is a quiet , shaded street , before its left ( northern ) side opens up to a strip of businesses and shops . The road reaches its first major junction at Duval Street , yielding a largely commercialized zone ; The Bull and Whistle Bar is situated at this intersection . However , upon leaving Duval , Caroline Street returns almost immediately to a chiefly residential road . Homes along this stretch of Caroline are noted for their architectural significance , representing a late @-@ 19th century " conch style " that incorporates elements of several more prominent styles , including Victorian and Colonial . Although many of these houses were constructed quickly and cheaply , their builders employed the same techniques that were used at the time to craft boats , lending them resistance to extreme weather . Described as " stately " , their lots are heavily landscaped , leaving several secluded .
The only interruption of this residential stretch is a minor junction with one @-@ way Ann Street , which terminates at Caroline with little fanfare . Further northeast , Caroline intersects Simonton Street to a less commercial degree than Duval . Another block of shaded residences follows before an intersection with Elizabeth Street about midway between Caroline 's termini . Elizabeth serves as a sort of transition point for Caroline , which becomes lined with small shops as it meets Peacock Lane ; Peacock is a one @-@ way street that approaches from the south . As Caroline continues toward the northeast , it crosses William Street and offers an obscured view of the Gulf of Mexico side of the island and vessels at port . Here , the road 's " homely marine practicality " becomes evident , according to a Florida travel writer .
Between William and Margaret Street , Caroline passes numerous restaurants and parking for the Key West Bight , which remains visible and can also be accessed by bearing left on Margaret . At the junction of the two roads are several stores and the starting point of the Conch Tour Train . The final several hundred feet of Caroline Street are uneventful , limited to the backdrop of a few houses and businesses . Paralleling the Bight , Caroline comes to an end at Grinnell Street , having traveled almost exactly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) .
= = History and culture = =
Caroline Street is situated along the northwestern side of the island , in an historic district known as Old Town Key West . Part of the district , roughly defined as the area between Caroline Street and Angela Streets ( which run parallel about four blocks apart ) , harbors many old houses , some of which belonged to famous writers and other influential persons . For example , the Dr. Joseph Y. Porter House at 429 Caroline Street was home to the first public health inspector in the state of Florida . The Porter House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . Many of the houses in the area have been converted into inns ; the Curry Mansion Inn at the corner of Caroline and Ann streets was originally built in 1855 for the Currys , a prominent local family . At Caroline Street 's southern terminus across from the Presidential Gates is the Airways Building , which served as the original Pan American World Airways office during its formation in 1927 .
Caroline Street , along with Margaret , William , Thomas , and Emma streets , were named for siblings of John Whitehead , who — in 1819 — became stranded on Key West after a shipwreck and took note of the island 's strategic geography . Whitehead 's brother , William , surveyed the city of Key West in 1829 . The original map from William Whitehead 's survey shows the northwestern corner of the island , bounded by present @-@
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on the same site and it appears that they were rebuilt in timber yet again . Excavations have found evidence of a second bell foundry in the northwest of the priory grounds . The date of this is uncertain but Greene suggests that it was built to cast a new bell to replace the original one that was damaged in the fire . Later in the 13th century another chapel was added to the north transept . Accommodation for guests was constructed to the southwest of the monastic buildings .
In the later part of the 13th century and during the following century the chapel in the south transept was replaced by a grander two @-@ chambered chapel . This balanced the enlarged chapels in the north transept , restoring the church 's cruciform plan . Around this time the east end of the church was further extended when a reliquary chapel was added measuring about 42 feet ( 13 m ) by 24 feet ( 7 m ) . A guest hall was built to the west of the earlier guest quarters . After the status of the foundation was elevated from a priory to an abbey , a tower house was added to the west range . This is shown on the engraving by the Buck brothers , but it has left little in the way of archaeological remains . The church was extended by the addition of a north aisle . There is little evidence of later major alterations before the dissolution . There is evidence to suggest that the cloister was rebuilt , and that alterations were made to the east range .
= = = Burials = = =
The excavations revealed information about the burials carried out within the church and the monastic buildings , and in the surrounding grounds . They are considered to be " either those of Augustinian canons , privileged members of their lay household , or of important members of the Dutton family " . Most burials were in stone coffins or in wooden coffins with stone lids , and had been carried out from the late 12th century up to the time of the dissolution . The site of the burial depended on the status of the individual , whether they were clerical or lay , and their degree of importance . Priors , abbots , and high @-@ ranking canons were buried within the church , with those towards the east end of the church being the most important . Other canons were buried in a graveyard outside the church , in an area to the south and east of the chancel . Members of the laity were buried either in the church , towards the west end of the nave or in the north aisle , or outside the church around its west end . It is possible that there was a lay cemetery to the north and west of the church . The addition of the chapels to the north transept , and their expansion , was carried out for the Dutton family , making it their burial chapel , or family mausoleum , and the highest concentration of burials was found in this part of the church . It is considered that the north aisle , built after the priory became an abbey , was added to provide a burial place for members of the laity .
The excavations revealed 49 stone coffins , 30 coffin lids , and five headstones . Twelve of the lids were carved in high relief , with designs including flowers or foliage . One lid depicts an oak tree issuing from a human head in the style of a green man , another has a cross , a dragon and a female effigy , while others have shield and sword motifs . Two contain inscriptions in Norman @-@ French , identifying the deceased . The remaining lids have simpler incised patterns , mainly decorated crosses . The headstones contain crosses . Most of the coffins were sunk into the ground , with the lid at the level of the floor , although a few were found within the walls . Only three stone coffins for children were discovered . These lay in a group , together with a coffin containing a male skeleton , in the vestibule leading to the enlarged chapter house . The most prestigious type of coffin was tapered towards the feet , with the head end carved externally to a hemi @-@ hexagonal shape . Another sign of higher status was the provision of an internal " pillow " for the head .
A total of 144 graves was excavated ; they contained 130 articulated skeletons in a suitable condition for examination . Of these , 36 were well @-@ preserved , 48 were in a fair condition and 46 were poorly preserved . Males out @-@ numbered females by a ratio of three to one , an expected ratio in a monastic site . Most of the males had survived into middle age ( 36 – 45 years ) to old age ( 46 years or older ) , while equal numbers of females died before and after the age of about 45 years . One female death was presumably due to a complication of pregnancy as she had been carrying a 34 @-@ week foetus . The average height of the adult males was 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) and that of the adult females was 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) .
The bones show a variety of diseases and degenerative processes . Six skeletons showed evidence of Paget 's disease of bone ( osteitis deformans ) . The most severe case of Paget 's disease was in a body buried in the nave in a stone coffin . The lid was carved with two shields , indicating that the occupant had been a knight . One skeleton showed signs of leprosy affecting bones in the face , hands and feet . No definite cases of tuberculosis directly affecting bones were found but in two individuals there were changes in the ribs consistent with their having suffered from tuberculosis of the lungs . The only major congenital abnormality found consisted of bony changes resulting from a possible case of Down 's syndrome . Relatively minor congenital abnormalities of the spine were found in 19 skeletons , ten of which were cases of spina bifida occulta . Other spinal abnormalities included fused vertebrae , spondylolysis and transitional vertebrae . Definite evidence of fractured bones was found in ten skeletons , and evidence of possible fractures was found in three other cases . One cranium contained a large circular lesion which may have been the consequence of trepanning . Other diseases specific to bones and joints were osteoarthritis , diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis ( DISH ) , and possible cases of spondyloarthropathy . Three skeletons showed possible evidence of rickets , two had changes of osteoporosis , and three crania had features of hyperostosis frontalis interna , a metabolic condition affecting post @-@ menopausal women . Osteomata ( benign tumours of bone ) were found in three cases .
Examination of the jaws and teeth gave information about the dental health of those buried in the priory . The degree of wear of teeth was greater than it is at present , while the incidence of dental caries was much lower than it is now , as was the incidence of periodontal disease . A consequence of the wear of the teeth was " compensatory eruption " of the teeth in order to keep contact with the opposing teeth . It was concluded that the people buried in the priory had few problems with their teeth or jaws . Loss of teeth was due to wear of the teeth , rather than from caries or periodontal disease .
= = = Country house = = =
Little archaeological evidence relates to the period immediately after the dissolution , or to the Tudor house built on part of the site . A sawpit was found in the outer courtyard . It is considered that this might date from the early period of the Brookes ' house , or it may have been constructed during the later years of the abbey . The kitchens to the south of the Tudor house and their drainage systems appear to have been used by the Brookes , and according to Brown and Howard @-@ Davis , were possibly rebuilt by the family . The areas previously occupied by the cloisters and the guest quarters were probably used as middens . Few archaeological findings remain from the Georgian house , apart from a fragment of a wall from the south front , and the foundations of the north wing . The much @-@ altered medieval undercroft still stands , with its Norman doorway and Victorian replica , barrel vaulting , wine bins , and blind arcading in the former outer parlour .
= = = Artefacts from the buildings = = =
A large number of tiles and tile fragments that had lined the floor of the church and some of the monastic buildings were found in the excavations . The oldest tiles date from the early 14th century . The total area of tiles discovered was about 80 square metres ( 860 sq ft ) , and is " the largest area of a floor of this type to be found in any modern excavation " . The site has " the largest , and most varied , excavated collection of medieval tiles in the North West " and " the greatest variety of individual mosaic shapes found anywhere in Britain " . The tiles found made a pavement forming the floor of the choir of the church and the transepts . The chancel floor was probably also tiled ; these tiles have not survived because the chancel was at a higher level than the rest of the church , and the tiles would have been removed during subsequent gardening . A dump of tiles to the south of the site of the chapter house suggests that this was also tiled . In the 15th century a second tile floor was laid on top of the original floor in the choir where it had become worn . The tiles on the original floor were of various shapes , forming a mosaic . The tiles were all glazed and coloured , the main colours being black , green and yellow . Many of them had been decorated by impressing a wooden stamp into the moist clay before it was fired ; these are known as line @-@ impressed tiles . The line @-@ impressed designs included masks of lions or other animals , rosettes , and trefoils . Other tiles or tile fragments showed portions of trees , foliage , birds and inscriptions . In the chapels of the north transept , the burial place of the Dutton family , were tiles depicting mail , thought to be part of a military effigy , and tiles bearing fragments of heraldic designs . The tiles from the upper ( later ) pavement were all square , and again were line @-@ inscribed with patterns forming parts of larger designs . A related discovery at the excavation was the kiln in which most of the tiles on the site were fired .
The excavations also revealed stones or fragments of carved stone dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries . The earliest are in Romanesque style and include two voussoirs decorated with beakheads ( grotesque animal heads with long pointed bird @-@ like beaks ) . Other stones dating from the 12th century are in Gothic style ; they include a capital decorated with leaves and a portion of the tracery from a rose window . Many of the stones from the 13th century were originally part of the cloister arcade , and had been re @-@ used to form the core of a later cloister arcade . They include stones sculpted with depictions of humans and animals . The best preserved of these are the heads of two canons , each wearing a cowl with the tonsure visible , the head of a woman with shoulder @-@ length hair , parts of a seated figure holding an open book , and a creature that might represent a serpent or an otter . There are numerous fragments dating from the 14th and 15th centuries . These include portions of string courses , tracery , corbels , window jambs , and arch heads . At least three of the corbels were carved in the form of human heads . Over 1 @,@ 500 fragments of painted medieval glass were found , most of it in a poor condition . These show that the glazing scheme used in the priory was mainly in grisaille ( monochrome ) style . Almost 1 @,@ 300 fragments of glass from later periods , and nearly 1 @,@ 150 sherds of ceramic roof tiles were also found .
= = = Artefacts from daily life = = =
Some 500 fragments of pottery were found dating from the medieval period . Most of these were parts of jars , jugs or pipkins and were found in the area of the kitchen range . Most of it was produced locally , although 13 sherds of Stamford Ware , fragments of two jugs from North France , and two small pieces of Saintonge pottery have been identified . Only a few wooden bowls were recovered . Much more pottery was found dating from the post @-@ medieval period and later . Again most of this had been manufactured in England , especially in Staffordshire . Fragments of pottery from abroad included pieces from a Westerwald mug , a jug from Cologne and items of Chinese porcelain . The excavations produced over 4 @,@ 000 sherds of glass , dating from the 12th to the 20th centuries , but only 16 of these came from the period before the dissolution . A total of 1 @,@ 170 fragments from clay tobacco pipes were found , dating from about 1580 to the early 20th century .
Six medieval coins were recovered , the earliest of which was a silver penny of John from the early 13th century . Coins from later periods were a silver threepence from the reign of Elizabeth I and a silver penny from Charles I. Only low @-@ denomination coins were found from the 18th century and later , including a 10 @-@ pfennig piece from Germany dated 1901 . Two silver spoons were recovered , one of which was dated 1846 from the hallmark . Objects made from copper alloy were found , many of which were associated with personal adornment and dress including brooches , buckles , and buttons . Also found from this period was a small simple chape ( scabbard tip ) , and part of a skimmer that had been used in the kitchen . Artefacts made from iron , other than nails , were again mainly items of personal adornment and dress . Other identifiable iron items from this period included keys , two possible rowel spurs ( spurs with revolving pointed wheels ) , and about 12 horseshoes .
Nearly 2 @,@ 000 fragments of lead were found , 940 of which were droplets of melted metal , some of these being a consequence of the fire in 1236 . One of the earliest artefacts was a papal bulla dating from the rule of Pope Clement III ( 1187 – 91 ) . Two other possible seals were discovered . A total of 15 lead discs were recovered , some of which were inscribed with crosses . Two of these were found in graves , but the purpose of the discs has not been reliably explained . The other lead artefacts from this period were associated with the structure of the buildings and include fragments of kame ( the lead used in leaded windows ) , ventilator grills , and water pipes . Leather fragments almost all came from shoes , and included an almost complete child 's shoe dating from the late 16th or the 17th century . Another find was a small gemstone , a cabochon ( polished ) sardonyx .
= = Present day = =
Norton Priory is considered to be " a monastic site of international importance " and is " the most extensively excavated monastic site in Britain , if not Western Europe " . It is open to the public and run by a charitable trust , the Norton Priory Museum Trust . The Trust was founded in 1975 and the museum was opened in 1982 . The Trust owns and maintains many of the artefacts found during the excavations , and has created an electronic database to record all the acquisitions . In addition , it holds records relating to the excavations , including site notebooks and photographs . The area open to the public consists of a museum , the standing archaeological remains , an area of garden and woodland , and the walled garden of the former house .
= = = Museum = = =
The museum contains information relating to the history of the site and some of the artefacts discovered during the excavations . These include a model of the church and the monastic buildings as they are thought to have appeared in their final form , carved coffin lids , mosaic tiles , and domestic items such as buttons . In a coffin lies one of the skeletons showing signs of Paget 's disease of bone . Standing in the museum is a reconstruction of the cloister arcade as it had been built following the fire of 1236 . It consists of moulded pointed arches with springer blocks , voussoirs and apex stones , supported on triple shafts with foliate capitals and moulded bases . Above the capitals , at the bases of the arches , are sculptures that include depictions of human and animal heads . The human heads consist of two canons with hoods and protruding tonsures , other males , and females with shoulder @-@ length hair . In one spandrel is a seated figure with an outstretched arm holding a book . Other carvings depict such subjects as fabulous beasts , and an otter or a snake .
A separate purpose @-@ built gallery contains the medieval sandstone statue of Saint Christopher , which is considered to be " a work of national and even international importance " . Saint Christopher was associated with the abbey because of its proximity to the River Mersey and the dangers associated with crossing the river . The statue shows the saint wading through fish @-@ filled water carrying the Christ @-@ child on his shoulder . It has been dated to about 1390 , it is 3 @.@ 37 metres ( 11 @.@ 1 ft ) tall , and was once painted in bright colours . The gallery also contains a three @-@ dimensional representation of the statue as it is believed it would have originally appeared .
= = = Archaeological remains = = =
The archaeological remains are recognised as a Grade I listed building and a scheduled ancient monument , and are considered to be the most important monastic remains in Cheshire . They consist of the former undercroft and the foundations of the church and monastic buildings that were exposed during the excavations . The undercroft stands outside the museum building . It is a single @-@ storey structure consisting of seven pairs of bays divided into two compartments , one of four and the other of three bays . It is entered through the portico added to the west front of the country house in 1886 by way of a pair of arched doorways in Norman style . The doorway to the right ( south ) is original , dating from the late 12th century , while the other doorway is a replica dated 1886 . The older doorway has been described as " the finest decorated Norman doorway in Cheshire " . It is in good condition with little evidence of erosion and Greene considers that this is because it has always been protected from the weather . The portico leads into the four @-@ bay compartment . This has a tiled floor and contains a medieval @-@ style fireplace . The roof is ribbed vaulted . On the east wall is a two @-@ arched doorway leading to the former cloisters . To the north another archway leads to the three @-@ bay compartment . This also has a tile floor and contains the brick wine bins added in the 1780s . The roof of this compartment has groined vaults . The undercroft also contains a bell mould , reconstructed from the fragments of the original mould found in the excavations .
At the northern end of the undercroft is the passage known as the outer parlour . This has stone benches on each side and elaborately carved blind arcades above them . The arcades each consist of two groups of four round @-@ headed arches with capitals , free @-@ standing columns and bases that are set on the benches . The capitals and mouldings of the arches are decorated with a variety of carvings , the capitals being predominantly late Romanesque in style and the arches early Gothic . The carvings include depictions of human heads , stiff @-@ leaf foliage and animals .
= = = Grounds = = =
The 38 acres ( 15 ha ) of grounds surrounding the house have been largely restored to include the 18th @-@ century pathways , the stream @-@ glade and the 19th @-@ century rock garden . The foundations exposed in the excavations show the plan of the former church and monastic buildings . In the grounds is a Grade II listed garden loggia in yellow sandstone , possibly designed by James Wyatt . At its front are two Doric columns and two antae , and above these is a cornice with a fluted frieze . The side walls are built in stone , and the back wall is constructed internally of stone and externally of brickwork . Also in the grounds are several modern sculptures , and a sculpture trail has been designed in conjunction with these . In the 1970s the fragments of the mould found in the bell pit were re @-@ assembled and used to create a replica of the bell , which was cast in Widnes and now stands in a frame in the grounds . This was opened at a ceremony performed by Sir Bernard Lovell in 1977 . A herb garden was developed as part of the BBC 's Hidden Garden programme . This seeks to re @-@ create a herb garden as it would have been during the medieval period , and its plan is based on herb gardens in other monastic sites . The plants grown are those reputed to be of value in treating the diseases revealed in the excavated skeletons .
The gardens also include a woodland gardens with summer house , a stream glade , a wild @-@ flower meadow and an orchard . The gardens are promoted by the Campaign to Protect Rural England .
= = = Walled gardens = = =
The 3 @.@ 5 acre ( 1 ha ) walled garden was restored in the 1980s . It includes an orchard , fruit and vegetable gardens , ornamental borders and a rose walk , as well as the national collection of tree quince ( Cydonia oblonga ) , with 20 different varieties . Close to the walled garden is a Grade II listed ice house , probably dating from the 18th century , which is constructed in brick covered with a mound of earth . The entrance is surrounded by stone walls , from which a tunnel leads to a circular domed chamber .
= = = Current activities = = =
The museum is a visitor attraction . It arranges a series of events for the general public throughout the year , including guided tours , family fun days and concerts . Temporary exhibitions are held in its gallery , which may include art works or displays of historical material . Its educational programme is aimed at all ages ; it includes workshops for the general public , and courses focusing on formal and informal aspects of children 's education . An outreach programme is intended for individuals and groups in the community . Since its opening , the museum has won awards for its work in tourism , education , outreach and gardening . In 2004 the museum 's Positive Partnerships project , in which people with learning disabilities worked alongside museum staff , was a finalist in the Gulbenkian Prize for museums and galleries . In August 2014 the museum received a grant of £ 3 @.@ 7 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund to develop its facilities .
= Nihil =
Nihil is the eighth studio album by industrial rock group KMFDM , released on April 4 , 1995 on Wax Trax ! / TVT . Nihil was recorded in 1994 in Seattle , Washington , and featured the return of former band member Raymond Watts and the first appearance of journeyman drummer Bill Rieflin . The album was mostly written by band leader Sascha Konietzko , who emphasized a less guitar @-@ driven sound for the release . Nihil 's first single , " Juke Joint Jezebel " , is the band 's most widely known song of all time , with millions of copies sold over various releases . Widely praised by critics , Nihil is one of the band 's best @-@ selling albums . After the original release went out of print , a remastered version was released in 2007 .
= = Background = =
In late 1993 , Sascha Konietzko and fellow multi @-@ instrumentalist En Esch both left Chicago , moving to Seattle and New Orleans , respectively . Lead guitarist Günter Schulz left the country , moving to Kelowna , British Columbia . In early 1994 , Konietzko started working on new material , and Schulz came to Seattle to begin adding guitars to the tracks . Later that year , the group assembled in Los Angeles to rehearse for the upcoming Angstfest tour in support of Angst , which spanned April and May . Konietzko , Schulz , Esch , and guitarist Mark Durante were joined by another guitarist , Mike Jensen , for a live show that featured up to four guitarists playing at once . Konietzko and Schulz , along with Dutch singer Dorona Alberti , returned to Seattle to begin recording vocals for Nihil . Konietzko later said he was not happy with the sessions , explaining that nothing was coming together , and only two songs from the upcoming album , " Trust " and " Brute " , had been completed to his satisfaction .
Former KMFDM member Raymond Watts , last seen contributing vocals , programming , and production to 1988 's Don 't Blow Your Top before starting his own band , Pig , called Konietzko and asked if he would be interested in working on a small musical collaboration . Konietzko agreed , and Watts flew to Seattle , where the pair , along with Schulz , worked on an EP entitled Sin Sex & Salvation . Konietzko said of the trio 's working together , " It was the breath of fresh air I had been hoping and waiting for . This short project took my mind off the problems with the KMFDM album and gave me a welcome change of perspective . " Watts then stayed on with the group to begin work on Nihil , which featured a core group of Konietzko , Schulz , Watts , and Esch , along with some input from steel guitar specialist Durante and drummer Bill Rieflin .
= = Production = =
Discussing the change in songwriting from Angst , Konietzko said : " I wasn 't comfortable with the band scenario on that album , where everybody had input . It allowed for too many compromises . Angst seems not organic to me . " In another interview , he explained : " Contrary to the past , I wrote all the songs for Nihil , " adding that doing things that way caused " minimal problems " .
Konietzko stated that the band overused guitars on their previous album , Angst , saying it sounded " like guitarists jacking off " . On Nihil , the guitars were mixed in last . Durante had recently purchased a triple @-@ neck Fender steel guitar in Houston , and used it during recording sessions , but added a significant amount of distortion to it , making it sound like a " regular " guitar but giving it what he called a " sliding " sound . Konietzko also brought in a trio of horn players to perform on " Disobedience " , saying he had always wanted a horn section in a KMFDM song , but that he had never been able to afford it before .
Konietzko originally wrote thirty songs over a period of eight or nine months for Nihil before settling on ten final tracks . Watts came into the studio after the songs were mostly complete and added lyrics to a handful of songs , which he said was " actually quite liberating " in contrast to writing his own music from scratch . Konietzko described the album as being entirely foreplay , without any resolution , and said it was the band 's best album to date , a statement he believed he would be standing by for years . He also said its poppier sound was more his style . Konietzko produced the album with sound engineer Chris Shepard , who had also engineered the band 's previous album .
= = Release = =
Nihil was originally released on April 4 , 1995 . A digitally remastered re @-@ release of Nihil was released on March 6 , 2007 , along with a similar re @-@ release of KMFDM 's 1996 album Xtort . The band toured twice in 1995 in support of the album , first doing the Beat by Beat tour shortly after the album 's release , and then the In Your Face tour later in the year . The album , which had " major buzz " , had an initial shipment of 75 @,@ 000 copies .
The song 's first track , " Ultra " , was featured in the U.S. release of Street Fighter II : The Animated Movie , and was the theme song for Manga Entertainment 's anime catalog trailer . " Juke Joint Jezebel " , the band 's biggest hit , was featured in the film Bad Boys and in an episode of Beverly Hills 90210 . " Juke Joint Jezebel ( Metropolis Mix ) " was featured in the film Mortal Kombat . The video for " Juke Joint Jezebel " includes footage from the Patlabor 1 manga movie . More than two million copies of the song sold in 1995 alone . KMFDM went on two tours , Beat by Beat and In Your Face , in support of the album in 1995 .
Nihil is one of only two KMFDM studio albums ( Opium being the other ) that does not feature cover artwork by pop @-@ artist Brute ! . Instead , the cover was designed by Rieflin 's wife Francesca Sundsten . The band would return to using Brute ! ' s work on the next album , Xtort . The text which reads " Nihil " was changed from white to green on the album 's 2007 remastered reissue .
= = Critical reception = =
Nihil received very favorable reviews from music critics . Heidi MacDonald of CMJ New Music Monthly called Nihil " a superb album that takes no prisoners from beginning to end , " saying that the first three tracks are " nearly flawless " and calling " Disobedience " a " real standout . " Andy Hinds of AllMusic also praised the album , calling " Juke @-@ Joint Jezebel " " an enduring and indispensable dancefloor favorite at goth / industrial clubs around the world . " He further said that the production on Nihil was " state of the art " and that KMFDM 's sound was " quite polished and tight . " Mark Jenkins of the Washington Post said the album " manages to stay fresh through the use of assorted sonic spices , " adding that the album has " some canny accents . "
Keyboard praised the album , describing " milky organ pads " on " Disobedience " and " snarling guitars [ wrapped ] in spiky synth barbed wire " on " Juke Joint Jezebel " , and saying of band leader Konietzko , " You won 't find a more imaginative or effective keyboardist on the hard @-@ core scene . " Chris Gill of Guitar Player , conversely , said " the most interesting parts are Durante 's steel guitar lines , which howl like revving engines " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that " Juke Joint Jezebel " " swaggers like a Bourbon Street hooker , with crunching guitars and a swooping , gospelish chorus " at the time of the album 's release , and in 2011 , said the album put " a polished pop spin on industrial 's characteristic harshness " . Gill had similar praise , saying " few have succeeded in making the combination [ of techno rhythms and thrash guitars ] sound as natural as this " .
Nihil was Wax Trax ! ' s best @-@ selling album to date by the end of 1995 , and went on to sell over 120 @,@ 000 copies by August 1996 . Nihil reached No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart , and was later labelled one of Wax Trax ! ' s commercial high points .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
All information from 1995 release booklet except where noted .
= = = Musicians = = =
Sascha Konietzko – synthesizers , vocals ( 1 – 7 , 9 – 10 ) , bass ( 6 ) , drums ( 10 ) , production , mixing
Günter Schulz – guitars , vocals ( 2 , 6 ) , bass ( 5 ) , pre @-@ production
En Esch – vocals ( 1 – 3 , 5 – 8 ) , guitar ( 1 , 3 , 6 ) , drums ( 6 , 9 ) , hi hat ( 2 ) , cymbals ( 3 ) , backing vocals ( 3 , 5 ) , harmonica ( 5 )
Raymond Watts – vocals ( 1 – 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 ) , bass ( 5 ) , drum programming ( 5 )
Mark Durante – steel guitar ( 1 , 7 ) , guitars ( 5 , 7 , 9 )
= = = = Additional personnel = = = =
Dorona Alberti – vocals ( 4 , 8 , 10 )
Jim Christiansen – trombone ( 7 )
Jennifer Ginsberg – vocals ( 2 )
Jeff Olson – trumpet ( 7 )
Bill Rieflin – drums ( 1 , 3 , 7 )
Fritz Whitney – bari sax ( 7 )
= = = Production = = =
Chris Shepard – engineering , production , mixing
Sam Hofstedt – assistant engineering
David Collins – mastering
Francesca Sundsten – cover art
Chris Z – type ( 1995 release )
Justin Gammon – layout ( 2007 release )
= Friedrich Wilhelm , Fürst zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg =
Friedrich William , Fürst zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg was born in Kirchberg , Hohenlohe , ( now part of Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany ) on 2 December 1732 . He was a member of an old comital and , subsequently , princely ( Fürstlich ) family of Hohenlohe , with extensive properties on the plateau south of the Main river , between the Imperial City of Schwäbisch Hall and the old Franconian city of Rothenburg ob der Tauber .
He served a distinguished career in Austrian military in the Seven Years ' War , the War of Bavarian Succession , and the French Revolutionary Wars . An experienced , if old @-@ fashioned , general , he was chosen to mentor the young Archduke Charles , who was assigned to his staff during the 1792 campaign in France . From 1780 until his death , he was the Colonel @-@ Proprietor of the 17th Infantry Regiment .
= = Early career = =
Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg began his military career in 1756 , when he joined the Habsburg regiment , the 29th Infantry Regiment Braunschweig @-@ Wolfenbüttel as a young man . He served as a captain of grenadiers in the Seven Years ' War . He was twice wounded , first at the famous Battle of Leuthen , and later at the Battle of Landshut , during the storming of Prussian redoubts . In 1758 , he was promoted to major , in 1761 , to lieutenant colonel , and in 1764 , to colonel .
He served under Gideon von Laudon in the short War of the Bavarian Succession , also called the Potato War for its lack of battles but its intense raiding of the enemy 's food supplies . After this conflict , which took place in Bohemia ( present @-@ day Czech Republic ) , he was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal ( Feldmarschal @-@ Leutnant ) and served in the Austro @-@ Turkish War , again under the command of von Laudon . He orchestrated the Austrian victory over the Turks at Persenji . After the Walachia campaign , he received the Commander 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa and was appointed as Colonel @-@ Proprietor ( Inhaber ) of the 17th Infantry Regiment , a position he held until his death in 1796 . On 15 October 1789 , he was promoted again , to general of infantry , or Feldzeugmeister , and appointed as Commanding General in Transylvania , in the so @-@ called Siebenbürgen .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
In 1792 , he was initially placed in command of the 50 @,@ 000 Austrian forces in the Upper Rhine Valley . In
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gill tissue is made of hyphae that are arranged in a roughly parallel fashion ( subparallel ) ; there are also brownish to orange @-@ brown fat @-@ containing hyphae present . The epicutis ( outer layer of tissue ) of the cap is made of a turf of gelatinous hyphae that measure 2 @.@ 5 – 6 μm wide ; clamp connections are absent to rare in the hyphae . The veil hyphae are 4 – 8 μm wide , and hyaline ( translucent ) to yellow when mounted in a dilute solution of KOH . The hyphae of the cortex of the stem are subparallel , and clamps are present .
= = = Similar species = = =
Smith and Trappe noted a similarity to the European Cortinarius elatior , but this species has violet gills at first . C. collinitis has a lighter brown slimy cap , with glutinous bands on the stem that are rarely tinged purple . A third species in this group , C. cylindripes has a lighter colored , sometimes wrinkled cap , and gills that are pale purple when young with fringed edges . C. stillatitius is a related European species found in coniferous ( sometimes in mixed ) forests . Another glutinous , dark @-@ brown capped species with which C. vanduzerensis might be confused is Phaeocollybia spadicea , but this species has pseudorhiza ( a subterranean elongation of the stem ) at the stem base and gills that are free from attachment to the stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Cortinarius vanduzerensis is a mycorrhizal mushroom that grows in association with conifer trees . The fruit bodies grow solitarily , scattered , in rings or in groups under spruce , hemlock , and Douglas @-@ fir . The mushroom is known only from the Pacific Northwest region of North America , including the Queen Charlotte Islands on the north Coast of British Columbia , Canada . It fruits in the autumn and early winter , or in the late summer in western Canada . Its frequency of occurrence has been described variously as " very common " , to " fairly common " , or " rare " everywhere except Oregon " .
= Barrington Civic Center Historic District =
Barrington Civic Center Historic District is a historic district in Barrington , Rhode Island on County Road . The district , which consists of the Barrington Town Hall , Leander R. Peck School and Prince 's Hill Cemetery , is located on Prince 's Hill near the center of Barrington . In 1728 , Prince 's Hill Cemetery was purchased and later expanded to its present size by 1898 . The one @-@ and @-@ half story Barrington Town Hall was completed in 1888 and originally served as the seat of the town 's government , library and high school . With the completion of the Leander R. Peck School in 1917 , the high school moved into the adjacent building and the library used its space . The two @-@ story Elizabethan Revival style Peck School is designed with a T @-@ shaped plan and features a stairway to access the main entrance on the second story . The Peck School was later used by the fifth and sixth grade elementary students before becoming the public library . Also located within the district is Wood 's Pond . The Barrington Civic Center Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 , and serves as historically significant example of civic and natural environment planning of the late nineteenth @-@ century .
= = Overview = =
Located in Barrington , Rhode Island on County Road , the Barrington Civic Center Historic District includes the Barrington Town Hall , the Peck School , sports field and tennis court , Wood 's pond and Prince 's Hill Cemetery . The cemetery dates to the early 18th @-@ century with stones dating from 1728 . Bicknell 's A History of Barrington , Rhode Island notes under April 7 , 1886 that the town voted and approved an appropriation of $ 2000 for the land to build a town hall . The town hall was completed in 1888 and was originally used as the town 's government offices , library and school . In 1917 , the high school students transferred to the newly completed and adjacent Peck School .
= = Barrington Town Hall = =
The one @-@ and @-@ half story Barrington Town Hall was designed and constructed between 1887 and 1888 by Stone , Carpenter & Willson of Providence , Rhode Island with an appropriation of $ 15 @,@ 000 . The town hall was officially dedicated on December 12 , 1888 . Constructed on the north @-@ south axis of a ridge Prince 's Hill , the town hall 's design was self @-@ described as medieval by the architects . Morgan describes the town hall as having " three flank gable units of varying height and depth " and [ it ] has two circular towers on the front facade of varying height . Morgan notes that " [ in the Town Hall , ] institutional functions are given something of a domestic architectural character , for the building suggests an expansive house in a half @-@ timbered manorial style . " The basement , first and portions of the second story of the Town Hall are constructed of fieldstone . Some of the stones are inscribed as memorials and one stone is claimed to have originated from Plymouth Rock . The second story , below the eaves , is half @-@ timbered . The center of the building features planned irregularity with two large projecting dormer @-@ gables , a chimney to the left of a projecting entrance porch . The southern gable , facing the front , also has two projecting dormers . The southern tower is topped by a copper weather vane with an elaborate three @-@ mast ship .
According to Morgan , the town hall was designed for multiple uses and this is evident from the plans and the exterior of the building . The largest section , the center section , serves as the government function and has municipal offices on the first floor . A stairwell to the right leads to the second floor , which functions as a town meeting room . A secondary entrance on the western facade accesses the northern section of the building , previously a library . The southern section of the building was previously a high school with separate entrances for boys and girls . The second floor of the southern section was used by the Antiquarian Society for meetings and its collections . In 1917 , the original library was moved to the southern section following the completion of the Leander R. Peck School . Two additions to the town hall were made to expand the library . The two additions consisted of two parallel gable units that matched the original material and form of the town hall , the first addition was made in 1938 by Howe & Church and the second in 1963 by Michael Traficante .
= = School and library = =
The Leander R. Peck School was donated to the Town of Barrington by Sarah Gould Peck in memory of her husband , Leader Remington Peck . A committee was formed to oversee the project and construction began in the spring of 1916 . It was designed by Martin & Hall of Providence , Rhode Island and constructed by Wilmarth and Mackillop of Pawtucket , Rhode Island . The two @-@ story Elizabethan Revival school is made of red Barrington brick with Indiana limestone trim and topped with a gable roof . Designed with a T @-@ shaped plan , the main entrance at the top of the " T " is accessed on a second story terrace reached via a large double stairway . The flanks have large projecting gable pavilions which include offices for the principal and superintendent . The central hallway is 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) in width and is lined with class rooms on the first floor and the second floor has an assembly room and two recitation rooms . The full basement of the school includes the gymnasium and locker rooms . The building was opened on September 14 , 1917 . Additions to the school were made in 1924 and 1935 on the east . In the 1970s , these additions were used as a cafeteria and stage . By 1976 , the Peck School was used as an elementary school for fifth and sixth graders . Later the school was renamed and re @-@ purposed as the Barrington Public Library . The Barrington Preservation Society uses the lower level as a museum and for the storage of records .
= = Prince 's Hill Cemetery = =
Located in the northwest half of the historic district is the Prince 's Hill Cemetery . According to Morgan , " [ a ] t a town meeting on January 18 , 1728 @-@ 29 , a committee of Timothy Wadsworth , Lieutenant Peck , Zachariah Bicknell , and James Smith was empowered to purchase land on Prince 's Hill from Ebenezer Allen to lay out a burying ground for the recently erected Congregational Church ... " The earliest stones are located in the narrow northern end of the cemetery and date to 1728 . The cemetery was first expanded on December 31 , 1729 with the purchase of a half acre for five pounds sterling . It would expand four more times by 1898 to encompass more than four acres . In 1849 , the cemetery was fenced in and Morgan describes it as " presently exemplifies the " rural cemetery " tradition of the nineteenth century with meandering drives and natural landscape planting . " Markers of note include the Ward family marker , consisting of a " large rugged cross and an ethereal angel " , a 1903 stone marker dedicated to the slaves of the Barrington families and a Classical Revival crypt dating to 1909 .
= = Importance = =
According to the National Register of Historic Places , the Barrington Civic Center Historic District is significant as it represents the " historical concentration of public and governmental functions in the Prince 's Hill area of Barrington ... [ and as ] a unit , the cemetery , town hall and school , and Wood 's Pond , epitomize the late nineteenth @-@ century interest in a planned natural environment . " Barrington was transformed by a tripling of its population from 1840 to 1900 , going from a rural to suburban environment . From 1881 , the development of the land was regulated by the Barrington Rural Improvement Society , and the historic district serves as evidence of its planning . Morgan notes that a train station just south of Prince 's Hill influenced the decision for construction of civic buildings . The historic district still " show [ s ] the imprint of early civic pride and planning " . It was added to the register in 1976 .
= Wolf 359 =
Wolf 359 is a red dwarf that is located in the constellation Leo , near the ecliptic . At a distance of approximately 7 @.@ 8 light years from Earth , it has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 5 and can only be seen with a large telescope . Wolf 359 is one of the nearest stars to the Sun ; only the Alpha Centauri system ( including Proxima Centauri ) , Barnard 's Star and the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 and WISE 0855 − 0714 are known to be closer . Its proximity to Earth has led to its mention in several works of fiction .
Wolf 359 is one of the faintest and lowest @-@ mass stars known . At the light @-@ emitting layer called the photosphere , it has a temperature of about 2 @,@ 800 K , which is low enough for chemical compounds to form and survive . The absorption lines of compounds such as water and titanium ( II ) oxide have been observed in the spectrum . The surface has a magnetic field that is stronger than the average magnetic field on the Sun . As a result of magnetic activity caused by convection , Wolf 359 is a flare star that can undergo sudden increases in luminosity for several minutes . These flares emit strong bursts of X @-@ ray and gamma ray radiation that have been observed by space telescopes . Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years . No companions or disks of debris have been detected in orbit around it .
= = Observation history and name = =
Wolf 359 first came to the attention of astronomers because of the relatively high rate of transverse motion against the background , known as the proper motion . A high rate of proper motion can indicate that a star is located nearby , as more distant stars must move at higher velocities in order to achieve the same rate of angular travel across the celestial sphere . The proper motion of Wolf 359 was first measured in 1917 by German astronomer Max Wolf , with the aid of astrophotography . In 1919 he published a catalog of over one thousand stars with high proper motions , including this one , that are still identified by his name . He listed this star as entry number 359 , and the star has since been referred to as Wolf 359 in reference to Max Wolf 's catalogue .
The first parallax measurement of Wolf 359 was reported in 1928 from the Mount Wilson Observatory , yielding an annual shift in the star 's position of 0 @.@ 407 ± 0 @.@ 009 arcseconds . From this position change , and the known size of the Earth 's orbit , the distance to the star could be estimated . It was the lowest @-@ mass and faintest star known until the discovery of VB 10 in 1944 . The infrared magnitude of the star was measured in 1957 . In 1969 , a brief flare in the luminosity of Wolf 359 was observed , linking it to the class of variable stars known as flare stars .
= = Properties = =
Wolf 359 has a stellar classification of M6.5 , although various sources list a spectral class of M5.5 , M6 or M8 . An M @-@ type star is known as a red dwarf : it is called red because the energy emission of the star reaches a peak in the red and infrared parts of the spectrum . Wolf 359 has a very low luminosity , emitting about 0 @.@ 1 % of the Sun 's energy . If it were moved to the location of the Sun , it would appear ten times as bright as the full Moon .
At an estimated 9 % of the Sun 's mass , Wolf 359 is just above the lowest limit at which a star can perform hydrogen fusion through the proton – proton chain reaction : 8 % of the Sun 's mass . ( Substellar objects below this limit are known as brown dwarfs . ) The radius of Wolf 359 is an estimated 16 % of the Sun 's radius , or about 110 @,@ 000 km . For comparison , the equatorial radius of the planet Jupiter is 71 @,@ 492 km , which is 65 % as large as Wolf 359 's .
The entire star is undergoing convection , whereby the energy generated at the core is being transported toward the surface by the convective motion of plasma , rather than by transmission through radiation . This circulation redistributes any accumulation of helium that is generated through stellar nucleosynthesis at the core throughout the star . This process will allow the star to remain on the main sequence as a hydrogen fusing star proportionately longer than a star such as the Sun where helium steadily accumulates at the core . In combination with a lower rate of hydrogen consumption due to its low mass , the convection will allow Wolf 359 to remain a main @-@ sequence star for about eight trillion years .
A search of this star by the Hubble Space Telescope revealed no stellar companions , although this does not preclude the presence of smaller companions that are below the telescope 's detection limit , such as a planet orbiting within one astronomical unit of the star . No excess infrared emission has been detected , which may indicate the lack of a debris disk in orbit around it . Radial velocity measurements of this star using the Near Infrared Spectrometer ( NIRSPEC ) instrument at the Keck II observatory have not revealed any variations that might otherwise indicate the presence of an orbiting companion . This instrumentation is sensitive enough to detect the gravitational perturbations massive , short period companions with the mass of Neptune or greater .
= = = Outer atmosphere = = =
The outer , light @-@ emitting layer of a star is known as the photosphere . Temperature estimates of the photosphere of Wolf 359 range from 2 @,@ 500 K to 2 @,@ 900 K , which is sufficiently cool for equilibrium chemistry to occur . The resulting chemical compounds survive long enough to be observed through their spectral lines . Numerous molecular bands appear in the spectrum of Wolf 359 , including those of carbon monoxide ( CO ) , iron hydride ( FeH ) , chromium hydride ( CrH ) , water ( H2O ) , magnesium hydride ( MgH ) , vanadium ( II ) oxide ( VO ) , titanium ( II ) oxide ( TiO ) and possibly the molecule CaOH . Since there are no lines of lithium in the spectrum , this element must have already been consumed by fusion at the core . This indicates the star must be at least 100 million years old .
Beyond the photosphere lies a nebulous , high temperature region known as the corona . In 2001 , Wolf 359 became the first star other than the Sun to have the spectrum of its corona observed from a ground @-@ based telescope . The spectrum showed emission lines of Fe XIII , which is heavily ionized iron that has been stripped of twelve of its electrons . The strength of this line can vary over a time period of several hours , which may be evidence of microflare heating .
Wolf 359 is classified as a UV Ceti @-@ type flare star , which is a star that undergoes brief , energetic increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity in the photosphere . Its variable star designation is CN Leonis . Wolf 359 has a relatively high flare rate . Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope detected 32 flare events within a two @-@ hour period , with energies of 1027 ergs ( 1020 joules ) and higher . The mean magnetic field at the surface of Wolf 359 has a strength of about 2 @.@ 2 kG ( 0 @.@ 22 teslas ) , but this varies significantly on time scales as short as six hours . By comparison , the magnetic field of the Sun averages 1 gauss ( 100 µT ) , although it can rise as high as 3 kG ( 0 @.@ 3 T ) in active sunspot regions . During flare activity , Wolf 359 has been observed emitting X @-@ rays and gamma rays .
= = = Motion = = =
The rotation of a star causes a Doppler shift to the spectrum . On average , this results in a broadening of the absorption lines in its spectrum , with the lines increasing in width with higher rates of rotation . However , only the rotational motion in the direction of the observer can be measured by this means , so the resulting data provides a lower limit on the star 's rotation . This projected rotational velocity of Wolf 359 's equator is less than 3 km / s , which is below the threshold of detection through spectral line broadening . This low rate of rotation may have been caused by loss of angular momentum through a stellar wind . Typically , the time scale for the spin down of a star at spectral class M6 is roughly 10 billion years , because fully convective stars like this lose their rotation more slowly than other stars . However , evolutionary models suggest that Wolf 359 is a relatively young star with an age of less than a billion years .
The proper motion Wolf 359 against
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The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . The two praised the writing and noted that " if [ ' Je Souhaite ' ] had been the final stand @-@ alone episode of the series , as it so easily might have been , it 'd have been nevertheless appropriate . [ ... ] it marks the end of an era ; it 's a perfect note of bliss which the series will never be able to capture again . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She called Paula Sorge " one of the best guest actors of the season " and praised her acting , noting that she delivers her lines " with snap , bite , and wonderful dark humor . " Vitaris , however , did note that the episode " would have worked better if it had consisted of a half @-@ hour encounter between Mulder , Scully , and Jenn , and ripped the guest cast of stereotypic poor Southerners .
Not all reviews were positive . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote , " ' Je Souhaite ' offers a few laughs but little drama and no intellectual substance . The episode seems designed to stall for time while negotiations drag on over David Duchovny 's contract and the series ' future . X @-@ Files viewers will wish for — and deserve — better material than this I Dream of Jeannie rehash . "
= Japanese aircraft carrier Hōshō =
Hōshō ( 鳳翔 , literally " phoenix in flight " ) was the world 's first commissioned ship that was designed and built as an aircraft carrier , and the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) . Commissioned in 1922 , the ship was used for testing carrier aircraft operations equipment , techniques , such as take @-@ offs and landings , and carrier aircraft operational methods and tactics . The ship provided valuable lessons and experience for the IJN in early carrier air operations . Hōshō 's superstructure and other obstructions to the flight deck were removed in 1924 on the advice of experienced aircrews .
Hōshō and her aircraft group participated in the Shanghai Incident in 1932 and in the opening stages of the Sino @-@ Japanese War in late 1937 . During those two conflicts , the carrier 's aircraft supported Imperial Japanese Army ground operations and engaged in aerial combat with aircraft of the Nationalist Chinese Air Force . The small size of the ship and her assigned airgroups ( usually around 15 aircraft ) limited the effectiveness of her contributions to combat operations . As a result , the carrier was placed in reserve after her return to Japan from China and she became a training carrier in 1939 .
During World War II , Hōshō participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 in a secondary role . After the battle , the carrier resumed her training role in Japanese home waters for the duration of the conflict and survived the war with only minor damage from air attacks . She was used as a repatriation transport after the war , making nine trips to bring some 40 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers and civilians to Japan from overseas locations . Hōshō was scrapped in Japan beginning in 1946 .
= = Design and description = =
Construction of a seaplane carrier was authorized by the Japanese government in its " eight @-@ six " fleet program of 1918 . A planned sister ship , named Shokaku , was cancelled in 1922 before any construction started . Hōshō was the second warship , after the British HMS Hermes , to be designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier , but was launched and completed earlier than Hermes .
Hōshō was planned as a seaplane carrier like the British HMS Campania with a forward flying @-@ off deck , 32 aircraft , four low @-@ angle 14 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and four anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns . The plan was revised after reports were received from Japanese observers with the Royal Navy in Europe about the desirability to be able to land aircraft on the ship . The new requirements were modeled on HMS Furious after she received her rear flight deck in 1918 . The ship was to be capable of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and fitted with a forward flight deck , superstructure and funnels amidships , and a large hangar aft . Shortly thereafter based on observations of landing trials on Furious and HMS Argus , the world 's first flush @-@ decked aircraft carrier , Hōshō 's flight deck design was revised in April 1919 . The superstructure was removed and the funnels were moved to one side to create an unobstructed , full @-@ length flight deck , and the ship was reclassified as an aircraft carrier . The ship 's hull was based on that of a large cruiser and she was given a small island . Her three funnels were mounted on the starboard side and swiveled to lie horizontal during flight operations . Hōshō 's designed speed was reduced to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , based on British experiences during World War I.
= = = General characteristics = = =
Hōshō was completed with an overall length of 168 @.@ 25 meters ( 552 ft 0 in ) . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 98 meters ( 59 ft 0 in ) and a mean draft of 6 @.@ 17 meters ( 20 ft 3 in ) . The ship displaced 7 @,@ 470 long tons ( 7 @,@ 590 t ) at standard load , and 9 @,@ 494 long tons ( 9 @,@ 646 t ) at normal load . Her crew totaled 512 officers and men . The ship was almost completely unarmored .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Hōshō had two Parsons geared turbine sets with a total of 30 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) driving two propeller shafts . Eight Kampon Type B water @-@ tube boilers with a working pressure of 18 @.@ 3 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 790 kPa ; 260 psi ) and a temperature of 138 ° C ( 280 ° F ) provided steam to the turbines , although only four were oil @-@ fired . The other four used a mix of oil and coal . The ship 's designed speed was 25 knots , but she made 26 @.@ 66 knots ( 49 @.@ 37 km / h ; 30 @.@ 68 mph ) from 31 @,@ 117 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 204 kW ) on her sea trials on 30 November 1922 . She carried 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of fuel oil and 940 long tons ( 960 t ) of coal , an extraordinary total for such a small ship , to give her a range of 8 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 080 km ; 9 @,@ 990 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
To reduce rolling and increase stability for aircraft operations , a gyrostabilizer produced by the American Sperry Gyroscope Company was installed . The installation initially proved unreliable as the Japanese technicians were badly trained by Sperry , but eventually the system proved its worth as the technicians gained experience .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Hōshō 's flight deck was 168 @.@ 25 meters ( 552 ft 0 in ) long and 22 @.@ 62 meters ( 74 ft 3 in ) wide . The forward end sloped down at an angle of − 5 ° to help aircraft accelerate during takeoff . A small island was mounted well forward on the starboard side and contained the ship 's bridge and air operations control center . The island was fitted with a small tripod mast intended to mount the ship 's fire @-@ control system . Fifteen different types of landing equipment were evaluated before the British longitudinal wire system was adopted . Low landing speeds of the time meant that aircraft had little difficulty in stopping , but their light weight made them vulnerable to wind gusts that could blow them over the side of the carrier , and the longitudinal wires helped to prevent that . Forward of the island was a collapsible crane for loading aircraft into the forward hangar .
The flight deck , unlike those on Royal Navy carriers , was superimposed on the ship 's hull rather than constructed as a strength deck supporting the carrier 's hull structure . A system of lights and mirrors along the flight deck assisted pilots in landing on the carrier .
Hōshō was the only Japanese aircraft carrier with two hangars . The forward hangar was 67 @.@ 2 by 9 @.@ 5 meters ( 220 ft 6 in by 31 ft 2 in ) and only one deck in height as it was intended to house nine small aircraft , such as fighters . The two @-@ story rear hangar measured 16 @.@ 5 by 14 meters ( 54 ft 2 in by 45 ft 11 in ) at the forward end and 29 @.@ 4 by 12 meters ( 96 ft 5 in by 39 ft 4 in ) at the rear end . It was designed to house six large aircraft , such as torpedo bombers , as well as six reserve aircraft . Each hangar was served by an aircraft elevator . The forward elevator was 10 @.@ 35 by 7 @.@ 86 meters ( 34 @.@ 0 by 25 @.@ 8 ft ) and the aft elevator measured 13 @.@ 71 by 6 @.@ 34 meters ( 45 ft 0 in by 20 ft 10 in ) .
= = = Air group = = =
Hōshō had a normal capacity of fifteen aircraft , subject to the limitations of her hangars . She was first commissioned with an air group of nine Mitsubishi 1MF ( Type 10 ) fighters and three to six Mitsubishi B1M3 ( Type 13 ) torpedo bombers . In 1928 , the fighters were replaced by the A1N1 ( Type 3 ) . Three years later the air group consisted of Nakajima A2N ( Type 90 ) fighters and Mitsubishi B2M ( Type 89 ) torpedo bombers . In 1938 Nakajima A4N ( Type 95 ) fighters and Yokosuka B3Y ( Type 92 ) bombers flew from the ship . In 1940 the air group was modernized with Mitsubishi A5M ( Type 96 ) " Claude " fighters and Yokosuka B4Y1 ( Type 96 ) " Jean " bombers .
= = = Armament = = =
Hōshō was armed with four 50 @-@ caliber 14 cm / 50 3rd Year Type guns , two on each side . The two forward guns had a firing arc of 150 ° , including straight ahead , while the rear guns could fire 120 ° on either side . They fired 38 @-@ kilogram ( 84 lb ) projectiles at a rate of six to ten rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of about 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) ; at 35 ° , they had a maximum range of 19 @,@ 750 m ( 21 @,@ 600 yd ) . A heavy gun armament was provided for Hōshō ; as carrier doctrine was just evolving at this time , the impracticability of carriers engaging in gun duels had not yet been realized . Her large flight deck and lack of armor made her a vulnerable target in surface battles .
A pair of 40 @-@ caliber 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type guns on disappearing mounts provided Hōshō 's only anti @-@ aircraft defense . They were positioned on the flight deck , just forward of the rear elevator . These guns fired 5 @.@ 67 – 5 @.@ 99 @-@ kilogram ( 12 @.@ 5 – 13 @.@ 2 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of about 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 231 ft / s ) ; at 45 ° , this provided a maximum range of 10 @,@ 800 meters ( 11 @,@ 800 yd ) , and they had a maximum ceiling of 7 @,@ 200 meters ( 23 @,@ 600 ft ) at 75 ° elevation . Their effective rate of fire was 13 to 20 rounds per minute .
= = Service = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hōshō 's keel was laid down by the Asano Shipbuilding Company in Tsurumi @-@ ku , Yokohama , on 16 December 1920 . She was launched on 13 November 1921 and towed to Yokosuka Naval Arsenal for completion on 10 January 1922 . Hōshō was delayed by repeated design changes and late deliveries of equipment , pushing the commissioning date from March to 27 December 1922 . She was commissioned lacking much of her aviation equipment , and did not begin landing trials until 22 February 1923 . The first landings were made by British pilots under contract , who were quickly replaced by Japanese pilots trained by the British Aviation Mission .
After Hōshō was commissioned , experienced aircrews requested changes , and the ship was modified by the Yokosuka Navy Arsenal from 6 June to 20 August 1924 . The island , tripod mast , and aircraft crane were removed since they partially obstructed the flight deck and obscured pilot visibility . The forward part of the flight deck was made horizontal , and the 8 cm AA guns were moved forward , close to the position of the former island and out of the way of landing operations . After the island was removed , the carrier 's flight operations were controlled from a platform extending from the side of the flight deck , a design that would be repeated in subsequent Japanese aircraft carriers . The ship was then assigned to the 1st Fleet until 15 November 1924 .
Hōshō was fitted with a net used as a crash barrier aft of the forward elevator between 10 March and 2 July 1925 . The barrier was intended to prevent landing aircraft from colliding with aircraft preparing to take off , and stop them from falling into the open elevator well . The barrier was hydraulically operated and could be erected in three seconds .
As the first of her kind , Hōshō provided valuable experience and insight into carrier air operations for the IJN . The ship was used for testing aircraft and equipment , particularly various types of arresting gear and optical landing aids . The lessons learned influenced the design and construction of Ryūjō and the subsequent conversions of Akagi and Kaga into aircraft carriers . Hōshō was actively used to develop carrier operational methods and tactics for the IJN during the 1
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during this time seven clubs from outside London approached Wimbledon with groundshare offers . Similar opposition to that emanating from the Irish football hierarchy followed after Kinnear spoke of the Cardiff proposal : the Football Association of Wales stated they " will oppose the plan even if it means Premiership football coming to Cardiff " . By February 1998 , Clydebank of the Scottish third tier were also pursuing a move to the Irish capital . Swayed by Hammam 's offer of £ 500 @,@ 000 to each League of Ireland club , the same amount to the FAI and " schools of excellence all over the country " in return for support , five Irish teams now backed Wimbledon 's Dublin proposal . Later that year , after the Premier League had approved the idea , the lengthy , heated debate in Ireland ended with an FAI veto . With Dublin now not an option , Hammam attempted to buy Selhurst Park from Noades , who had sold Crystal Palace in 1998 , but still owned the ground . This led nowhere . Hammam finally sold his shares in Wimbledon in February 2000 , and seven months later became the owner of Cardiff City . Wimbledon were relegated from the Premier League at the end of the 1999 – 2000 season . The average attendance at Wimbledon home matches dropped by more than half over the next year , from 17 @,@ 157 during the 1999 – 2000 season to 7 @,@ 897 during 2000 – 01 .
= = Milton Keynes Stadium Consortium = =
= = = Background and motivations = = =
The Milton Keynes Stadium Consortium or " Stadium MK " , led by Pete Winkelman and his company Inter MK Group , was formed in 2000 . It proposed a large development in the southern Milton Keynes district of Denbigh North , including a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity football stadium , a 150 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 13 @,@ 935 m2 ) Asda hypermarket , an IKEA store , a hotel , a conference centre , and a retail park . The plan to build a ground of this size was complicated by the fact that there was no professional football club in Milton Keynes and that the highest @-@ ranked team in the town , ( another ) Milton Keynes City — based in Wolverton in northern Milton Keynes , and formerly known as Mercedes @-@ Benz F.C. — played in the then eighth @-@ tier Spartan South Midlands League , four divisions below the Football League . The developers could not justify building such a stadium for a club of this small stature . Rather than wait for MK City or another local team to progress through the pyramid , Winkelman resolved to " import " an established League club to use the ground .
Winkelman , an ex @-@ CBS Records executive and music promoter , had moved to the Milton Keynes area from London in 1993 . He attested to a vast untapped fanbase for football in Milton Keynes — a " football frenzy waiting to happen " , he said . Critics of this claim pointed to the apparent lack of public interest in Milton Keynes City and the other local non @-@ League clubs , and argued that Milton Keynes residents interested specifically in League football already had ample access with Luton , Northampton and Rushden & Diamonds all within 25 miles ( 40 km ) . In Winkelman 's own words , in a 2013 interview , he " didn 't have a clue about football " when he was proposing to move a League club from another town — indeed looking back he said " it was that naivety that enabled me to go and do it . " He was the only person in Milton Keynes publicly associated with the project ; his financial supporters , later revealed to be Asda ( a subsidiary of Walmart ) and IKEA , were kept strictly anonymous . According to an investigative report by Ian Pollock , published in When Saturday Comes in July 2002 , neither the Milton Keynes Council press office , the editor of the Milton Keynes Citizen newspaper nor the head of Invest in MK , the council agency encouraging businesses to move to the area , could tell him who was backing the plans . Winkelman told Pollock his supporters were " major business people in MK and some developers . A number of major international partners who 've done this sort of thing before . "
Opponents of such a move surmised that the stadium was a " Trojan Horse " included in the blueprint to bypass planning rules , and that although the consortium described the larger development as enabling the construction of the stadium , the reverse was the case — Winkelman 's consortium , they claimed , had to have a professional team in place right away to justify the ground so the development could get planning permission . David Conn of The Guardian corroborated this assessment . " The whole project was indeed dependent on Asda and IKEA , " Conn summarised in a 2012 article , after interviewing Winkelman . " Having seen the opportunity to build a stadium Milton Keynes lacked , and realised Asda did not have a store in the town , Winkelman acquired options to buy the land from its three owners , including the council . Asda would not have been granted planning permission for a huge out @-@ of @-@ town superstore unless it gave the council the benefit of building the stadium . [ A League club ] would move up , permission would be granted , then [ Winkelman ] would exercise the option to buy all the land , sell it to Asda and IKEA for very much more , and the difference would be used to build the stadium . " Conn retrospectively described this as a " deal of a lifetime " .
= = = Talks with Luton , Wimbledon , Barnet , Crystal Palace and QPR = = =
The first club approached was Luton Town , still based at Kenilworth Road , in 2000 . As in the 1980s , Luton 's owners liked the Milton Keynes idea but the fans strongly opposed it . The Football League stated that no member club could leave its own area and blocked the move . Nevertheless , Winkelman attempted to negotiate a move with two League clubs from London over the following months ; he approached Crystal Palace and Barnet , but neither was interested . Winkelman then offered the ground to Wimbledon . He registered several internet domain names with variants of " Milton Keynes Dons " and " MK Dons " in June 2000 . Wimbledon initially rejected the Milton Keynes idea .
Røkke and Gjelsten appointed a new club chairman , Charles Koppel , in January 2001 . According to Stephen Morrow in The People 's Game ? : Football , Finance and Society ( 2003 ) , Koppel had never been to a football match before becoming involved with Wimbledon and " gave the impression of being completely unaware of the relationship that exists between a football club and its supporters . " He was interested in an " enabling development " whereby a stadium could be created and funded as part of a business or leisure opportunity — exactly the kind of proposition put forward by Winkelman .
Towards the end of the 2000 – 01 season Wimbledon and Queens Park Rangers , who were in financial administration , entered discussions over a merger ; the new team would play at Loftus Road . The Football League announced on 2 May 2001 that it would give " favourable consideration " to a takeover of QPR by Wimbledon , but that the process would have to be very quick for the merged team to take part in the 2001 – 02 season . Noades – by now the owner of Brentford , who were themselves interested in a groundshare at Loftus Road – said that Wimbledon would have to give him 12 months ' notice to leave Selhurst Park . The majority of Wimbledon and QPR fans quickly made their opposition to a merger known . Following Wimbledon 's draw with Norwich City at Selhurst Park on 6 May , Koppel came onto the pitch and told the mostly jeering home fans that " there never was a merger proposal with QPR " ; the Loftus Road club had instigated the talks , he said . QPR abandoned the amalgamation plan two days later , citing potential fan alienation , while also announcing that there would be no further talks with Brentford .
A month later , Winkelman offered his Milton Keynes stadium site to QPR , promising that the club 's name and blue @-@ and @-@ white hooped strip would be kept in Buckinghamshire and that the fans would be represented on the board of directors . " We have real resources to put behind the club , " said Winkelman . " They are fast running out of solutions and we are the answer to their problems . " QPR dismissed the offer , leading the developers to once again contact Wimbledon later that month . With Koppel in charge , Wimbledon were more receptive this time around — Koppel said that Wimbledon 's owners were subsidising the club to the tune of £ 6 million per year and that such action was necessary to prevent its liquidation . As talks progressed , Winkelman approached the owner of Milton Keynes City , attempting to buy the club name . It soon became clear that the bulk of Wimbledon 's support strongly opposed a move of this kind .
= = Authorisation process = =
= = = Announcement and rejection ; appeal = = =
Koppel announced Wimbledon Football Club 's intent to move to Milton Keynes on 2 August 2001 with a letter to the Football League chief executive David Burns requesting approval . The letter stated that Wimbledon had already signed an agreement to relocate and " subject to the necessary planning and regulatory consents being obtained " intended to be playing home games at a newly built stadium in Milton Keynes by the start of the 2003 – 04 season . The proposed move was opposed in most quarters : along with most of Wimbledon 's fans and many football supporters generally , the League , the Football Association ( the FA ) , Merton Council , most football writers in the national press and a 150 @-@ man Parliamentary All @-@ Party Committee voiced disapproval . Two similar club relocations had occurred in the Scottish professional ranks during the 1990s , but the permanent relocation of an English League club to another conurbation was unprecedented . A group of Wimbledon fans decided to boycott club merchandise in protest against the plans , and launched an " alternative matchday programme for both home and away fans " , Yellow and Blue , to compete against the official publication . The League board unanimously rejected Wimbledon 's proposed move on 16 August 2001 , stating that any Milton Keynes club would have to earn membership by progressing through the pyramid and that " franchised football " would be " disastrous " .
Koppel appealed against this decision , calling it and the process by which it was reached " deficient and unlawful " ; he insisted that re @-@ basing in Milton Keynes was the only way Wimbledon could survive . Burns expressed strong personal opposition in response , declaring that allowing such a move would " destroy what football is about " . To consider whether Wimbledon had the right to contest the League 's decision , the Football Association formed an ad hoc arbitration panel made up of FA vice @-@ chairman and Arsenal vice @-@ chairman David Dein , York City chairman Douglas Craig , and Charles Hollander QC . Craig was a controversial choice for some because of his actions as York chief ; he had sold his club 's stadium Bootham Crescent to a holding company he also owned for £ 165 @,@ 000 in July 1999 , then in December 2001 announced his intention to evict the team and sell the ground for £ 4 @.@ 5 million . Winkelman told reporters that even if the appeal were unsuccessful " our door will be open to any club in trouble " .
After considering extensive written evidence from Wimbledon F.C. , the Football League , the FA , the Premier League , the Football Conference , the Scottish Football League , Milton Keynes City F.C. , Merton Council , the Football Supporters ' Association and the Wimbledon Independent Supporters Association ( WISA ) , and oral submissions from Koppel , Burns and Andrew Judge of Merton Council , the arbitration panel unanimously ruled on 29 January 2002 that the League 's decision had " not been properly taken in the legal sense , and that the procedures had not been fair " — the League , the panel reported , had rejected Wimbledon 's application " not on its merits , but on the basis of an inflexible view or policy " . The question of Wimbledon 's proposed move was remitted to the Football League board , which reconvened on 17 April 2002 and concluded that the matter should be considered by an independent commission appointed by the Football Association . The FA agreed and in the first week of May appointed Raj Parker of the Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer law firm to chair the commission , with Aston Villa 's operations director Steve Stride and Alan Turvey , a member of the FA Council and chairman of the Isthmian League , as commissioners . Under FA Rule F the Football League and Wimbledon were informed of these appointments ; neither objected . Acknowledging Koppel 's request that the matter be resolved by the end of the month because of Wimbledon 's financial problems , the FA set a deadline of 31 May 2002 for the commission 's " final and binding " verdict , and released a press statement on 10 May inviting anyone interested to send written submissions care of the FA . By this time the fans ' matchday publication Yellow and Blue was outselling the official Wimbledon F.C. programme by three to one .
= = = Independent commission ; approval = = =
Parker , Stride and Turvey sat at Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer 's Fleet Street offices on 14 , 15 , 16 and 22 May 2002 . Legal counsel instructed by Olswang appeared for Wimbledon ; the League , which had engaged external lawyers for the arbitration hearing , this time did not , deciding that its objections were adequately set out in the written material . The League and FA contributions were summarised in the commission report as concerns that a relocated club would , in effect , " drive a coach and horses through the pyramid structure " , " herald , or risk heralding , a franchise system for football whereby the investors in football could relocate clubs at will " and " dramatically change the defining characteristics of the English domestic game where clubs are identified with the locality or community built up over time " . " English football is not organised on the basis of a franchise system in which different communities may bid for clubs competing in competitions , " the FA statement concluded . " If a move effectively involved a break of the links with the community with which the club is traditionally associated , and a move to an entirely new community , with an intent to put down new roots and reinvent the club with a new identity and a new set of allegiances , and yet the club did not want to relinquish its place in the pyramid , go down to a lower level and work its way back up , the FA believes that allowing such a move would have a fundamental impact on the organisational framework of the game . "
Wimbledon 's statement centred on the club 's precarious financial situation and a claim that its case was unique . It stressed that Wimbledon ( referred to in the statement as " WFC " ) had lacked its own home stadium for 11 years and asserted that the club did not have " firm and extensive roots within the conurbation from which it takes its name " . According to the club statement , " the vast majority " of Wimbledon fans were not from Merton and " less than 20 % of the 3 @,@ 400 season ticket holders " lived there . Milton Keynes was , the statement said , Wimbledon 's " last chance of financial survival " ; the move 's opponents did not properly appreciate the club 's fiscal troubles and " wrongly assume [ d ] that there is a viable alternative in south London . " The new ground in Milton Keynes was feasible despite the club 's financial problems as it would be almost entirely funded by the consortium 's enabling development . Wimbledon 's identity — " traditions , history , colours , name , strip , stadium design and the like " — would be preserved in Milton Keynes and supporters from London would be offered subsidised travel and tickets . The statement concluded that " infinitely more harm would be caused to football if WFC went out of business " and that a " proportionate exercise of discretion ... would allow the relocation in WFC 's exceptional circumstances . "
The commissioners heard oral statements from Winkelman , Koppel , Louise Carton @-@ Kelly of the Dons Trust fundraising group , Kris Stewart of the WISA , Nicholas Coward of the FA and Steve Clark , Merton Council 's head of planning . Winkelman was described in the report as " a passionate and frank witness , who is genuinely concerned to promote the interests of Milton Keynes and WFC . " He expressed a wish to retain Wimbledon 's " name , strip , branding and the like " , and spoke of renaming local roads and calling the stadium site " Wimbledon Park " . Winkelman predicted that an overwhelming majority of Wimbledon fans would continue to follow the club in Milton Keynes . The commission summarised the fans ' submitted views as almost universally negative and reported that most perceived a continuation of the club in Milton Keynes as no better than liquidation . Stewart , when asked if he would prefer life for the club in Milton Keynes or death in Merton , said he regarded both as death and that in either case he would attempt to " resurrect the club and start at the bottom of the pyramid " .
The commission report described redeveloping Plough Lane , which Merton Council insisted remained viable " if there is a will for the club to pursue this option " , as the only recourse for Wimbledon other than Milton Keynes . A feasibility study carried out by Drivers Jonas , commissioned and funded jointly by Wimbledon F.C. and Merton Council , described a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium at Plough Lane as physically possible but " extremely ambitious " , risky and financially unsustainable given the club 's money problems . The commission ruled that it was unreasonable to expect Wimbledon 's owners to pursue a move back to Plough Lane under these circumstances . Parker and Stride concluded that on the evidence presented Milton Keynes was the only option that would give the club a chance of financial survival , and therefore ruled in favour of the move , two to one — Turvey dissented — on 28 May 2002 .
= = Relocation = =
Wimbledon F.C. and AFC Wimbledon are named in full throughout the following sections to avoid ambiguity .
= = = 2002 – 03 = = =
The FA stated that although the decision was final and binding , it still strongly opposed the relocation . It emphasised that its recommendation to the commissioners had been against the move . " The Football Association sees it as vital for the game to stop these circumstances ever happening again , " the statement concluded . The chief executive of the FA , Adam Crozier , said that he believed the commission to have made an " appalling decision " . Koppel said the decision had saved Wimbledon Football Club . A spokesman for Milton Keynes Council said the people of Milton Keynes were looking forward to the team 's arrival . " It will be of great benefit to the city , " he said ; " Milton Keynes is becoming a city of sport . " In the eyes of the WISA , the Dons Trust and most of the Wimbledon F.C. fanbase , the move 's sanctioning marked the " death of their club " . " If it moves it will mean nothing to us , " said Marc Jones , a WISA spokesman . Wimbledon F.C. became widely reviled by football supporters across the country and pejoratively nicknamed by some as " Franchise F.C. " .
A group of disaffected Wimbledon F.C. fans led by Stewart , Jones , Ivor Heller and Trevor Williams resolved to found their own team , in their view a spiritual continuation or " phoenix " version of the original . Within weeks , they had done so ; the new side , AFC Wimbledon , entered a groundshare arrangement with Kingstonian at the latter club 's home ground at Kingsmeadow , in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames , adjacent to Merton and about 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Plough Lane . The fans ' club was accepted into the Combined Counties League , seven levels below Wimbledon F.C. ' s place in the second tier , and began play at the start of the 2002 – 03 season . The WISA , the Dons Trust and the vast majority of Wimbledon F.C. ' s fanbase switched allegiance to the new club . The assertion in the commission report that " resurrecting the club from its ashes as , say , ' Wimbledon Town ' " would be " not in the wider interests of football " particularly infuriated AFC Wimbledon 's founders and became an integral part of club lore .
Wimbledon F.C. hoped to move to Milton Keynes immediately , but as the new ground was yet to be built an interim home in the town would have to be found first . The first proposal , to start the 2002 – 03 season at the National Hockey Stadium in central Milton Keynes , was abandoned because it did not meet Football League stadium criteria . While alternative temporary options were examined — Winkelman suggested converting the National Bowl music venue — Wimbledon F.C. started the season at Selhurst Park and set a target of playing in MK by Christmas . Central Milton Keynes Shopping Centre became the team 's new sponsor ; " GO – MK " was emblazoned across the players ' shirts . Before Wimbledon F.C. ' s first game of the season , against Gillingham on 10 August 2002 , AFC Wimbledon supporters picketed outside Selhurst Park , tried to dissuade home fans from entering and shouted " scab " and " scum " at those who did . The attendance was officially announced as 2 @,@ 476 , including 1 @,@ 808 from Gillingham . The breakaway club claimed an average crowd of over 3 @,@ 700 during its first months , while Wimbledon F.C. attracted less than 3 @,@ 000 , most of whom were followers of visiting teams . The loss of income from gate receipts would contribute to Wimbledon F.C. subsequently entering administration .
Safeway demolished Plough Lane and sold the site to a property developer in November 2002 . Milton Keynes Council meanwhile granted planning permission to convert the National Bowl into a temporary football stadium , but the Football League delayed a decision on these plans in October 2002 . At Selhurst Park , Wimbledon F.C. reported a divisional record low attendance of only 849 — including over 200 away fans , around the same number of complimentary tickets , and Wimbledon F.C. youth players and members of the press — for the Tuesday @-@ night game against Rotherham United on 29 October 2002 . A temporary stadium in Milton Keynes proved difficult to arrange and Wimbledon F.C. remained in south London at the end of the season . On the field , the side finished the second @-@ tier campaign in 10th place . Koppel re @-@ adopted the National Hockey Stadium as his preferred interim destination , announcing a plan to convert the stadium for football and play there from the start of the 2003 – 04 season .
= = = 2003 – 04 = = =
The College of Arms had informed Wimbledon F.C. in August 2002 that its continued use of the Wimbledon double @-@ headed eagle device for its logo was illegal , so the club adopted a new badge before the 2003 – 04 season . It featured a stylised eagle 's head drawn in navy blue and yellow outline , the yellow forming the letters " MK " . The club was concurrently compelled to stop using a Womble for its mascot after the owners of the Wombles brand refused to renew the relevant licence agreement in protest against the move to Milton Keynes . Tottenham Hotspur , Charlton Athletic and Luton Town scheduled pre @-@ season friendly matches against Wimbledon F.C. , but then cancelled them in quick succession after each set of supporters protested . Koppel accused the WISA of orchestrating a campaign against the club , and said the Tottenham and Charlton friendlies had been cancelled in part because of concerns that the National Hockey Stadium might not be ready on time ( Luton would have been an away match ) . It was widely speculated that Wimbledon F.C. would be " renamed , ' rebranded ' even " after moving , with " MK Dons " reported in the press as a possible new name , but Koppel denied this . " It remains Wimbledon Football Club . That is our history and the tradition of the club , " he said .
On 5 June 2003 Gjelsten told Koppel he could not go on subsidising Wimbledon F.C. , and withheld the scheduled monthly injection of £ 800 @,@ 000 . Koppel declared Wimbledon F.C. insolvent the next day and put it into administration with reported debts of £ 3 @.@ 5 million . John Gurney , who had just become the chairman of Luton Town following a takeover by a consortium from Hong Kong and the United States , briefly floated the idea of buying Wimbledon F.C. and merging it with Luton , in his words " effectively buying a back door to Division One " ( Luton were in the division below ) , but was soon after ousted by Luton supporters . In late June , after Wimbledon F.C. missed a deadline to invest in renovations to the Hockey Stadium , the National Hockey Foundation pulled out of discussions over the ground 's use , creating confusion as to where the club would now be located . The administrators stated on 27 June that as things stood the move to Milton Keynes was off . A week later , after Watford had refused to let Wimbledon F.C. share their ground at Vicarage Road , the administrators announced a return to Selhurst Park .
Winkelman had not intended to own Wimbledon F.C. himself ; his plan had been to work alongside it while the stadium was built in Denbigh and then give the ground to the club in exchange for shares and a place on the board . He had not expected it to go into administration . With the move threatened and the club facing liquidation , he made " the life @-@ defining decision " , to quote Conn , " of taking it on himself " . He secured funds from his consortium for the administrators to pay the players ' wages , keep the club operating , and pay for the necessary renovations for the National Hockey Stadium to host League football . He made clear that his group 's interest was conditional on the club moving to Milton Keynes . In late July Winkelman and the club 's administrators concluded a deal with the Hockey Stadium 's owners to carry out conversion work and play there from October — Wimbledon F.C. would return to Selhurst Park in the meantime . Meanwhile , Milton Keynes City F.C. went out of business before the start of the season following an unsuccessful drive for new directors and investors .
After hosting the first few home matches of the campaign at Selhurst Park — 1 @,@ 054 saw them lose 4 – 2 to Wigan Athletic in their last home game in London — Wimbledon F.C. received Football League clearance to host matches at the National Hockey Stadium on 19 September 2003 , and eight days later played their first match in Milton Keynes , against Burnley . The game drew a crowd of 5 @,@ 639 , including 893 away fans . Wimbledon F.C. went two goals down before coming back to draw 2 – 2 ; Dean Holdsworth scored the club 's first goal in Milton Keynes . The team struggled on and off the pitch for the rest of the season , losing important players regularly as the administrators sold them to keep the club afloat , and eventually finished bottom of the second @-@ tier First Division . Attendances at the National Hockey Stadium were higher than those at Selhurst Park during the 2002 – 03 season , but lower than those of the 2001 – 02 season . The 2 – 1 defeat to Sunderland on 7 April 2004 that confirmed Wimbledon F.C. ' s relegation was attended by 4 @,@ 800 , of whom 2 @,@ 380 were away fans .
After Gjelsten agreed to write off the £ 24 million he and Røkke had lent to the club since 1997 , a company voluntary arrangement ( CVA ) was put together on 18 March 2004 under which Winkelman 's consortium would take Wimbledon F.C. out of administration , reportedly using a holding company called MK Dons . This was accepted by most of Wimbledon F.C. ' s creditors , but delayed while the Inland Revenue decided whether or not to pursue the club 's £ 525 @,@ 000 debt to the UK taxpayer before the Law Lords . The Football League threatened to expel the club if the takeover were not completed by 31 July . In May Property Week reported that the new stadium in Denbigh would be cancelled if Wimbledon F.C. were wound up . Richard Foreman , a director of the consortium 's development consultant , denied this , saying that the project would continue with " the total support of the council " ; the consortium would invite another League team to move , he said , and would have 18 months to do so . This did not prove necessary . After the Inland Revenue announced on 27 May that it would not pursue the club 's debt , Winkelman 's Inter MK Group brought Wimbledon F.C. out of administration in late June 2004 , paying £ 850 @,@ 000 for the club , and concurrently announced changes to its name , badge and colours .
= = = MK Dons and AFC Wimbledon = = =
The new name of the relocated club was Milton Keynes Dons F.C. ( commonly shortened to MK Dons ) . Inter MK explained that this name was intended to " represent the past , present and future and place the club at the heart of its new community " as well as to retain a connection with the club 's former identity . The Football League gave final approval to the CVA on 1 July 2004 , and the same day confirmed the transfer of the Wimbledon F.C. League share to Milton Keynes Dons Ltd .
The blue and yellow home colours that Wimbledon F.C. players had worn were replaced by white shirts , shorts and socks , with black , red and gold as accent colours . The first MK Dons away outfit comprised red shirts , shorts and socks . Both white and red had been used by Wimbledon F.C. as away colours over the previous two decades . The club badge became a rendering of the letters " MK " , with the " K " positioned below the " M " , rotated 90 ° anti @-@ clockwise and defaced with the year " MMIV " ( 2004 ) .
In line with its self @-@ perception as the spiritual continuation of Wimbledon F.C. , AFC Wimbledon attempts to emulate the original team 's appearance in almost every way . The fans ' club plays in the same blue and yellow home colours and uses the Wimbledon double @-@ headed eagle for its badge . AFC Wimbledon continue to use the " Dons " nickname , despite its synchronous use in Milton Keynes . They also retain the " Wombles " label formerly applied to Wimbledon Football Club .
= = = Stadium mk and proposed new AFC Wimbledon stadium = = =
Milton Keynes Dons continued to play at the National Hockey Stadium while the development including the new ground was constructed in Denbigh . Asda paid Inter MK £ 35 million for its section of the site , Ikea £ 24 million . Ground was broken on the stadium in February 2005 . In December 2005 MK Dons set a target of playing at the new ground by January 2007 ; in February 2007 they revised their proposal to a 22 @,@ 000 @-@ seater stadium ready in July of that year , with provision for expansion to 32 @,@ 000 ( it had originally been intended to seat 30 @,@ 000 ) . The new ground , named Stadium mk , hosted its first match in July 2007 .
In late 2014 , it was reported that Tottenham Hotspur were in negotiations with MK Dons over a temporary groundshare at Stadium mk for a season , during renovations at Spurs ' White Hart Lane ground . According to press reports , Tottenham proposed to play most home matches in MK and a small number at Wembley Stadium . The idea of playing home matches in Milton Keynes , even temporarily , is largely unpopular with Spurs fans . The Tottenham Hotspur Supporters Trust stated in September 2014 that it would have " serious issues " with such an arrangement . In a London Evening Standard poll of 206 Tottenham fans two months later , 71 ( 34 % ) said they would attend home matches at Stadium mk if the club played there temporarily , while 135 ( 66 % ) said they would not . The Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore stated in July 2015 that the Premier League would have no objection to Tottenham groundsharing temporarily — either with MK Dons or with Chelsea at Wembley — but to defend " the integrity of the competition " would not allow Tottenham to play home matches at more than one location in the same season . Two months later , the FA chief executive Martin Glenn indicated that he supported the idea of clubs playing temporarily at Wembley while their grounds were redeveloped .
AFC Wimbledon remain at Kingsmeadow as of the 2015 – 16 season . In December 2015 Merton Borough Council granted the club planning permission to build a new 11 @,@ 000 @-@ seater stadium on Plough Lane , with provision for expansion to 20 @,@ 000 , on the site of the greyhounds stadium less than a mile from where the former Wimbledon F.C. ground stood .
= = Legacy of Wimbledon F.C. = =
The location of the history and legacy of Wimbledon F.C. , as well as the honours won by the club , was disputed for
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He falls in love with Rachel in season eight , but Rachel politely tells Joey that she does not share his feelings . They eventually date briefly in season ten , but after realizing it will not work due to their friendship and , more importantly , Rachel 's complicated relationship with Ross , they return to being friends .
Matthew Perry portrays Chandler Bing , an executive in statistical analysis and data reconfiguration for a large , multinational corporation . Chandler hates this job , although it pays well . He attempts to quit during season one , but is lured back with a new office and a pay raise . He eventually quits this job in season nine due to a transfer to Tulsa . He becomes a junior copywriter at an advertising agency later that season . Chandler has a peculiar family history being the son of an erotic novelist mother and a gay , cross @-@ dressing Las Vegas star father . Chandler is known for his sarcastic sense of humor and bad luck in relationships . Chandler marries Monica in season seven , and they adopt twins at the end of the series . Before his relationship with Monica , Chandler dated Janice Hosenstein in season one and subsequently broke up with her many times . Matthew Perry has expressed his similarities to the character , such as his need to break an awkward silence with a joke and difficulties with women when first joining the show .
David Schwimmer portrays Ross Geller , Monica Geller 's older brother , a paleontologist working at the Museum of Natural History , and later a tenured professor of paleontology at New York University . Ross is a sweet @-@ natured man of good humor , although he is often clumsy and socially awkward . Ross is involved in an on @-@ again @-@ off @-@ again relationship with Rachel throughout the series . He has three failed marriages during the series : Carol Willick , a lesbian who is also the mother of his son , Ben ; Emily Waltham , who divorces Ross after he accidentally says Rachel 's name instead of hers during their wedding vows ; and Rachel , as the two drunkenly marry in Las Vegas . His failed love life is potentially due to his paranoia and jealousy in relationships , and his divorces become a running joke within the series . Following a one @-@ night stand , he and Rachel have a daughter , Emma , by the end of season eight . They finally confess that they are still in love with each other in the series finale .
= = Cast = =
In their original contracts for the first season , cast members were paid $ 22 @,@ 500 per episode . The cast members received different salaries in the second season , beginning from the $ 20 @,@ 000 range to $ 40 @,@ 000 per episode . Before their salary negotiations for the third season , the cast decided to enter collective negotiations , despite Warner Bros. ' preference for individual deals . The actors were given the salary of the least @-@ paid cast member , meaning Aniston and Schwimmer had their salaries reduced . The stars were paid $ 75 @,@ 000 per episode in season three , $ 85 @,@ 000 in season four , $ 100 @,@ 000 in season five , $ 125 @,@ 000 in season six , $ 750 @,@ 000 in seasons seven and eight , and $ 1 million in seasons nine and ten , making Aniston , Cox , and Kudrow the highest paid TV actresses of all @-@ time . The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations . At the time , that financial benefit of a piece of the show 's lucrative back end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show , like Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Cosby .
Series creator David Crane wanted all six actors to be equally prominent , and the series was lauded as being " the first true ' ensemble ' show . " The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate ; they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards , opted for collective salary negotiations , and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season . The cast members also became best friends off @-@ screen , and guest star Tom Selleck reported sometimes feeling left out .
The cast remained good friends after the series run , most notably Cox and Aniston , with Aniston being godmother to Cox and David Arquette 's daughter , Coco . In the official farewell commemorative book Friends ' Til the End , each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
The first season introduces the six main characters : Rachel , Monica , Phoebe , Joey , Chandler , and Ross . Rachel arrives at Central Perk after running away from her wedding to her fiancé Barry and moves into an apartment with her friend Monica from high school . Ross , who has had a crush on Rachel since the two of them were in high school , constantly attempts to tell her how he feels about her . However , many obstacles stand in his way , such as the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex @-@ wife , Carol . Joey is shown to be a bachelor and struggling actor , while Phoebe works as a masseuse and portrays a sort of " crazy " attribute to her personality based on her troubles as a child after her mother committed suicide . However the rest of the group loves her regardless . Chandler breaks up with girlfriend Janice ( Maggie Wheeler ) , who frequently returns in later seasons . At the end of the season , Chandler accidentally reveals that Ross loves Rachel , who realizes that she feels the same way . The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross ’ arrival from a trip .
= = = Season 2 = = =
The second season begins with Rachel waiting at the gate for Ross to declare her love for him . However , she discovers that he is dating Julie ( Lauren Tom ) , someone he knew from graduate school . Rachel 's attempts to tell Ross she likes him mirror his failed attempts in the first season , although the characters eventually begin a relationship . Joey gets cast in a part in a fictional version of the soap opera Days of Our Lives , but his character is killed off after conflicts with the show 's writers , claiming that he writes many of his own lines . Chandler gets back with Janice , his ex @-@ girlfriend from season one . Monica begins dating Richard ( Tom Selleck ) , a recently divorced family friend and 21 years her senior . In the season finale , they end their relationship when they realize that unlike Monica , Richard does not want children .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Season three takes on a significantly greater serialized format . Rachel begins working at Bloomingdale 's , an upscale department store chain , and Ross becomes jealous of her colleague , Mark . Rachel decides to take a break ; and Ross , hurt and drunk , sleeps with someone else , causing Rachel to break up with him . In the meantime , Chandler has a hard time dealing with their breakup because it reminds him of his parents ' divorce . After believing she has no family except her twin sister Ursula ( Lisa Kudrow ) , Phoebe becomes acquainted with her half @-@ brother ( Giovanni Ribisi ) and birth mother ( Teri Garr ) . Joey develops a relationship with his acting partner Kate ( Dina Meyer ) , and Monica begins a relationship with millionaire Pete Becker ( Jon Favreau ) which ends because of disagreements between the two .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the fourth season premiere , Ross and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him , but continues to insist that the two were on a break so they break up again . Joey dates Kathy ( Paget Brewster ) , a girl that Chandler has a crush on . Kathy and Chandler later kiss , which causes drama between Chandler and Joey . Joey forgives Chandler only after he spends a day in a box as punishment . Phoebe becomes a surrogate mother for her brother and his wife Alice ( Debra Jo Rupp ) . Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game , but manage to switch back by bribing them with Knicks season tickets and a one @-@ minute kiss ( off @-@ screen ) between the girls . Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) , and the season finale features their wedding in London . Chandler and Monica sleep together , and Rachel decides to attend Ross and Emily 's wedding . While saying his vows , Ross uses the wrong name at the altar ( Rachel 's ) , to the shock of his bride and the guests .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Season five features Monica and Chandler trying to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends . Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show 's 100th episode . She gives birth to a boy , Frank Jr . Jr . , and two girls : Leslie and Chandler . ( They had originally thought that there were two boys and one girl , but decided to keep the name Chandler , despite the baby turning out a girl . ) Emily states that the only condition in which she would remain married to Ross is if he stops all communication with Rachel . Ross agrees , but during a last dinner with all six main characters together , Emily phones Ross and , upon discovering Rachel is there , realizes she does not trust him , which ends the marriage . Phoebe begins a relationship with a police officer , Gary ( Michael Rapaport ) , after finding his badge and using it as her own . Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship , to the surprise and happiness of their friends . They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas , but change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumble out of the wedding chapel .
= = = Season 6 = = =
In the sixth season premiere , Ross and Rachel 's marriage is established to be a drunken mistake . Ross and Rachel try to get an annulment because he doesn 't want to have three divorces . However , he realized he couldn 't do so and tried to keep their wedding a secret from Rachel . Nonetheless , they divorce several episodes later . Monica and Chandler move in together , causing Rachel to move in with Phoebe . Joey lands a role on a cable television series called Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E. , where he stars alongside a robot . Ross gets a job lecturing at New York University and starts dating one of his students , Elizabeth ( Alexandra Holden ) . The relationship ends because of their maturity differences . Phoebe and Rachel 's apartment catches fire , and Rachel moves in with Joey , while Phoebe moves in with Chandler and Monica . Chandler proposes to Monica , who says yes even though her ex @-@ boyfriend Richard confesses his love for her .
= = = Season 7 = = =
The seventh season mainly follows the various antics by Monica and Chandler , who begin to plan their wedding and run into financial problems which are quickly fixed by Chandler ’ s secret funds . Joey 's television series Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E is cancelled , but he is offered his job back on Days of Our Lives . Phoebe 's apartment is fixed , but is rebuilt with only one large bedroom instead of the original two , so Rachel decides to stay with Joey . The season ends during Monica and Chandler ’ s wedding where Phoebe and Rachel find a positive pregnancy test in the bathroom .
= = = Season 8 = = =
In the eighth season , it is revealed that the positive pregnancy test found at Monica 's wedding belongs to Rachel . Phoebe at first tricks Rachel and tells her that the pregnancy test is negative , in order to achieve Rachel 's real emotions on the realization of being pregnant . Rachel projects feelings of sadness when she thinks she 's not pregnant , so Phoebe tells her the truth . The three of them rejoice in the bathroom . The season revolves around Rachel 's pregnancy ; Ross is revealed to be the father after an investigation involving a red sweater . Rachel and Ross decide to have the baby but do not resume their romantic relationship . Joey develops romantic feelings for Rachel , but she does not reciprocate them . Rachel gives birth to baby Emma in the season finale . At the hospital , Ross 's mother offers him an engagement ring because she wants him to marry Rachel . Ross does not intend to ask Rachel to marry him , but he takes the ring anyway and puts it in his jacket pocket . Meanwhile , in the post @-@ delivery room , Joey looks for some tissue for an upset Rachel , picks up Ross 's jacket , and the ring falls to the floor . He kneels to pick it up and turns to Rachel , still on his knees and still holding the ring . Rachel accepts what she thinks is his proposal of marriage .
= = = Season 9 = = =
Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel living together as roommates with their daughter Emma . Monica and Chandler try to conceive a baby of their own but find out that they are unable to , due to health restrictions . Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan ( Paul Rudd ) , and chooses to be with him over her ex @-@ boyfriend David ( Hank Azaria ) . Rachel and Emma move in with Joey in the middle of the season , and Rachel develops romantic feelings for him , while the rest of the " friends " try hard to get Ross and Rachel back together . The group travels to Barbados in the finale to hear Ross give a keynote speech at a paleontology conference . Joey and his girlfriend Charlie ( Aisha Tyler ) break up , and she begins a relationship with Ross . Joey and Rachel 's feelings for each other return , and the finale ends with them kissing .
= = = Season 10 = = =
The tenth season closes several long @-@ running storylines . Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex @-@ boyfriend . Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross ' feelings about them being together and decide it would be best to remain friends . Phoebe and Mike get married mid @-@ season outside the Central Perk coffee house . Monica and Chandler apply to adopt a child and are chosen by Erica ( Anna Faris ) . In the series finale , Erica gives birth to twins , to the surprise of Monica and Chandler — a boy , Jack ( after Monica 's father ) , and a girl , Erica ( named after the birth mother ) . Monica and Chandler prepare to move to the suburbs , and Joey becomes upset with the changes in his life . Rachel gets fired from her job and accepts a new offer in Paris , but Ross , realizing he loves her , chases after her . Rachel realizes she loves him , too , and cancels her flight to Paris , agreeing to stay with him . The series ends with all the friends plus Monica and Chandler 's new babies leaving the apartment , heading to Central Perk for a final cup of coffee . The finale dialogue used in this series is by Chandler , making a joke for the last time . The camera 's last view is of all of the character 's keys to the apartment on the counter table , finishing with a shot of the apartment door .
= = Broadcast history = =
Thursday at 8 : 30 – 9 : 00 pm on NBC : September 22 , 1994 – February 23 , 1995
Thursday at 9 : 30 – 10 : 00 pm on NBC : February 23 – May 18 , 1995
Thursday at 8 : 00 – 8 : 30 pm on NBC : September 21 , 1995 – May 6 , 2004
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
David Crane and Marta Kauffman began developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcom Family Album was cancelled by CBS in 1993 . Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about " six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan " to NBC , since they thought it would fit best there . Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partner Kevin Bright , who had served as executive producer on their HBO series Dream On . The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York ; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was " more of a question mark . " They found the concept to be interesting , as they believed " everybody knows that feeling " , and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time . The team titled the series Insomnia Cafe , and pitched the idea as a seven @-@ page treatment to NBC in December 1993 .
At the same time , Warren Littlefield , the then @-@ president of NBC Entertainment , was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses . Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends , who had become " new , surrogate family members . " However , Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life , and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible . When Kauffman , Crane and Bright pitched Insomnia Cafe , Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were . NBC bought the idea as a put pilot , meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed . Kauffman and Crane began writing a pilot script for a show now titled Friends Like Us , which took three days to write . Littlefield wanted the series to represent Generation X and explore a new kind of tribal bonding , but the trio did not share his vision . Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation , and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching . NBC liked the pilot script and ordered the series under another title , Six of One , mainly due to the similar title it shared with the ABC sitcom These Friends of Mine .
= = = Casting = = =
Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC , Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town , wanting their client to be a part of the series . Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles . The casting director shortlisted 1 @,@ 000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75 . Those who received a callback read again in front of Crane , Kauffman and Bright . At the end of March , the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part , and were asked to read for Les Moonves , then @-@ president of Warner Bros. Television .
Having worked with David Schwimmer in the past , the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind , and he was the first actor cast . Cox wanted to play the role of Monica , but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her " cheery , upbeat energy " , which was not how they envisioned Monica ; after Cox 's audition , though , Kauffman agreed with Cox , and she got the role . When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey , he put a " different spin " on the character . The writers did not originally intend for Joey to be dim , but found it to be a major source of comedy . LeBlanc also gave the character heart , which the writers did not realize Joey had . Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time , they were told by the network to cast him . Jennifer Aniston , Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions .
More changes occurred to the series ' storylines during the casting process . The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors , and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season . Kauffman acknowledged that Joey 's character became " this whole new being " , and that " it wasn 't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica 's neuroses are . "
= = = Writing = = =
In the weeks after NBC 's pick up of Friends , Crane , Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent @-@ in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series , mainly unproduced Seinfeld episodes . Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because " When you 're 40 , you can 't do it anymore . The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college . " The creators felt that using six equal characters , rather than emphasizing one or two , would allow for " myriad storylines and give the show legs . " The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers , although the actors added ideas . The writers originally planned a big love story between Joey and Monica , as they intended them to be the most sexual of the characters in the series pitch . The idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script .
During production of the pilot , NBC requested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones , but the writers refused , wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight . NBC thought the cast was too young and pushed for an older character who could give the young adults advice . Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured " Pat the Cop . " Crane found the storyline to be terrible , and Kauffman joked , " You know the kids book , Pat the Bunny ? We had Pat the Cop . " NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea .
Each summer ( June , July , and August in the US ) , the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season . Before an episode went into production , Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer , mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign . Unlike other storylines , the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season . The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon , and while looking for a romantic impediment , a writer suggested Joey 's romantic interest in Rachel . The storyline was incorporated into the season ; however , when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable , the storyline was wrapped up , until it again resurfaced in the season 's finale . For the ninth season , the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel 's baby , as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none . Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season , which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season . Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season , even if all the cast members had wanted to continue .
The episode title format — " The One ... " — was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits , and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience . Episode titles officially begin with " The One ... " except the title of the pilot episode and the series finale " The Last One . "
= = = Filming = = =
The first season was shot on Stage 5 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner , but eventually consented to the coffee house concept . The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at the Warner Bros. Ranch at 4 : 00 am , while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning . At the beginning of the second season , production moved to the larger Stage 24 , which was renamed " The Friends Stage " after the series finale . Filming for the series began during the summer ( June , July , and August in the US ) of 1994 in front of a live audience , who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters ; a hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes . Each 22 @-@ minute episode took six hours to film — twice the length of most sitcom tapings — mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script .
Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location , Friends was never shot in New York . Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny , even when shooting on the lot outside , and that the live audience was an integral part of the series . When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York , with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments , Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras , lighting , and " for the audience to be able to see what 's going on " ; the apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the funny scripts . The fourth season finale was shot on location in London because the producers were aware of the series ' popularity in the UK . The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people . These were the show 's largest audiences throughout its run . The fifth season finale , set in Las Vegas , was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios , although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location .
= = Series finale = =
The series ' creators completed the first draft of the hour @-@ long finale in January 2004 , four months before its original airing . Crane , Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode 's outline , paying attention to what worked and what did not . They liked the ones that stayed true to the series , citing the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show as the gold standard . Crane , Kauffman , and Bright had difficulty writing the finale , and spent several days thinking about the final scene without being able to write a word . They did not want to do " something high concept , or take the show out of the show . " The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience , and with a minimum number of crew members . The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly :
It 's exactly what I had hoped . We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters .
NBC heavily promoted the series finale , which was preceded by weeks of media hype . Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S. , including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen . The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC , a weekly television newsmagazine , one of which ran for two hours . A one @-@ hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before to the airing of the episode . Following the finale , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk coffee house , which featured the series ' cast as guests . The advertising rates for the finale averaged $ 2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time , breaking the record held by the Seinfeld finale at $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
In the U.S. , 52 @.@ 5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6 , 2004 , making it the most watched entertainment telecast since the Seinfeld finale in 1998 . Although it was not the series ' most watched episode , the finale was the fourth most watched series finale in television history , only behind the finales of M * A * S * H , Cheers and Seinfeld , which were respectively watched by 105 , 80 @.@ 4 and 76 @.@ 2 million viewers . The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers , and the finale was the second most watched television broadcast of the year , only behind the Super Bowl . Following the finales of Friends and Frasier , media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre . Expressed opinions varied between a signaling of the end of the sitcom genre , a small decline in the large history of the genre , and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Early reviews of the series were mixed and it holds a Metacritic score of 59 out of 100 , based on 20 sampled reviews , indicating " mixed to average reviews . " Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer wrote that the series traded " vaguely and less successfully on the hanging @-@ out style of Seinfeld " , while Ann Hodges of the Houston Chronicle called it " the new Seinfeld wannabe , but it will never be as funny as Seinfeld . " In the Los Angeles Daily News , Ray Richmond named the series as " one of the brighter comedies of the new season " , and The Los Angeles Times called it " flat @-@ out the best comedy series of the new season . "
Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel 's characteristics to be underdeveloped , while Richmond commended the cast as a " likeable , youth ensemble "
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states unequivocally that " he gives his life for her " . Elements of Rose 's characterisation in the first series were originally different . Paul Abbott was scheduled to write an episode which would have revealed that Rose 's entire life had been manipulated by the Doctor in order to mould her into an ideal companion . Davies wrote the episode " Boom Town " to replace it when Abbott realised he was too busy to work on the script .
= = = With the Tenth Doctor = = =
In an interview with SFX producer Phil Collinson stated that after the Doctor regenerates the " initial dynamic changes because [ Rose ] has to learn to trust him again " . Piper added that as the Doctor is incapacitated Rose consequently feels " unloved " , " isolated " and " like she 's lost her best friend " . In the Doctor 's absence Rose relies on her observations of him and tries to mimic his actions . Collinson felt it was important to resolve any mistrust between the pair by the end of the Christmas Special , as the public had responded well to Rose and the Doctor 's friendship previously . Davies had scripted dialogue in " The Christmas Invasion " explaining the newly regenerated Doctor 's estuary English accent by stating he had imprinted on Rose and adopted her way of speaking . However , due to time constraints this sequence was not filmed . Discussing how Rose had developed by the second series , Piper described her as having " come on in leaps and bounds " and stated she is now " a lot more proactive . " She felt that there is a " different kind of energy " between Rose and the Tenth Doctor , whilst Tennant remarked that the audience would get to see the Doctor @-@ companion relationship " developing and becoming something that it maybe hasn 't before . " Piper stated that with the Tenth Doctor , Rose is " more tetchy and more possessive " over him as " she feels like she 's lost him once and doesn 't want to lose him again " . She cited Rose 's " catfight " with former companion Sarah Jane Smith in " School Reunion " as evidence of this . Discussing the possibility of Rose and the Tenth Doctor becoming more romantically involved Piper stated " You want it to happen , but at the same time you don 't want it to happen " . Tennant likened the dynamic between the pair to that of Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) in The X @-@ Files . Both Tennant and Piper agreed that the expectation of the relationship is more exciting than having it realised . To add to the tragedy of their separation , Davies scripted the series two story arc so that Rose and the Doctor would be indirectly responsible for their separation . " It 's deliberate when that happens [ the Doctor and Rose 's arrogance ] " , said Davies , " and they do pay the price . In " Tooth and Claw " , they set up the very thing — Torchwood — that separates them in the end . It 's sort of their own fault . " Though Davies left the Doctor 's response to Rose 's declaration of love in " Doomsday " unstated , Gardner felt strongly that the character reciprocated her feelings . On the commentary for the episode she stated that she would " confirm to the world " that he was going to " say it back . "
Davies created the expectation of Rose 's return in the fourth series by mentioning her in dialogue and featuring Piper in cameo appearances in " Partners in Crime " , " The Poison Sky " , and " Midnight " . Speaking on how Rose 's character had changed between her appearances , Davies described the fourth series Rose as " tougher , more independent , and [ she ] might , at times , seem a little harder " . Piper stated she rewatched her earlier episodes to remember how the character spoke and acted as she felt she had " been playing posh birds " since she left the programme and by contrast " Rose is a bit of a chav " . Rose is re @-@ united with the Doctor near the climax of " The Stolen Earth " . Director Graeme Harper insisted that the scene appear " mystical " because the characters ' reunion was " the most magical moment " in the entire episode and Ernie Vincze , the Director of Photography for the show , compared the scene 's feeling to the 1980s science @-@ fiction film Blade Runner . Davies characterised the reunion between Rose and the Doctor as " the biggest romance [ the viewer ] has ever seen " and joked that seminal films such as Gone with the Wind should have ended with a Dalek shooting the male lead . He had difficulty splitting up the characters for a second time for the necessity of the plot . He felt that " Rose has to be stupid to fall in love with Doctor # 2 " because " she 's doing what the plot demands , not what she 'd demand " . At one stage he considered giving an explanation that Rose 's dimension hopping and the Dalek 's meddling with reality had contaminated her with " voidstuff " and that she would die if she stayed in her original universe . In the final episode it is enough for her to stay that the human Doctor needs her and is able to reciprocate her love . Porter felt that the climax of " Journey 's End " indicated that " Rose 's role as a sidekick has been completed " as she has a second Doctor to humanise , one who she can be equals with .
= = = Reprisals = = =
Piper 's 2010 appearance in The End of Time , Tennant 's final story as a series regular , was leaked by the press in May 2009 when Piper was seen photographed on location with Coduri and Tennant . Though Davies had intended the serial to end with the Tenth Doctor visiting his former companions , he struggled with how to include Rose . An initial idea was for Rose to appear with her part @-@ human Doctor in the parallel universe , where both would sense the original Tenth Doctor regenerating . However , Davies felt this would raise too many questions about their lives in the parallel universe . Davies ' successor as executive producer , Steven Moffat , felt that Davies ended Rose 's story in the perfect way by choosing to take it back to the beginning of her acquaintance with the Doctor . Piper 's return for Doctor Who 's 50th anniversary episode was confirmed in March 2013 . Moffat wished to include Piper in the episode because he felt that she symbolised the rebirth of Doctor Who . As he did not feel comfortable adding to Davies ' story arc , he chose instead to re @-@ introduce her Bad Wolf persona . During the episode Piper 's character has dialogue solely with John Hurt 's War Doctor , and is unseen by the other characters , including the Tenth Doctor . Reviewers noted similarities between the characterisation of Bad Wolf Rose and that of a plot device used by Charles Dickens in his 1843 novella A Christmas Carol . Ted B. Kissell , a journalist for The Atlantic likened the War Doctor to Ebenezer Scrooge and dubbed Rose the " Ghost of Doctors Yet to Come " .
= = Reception = =
After a preview of the first series , The Guardian 's Owen Gibson described Rose as " newly empowered " and a " go @-@ getting teen in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer mould . " Ahead of the series premiere on Australian Network ABC the Sydney Morning Herald 's Robin Oliver described Rose 's role in the series as being " more the Doctor 's equal than previous companions " and that this was " no mean achievement against Eccleston 's acting skills . " Seventh Doctor actor Sylvester McCoy opined that Piper was " wonderful in the role " and the relationship between her and the Doctor was " quite extraordinary " . Porter suggests in her analysis of Rose that the romance between her and the Doctor widened the demographic appeal of the series . She claims that the love story " simmers enough below the surface that adults , especially women who find time @-@ lords sexy , watched the series for Rose 's interplay with the Doctor " . In their book Who is the Doctor ? , Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described the climactic kiss between the Ninth Doctor and Rose in " The Parting of the Ways " as being something " we all secretly wanted , even though it ultimately killed him " . Peter Davison , who portrayed the Fifth Doctor , also felt that allowing the Doctor and his companion to have sexual tension ultimately allowed for more rounded characterization . He believed that Rose was the first example of the production team creating a well written companion .
Burk and Smith found the pairing of the Doctor and Rose to be unlikeable in the episode " Tooth and Claw " because they were " acting like smug idiots " . However they noted that " fortunately there are consequences : the season arc gets kicked off as a direct result of the Doctor and Rose being so irritating " . Harry Venning of The Stage commented that the eventual parting scene between Rose and the Doctor in " Doomsday " was " beautifully written and movingly played , " with " not a dry eye in the universe " . Burk and Smith singled out Piper 's performance in the episode for special praise stating she " is astonishing at capturing the reality of someone whose world suddenly , finally collapses . " Remarking on Piper 's departure , Dek Hogan of Digital Spy stated that " Billie Piper ’ s energy has undoubtedly been one of the reasons that this revival has been so successful and the difficult third series will be so much more so without her . " Stephen Brook of The Guardian commented that " the departure of the much @-@ loved Rose ... was brilliantly handled and completely unexpected . "
Stephen James Walker , a writer of reference works on Doctor Who , gave an unfavourable review to Rose 's return in " Turn Left " in his " unauthorised guide to Doctor Who 's fourth series , " Monsters Within . He thought that Billie Piper was " distinctly below par " , citing her gaunt and malnourished appearance , new hairstyle , and slight lisp as reasons why her acting was not her finest . He criticised her role in the episode , stating it had been " far less well worked out " than Donna 's . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy also noted a change in Piper 's enunciation ; he compared her accent to " [ having ] her mouth numbed with local anaesthetic " . In Rawson @-@ Jones ' review of the series finalé he notes that whilst having the Doctor and Rose ' cop off ' would be divisive with the shows audience , " Davies wisely managed to please both parties " by pairing her off with a human Doctor instead . However , IGN 's Travis Fickett reacted unfavourably towards Rose 's return and her pairing with the part human Doctor . He thought that it undermined her " perfect send off " in " Doomsday " as she was on the sidelines for much of " Journey 's End " , and her ending up with the part human , part Time Lord Doctor " feels like an insult to the character " . Io9 's Charlie Jane Anders also reacted unfavorably to Rose returning and wrote " it was pretty clear that she was only there so she could get her pet faux @-@ Doctor at the end . " Reviewers generally reacted positively to Piper 's 2013 appearance in 50th anniversary episode " The Day of the Doctor " . Ben Lawrence of The Daily Telegraph called her performance as the " Bad Wolf " Rose " transfixing " . Neela Debnath of The Independent praised the chemistry between Hurt and Piper and compared Piper 's performance to Suranne Jones ' portrayal of the TARDIS in " The Doctor 's Wife " describing it as " slightly eccentric " , " oddball " and " off @-@ the @-@ wall " . Daniel Martin of the Guardian praised Steven Moffat 's decision not to extend Rose Tyler 's story or re @-@ unite her with the Tenth Doctor . He called Piper " a true and unending legend of Doctor Who " and stated that " her wise rendition of the Bad Wolf avatar made a passable stab at the stealing of the show " .
Geoff Boucher of the Los Angeles Times named Rose the ninth best sidekick of all time , referring to her as " the saucy and smart character who was key to the success of the Russell T Davies relaunch of Doctor Who in 2005 " . She was named the best Doctor Who companion by Digital Spy in 2011 , who opined that she worked best alongside the Ninth Doctor . In 2006 she was voted best companion by readers of Doctor Who Magazine . In an online poll in late 2010 conducted by the Radio Times , with over 3 @,@ 000 participants , Rose was again voted the most popular companion . She retained this position in a 2013 poll conducted ahead of Doctor Who 's 50th anniversary , which had over 21 @,@ 000 respondents , with 25 @.@ 09 % of the vote . In a 2012 poll conducted by BBC America with over 200 @,@ 000 participants , Rose was voted " The Greatest Woman of Doctor Who . " Both The Daily Telegraph 's Gavin Fuller and Daniel Martin of The Guardian rated her as the second @-@ best female companion behind Sarah Jane Smith . In 2012 Will Salmon of SFX magazine listed Rose 's original exit as the greatest companion departure in the history of Doctor Who as he felt it " impossible not to be moved by the sudden severance of their relationship " . In 2014 Radio Times organized the most massive online ( over 2 million respondents ) poll which featured every companion since 1963 , beating the main сompetitors Jack Harkness and River Song , Rose was crowned " Companion Champion " .
At the 2005 National Television Awards , Billie Piper won the " Most Popular Actress " award for her role as Rose . In the BBC Online " Best of Drama " poll in 2005 Piper won the Best Actress category with 59 @.@ 76 % of the vote . She was also voted the Most Desirable Star with 26 @.@ 47 % . In January 2006 she was awarded the Breakthrough Award for Rising British Talent at The South Bank Show Awards . Piper again won the Most Popular Actress category at the 2006 National Television Awards for her work on the second series of Doctor Who . In September 2006 , Piper was named Best Actress at the TV Quick and TV Choice Awards . Radio Times 's Tom Cole discussed the importance of Doctor Who in boosting Piper 's career in an article on how former Doctor Who actors can now expect more than " a life of signing autographs at provincial sci @-@ fi conventions . " He notes that Piper 's portrayal of Rose " firmly cemented her credentials as an actress " and cited the variety of roles she had taken on since leaving the show as proof that " as far as post @-@ Who careers go , they don 't get much healthier than Billie 's . "
= Illinois Freedom Bell =
The Illinois Freedom Bell is located in Mount Morris , Illinois , United States , and is the official freedom bell of the U.S. state of Illinois . The bell was created for a church in Lake Geneva , Wisconsin as a replica of the Liberty Bell in 1862 . In 1910 , while it was being moved across the frozen Geneva Lake following a fire at the church , the ice cracked and the bell sank to the bottom of the lake . It was salvaged in 1960 and the village of Mount Morris acquired it in 1966 . The Illinois Freedom Bell is rung during the annual Let Freedom Ring festival , and it can be found beneath a gazebo on the village square . The bell has been credited with starting an Independence Day bell @-@ ringing tradition across the United States . The bell was designated the official Illinois Freedom Bell in 1971 .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The Illinois Freedom Bell is located in Mount Morris , Illinois , and was cast as a replica of the Liberty Bell in 1862 . Following its casting , the bell was transported to Lake Geneva , Wisconsin , where it was kept in the belfry of a church along the north shore of Geneva Lake . In 1910 , the church was destroyed by a fire ; the bell fell during the fire but was undamaged ; following the fire , the bell was put into storage . The church members then decided to reconstruct the church on the south side of the lake . During the winter , as a group of men attempted to drag the bell across the frozen lake , the weight of the bell cracked the ice and it sank to the bottom .
The bell remained submerged for over 40 years before a wealthy resident of Lake Geneva decided to surface the bell in 1960 . The resident located the bell , and surfaced it with great difficulty , intent on making the future Illinois Freedom Bell the focal point of his new home . After the bell was salvaged he decided it did not suit his purposes . A young farmer from Johnsburg purchased the bell , and it was again kept in storage .
In 1966 , an article was published about the bell 's submersion and resurfacing at Geneva Lake . The article interested the people of Mount Morris , Illinois , and they sent 12 members of their Fourth of July Committee to investigate the bell in Johnsburg . The people of Mount Morris decided to purchase the bell ; a committee was formed and obtained a loan from the Mount Morris VFW . The group also collected donations from local residents to purchase the bell for US $ 500 . By July 4 , 1966 , the Illinois Freedom Bell hung from the gazebo in its current location , and the two writers who first suggested bell ringing as an annual Independence Day ceremony , Eric Hatch and Eric Sloane were on hand for its dedication .
Five years later , in 1971 , the bell was designated the Official Freedom Bell of the State of Illinois by Illinois Governor Richard B. Ogilvie . A plaque was added to the tower on July 4 , 1972 with an inscription from Governor Ogilvie that reads :
= = = Festival = = =
On February 17 , 1963 , an issue of This Week contained an article , " Make Freedom Really Ring " , written by two Connecticut writers , Eric Hatch and Eric Sloane . In the article , they suggested that every July 4 , all bells in the country ring for four minutes , and radio stations broadcast the ringing for two minutes . Readers across the country took the advice of the magazine 's editor , and contacted local officials in support of a nationwide bell @-@ ringing observance . Concurrently , a resolution was proposed in Congress by Connecticut Senator Abraham Ribicoff that called for the ringing of bells nationwide at 2 p.m every July 4 . Eastern Daylight Time . The bill passed both the Senate and House of Representatives later that year .
Meanwhile , the village of Mount Morris had already decided to hold their own bell @-@ ringing during the village 's annual Independence Day festival , the " Let Freedom Ring " . Subsequently , on April 30 , 1963 , Illinois native and rising Republican political star Ronald Reagan visited Mount Morris to dedicate the first Mount Morris freedom bell , which now hangs at the Veterans ' Memorial Fountain . The first freedom bell was a small 16 inch ( 40 @.@ 6 cm ) bell . Later , as U.S. President in 1984 , Reagan was presented with a replica of the official Illinois Freedom Bell in the Oval Office by U
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amos . In the late 840s , he was also engaged in warfare against a neighbouring Armenian lord named Skleros , whom he finally vanquished after a protracted and bloody conflict .
In the 850s , ʿUmar is recorded as having defeated an expedition led by the Byzantine emperor Michael III ( r . 842 – 867 ) against Samosata , and to have carried out a number of successful raids into Byzantium . One of them swept through the themes of Thrakesion and Opsikion and reached up to the great Byzantine army base of Malagina in Bithynia . He was unable , however , to stop a retaliatory expedition launched in 856 by Petronas against Melitene and Tephrike , which raided all the way to Amida , taking many prisoners before returning home .
In 860 , along with Karbeas , ʿUmar launched a major raid into Anatolia which reached the Black Sea port of Sinope , returning with over 12 @,@ 000 head of captured livestock . Three years later , he was part of a major Abbasid force that invaded Anatolia through the Cilician Gates . After splitting off from the main force and repulsing a Byzantine army under Emperor Michael III at Mardj al @-@ Usquf ( " Bishop 's Meadow " ) in Cappadocia , ʿUmar with his men headed north to sack the port city of Amisos . On his return , however , he was encircled by the Byzantines and killed at the Battle of Lalakaon on September 3 , 863 . Only a splinter of his army escaped under his son , but was then defeated and captured by the commander of the Charsianon district . According to al @-@ Tabari , when the news of ʿUmar 's death , along with that of another celebrated leader , Ali ibn Yahya al @-@ Armani , arrived in Iraq , they provoked riots among the populace of Baghdad , Samarra , and other cities , angry at the Abbasid government 's perceived incompetence .
Indeed , ʿUmar 's death marked the end of Malatya as a military threat to Byzantium , although the city itself would remain in Muslim hands for 70 more years . ʿUmar himself was succeeded by his son , Abu Abdallah , and grandson , Abu Hafs , who was forced to surrender the city to the Byzantine general John Kourkouas in 934 .
= = Cultural legacy = =
Like many other protagonists of the Arab – Byzantine Wars , ʿUmar figures in both Arab and Byzantine legend . In the Arab epic romance " Tale of Delhemma and al @-@ Battal " ( Sīrat Ḏāt al @-@ Himma wa @-@ l @-@ Baṭṭāl ) , he is a major figure , although his role has been diminished and he is often cast as almost a villain , due to the tale 's bias in favour of the Banu Sulaym 's rivals , the Banu Kilab , who furnish most of the heroic characters . Traditions about ʿUmar seem also to have influenced the story cycle around ‘ Umar ibn al @-@ Numan and his sons which became included in the One Thousand and One Nights , while ʿUmar himself features in later Turkish epic literature centred around the heroic figure of Battal Ghazi ( inspired by the real @-@ life Umayyad general Abdallah al @-@ Battal ) , who is also one of the main heroes of the Delhemma .
In Byzantine literature , ʿUmar is regarded as the probable prototype for the emir Ambron , the grandfather of the eponymous hero in the epic poem Digenes Akritas , while the Greek scholar G. Veloudis suggested him as the origin of the eponymous hero of the Song of Armouris . The German scholar Hans @-@ Georg Beck finds this identification unlikely , but points out to the reference to a " short @-@ armed " Arab leader in the same tale , which may reflect a folk tradition based on ʿUmar . Finally , the 10th @-@ century scholar al @-@ Mas 'udi reports ( The Meadows of Gold , VIII , 74 – 75 ) that ʿUmar was among the " illustrious Muslims " whose portraits were displayed in Byzantine churches in recognition of their valour .
= Liber Eliensis =
The Liber Eliensis ( sometimes Historia Eliensis or Book of Ely ) is a 12th @-@ century English chronicle and history , written in Latin . Composed in three books , it was written at Ely Abbey on the island of Ely in the fenlands of eastern Cambridgeshire . Ely Abbey became the cathedral of a newly formed bishopric in 1109 . Traditionally the author of the anonymous work has been given as Richard or Thomas , two monks at Ely , one of whom , Richard , has been identified with an official of the monastery , but some historians hold that neither Richard nor Thomas was the author .
The Liber covers the period from the founding of the abbey in 673 until the middle of the 12th century , building on earlier historical works . It incorporates documents and stories of saints ' lives . The work typifies a type of local history produced during the latter part of the 12th century . Similar books were written at other English monasteries . The longest of the contemporary local histories , the Liber chronicles the devastation that the Anarchy caused during the reign of King Stephen . It also documents the career of Nigel , the Bishop of Ely from 1133 to 1169 , and his disputes with King Stephen . Other themes include the miracles worked by the monastery 's patron saint , Æthelthryth , and gifts of land to Ely .
Two complete manuscripts survive , complemented by partial manuscripts . The Latin text was published in 1962 , and an English translation followed in 2005 . Extracts had appeared in print earlier .
The Liber Eliensis provides an important history of the region and period it covers , and particularly for the abbey and bishopric of Ely .
= = Background and authorship = =
The Liber Eliensis was written at Ely Abbey , which became Ely Cathedral upon conversion into a bishopric in 1109 . The historian Elisabeth van Houts believes that it was written in two stages : first under Bishop Hervey le Breton , in office from 1109 to 1133 ; and continued under Bishop Geoffrey Ridel , who served from 1173 to 1189 . For van Houts , the first stage was the translation of an Old English work into Latin , commissioned by Bishop Hervey . The rest of the work , van Houts argues , was composed in the 1170s . However , E. O. Blake , who edited the first Latin printing of the work , concludes that the Liber was probably composed in three parts , based on its contents ; the first book of the Liber was begun after 1131 , when one of the sources used in the Liber was completed . The second has a preface apologising for the delay in its completion , and could not have been started before 1154 , as it records events from that year . The third and final book was completed between 1169 , when Bishop Nigel died and whose death is mentioned in the book , and 1174 , when a new bishop was appointed . As there is no mention of Nigel 's replacement , Blake states that this suggests that book three was finished before the new bishop took office .
Traditionally the work was ascribed to either Thomas or Richard , two monks of Ely mentioned in the text . The historian Antonia Gransden is inclined to believe that the work is by Richard , who is usually identified with the Richard who was recorded as sub @-@ prior and prior of Ely , holding the latter office from 1177 until some time between 1189 and 1194 . Blake thinks that Richard was the author , but he considers the evidence to be inconclusive . Janet Fairweather , a classicist and a recent translator of the Liber , suggests that it may have been written by someone other than the traditional candidates . Whoever the author , the Liber specifically states that it was written at the bidding of some members of the monastic community at Ely .
The Liber is one of a number of monastic histories written during the middle and later 12th century , when a number of monasteries in northern and southern England produced works devoted to recording the histories of their religious houses and local areas . In the south , these included the Historia Ecclesie Abbendonensis of Abingdon Abbey , the Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis of Ramsey Abbey , the Chronicon Angliae Petriburgense of Peterborough Abbey , a history of the see of Bath and Wells , and the Chronicon Monasterii de Bello of Battle Abbey . The northern histories record the foundation stories of the various Cistercian houses in the north , along with other information relating to those houses . Those from the south , including the Liber Eliensis , mainly concern themselves with the various controversies involving their respective religious houses . The northern histories are less concerned with controversy , and overall are more prone to hagiography .
= = Contents = =
The work is traditionally divided into three books . Along with the history in Book I the first section also contains a prologue and a preface . It discusses the founding of the Abbey of Ely and the background of the foundress , Æthelthryth . The first book also deals with the history of the abbey and its abbesses until the Danish invasions of the 9th century . A description of the destruction of the abbey by the Danes and of King Edgar 's ( reigned 959 – 975 ) rule concludes the book . The second book , Book II , begins with the restoration of the abbey during Edgar 's reign , under Bishop Æthelwold . Accounts of the subsequent abbots until the last , Richard , are included in Book II , as well as numerous charters and other documents . The final book , Book III , contains information on the conversion of the abbey to a bishopric , and on the first few bishops ; it concludes with a description of the martyrdom of Thomas Becket . Interspersed with the historical narrative are a number of documents and charters relating to the bishops .
The work also depicts the devastation that the Anarchy caused during King Stephen 's reign . The chronicler states that failure of the harvest and pillaging caused a famine . The work describes the area around the abbey for 20 – 30 miles ( 32 – 48 kilometres ) as being filled with unburied corpses , and that the price of a bushel of grain rose to 200 pence . The long descriptions of Nigel of Ely 's disputes with King Stephen lead to a discussion of the Battle of Lincoln and other matters not directly related to Ely . The Liber gives a detailed account of Nigel 's career , although in general the chronicle 's author favours Stephen over his own bishop . The ascension of King Henry II to the English throne is considered to be an excellent event , and the Liber praises the new king .
An important part of the work was devoted to the miracles and glorification of Ely 's patroness , Saint Æthelthryth . The very beginning of the work incorporates an earlier Vita , or Life , of Æthelthryth , which resembles the Vitae of other saints written by Goscelin in the 11th century ; Goscelin is known to have visited Ely . The work may have helped to increase the number of pilgrims visiting Ely , as well as enabling the monks to better explain the history of earlier donations to the abbey . Many of the gifts to the abbey church are described , such as the altar cloth donated by Queen Emma ( died 1052 ) , wife of both King Æthelred II ( died 1016 ) and King Cnut ( died 1035 ) , with a short history of the circumstances of the gift . The miracle stories frequently say that those who wished cures or miracles similar to those in the Liber would need to come to the monastery , where they could make a donation . The historian Jennifer Paxton argues that increasing pilgrimage to the monastery was one of the main goals of the compilers of the Liber .
Another concern of the chronicle was the acquisition of land by the abbey . The work incorporates three pre @-@ existing inventories of the abbey 's possessions , and records each gift to the abbey , giving the grantor and occasionally details of the grantor 's life . This detailed record of the various rights and possessions of the abbey was useful if those possessions needed to be defended against outside or inside conflicts . The Liber was used by the monks to defend their claims to be the real heirs of the abbey 's rights and property rather than the bishops , after the conversion of the abbey into a bishopric . The chronicle also records the division of property between the monks and the newly appointed bishop . According to the chronicler , the division took place during the episcopate of the first bishop , Hervey le Breton , and was characterised as barely adequate for the needs of the monks . Later the chronicle records documents from the bishops that defined the separation between the monks and the episcopate . The chronicle also records the conflict between the abbey and various Bishops of Lincoln , which had continued until the abbey became a bishopric in 1109 .
A third theme of the work is the stress on the importance and number of distinguished burials that took place at Ely . They would have increased the desire of others to be buried there , which would have benefited the community by the donations that would have flowed from those wishing to secure their burial . The Liber stresses the burials of Æthelstan , a Bishop of Elmham , that of Ælfwine , another Bishop of Elmham , and Wulfstan II , an Archbishop of York .
= = Influence = =
The Liber was familiar to the 13th @-@ century chronicler Matthew Paris , who used it along with the Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis of Ramsey Abbey in his own historical works . Another 13th @-@ century English writer , Roger of Wendover , was also aware of the Liber .
Some of the information contained in the Liber is important to historians . It is in the Liber that the first statement that Æthelwold translated the Benedictine Rule into Old English is made . The Liber is the longest of the local histories produced in England during the 12th century , and it contains a description of the royal chancery , which might be the earliest evidence for the existence of that office in the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom . The Liber describes how King Edgar ( died 975 ) granted the abbey the office of chancellor ( head of the chancery ) , but the authenticity of the passage is unclear . The existence of a formal chancery office in Anglo @-@ Saxon England before the Norman Conquest is a matter of some debate amongst historians .
The historian Dorothy Whitelock says of the work that it is " unique among post @-@ Conquest monastic histories " . It was written to help buttress the claims of Ely to a judicial liberty , or the exercise of all the royal rights within a hundred . To do this , the Liber collected together earlier sources used to help the abbey evade episcopal control , prior to the abbey becoming a bishopric . These documents may have been forged or had their contents doctored to help the abbey 's cause . Because of the tendentious nature of the collection , the work is used by historians with great caution . Despite the untrustworthy nature of the Liber and the documents preserved therein , it remains a valuable source for the history of the time period it covers , as well as the internal history of the abbey and bishopric . The historian Antonia Gransden characterises the Liber as " valuable for general history " , but qualifies by saying that " the whole lacks unity and has errors and confusing repetitions " .
= = Manuscripts = =
The work survives in two complete manuscripts ( MS ) , that of Trinity College , Cambridge MS O.2.1 , usually known as the E manuscript ; and one in the possession of Ely Cathedral Chapter , usually known as the F manuscript . The E manuscript dates from the late 12th century , and shows three different scribal hands . The F manuscript dates to the early 13th century , with four scribal hands . The E manuscript was given to Trinity College as part of the Gale Collection by Roger Gale in 1738 . The F manuscript has remained at Ely since its creation , and is the only manuscript at Ely still remaining from the medieval monastic library .
As well as the two complete manuscripts , a number of other manuscripts contain parts of the whole work . British Library MS Cotton Titus A.i , usually known as the G manuscript , has part of Book II , and dates from the late 12th or early 13th century . British Library MS Cotton Domitian A.xv , known as the B manuscript , dates from the late 13th or early 14th century and includes some other material along with Book I and the same parts of Book II as in manuscript G. Another Cottonian manuscript , British Library MS Cotton Vespasian A.xix , has parts of Book III , and dates to between 1257 and 1286 . This manuscript is usually known as the A manuscript .
The relationship between the various extant manuscripts is complex , and a definitive scheme of how the various manuscripts relate to each other cannot be made . Blake , in his edition of the Liber , suggests that Book I once existed as a stand @-@ alone work , which influenced the B manuscript . A separate Book II , with parts of Book III , was then written and combined with the stand @-@ alone Book I , into either manuscript E or an earlier version of that manuscript . Book II was then revised , combined with parts of G , Book I , and parts of E to make manuscript F.
Related manuscripts include Bodleian Library Oxford MS Laud 647 , known as the O manuscript . This is based on the Liber , but reorganised into a listing of the acts of the various abbots and bishops and dates from the 14th century . Blake , in his edition of the Liber , calls that and related works the Chronicon Abbatum et Episcoporum Eliensium . Another related work is contained in Trinity College , Cambridge MS O.2.41 , which contains the Libellus of Æthelwold and an Ely cartulary . Two other related works containing just cartularies are British Library Cotton MS Tiberius A vi and Cambridge University Library Ely Diocesan Register Liber M.
= = Publication = =
Liber Eliensis has been published by the Royal Historical Society in its Camden Third Series , edited by E. O. Blake . The edition contains the Latin text along with some Old English texts , but no translation . Janet Fairweather has produced a recent English translation of the Latin , published in 2005 by the Boydell Press .
Formerly , only sections of the Liber had appeared in print , without translations . Parts of the Liber were edited by D. J. Stewart and published by the Anglia Christiana Society
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appearance on the show . According to Nielsen , the episode was watched by 15 @.@ 32 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 7 @.@ 1 rating / 19 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
At the beginning of the episode Jack ( Sean Hayes ) learns he will have an audition to be a backup dancer for singer Janet Jackson . The audition was set up by singer Jennifer Lopez , whom Jack worked for in the same position after Lopez let him go . At the audition , Jackson decides that she would like five dancers instead of the six originally planned . Jack , " the newbie , " and Artemus ( Will Arnett ) , " the guy who 's been here the longest , " compete in a dance @-@ off to determine the fifth dancer . Before the dance @-@ off , Karen ( Megan Mullally ) — Jack 's friend — visits to support her friend . She sees Artemus and reveals to Jack the two are former lovers . The two get back together which outrages Jack . Karen reassures Jack that their reconciliation will not affect him in any way , only for her to tell Jack to lose the dance @-@ off . Jack tells Karen he will not throw the competition . During the dance @-@ off , Karen pleads with Jack to lose which Jack ultimately does . Believing he won , Artemus tells Karen he used her to win . After deciding that she only needs four dancers , Jackson fires both Jack and Artemus . At the end , Karen apologizes to Jack for getting him fired .
Meanwhile , Grace ( Debra Messing ) copes with her failed marriage to Leo ( Harry Connick , Jr . ) . She tries to move on , but mementos of the past do not let her . Her best friend Will ( Eric McCormack ) tries to help her but to no avail . While at dinner with his boyfriend Vince ( Bobby Cannavale ) , and Vince 's superior officer , Grace calls him , displeasing Vince . Believing that Grace might be suicidal , Will leaves to attend to her . Vince shows up at Will and Grace 's apartment to confront her , telling her that she is affecting his relationship with Will because she is too needy . This prompts Grace and Vince to bicker , with the two asking Will to choose between them . He cannot choose between them as Grace is his long @-@ time friend , but he also cares for Vince . The episode concludes with him telling Vince that he wants to work things out , but before they can discuss it , Vince sees Grace 's wedding album , resulting in him being more focused on the album than the relationship .
= = Production = =
" Back Up , Dancer " was written by Tracy Poust and Jon Kinnally and directed by series producer James Burrows . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 23 , 2004 . It was confirmed in mid @-@ 2004 that singer Janet Jackson would guest star as herself on the television series Will & Grace . She recorded her lines in front of a live audience on August 17 . Jackson 's role in the show had been her first television acting role in nearly two decades . Jackson 's last prime @-@ time role was on NBC 's Fame . She also appeared in the television shows Diff 'rent Strokes and Good Times . In addition , Jackson 's appearance came nine months after the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy . She told the entertainment news program Access Hollywood that she was a " big fan " of the show , and that she could not wait to join the cast for her stint . Also in this interview , she believed that Sean Hayes , who plays Jack , was a decent dancer . " I thought he studied dance . I really did , It 's so funny . I have to catch myself because I 'm cracking up in rehearsals . It 's just funny to watch [ the actors ] . " Jackson " had a tough time " on the set because she constantly messed up her lines . She admitted that it was not as easy as she had hoped it would be . " I flubbed my lines and got so frustrated when I made those mistakes . I haven 't done TV since Different Strokes , and it 's not like Saturday Night Live where you can read cue cards . On Will & Grace , they 're always rewriting , so you 're always memorising . " Jackson , however , said that the dancing was the " easy part of playing myself " .
It was also announced that actor Will Arnett would guest star , as Jack 's dance rival . Alex Herschlag , executive producer of Will & Grace , revealed Arnett 's subplot in the episode , saying that Hayes and Arnett are " vying for a job as Janet Jackson 's backup dancer . " In an online chat session with the Los Angeles Times , Arnett revealed that the reason for his guest spot was due to knowing one of the writers of the show , and Arnett being friends with Hayes . In an April 2007 interview with The Advocate , Arnett said that he enjoyed doing his guest spot on the show .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen system , " Back Up , Dancer " was watched by 15 @.@ 32 million households in its original American broadcast . The episode received a 7 @.@ 1 rating / 19 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , and was the eighth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network that week . " Back Up , Dancer " finished in 13th place in the weekly ratings for the week of September 20 – 26 , 2004 . Since airing the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics .
In preview of the episode , Phil Rosenthal of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said : " If you 're going to book a former cast member from Good Times as a guest for your sitcom , do yourself a favor and try getting Jimmie Walker , John Amos or Ja 'net Dubois before settling for Janet Jackson . " Scott D. Pierce of Deseret News reported that Jackson 's appearance " takes the focus off the regular characters " while Mark Harris of Entertainment Weekly commented that Jackson 's guest spot " was an all @-@ time low " .
Gary Susman of Entertainment Weekly was complimentary towards Jackson , concluding that she was " all business , playing it straight " in the episode . He reported that " she makes a fabulous entrance and departs with her dignity intact " . Charleston Daily Mail contributor Kevin McDonough wrote that in the season premiere episode " FYI : I Hurt , Too " of season seven , singer Jennifer Lopez appeared " in a farfetched and laugh @-@ free guest appearance . Tonight [ ' Back Up , Dancer ' ] , it 's Janet Jackson 's turn . At least she has sitcom experience . " In her annual countdown of the best quotes of 2004 , Amy Amatangelo of Knight Ridder included Will Arnett 's line " Like a Sicilian woman 's eyebrows , we could not be kept apart " . In March 2006 , Entertainment Weekly named Jackson 's guest spot as their number nine most memorable guest appearance on Will & Grace .
= St Peter 's Church , Llanbedrgoch =
St Peter 's Church , Llanbedrgoch , is a small medieval parish church near the village of Llanbedrgoch in Anglesey , north Wales . The oldest parts of the building date from the 15th century ; it was extended in the 17th century and restored twice in the 19th century . The doorway is decorated with carvings of two human heads , one wearing a mitre . The church contains a reading desk made from 15th @-@ century bench ends , one carved with a mermaid holding a mirror and comb .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , as of 2013 , and is one of three in a group of parishes . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because of its " substantial medieval fabric " .
= = History and location = =
St Peter 's Church is in a rural location along a narrow lane near the village of Llanbedrgoch in Anglesey , north Wales . The village itself is about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Llangefni , the county town . Built on raised ground inside a churchyard , access to which is through a lychgate , the church is dedicated to St Peter . The village takes its name from the church ; the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ bedr " is a modified form of the saint 's name , " Pedr " in Welsh .
The date of the earliest church on the site of St Peter 's is unknown . The chancel and the nave are thought to date from the 15th century , and a transept was added to the east end of the church probably in the 17th century , to form a cross groundplan . The church was restored twice in the 19th century , in 1840 and again in 1885 ; the 1840 restoration was partially funded by a grant of £ 20 from the Bangor Diocesan Church Building Society .
St Peter 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales . It is one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth , and is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , the rector is the Venerable R. P. Davies , who is also the Archdeacon of Bangor .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Peter 's is built from rubble masonry , with large stones at the corners of the transepts and sandstone dressings around some of the apertures . The roof is made of slate ; the stone bellcote at the west end has one bell and is topped with a cross . The nave and chancel are the oldest parts of the building . The nave measures 23 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ( 7 @.@ 16 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) ; the chancel , which is separated from the nave by a single step , measures 14 feet 6 inches by 4 feet ( 4 @.@ 42 by 1 @.@ 2 m ) . The sanctuary within the chancel is raised by a further step and has a rail around it . The vestry is at the west end of the nave . The transepts to the north and south of the chancel are square in plan , their sides and endsmeasuring approximately 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) . The western end of the north wall of the nave has a 15th @-@ century pointed arch doorway set in a square frame , with decorative patterns in the stonework around the door and carved heads on either side of the frame ; the head to the left of the frame wears a mitre . A doorway in the opposite wall of the nave , probably also dating from the 15th century , was partially replaced in the 19th century with a window .
The window on the north wall of the nave is to the east of the door , and was added in the 19th century . It has two rounded lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) , in similar style to the two @-@ light 17th @-@ century window in the north wall of the north transept . The second window in the transept , in the east wall , is from the 19th century . The two windows in the south transept , in the south and east walls , are both from the 17th century , and are square @-@ headed with two lights . The window in the east wall of the chancel is from the 19th @-@ century and has three lights topped with stonework trefoils . It has an external hoodmould ( a decorative stone border ) around the top . The glass of all the windows is patterned , and some is coloured ; the coloured glass is used in the same way as in other Anglesey churches whose 19th @-@ century restorations were aided by Henry Stanley , 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley , an Anglesey nobleman who converted to Islam .
The exposed roof timbers date from the 19th century . Most of the fittings date from the middle of the 19th century , with the exception of a reading desk made from two 15th @-@ century bench ends , one of which is carved with a mermaid holding a comb and a mirror . The desk had previously been in St Eilian 's Church , Llaneilian . A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire also noted the octagonal font of uncertain date , two 17th @-@ century memorials inside the church , and some memorials from the 17th and 18th centuries outside it .
A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded an Elizabethan silver chalice from about 1575 , just over 6 inches ( 150 mm ) tall , and a plain silver paten and a silver flagon both dated 1904 – 05 . The mark " IL " within a shield on the chalice probably refers to John Lynglay , an Elizabethan goldsmith from Chester ; it was one of four chalices in the diocese to be marked in this way . The survey also noted that the church no longer had the pewter flagon and dish recorded in the church terriers between 1788 and 1821 .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains two Commonwealth war graves , of a Royal Navy sailor of World War I and an ATS officer of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
The church has statutory protection from unauthorised alteration as it was designated a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , recognising " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " – on 12 May 1970 . Cadw , the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists , describes St Peter 's as " a good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric " .
Writing in 1833 , before the 19th @-@ century restorations , the antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described St Peter 's as " a small beautiful cruciform structure , with a handsome east window , situated on a rocky eminence , in a distant and exposed part of the parish " . Writing in 1847 , in between the two restorations , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Peter 's was the only old building in the parish , and that the " rude execution " of the north doorway " will not escape notice . " He said that the chancel window was of the same design as that in the Old Church of St Nidan , Llanidan . He also noted that the font was " anomalously placed near the entrance of the chancel " .
The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in December 1849 , and observed that the transepts were " as usual , awkward and sprawling " , and were " much out of proportion to the short chancel and insignificant nave . " He described the east window as a late example of the Middle Pointed style , " of a character very frequent in Anglesey . "
= Danny Parslow =
Daniel James " Danny " Parslow ( born 11 September 1985 ) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a defender for League Two club Cheltenham Town .
Parslow started his career with Cardiff City in their youth system , before signing a professional contract in 2005 . He signed for Conference National club York City a year later after being released by Cardiff . He did not establish himself in the team in the 2006 – 07 season , but played in their play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat by Morecambe . He became a regular starter during 2007 – 08 under the management of Colin Walker , and during 2008 – 09 assumed the captaincy from Mark Greaves . In this season , he was named Clubman of the Year and led the team to the 2009 FA Trophy Final , in which York were beaten 2 – 0 by Stevenage Borough . Parslow was replaced as captain by Michael Ingham during 2009 – 10 , and was an unused substitute in York 's 3 – 1 defeat by Oxford United in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . He won his second Clubman of the Year award in 2010 – 11 , having appeared in all of York 's matches that season .
Parslow was a member of the York team that won the 2012 FA Trophy Final and 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final in 2011 – 12 , with victory in the latter seeing the club promoted into League Two after eight years out of the Football League . He missed only one match in 2012 – 13 , in which he won the Clubman of the Year award for an unprecedented third time . Parslow was out injured for most of 2013 – 14 , and was on loan with Conference Premier club Grimsby Town during 2014 – 15 , playing in their penalty shoot @-@ out defeat in the 2015 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . He signed for Cheltenham Town of the National League in 2015 , and was part of the tea team that earned promotion into League Two by winning the divisional title in 2015 – 16 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Cardiff City = = =
Born in Hengoed , Caerphilly , Parslow started his career with Cardiff City 's youth system in 1998 . Having progressed through the club 's centre of excellence he earned a three @-@ year scholarship in May 2002 , which turned into a one @-@ year professional contract on its conclusion . He made an appearance for Cardiff in a 1 – 0 defeat by Bangor City in the FAW Premier Cup on 25 January 2005 and was included in the first team squad for the 2005 – 06 season . Parslow went on trial with League One side Swansea City in March 2006 , before returning to Cardiff the following month after nothing materialised . After making no appearances he was released by Cardiff on 22 May 2006 .
= = = York City = = =
Parslow was signed by Conference National team York City on 18 August 2006 following a successful trial . He made his debut as a 67th @-@ minute substitute for James Dudgeon in York 's 3 – 0 away defeat by Crawley Town on 9 September 2006 . At different points during 2006 – 07 Parslow lost his place in the team to David McGurk , Jason Goodliffe and János Kovács , but started York 's last seven fixtures , including both legs of the 2 – 1 aggregate defeat by Morecambe in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Having finished 2006 – 07 with 26 appearances for York , the club exercised their option to extend his contract for 2007 – 08 in May 2007 .
Parslow missed the start of 2007 – 08 with an ankle injury , making his first appearance in York 's third match , a 1 – 1 draw away to Exeter City on 20 August 2007 . He went nearly three months without starting a match when being named in the starting XI as part of a three @-@ man central defence for York 's 2 – 1 win away to Weymouth on 24 November 2007 in Colin Walker 's first match as caretaker manager . He established himself in the team under Walker , starting all of York 's remaining matches in 2007 – 08 . Parslow scored his first career goal with the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over Rushden & Diamonds in the fourth round of the FA Trophy on 23 February 2008 , which came from a diving header eight yards out in the 16th minute . He made 40 appearances and scored two goals in 2007 – 08 , before York exercised their option for Parslow 's contract to be extended for 2008 – 09 in April 2008 .
He signed a new contract with York in September 2008 that contracted him to the club until the summer of 2010 . He took over the captaincy when club captain Mark Greaves and vice @-@ captain McGurk were out of the team , starting on 27 January 2009 for a 1 – 1 draw away to Altrincham . Having " led by example " after attaining the captaincy , he was voted by supporters as York 's Clubman of the Year for 2008 – 09 , being presented the award before their penultimate home match against Eastbourne Borough on 18 April 2009 . He started in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium on 9 May 2009 , which York lost 2 – 0 to Stevenage Borough . Ahead of the Trophy final , he was rested for the final league match away to Lewes on 26 April 2009 ; this was the only match he missed in 2008 – 09 , which he finished with 57 appearances .
Parslow and McGurk were appointed as club captains for 2009 – 10 , although Parslow would continue to wear the armband in matches . He signed a new contract with York in January 2010 to tie him to the club until the summer of 2012 . He played in the team as a centre @-@ back and right @-@ back before losing his place to Ben Purkiss after picking up a foot injury in York 's 2 – 1 away defeat to Forest Green Rovers on 6 March 2010 , with the captain 's armband being handed to Michael Ingham . He made his return in
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York 's 1 – 0 away defeat by Stevenage in the last league match of 2009 – 10 on 24 April 2010 , but was dropped to the bench for the play @-@ off semi @-@ final 1 – 0 victory at home to Luton Town . Parslow appeared as a 90 @-@ minute substitute in the second leg 1 – 0 away win , with the tie ending 2 – 0 on aggregate . However , he was an unused substitute for the 3 – 1 defeat by Oxford United at Wembley Stadium in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . He made 41 appearances for York in 2009 – 10 .
Parslow had been playing mostly at right @-@ back in 2010 – 11 before losing his place to Liam Darville in January 2011 , but retained his place in the team by playing at centre @-@ back in York 's 4 – 0 victory over league leaders AFC Wimbledon on 1 February 2011 with McGurk suspended . Parslow scored his only goal of 2010 – 11 in this match after scoring the opening goal with a header from a free kick taken by Ashley Chambers . Having played at right @-@ back the following match , he returned to playing at centre @-@ back after McGurk 's injury in York 's 0 – 0 draw away to Altrincham on 22 February 2011 . Parslow formed a central defensive partnership with Chris Smith , and manager Gary Mills praised him by calling him " outstanding " . He had played in all of York 's matches in 2010 – 11 before suffering a head injury following a clash of heads with Matthew Barnes @-@ Homer in a 1 – 0 home win against Luton on 19 April 2011 , which led to him missing the remainder of the campaign . Following the end of 2010 – 11 , during which he made 47 appearances and scored one goal , he was named York 's Clubman of the Year for a second time .
Parslow started 2011 – 12 out of the team , with McGurk and Smith preferred in central defence . He appeared twice at right @-@ back in the first two months of the season when Lanre Oyebanjo was absent , before falling behind Jon Challinor and Jamal Fyfield for a place in defence . Parslow was used mostly as a substitute from then before a run starting in central defence in late December 2011 , before losing his place after the signing of Chris Doig in February 2012 . He was restored to the starting line @-@ up in early March 2012 due to other defenders being unavailable , before Doig once again took his place in the team . He returned to the starting line @-@ up in early April 2012 due to Smith 's absence and started 10 of York 's last 11 fixtures of the season . Parslow won the 2012 FA Trophy Final with York at Wembley Stadium on 12 May 2012 , in which the side beat Newport County 2 – 0 . Eight days later , he played in the 2 – 1 victory over Luton in the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium , seeing the club return into the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence with promotion into League Two . He completed 2011 – 12 with 38 appearances for York , after which he signed a new one @-@ year contract with an option to extend in June 2012 .
Parslow started York 's first competitive fixture since promotion away to League One Doncaster Rovers in the first round of the League Cup in the opening match of 2012 – 13 on 11 August 2012 , which the side lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 1 – 1 draw after extra time . He then played in York 's first League Two fixture , a 3 – 1 home defeat by Wycombe Wanderers on 18 August 2012 . His only goal of 2012 – 13 was the opener in York 's first victory of the season , a 3 – 1 away win at Barnet on 25 August 2012 , with a 20 yard volley into the bottom left corner . Parslow played at right @-@ back , left @-@ back and defensive midfield throughout the season , and played in the latter position in the end of season run @-@ in to form part of a midfield trio also including Tom Platt and Adam Reed that helped York avoid relegation . He became the first York player to be named Clubman of the Year on three occasions , having been presented the award before York 's final home match of the season against Southend United on 20 April 2013 . Parslow missed only one match for York in 2012 – 13 , making 50 appearances and scoring one goal , and signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club in May 2013 .
Parslow started 2013 – 14 in and out of the team , but when returning to the starting line @-@ up for a 2 – 1 home defeat to Mansfield Town on 14 September 2013 was handed the captain 's armband in the absence of Smith . He established himself in the centre of defence alongside McGurk , and retained the armband when Smith was recalled into the team . However , he sustained knee ligament damage when colliding into advertising hoardings as he sliced an attempted clearance during York 's 2 – 1 defeat away to Southend on 23 November 2013 . The injury ruled him out for the rest of the season , in which he had made 16 appearances . In his absence , York reached the play @-@ offs with a seventh @-@ place finish in League Two , although they were beaten 1 – 0 on aggregate by Fleetwood Town in the semi @-@ final .
Parslow returned to fitness ahead of 2014 – 15 , but having failed to regain his place in the team signed for Conference Premier team Grimsby Town on a one @-@ month loan on 18 September 2014 . He debuted two days later in their 1 – 0 away win over Kidderminster , and made seven appearances for Grimsby before the loan expired on 20 October 2014 . Having been an unused substitute for three matches after returning to York , Parslow rejoined Grimsby on loan until 4 January 2015 on 7 November 2014 , and made his second debut for the club a day later in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Oxford in the FA Cup first round . The loan was extended until the end of the season during January 2015 . He came on as a 74th @-@ minute substitute for Gregor Robertson in the 2015 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final against Bristol Rovers at Wembley on 17 May 2015 ; following a 1 – 1 draw after extra time , Grimsby lost 5 – 3 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Parslow had made 23 appearances in his second loan spell at Grimsby , and after returning to York was released after nine years at the club .
= = = Cheltenham Town = = =
After a successful trial , Parslow signed for newly relegated National League club Cheltenham Town on a one @-@ year contract on 29 July 2015 . He made his debut when starting a 1 – 1 away draw with Lincoln City on 8 August 2015 , Cheltenham 's first match of 2015 – 16 , and established himself at centre @-@ back , forming a partnership with Aaron Downes . Parslow scored his first goal for Cheltenham on 31 August 2015 , with a volley in the 59th minute of a 2 – 1 home victory over Wrexham . He stood in as Cheltenham 's vice @-@ captain after a season @-@ ending injury to the captain Downes in January 2016 , . after which he was partnered at centre @-@ back with a number of players , including Cameron Burgess and Asa Hall . According to Oli Fell of the Gloucestershire Echo , it was after Downes ' injury that Parslow " really came into his own and stepped up " , and surmised that Parslow was " perhaps the most crucial component of the side all season " . He finished 2015 – 16 with 50 appearances and two goals , and appeared in nearly every minute of Cheltenham 's 46 league matches . Cheltenham won promotion back into League Two at the first attempt , winning the National League title with 101 points . Parslow was named the Players ' Player of the Year , and signed a new contract with the club in May 2016 .
= = International career = =
Parslow was capped once by Wales at under @-@ 17 level , appearing as a second @-@ half substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat by Germany on 13 February 2002 . He made his under @-@ 19 debut after starting a 2 – 1 defeat by Portugal on 22 September 2003 . He played two more matches for the under @-@ 19s to finish his career at that level with three caps . Parslow later represented the under @-@ 21 team and made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw with Latvia in August 2004 . He was part of the team that lost 2 – 0 away against England on 8 October 2004 . Parslow was capped four times by Wales at under @-@ 21 level .
He was called up by the Wales semi @-@ pro team for the Four Nations Tournament in May 2007 . Parslow 's debut came as a 59th @-@ minute substitute for Gethin Jones in their opening match , a 1 – 0 win over the hosts Scotland on 22 May 2007 . He started the 1 – 1 draw with the Republic of Ireland on 25 May 2007 , and was a 79th @-@ minute substitute for Jones in the championship decider against England , which finished in a 3 – 0 defeat on 27 May . Parslow captained the semi @-@ pro team for the first time in their 2 – 1 away defeat to England in the 2007 – 09 International Challenge Trophy on 20 February 2008 . He retained the armband for the 2008 Four Nations Tournament , starting all of Wales three matches as they finished in second place in the four @-@ team group . His career with the semi @-@ pro team finished with eight caps .
= = Style of play = =
Parslow primarily plays as a centre @-@ back , and has stated he is most comfortable playing this position . A utility player , his intelligence and commitment allow him to play a number of positions , including right @-@ back , left @-@ back and defensive midfield .
= = Personal life = =
Parslow completed a five @-@ year degree in sports science at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2012 . He married Emma during June 2014 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 30 April 2016 .
= = Honours = =
York City
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12
FA Trophy : 2011 – 12
Cheltenham Town
National League : 2015 – 16
Individual
York City Clubman of the Year : 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
= Lahaina Banyan Court Park =
Lahaina Banyan Court Park is a public park located at the corner of Front Street and Canal Street in the town of Lahaina , Hawaii , which was the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1820 to 1845 . The 1 @.@ 94 acres ( 0 @.@ 79 ha ) park , also known as Lahaina Courthouse Square and commonly called Banyan Tree Park , contains multiple heritage sites on the Lahaina Historic Trail , and a self @-@ guided walking tour through the Lahaina Historic Districts .
The park occupies the site of the Old Lahaina Fort , originally built in 1831 . Hoapili , the Royal Governor of Maui , built the fort to protect the town from riotous sailors when Lahaina was used as an anchorage for the North Pacific whaling fleet . After the fort was demolished in 1854 , a courthouse was built on the site . A portion of the old Lahaina Fort was reconstructed in 1964 . The old Lahaina Courthouse was recognized as a contributing property of the Lahaina Historic District in 1965 , and is currently used by the Lahaina Arts Council and the Lahaina Historic Society .
Sheriff William Owen Smith planted an Indian banyan tree in the courtyard square in 1873 to memorialize the 50th anniversary of the first American Protestant mission in Lahaina . The banyan tree has become the largest banyan tree in Hawaii , and one of the largest banyan trees in the United States . Its extensive trunk and aerial root system now covers 0 @.@ 66 acres ( 0 @.@ 27 ha ) . The park is managed by the County of Maui and the Lahaina Restoration Foundation .
= = Geography = =
Lahaina Banyan Court Park is located in the port of Lahaina town on the west side of the Hawaiian island of Maui . The park square comprises 1 @.@ 94 acres ( 0 @.@ 79 ha ) on the site of the old Lahaina Fort , directly across the street from the Lahaina small boat harbor . It is bounded by Hotel Street to the north , Canal Street to the south , Wharf Street to the west , and Front Street to the east . Historic sites in the area include the former site of Lahaina 's Beach — dredged during the construction of Lahaina 's Harbor in 1955 , the Pioneer Inn and the Keawaiki lighthouse to the north , and the campus of King Kamehameha III Elementary School — an archaeological site associated with the aliʻi — to the south .
= = Background = =
New England whaling ships hunting sperm whales in the Pacific began to arrive in Hawaiʻi in 1819 , and many ships anchored in Honolulu and Lahaina . The impact of the whaling fleets on the Hawaiian Islands during the reign of Kamehameha III ( 1825 – 1854 ) shaped the entire Hawaiian economy and was the primary source of income for the islands until the discovery of oil in Titusville , Pennsylvania , in 1859 and the onset of the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) .
Ships would generally seek repairs in Honolulu , but captains preferred anchoring off Lahaina because of its easy access from the Lahaina Roads and for the fresh provisions available in town . According to Henry L. Sheldon , " the business of the entire population was the furnishing of supplies to whalers and entertaining the crews " . Sailors who had been hunting whales for months at a time went to Lahaina to drink grog and meet women . Historian Noelani M. Arista notes that by 1825 ;
a kapu prohibiting women from going out to ships for the purpose of prostitution was proclaimed by the ali 'i ( Hawaiian chiefs ) , altering that familiar traffic of the burgeoning Pacific seaport towns . Enraged that they could not cajole , coax , or coerce Hawaiian women into violating the kapu , the sailors turned their frustrations on the American missionaries , whom they blamed for the emergence of this new unreasonably strict moral law .
Whalers opposed any rules governing alcohol and prostitution , and blamed missionaries for influencing the Kingdom of Hawaii to enforce such rules . Riots broke out at least four times — in 1825 , 1826 , 1827 , and 1843 . In the 1827 riots , sailors on the John Palmer fired their cannons at the home of missionary William Richards and threatened the safety of the community .
= = Lahaina Fort = =
Queen Kaʻahumanu ( 1768 – 1832 ) visited Maui in February 1832 , just months before she died , to support the construction of a new fort to protect the town from whalers . With her help , Hoapili ( 1775 – 1840 ) , Royal Governor of Maui , built the fort on the Lahaina waterfront and it was completed within a month . The fort was constructed from coral blocks with walls approximately 15 – 20 feet high topped with 47 cannons . An 1848 inventory lists 6 large cannons , 21 small cannons , 6 breech @-@ loaders , and 8 which did not work . The fort stored quantities of gunpowder , guns , rifles , and swords , and was used as a prison . Sailors who docked at Lahaina were subject to a sunset curfew ; it they did not return to their ship when the drums sounded they would be imprisoned in the fort .
In 1841 , American naval officer Charles Wilkes ( 1798 – 1877 ) visited Lahaina Fort as commanding officer of the United States Exploring Expedition . Wilkes observed , " After the king 's palace , the fort is the most conspicuous object : it is of little account , however , as a defence , serving chiefly to confine unruly subjects and sailors in . The area within is about one acre , and the walls are twenty feet high . "
As the whaling industry declined and the California Gold Rush gained prominence in the late 1840s , Hawaii 's population dropped , and infectious disease epidemics contributed to the loss of local populations . The fort was restored in 1847 but was now used more as a prison than for defending the Kingdom . The cannons were rusting and the fort was mostly empty of personnel except for a few soldiers and the Governor of Maui who lived there . When Henry Augustus Wise visited in 1848 , he met James Young ( 1797 – 1851 ) , then Governor of Maui , who was living in the fort . Wise wrote that it was :
an oddly assorted battery of some thirty pieces of artillery , of all sorts of carriages and calibre — long , short , and mediums ; they command the usual anchorage , and no doubt do very well to prevent any acts of violence from merchant ships ; but it is a question , if , at the second discharge of shot , they do not tumble to pieces .
In the 1850s , whaling began its steep decline . The forts in the Hawaiian Islands were in poor condition due to damage and neglect , and were either abandoned or removed . Lahaina Fort was demolished in 1854 . Its coral blocks were reused to build Hale Paʻahao , a new prison at Wainee Street and Prison Road . In 1964 , the State Parks Department placed a reconstruction of the old fort wall in the southwest corner of the park .
= = Lahaina Courthouse = =
On February 20 , 1858 , Lahaina experienced a violent hurricane that destroyed approximately twenty buildings , including the original courthouse at Hale Piula , initially intended as a palace for Kamehameha III . The courthouse was rebuilt on the site of Lahaina Fort in 1859 using stones from Hale Piula . The new courthouse housed offices for customs , the postal service , the tax collector , the governor of Maui , a magistrates ' court , a courtroom , and a jury room . When the Kingdom was overthrown , the flag of Hawaii at the Lahaina Courthouse was lowered by the assistant postmaster on August 12 , 1898 , and the flag of the United States was raised in its place . The Hawaiian flag was placed on display in a permanent exhibit at the courthouse in September 2002 . The post office at the courthouse replaced the Hawaiian stamp with the US stamp on June 14 , 1900 .
The courthouse was restored by architect William D 'Esmond in 1925 . D 'Esmond added a new roof and redesigned the entryway and balcony . The building 's tenants included the US Post Office and a tax office . The courtroom was upstairs and the Lahaina jail was housed in the basement . The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark and a contributing property of the Lahaina Historic District in 1965 , and was restored again in 1990 . The courthouse now houses a museum , art galleries , a visitor center , a community meeting room , and public restrooms . The Lahaina Heritage Museum opened upstairs in 2004 with interactive exhibits including videos , photographs , and historical objects . The Lahaina Arts Council and the Lahaina Historic Society have offices in the courthouse .
= = Banyan tree = =
To memorialize the 50th anniversary of the first American Protestant mission in Lahaina , a banyan tree ( Ficus benghalensis , Hawaiian : paniana ) seedling was planted on April 24 , 1873 in the courthouse square by sheriff William Owen Smith , who had received it as a gift from missionaries in India . The banyan , native to India , is one of 60 types of fig tree in the Hawaiian islands . The seedling was approximately 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high when it was planted ; by 2005 it had grown to a height of 49 @.@ 2 feet ( 15 @.@ 0 m ) , had 16 trunks , and covered a circumference of 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) within 0 @.@ 66 acres ( 0 @.@ 27 ha ) of the park .
It is currently the largest banyan tree in Hawaii , and one of the largest banyan trees in the United States . The tree faces several threats , including soil compaction from foot and vehicle traffic due to tourism and special events in the park , drought , and the interruption of irrigation due to courthouse renovation . New restrictions were imposed in 2000 after the health of the tree began to decline. common myna birds ( Acridotheres tristis ) roost in the branches of the tree at sunset , causing a cacophony of bird cries as the evening approaches .
= = Administration , facilities , and events = =
The park is administered by the Maui Parks and Recreation department and maintained by the nonprofit Lahaina Restoration Foundation . Limited public parking is available on Front , Hotel , and Canal Streets , with very limited parking on Wharf Street as it is generally reserved for tour buses . At weekends , the park hosts artists , musicians , dancers , and festivals throughout the year , including the Festival of Canoes , Festivals of Aloha , and the Lahaina Arts Society art fair . Halloween events in the park area , known as the " Mardi Gras of the Pacific " , have long been a divisive issue between Maui County and the Cultural Resources Commission .
= Star Trek : Enterprise ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise commenced airing on the UPN network in the United States on October 8 , 2004 and concluded on May 13 , 2005 after airing 22 episodes . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . The fourth season saw changes made to the production team , with Manny Coto becoming the show runner . He had joined the team during the third season as a co @-@ executive producer . Other changes included Star Trek novelists Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens being brought on board as writers .
Season four was the final season of the series , with the show being cancelled during the filming of the episode " In A Mirror , Darkly " . Following the cancellation , fans of the show conducted protests and raised funds to pay for a fifth season , however their efforts were unsuccessful . " These Are The Voyages ... " was the final episode of the series , and gained the highest number of viewers for the season according to Nielsen Media Research . However , despite critics describing the fourth season in a warmer manner , the finale was received poorly , with Rick Berman later regretting the storyline . The series was nominated for three Emmy Awards for episodes in the fourth season , but the only award won was an Outstanding Visual Effects for a Broadcast Series at the 2005 Visual Effects Society awards .
= = Plot overview = =
Following the season @-@ long Xindi arc during the third season , season four comprised several shorter story arcs . These included a wrap @-@ up to the Temporal Cold War storyline which began with the pilot episode , " Broken Bow " . Other arcs covered the differences between the Klingons seen in Enterprise as compared to those seen in series set later in the Star Trek timeline . The season also featured a greater number of references to Star Trek : The Original Series with Orion slave girls and genetically engineered humans similar to Khan Noonien Singh appearing in a story arc which also featured the return of Brent Spiner to the Star Trek franchise .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Guest cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired .
= = Production = =
The series had been at risk of cancellation following the third season . But the rights holders , Paramount Television , reduced the cost per episode that it charged network UPN from $ 1 @.@ 7 million per episode to $ 800 @,@ 000 . The broadcast schedule was subsequently changed and repeat episodes were moved to Friday nights at 8pm ET / 9pm PT , with season four making its debut in that timeslot on October 8 , 2004 . TV Guide described the new time slot as " where the network was drawing virtually no viewers with what one executive calls ' eighth runs of slasher movies ' " . Enterprise was not the first Star Trek series to be moved to a Friday night timeslot following a budget cut , as Star Trek : The Original Series for the third season was moved to a 10pm ET timeslot where it was subsequently cancelled .
The fourth season also saw a change in the production team . Enterprise had previously been run by the show 's creators , Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , who were also the executive producers . Manny Coto joined the production team during the third season as a co @-@ executive producer following his work on the series Odyssey 5 . His scripts were well received , having written such episodes as " Similitude " . For the fourth season , Coto was credited as the show runner . He explained in an interview that " What 's been publicized , that Rick and Brannon have stepped back and I 've moved in , is not exactly true . I 've kinda moved in with them , so to speak , so we 're all three running the show . I 'm actually more in charge of writing , I guess , dealing with the writers and the ' writing room , ' coming up with stories that Rick and Brannon approve or not approve , or give notes on . " He explained that the process was for the three of them to pitch stories together and work on fleshing them out .
Following Coto 's appointment as executive producer , he also sought to make changes to the writing team . Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens joined the
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at the intersection with M @-@ 51 ( Main Street , 11th Street ) and runs eastward along a former routing of M @-@ 60 on Oak Street through a residential section of town . Near the Berrien – Cass county line , the highway passes south of the Jerry Tyler Memorial Airport . East of the airport , the street name changes from Oak Street to Yankee Road , and Bus . M @-@ 60 runs to its terminus at M @-@ 60 ( Detroit Road ) . The total length is 2 @.@ 554 miles ( 4 @.@ 110 km ) , and 5 @,@ 284 – 7 @,@ 984 cars and 333 trucks use the route each day .
The business route was a loop route , continuing through downtown along Bus . US 112 when the designation was created in late 1956 or early 1957 . M @-@ 60 was truncated west of Niles in 1966 ; at the same time , Bus . M @-@ 60 was truncated at its junction with Bus . US 12 / M @-@ 51 near downtown .
= = = Alternate M @-@ 60 = = =
Alternate M @-@ 60 ( Alt . M @-@ 60 ) was an alternate loop route running through Concord . It acted as a " business route " into downtown Concord during its short lifetime after a bypass of town along M @-@ 60 was built . Its appearance predated the development of business routes in Michigan . Concord was bypassed in 1933 , resulting in the creation of the alternate route . That route was turned over to local control the next year , decommissioning the designation .
= Economic development in India =
The economic development in India followed socialist @-@ inspired policies for most of its independent history , including state @-@ ownership of many sectors ; India 's per capita income increased at only around 1 % annualised rate in the three decades after its independence . Since the mid @-@ 1980s , India has slowly opened up its markets through economic liberalisation . After more fundamental reforms since 1991 and their renewal in the 2000s , India has progressed towards a free market economy .
In the late 2000s , India 's growth reached 7 @.@ 5 % , which will double the average income in a decade . Analysts say that if India pushed more fundamental market reforms , it could sustain the rate and even reach the government 's 2011 target of 10 % . States have large responsibilities over their economies . The annualised 1999 – 2008 growth rates for Tamil Nadu ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) , Maharashtra ( 9 @.@ 7 % ) , Gujarat ( 9 @.@ 6 % ) , Haryana ( 9 @.@ 1 % ) , or Delhi ( 8 @.@ 9 % ) were significantly higher than for Bihar ( 5 @.@ 1 % ) , Uttar Pradesh ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , or Madhya Pradesh ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) . India is the seventh @-@ largest economy in the world and the third largest by purchasing power parity adjusted exchange rates ( PPP ) . On per capita basis , it ranks 140th in the world or 129th by PPP .
The economic growth has been driven by the expansion of services that have been growing consistently faster than other sectors . It is argued that the pattern of Indian development has been a specific one and that the country may be able to skip the intermediate industrialisation @-@ led phase in the transformation of its economic structure . Serious concerns have been raised about the jobless nature of the economic growth .
Favourable macroeconomic performance has been a necessary but not sufficient condition for the significant reduction of poverty amongst the Indian population . The rate of poverty decline has not been higher in the post @-@ reform period ( since 1991 ) . The improvements in some other non @-@ economic dimensions of social development have been even less favourable . The most pronounced example is an exceptionally high and persistent level of child malnutrition ( 46 % in 2005 – 6 ) .
The progress of economic reforms in India is followed closely . The World Bank suggests that the most important priorities are public sector reform , infrastructure , agricultural and rural development , removal of labour regulations , reforms in lagging states , and HIV / AIDS . For 2016 , India ranked 130th in Ease of Doing Business Index , which is setback as compared with China 84th , Russia 51st and Brazil 116th . According to Index of Economic Freedom World Ranking an annual survey on economic freedom of the nations , India ranks 123rd as compared with China and Russia which ranks 138th and 144th respectively in 2014 .
At the turn of the century India 's GDP was at around US $ 480 billion . As economic reforms picked up pace , India 's GDP grew five @-@ fold to reach US $ 2 @.@ 2 trillion in 2015 ( as per IMF estimates ) .
India 's GDP growth during January – March period of 2015 was at 7 @.@ 5 % compared to China 's 7 % , making it the fastest growing economy . During 2014 – 15 , India 's GDP growth recovered marginally to 7 @.@ 3 % from 6 @.@ 9 % in the previous fiscal . During 2014 – 15 , India 's services sector grew by 10 @.@ 1 % , manufacturing sector by 7 @.@ 1 % & agriculture by 0 @.@ 2 % . The Indian government has forecast a growth of 8 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 5 % during 2015 – 16 .
= = Agriculture = =
India ranks first worldwide in farm output . Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry , logging and fishing accounted for 18 @.@ 6 % of the GDP in 2005 , employed 60 % of the total workforce and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP , is still the largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio @-@ economic development of India . Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950 , due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five @-@ year plans and steady improvements in irrigation , technology , application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the green revolution .
India is the largest producer in the world of milk , cashew nuts , coconuts , tea , ginger , turmeric and black pepper . It also has the world 's largest cattle population ( 193 million ) . It is the second largest producer of wheat , rice , sugar , groundnut and inland fish . It is the third largest producer of tobacco . India accounts for 10 % of the world fruit production with first rank in the production of banana and sapota , also known as chiku .
The required level of investment for the development of marketing , storage and cold storage infrastructure is estimated to be huge . The government has implemented various schemes to raise investment in marketing infrastructure . Amongst these schemes are Construction of Rural Go downs , Market Research and Information Network , and Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure , Grading and Standardisation .
Main problems in the agricultural sector , as listed by the World Bank , are :
India 's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivity @-@ enhancing investment .
Overregulation of agriculture has increased costs , price risks and uncertainty .
Government interventions in labour , land , and credit markets .
Inadequate infrastructure and services .
= = = Research and development = = =
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute ( IARI ) , established in 1905 , was responsible for the research leading to the " Indian Green Revolution " of the 1970s . The Indian Council of Agricultural Research ( ICAR ) is the apex body in kundiure and related allied fields , including research and education . The Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of the ICAR . The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments , analyses data in agriculture , and specialises in statistical techniques for animal and plant breeding . Prof. M.S. Swaminathan is known as " Father of the Green Revolution " and heads the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation . He is known for his advocacy of environmentally sustainable agriculture and sustainable food security .
= = Industrial output = =
India is tenth in the world in factory output . Manufacturing sector in addition to mining , quarrying , electricity and gas together account for 27 @.@ 6 % of the GDP and employ 17 % of the total workforce . Economic reforms introduced after 1991 brought foreign competition , led to privatisation of certain public sector industries , opened up sectors hitherto reserved for the public sector and led to an expansion in the production of fast @-@ moving consumer goods . In recent years , Indian cities have continued to liberalise , but excessive and burdensome business regulations remain a problem in some cities , like Kochi and Kolkata .
Post @-@ liberalisation , the Indian private sector , which was usually run by oligopolies of old family firms and required political connections to prosper was faced with foreign competition , including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports . It has since handled the change by squeezing costs , revamping management , focusing on designing new products and relying on low labour costs and technology .
= = Services = =
India is fifteenth in services output . Service industry employ English @-@ speaking Indian workers on the supply side and on the demand side , has increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India 's service exports or those looking to outsource their operations . India 's IT industry , despite contributing significantly to its balance of payments , accounts for only about 1 % of the total GDP or 1 / 50th of the total services .
During the Internet bubble that led up to 2000 , heavy investments in undersea fibre @-@ optic cables linked Asia with the rest of the world . The fall that followed the economic boom resulted in the auction of cheap fiber optic cables at one @-@ tenth of their original price . This development resulted in widely available low @-@ cost communications infrastructure . All of these investments and events , not to mention a swell of available talent , resulted in India becoming almost overnight the centre for outsourcing of Business process . Within this sector and events , the ITES @-@ BPO sector has become a big employment generator especially amongst young college graduates . The number of professionals employed by IT and ITES sectors is estimated at around 1 @.@ 3 million as of March 2006 . Also , Indian IT @-@ ITES is estimated to have helped create an additional 3 million job opportunities through indirect , induced and in helpful manner have created employment .
= = GDP growth rate = =
Since the economic liberalisation of 1991 , India 's GDP has been growing at a higher rate .
= = Companies = =
47 Indian companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 ranking for 2015 . The 10 leading companies were :
= = India 's resource consumption = =
= = = Oil = = =
India consumes the second @-@ largest amount of oil in the Asia @-@ Pacific region behind China . The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet the consumption needs .
= = = Natural gas = = =
As per the Oil and Gas Journal , India had 38 trillion cubic feet ( 1 @.@ 1 × 1012 m3 ) of confirmed natural gas reserves in 2004 .
India imports small amounts of natural gas . In 2004 , India consumed about 1 @,@ 089 × 10 ^ 9 cu ft ( 3 @.@ 08 × 1010 m3 ) of natural gas , the first year in which the country showed net natural gas imports . During 2004 , India imported 93 × 10 ^ 9 cu ft ( 2 @.@ 6 × 109 m3 ) of liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) from Qatar .
As in the oil sector , India 's state @-@ owned companies account for the bulk of natural gas production . ONGC and Oil India Ltd . ( OIL ) are the leading companies with respect to production volume , whilst some foreign companies take part in upstream developments in joint @-@ ventures and production sharing contracts ( PSCs ) . Reliance Industries , a privately owned Indian company , will also have a bigger role in the natural gas sector as a result of a large natural gas find in 2002 in the Krishna Godavari basin .
The Gas Authority of India Ltd . ( GAIL ) holds an effective control on natural gas transmission and allocation activities . In December 2006 , the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas issued a new policy that allows foreign investors , private domestic companies , and national oil companies to hold up to 100 % equity stakes in pipeline projects . Whilst GAIL 's domination in natural gas transmission and allocation is not ensured by statute , it will continue to be the leading player in the sector because of its existing natural gas infrastructure .
= = Issues = =
= = = Regulation , public sector , corruption , = = =
India ranked 133rd on the Ease of Doing Business Index in 2010 , compared with 85th for Pakistan , 89th for People 's Republic of China , 125th for Nigeria , 129th for Brazil , and 122nd for Indonesia .
Corruption in many forms has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India . For decades , the red tape , bureaucracy and the Licence Raj that had strangled private enterprise . The economic reforms of 1991 cut some of the worst regulations that had been used in corruption .
Corruption is still large . A 2005 study by Transparency International ( TI ) India found that more than half of those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office . The chief economic consequences of corruption are the loss to the exchequer , an unhealthy climate for investment and an increase in the cost of government @-@ subsidised services . The TI India study estimates the monetary value of petty corruption in 11 basic services provided by the government , like education , healthcare , judiciary , police , etc . , to be around ₹ 211 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 1 billion ) . India still ranks in the bottom quartile of developing nations in terms of the ease of doing business , and compared with China , the average time taken to secure the clearances for a startup or to invoke bankruptcy is much greater .
The Right to Information Act ( 2005 ) and equivalent acts in the states , that require government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action , computerisation of services and various central and state government acts that established vigilance commissions have considerably reduced corruption or at least have opened up avenues to redress grievances . The 2006 report by Transparency International puts India at 70th place and states that significant improvements were made by India in reducing corruption .
= = = Employment = = =
India 's labour force is growing by 2 @.@ 5 % every year , but employment is growing only at 2 @.@ 3 % a year . Official unemployment exceeds 9 % . Regulation and other obstacles have discouraged the emergence of formal businesses and jobs . Almost 30 % of workers are casual workers who work only when they are able to get jobs and remain unpaid for the rest of the time . Only 10 % of the workforce is in regular employment . India 's labour regulations are heavy even by developing country standards and analysts have urged the government to abolish them .
From the overall stock of an estimated 458 million workers , 394 million ( 86 % ) operate in the unorganised sector ( of which 63 % are self @-@ employed ) mostly as informal workers . There is a strong relationship between the quality of employment and social and poverty characteristics . The relative growth of informal employment was more rapid within the organised rather than the unorganised sector . This informalisation is also related to the flexibilisation of employment in the organised sector that is suggested by the increasing use of contract labour by employers in order to benefit from more flexible labour practices .
Children under 14 constitute 3 @.@ 6 % of the total labour force in the country . Of these children , 9 out of every 10 work in their own rural family settings . Around 85 % of them are engaged in traditional agricultural activities . Less than 9 % work in manufacturing , services and repairs . Child labour is a complex problem that is basically rooted in poverty . The Indian government is implementing the world 's largest child labour elimination program , with primary education targeted for ~ 250 million . Numerous non @-@ governmental and voluntary organisations are also involved . Special investigation cells have been set up in states to enforce existing laws banning employment of children ( under 14 ) in hazardous industries . The allocation of the Government of India for the eradication of child labour was US $ 10 million in 1995 – 96 and US $ 16 million in 1996 – 97 . The allocation for 2007 is US $ 21 million .
= = = Environmental degradation = = =
About 1 @.@ 2 billion people in developing nations lack clean , safe water because most household and industrial wastes are dumped directly into rivers and lakes without treatment . This contributes to the rapid increase in waterborne diseases in humans . Out of India 's 3119 towns and cities , just 209 have partial treatment facilities , and only 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities ( WHO 1992 ) . 114 cities dump untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies directly into the Ganges River . Downstream , the untreated water is used for drinking , bathing , and washing . This situation is typical of many rivers in India as well as other developing countries . Globally , but especially in developing nations like India where people cook with fuelwood and coal over open fires , about 4 billion humans suffer continuous exposure to smoke . In India , particulate concentrations in houses are reported to range from 8 @,@ 300 to 15 @,@ 000 μg / m3 , greatly exceeding the 75 μg / m3 maximum standard for indoor particulate matter in the United States . Changes in ecosystem biological diversity , evolution of parasites , and invasion by exotic species all frequently result in disease outbreaks such as cholera which emerged in 1992 in India . The frequency of AIDS / HIV is increasing . In 1996 , about 46 @,@ 000 Indians out of 2 @.@ 8 million ( 1 @.@ 6 % of the population ) tested were found to be infected with HIV .
= Guttorm of Norway =
Guttorm Sigurdsson ( Old Norse : Guthormr Sigurðarson ; 1199 – 11 August 1204 ) was the King of Norway from January to August 1204 , during the Norwegian civil war era . As a grandson of King Sverre , he was proclaimed king by the Birkebeiner party when he was just four years old . Although obviously not in control of the events surrounding him , Guttorm 's accession to the throne under the effective regency of Haakon the Crazy led to renewed conflict between the Birkebeiner and the Bagler parties , the latter supported militarily by Valdemar II of Denmark .
Guttorm 's reign ended abruptly when the child king suddenly became ill and died . Rumours among the Birkebeiner held that Guttorm 's illness and death had been caused by Haakon the Crazy 's future wife Christina Nilsdatter , a claim considered dubious by modern historians . Low @-@ intensity civil war followed Guttorm 's death , until a settlement was reached in 1207 , temporarily dividing the kingdom . Despite his status as king , Guttorm is not included in the official Norwegian regnal list .
= = Background = =
Guttorm was an illegitimate son of Sigurd Lavard and thus a grandson of King Sverre . The identity of his mother is unknown . Sigurd predeceased his father , Sverre , who died in 1202 and was succeeded by his younger son Haakon Sverresson . Haakon reigned until his own death on 1 January 1204 . Haakon had pursued a policy of peace and reunification between the Birkebeiner and Bagler during his short reign , but following his death relations between the parties collapsed and a new phase of the Norwegian civil wars began . Parts of the Birkebeiner were disgruntled by Haakon 's policy of reconciliation with the Bagler , which may have led to his death , following which the balance of power within the Birkebeiner switched immediately to the faction around Haakon the Crazy .
The day after Haakon 's death , the Birkebeiner designated Guttorm as king at a meeting of the hird , in consultation with Bishop Martin of Bergen . Sverre 's nephew Haakon the Crazy was simultaneously appointed regent as leader of the hird and the army . According to the Bǫglunga sǫgur ( Bagler sagas ) , the young king then took a sword and mounted it to Haakon 's side , and handed him a shield . He further gave Haakon the title of earl , with consent from all the chieftains , and had Haakon sit next to him at his throne . Haakon 's unusually strong position was thus symbolised by his sitting at the same level as the king , and not on a lower seat as would have been customary for an earl . Another of Sverre 's nephews , Peter Støyper , together with Einar Kongsmåg , husband of Sverre 's daughter Cecilia , were appointed as Guttorm 's guardians .
= = Revolt and death = =
The appointment of the warlike and power @-@ hungry Haakon the Crazy ( called " the mad dog " by the Bagler ) to key positions contributed to conflicts within the Birkebeiner , and a worsening of relations with the Bagler . Haakon 's elevation led the Bagler to believe that there was not much hope of peace with the Birkebeiner . The Bagler therefore travelled to Denmark and united around Erling Stonewall , an alleged son of former king Magnus Erlingsson , whom elements of the party had attempted to proclaim as king in 1203 . Their revolt was actively supported by Valdemar II of Denmark , who sought to regain the ancient Danish overlordship of Viken , in Norway .
Valdemar arrived in Viken in June with more than 300 ships , and Erling performed a trial by ordeal before the king in Tønsberg . In turn , the Danish king gave 35 ships to Erling , and together with Philip Simonsson ( another Bagler rival ) , he swore allegiance to Valdemar . Although Philip 's claim to the throne was supported by both Valdemar and the church , in the end , the Bagler proclaimed Erling as king and Philip as earl at Haugating and Borgarting ( things of the southeastern parts of Norway ) , and the Bagler quickly gained control of Viken . Guttorm was in turn proclaimed king ( konungstekja ) by the Birkebeiner at Øyrating in Trondheim in the spring or early summer . While Haakon the Crazy was in the process of gathering an army to fight the Bagler , likely at a second purely military assembly at Øyrating , Guttorm suddenly became ill and died on 11 August . He was buried at the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim .
In the longer version of the Bǫglunga sǫgur , it is insinuated that Guttorm 's illness and death were caused by Swedish @-@ born Christina Nilsdatter , who married Haakon the Crazy shortly after Guttorm 's death . Modern historians consider this claim to be dubious , derived from rumours spread by the Birkebeiner in connection with the sudden death of Haakon Sverresson some months earlier . The same source claims that Haakon was poisoned , allegedly by Sverre 's widow Margaret , Christina 's aunt . Haakon the Crazy 's bid to succeed Guttorm as king foundered because he was not trusted and had made powerful opponents . Guttorm 's death was followed by low @-@ intensity civil war between his successor Inge Bårdsson and the Bagler , until a settlement was reached between Inge , Haakon and the new Bagler pretender Philip Simonsson in 1207 , which for some years divided the kingdom .
= In Which We Meet Mr. Jones =
" In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The story begins when a FBI agent collapses from a parasite constricting his heart , and Olivia must meet with biochemist David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) in Frankfurt in order to find a cure . It featured the first appearance by Harris .
The episode was written by J. J. Abrams and Jeff Pinkner , and directed by Brad Anderson . The writers designed it to serve as the foundation for the " next chapter " in the season 's narrative .
It first aired in the United States on November 11 , 2008 on the Fox network to an estimated 8 @.@ 61 million viewers . Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed .
= = Plot = =
Agent Mitchell Loeb ( Chance Kelly ) , a friend of Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) , is on a group mission in Weymouth , Massachusetts but fails to find evidence of wrongdoing in a truck they targeted . Loeb and Broyles are in a meeting afterwards when Loeb collapses , seemingly of a heart attack or seizure . He is rushed to the hospital , where the medical staff cut open his chest , only to find his heart is being constricted by an engineered parasite . The Fringe division of Olivia , Walter , and Peter are briefed by Broyles , who then shows them the hospitalized Loeb .
At Harvard , the Bishops run tests on Loeb while Olivia talks with Loeb 's wife Samantha ( Trini Alvarado ) . Not recognizing the parasite , Walter pokes it with a blade in an attempt to remove it , and it constricts tighter around Loeb 's heart , further endangering his life . Walter is able to get a tissue sample , while Peter administers some medicine to calm Loeb 's heart . After a DNA analysis , Walter discovers a pattern " too organized to be accidental , too perfect to be natural . " Astrid thinks it is a Caesar cipher , and she and Olivia decipher the acronym " ZFT " . After talking with Broyles , Olivia is directed to talk to David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) , a biochemist being held incommunicado in " Wissenschaft Prison " , Frankfurt , Germany ( " Wissenschaft " is German for " science " ) . Broyles explains to her that ZFT are privately funded cells in 83 recorded countries that traffic in scientific progress , not weapons or drugs . Some fringe events in previous episodes may have been orchestrated by this group . He says little else is known .
Meanwhile , Peter and Walter discover the parasite has slowly worked its roots into Loeb 's circulatory system and extended through the IV into the IV drip ; they estimate Loeb has a day to live . After meeting with old friend Lucas Vogel ( Billy Burke ) , Olivia is able to secure a meeting with Jones , who may know a cure to the parasite slowly killing Loeb . Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) finds a sheet of code in Loeb 's briefcase listing agents from their field office . They suspect another mole with access to high level security clearances and tie it to a Joseph Smith , previously mentioned by Loeb as a suspected mole after the truck mission failure . Although she is not able to talk with Jones at first , he arranges for Olivia to be given a piece of paper with instructions demanding he first speak to Smith , a colleague of his , before he helps her . Smith is unfortunately killed soon after in a raid set up by Broyles . Walter , however , devises a way to wire Peter into the dead man 's brain , enabling Peter to speak on his behalf without Jones knowing Smith is dead . Smith 's " response " is " little hill , " which is an answer Jones seems pleased to hear . Jones duly tells Olivia a formula for the parasite , and the subsequent procedure is successful . The parasite is removed , but the team does not realize that the entire incident was orchestrated by Loeb and his wife to get the information Peter extracted from Smith . The final scene shows Samantha Loeb whispering " little hill " into her husband 's ear at the hospital .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams and executive producer Jeff Pinkner wrote the episode , and Brad Anderson directed it . Pinkner has stated that the first six episodes of season one served as a prologue , and that the following episodes , beginning with " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " , would be the " next chapter " in the story . Pinkner further described the episode as " foundational , " as it will set up " a lot of things will be set up which will come to pay off over the next several weeks " .
The character David Robert Jones is a reference to English musician David Bowie , who was born with that name . " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " was the first appearance of the character . When actor Jared Harris
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place in a venue comparable in size to those hosting the others . The expanded Second Chance takes place on a Saturday night , adding an extra week to the event 's timetable . The format of voting also changed with the introduction of a knock @-@ out system . The system pairs the eight songs off against each other , then narrows them down to four before pairing them off again . The winners of the two second round pairings go through to the final . The two finalists do not reprise their songs at the end of the programme .
= = = Final = = =
The final takes place at 20 : 00 CET on a Saturday in mid @-@ March . Ten songs ( 11 songs in 2009 , 12 in 2015 ) participate : two from each semifinal , two from the Second Chance round , and , only in 2009 , the international jury 's choice . A running order is decided by the competition 's supervisors the week before to ensure that similar songs and artists are kept apart in the final . Dress rehearsals for the final are held on the prior Friday , and tickets sell out almost as quickly as those for the final itself . The final attracts much tourism to its host city ; a survey in 2006 showed that 54 % of spectators had travelled from outside the host city , Stockholm . Of these , 6 % had come from outside Sweden .
As at Eurovision , a broadcast of the EBU logo introduces and closes the television coverage , accompanied by the prelude to Marc @-@ Antoine Charpentier 's setting of " Te Deum " . Video " postcards " introduce the entries . The final includes interval performances , which are performed while the juries deliberate and before the televote closes . Former Melodifestivalen contestants have performed as interval acts in the past , including Lena Philipsson in 2005 and the multi @-@ artist medley of former entries in 2000 .
The winner receives a trophy , Den stora Sångfågeln ( The Great Songbird ) , from the previous year 's winner . The trophy , designed by Ernst Billgren , was unveiled in 2005 and awarded to all previous Melodifestivalen winners at the Alla tiders Melodifestival gala in March of that year . The winner of the competition reprises their song at the end of the event .
= = Voting = =
Before the introduction of the current voting system in 1999 , a group of regional or age @-@ based juries decided the winner of Melodifestivalen . In 1993 , televoting was used experimentally , but proved unsuccessful . The Swedish telephone network collapsed due to the number of calls , and claims by the Swedish tabloid press suggested the use of televoting had drastically altered the results . Evening newspapers released what they claimed to be the back @-@ up juries ' votes , which showed that the winner , Arvingarna 's " Eloise " , would have finished fourth had the juries ' votes counted . SVT never confirmed the accuracy of these claims .
The current voting format introduced in 1999 is a positional voting system , similar to that used at the Eurovision Song Contest . The voting is made up of two segments , in the first of which juries announce their votes ; in the second segment the televoting result is announced . The total value of votes has usually been 2 x 473 points , which means that televotes and juries have an equal 50 / 50 weighing in the final result . The juries , usually 11 , have represented either Swedish regions or , since 2010 , countries participating in the year 's Eurovision Song Contest . Each jury award 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , and 12 points to their top seven songs . After the jury voting , the televoting result is revealed by the hosts in ascending order . Between 1999 and 2011 , the televoting points were fixed ; the top seven songs would receive 11 , 22 , 44 , 66 , 88 , 110 and 132 points . Starting in 2011 , televoting points are given to each entry based on its percentage of total vote . If an entry receives 10 % of the televotes it will be equivalent to 10 % of 473 points , i.e. 48 points . The song with the highest number of points at the end of the voting is the winner .
Telephone lines open immediately after the radio preview for the final and do not close until the juries have voted . Two telephone numbers are used for each song , giving voters the option of whether to donate money to SVT 's Radiohjälpen charity appeal or not as they vote . Viewers can also vote by text message , and only residents of Sweden can vote .
The votes of the juries are announced by spokespeople who are not members of the juries . The votes are read in ascending order , beginning with one point and finishing with twelve . When read , they are repeated by the host , for example :
Spokesperson : " Ett poäng till melodi nummer två . " ( One point to song number two . )
Presenter : Ett poäng till ( name song ) . " ( One point to ( name song ) . )
Since 2012 , most spokespeople have announced the points in English , with the hosts repeating them in Swedish .
As the votes are announced , they are collated on a graphic scoreboard . SVT varies the way the jury votes are announced from year to year . For example , the finalists of Expedition : Robinson acted as spokespeople in 2004 , and in 2006 Fredrik Lindström announced jury tallies using the dialects of each region . The final of Melodifestivalen has broken Nordic voting records on several occasions ; in 2007 , voting figures exceeded two million for the first time .
If there is a tie , the song that has received more votes from the public receives the higher position . There have been two ties for first place in the history of the contest . In 1969 , Tommy Körberg tied for first place with Jan Malmsjö . The juries them voted for their favourite out the two , leading to Tommy Körberg winning . In 1978 , Björn Skifs tied for first place with Lasse Holm and Wizex ( performing together ) ; a similar tie @-@ break process resulting in Skifs winning .
= = Winners = =
Fifty @-@ five of Sweden 's fifty @-@ six Eurovision representatives have come from Melodifestivalen . Sweden has won the Eurovision Song Contest six times : in 1974 , 1984 , 1991 , 1999 , 2012 and 2015 . Sweden has the second highest number of wins for a country at Eurovision ; only Ireland has won the contest more often . The 1974 Eurovision winner , ABBA 's " Waterloo " , was voted the most popular Melodifestivalen song of all time at the Alla tiders Melodifestival gala in March 2005 . Later that year , it was voted most popular Eurovision song of the contest 's first fifty years at a gala in Copenhagen . The following table lists those entries which finished fifth or higher at Eurovision :
= = Presenters = =
This list includes those who have acted as presenters of Melodifestivalen . In 1986 , there were two presenters for the first time , while in 2000 , 2004 , 2005 and 2006 , various people were presented the shows .
= = = Presenters who have competed at Eurovision = = =
= = = Presenters who have presented the Eurovision in Sweden = = =
= = Rules = =
Most of Melodifestivalen 's rules are dictated by those of the Eurovision Song Contest . However , regulations have been introduced by the Swedish broadcasters . The competition 's official rules are released by SVT early in preparation for each year 's Melodifestival , to ensure any changes are noted by songwriters and performers .
There was a limit of six people on stage for each performance . This included the Melodifestivalen choir ( huskören , literally " the house choir " ) , a five @-@ person group of flexible backing singers used by most participants . Artists could use some or all of the back @-@ up singers , or use their own group . All vocals had to be completely live ; human voices were not allowed on backing tracks . However , from 2009 , the number of performers allowed on stage was eight , and voices were allowed on backing tracks . A live orchestra was used every year from the event 's debut to 2000 , except 1985 and 1986 . Two orchestras were used between 1960 and 1963 , a large orchestra and Göte Wilhelmsons kvartett , a jazz quartet . Since 2001 , participants have performed to backing tracks .
Entries cannot be publicly broadcast until the semifinals are previewed on radio . Entries eliminated in the semifinals may be broadcast as soon as the semifinal has finished . An embargo is placed on songs that qualify for the later rounds until the previews for the Second Chance are broadcast . After this , restrictions on the broadcast of contestant songs are lifted .
Broadcasters sometimes make sweeping changes to winning songs before they go to Eurovision . For example , at Melodifestivalen 1961 , Siw Malmkvist won with " April , April " . Performing after her victory , she stumbled on the lyrics of the song and laughed out loud . The press criticised this as childish . SR replaced her with Lill @-@ Babs for the Eurovision Song Contest . The 1987 winner " Fyra bugg och en Coca Cola " , performed by Lotta Engberg , is another example ; the song 's title was changed to " Boogaloo " for Eurovision , as use of a brand name was against the Contest 's rules . This name was chosen as Sweden 's two previous Eurovision winners had also included the suffix " -loo " .
Until 1999 , competing songs were only permitted in Swedish , apart from 1965 , 1973 , 1974 , 1975 . This did not stop most winning entries recording English ( and other language ) versions of their songs . Since the abolition of Eurovision 's language restrictions in 1999 , regardless of the performance language at Melodifestivalen , every Swedish entry has been in English . Spanish , French , Greek , Italian , Portuguese , Bosnian and Persian are among the other languages to have featured . Cameron Cartio 's entry in Melodifestivalen 2005 was performed in a constructed language .
= = Media coverage = =
Melodifestivalen is broadcast on television , radio and the internet . It is broadcast on SVT1 with international coverage on SVT World . Until 1987 , the competition was broadcast on Sveriges Radio TV , later known as TV1 . Between 1988 and 2000 , the event was broadcast on different channels depending on where it was held . Finals in Stockholm were broadcast on Kanal 1 ( formerly TV1 ) while finals in Gothenburg or Malmö were broadcast on TV2 . Sveriges Radio has broadcast the event on P1 , P3 and P4 , where is currently broadcast .
Although the final is traditionally held on a Saturday , in 1990 it was held on a Friday . TV2 suggested this would attract more viewers . In 1991 , it was held on Easter Sunday for the same reason . The 2002 final was delayed by a week for coverage of the 2002 Winter Olympics .
The competition has had an official website since 1999 . Webcasts have been provided since 2005 . Since 2006 , between February and the Eurovision final in May , SR has webcast a radio station dedicated to the competition called P4 Melodifest . On P4 , the public previews semifinalists every Friday . Broadcast the night after the final , a dagen efter ( " the day after " ) television programme acts as an epilogue to the event . It gauges the reactions of the finalists after the competition 's climax . No commentary is given for the event on television . Carolina Norén is commentator on the event for Sveriges Radio . The festival has been broadcast in widescreen since 2002 and Dolby Digital since 2004 .
The competition 's viewing figures have been rising since 2002 . In 2007 , approximately 4 @.@ 1 million Swedes — almost 44 % of the country 's population — watched the final , and between 2 @.@ 9 million and 3 @.@ 2 million viewers watched each of the semifinals . The viewing figures for the 2007 festival are nearly two million short of the highest recorded viewing figures from 1990 . Melodifestivalen is given heavy coverage in the Swedish press . A study by the Economic Science and Communication Department at Karlstad University concluded that coverage from the press may have influenced the results of the 2007 festival .
= = Musical styles and presentation = =
Melodifestivalen 's image has evolved throughout its existence , but one word has defined the competition 's music : schlager . In Sweden , schlager ( a German word literally meaning a " hit " ) represents any song associated with the competition , from the jazz music featured heavily in the 1960s to entries such as Linda Bengtzing 's in 2006 . Christine Demsteader of The Local described Swedish schlager as " typically characterized by an annoyingly repetitive melody and trivial lyrics of little or no meaning " .
Jazz artists such as Monica Zetterlund and Östen Warnerbring won the event in the 1960s . ABBA , who won Eurovision in 1974 , went on to be Sweden 's most successful music export . The group influenced not only Melodifestivalen , but the entire Swedish mainstream music scene . In the 1980s , Bert Karlsson 's Mariann Grammofon record label was responsible for the prevalence of " easy , memorable tunes " . The early twenty @-@ first century has seen more variety in the competition , such as The Ark 's " retro glam rock " effort and Afro @-@ dite 's disco winner .
On @-@ stage gimmicks have long been a part of performances at the competition . Lena Philipsson 's use of a microphone stand in her performance of " Det gör ont " at the 2004 competition is an example . When Philipsson hosted Melodifestivalen in 2006 , four tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek short films were broadcast during the semifinals to show what had happened to the microphone stand in the years since her win . Pyrotechnics are another common gimmick in Melodifestivalen performances . After the 2007 event , Karolina Lassbo of Dagens Media criticised the festival 's musical content and production , arguing that the 1988 competition was " the time when Melodifestivalen was still a schlager competition " and the event had become " a cross between [ reality series ] Fame Factory and [ inter @-@ city game show ] Stadskampen " .
= Addicted to You ( Shakira song ) =
" Addicted to You " is a song recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for her ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album by Epic Records , on 13 March 2012 . " Addicted to You " was written by Shakira , El Cata , John Hill and Luis Fernando Ochoa , and is a merengue @-@ influenced song on the album . The song also draws prominent influences from reggaeton music , and lyrically describes Shakira 's infatuation for a lover . Despite having an English title , the majority of the song is sung in Spanish .
Upon its release , critics were generally favourable towards " Addicted to You " , and praised its uptempo beats . The song reached number one on the Monitor Latino chart in Mexico , where it was later certified platinum by the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers ( AMPROFON ) . It also performed well on the charts of countries Poland , Spain , and France . In the United States , the single performed well on the Latin record charts , peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and at number three on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs chart .
An accompanying music video for " Addicted to You " was directed by Anthony Mandler , and features Shakira singing the song in various locations while sporting different outfits . Many critics praised the video 's overall appeal and Shakira 's appearance . The video reached over 100 million views on video @-@ sharing website YouTube , and received a " Vevo Certified " by joint venture music video website Vevo for the achievement .
= = Background and composition = =
" Addicted to You " was written by Dominican rapper and record producer Edward Bello , American record producer John Hill , Luis Fernando Ochoa and Shakira , for the singer 's ninth studio album Sale el Sol . The album marked the first time she worked with Bello , who is better known by his stage name El Cata , and their collaboration started after Shakira expressed her desire to experiment with merengue music , saying " I grew up listening to merengue — that was a big part of my life , and I was missing it " . Merengue is a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic , and after being referred to Bello by American rapper Pitbull , Shakira travelled to the country and began recording sessions with him in his " tiny " studio in Santo Domingo . Bello talked about his collaboration with Shakira , saying " If I was thinking that this little studio was going to be in the world ’ s vision at this time , I wouldn ’ t believe it " . On 14 March 2012 , Shakira 's official website announced that " Addicted to You " would be the fifth and final single to be released from Sale el Sol . It was made available for digital download on Amazon.com and ITunes by Epic Records a day earlier .
According to Shakira , Sale el Sol has three " directions " , one of which is the " Latino , tropical side " of the album . " Addicted to You " , along with other tracks " Loca and " Rabiosa " , is a primary example of this musical direction . In addition to merengue , " Addicted to You " is influenced by reggaeton music and features " a very 70 's chorus and Copacabana sounds " . Despite having an English title , the words " Addicted to You " are only sung in the chorus , and the rest of the song is sung entirely in Spanish . Lyrically , it details Shakira 's infatuation with a lover .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception towards " Addicted to You " was mostly positive . Jennifer Schaffer from The Stanford Daily commented that the song prevents the listener from getting " lulled " and " hurries back to the hip @-@ swaying dance beat " . Michelle Morgante from The Boston Globe picked the song as an example of Shakira 's " new merengue @-@ rock hybrid that lays down bare horn riffs over a driving beat in a groove that is irresistible " . Carlos Macias from Terra USA , however , gave it a negative review and criticized its use of a " cheap keyboard that drives the tune reminds us of music played at weddings and quinceañeras " . In 2013 , Latina included " Addicted to You " on their list of " The 13 Best Songs in Spanglish " and commented that " If non @-@ Spanish speakers can ’ t pick up the language after listening to this track , then we feel bad for you , son " . At the 28th International Dance Music Awards held in 2013 , " Addicted to You " was nominated for " Best Latin Dance Track " . It was also nominated at the 2013 Billboard Latin Music Awards for Latin Pop Song of the Year . El Cata received an ASCAP Latin award at the Pop category for his composition of the song .
Commercially , " Addicted to You " was a particular success in Mexico . It peaked at number one on the Monitor Latino chart in the region , and was later certified platinum by the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 60 @,@ 000 units . Elsewhere , the song reached number one on the Polish Airplay chart . In France and Spain , the song peaked at numbers 15 and 14 , respectively . " Addicted to You " also performed well on the Latin record charts in the United States . It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and stayed on the chart for a total 20 weeks . It peaked at number three on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs charts , staying on the charts for a total of 26 and 13 weeks , respectively . The song was acknowledged as an award winning song at the 2011 BMI Latin Awards .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Addicted to You " was directed by Anthony Mandler in a one @-@ day period in Valencia , California . The video premiered worldwide on 2 May 2012 , and became a " trending topic " on online social networking and microblogging service Twitter following its release . The plot @-@ less music video features Shakira singing the song in various locations while " writhing around " on a bed in candlelit room , dancing in front of " some foliage " in the streets of an " old Spanish style " town , and " splashing around in a bathtub " . Shakira is seen wearing high fashion @-@ outfits throughout the video , which include a black and white polka dot blouse with a thick leather belt and high @-@ cut black underwear , a cut @-@ out swimsuit and long striped maxi skirt , and a mini white T @-@ shirt dress . Shakira also sports shoulder @-@ length " shaggy " blonde hair in the video .
Critical reception of the video was generally positive . Andrea Magrath from Daily Mail called Shakira 's look in the video " sexier than ever " . Jenna Hally Rubenstein from MTV praised Shakira 's appearance in the video , saying she looks " insanely en pointe " while " doing that ridic Shakira hip move nobody else can replicate " . Becky Bain from Idolator commented that the video is a " complete success " in case " the main draw of watching a Shakira video is to watch the Colombian singer swivel her honest hips around pretty backdrops while wearing revealing clothing " . The video became immensely popular on video @-@ sharing website YouTube , and was marked " Vevo Certified " by joint venture music video website Vevo for reaching more than 100 million views .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Battle of Pyongtaek =
The Battle of Pyongtaek was the second engagement between United States and North Korean forces during the Korean War , occurring on July 6 , 1950 in the village of Pyongtaek in western South Korea . The fight ended in a North Korean victory following unsuccessful attempts by American forces to inflict significant damage or delays on advancing North Korean units , despite several opportunities to do so .
The United States Army 's 34th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division was assigned to delay elements of the North Korean People 's Army 's 4th Infantry Division as it advanced south following its victory at the Battle of Osan the day before . The regiment emplaced at Pyongtaek and Ansong attempting to form a line to hold the North Koreans in an area where the terrain formed a bottleneck between mountains and the Yellow Sea .
Half of the regiment 's strength was ordered to retreat from its position before the North Korean force was encountered , leaving the flank open for the remaining force , 1st Battalion at Pyongtaek . The battalion encountered North Korean forces the morning of July 6 , and after a brief fight , was unable to repel them effectively . The battalion then mounted a disorganized retreat to Cheonan several miles away , having failed to significantly delay the North Korean forces in their movement south .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
On the night of June 25 , 1950 , 10 divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched a full @-@ scale invasion on the nation 's neighbor to the south , the Republic of Korea . The force of 89 @,@ 000 men moved in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army completely by surprise , resulting in a disastrous rout for the South Koreans , who were disorganized , ill @-@ equipped , and unprepared for war . Numerically superior , North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the front , advancing steadily south . Most of South Korea 's forces retreated in the face of the invasion , and by June 28 , the North Koreans had captured Seoul , South Korea 's capital , forcing the government and its shattered forces to withdraw south .
The United Nations Security Council voted to send assistance to the collapsing country . US President Harry S. Truman subsequently ordered ground troops into the nation . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II five years earlier . At the time , the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan under the command of Major General William F. Dean . However , the division was under strength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending following World War II . In spite of these deficiencies , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
= = = Battle of Osan = = =
From the 24th Infantry Division , one battalion was assigned to be airlifted into Korea via C @-@ 54 Skymaster transport aircraft and move quickly to block advancing North Korean forces while the remainder of the division could be transported to South Korea on ships . The 21st Infantry Regiment was determined to be the most combat @-@ ready of the 24th Infantry Division 's three regiments , and the 21st Infantry 's 1st Battalion was selected because its commander , Lieutenant Colonel Charles B. Smith , was the most experienced , having commanded a battalion at the Battle of Guadalcanal during World War II . On July 5 , Task Force Smith engaged North Korean forces at the Battle of Osan , delaying over 5 @,@ 000 North Korean infantry for seven hours before being routed and forced back .
During that time , the 24th Division 's 34th Infantry Regiment , with 2 @,@ 000 men organized into the 1st and 3rd Battalions , was the second US unit into Korea , and was sent by rail north from Pusan . The 1st Battalion , 34th Infantry emplaced at Pyongtaek , 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Osan , to block the next North Korean advance . Pyongtaek was a village consisting mostly of wooden huts and muddy roads In the meantime , 3rd Battalion , 34th Infantry was emplaced at Anseong , several miles east . The two battalions were assigned to form a line to block any North Korean advance . Terrain south of the Ansong – Pyongtaek line was substantially more open , meaning the line sat on a bottleneck , with mountain ranges to the east and an inlet of the Yellow Sea to the west . Therefore , Dean considered the line vital to his defensive plans .
The 1st Battalion was unprepared for a fight as it was poorly trained and had no tanks or anti @-@ tank guns to fight North Korean armor . Shortages of equipment hampered the entire division 's efforts . Shortages in heavy guns reduced artillery support to the entire division . Communications equipment , weapons , and ammunition was largely absent , large amounts of equipment were en route but the division had been under @-@ equipped in Japan . Most of the radios available to the division did not work , and batteries , communication wire , and telephones to communicate among units were in short supply . The division had no tanks : its new M26 Pershing and older M4A3 Sherman tanks had not yet arrived . One of the few weapons that could penetrate the North Korean T @-@ 34 , high explosive anti @-@ tank ammunition , was in short supply . The paucity of radios and wire hampered communication between and among the American units .
The battalion 's new commander , Lieutenant Colonel Ayres , was apparently given faulty intelligence , and he told his command that the Koreans advancing south were poorly trained and poorly equipped . The battalion formed a line 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Pyongtaek , in a series of grassy hills and rice paddies where it dug in and prepared for advancing North Korean forces . The soldiers of the battalion were equipped with only M1 Garand rifles or other weapons , C @-@ rations , and less than 100 rounds of ammunition each , whilst only one M2 Browning machine gun was available to each platoon . There were no grenades and little to no ammunition for any of the heavier weapons which could be used against North Korean tanks . Additionally , only a few of the soldiers of the regiment had any combat experience from World War II , and they had been hastily transferred from another division the day before .
= = Battle = =
= = = Opening moves = = =
A reconnaissance team sent north on the evening of July 5 reported seeing tanks south of Osan . The team attempted to destroy a tank it spotted in the village of Sojong but was unsuccessful ; it suffered one killed ( Private Kenneth R. Shadrick ) and was forced to return to Pyongtaek . Shortly after , several survivors from Task Force Smith arrived at 1st Battalion 's command post telling stories of their defeat at Osan , but Ayres did not believe they were accurate . Brigadier General George B. Barth , acting division artillery commander for the 24th Infantry Division , stopped by the command post and ordered that the battalion hold only as long as it could , and not to risk being flanked or surrounded , wary of the defeat at Osan . Barth then moved to the 34th Infantry Regiment 's command where he ordered regimental commander Colonel Jay B. Lovless to consolidate the Regiment at Cheonan to the south . Lovless subsequently moved 3rd Battalion south , without having ever engaged the enemy . Barth believed the 34th Infantry would not be able to defend Pyongtaek as long as the 21st Infantry defended Osan . From 3rd Battalion , L Company was detached and ordered to hold south of Pyongtaek to cover the 1st Battalion when it retreated . This order was not carried out , and L Company left for Chonan .
Having pushed back Task Force Smith at Osan , the North Korean 4th Infantry Division , supported by elements of the North Korean 105th Armored Division , continued their advance down the Osan @-@ Pyongtaek road , up to 12 @,@ 000 men strong under division commander Lee Kwon Mu in two infantry regiments supported by dozens of tanks . Barth , who had been with Task Force Smith as an observer , had ordered the 1st Battalion , 34th Infantry to hold until the North Koreans threatened to envelop them , then to fall back to successive positions south , delaying the North Korean force as long as possible . At midnight on July 5 , several more survivors of Task Force Smith streamed into the battalion 's lines . At 0300 on July 6 , the battalion destroyed a small bridge over a stream 600 yards ( 550 m ) north of its position .
= = = North Korean attack = = =
Rain and fog were heavy throughout the morning of July 6 , and visibility was limited for the emplaced troops . Just after daybreak , 13 North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks were spotted stopped at the bridge . Following them were two columns of infantry . The American forces originally believed that they might be survivors of Task Force Smith until they realized the forces were deploying in numbers too great , and began preparing to attack the unsuspecting North Koreans . The battalion 's commander ordered mortar fire on the North Korean forces , causing them to disperse as the lead tank began firing on the positions of A Company , on a hill southwest of the road . Mortar fire destroyed a truck , but a round from a North Korean tank stunned the artillery observer and no one took his place in the confusion , ending the American mortar attack . North Korean forces immediately began advancing on A Company 's position , but the company was not able to return fire effectively , with fewer than half of its soldiers using their weapons . For several minutes only squad and platoon leaders shot back while the rest of the soldiers hid in their foxholes . Within fifteen minutes , B Company was able to return fire effectively , and by this time the North Korean forces had advanced steadily toward 1st Battalion 's position . Later examinations found many American soldiers ' weapons were assembled incorrectly or were dirty or broken . The Americans had nothing with which to fight the tanks , and were unable to do anything to stop them .
As North Korean soldiers advanced , they began to envelop both A and B Companies , and 30 minutes after the first shots were fired , both companies were ordered to withdraw , one platoon at a time . C Company , kept in reserve during the engagement , retreated without coming in contact with North Korean forces . A Company , under the heaviest attack , attempted a gradual withdrawal which quickly became disorderly , as men ran from the hill , some without weapons and ammunition , being strafed by North Korean machine guns the entire time . Panic quickly overtook many of the men of the battalion , and they started running past the designated rally points , all the way to Pyongtaek . Others , too scared to retreat , remained in their foxholes and were captured by the North Korean forces . One officer attempted to stay behind and search for survivors , before he and three others were allegedly captured and executed by North Korean forces . Company commanders gathered what men they could and began moving south , though one @-@ fourth of 1st Battalion was killed , missing or captured immediately after the brief fight . The retreating elements left a trail of equipment behind , littering the road back to Pyongtaek with ammunition , helmets , and rain gear . In the disorderly retreat one platoon from A Company was left behind , and had to retreat through a railway for cover .
= = = American withdrawal = = =
The battalion regrouped at Pyongtaek itself , mostly a mass of disorganized soldiers without leadership . Engineers with the battalion demolished a bridge north of the town before moving south . The remains of A Company then headed for Cheonan , regrouping there with the rest of
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congregation , and membership dropped . In order to cope with the financial burdens , dues were raised , teachers were given endorsed notes rather than paychecks , the Executive Secretary was laid off , pews were sold , and individual members provided mortgage guarantees . The synagogue survived , and membership recovered ; by 1934 there were 300 members , and by 1944 there were 1 @,@ 100 .
In 1950 , East Midwood built a three story school building and a two @-@ story bridge link between the school and synagogue . At its peak in the early 1950s the school had an enrollment of almost 1 @,@ 000 .
East Midwood later created a Conservative Jewish day school , serving students from kindergarten to Grade 8 , and also providing " afternoon religious instruction for public school students through high school . " The school was subsequently renamed the Rabbi Harry Halpern Day School , in honor of Rabbi Halpern .
In October 1968 , then Mayor of New York City John Lindsay was booed and jeered by a huge crowd at the East Midwood Jewish Center , in an infamous incident during the 1968 New York City teachers strike . Lindsay had supported a school decentralization plan that had pitted mostly black parents against mostly Jewish teachers and school administration ; after the administrator of the Ocean Hill — Brownsville school board dismissed 13 teachers and 6 administrators ( mostly Jewish ) for opposing decentralization , the United Federation of Teachers " called a strike that closed 85 percent of the city 's 900 schools for 55 days " .
When Lindsay arrived he was met by a mob of 2 @,@ 000 people outside the synagogue , who shouted " Lindsay must go " and " we want Shanker " . Halpern admonished the protesters , asking " Is this the exemplification of the Jewish faith ? " , but many replied " yes " . Lindsay was heckled off the podium by the audience inside , and his limousine was " pounded on " and " pelted with trash " by the mob outside ( which had grown to 5 @,@ 000 ) as he drove away . The strike , which was marked by " threats of violence and diatribes laced with racism and anti @-@ Semitism " , ended when the New York legislature suspended the administrator and the board .
Following Halpern 's retirement in 1977 , East Midwood hired as rabbi Alvin Kass , a graduate of Columbia College and the JTSA , with a Ph.D. in philosophy from New York University .
= = = Late 20th @-@ Early 21st century = = =
As Brooklyn 's changing demographics have made non @-@ Orthodox institutions less viable , East Midwood has absorbed three other congregations , including the Jewish Communal Center of Flatbush , where East Midwood had held its first annual meeting , and , in 1978 , Flatbush 's Congregation Shaare Torah . In 1996 , membership was 1 @,@ 000 families .
The synagogue building has remained architecturally unchanged since its construction , and was from the 1990s until 2010 the only synagogue in Brooklyn with a functioning swimming pool . In June 2006 , it was added to the NRHP . That year the congregation received a $ 300 @,@ 000 loan from the New York Landmarks Conservancy for repairs for " masonry and steel repairs on the side and rear facades . " It also raised $ 40 @,@ 000 in order to receive a 2 : 1 " matching grant " of $ 20 @,@ 000 from the Conservancy , and completed the repair work in 2007 . In November 2007 East Midwood was awarded a $ 409 @,@ 575 New York State Environmental Protection Fund grant to " restore features of the sanctuary including stained glass windows , stained glass dome and skylight . "
Aaron Pomerantz joined as associate rabbi in 1978 . Born in Poland , he had escaped Europe after the outbreak of World War II , moving to Canada and then the United States . There he graduated from Manhattan 's Washington Irving High School , and in 1952 received his rabbinic ordination from Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin . From 1948 he had served as ritual director and then rabbi of Congregation Shaare Torah , joining the East Midwood Jewish Center when the two congregations merged . He served until his death in May 2009 .
Dr. Alvin Kass served as Rabbi from 1976 @-@ 2014 . Kass has also been a New York City Police Department chaplain for over 40 years , and had previously served as a United States Air Force chaplain for two years . At one point during his service as Police Department chaplain he and his family received months of 24 @-@ hour security after death threats , and at another he defused a hostage situation by providing the hostage taker with sandwiches from the Carnegie Deli . Kass , who teaches ethics at the Police Academy , was instrumental in getting Jewish police officers time off to observe the Sabbath . He also convinced the NYPD Shomrim Society ( the fraternal organization of Jewish members of the New York City Police Department ) to admit David Durk . Durk , along with the more famous Frank Serpico , had been the source of the allegations of police corruption that led to the formation of the Knapp Commission . In 2014 , Rabbi Kass retired from the position of Rabbi at East Midwood Jewish Center and currently serves as Rabbi Emeritus .
As of 2014 , Rabbi Matt Carl and Cantor Samuel Levine serve as the clergy of East Midwood Jewish Center .
= = Architecture = =
The East Midwood Jewish Center building 's architect is uncertain . The design is officially credited to the Building Committee and Irving Warshaw , the construction superintendent . The architect 's name is not recorded in synagogue records , nor on the building 's dedicatory plaque . The Center 's National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) nomination form , however , argues that the architect was Louis Abramson , based on visual evidence and one piece of written evidence .
Abramson was a leading architect of synagogue @-@ centers at that time . He designed a number of New York examples , including the original synagogue @-@ center , the Manhattan Jewish Center ( 1918 ) , as well as the Brooklyn Jewish Center , the Flatbush Jewish Center , and the Ocean Parkway Jewish Center ( all constructed in Brooklyn between 1920 and 1924 ) . While the Flatbush Jewish Center has been completely remodeled , the Brooklyn and Ocean Parkway Jewish Centers are visually similar to the East Midwood Jewish Center , and the Brooklyn Jewish Center in particular has an identical layout . The written evidence consists of an entry in a souvenir journal commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the Flatbush Jewish Center , stating that Abramson drew East Midwood 's plans . The NRHP nomination form speculates that Abramson drew the basic plans for the East Midwood Center , and that the Building Committee completed them , in order to save money .
Alternatively , Maurice Courland 's 1957 obituary claims the East Midwood Jewish Center as his work . Courland also designed a number of synagogues and New York landmarks , including Brooklyn 's Magen David Synagogue .
= = Famous members = =
Author and talk show host Dennis Prager taught at East Midwood 's Hebrew Day school , and famous congregational members have included Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , who was confirmed at East Midwood , and filmmaker Marc Levin . Levin 's grandfather , Herman Levin , had been a president of the East Midwood Jewish Center , and had also helped found , and been a long @-@ time lay @-@ leader of , the Reconstructionist movement .
East Midwood has also had members who have died under tragic circumstances , including Jason Sekzer , who was killed in the September 11 , 2001 attacks , and Danny Farkas , a New York police lieutenant and National Guard soldier who died while stationed in Kabul , Afghanistan .
= Robert le diable =
Robert le diable ( Robert the Devil ) is an opera in five acts composed by Giacomo Meyerbeer from a libretto written by Eugène Scribe and Germain Delavigne . Robert le diable is regarded as one of the first grand operas at the Paris Opéra . It has only a superficial connection to the medieval legend of Robert the Devil .
The opera was immediately successful from its first night on 21 November 1831 at the Opéra ; the dramatic music , harmony and orchestration , its melodramatic plot , its star singers and its sensational stage effects compelled Frédéric Chopin , who was in the audience , to say , " If ever magnificence was seen in the theatre , I doubt that it reached the level of splendour shown in Robert ... It is a masterpiece ... Meyerbeer has made himself immortal " . Robert initiated the European fame of its composer , consolidated the fame of its librettist , Scribe , and launched the reputation of the new director of the Opéra , Louis @-@ Désiré Véron , as a purveyor of a new genre of opera . It also had influence on development of the ballet , and was frequently mentioned and discussed in contemporary French literature .
Robert continued as a favourite in opera houses all over the world throughout the nineteenth century . After a period of neglect , it began to be revived towards the end of the twentieth century .
= = Background = =
Giacomo Meyerbeer 's early studies had been in Germany , but from 1816 to 1825 he worked in Italy . There he studied opera , then dominated by Gioachino Rossini , and wrote his own Italian operas , which were moderately successful and also had some performances in other European countries . The success of Il crociato in Egitto ( 1824 ) throughout Europe , including at Paris in 1825 , persuaded Meyerbeer , who was already thirty @-@ three years old , to fulfil at last his ambition to base himself in Paris , and to seek a suitable libretto for an opera to be launched there .
Meyerbeer first mentions Robert le diable in his diaries in February 1827 . The Journal de Paris announced on 19 April 1827 that the libretto of Scribe and Delavigne had been passed by the censor and that ' the music is to be entrusted to a composer , M. Meyer @-@ Beer , who , having acquired a brilliant reputation in Germany and Italy , is extending it to our country , where several of his works have been already successfully represented.'
The libretto was fabricated on the basis of old legends about Duke Robert the Magnificent of Normandy , the father of William the Conqueror , alleged in some versions to have been the son of the Devil . The librettists padded out this outline with a variety of melodramatic incidents . The plot reflected ' the fantastic legendary elements which fascinated the opera public of 1830 ' , a taste which had evolved from the 1824 Paris production of Carl Maria von Weber 's Der Freischütz ( in its French version Robin des bois ) , which also features a doubtful hero befriended by a demon promising him success .
The libretto was originally planned as a three @-@ act opéra comique for the Opéra @-@ Comique theatre . Meyerbeer stopped work on the opera in 1827 when the theatre underwent financial difficulties . In August 1829 , the composer and librettists agreed to refashion the work in a five @-@ act form to meet the requirements of the Paris Opéra . This entailed some significant rewriting of the storyline , reducing the essentially comic role of Raimbaut ( who vanishes after Act 3 in the final version , but whose antics – including the spending of Bertram 's money – continued throughout in the earlier libretto ) . It also meant that the traditional ' pairing ' of lovers in opéra comique ( Robert / Isabelle paralleled throughout by the ' lower @-@ class ' Raimbaut / Alice ) was swept aside in favour of concentration on the more sensational story @-@ line of Robert 's diabolic ancestry .
The contract for the opera , specifying it as a " grand opera in five acts and seven scenes " , was signed by the then director of the Opéra , Émile Lubbert , on 29 December 1829 . Meyerbeer completed the composition of the work in Spa , Belgium in June and July 1830 . Its characterisation as a ' grand opera ' placed it in succession to Auber 's La muette de Portici ( 1828 ) and Rossini 's Guillaume Tell ( 1829 ) in this new genre . The composer undertook further work on the opera in early 1831 , converting spoken passages to recitatives and adding ballet episodes , including , in Act 3 , the " Ballet of the Nuns " , which was to prove one of the opera 's great sensations , and which Henri Duponchel had suggested to replace the original humdrum scenario set in Olympus . He also rewrote the two major male roles of Bertrand and Robert to suit the talents of Nicolas Levasseur and Adolphe Nourrit , respectively .
= = Performance history = =
= = = Premiere seasons in Paris = = =
The opera premiered on 21 November 1831 at the Paris Opéra . The success owed much to the opera 's star singers – Levasseur as Bertram , Nourrit as Robert — and to the provocative " Ballet of the Nuns " in the third act , featuring the great ballerina , Marie Taglioni .
The choreography for the ballet was elaborated by the ballerina 's father , Filippo Taglioni . The audience 's prurient delight in this scandalous scene is well conveyed by the reviewer for the Revue des Deux @-@ Mondes :
A crowd of mute shades glides through the arches . All these women cast off their nuns ' costume , they shake off the cold powder of the grave ; suddenly they throw themselves into the delights of their past life ; they dance like bacchantes , they play like lords , they drink like sappers . What a pleasure to see these light women ...
The set for the ballet was an innovative and striking design by Henri Duponchel and Pierre @-@ Luc @-@ Charles Ciceri . Duponchel had also introduced technical innovations for the staging , including ' English traps ' for the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghosts . ( Meyerbeer was led to complain that the spectacle was too much and was pushing his music into the background ) . Taglioni danced the Abbess only six times in Paris ; she was replaced by Louise Fitzjames , ( who danced the role 232 times ) .
At the invitation of Nourrit , Cornélie Falcon made her debut at the age of 18 at the Opéra in the role of Alice on 20 July 1832 . The cast included Nourrit . Although suffering from stage fright , Falcon managed to sing her first aria without error , and finished her role with " ease and competence . " Her tragic demeanor and dark looks were highly appropriate to the part , and she made a vivid impression on the public , which included on that night Auber , Berlioz , Halévy , Maria Malibran , Giulia Grisi , Honoré Daumier , Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo . On hearing her in the role , Meyerbeer himself declared his opera at last ' complete ' .
By April 1834 the opera had received over 100 performances in Paris . Nourrit sang the role of Robert until 1837 , when he was replaced as premier tenor at the Opéra by Gilbert Duprez , whom , however , Meyerbeer did not like in the role ; nor did he approve of an alternative , Lafont . However , he was impressed by the newcomer Mario ( Cavaliere Giovanni Matteo di Candia ) , and wrote for him a new aria for Robert which was performed at his debut in the revival of the opera on 30 November 1838 . Mario 's debut was the launch of his very successful career . Others singing in the 1838 revival included Julie Dorus @-@ Gras ( Alice ) , Prosper Dérivis ( Bertram ) and François Wartel ( Raimbaut ) . By Meyerbeer 's death in 1864 the opera had been performed over 470 times in Paris alone .
= = = Early performances outside Paris = = =
A succession of representations throughout Europe and in the Americas launched Meyerbeer 's international fame . A version of the opera – under the title of The Fiend @-@ Father , by Rophino Lacy – was first presented in London at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane on 20 February 1832 ; the original version appeared at the Haymarket Theatre on 11 June of that year . Lacy 's version was given in New York on 7 April 1834 . In 1832 the opera reached Berlin , Strasbourg , Dublin and Liège ; in 1833 Brussels , Copenhagen , Vienna and Marseilles ; in 1834 Lyon , Budapest , The Hague , Amsterdam and Saint Petersburg ; in 1835 ( 12 May ) it obtained its first American performance in the original French at the Théâtre d 'Orléans in New Orleans . Italian versions were given in Lisbon in 1838 , and in Florence in 1840 .
Meyerbeer took particular care over the first London and Berlin productions . He travelled to London to check the singers and production for the original version , and requested that the German translation for Berlin be undertaken by the poet Ludwig Rellstab , strongly recommending that Taglioni and her father Fillipo be re @-@ engaged , and that Ciceri 's sets should be reproduced . Although Taglioni danced and the sets were retained , the translation was eventually carried out by Meyerbeer 's friend Theodor Hell . Meyerbeer wrote additional ballet music for Taglioni for the Berlin production .
The Danish choreographer August Bournonville saw Fitzjames 's performance as the Abbess in Paris in 1841 , and based his own choreography , which was used in Copenhagen between 1833 and 1863 , on this . This choreography , which has been fully preserved , represents the only record of Filippo Taglioni 's original .
In 1847 Felix Mendelssohn attended a London performance of Robert – an opera which musically he despised – in order to hear Jenny Lind 's British debut , in the role of Alice . The music critic Henry Chorley , who was with him , wrote " I see as I write the smile with which Mendelssohn , whose enjoyment of Mdlle . Lind 's talent was unlimited , turned round and looked at me , as if a load of anxiety had been taken off his mind . "
= = = Twentieth century = = =
During the early twentieth century , Meyerbeer 's operas gradually disappeared from the stage , partly due to expense , partly due to their denigration by supporters of Wagnerian opera . In 1898 , George Bernard Shaw , in The Perfect Wagnerite , had already cast scorn on Robert and commented that " Nowadays young people cannot understand how anyone could have taken Meyerbeer 's influence seriously . "
Nevertheless , productions of Robert included those in New Orleans and Nice in 1901 , Paris ( at the Gaité Lyrique ) in 1911 , Barcelona in 1917 , at the Vienna Volksoper in 1921 and Bordeaux in 1928 . The first production after the Second World War was in Florence in 1968 , a shortened version with a cast including Renata Scotto and Boris Christoff . In 1984 the revival at the Paris Opéra with Rockwell Blake ( Robert ) , Samuel Ramey ( Bertram ) , Walter Donati ( Raimbaut ) , Michèle Lagrange ( Alice ) and June Anderson ( Isabelle ) was the first performance there since 1893 . In 1999 a new production was mounted at the Prague State Opera .
= = = Twenty @-@ first century = = =
A performance of a new critical edition of Robert le diable by Wolfgang Kühnhold was presented at the Berlin State Opera in March 2000 with Jianyi Zhang ( Robert ) , Stephan Rügamer ( Raimbaut ) , Kwangchul Youn ( Bertram ) , Marina Mescheriakova ( Alice ) , and Nelly Miricioiu ( Isabelle ) , conducted by Marc Minkowski .
A new production of the opera , directed by Laurent Pelly , was premiered at the Royal Opera House London on 6 December 2012 , the first time it had been performed there since 1890 .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
The plot of the opera has been often cut or rearranged in various productions . The outline given below follows the description given in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera ( 1992 ) .
= = = Act 1 = = =
On the shore at Palermo
Robert and his mysterious friend Bertram are among a group of knights who are preparing to compete in a tournament for the hand of Princess Isabelle . They all praise wine , women and gambling ( Versez à tasses pleines ) . Robert 's attendant Raimbaut sings a ballad about a beautiful princess from Normandy who married a devil ; the princess had a son , Robert , known as ' le diable ' . Robert indignantly reveals that he is the son in question and condemns Raimbaut to death . Raimbaut begs for pardon and tells Robert that he is engaged to marry . Robert relents and relishes the thought of the droit du seigneur . Raimbaut 's fianceé arrives ; Robert recognizes her as his foster @-@ sister Alice and pardons Raimbaut . Alice tells Robert that his mother has died and that her last words were a warning about a threatening dark force ( Va ! Va ! dit @-@ elle ) . She offers Robert his mother 's will . Robert is too overcome to read it and asks Alice to keep it for the present . Robert expresses his longing for his beloved Isabelle and Alice offers to take a letter to her . Alice warns Robert to beware of Bertram but he ignores her . With Bertram 's encouragement , Robert gambles with the knights and loses all of his money , as well as his armour .
= = = Act 2 = = =
A room in the palace at Palermo
Isabelle is sad at Robert 's absence and expresses her unease that their marriage will never take place ( En vain j ’ espère ) . She is delighted when she receives Robert 's letter . Robert arrives and the pair express their pleasure at being together again . Isabelle provides him with new armour for the tournament . Robert is preparing for the tournament when Bertram suddenly appears and persuades Robert to go to a nearby forest , claiming that the Prince of Granada , his rival for Isabelle 's love , wants to fight with him . When Robert has left , the court gathers to celebrate the marriage of six couples with dancing . The Prince of Granada enters and asks Isabelle to present him with arms for the tournament . Isabelle expresses her sorrow at Robert 's disappearance but prepares to open the tournament , singing in praise of chivalry ( La trompette guerrière ) .
= = = Act 3 = = =
The countryside near Palermo
Bertram meets Raimbaut , who has arrived for an assignation with Alice . He gives him a bag of gold and advises him not to marry Alice as his new wealth will attract plenty of women ( Ah ! l ’ honnête homme ) . Raimbaut leaves and Bertram gloats at having corrupted him . Bertram reveals that Robert , to whom he is truly devoted , is his son ; he then enters an adjoining cave to commune with the spirits of hell . Alice enters and expresses her love for Raimbaut ( Quand je quittai la Normandie ) . She overhears strange chanting coming from the cave and decides to listen ; she learns that Bertram will lose Robert forever if he cannot persuade him to sign away his soul to the Devil by midnight . On emerging from the cave , Bertram realizes that Alice has heard everything ( Mais Alice , qu ’ as @-@ tu donc ? ) . He threatens her and she promises to keep silent . Robert arrives , mourning the loss of Isabelle , and Bertram tells him that to win her he should seize a magic branch from the tomb of Saint Rosalia in a nearby deserted cloister . Although to take it is sacrilege , the branch will give Robert magical powers . Robert declares that he will be bold and do as Bertram instructs . Bertram leads Robert to the cloister . The ghosts of nuns rise from their tombs , beckoned by Bertram , and dance , praising the pleasures of drinking , gambling and lust . Robert seizes the branch and fends off the demons who surround him .
= = = Act 4 = = =
A room in the palace
Isabelle is preparing for her marriage with the Prince of Granada . Alice rushes in to inform her of what she has learnt about Robert , but she is interrupted by envoys of the Prince who enter bearing gifts . Robert arrives and , using the power of the branch , freezes everyone except himself and Isabelle .
Unsettled by the power he 's wielding , he confesses to Isabelle that he is using witchcraft , but begs her not to reject him . She expresses her love for him and implores him to repent ( Robert , toi que j 'aime ) . Robert breaks the branch and the spell it has created , and is taken into custody by Isabelle 's attendants .
= = = Act 5 = = =
Outside Palermo Cathedral
A group of monks extol the power of the Church . Bertram has freed Robert from the guards and the two arrive to prevent the marriage of Isabelle to the Prince of Granada . Bertram attempts to get Robert to sign a document in which he promises to serve Bertram for all eternity . He reveals to Robert that he is his true father and Robert decides to sign the oath from filial devotion . Before he can do so , Alice appears with the news that the Prince has been prevented from marrying Isabelle . Alice prays for divine help ( Dieu puissant , ciel propice ) and hands Robert his mother 's will . Robert reads his mother 's message , in which she warns him to beware the man who seduced and ruined her . Robert is wracked by indecision . Midnight strikes and the time for Bertram 's coup is past . He is drawn down to hell . Robert is reunited with Isabelle in the cathedral , to great rejoicing .
= = Costume designs for the first production = =
The costumes were designed by François @-@ Gabriel Lépaulle .
= = Reception = =
A number of factors influenced the opera 's very favourable reception . The initial cast contained leading singers of the period and , as it changed , equally brilliant stars ( e.g. Falcon ) were introduced as replacements . The sensational plot and the notoriety of the Nuns ' ballet ensured that the opera was a hot topic in journals and reviews . This was assisted by the marketing skills of the director Véron and the publisher Schlesinger . The scenery was of exceptional quality : " This was as much an opera to see as to hear , and it has been argued that the real hero behind Robert le diable was Cicéri , the designer . " Meyerbeer was keen to keep influential persons on his side . For example , he sent free tickets for ' a good box ' to Heinrich Heine . And of course the businessman Véron knew how to use ( and pay ) the claque and its leader Augustin Levasseur .
But undoubtedly the novelty and colour of the music of Meyerbeer deserves major credit . The alliance of his German musical training , along with his study of opera for many years in Italy , was highly attractive to a Parisian audience which ' asked only to be astonished and surprised . ' The critic Ortigue wrote that Meyerbeer ' straight away [ took ] his position at the crossroads where Italian song and German orchestration have to meet . ' Meyerbeer paid close attention to unusual combinations and textures and original orchestration , examples being the use of low brass and woodwind playing chromatic passages associated with Bertram ; the use of a brass band and male choir to characterise the demons in Act 3 ; and so on . Hector Berlioz was particularly impressed ; he wrote an entire article in the Revue et gazette musicale , entitled ' On the Orchestration of Robert le diable ' , which concluded :
Robert le Diable provides the most astonishing example of the power of instrumentation when applied to dramatic music ; ... a power of recent introduction which has achieved its fullest development in the hands of M. Meyerbeer ; a conquest of modern art which even the Italians will have to acknowledge in order to prop up as best they can their miserable system which is collapsing in ruins .
The opera was perceived to have weaknesses of characterization . For example , Robert 's dithering behaviour led to one comment that " what is least diabolical in Robert le diable is Robert himself . " But the critic Fétis gave the consensus opinion : " Robert le diable is not only a masterpiece ; it is also a remarkable work within the history of music ... [ it ] seems to me to unite all the qualities needed to establish a composer 's reputation unshakeably . "
The success of the opera led to Meyerbeer himself becoming a celebrity . King Frederick William III of Prussia , who attended the second performance of Robert , swiftly invited him to compose a German opera , and Meyerbeer was invited to stage Robert in Berlin . In January 1832 he was awarded membership of the Légion d 'honneur . This success – coupled with Meyerbeer 's known family wealth – inevitably also precipitated envy amongst his peers . Berlioz wrote " I can 't forget that Meyerbeer was only able to persuade [ the Opéra ] to put on Robert le diable ... by paying the administration sixty thousand francs of his own money " ; and Chopin lamented " Meyerbeer had to work for three years and pay his own expenses for his stay in Paris before Robert le diable could be staged ... Three years , that 's a lot – it 's too much . "
= = Influence = =
The success of Robert had profound consequences , for the institution of the Paris Opéra itself , for the music , staging and popularity of nineteenth century opera as a whole , and for ballet .
The fortuitous timing of the opera 's premiere , not long after the July Revolution , and its sensational and novel effects , meant that it was widely identified with the new , liberal , ideas of the July Monarchy . As Berlioz commented , Meyerbeer had " not only the luck to be talented , but the talent to be lucky . " Honoré de Balzac ( in his novella Gambara ) and Heinrich Heine ( in his poem Angélique ) are just two of the contemporary writers to express their fascination with the opera . Alexandre Dumas set a chapter of The Count of Monte Cristo between two acts of Robert ; and George Sand wrote about it at length in her Lettres d 'un voyageur . It is the only nineteenth @-@ century opera to have a rose named after it .
Also , the absence of starchy historical content in Robert doubtless played a part in attracting the bourgeoisie to the opera , until then regarded as primarily an aristocratic entertainment . The success of the opera also justified the government 's policy of ' privatization ' in selling the management to Véron , and this was a landmark in the dilution of state control and patronage in the fine arts . Although Véron had not commissioned it ( having taken control only after the Revolution ) , Robert was his first new production as manager of the Opéra , and its success underwrote his policy of commissioning similar works . These were to include Meyerbeer 's Les Huguenots , Fromental Halévy 's La Juive , and Daniel Auber 's Gustave III . However , while they used ' the same dazzling theatrical rhetoric ' as Robert , they led to ' uniformly horrific dénouements ' with ' gripping moral urgency ' , their more sophisticated plot @-@ lines reflecting the changes in taste of the new opera clientele . They established Paris as Europe 's opera capital , with the Opéra itself as its centre , in the period 1830 until 1850 .
The Act 3 ballet is regarded by some as the first of the ballets blancs ( whereby the principal ballerina and the corps de ballet are all clothed in white ) which became a favourite of the nineteenth @-@ century repertoire . Later examples include La Sylphide ( 1832 ) ( also choreographed by Filippo Taglioni and danced by his daughter ) , Giselle ( 1841 ) , Pas de Quatre ( 1845 ) and Les Sylphides ( 1909 ) .
Music from the opera became the subject of numerous virtuoso works of the time . The brilliant transcription of its themes ( Reminiscences de Robert le diable ) made by the composer and virtuoso Franz Liszt was so popular that it became his calling card : on more than one occasion he was forced to interrupt his programmed concerts to play it because of the demands of the audience . On the day of its publication by Maurice Schlesinger , the edition of 500 was completely sold out and it had to be immediately reprinted . Indeed , the success of Robert , whose score was also published by Schlesinger , was said to have saved him from bankruptcy . Frédéric Chopin and Auguste Franchomme jointly composed a Grand duo concertant on themes from the opera , for cello and piano , in 1832 , and the Italian pianist and composer Adolfo Fumagalli composed an elaborate fantasy on the opera for left hand alone as his Op. 106 .
Other pieces based on the opera included works by Adolf von Henselt and Jean @-@ Amédée Méreaux .
Edgar Degas painted the scene of the Nuns ' ballet twice . The earlier version ( 1871 ) is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . In 1876 Degas painted a larger version for the singer Jean @-@ Baptiste Faure ( who had sung the part of Bertram ) ; this version is in the Victoria and Albert Museum , London .
The work 's popularity spawned many parodies and pastiches including one by W. S. Gilbert , Robert the Devil , which opened at the Gaiety Theatre , London in 1868 .
= = Recordings = =
= Doctor Who ( series 5 ) =
The fifth series of British science fiction television programme Doctor Who began on 3 April 2010 with " The Eleventh Hour " and ended with " The Big Bang " on 26 June 2010 . The series was led by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat , who took over after Russell T Davies , who ended his involvement with the show after The End of Time . The series comprises 13 episodes , six of which Moffat wrote . Piers Wenger and Beth Willis served with Moffat as executive producers , while Tracie Simpson and Peter Bennett served as producers . Though it is the fifth series since the show 's revival in 2005 and the thirty @-@ first since it began in 1963 , the largely new production team led to the series production codes being reset .
This is the first series to feature Matt Smith as the eleventh incarnation of the Doctor , an alien Time Lord who travels through time and space in his TARDIS , which appears to be a British police box on the outside . It also introduces Karen Gillan as the Doctor 's new companion Amy Pond and Arthur Darvill as her fiancé Rory Williams , who is in seven episodes and travels with the Doctor and Amy . Alex Kingston returns as River Song , a mysterious woman from the Doctor 's future who summons the Doctor twice in this series . The main story arc concerns a pattern of cracks in the universe which appear over several episodes , sometimes going unnoticed by the characters . It is discovered that they have the power to erase things from existence , and this happens to Rory , causing Amy to forget him . In the series finale it is revealed that the cracks were caused by the TARDIS exploding and the Doctor is forced to reboot the universe to the state which it was in without the cracks .
The seven episodes of the series which were not written by Moffat were penned by guest writers . Mark Gatiss , Toby Whithouse , Simon Nye , Richard Curtis , Gareth Roberts each wrote one episode each , while Chris Chibnall wrote a two @-@ episode story . The series was meant to be fantastical to stand out among other science fiction and fantasy shows and the production team pushed a fairy @-@ tale quality because Moffat believed media aimed at children was some of the most popular among adults . The episodes were directed
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could weep for all that goodness gone from our atmosphere at the show " .
A successful stage show called Round the Horne ... Revisited opened in London in October 2003 , compiled by Series Four co @-@ writer Brian Cooke from original scripts and featuring Jonathan Rigby as Horne . The West End production ran until April 2005 and generated a BBC Four television film and an appearance at the 2004 Royal Variety Performance , with Rigby playing Horne again on both occasions . Subsequently there were three national tours , the first two of which took place while the London run continued ; in the touring version Horne was played by Stephen Critchlow , who also played him in a Julian and Sandy sketch recreated in the 2006 BBC television drama Kenneth Williams : Fantabulosa !
On 27 February 2007 ( Horne 's centenary ) , BBC Radio 4 broadcast a half @-@ hour documentary tribute entitled Sound the Horne , hosted by Jimmy Carr . The following year , on 18 September , another Radio 4 documentary was broadcast ; called Thoroughly Modest Mollie , this one focused on Horne 's frequent ghost @-@ writer , Mollie Millest , and featured Jonathan Rigby again as Horne . Rigby reprised the role yet again in a new stage show , devised this time by Barry Took 's widow Lyn , called Round the Horne – Unseen and Uncut , which toured in 2008 @-@ 09 . Also in 2009 , an unbroadcast pilot script written by Horne and Millest in 1966 was produced by the same Radio 4 team as the Millest documentary . Called Twice Ken is Plenty and intended as a two @-@ man showcase for Horne and Kenneth Williams , the 21st century version was performed by Rigby and , as Williams , Robin Sebastian . The show was broadcast on 1 September 2009 .
Horne has been the subject of two biographies , Norman Hackforth 's Solo for Horne in 1976 and Barry Johnston 's Round Mr Horne : The Life of Kenneth Horne in 2006 . In 1998 Ernie Wise unveiled a blue plaque to Horne at BBC Broadcasting House . Editions of Beyond Our Ken and Round the Horne are regularly broadcast on the digital radio service BBC 4 Extra , and by 2006 over half a million copies of tapes and CDs of Round the Horne had been sold by the BBC . In a 2002 survey conducted by the BBC to find listeners ' favourite British comedian , Horne appeared third , behind Tony Hancock and Spike Milligan .
= = Career history = =
= = = Selected radio broadcasts = = =
= = = Selected television appearances = = =
= Influenza =
Influenza , commonly known as " the flu " , is an infectious disease caused by an influenza virus . Symptoms can be mild to severe . The most common symptoms include : a high fever , runny nose , sore throat , muscle pains , headache , coughing , and feeling tired . These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week . The cough , however , may last for more than two weeks . In children , there may be nausea and vomiting , but these are not common in adults . Nausea and vomiting occur more commonly in the unrelated infection gastroenteritis , which is sometimes inaccurately referred to as " stomach flu " or " 24 @-@ hour flu " . Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia , secondary bacterial pneumonia , sinus infections , and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure .
Three types of influenza viruses affect people , called Type A , Type B , and Type C. Usually , the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes . This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances . It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes . A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are showing symptoms . The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat , sputum , or nose for the virus . A number of rapid tests are available ; however , people may still have the infection if the results are negative . A type of polymerase chain reaction that detects the virus 's RNA is more accurate .
Frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection because the virus is inactivated by soap . Wearing a surgical mask is also useful . Yearly vaccinations against influenza are recommended by the World Health Organization for those at high risk . The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza . It is usually well tolerated . A vaccine made for one year may not be useful in the following year , since the virus evolves rapidly . Antiviral drugs such as the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir , among others , have been used to treat influenza . Their benefits in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than their risks . No benefit has been found in those with other health problems .
Influenza spreads around the world in a yearly outbreak , resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 deaths . In the Northern and Southern parts of the world outbreaks occur mainly in winter while in areas around the equator outbreaks may occur at any time of the year . Death occurs mostly in the young , the old and those with other health problems . Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent . In the 20th century three influenza pandemics occurred : Spanish influenza in 1918 , Asian influenza in 1958 , and Hong Kong influenza in 1968 , each resulting in more than a million deaths . The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A / H1N1 to be a pandemic in June 2009 . Influenza may also affect other animals , including pigs , horses and birds .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Approximately 33 % of people with influenza are asymptomatic .
Symptoms of influenza can start quite suddenly one to two days after infection . Usually the first symptoms are chills or a chilly sensation , but fever is also common early in the infection , with body temperatures ranging from 38 to 39 ° C ( approximately 100 to 103 ° F ) . Many people are so ill that they are confined to bed for several days , with aches and pains throughout their bodies , which are worse in their backs and legs . Symptoms of influenza may include :
Fever and extreme coldness ( chills shivering , shaking ( rigor ) )
Cough
Nasal congestion
Runny nose
Sneezing
Body aches , especially joints and throat
Fatigue
Headache
Irritated , watering eyes
Reddened eyes , skin ( especially face ) , mouth , throat and nose
Petechial rash
In children , gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal pain , ( may be severe in children with influenza B )
It can be difficult to distinguish between the common cold and influenza in the early stages of these infections , but a flu can be identified by a high fever with a sudden onset and extreme fatigue . Influenza is a mixture of symptoms of common cold and pneumonia , body ache , headache , and fatigue . Diarrhea is not normally a symptom of influenza in adults , although it has been seen in some human cases of the H5N1 " bird flu " and can be a symptom in children . The symptoms most reliably seen in influenza are shown in the table to the right .
Since antiviral drugs are effective in treating influenza if given early ( see treatment section , below ) , it can be important to identify cases early . Of the symptoms listed above , the combinations of fever with cough , sore throat and / or nasal congestion can improve diagnostic accuracy . Two decision analysis studies suggest that during local outbreaks of influenza , the prevalence will be over 70 % , and thus patients with any of these combinations of symptoms may be treated with neuraminidase inhibitors without testing . Even in the absence of a local outbreak , treatment may be justified in the elderly during the influenza season as long as the prevalence is over 15 % .
The available laboratory tests for influenza continue to improve . The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) maintains an up @-@ to @-@ date summary of available laboratory tests . According to the CDC , rapid diagnostic tests have a sensitivity of 50 – 75 % and specificity of 90 – 95 % when compared with viral culture . These tests may be especially useful during the influenza season ( prevalence = 25 % ) but in the absence of a local outbreak , or peri @-@ influenza season ( prevalence = 10 % ) .
Occasionally , influenza can cause severe illness including primary viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia . The obvious symptom is trouble breathing . In addition , if a child ( or presumably an adult ) seems to be getting better and then relapses with a high fever , that is a danger sign since this relapse can be bacterial pneumonia .
= = Virology = =
= = = Types of virus = = =
In virus classification influenza viruses are RNA viruses that make up three of the five genera of the family Orthomyxoviridae :
Influenzavirus A
Influenzavirus B
Influenzavirus C
These viruses are only distantly related to the human parainfluenza viruses , which are RNA viruses belonging to the paramyxovirus family that are a common cause of respiratory infections in children such as croup , but can also cause a disease similar to influenza in adults .
A fourth family of influenza viruses has been proposed - influenza D. The type species for this family is Bovine Influenza D virus which was first isolated in 2012 .
= = = = Influenzavirus A = = = =
This genus has one species , influenza A virus . Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a large variety of influenza A. Occasionally , viruses are transmitted to other species and may then cause devastating outbreaks in domestic poultry or give rise to human influenza pandemics . The type A viruses are the most virulent human pathogens among the three influenza types and cause the severest disease . The influenza A virus can be subdivided into different serotypes based on the antibody response to these viruses . The serotypes that have been confirmed in humans , ordered by the number of known human pandemic deaths , are :
H1N1 , which caused Spanish Flu in 1918 , and Swine Flu in 2009
H2N2 , which caused Asian Flu in 1957
H3N2 , which caused Hong Kong Flu in 1968
H5N1 , which caused Bird Flu in 2004
H7N7 , which has unusual zoonotic potential
H1N2 , endemic in humans , pigs and birds
H9N2
H7N2
H7N3
H10N7
H7N9
= = = = Influenzavirus B = = = =
This genus has one species , influenza B virus . Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans and is less common than influenza A. The only other animals known to be susceptible to influenza B infection are the seal and the ferret . This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2 – 3 times slower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse , with only one influenza B serotype . As a result of this lack of antigenic diversity , a degree of immunity to influenza B is usually acquired at an early age . However , influenza B mutates enough that lasting immunity is not possible . This reduced rate of antigenic change , combined with its limited host range ( inhibiting cross species antigenic shift ) , ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur .
= = = = Influenzavirus C = = = =
This genus has one species , influenza C virus , which infects humans , dogs and pigs , sometimes causing both severe illness and local epidemics . However , influenza C is less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children .
= = = Structure , properties , and subtype nomenclature = = =
Influenzaviruses A , B and C are very similar in overall structure . The virus particle is 80 – 120 nanometers in diameter and usually roughly spherical , although filamentous forms can occur . These filamentous forms are more common in influenza C , which can form cordlike structures up to 500 micrometers long on the surfaces of infected cells . However , despite these varied shapes , the viral particles of all influenza viruses are similar in composition . These are made of a viral envelope containing two main types of glycoproteins , wrapped around a central core . The central core contains the viral RNA genome and other viral proteins that package and protect this RNA . RNA tends to be single stranded but in special cases it is double . Unusually for a virus , its genome is not a single piece of nucleic acid ; instead , it contains seven or eight pieces of segmented negative @-@ sense RNA , each piece of RNA containing either one or two genes , which code for a gene product ( protein ) . For example , the influenza A genome contains 11 genes on eight pieces of RNA , encoding for 11 proteins : hemagglutinin ( HA ) , neuraminidase ( NA ) , nucleoprotein ( NP ) , M1 , M2 , NS1 , NS2 ( NEP : nuclear export protein ) , PA , PB1 ( polymerase basic 1 ) , PB1 @-@ F2 and PB2 .
Hemagglutinin ( HA ) and neuraminidase ( NA ) are the two large glycoproteins on the outside of the viral particles . HA is a lectin that mediates binding of the virus to target cells and entry of the viral genome into the target cell , while NA is involved in the release of progeny virus from infected cells , by cleaving sugars that bind the mature viral particles . Thus , these proteins are targets for antiviral drugs . Furthermore , they are antigens to which antibodies can be raised . Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on antibody responses to HA and NA . These different types of HA and NA form the basis of the H and N distinctions in , for example , H5N1 . There are 16 H and 9 N subtypes known , but only H 1 , 2 and 3 , and N 1 and 2 are commonly found in humans .
= = = Replication = = =
Viruses can replicate only in living cells . Influenza infection and replication is a multi @-@ step process : First , the virus has to bind to and enter the cell , then deliver its genome to a site where it can produce new copies of viral proteins and RNA , assemble these components into new viral particles , and , last , exit the host cell .
Influenza viruses bind through hemagglutinin onto sialic acid sugars on the surfaces of epithelial cells , typically in the nose , throat , and lungs of mammals , and intestines of birds ( Stage 1 in infection figure ) . After the hemagglutinin is cleaved by a protease , the cell imports the virus by endocytosis .
The intracellular details are still being elucidated . It is known that virions converge to the microtubule organizing center , interact with acidic endosomes and finally enter the target endosomes for genome release .
Once inside the cell , the acidic conditions in the endosome cause two events to happen : First , part of the hemagglutinin protein fuses the viral envelope with the vacuole 's membrane , then the M2 ion channel allows protons to move through the viral envelope and acidify the core of the virus , which causes the core to disassemble and release the viral RNA and core proteins . The viral RNA ( vRNA ) molecules , accessory proteins and RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase are then released into the cytoplasm ( Stage 2 ) . The M2 ion channel is blocked by amantadine drugs , preventing infection .
These core proteins and vRNA form a complex that is transported into the cell nucleus , where the RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase begins transcribing complementary positive @-@ sense vRNA ( Steps 3a and b ) . The vRNA either is exported into the cytoplasm and translated ( step 4 ) or remains in the nucleus . Newly synthesized viral proteins are either secreted through the Golgi apparatus onto the cell surface ( in the case of neuraminidase and hemagglutinin , step 5b ) or transported back into the nucleus to bind vRNA and form new viral genome particles ( step 5a ) . Other viral proteins have multiple actions in the host cell , including degrading cellular mRNA and using the released nucleotides for vRNA synthesis and also inhibiting translation of host @-@ cell mRNAs .
Negative @-@ sense vRNAs that form the genomes of future viruses , RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase , and other viral proteins are assembled into a virion . Hemagglutinin and neuraminidase molecules cluster into a bulge in the cell membrane . The vRNA and viral core proteins leave the nucleus and enter this membrane protrusion ( step 6 ) . The mature virus buds off from the cell in a sphere of host phospholipid membrane , acquiring hemagglutinin and neuraminidase with this membrane coat ( step 7 ) . As before , the viruses adhere to the cell through hemagglutinin ; the mature viruses detach once their neuraminidase has cleaved sialic acid residues from the host cell . After the release of new influenza viruses , the host cell dies .
Because of the absence of RNA proofreading enzymes , the RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase that copies the viral genome makes an error roughly every 10 thousand nucleotides , which is the approximate length of the influenza vRNA . Hence , the majority of newly manufactured influenza viruses are mutants ; this causes antigenic drift , which is a slow change in the antigens on the viral surface over time . The separation of the genome into eight separate segments of vRNA allows mixing or reassortment of vRNAs if more than one type of influenza virus infects a single cell . The resulting rapid change in viral genetics produces antigenic shifts , which are sudden changes from one antigen to another . These sudden large changes allow the virus to infect new host species and quickly overcome protective immunity . This is important in the emergence of pandemics , as discussed below in the section on Epidemiology .
= = Mechanism = =
= = = Transmission = = =
When an infected person sneezes or coughs more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by . In otherwise healthy adults , influenza virus shedding ( the time during which a person might be infectious to another person ) increases sharply one @-@ half to one day after infection , peaks on day 2 and persists for an average total duration of 5 days — but can persist as long as 9 days . In those who develop symptoms from experimental infection ( only 67 % of healthy experimentally infected individuals ) , symptoms and viral shedding show a similar pattern , but with viral shedding preceding illness by one day . Children are much more infectious than adults and shed virus from just before they develop symptoms until two weeks after infection . In immunocompromised people , viral shedding can continue for longer than two weeks .
Influenza can be spread in three main ways : by direct transmission ( when an infected person sneezes mucus directly into the eyes , nose or mouth of another person ) ; the airborne route ( when someone inhales the aerosols produced by an infected person coughing , sneezing or spitting ) and through hand @-@ to @-@ eye , hand @-@ to @-@ nose , or hand @-@ to @-@ mouth transmission , either from contaminated surfaces or from direct personal contact such as a hand @-@ shake . The relative importance of these three modes of transmission is unclear , and they may all contribute to the spread of the virus . In the airborne route , the droplets that are small enough for people to inhale are 0 @.@ 5 to 5 µm in diameter and inhaling just one droplet might be enough to cause an infection . Although a single sneeze releases up to 40 @,@ 000 droplets , most of these droplets are quite large and will quickly settle out of the air . How long influenza survives in airborne droplets seems to be influenced by the levels of humidity and UV radiation , with low humidity and a lack of sunlight in winter aiding its survival .
As the influenza virus can persist outside of the body , it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes , doorknobs , light switches and other household items . The length of time the virus will persist on a surface varies , with the virus surviving for one to two days on hard , non @-@ porous surfaces such as plastic or metal , for about fifteen minutes from dry paper tissues , and only five minutes on skin . However , if the virus is present in mucus , this can protect it for longer periods ( up to 17 days on banknotes ) . Avian influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen . They are inactivated by heating to 56 ° C ( 133 ° F ) for a minimum of 60 minutes , as well as by acids ( at pH < 2 ) .
= = = Pathophysiology = = =
The mechanisms by which influenza infection causes symptoms in humans have been studied intensively . One of the mechanisms is believed to be the inhibition of adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) resulting in lowered cortisol levels . Knowing which genes are carried by a particular strain can help predict how well it will infect humans and how severe this infection will be ( that is , predict the strain 's pathophysiology ) .
For instance , part of the process that allows influenza viruses to invade cells is the cleavage of the viral hemagglutinin protein by any one of several human proteases . In mild and avirulent viruses , the structure of the hemagglutinin means that it can only be cleaved by proteases found in the throat and lungs , so these viruses cannot infect other tissues . However , in highly virulent strains , such as H5N1 , the hemagglutinin can be cleaved by a wide variety of proteases , allowing the virus to spread throughout the body .
The viral hemagglutinin protein is responsible for determining both which species a strain can infect and where in the human respiratory tract a strain of influenza will bind . Strains that are easily transmitted between people have hemagglutinin proteins that bind to receptors in the upper part of the respiratory tract , such as in the nose , throat and mouth . In contrast , the highly lethal H5N1 strain binds to receptors that are mostly found deep in the lungs . This difference in the site of infection may be part of the reason why the H5N1 strain causes severe viral pneumonia in the lungs , but is not easily transmitted by people coughing and sneezing .
Common symptoms of the flu such as fever , headaches , and fatigue are the result of the huge amounts of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines ( such as interferon or tumor necrosis factor ) produced from influenza @-@ infected cells . In contrast to the rhinovirus that causes the common cold , influenza does cause tissue damage , so symptoms are not entirely due to the inflammatory response . This massive immune response might produce a life @-@ threatening cytokine storm . This effect has been proposed to be the cause of the unusual lethality of both the H5N1 avian influenza , and the 1918 pandemic strain . However , another possibility is that these large amounts of cytokines are just a result of the massive levels of viral replication produced by these strains , and the immune response does not itself contribute to the disease .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Vaccination = = =
The influenza vaccine is recommended by the World Health Organization and United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for high @-@ risk groups , such as children , the elderly , health care workers , and people who have chronic illnesses such as asthma , diabetes , heart disease , or are immuno @-@ compromised among others . In healthy adults it is modestly effective in decreasing the amount of influenza @-@ like symptoms in a population . Evidence is supportive of a decreased rate of influenza in children over the age of two . In those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease vaccination reduces exacerbations , it is not clear if it reduces asthma exacerbations . Evidence supports a lower rate of influenza @-@ like illness in many
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groups who are immunocompromised such as those with : HIV / AIDS , cancer , and post organ transplant . In those at high risk immunization may reduce the risk of heart disease . Whether immunizing health care workers affects patient outcomes is controversial with some reviews finding insufficient evidence and others finding tentative evidence .
Due to the high mutation rate of the virus , a particular influenza vaccine usually confers protection for no more than a few years . Every year , the World Health Organization predicts which strains of the virus are most likely to be circulating in the next year ( see Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine ) , allowing pharmaceutical companies to develop vaccines that will provide the best immunity against these strains . The vaccine is reformulated each season for a few specific flu strains but does not include all the strains active in the world during that season . It takes about six months for the manufacturers to formulate and produce the millions of doses required to deal with the seasonal epidemics ; occasionally , a new or overlooked strain becomes prominent during that time . It is also possible to get infected just before vaccination and get sick with the strain that the vaccine is supposed to prevent , as the vaccine takes about two weeks to become effective .
Vaccines can cause the immune system to react as if the body were actually being infected , and general infection symptoms ( many cold and flu symptoms are just general infection symptoms ) can appear , though these symptoms are usually not as severe or long @-@ lasting as influenza . The most dangerous adverse effect is a severe allergic reaction to either the virus material itself or residues from the hen eggs used to grow the influenza ; however , these reactions are extremely rare .
The cost @-@ effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination has been widely evaluated for different groups and in different settings . It has generally been found to be a cost @-@ effective intervention , especially in children and the elderly , however the results of economic evaluations of influenza vaccination have often been found to be dependent on key assumptions .
= = = Infection control = = =
Reasonably effective ways to reduce the transmission of influenza include good personal health and hygiene habits such as : not touching your eyes , nose or mouth ; frequent hand washing ( with soap and water , or with alcohol @-@ based hand rubs ) ; covering coughs and sneezes ; avoiding close contact with sick people ; and staying home yourself if you are sick . Avoiding spitting is also recommended . Although face masks might help prevent transmission when caring for the sick , there is mixed evidence on beneficial effects in the community . Smoking raises the risk of contracting influenza , as well as producing more severe disease symptoms .
Since influenza spreads through both aerosols and contact with contaminated surfaces , surface sanitizing may help prevent some infections . Alcohol is an effective sanitizer against influenza viruses , while quaternary ammonium compounds can be used with alcohol so that the sanitizing effect lasts for longer . In hospitals , quaternary ammonium compounds and bleach are used to sanitize rooms or equipment that have been occupied by patients with influenza symptoms . At home , this can be done effectively with a diluted chlorine bleach .
During past pandemics , closing schools , churches and theaters slowed the spread of the virus but did not have a large effect on the overall death rate . It is uncertain if reducing public gatherings , by for example closing schools and workplaces , will reduce transmission since people with influenza may just be moved from one area to another ; such measures would also be difficult to enforce and might be unpopular . When small numbers of people are infected , isolating the sick might reduce the risk of transmission .
= = Treatment = =
People with the flu are advised to get plenty of rest , drink plenty of liquids , avoid using alcohol and tobacco and , if necessary , take medications such as acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) to relieve the fever and muscle aches associated with the flu . Children and teenagers with flu symptoms ( particularly fever ) should avoid taking aspirin during an influenza infection ( especially influenza type B ) , because doing so can lead to Reye 's syndrome , a rare but potentially fatal disease of the liver . Since influenza is caused by a virus , antibiotics have no effect on the infection ; unless prescribed for secondary infections such as bacterial pneumonia . Antiviral medication may be effective , if given early , but some strains of influenza can show resistance to the standard antiviral drugs and there is concern about the quality of the research .
= = = Antivirals = = =
The two classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuraminidase inhibitors ( oseltamivir and zanamivir ) and M2 protein inhibitors ( adamantane derivatives ) .
= = = = Neuraminidase inhibitors = = = =
Overall the benefits of neuraminidase inhibitors in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than the risks . There does not appear to be any benefit in those with other health problems . In those believed to have the flu , they decreased the length of time symptoms were present by slightly less than a day but did not appear to affect the risk of complications such as needing hospitalization or pneumonia . Previous to 2013 the benefits were unclear as the manufacturer ( Roche ) refused to release trial data for independent analysis . Increasingly prevalent resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors has led to researchers to seek alternative antiviral drugs with different mechanisms of action .
= = = = M2 inhibitors = = = =
The antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine inhibit a viral ion channel ( M2 protein ) , thus inhibiting replication of the influenza A virus . These drugs are sometimes effective against influenza A if given early in the infection but are ineffective against influenza B viruses , which lack the M2 drug target . Measured resistance to amantadine and rimantadine in American isolates of H3N2 has increased to 91 % in 2005 . This high level of resistance may be due to the easy availability of amantadines as part of over @-@ the @-@ counter cold remedies in countries such as China and Russia , and their use to prevent outbreaks of influenza in farmed poultry . The CDC recommended against using M2 inhibitors during the 2005 – 06 influenza season due to high levels of drug resistance .
= = Prognosis = =
Influenza 's effects are much more severe and last longer than those of the common cold . Most people will recover completely in about one to two weeks , but others will develop life @-@ threatening complications ( such as pneumonia ) . Thus , influenza can be deadly , especially for the weak , young and old , or chronically ill . People with a weak immune system , such as people with advanced HIV infection or transplant patients ( whose immune systems are medically suppressed to prevent transplant organ rejection ) , suffer from particularly severe disease . Pregnant women and young children are also at a high risk for complications .
The flu can worsen chronic health problems . People with emphysema , chronic bronchitis or asthma may experience shortness of breath while they have the flu , and influenza may cause worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure . Smoking is another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality from influenza .
According to the World Health Organization : " Every winter , tens of millions of people get the flu . Most are only ill and out of work for a week , yet the elderly are at a higher risk of death from the illness . We know the worldwide death toll exceeds a few hundred thousand people a year , but even in developed countries the numbers are uncertain , because medical authorities don 't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu @-@ like illness . " Even healthy people can be affected , and serious problems from influenza can happen at any age . People over 50 years old , very young children and people of any age with chronic medical conditions are more likely to get complications from influenza , such as pneumonia , bronchitis , sinus , and ear infections .
In some cases , an autoimmune response to an influenza infection may contribute to the development of Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome . However , as many other infections can increase the risk of this disease , influenza may only be an important cause during epidemics . This syndrome has been believed to also be a rare side effect of influenza vaccines . One review gives an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations . Getting infected by influenza itself increases both the risk of death ( up to 1 in 10 @,@ 000 ) and increases the risk of developing GBS to a much higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement ( approx . 10 times higher by recent estimates ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
= = = Seasonal variations = = =
Influenza reaches peak prevalence in winter , and because the Northern and Southern Hemispheres have winter at different times of the year , there are actually two different flu seasons each year . This is why the World Health Organization ( assisted by the National Influenza Centers ) makes recommendations for two different vaccine formulations every year ; one for the Northern , and one for the Southern Hemisphere .
A long @-@ standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year . One possible explanation is that , because people are indoors more often during the winter , they are in close contact more often , and this promotes transmission from person to person . Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role . Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air , which may dehydrate mucus , preventing the body from effectively expelling virus particles . The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments ( less than 5 ° C ) with low relative humidity . The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions .
However , seasonal changes in infection rates also occur in tropical regions , and in some countries these peaks of infection are seen mainly during the rainy season . Seasonal changes in contact rates from school terms , which are a major factor in other childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis , may also play a role in the flu . A combination of these small seasonal effects may be amplified by dynamical resonance with the endogenous disease cycles . H5N1 exhibits seasonality in both humans and birds .
An alternative hypothesis to explain seasonality in influenza infections is an effect of vitamin D levels on immunity to the virus . This idea was first proposed by Robert Edgar Hope @-@ Simpson in 1965 . He proposed that the cause of influenza epidemics during winter may be connected to seasonal fluctuations of vitamin D , which is produced in the skin under the influence of solar ( or artificial ) UV radiation . This could explain why influenza occurs mostly in winter and during the tropical rainy season , when people stay indoors , away from the sun , and their vitamin D levels fall .
= = = Epidemic and pandemic spread = = =
As influenza is caused by a variety of species and strains of viruses , in any given year some strains can die out while others create epidemics , while yet another strain can cause a pandemic . Typically , in a year 's normal two flu seasons ( one per hemisphere ) , there are between three and five million cases of severe illness and around 500 @,@ 000 deaths worldwide , which by some definitions is a yearly influenza epidemic . Although the incidence of influenza can vary widely between years , approximately 36 @,@ 000 deaths and more than 200 @,@ 000 hospitalizations are directly associated with influenza every year in the United States . One method of calculating influenza mortality produced an estimate of 41 @,@ 400 average deaths per year in the United States between 1979 and 2001 . Different methods in 2010 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) reported a range from a low of about 3 @,@ 300 deaths to a high of 49 @,@ 000 per year .
Roughly three times per century , a pandemic occurs , which infects a large proportion of the world 's population and can kill tens of millions of people ( see pandemics section ) . One study estimated that if a strain with similar virulence to the 1918 influenza emerged today , it could kill between 50 and 80 million people .
New influenza viruses are constantly evolving by mutation or by reassortment . Mutations can cause small changes in the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigens on the surface of the virus . This is called antigenic drift , which slowly creates an increasing variety of strains until one evolves that can infect people who are immune to the pre @-@ existing strains . This new variant then replaces the older strains as it rapidly sweeps through the human population , often causing an epidemic . However , since the strains produced by drift will still be reasonably similar to the older strains , some people will still be immune to them . In contrast , when influenza viruses reassort , they acquire completely new antigens — for example by reassortment between avian strains and human strains ; this is called antigenic shift . If a human influenza virus is produced that has entirely new antigens , everybody will be susceptible , and the novel influenza will spread uncontrollably , causing a pandemic . In contrast to this model of pandemics based on antigenic drift and shift , an alternative approach has been proposed where the periodic pandemics are produced by interactions of a fixed set of viral strains with a human population with a constantly changing set of immunities to different viral strains .
From a public health point of view , flu epidemics spread rapidly and are very difficult to control . Most influenza virus strains are not very infectious and each infected individual will only go on to infect one or two other individuals ( the basic reproduction number for influenza is generally around 1 @.@ 4 ) . However , the generation time for influenza is extremely short : the time from a person becoming infected to when
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the meal is rolled out , audience members now traditionally yell out , " Here comes Meat Loaf like a bat out of hell . " ( The phrase " Let me sleep on it " , from " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , is yelled out at another point . ) Originally , the audience yelled out " What ? Meat Loaf again ? " until Meat Loaf 's album became a hit .
= = Reception = =
Bat Out of Hell was released by Cleveland International on October 21 , 1977 . Cleveland International 's parent label was Epic Records , where almost everyone hated it . Steve Popovich , the head of Cleveland International Records , was relentless in his efforts to get Epic and all of CBS Records and radio on board . In 1993 , Steinman reflected that the album is " timeless in that it didn 't fit into any trend . It 's never been a part of what 's going on . You could release that record at any time and it would be out of place . "
Response to the album was slow . Steinman asserts that it was " underpromoted " , having a reputation of being " damaged goods because it had been walked around to so many places . " Due to the enthusiastic response to the music videos from the record Australia and England were the first to develop interest . The BBC television programme Old Grey Whistle Test aired a clip of the live band performing the nine @-@ minute title track . According to Classic Rock , response was so overwhelming , that they screened it again the following week . They later invited the band to perform " Paradise " live . " As a result , in the UK Bat became an unfashionable , uncool , non @-@ radio record that became a ' must @-@ have ' for everyone who heard it , whether they ' got ' Steinman 's unique perspective or not . "
The album was not an immediate hit ; it was more of a growing one . Bat Out of Hell still sells about 200 @,@ 000 copies per year and has sold an estimated 43 million copies worldwide , including 14 million in the United States and over 1 @.@ 7 million albums in Australia , where it is the second best @-@ selling album in the country behind John Farnham 's Whispering Jack ( 1 @.@ 73 million copies ) and even re @-@ entered the ARIA Charts in June 2007 , at # 34 . It stayed on the United Kingdom charts for 485 weeks , a feat surpassed only by the 522 weeks of Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours . In 1989 , Kerrang ! magazine listed the album at No. 38 among the " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time " . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 343 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2005 , Bat Out of Hell was ranked number 301 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time . In 2006 it was voted number nine in a poll conducted by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation to discover Australia 's most popular album . In November 2007 , Meat Loaf was awarded the Classic Album award in Classic Rock 's Classic Rock Roll Of Honour .
Reviews were initially mixed , but have since become much more positive . At first Rolling Stone called the songs " swell , but ... entirely mannered and derivative " and noted that the arrangements " aren 't bad " , although the musicians were commended . The review ended with the assertion that the " principals have some growing to do . " Modern reviews are more positive , however . Allmusic declares " this is Grand Guignol pop — epic , gothic , operatic , and silly , and it 's appealing because of all of this . " They acknowledge that Steinman is " a composer without peer , simply because nobody else wanted to make mini @-@ epics like this . " Rundgren 's production is applauded , as is the wit in the music and lyrics . " It may elevate adolescent passion to operatic dimensions , and that 's certainly silly , but it 's hard not to marvel at the skill behind this grandly silly , irresistible album . "
Also , Meat Loaf revealed on In the Studio with Redbeard that he was not well received early on in the tour when he was opening for Cheap Trick . In the same interview , Meat Loaf revealed that when he played at a CBS Records convention in 1978 , record executives and superstar Billy Joel ( who was in the audience ) gave Meat Loaf a standing ovation for his performance after a haunting rendition of the closing track " For Crying Out Loud " , and credits this as the turning point in the album 's success in the United States .
= = Dispute between Cleveland International and Sony Records = =
In 1995 , Cleveland International sued Sony for unpaid royalties from sales of the album . Under the terms of the 1998 settlement agreement ending the suit , Sony agreed to include the Cleveland International logo on all future releases of the album . In 2002 , Stephen Popovich , founder of Cleveland International and the owner of the rights to its name , sued Sony , alleging that Sony had failed to include the Cleveland International logo on some copies of the album and on some compilations Sony released that included songs from the album . On May 31 , 2005 , the federal district court in Cleveland , Ohio , entered judgment against Sony pursuant to a jury verdict in favor of Popovich and awarded Popovich more than US $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damages for Sony 's breach of the 1998 settlement agreement . On November 21 , 2007 , the federal appellate court in Cincinnati , Ohio , affirmed the judgment of the trial court .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jim Steinman .
= = = Versions = = =
The album also exists in numerous other formats and rereleases , including a Super Audio CD version , a 25th anniversary edition ( 2001 – Epic / Legacy # 62171 ) with two bonus tracks ( " Great Boléros of Fire ( live intro ) " [ 3 : 54 ] and " Bat Out of Hell ( live ) " [ 11 : 10 ] , and a Bat Out of Hell : Revamped release ( 1993 ) featuring the bonus song " Dead Ringer for Love " .
= = Sales and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Track numbers indicate that a musician only plays the instrument so noted on that specific track .
= = = Arrangements = = =
Kenneth Ascher – string arrangements ( 3 , 5 )
Steve Margoshes – orchestra arrangement ( 7 )
= = = Band = = =
Meat Loaf – lead vocals , backing vocals ( 6 ) , percussion ( 2 )
Todd Rundgren – guitar ( 1 , 2 , 4 – 6 ) , percussion ( 1 , 2 ) , keyboards ( 1 ) , backing vocals ( 1 – 3 , 5 , 6 )
Kasim Sulton – bass guitar ( 1 , 2 , 4 – 7 ) , backing vocals ( 1 )
Roy Bittan – piano , keyboards ( 1 , 2 , 6 )
Steve Margoshes – piano ( 7 )
Cheryl Hardwick – piano ( 7 )
Jim Steinman – keyboards ( 1 , 2 , 6 ) , percussion ( 1 , 2 ) , " lascivious effects " ( 6 ) , dialogue intro ( 2 )
Roger Powell – synthesizer ( 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 )
Edgar Winter – saxophone ( 2 , 4 , 6 )
Max Weinberg – drums ( 1 , 2 , 6 )
John " Willie " Wilcox – drums ( 4 , 5 , 7 )
Marcia McClain – dialogue intro ( 2 )
Phil " Scooter " Rizzuto – play @-@ by @-@ play ( 6 )
Ellen Foley – featured vocal ( 6 ) , backing vocals ( 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 )
Rory Dodd – backing vocals ( all except 4 )
Gene Orloff – concert master ( 7 )
Members of New York Philharmonic and Philadelphia Orchestra – orchestra ( 7 )
= Miniopterus manavi =
Miniopterus manavi ( Manavi long @-@ fingered bat ) is a bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs in east @-@ central Madagascar . First described in 1906 , this species was later included in the mainland African M. minor . A 1995 revision united populations of small Miniopterus from Madagascar and the Comoros as M. manavi , but molecular and morphological studies in 2008 and 2009 showed that this concept of M. manavi in fact included five different species . M. manavi itself was restricted to a few locations in the eastern Central Highlands and populations in the Comoros and northern and western Madagascar were allocated to different species .
Miniopterus manavi is a small , blackish or reddish @-@ brown Miniopterus ; its forearm length is 37 @.@ 6 to 39 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 48 to 1 @.@ 54 in ) . The tragus ( a projection in the outer ear ) is narrow and ends in an angular tip . The uropatagium ( tail membrane ) is well @-@ furred and the palate is flat .
= = Taxonomy = =
Miniopterus , a widespread genus of bats in Africa , southern Eurasia , and Australia , was first recorded from Madagascar by George Edward Dobson , who mentioned the larger Miniopterus schreibersii and the smaller M. scotinus ( currently M. natalensis ) in his 1878 catalog of the bats in the British Museum . In 1906 , Oldfield Thomas named the larger species M. majori and the smaller M. manavi . He regarded M. manavi as close to the mainland African M. minor , and in 1971 , R.W. Hayman and J.E. Hill placed it as a subspecies of that species . In their 1995 Faune de Madagascar review of Malagasy bats , however , Randolph Peterson and colleagues again separated M. manavi as a species , with M. manavi griveaudi ( currently Miniopterus griveaudi ) from Grande Comore as a subspecies . Peterson , who died before the review was completed , had originally divided M. manavi into several species occurring in different areas , but his collaborators decided conservatively to keep M. manavi as a single species , recommending reassessment of the status of those forms as new material would become available .
In the 2000s , molecular studies helped clarify the systematics of Miniopterus . In 2007 , Javier Juste and colleagues , using sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene , found that bats from Madagascar ( M. manavi ) , Grande Comore ( M. manavi griveaudi ) and São Tomé ( M. minor newtoni ; currently Miniopterus newtoni ) did not cluster together to the exclusion of other African Miniopterus ; however , their samples of " M. manavi " were in fact misidentified M. majori . The next year , Nicole Weyeneth and colleagues used cytochrome b and mitochondrial D @-@ loop sequences to assess the relationships of Comoran Miniopterus . They found two unrelated clades within Malagasy and Comoran samples of " Miniopterus manavi " , neither of which was closely related to M. newtoni or to Tanzanian samples of M. minor .
During 2009 , Steven Goodman and colleagues published two papers that found a total of five genetically and morphologically distinct species within Miniopterus manavi as defined by Peterson and colleagues ( 1995 ) , up to four of which can be found in a single locality . In order to determine the true identity of M. manavi , Goodman and Claude Maminirina obtained bats near the type locality of M. manavi ( the site where the original material was collected , from which the species was described ) for inclusion in the analysis ; they also sequenced one of Thomas 's original specimens . Among the five species they identified , M. griveaudi occurs on Grande Comore and Anjouan and in northern and western Madagascar ; M. aelleni occurs on Anjouan and in northern and western Madagascar ; M. brachytragos is found in northern Madagascar only ; M. mahafaliensis is confined to the southwestern part of the island ; and M. manavi itself is known only from the eastern edge of the Central Highlands . These five species are not each other 's closest relatives according to analyses of cytochrome b sequences and their similarities reflect convergent evolution . Cytochrome b suggested that the closest relative of M. manavi is the slightly larger M. petersoni from southeastern Madagascar . Two specimens of M. manavi differed by 1 @.@ 3 % in their cytochrome b sequences and by 2 @.@ 5 % from M. petersoni .
= = Description = =
Miniopterus manavi is a diminutive species with fur of medium length . The upperparts are blackish or reddish brown . Other small Malagasy Miniopterus are lighter . The ears mostly lack hair and end in a rounded tip . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is thin for most of its length , ends in an angular tip , and has a flange at the medial side ( towards the midline of the animal ) . The tragus is differently shaped in other species . The wings and uropatagium ( tail membrane ) are blackish and are attached to the upper leg at the same level , above the ankle . The uropatagium is densely haired above and more sparsely below , as in M. mahafaliensis and M. brachytragos ; M. griveaudi and M. aelleni have more nearly naked uropatagia .
In the single specimen of true M. manavi that Goodman and colleagues could measure , total length is 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) , tail length is 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) , hindfoot length is 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) , tragus length is 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) , ear length is 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) , and body mass is 6 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 23 oz ) . The length of the forearm is known from four specimens ; it ranges from 37 @.@ 6 to 39 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 48 to 1 @.@ 54 in ) , averaging 38 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 52 in ) .
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is rounded . The central groove in the nasal depression is relatively narrow . The frontal bones are inflated and bear a prominent sagittal crest . Further back on the braincase , the lambdoid crest is poorly developed . The middle part of the palate is flat , not concave as in M. brachytragos , M. griveaudi , and M. mahafaliensis . At the palate 's back margin is a short , thick posterior palatal spine .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The currently known distribution of M. manavi extends around the eastern margin of the Central Highlands , from the vicinity of Ambositra in the north to Vinanitelo in the south , at 900 to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level . The 2008 IUCN Red List assesses the species as " Least Concern " , citing its wide distribution , though it is sometimes hunted for food . However , the account predates the recognition of M. aelleni , M. brachytragos , M. griveaudi , and M. mahafaliensis as separate species . Although some ecological data about M. manavi have been published , these need to be reevaluated with the recognition of numerous additional species within M. manavi . Species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects , breed seasonally , and roost in large colonies in caves . The myobiid mite Calcarmyobia comoresensis has been recorded on M. manavi .
= Calgary Tigers =
The Calgary Tigers , often nicknamed the Bengals , were an ice hockey team based in Calgary , Alberta , Canada from 1920 until 1927 as members of the Big Four League , Western Canada Hockey League and Prairie Hockey League . The Tigers were revived in 1932 , playing for a short @-@ lived four years in the North Western Hockey League . They played their games at the Victoria Arena .
Created ostensibly as an amateur team in hopes of competing for the Allan Cup , the Tigers helped form the Western Canada Hockey League in 1921 to become the first major professional team in Calgary . In 1924 , after winning both the league and Western Canadian championships , the Tigers became the first Calgary based club to compete for the Stanley Cup .
After succumbing to financial pressures in 1927 , the Tigers were briefly revived in the mid @-@ 1930s as a minor professional club . The Tigers competed a total of eleven seasons in four leagues , winning four championships during their existence . Five Tigers players would later gain election to the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = History = =
= = = Big @-@ 4 League = = =
In 1919 , under the guidance of Alberta Amateur Hockey Association league president Allan McCaw , a new elite senior amateur league was established in Alberta with two teams each in Calgary and Edmonton . The Big @-@ 4 League 's intention was to compete for the Allan Cup , emblematic of Canada 's national senior championship . The Tigers were created in 1920 , along with the Canadians , to represent Calgary in the Big Four after the city 's two original teams , the Wanderers and Columbus Crew , withdrew following the league 's first season . The Tigers also faced the Edmonton Eskimos and Dominions who served as representatives of Alberta 's capital . The Calgary teams were hosted at the Victoria Arena , which had been converted into a hockey rink in 1918 .
While the Big @-@ 4 billed itself as an amateur circuit , it became known as a notorious example of a " shamateur " league , as amateur teams secretly employed professional players in an attempt to gain an upper hand on their competition . When the Big Four announced their intention to compete in the Allan Cup playdowns , the Pacific Coast Hockey Association sent a letter of protest to the Canadian Amateur
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: in Duisburg , there was co @-@ operation and good communication from an early stage between German politicians , church and community leaders and the developers of the mosque , .
= Malliswari ( 1951 film ) =
Malliswari is a 1951 Indian Telugu @-@ language historical romance film produced and directed by Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy under his banner Vauhini Studios . N. T. Rama Rao and Bhanumathi Ramakrishna star as a couple – Nagaraju and Malliswari – who are separated by Malliswari 's greedy mother . Malliswari is sent to the king 's palace according to the custom of " Rani Vasam " , a tradition during the Vijayanagara Empire wherein young women were fetched to the palace with an offering gold and jewellery to their parents . The rest of the film focuses on the consequences faced by Nagaraju when he , against all rules , surreptitiously enters the palace to meet Malliswari .
Narasimha Reddy wanted to make a film based on Krishnadevaraya 's character ever since his visit to Hampi for the filming of his debut Vandemataram ( 1939 ) . He employed Devulapalli Krishnasastri to write the film 's script and took inspiration from Buchibabu 's play " Rayalavari Karunakruthyamu " and Devan Sharar 's short story " The Emperor and the Slave Girl " . He also incorporated into the script a few incidents from his childhood for the pranks between Nagaraju and Malliswari . S. Rajeswara Rao composed the film 's music , Adi M. Irani and B. N. Konda Reddy provided the cinematography , H. R. Narayana and Vasu edited the film , and A. K. Shekhar was the film 's production designer .
The production phase of Malliswari lasted for two years and the film was released on 20 December 1951 . It opened to a tepid response at the box office , but soon saw a growth in ticket sales due to favourable word of mouth . It grossed over ₹ 0 @.@ 8 million and was commercially successful . Malliswari was later screened at the 9th International Film Festival of India and the 1952 Peking film festival , making it the first Telugu film to be screened in an international film festival . Narasimha Reddy planned to dub the film into English , but backed out due to budget considerations .
Malliswari achieved cult status in Telugu cinema and is considered one of the best works of Narasimha Reddy as a filmmaker . It became the first film script to be serialised in the Vijayachitra magazine , and a few universities in the United States wished to have the film 's script as a part of their textual studies . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , CNN @-@ IBN included Malliswari in its list , " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= = Plot = =
During the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire , " Rani Vasam " was a common tradition that was considered a " boon " for young women . According to the tradition , young women were made the official residents of the palace when palanquins were sent to fetch them from their homes , offering large quantities of gold and jewellery to the parents in exchange . While the families of these women continue to cherish their daughters , these women were prohibited from having any contact with any male or letting any male visit them without permission . The ones who violated the rule were beheaded .
Nagaraju and Malliswari of Veerapuram are maternal cousins who became close friends in childhood . This angers Malliswari 's mother Nagamma , who criticises Nagaraju and his mother Govindamma , mainly for their economic status . Malliswari 's father Narappa , also the village head , is a silent spectator , and her uncle Hanumanthappa is a minister in the court of Krishnadevaraya , the king of the Vijayanagara Empire . Once , Nagaraju and Malliswari visit the nearby village and take shelter in a mandapa at night during a rainfall . Krishnadevaraya and Allasani Peddana , along with a few soldiers , enter the same mandapa where there are impressed with Malliswari 's talent as a singer and dancer . Nagaraju and Malliswari , unaware of their true identity , converse with them , and Nagaraju asks them to recommend the Malliswari to Krishnadevaraya for Rani Vasam .
Malliswari is against this and sees this as a prank by Nagaraju . While Nagamma is keen to send her to Rani Vasam , Narappa wants his daughter to marry Nagaraju . Nagamma voices her opinion which insults Govindamma and Nagaraju , who then decides to leave Veerapuram and earn money to convince Nagamma to approve his marriage to Malliswari . Nagaraju becomes a successful sculptor in Vijayanagara and decides to return to Veerapuram . However , before he can do so , Krishnadevaraya and his wife Tirumaladevi appoint Malliswari as the official resident of the palace , thereby granting her " Rani Vasam " .
Due to her insatiable desire for wealth , Nagamma forcibly sends Malliswari to the palace , and , when Nagaraju returns on the same night and learns what has happened , he becomes depressed . Govindamma become unstable after Nagaraju begins to lead the life of a recluse , mulling over his memories of Malliswari . A group of sculptors meet Nagaraju and ask him to accompany them to Vijayanagara to build a special mandapa for dancers , and he agrees . There , he meets Malliswari . They are separated by her maid Jalaja , who is afraid that they will be beheaded , as stipulated in the Rani Vasam tradition . Knowing about her past , Jalaja arranges a meeting of Malliswari with Nagaraju on the banks of the Tungabhadra river at midnight .
Krishnadevaraya and his ministry attend the newly constructed dance hall , where they learn that Nagaraju is one of the sculptors . That night , Malliswari wants to meet Nagaraju again but is held back after receiving a message that Krishnadevaraya and Tirumaladevi , along with other official residents of the palace , will be attending the play " Usha Parinayam " at the dance hall and that Malliswari is expected to participate in it . Nagaraju , who is waiting for her near the Tungabhadra river , enters the palace and is chased by the soldiers . Malliswari sees Nagaraju running and calls out to him . To prevent Malliswari from being beheaded , Nagaraju acts as if he does not know her , but they are soon jailed for violating the rules of Rani Vasam .
Jalaja reveals the love story of Malliswari and Nagaraju to Tirumaladevi . She also reveals that Malliswari denied any help from her and instead chose to die along with Nagaraju . The next morning , the hanging nooses are kept ready and the duo meet Krishnadevaraya before killing them . When Nagaraju blames Krishnadevaraya for sending a palanquin to her house for Rani Vasam , Krishnadevaraya defends his action and reminds Nagaraju that it was he who had asked him to send Malliswari to Rani Vasam . Krishnadevaraya forgives both Nagaraju and Malliswari , and their marriage is conducted in a grand manner at the palace .
= = Cast = =
N. T. Rama Rao as Nagaraju
Bhanumathi Ramakrishna as Malliswari
Sreevatsa as Krishnadevaraya
Kumari as Tirumaladevi
T. G. Kamala Devi as Jalaja
Nyapathi Raghava Rao as Allasani Peddana
Rushyendramani as Nagamma
Doraiswamy as Narappa
Surabhi Kamalabai as Govindamma
Vangara Venkata Subbaiah as Hanumanthappa
Revathi in a cameo appearance in the song " Poyi Ravamma "
Baby Mallika as Young Malliswari
Master Venkata Ramana as Young Nagaraju
= = Production = =
During the filming of his directorial debut Vandemataram ( 1939 ) at Hampi , Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy visited the Virupaksha Temple to capture the beauty of the monuments , which reflected the taste and artistic outlook of Krishnadevaraya , king of the Vijayanagara Empire . At the heart of the temple , Narasimha Reddy felt that he was standing exactly at a place where Krishnadevaraya had once stood and offered prayers to the deity . From that moment , Reddy decided to make a film in which Krishnadevaraya would be the main character , and he began working on the script .
Narasimha Reddy chose the concept of Rayalavari Karunakruthyamu , a popular play written by Telugu novelist Buchibabu that was published in the literary journal Bharathi ( 1944 ) and later broadcast by All India Radio , Madras . He approached Telugu poet and playwright Devulapalli Krishnasastri to write the film 's script and lyrics after being impressed with his previous works . Narasimha Reddy made a few changes to Buchibabu 's play and reworked Krishnadevaraya 's character .
Apart from Rayalavari Karunakruthyamu , Krishnasastri 's script also took inspiration from Devan Sharar 's short story , The Emperor and the Slave Girl , which was published in the now defunct magazine , The Illustrated Weekly of India . It was Narasimha Reddy 's practice to credit the authors of works from which he borrowed the basic premise for a film , but in this film , that was not the case . Krishnasastry revealed the fact in an interview with Vijayachitra magazine after Narasimha Reddy 's death in 1977 . However , in the film 's opening credits , Buchibabu was listed as the film 's writer along with Krishnasastri . Adi M. Irani and B. N. Konda Reddy were the film 's cinematographers ; S. Rajeswara Rao and Addepalli Ramarao composed the film 's music ; H. R. Narayana and Vasu edited the film . A. K. Shekhar was the film 's production designer and Thota Tharani 's father Thota Venkateswara Rao assisted him .
N. T. Rama Rao was chosen to play Nagaraju , a sculptor during the period of Krishnadevaraya 's rule . Narasimha Reddy wanted to cast a fresh face for the role of Malliswari and screen @-@ tested Kannada actress Revathi . He later finalised Bhanumathi Ramakrishna , who played a negative role in his previous film Swarga Seema ( 1945 ) , as the film 's female lead , as he felt an experienced actress with a good voice would do better justice to the role . Revathi made a cameo appearance in the song " Poyi Ravamma " . Differences arose between Narasimha Reddy and Bhanumathi due to the latter 's lack of punctuality . Due to the delay in production of Malliswari , Bhanumathi had begun working in Prema ( 1952 ) , which was produced by her husband P. S. Ramakrishna Rao . As she sported a curly hairdo , a body double was used for a few sequences as it was in contrast to the simple and soft tresses she sported in this film . Regarding the same , Bhanumathi criticised Narasimha Reddy , stating that he wanted his actresses to concentrate on his films and avoid getting married .
Despite this , Narasimha Reddy said that Rama Rao and Bhanumathi " made a cute on @-@ screen pair " , adding that one cannot imagine anyone else as Nagaraju and Malleswari . T. G. Kamala Devi , who played the role of Malliswari in Buchibabu 's radio play , was cast as Jalaja , Malliswari 's maid in the film . Pasumarthi Krishnamurthy choreographed the songs . Narasimha Reddy incorporated a few of his childhood incidents in the film , and according to Bhanumathi , the pranks between Malliswari and Nagaraju and the sequence before the song " Kothi Bavaku Pellanta " were inspired by his childhood experiences . Apart from designing the sets , Shekhar took care of the artists ' hair and costumes . He also recreated the shores of the Tungabhadra River on a floor a Vauhini Studios building in Madras for the song " Manasuna Mallela " . The production phase of Malliswari lasted two years .
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack of Malliswari composed by S. Rajeswara Rao consists of 19 songs whose lyrics were penned by Devulapalli Krishnasastri . The sound mixing process was supervised by A. Krishnan and P. V. Koteswara Rao . It was processed by N. C. Sen Gupta and orchestrated by Addepalli Ramarao , who was , however , credited as one of the film 's music directors in the opening credits . The song " Manasuna Mallela " was composed using the Kalyani raga . Purandara Dasa 's composition " Sri Gananatha " was used in the film 's opening credits . Being a playback singer , Bhanumathi provided vocals for all the songs featuring her character Malliswari . Composing the soundtrack took six months and Rajeswara Rao held rehearsals for both Ghantasala and Bhanumathi along with others . The soundtrack , marketed by Saregama , was released on 31 December 1951 .
The soundtrack was a critical and commercial success . In his review for Telugu Swatantra magazine , writer Aarudhra praised the film 's sound designing by Krishnan and Koteswara Rao stating , " Heavy rain with winds lashed outside as [ Malliswari ] ' s mother converses with her husband Nagappa . Their conversation is clearly audible along with the sound of the rain and the wind . Even the flutter of the towel on Nagappa 's shoulder is heard clearly " . In The Hans India , Aruna Ravikumar surmised that , for the song " Akasha Veedhilo " , Krishnasastri had borrowed the image of a cloud as messenger between lovers from the poem " Meghasandesam " by Indian Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa . Rajeswara Rao considered Malliswari to be his best work after S. S. Vasan 's Chandralekha ( 1948 ) . He especially liked " Akasha Veedhilo " and performed it numerous times at events he attended .
After Bhanumathi 's death in December 2005 , K. V. S. Madhav of The Hindu recalled , " Even at the ripe age of 70 @-@ something , when she rendered her immortal number from Malleswari , ' Manasuna Mallela maalalugene ... ' in that honey @-@ dipped voice , there was no eye that did not turn moist at Ravindra Bharathi almost a decade ago . "
Track listing
All lyrics written by Devulapalli Krishnasastri .
= = Release , reception and legacy = =
Malliswari was released on 20 December 1951 . Initially , it received a tepid response at the box office . However , ticket sales picked up due to positive word of mouth and the film became commercially successful . Narasimha Reddy re @-@ released the film after a gap , and it again achieved similar success . It was screened at the 9th International Film Festival of India under the " Indian Panorama " section . Malliswari was screened at the 1952 Peking film festival , making it the first Telugu film to be screened at an international film festival .
Malliswari grossed over ₹ 0 @.@ 8 million , which according to Narasimha Reddy , was a huge amount in those days . Vasan advised Narasimnha Reddy to dub the film into Hindi . A 16 mm print was sent to the United States . After being screened in various countries , Narasimha Reddy wanted to dub Malliswari into English . However , the plans were dropped due to budget considerations . Delhi Telugu Sangham screened the film at Azad Bhawan , New Delhi , on 21 February 2004 . The 60th anniversary of Malliswari was celebrated with an event at the Sri Thyagaraja Gana Sabha , Chikkadpally , on 20 December 2011 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
In his review for Filmindia magazine , Baburao Patel called Malliswari an " inspiring motion picture " which would " save us the blush when compared with the best of motion pictures of the world " . Film historian Randor Guy called Malliswari a " poem in celluloid , told with rare artistic finesse , which lingers long in the memory " . M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu wrote , " No wonder , the film took two years to complete , but what ultimately mattered was the quality of the product , an all @-@ time classic of which the Telugu film industry is proud . It is a simple story , well told and represented by excellence in all sectors of film -craft [ sic ] " . Regarding Bhanumathi 's performance , Narasimham stated that she " breathed life " into Malliswari 's character with her " natural acting and mellifluous renditions " .
In his book " Alanaati Chalana Chitram " , K. N. T. Sastry wrote that Bhanumathi 's expressions were " heavenly " and called Shekhar 's production design " commendable " . The directorate of the International Film Festival of India called Malliswari a " nostalgic film of kings and proud queens , baroque @-@ style palaces and dancers , and ordinary mortals who dared to fall in love " .
= = = Digitisation plans = = =
In November 2007 , a Hyderabad @-@ based company named Goldstone Technologies acquired the film negative rights of fourteen Telugu films produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios , including Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Malliswari , to release their digitally remastered versions in colour . Though the digitally remastered and colourised version of Mayabazar , released in January 2010 , was commercially successful , Goldstone Technologies decided not to remaster the remaining fourteen films including Malliswari , saying that most of the producers who sold the rights of the negatives to TV channels lost control over them . Goldstone said furthermore that there were a number of legal issues over ownership and copyright issues whenever other producers try to do something on their own .
= = = In popular culture = = =
When people talk of good movies , of clean films , of purposeful cinema , BN is remembered , and his films like Sumangali , Malleswari , Bangaru Papa , Devata are screened , some go nostalgic ... some give out deep sighs ... some shed silent tears . Sentimental folks long for the bygone days of glory that was Telugu cinema and that was BN Reddi .
Malliswari is regarded as one of the cult classic films of Telugu cinema . It is one of the earliest Telugu films making use of Indian art and architecture and was followed by films such as Sankarabharanam ( 1980 ) , Meghasandesam ( 1982 ) , Ananda Bhairavi ( 1983 ) , Sagara Sangamam ( 1983 ) , and Rudraveena ( 1988 ) . It was also the first film script to be serialised in Vijayachitra magazine . During the film 's screening in the United States , a few universities requested the
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Before the creation of the U.S. Highway System , the current M @-@ 69 was a portion of M @-@ 12 . The original M @-@ 69 was replaced by US 102 and the M @-@ 69 designation was reused on a section of M @-@ 12 not replaced by US 2 . Further changes to the current highway truncated it for three decades . The eastern section removed from M @-@ 69 was given the County @-@ Designated Highway name of G @-@ 30 until the change was reversed . In 2002 , the historic Paint River Bridge in Crystal Falls was rehabilitated , repairing it and restoring it to the original appearance .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 69 starts at the intersection of 5th Street and Superior Avenue in Crystal Falls , where it meets US 2 / US 141 . The Iron County Courthouse is located at the head of Superior Avenue and overlooks a steep hill headed east through downtown . The City of Crystal Falls states that the courthouse offers " a view of the main street of the City and the scenic panorama of the valley at its feet " . On a clear day , Iron Mountain can be seen from the courthouse tower . It is from this starting point that M @-@ 69 descends Superior Avenue through downtown toward the Paint River in Iron County . The highway crosses the river on a historic bridge built in 1929 that features decorative lamp posts and railings . The bridge was rehabilitated for five months in 2002 . This rehabilitation involved replacing the bridge deck , repairing the bridge 's substructure , and restoring the lighting and railings to original designs . Because this bridge is listed on Michigan 's list of historic bridges , the construction work had to preserve the original historic character of the bridge . Final construction was completed at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 130 @,@ 545 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 65 million in 2015 ) . A complete bridge replacement would have cost 25 % more without saving the historic bridge .
On the opposite bank of the river , Superior Avenue climbs a hill past the Evergreen Cemetery at the top . The section of roadway up to this point carries the highest levels of traffic as measured by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in their annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) surveys . Some 3 @,@ 900 vehicles used this segment of trunkline daily in 2007 . Outside of town , the trunkline runs south of Runkle Lake through hilly , wooded terrain . The roadway crosses the southern section of the Michigamme River west of the Dickinson County line .
Running around two miles ( 32 @.@ km ) east of the county line , M @-@ 69 meets M @-@ 95 in the unincorporated community of Sagola . The post office in Sagola was established in 1889 to serve the timber @-@ harvesting community . M @-@ 69 turns south along M @-@ 95 , and together the two highways run south for 5 @.@ 956 miles ( 9 @.@ 585 km ) concurrently to the unincorporated community of Randville . This segment of the trunkline had the highest commercial traffic in the state 's AADT surveys . Some 560 trucks used this roadway daily in 2007 , according to MDOT . This second unincorporated community was settled for iron mining at the adjacent Groveland Mine at the turn of the century . M @-@ 69 and M @-@ 95 separate in Randville as the former turns east and the latter continues southward .
Between Randville and the former community of Metropolitan , M @-@ 69 runs along the West Branch of the Sturgeon River through more hilly terrain . The trunkline continues east to the twin communities of Theodore and Felch . The river and the road part ways until meeting again at Foster City . This is also the location of a unique junction of highways . M @-@ 69 meets G @-@ 69 , a County @-@ Designated Highway that runs south to Loretto in southern Dickinson County . The intersection in unique because some states , such as California , do not allow two highways to share a common number .
The highway continues to follow the river until crossing it at Hardwood before curving southeasterly and crossing into northern Menominee County . The highway crosses the northern end of the county through relatively flat terrain . The lowest AADT counts were measured here in 2007 at 550 vehicles . Near the unincorporated community of Perronville , the roadway runs through hills near a crossing of the Ten Mile Creek west of the county line . Continuing to the southeast , M @-@ 69 meets the community of Schaffer at the Delta County line . This line marks the transition from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone . In Delta County , M @-@ 69 turns south along the Bark River and crosses its north branch . Just after running 5 @.@ 229 miles ( 8 @.@ 415 km ) into the county , M @-@ 69 crosses a set of railroad tracks from the Canadian National Railway 's Wisconsin Central . There it meets US 2 / US 41 east of the community of Bark River , home to the Hannahville Indian Community . This marks the western end of the highway , halfway between Bark River and Hyde , west of Escanaba .
= = History = =
In 1919 , M @-@ 69 started at the state line south of Crystal Falls . It ran north through Crystal Falls , where it intersected M @-@ 12 , to end in Covington at an intersection with M @-@ 28 . This roadway was redesignated with the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 . US 2 replaced M @-@ 69 south and M @-@ 12 west of Crystal Falls . US 102 replaced M @-@ 69 north of Crystal Falls , and the latter designation was reused on the section of M @-@ 12 east of town . Where the roadway intersected M @-@ 45 ( now M @-@ 95 ) in Sagola , M @-@ 69 joined it to Randville and then replaced M @-@ 90 east to Foster City by 1927 . By 1930 , the highway was extended through Menominee County into Delta County to end at an intersection with US 2 / US 41 east of Bark River . This extension gave M @-@ 69 its current routing .
In the late 1930s , the state had a general program to abandon some 250 miles ( 400 km ) of state highways with a daily traffic level of less than 300 vehicles . On July 26 , 1939 , the state turned over 5 @.@ 8 miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) of M @-@ 69 in Delta County , but the Delta County Road Commission immediately filed a protest to block the transfer . The Dickinson County Road Commission had already protested the abandonment of 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) of M @-@ 69 in that county . Maps published later that year do not indicate any change in jurisdiction to the highway .
In 1960 , the section of M @-@ 69 east of Randville was decommissioned , and the concurrency with M @-@ 95 was removed . This truncated the highway to 12 @.@ 834 miles ( 20 @.@ 654 km ) , approximately one @-@ fifth of its previous length . The transfer to county control was part of a program to reduce the total state highway mileage in the state . After October 5 , 1970 , this section was renamed G @-@ 30 with the beginning of the County @-@ Designated Highway program in Michigan .
At various points , the road commissions in Dickinson , Menominee and Delta counties tried to give the roadway back to the state for maintenance . Menominee County made the request in 1974 and 1982 , both times rejected because the road did not carry enough traffic to be a state highway . The road was a maintenance issue for the counties because of its relative isolation and high truck traffic carrying pulpwood to the paper mill in Escanaba and potatoes from farms near Felch . The roadway was in a relative state of disrepair in 1982 , and the counties wanted the state to fix it . Menominee County estimated that it would cost $ 500 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 94 million in 2015 ) for their 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) stretch , while Dickinson estimated that it would cost $ 1 million ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 87 million in 2015 ) for their 27 miles ( 43 km ) .
This county road designation lasted until 1993 . That year , the changes made in 1960 were reversed and M @-@ 69 was re @-@ extended along M @-@ 95 and back to the Bark River area .
= = Major intersections = =
= Helen Rollason =
Helen Frances Rollason MBE ( née Grindley : 11 March 1956 – 9 August 1999 ) was a British sports journalist and television presenter , who in 1990 became the first female presenter of the BBC 's sports programme Grandstand . She was also a regular presenter of Sport on Friday , and of the children 's programme Newsround during the 1980s .
Born in London , Rollason studied to become a PE teacher before entering radio broadcasting in 1980 . After directing sport related content for Channel 4 , where she helped to bring American football to British television , she anchored coverage of the 1987 World Student Games and 1988 Summer Olympics . Her work on Grandstand proved popular with viewers , and led to a number of other sports presenting roles for Rollason throughout the 1990s . As well as covering mainstream events such as the 1996 Summer Olympics , she became a champion of disability sports , helping to raise its profile and change its public and media perception . She presented sports bulletins for BBC Breakfast News and BBC News , and in 1996 was named as Sports Presenter of the Year .
Rollason was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1997 , and fought a two @-@ year battle with the disease . A 1998 documentary , Hope for Helen , followed her treatment , and won her much public support for her courage . She continued to work throughout her illness , and shortly before her death was awarded an MBE in the 1999 Birthday Honours . Later that year , the BBC established an award in her memory which is presented at the annual Sports Personality of the Year awards ceremony . A cancer charity was also founded in her name . Rollason 's television career also helped to open up the way for other women to enter the world of sports broadcasting , with presenters such as Sue Barker and Gabby Yorath following in her footsteps .
= = Early life = =
Helen Grindley was born in London on 11 March 1956 , and adopted at the age of nine months . Raised in a family where she was the second of three children , she spent her childhood in Northamptonshire and Bath . Her father was an engineer who later became a lecturer at Bath College , and her mother a biology teacher . She attended the Bath High School for Girls , and after developing an early interest in sport , was a member of Bath Athletics Club , as well as playing hockey for Somerset . Although she was keen to follow a career in broadcasting , careers advisors at school steered her towards teaching instead .
After leaving school she studied at the University of Brighton 's Chelsea College of Physical Education in Eastbourne , where she became Vice @-@ President of the Students Union . During her second year at the college she spent a term as an exchange student at Dalhousie University in Halifax , Nova Scotia . She graduated in 1977 . After completing her studies she became a PE teacher , and spent three years teaching the subject to secondary school students . She worked initially at Henry Beaufort School in Winchester , Hampshire , before moving to Essex , where she was a supply teacher . It was while she was teaching PE that she met her future husband , a fellow teacher named John Rollason . The couple were married in 1980 . Their daughter , Nikki , was born in 1983 . The couple divorced in 1991 .
= = Broadcasting career = =
Rollason continued to aspire to a career in broadcasting , and while still teaching did screen tests for BBC Wales and BBC South , but she was unsuccessful in both auditions . In 1980 , she took a holiday job as a volunteer presenter at Basildon Community Radio after seeing an advertisement in Basildon town centre and offering her services to them . A year later she joined the team of Essex Radio as a sports reporter when the commercial station went on air . She was subsequently appointed as the station 's deputy sports editor . Three years later she became a producer @-@ director for Cheerleader Productions , making sports content for Channel 4 . Among the events for which she helped to provide coverage were the final of the 1984 Davis Cup , held in Sweden , and Super Bowl XIX , which took place in 1985 . Additionally , she worked on the US Masters and US Open .
After just over a year with Cheerleader , Rollason left the company to concentrate on her broadcasting career , and became a freelance reporter . She covered the 1987 World Student Games from Zagreb for Thames Television , and then presented the 1988 World Junior Athletics championships from Sudbury , Ontario for Channel 4 . Later on in 1988 , she provided coverage of that year 's Summer Olympics , held in Seoul , for ITV . During the mid @-@ 1980s , she also joined the presenting team of the BBC children 's news programme , Newsround , with a view to increasing its sports coverage , and presented several features on topics such as gymnastics and female jockeys , as well as presenting Newsround Extra , a show that covered a specific issue in more detail . One such programme was a report on the street children of Bogotá , a subject that deeply moved her and reduced her to tears on screen .
In 1990 , Rollason joined BBC Sport and became the first female presenter of Grandstand , where her down @-@ to @-@ earth presenting style quickly made her popular with viewers , and earned her a regular presenting role on BBC Two 's Sport on Friday , as well as a raft of other sporting programmes . Among her credits with the BBC are coverage of the Wimbledon Championships , the 1992 Summer Olympics from Barcelona and 1996 Summer Olympics from Atlanta , together with the 1994 Commonwealth Games , which were held in Victoria , British Columbia . She was an advocate of disability sports , and helped to alter its public and media perception with her coverage of the 1996 Summer Paralympics . Britain 's Olympic team had been fairly unsuccessful at that year 's Olympics , prompting Rollason to urge viewers and the media to support what she called the " real " Olympics . Jane Swan , General Secretary of the British Paralympic Association later described how Rollason 's support for the event had helped to change its image . " Until then , the Paralympics had been treated as documentary material , focusing mainly on disability . Helen made people realise that it was sport . " Other disability sporting events she covered include the 1990 World Disabled Championships , 1991 Blind Golfers ' Championships , and the 1992 Summer Paralympics . She also fronted sports bulletins for BBC Breakfast News . In 1996 , she was named as the Television and Radio Industries Sports Presenter of the Year .
= = Later career , illness and death = =
Rollason began feeling unwell in 1996 during an eight @-@ week assignment to the US , where she was covering that year 's Olympic and Paralympic Games . She was diagnosed with cancer of the colon in August 1997 , which she was told had also spread to her liver . She was initially given three months to live , but confounded medical opinion by fighting the disease long after that . She underwent treatment with chemotherapy , but also used a combination of holistic therapies and diet to treat her condition . The cancer later metastasised to her lungs . Rollason continued to work throughout her illness , despite sessions of chemotherapy that left her feeling weak , and cited her work as the thing that had kept her going throughout her treatment . " I stay working because I love it , and because I feel best on the days when I 'm busy . I 'd far rather work than hang around the house – even though there are days when I can hardly get out of bed . " She presented sports bulletins for BBC News , wrote a weekly column about her illness for the Sunday Mirror Magazine and worked on a book about her experience that she hoped would help others diagnosed with the disease . She cited the determination of the many disabled athletes she had got to know through her work as having given her the strength of mind to fight her illness . In October 1998 , the BBC aired a special edition of its QED documentary series titled Hope for Helen , which followed her as she underwent a course of treatment . The film earned her much support from the public for her courage. in December 1998 , colleagues paid tribute to an emotional @-@ looking Rollason during the BBC 's Sports Review of the Year , a compliment that produced mixed feelings for the presenter . She later wrote of the incident , " I felt a mixture of horror , embarrassment and incredible warmth towards my colleagues that they should think of doing this " .
In April 1999 , the BBC announced plans to overhaul its Six O 'Clock News bulletin , and that an in @-@ depth sports preview fronted by Rollason would be included in the programme 's Friday edition . She began presenting the slot in May , and made her last onscreen appearance on 18 June . Rollason was awarded an MBE in the 1999 Birthday Honours for her services to broadcasting and charities , and in July 1999 attended a ceremony at Buckingham Palace to be presented with the honour by the Queen . Speaking about the occasion , Rollason said , " I cried when
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urls herself into her physically demanding role with heroic conviction " . David Stratton , from At the Movies concluded that she was " as usual , really fine " . However , New York Daily News criticised her part for being half @-@ naked throughout most of her appearance , considering that it was " an awfully strange way to make a righteous point about exploitation " .
= = = 2009 – 14 : Biopics and arthouse films = = =
After a short hiatus from acting following the birth of her two children , Watts returned to acting in 2009 , starring alongside Clive Owen in the political thriller The International . She played a Manhattan assistant district attorney who partners with an Interpol agent to take down a merchant bank . The picture was well received by critics , and grossed over US $ 60 million ( equivalent to $ 66 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) worldwide . The same year , she appeared in the drama Mother and Child , which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival . She portrayed the role of Elizabeth , a lawyer who never knew her biological mother . Watts co @-@ starred the film along with Annette Bening , Kerry Washington and Samuel L. Jackson . Mother and Child received mainly favourable reviews , with ViewLondon remarking that Watts " is terrific as Elizabeth , delivering a powerful performance that [ ... ] isn 't afraid to be unsympathetic " . She was nominated for the Best Actress award at the Australian Film Institute Awards and was also nominated for an Independent Spirit Award in the category of Best Supporting Female .
Her next film , the Woody Allen dramedy You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger , opened at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . She portrayed Sally , a woman who has a troubled marriage with author Roy ( played by Josh Brolin ) . Antonio Banderas , Freida Pinto , Lucy Punch and Anthony Hopkins also co @-@ starred in the film , which received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over US $ 26 million ( equivalent to $ 28 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) . Later in 2010 , she starred as Valerie Plame in the biographical thriller Fair Game , which was given a November theatrical release in the US . Based on Plame 's memoir , Fair Game : My Life as a Spy , My Betrayal by the White House , the movie also marked the third pairing of Watts with Sean Penn after 21 Grams and The Assassination of Richard Nixon . The movie was acclaimed by critics and earned Watts a Satellite Award nomination for Best Actress .
Watts appeared opposite Daniel Craig and Rachel Weisz in Jim Sheridan 's psychological thriller Dream House , which was released in September 2011 , to a lackluster critical and commercial response . Watts ' following film role was in Clint Eastwood 's biopic J. Edgar , alongside Leonardo DiCaprio in the title character . Watts played Edgar 's secretary Helen Gandy . The film was released in December 2011 and rated average with reviewers . About Watts ' performance , The Hollywood Reporter remarked that she " has little opportunity to express much beyond dogged loyalty " and while Los Angeles Times called her " talented " , it also noted that her part was a " thankless one " for the actress .
Watts starred in The Impossible ( 2012 ) , a disaster drama based on the true story of María Belón and her family 's experience of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami ; she played the lead role , with her name changed to Maria Bennett . Critical response towards the movie and Watts ' performance was unanimmously positive . Deborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter said that " Watts packs a huge charge of emotion as the battered , ever @-@ weakening Maria whose tears of pain and fear never appear fake or idealised . " Justin Chang of Variety magazine noted that " Watts has few equals at conveying physical and emotional extremis , something she again demonstrates in a mostly bedridden role . " Damon Wise of The Guardian said that " Watts is both brave and vulnerable , and her scenes with the young Lucas ... are among the film 's best . " Watts went on to be nominated for the Academy Award , Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress .
In the Australian drama Adore , Watts co @-@ starred with Robin Wright , playing two childhood friends who fall in love with each other 's sons . The movie premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival as Two Mothers , and later opened in selected cinemas . It received a mixed feedback from critics , who concluded that Watts and co @-@ star Wright " give it their all , but they can 't quite make Adore 's trashy , absurd plot believable " . She obtained the FCCA Award for Best Actress in 2014 , for her role . Her next release was Movie 43 , an independent anthology black comedy film that featured 14 different storylines , with each segment having a different director . Watts ' segment , titled " Homeschooled " , was directed by Will Graham and revolved around two devoted parents ( Watts and Liev Schreiber ) attempting to replicate their son 's whole high school experience . This marked Watts ' second collaboration with Schreiber , following the 2006 drama The Painted Veil . The portmanteau film was universally panned by critics , with Richard Roeper calling it " the Citizen Kane of awful " .
She appeared opposite Matt Dillon in Laurie Collyer 's Sunlight Jr . , an indie drama about a struggling working @-@ class couple . The movie premiered at the 12th Tribeca Film Festival , and was given a limited US theatrical run in November 2013 . Reviewers expressed a warm reception for the film and the San Francisco Chronicle , praising Watts and co @-@ star Dillon , stated that they are " formidable actors at the top of their game here [ ... ] exhibiting a remarkable chemistry " . Also in 2013 , she portrayed the title role in Oliver Hirschbiegel 's Diana , a biographical drama about the last two years of the life of Diana , Princess of Wales . The picture , released amid much controversy given its subject , was a box office bomb and received largely mediocre reviews from critics . James Berardinelli found the film to be a " dull , pointless " production and remarked that while Watts did a " decent job encapsulating the look and feel of Diana " , her portrayal was " a two @-@ dimensional recreation " .
Alejandro González Iñárritu 's 2014 dark comedy Birdman or ( The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance ) saw Watts play an actress and the partner of stage co @-@ star Edward Norton . The film , about a faded Hollywood actor ( Michael Keaton ) struggling to mount a Broadway play , opened the 71st Venice International Film Festival and received an October theatrical release in specialty theaters , generating widespread critical acclaim . Cinemablend felt that Watts and Norton shared an " explosive chemistry " as " warring " lovers , and San Francisco Chronicle found the actress to be " poignant and funny " in her role . Birdman won four awards at the 87th Academy Awards including Best Picture , and Watts and the other cast members earned the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture .
Watts appeared in the comedy @-@ drama St. Vincent , as a Russian prostitute . She learnt the accent by spending time with Russian women in a West Village spa during a six @-@ week period . The film , co @-@ starring Bill Murray and Melissa McCarthy , was screened at the 39th Toronto International Film Festival and released to theaters on October 10 , 2014 , one week before Birdman . The dramedy garnered favorable reviews as a whole , but Los Angeles Times reported a dividing reaction towards Watts ' role , asserting that her part " put off some critics with its outrageousness " , but " earned plenty of plaudits too " . Watts later nabbed a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress . In the comedy @-@ drama While We 're Young , Watts co @-@ starred with Ben Stiller as a New York @-@ based married couple who begin hanging out with a couple in their 20s . Like St. Vincent , While We 're Young was screened at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival , receiving an US release the following year . The movie was an arthouse success and Watts was highly acclaimed for her on @-@ screen chemistry with Stiller .
= = = 2015 – present : Film and television balance = = =
She will also appear in filmmaker Gracie Otto 's upcoming documentary film Chalky about British film and theatre producer Michael White , who is a close friend of Watts ' . Watts played rebel leader Evelyn Johnson @-@ Eaton in the sequel The Divergent Series : Insurgent ( 2015 ) . The film was a commercial success , grossing $ 274 @.@ 5 million worldwide , but received mainly mixed reviews from critics . Watts reprised her role in the series ' final two installments , The Divergent Series : Allegiant , released on 18 March 2016 , and The Divergent Series : Ascendant , scheduled to be released on 9 June 2017 . Watts then starred in Gus Van Sant 's mystery drama The Sea of Trees , opposite Matthew McConaughey . The film premiered at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival where it competed for the Palme d 'Or . The film was heavily panned by both critics and audiences , who reportedly booed and laughed during its screening . Critic Richard Mowe stated the audience reaction should " give the film ’ s creative team pause for reflection about exactly where they went so badly awry . " Justin Chang of Variety also criticised the film , but commended Watts ' performance for being " solidly moving and sometimes awesomely passive @-@ aggressive . " Watts was confirmed to be involved in the revival of the TV series Twin Peaks that will air in 2017 . In 2017 , Watts will star in the television drama Gypsy and will also serve as an executive producer on the series .
= = Personal life = =
Her father 's laugh can be heard in the Pink Floyd songs " Speak to Me " and " Brain Damage " from their 1973 album The Dark Side of the Moon . Watts is pictured in her mother 's arms with her father , brother , the band and other crew members , in the hardback / softcover edition of drummer Nick Mason 's autobiography of the band Inside Out .
Watts was in a relationship with actor Heath Ledger from August 2002 to May 2004 . Since the spring of 2005 , Watts has been in a relationship with actor Liev Schreiber . She confirmed in an interview in late January 2009 that Schreiber had in fact given her a ring ( which she was not wearing at the time ) but that neither of them wanted to rush into marriage . Schreiber , known to play tricks on the media , had once before called her his wife in 2007 , but later revealed that it was a joke .
The couple 's first son , Alexander " Sasha " Pete , was born in July 2007 in Los Angeles , and their second son , Samuel " Sammy " Kai , in December 2008 in New York City . After a temporary hiatus from acting , she returned to work with The International , her first project since becoming a mother . Watts stated in April 2010 that she would have a third child if she could guarantee a baby girl .
She considered converting to Buddhism after having gained interest for that religion during the shooting of The Painted Veil . She said of her religious beliefs , " I have some belief but I am not a strict Buddhist or anything yet " . She practices the Transcendental Meditation technique . In 2002 , she was featured in People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People .
In February 2016 , it was reported that she had agreed to become the honorary president of Glantraeth FC , a small football club in Malltraeth , Anglesey , Wales , near to her grandparents ' farm , where she spent time as a child .
= = = Charity work = = =
In 2006 , Watts became a goodwill ambassador for Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS , it helps to raise awareness of AIDS issues . She has used her high profile and celebrity to call attention to the needs of people living with this disease . Watts participated in events and activities , including the 21st Annual AIDS Walk . She is presented as an inaugural member of AIDS Red Ribbon Awards . She has participated in campaigns for fundraising . On 1 December 2009 , Watts was meeting with United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon and joined the AIDS response at a dramatic public event commemorating World AIDS Day 2009 . During the event , she said : " It has been both unfortunate and unfair for HIV infection to be considered a shameful disease , for people living with HIV to be judged as blameworthy , and for AIDS to be equated with certain death . I have personally seen that dignity and hope have been strongest among those whose lives were changed by HIV . "
In 2011 , she attended a charity polo match in New York City along with Australian actors Hugh Jackman and Isla Fisher , which was intended to raise money to help victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Sonatas and Interludes =
Sonatas and Interludes is a collection of twenty pieces for prepared piano by American avant @-@ garde composer John Cage ( 1912 – 1992 ) . It was composed in 1946 – 48 , shortly after Cage 's introduction to Indian philosophy and the teachings of art historian Ananda K. Coomaraswamy , both of which became major influences on the composer 's later work . Significantly more complex than his other works for prepared piano , Sonatas and Interludes is generally recognized as one of Cage 's finest achievements .
The cycle consists of sixteen sonatas ( thirteen of which are cast in binary form , the remaining three in ternary form ) and four more freely structured interludes . The aim of the pieces is to express the eight permanent emotions of the rasa Indian tradition . In Sonatas and Interludes , Cage elevated his technique of rhythmic proportions to a new level of complexity . In each sonata a short sequence of natural numbers and fractions defines the structure of the work and that of its parts , informing structures as localized as individual melodic lines .
= = History of composition = =
Cage underwent an artistic crisis in the early 1940s . His compositions were rarely accepted by the public , and he grew more and more disillusioned with the idea of art as communication . He later gave an account of the reasons : " Frequently I misunderstood what another composer was saying simply because I had little understanding of his language . And I found other people misunderstanding what I myself was saying when I was saying something pointed and direct " . At the beginning of 1946 , Cage met Gita Sarabhai , an Indian musician who came to the United States concerned about Western influence on the music of her country . Sarabhai wanted to spend several months in the US , studying Western music . She took lessons in counterpoint and contemporary music with Cage , who offered to teach her for free if she taught him about Indian music in return . Sarabhai agreed and through her Cage became acquainted with Indian music and philosophy . The purpose of music , according to Sarabhai 's teacher in India , was " to sober and quiet the mind , thus rendering it susceptible to divine influences " , and this definition became one of the cornerstones of Cage 's view on music and art in general .
At around the same time , Cage began studying the writings of the Indian art historian Ananda K. Coomaraswamy . Among the ideas that influenced Cage was the description of the rasa aesthetic and of its eight " permanent emotions " . These emotions are divided into two groups : four white ( humor , wonder , erotic , and heroic — " accepting one 's experience " , in Cage 's words ) and four black ( anger , fear , disgust , and sorrow ) . They are the first eight of the navarasas or navrasas ( " nine emotions " ) , and they have a common tendency towards the ninth of the navarasas : tranquility . Cage never specified which of the pieces relate to which emotions , or whether there even exists such direct correspondence between them . He mentioned , though , that the " pieces with bell @-@ like sounds suggest Europe and others with a drum @-@ like resonance suggest the East " . ( A short excerpt from Sonata II , which is clearly inspired by Eastern music : listen . ) Cage also stated that Sonata XVI , the last
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of the cycle ( listen ) , is " clearly European . It was the signature of a composer from the West . "
Cage started working on the cycle in February 1946 , while living in New York City . The idea of a collection of short pieces was apparently prompted by the poet Edwin Denby , who had remarked that short pieces " can have in them just as much as long pieces can " . The choice of materials and the technique of piano preparation in Sonatas and Interludes were largely dependent on improvisation : Cage later wrote that the cycle was composed " by playing the piano , listening to differences [ and ] making a choice " . On several accounts he offered a poetic metaphor for this process , comparing it with collecting shells while walking along a beach . Work on the project was interrupted in early 1947 , when Cage made a break to compose The Seasons , a ballet in one act also inspired by ideas from Indian philosophy . Immediately after The Seasons Cage returned to Sonatas and Interludes , and by March 1948 it was completed .
Cage dedicated Sonatas and Interludes to Maro Ajemian , a pianist and friend . Ajemian performed the work many times since 1949 , including one of the first performances of the complete cycle on January 12 , 1949 , in Carnegie Hall . On many other occasions in the late 1940s and early 1950s , Cage performed it himself . Critical reaction was uneven , but mostly positive , and the success of Sonatas and Interludes led to a grant from the Guggenheim Foundation , which Cage received in 1949 , allowing him to make a six @-@ month trip to Europe . There he met Olivier Messiaen , who helped organize a performance of the work for his students in Paris on June 7 , 1949 ; and he befriended Pierre Boulez , who became an early admirer of the work and wrote a lecture about it for the June 17 , 1949 performance at the salon of Suzanne Tézenas in Paris . While still living in Paris , Cage began writing String Quartet in Four Parts , yet another work influenced by Indian philosophy .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Piano preparation = = =
In the text accompanying the first recording of Sonatas and Interludes , Cage specifically stated that the use of preparations is not a criticism of the instrument , but a simple practical measure . Cage started composing for prepared piano in 1940 , when he wrote a piece called Bacchanale for a dance by Syvilla Fort , and by 1946 had already composed a large number of works for the instrument . However , in Sonatas and Interludes the preparation is very complex , more so than in any of the earlier pieces . Forty @-@ five notes are prepared , mostly using screws and various types of bolts , but also with fifteen pieces of rubber , four pieces of plastic , several nuts and one eraser . It takes about two or three hours to prepare a piano for performance . Despite the detailed instructions , any preparation is bound to be different from any other , and Cage himself suggested that there is no strict plan to adhere to : " if you enjoy playing the Sonatas and Interludes then do it so that it seems right to you " .
For the most part Cage avoids using lower registers of the piano , and much of the music 's melodic foreground lies in the soprano range . Of the forty @-@ five prepared notes , only three belong to the three lowest octaves below F # 3 : D3 , D2 and D1 . Furthermore , D2 is prepared in such a way that the resulting sound has the frequency of a D4 ( resulting in two variants of D4 available , one more prepared than the other ) . The portion of the keyboard above F # 3 is divided into roughly three registers : low , middle , and high . The low register has the heaviest preparation , and the high register the lightest . Different methods are used : certain notes produce sounds that retain the original frequency and a pianistic character ; others become drum @-@ like sounds , detuned versions of the original notes , or metallic , rattling sounds that have no sense of the fundamental frequency at all . The use of the soft pedal , which makes the hammers strike only two of the three strings of each note ( or one , for notes with only two strings ) , complicates the matter further . For example , the note C5 is a metallic sound with no fundamental discernible when the soft pedal is depressed , but it sounds fairly normal if the pedal is released . It appears that Cage was fully aware of the implications of this : certain sonatas feature interplay between two versions of one note , others place special emphasis on particular notes , and still others are very dependent on particular note combinations .
= = = Structure = = =
The cycle comprises sixteen sonatas and four interludes , arranged symmetrically . Four groups of four sonatas each are separated by interludes in the following way :
Sonatas I – IV Interlude 1 Sonatas V – VIII
Interludes 2 – 3
Sonatas IX – XII Interlude 4 Sonatas XIII – XVI
Cage refers to his pieces as sonata in the sense that these works are cast in the form that early classical keyboard sonatas ( such as those of Scarlatti ) were : AABB . The works are not cast in the later sonata form which is far more elaborate . The only exceptions are sonatas IX – XI , which feature three sections : prelude , interlude , and postlude . Sonatas XIV – XV follow the AABB scheme but are paired and given the joint title Gemini — after the work of Richard Lippold , referring to a sculpture by Lippold . The interludes , on the other hand , do not have a unifying scheme . The first two are free @-@ form movements , whereas interludes 3 and 4 have a four @-@ section structure with repeats for each section .
The main technique Cage used for composition is that of nested proportions : an arbitrary sequence of numbers defines the structure of a piece on both the macroscopic and the microscopic level , so that the larger parts of each piece are in the same relation to the whole as the smaller parts are to a single unit of it . For instance , the proportion for Sonata III is 1 , 1 , 3 ¼ , 3 ¼ ( in whole notes ) , and a unit here is equal to 8 ½ bars ( the end of a unit is marked with a double barline in the score , unless it coincides with the end of a section ) . The structure of this sonata is AABB . Section A consists of a single unit , composed according to the given proportion : correlation on the microscopic level . A is repeated , and AA forms the first part of the proportion on the macroscopic level : 1 , 1 . B consists of three units and an appendix of ¼ of a unit . B is also repeated , and BB gives the second half of the proportion : 3 ¼ , 3 ¼ . Therefore , AABB has proportions 1 , 1 , 3 ¼ , 3 ¼ : correlation on the macroscopic level . The musical phrases within each unit are also governed by the same proportion . See Example 2 for a graph of the structure of Sonata III .
The proportions were chosen arbitrarily in all but the last four pieces in the cycle : sonatas XIII and XVI use symmetrical proportions , and sonatas XIV and XV share the 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 proportion . This symmetry , and the adherence of all four sonatas to the ten @-@ bar unit , were explained by Cage as an expression of tranquility . The complexity of proportions prompted Cage to use asymmetric musical phrases and somewhat frequent changes of time signature to achieve both microscopic and macroscopic correlation . For example , unit length of 8 ½ in the first section of Sonata III is achieved by using six bars in 2 / 2 time and two in 5 / 4 ( rather than eight bars in 2 / 2 and one in 1 / 2 ) . In many sonatas the microstructure — how the melodic lines are constructed — deviates slightly from the pre @-@ defined proportion .
Cage had frequently used the nested proportions technique and its variations before , most notably in First Construction ( in Metal ) ( 1939 ) , which was the first piece to use it , and numerous dance @-@ related works for prepared piano . In Sonatas and Interludes , however , the proportions are more complex , partly because fractions are used . In his 1949 lecture on Sonatas and Interludes Pierre Boulez specifically emphasized the connection between tradition and innovation in Sonatas and Interludes : " The structure of these sonatas brings together a pre @-@ Classical structure and a rhythmic structure which belong to two entirely different worlds . "
= = Recordings = =
Sonatas and Interludes has been recorded many times , both in its complete form and in parts . This list is organized chronologically and presents only the complete recordings . Years of recording are given , not years of release . Catalogue numbers are indicated for the latest available CD versions . For the complete discography with reissues and partial recordings listed , see the link to the John Cage database below .
Maro Ajemian – 1951 , Dial Records 20 – 21 . Reissued in the 1960s , Composers Recordings Inc . CRI 700 . Reissued on CD , él records ACMEM88CD
Yuji Takahashi :
1965 , Fylkingen Records FYCD 1010 ( mono )
1975 , Denon COCO 70757 ( stereo , digital )
John Damgaard – 1971 , Membran Quadromania 222190 @-@ 444 ( 4CD , incl. many other works )
John Tilbury – 1974 , Explore Records EXP0004
Joshua Pierce :
1975 , Wergo WER 60156 @-@ 50
1988 , Newport Classic NPD 85526
1999 , Ants Records AG 06 ( 2CD , live recording )
2000 , SoLyd Records SLR 0303 ( live recording )
Gérard Frémy – 1980 , Pianovox PIA 521 @-@ 2 , Ogam Records 488004 @-@ 2 , Etcetera Records KTC 2001
Nada Kolundžija – c . 1981 , Diskos LPD @-@ 930 ( 2LP )
Darryl Rosenberg – c . 1986 , VQR Digital VQR 2001 ( LP )
Mario Bertoncini – 1991 , released 2001 as Edition RZ 20001 ( Parallele 20001 )
Nigel Butterley – 1992 , Tall Poppies TP025
Herbert Henck – 1993 , ECM New Series 1842 ( 2CD , incl . Henck 's Festeburger Fantasien )
Louis Goldstein – 1994 , Greensye Music 4794 ( incl . Dream )
Philipp Vandré – 1994 , Mode 50 ( according to the liner notes , this is the first recording made on a Steinway " O " -type baby grand piano , the model Cage originally composed the piece on )
Julie Steinberg – 1995 , Music & Arts 937
Markus Hinterhäuser – 1996 , Col Legno WWE 1CD 20001
Steffen Schleiermacher – 1996 , MDG 613 0781 @-@ 2 ( 3CD , part of John Cage : Complete Piano Works 18CD series )
Aleck Karis – 1997 , Bridge 9081 A / B ( 2CD , incl . Cage 's lecture Composition in Retrospect )
Jean Pierre Dupuy – 1997 , Stradivarius 33422
Boris Berman – 1998 , Naxos 8 @.@ 559042 or Naxos 8 @.@ 554345
Joanna MacGregor – 1998 , SoundCircus SC 003 ( 2CD , includes miscellaneous other works by Cage and other composers )
Giancarlo Cardini – 1999 , Materiali Sonori
Kumi Wakao – 1999 , Mesostics MESCD @-@ 0011
Tim Ovens – c . 2002 , CordAria CACD 566 ( incl. a multimedia CD )
Margaret Leng Tan – 2003 , Mode 158 ( CD and DVD , incl. many other works and several documentaries )
Nora Skuta – 2004 , Hevhetia Records HV 0011 @-@ 2 @-@ 131 ( SACD )
Giancarlo Simonacci – 2005 , Brilliant Classics 8189 ( 3CD , part of Complete Music for Prepared Piano )
Antonis Anissegos – 2014 , WERGO ( WER 67822 )
= = = Books = = =
John Cage . Silence : Lectures and Writings , Wesleyan Paperback , 1973 ( first edition 1961 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8195 @-@ 6028 @-@ 6
Richard Kostelanetz . Conversing with John Cage , Routledge , 2003 . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93792 @-@ 2
David Nicholls . The Cambridge Companion to John Cage , Cambridge University Press , 2002 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 78968 @-@ 0
James Pritchett . The Music of John Cage , Cambridge University Press , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 56544 @-@ 8
James Pritchett , Laura Kuhn . " John Cage " . In Macy , Laura . Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online . Oxford University Press . ( subscription required )
= = = Dissertations and articles = = =
E.S. Baumgartner . Sonatas and Interludes , by John Cage : A Structural Analysis , Mills College , 1994 .
Gregory Jay Clough . Sonatas and Interludes for Prepared Piano ( 1946 – 48 ) by John Cage : An Analytical Basis for Interpretation , MM University of Arkansas , Fayetteville , 1968 .
Jeffrey Perry . " Cage 's Sonatas and Interludes for prepared piano : performance , hearing and analysis " , Music Theory Spectrum , Spring 2005 , Vol . 27 , No. 1 , pp. 35 – 66 .
= = = Media = = =
Sonata V performed by Bobby Mitchell , YouTube link
4 ' 33 " and Sonatas and Interludes for prepared piano performed by James Tenney at SASSAS sound , concert archive ( streaming QuickTime format ) .
= 2014 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2014 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average season in terms of named storms , and an average season in terms of both hurricanes and major hurricanes . It produced nine tropical cyclones , eight named storms , the fewest since the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season , six hurricanes and two major hurricanes . It officially began on June 1 , 2014 , and ended on November 30 , 2014 . These dates historically describe the period each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first storm of the season , Arthur , developed on July 1 , while the final storm , Hanna , dissipated on October 28 .
Although every named storm impacted land , overall effects were minimal . Arthur caused one indirect fatality and $ 22 @.@ 7 million ( 2014 USD ) in damage after striking North Carolina and becoming the first Category 2 hurricane to landfall in the United States since 2008 's Hurricane Ike , and its remnants moving across Atlantic Canada . Hurricane Bertha brushed the Lesser Antilles but its impacts were relatively minor . Three deaths occurred offshore the United States and one fatal injury was reported off the coast of the United Kingdom . Hurricane Cristobal caused two deaths each in Haiti and the Dominican Republic and one in Turks and Caicos Islands , all due to flooding . Rip currents affected Maryland and New Jersey , resulting in one fatality in each state . The remnants of Cristobal were responsible for three indirect deaths in the United Kingdom . Tropical Storm Dolly made landfall in eastern Mexico and triggered flooding due to heavy rains , leaving minor impact . Hurricane Edouard caused two deaths near the coast of Maryland due to strong rip currents .
Fay caused about $ 3 @.@ 8 million in damage in Bermuda after striking the island . Hurricane Gonzalo was the most intense hurricane of the season . A powerful Atlantic hurricane , Gonzalo had destructive impacts in the Lesser Antilles and Bermuda , and it was also the first Category 4 hurricane since Ophelia in 2011 and the strongest hurricane since Igor in 2010 . It caused three fatalities in the Lesser Antilles and at least $ 200 million in damage in Bermuda . The remnants brought flooding and strong winds in Europe , causing three deaths in the United Kingdom . With two hurricanes striking Bermuda , this was the first season featuring more than one hurricane landfall on the island . The last storm of the season , Tropical Storm Hanna , made landfall over Central America in late October producing minimal impact .
Most major forecasting agencies predicted below @-@ average activity to occur this season due to an expected strong El Niño ; however , the El Niño had failed to materialize .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) ' s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center , Tropical Storm Risk , the United Kingdom 's Met Office , and Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray and their associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) . The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a particular year . According to NOAA and CSU , the average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained roughly 12 tropical storms , six hurricanes , three major hurricanes , and an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) index of 66 – 103 units . NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above @-@ average , average , or below @-@ average based on the cumulative ACE Index , but the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a hurricane season are considered occasionally as well .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 13 , 2013 , Tropical Storm Risk ( TSR ) , a public consortium consisting of experts on insurance , risk management , and seasonal climate forecasting at University College London , issued their first outlook on seasonal hurricane activity during the 2014 season . Their report called for a near @-@ normal year , with 14 ( ± 4 ) tropical storms , 6 ( ± 3 ) hurricanes , 3 ( ± 2 ) intense hurricanes , and a cumulative ACE index of 106 ( ± 58 ) units . The basis for such included slightly stronger than normal trade winds and slightly warmer than normal sea surface temperatures across the Caribbean Sea and tropical North Atlantic . A few months later , on March 24 , 2014 , Weather Services International ( WSI ) , a subsidiary company of The Weather Channel , released their first outlook , calling for 11 named storms , 5 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . Two factors — cooler @-@ than @-@ average waters in the eastern Atlantic , and the likelihood of an El Niño developing during the summer of 2014 — were expected to negate high seasonal activity .
On April 7 , TSR issued their second extended @-@ range forecast for the season , lowering the predicted numbers to 12 ( ± 4 ) named storms , 5 ( ± 3 ) hurricanes , 2 ( ± 2 ) major hurricanes , and an ACE index of 75 ( ± 57 ) units . Three days later , CSU issued their first outlook for the year , predicting activity below the 1981 – 2010 average . Citing a likely El Niño of at least moderate intensity and cooler @-@ than @-@ average tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures , the organization predicted nine named storms , three hurricanes , one major hurricane , and an ACE index of 55 units . The probability of a major hurricane making landfall on the United States or tracking through the Caribbean Sea was expected to be lower than average .
On May 16 , the United Kingdom Met Office ( UKMO ) issued a forecast of a slightly below @-@ average season . It predicted 10 named storms with a 70 % chance that the number would be between 7 and 13 and 6 hurricanes with a 70 % chance that the number would be between 3 and 9 . It also predicted an ACE index of 84 with a 70 % chance that the index would be in the range 47 to 121 . NOAA released their pre @-@ season forecasts on May 22 and called for a 70 % chance that there would be between 8 and 13 named storms , 3 to 6 hurricanes , and 1 to 2 major hurricanes . On May 29 , the Florida State University Center for Ocean @-@ Atmospheric Prediction Studies , FSU COAPS , issued its first and only prediction for the season . The organization called for five to nine named storms , of which two to six would further intensify into hurricanes ; one to two of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane intensity . In addition , an ACE index of 60 units was forecast .
= = = Mid @-@ season predictions = = =
In July and August , CSU , TSR , and NOAA released similar outlooks for the remainder of the season . CSU increased its prediction on July 31 to ten named storms , four hurricanes , and one major hurricane , which was unchanged from its forecast on May 23 . The forecast team noted that conditions for tropical cyclogenesis appeared " detrimental " , with abnormally cold sea surface temperatures , higher than average sea @-@ level pressures , and strong vertical wind shear . TSR issued another forecast on July 5 , indicated that there would be nine to fifteen named storms , four to eight hurricanes , and one to three major hurricanes , citing conditions similar to those forecast by CSU . Two days later , NOAA revised its predictions and called for seven to twelve named storms , three to six hurricanes , and zero to two major hurricanes . NOAA noted similar atmospheric and oceanic conditions , but also indicated a weaker African monsoon , a stable atmosphere , and sinking air .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2014 . It was a below average season in which nine tropical cyclones formed . Eight of the nine designated cyclones attained tropical storm status , the fewest since the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season . Of the eight tropical storms , six reached at least Category 1 hurricane intensity . The 2014 season extended the period without major hurricane landfalls in the United States to nine years , with the last such system being Hurricane Wilma in 2005 . The lack of activity was attributed to an atmospheric circulation that favored dry , sinking air over the Atlantic Ocean and strong wind shear over the Caribbean Sea . Additionally , sea surface temperatures near @-@ average . A few notable events occurred during the season . Arthur made landfall between
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Obama campaigned for Democratic candidates in the 2010 midterm elections , making her debut on the campaign trail in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . By the time she began campaigning , Obama 's approval rating was 20 percentage points higher than her husband . Though Obama indicated in January 2010 that a consensus had not been made about whether she would campaign , speculation of her involvement came from her large approval rating as well as reports that she had been invited to speak at events with Democrats such as Barbara Boxer , Mary Jo Kilroy and Joe Sestak . She toured seven states in two weeks within October 2010 . Though viewed as essential by the White House , aides reported that she would not become deeply involved with political discussions nor engage Republicans in public disputes . After the elections took place , only six of the thirteen Democratic candidates Obama had campaigned for won . The Los Angeles Times concluded that while Obama was indeed more popular than her husband , her " election scorecard proved no better than his , particularly in her home state . "
Obama was a participant in the 2014 midterm elections , held at a time where her popularity superseded her husband 's to such an extent that it was theorized that she would receive a much larger outpour of support in campaigning . Reporting her travel to Denver , Colorado , David Lightman wrote that while Democrats did not want President Obama to campaign for them , " the first lady is very popular " . In May 2014 , Obama was found to have a 61 % favorable approval rating from a CNN poll , her husband coming in at 43 % . In a video released in July , as part of an effort to encourage voter turnout , she called on voters to be " hungry as you were back in 2008 and 2012 " . Obama appeared at a fundraiser in Georgia in September for Democratic senate candidate Michelle Nunn . Obama 's approach to campaigning in Georgia strayed from discussing current events and instead broadly stressed the importance of registering to vote and turning out during the elections . Obama 's infrequent appearances came from her dislike of being away from her children and Washington politics as well as her distaste for the opposition by Republicans to her husband 's agenda and her view that Democrats in the U.S. Senate had not sufficiently supporters her initiatives to end childhood obesity . Obama raised her profile in October , touring three states in four days . Obama called the elections her husband 's " last campaign " .
= = = Public image and style = = =
With the ascent of her husband as a prominent national politician , Obama has become a part of popular culture . In May 2006 , Essence listed her among " 25 of the World 's Most Inspiring Women . " In July 2007 , Vanity Fair listed her among " 10 of the World 's Best Dressed People . " She was an honorary guest at Oprah Winfrey 's Legends Ball as a " young 'un " paying tribute to the ' Legends , ' who helped pave the way for African American women . In September 2007 , 02138 magazine listed her 58th of ' The Harvard 100 ' ; a list of the prior year 's most influential Harvard alumni . Her husband was ranked fourth . In July 2008 , she made a repeat appearance on the Vanity Fair international best dressed list . She also appeared on the 2008 People list of best @-@ dressed women and was praised by the magazine for her " classic and confident " look .
At the time of her husband 's election , some sources anticipated that as a high @-@ profile African @-@ American woman in a stable marriage Obama would be a positive role model who would influence the view the world has of African @-@ Americans . Her fashion choices were part of the 2009 Fashion week , but Obama 's influence in the field did not have the impact on the paucity of African @-@ American models who participate , that some thought it might .
Obama 's public support grew in her early months as First Lady , as she was accepted as a role model . On her first trip abroad in April 2009 , she toured a cancer ward with Sarah Brown , wife of British Prime Minister Gordon Brown . Newsweek described her first trip abroad as an exhibition of her so @-@ called " star power " and MSN described it as a display of sartorial elegance . Questions were raised by some in the American and British media regarding protocol when the Obamas met Queen Elizabeth II and Michelle reciprocated a touch on her back by the Queen during a reception , purportedly against traditional royal etiquette . Palace sources denied that any breach in etiquette had occurred .
Obama has been compared to Jacqueline Kennedy due to her sense of style , and also to Barbara Bush for her discipline and decorum . Obama 's style has been described as " fashion populist . " In 2010 , she wore clothes , many high end , from more than 50 design companies with less expensive pieces from J.Crew and Target , and the same year a study found that her patronage was worth an average of $ 14 million to a company . She became a fashion trendsetter , in particular favoring sleeveless dresses , including her first @-@ term official portrait in a dress by Michael Kors , and her ball gowns designed by Jason Wu for both inaugurals .
Obama appeared on the cover and in a photo spread in the March 2009 issue of Vogue . Every First Lady since Lou Hoover ( except Bess Truman ) has been in Vogue , but only Hillary Clinton had previously appeared on the cover . In August 2011 , she became the first woman ever to appear on the cover of Better Homes and Gardens magazine , and the first person in 48 years . During the 2013 Academy Awards , she became the first First Lady to announce the winner of an Oscar ( Best Picture which went to Argo ) .
The media have been criticized for focusing more on the First Lady 's fashion sense than her serious contributions . She said after the 2008 election that she would like to focus attention as First Lady on issues of concern to military and working families . In 2008 U.S. News & World Report blogger , PBS host and Scripps Howard columnist Bonnie Erbé argued that Obama 's own publicists seemed to be feeding the emphasis on style over substance , and has stated that Obama is miscasting herself by overemphasizing style .
= Archaeamphora =
Archaeamphora longicervia is an extinct species of flowering plant and the only member of the genus Archaeamphora . Fossil material assigned to this taxon originates from the Yixian Formation of northeastern China , dated to the Early Cretaceous ( around 145 to 101 million years ago ) .
The species was originally described as a pitcher plant with close affinities to extant members of the family Sarraceniaceae . This would make it the earliest known carnivorous plant and the only known fossil record of pitcher plants ( with the possible exception of some palynomorphs of uncertain nepenthacean affinity ) . Archaeamphora is also one of the three oldest known genera of angiosperms ( flowering plants ) . Li ( 2005 ) wrote that " the existence of a so highly derived Angiosperm in the Early Cretaceous suggests that Angiosperms should have originated much earlier , maybe back to 280 mya as the molecular clock studies suggested " .
Subsequent authors have questioned the identification of Archaeamphora as a pitcher plant .
= = Etymology = =
The generic name Archaeamphora is derived from the Greek αρχαίος , archaíos ( " ancient " ; combining form in Latin : archae- ) , and ἀμφορεύς , amphoreus ( " pitcher " ) . The specific epithet longicervia is derived from the Latin longus ( " long " ) and cervicarius ( " with a neck " ) , in reference to the characteristic constriction in the pitcher @-@ like structures of this species .
= = Fossil material = =
All known fossil material of A. longicervia originates from the Jianshangou Formation in Beipiao , western Liaoning , China . These Early Cretaceous beds constitute the lower part of the Yixian Formation , which is dated at 124 @.@ 6 million years old . Nine specimens of A. longicervia have been found , including holotype CBO0220 and paratype CBO0754 .
= = Description = =
Archaeamphora longicervia was a herbaceous plant growing to around 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in height . The stem , at least 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) long by 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 047 in ) wide , bore distinctive vertical ridges and grooves . The pitcher @-@ like structures were ascidiate in form and 30 to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . Mature pitchers and underdeveloped pitchers or phyllodia @-@ like leaves were arranged spirally around the stem . Pitchers consisted of a tubular base , expanded middle section , constriction around the mouth , and a vertical , spoon @-@ shaped lid . A single wing ran down the adaxial side of each pitcher . Three to five parallel major veins were present on the pitchers , along with a few intercostal veins and numerous small veinlets .
Two unusual bag @-@ like structures were present on each pitcher , one on either side of the central wing . Similar but semi @-@ circular structures were found on the margin of the lid . These structures exhibited strong yellow @-@ green intrinsic fluorescence when exposed to visible light with a wavelength of 500 nm ( blue @-@ green ) .
Tiny glands , approximately 4 µm in diameter , were found on the inner surface of the pitchers and partially embedded in the grooves along the veins . These also showed very strong golden @-@ yellow fluorescence .
A single seed was found intimately associated with the fossil material of A. longicervia and is presumed to belong to the same species . It is winged and reticulate @-@ tuberculate in morphology , closely resembling the seeds of Sarraceniaceae taxa . The seed is oval @-@ shaped , covered with black @-@ brown warts , and measures 0 @.@ 9 by 1 @.@ 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 035 by 0 @.@ 049 in ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fossil material of A. longicervia was subjected to chemical analysis for oleanane , considered a key marker differentiating angiosperms from gymnosperms . Oleanane was detected in these specimens , suggesting that they belong to the angiosperms .
= = = Pitcher plant interpretation = = =
According to Li ( 2005 ) , several morphological features of A. longicervia indicate a close relationship to Sarraceniaceae : both taxa exhibit one or two pitcher wings , a smooth peristome , and pitchers that extend vertically from the top of a short petiole .
Li ( 2005 ) suggests that A. longicervia is morphologically similar to modern Sarracenia purpurea . It shares with this species the spiral arrangement of its pitchers and phyllodia @-@ like tubular leaves with parallel major veins . Archaeamphora longicervia also shows a resemblance to species of the genus Heliamphora in having pitchers with a long neck and upright lid . Of particular note is the similarity between the thick semi @-@ circular structures on the lid of A. longicervia and the large nectar @-@ secreting " bubble " present on the upper posterior portion of Heliamphora exappendiculata pitchers .
Li ( 2005 ) mentions the discovery of another type of " pitcher plant " from the same formation . This variety differs from the type material of A. longicervia in having pitchers that lack any constriction before the mouth , instead gradually expanding from the petiole into a hollow trumpet @-@ like shape . He suggests that it " should be a different species " from A. longicervia . An intermediate form with a wider neck is also reported , suggesting that these plants were already a diversified group in the Early Cretaceous .
= = = Current understanding = = =
Heřmanová & Kvaček ( 2010 ) opined that the pitcher plant interpretation of Archaeamphora is " problematic and the fossil is in need of revision " .
In their 2011 book , Sarraceniaceae of South America , McPherson et al. summarised current thinking on Archaeamphora as follows :
Serious doubt is emerging that reduces the likelihood that Archaeamphora longicervia belongs in the Sarraceniaceae lineage , or was even a pitcher plant at all . [ ... ] Although Archaeamphora might well be a representative of the earliest flowering plants on Earth [ ... ] it is very unlikely that it represents an ancestor of Sarraceniaceae since it is much too old to be part of the advanced " crown group " of Ericales to which Sarraceniaceae belong . [ ... ] Another contradiction is that except for Archaeamphora , there is no other evidence to suggest that Sarraceniaceae evolved outside the New World , to which all extant members of the family are endemic .
Wong et al . ( 2015 ) put forward a new perspective [ 16 ] as follows :
Archaeamphora longicervia H. Q. Li was described as an herbaceous , Sarraceniaceae @-@ like pitcher plant from the mid Early Cretaceous Yixian Formation of Liaoning Province , northeastern China . Here , a re @-@ investigation of A. longicervia specimens from the Yixian Formation provides new insights into its identity and the morphology of pitcher plants claimed by Li . We demonstrate that putative pitchers of Archaeamphora are insect @-@ induced leaf galls that consist of three components : ( 1 ) an innermost larval chamber ; ( 2 ) an intermediate zone of nutritive tissue ; and ( 3 ) an outermost wall of sclerenchyma . Archaeamphora is not a carnivorous , Sarraceniaceae @-@ like angiosperm , but represents insect @-@ galled leaves of the previously reported gymnosperm Liaoningocladus boii G. Sun et al. from the Yixian Formation .
= = Habitat = =
The area inhabited by A. longicervia is thought to have experienced significant climatic fluctuations during the Early Cretaceous , ranging from arid or semi @-@ arid to more humid conditions . The substrate in the region was mostly composed of lacustrine sediments and volcanic rocks .
= 901 New York Avenue =
901 New York Avenue NW is a high @-@ rise Postmodern high @-@ rise located in Washington , D.C. , in the United States . The structure was developed by Boston Properties in an effort to help to revitalize the Mount Vernon Square neighborhood , and was completed in 2005 . It is located on a roughly triangular parcel bounded by New York Avenue NW , K Street NW , and 10th Street NW , and is north of the CityCenterDC mixed @-@ use residential , office , and retail project .
The triangular area was originally home to Victorian housing but in 1977 , the city used eminent domain to purchase the area southwest of Mount Vernon Square itself , and over the next few years , the homes and businesses on these blocks were razed . In the 1980s , Golub Realty and Willco Construction purchased the site and proposed an 11 @-@ floor office block . They sold it to Peterson Co . , who sold it to Monument Realty in May 1999 . Monument Realty had envisaged building either an office and retail complex , or a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ room hotel . They finally sold it to Boston Properties for $ 43 @.@ 2 million in October 2000 . Boston Properties closed the parking lot on the site in late August 2002 , and began construction of the building the following month .
The architectural height of the building is 140 feet ( 43 m ) , although the height of the main roof is just 130 @.@ 86 feet ( 39 @.@ 89 m ) and the height of the top floor is 118 @.@ 36 feet ( 36 @.@ 08 m ) . It has 11 stories , and a four @-@ story underground parking garage . Reports of the building 's interior space vary widely , with 540 @,@ 000 square feet ( 50 @,@ 000 m2 ) the most recently reported by the mainstream media . The facade is of polished granite and precast concrete in two colors . An atrium three stories in height with 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) long arched steel trusses forms the lobby . Two very small parks exist on the triangular parcel of land , which are owned by the National Park Service . Acadiana , a 185 @-@ seat upscale restaurant on the ground floor which serves Louisiana @-@ and Cajun @-@ style seafood was cited by Esquire magazine as one of the best new restaurants in the entire United States in 2006 .
= = History of the site = =
Originally , Victorian @-@ style townhomes occupied the triangular area bounded by K Street NW , New York Avenue NW , and 10th Street NW on Mount Vernon Square . The neighborhood was originally a vibrant business district with sizeable Victorian homes , but the area went into a steep decline in the 1930s . During the 1968 Martin Luther King , Jr. riots , the area around the square suffered rioting , arson , and extensive vandalism .
In 1977 , the city used eminent domain to purchase the area southwest of Mount Vernon Square itself . Over the next few years , the homes and businesses on these blocks were razed . One of the last businesses to exist on the 901 New York Avenue NW lot was a Chinese restaurant named Nan King ( which was one of the first restaurants in the city to serve dim sum ) . It stayed in business until 1979 . Although the Washington Convention Center was constructed on the blocks just south of 901 New York Avenue , nothing was built on the triangular block itself . In time , it was turned into a parking lot .
Golub Realty and Willco Construction purchased the site from the city in the 1980s . Although the site was zoned for residential use only , in 1988 Golub / Willco proposed building an 11 @-@ story office building on the property . Under a city policy known as " residential linkage , " Golub / Willco would be able to construct their office building if they created or renovated low @-@ income housing elsewhere in the city . By May 1992 , Golub / Willco had agreed to purchase a 27 @-@ unit apartment building in Northwest Washington and to restore 149 homes in Southeast Washington , but the proposed office building never was constructed .
Golub / Willco sold the lot to the Peterson Co . , but in May 1999 the Peterson Co. sold the land to Monument Realty . Sources vary as to the amount , with reported prices of $ 14 @.@ 5 million , $ 17 @.@ 75 million , and $ 22 million . Monument Realty proposed two uses for the 51 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 700 m2 ) lot ; a 530 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) office and retail complex , or a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ room hotel to serve visitors at the D.C. convention center . Monument estimated that the hotel would cost $ 206 million . But in order to make it profitable , the cost would need to be reduced to $ 169 million . In 1999 , the government of the District of Columbia created a tax increment district to promote downtown redevelopment and housing . Monument sought $ 57 @.@ 3 million in tax @-@ increment financing but never received approval from the city for the funds .
= = Construction = =
In late October 2000 , Monument Realty sold the parcel for $ 43 @.@ 2 million to Boston Properties . Although media outlets reported that Boston Properties intended to build a hotel on the site , the company stated that it had never seriously considered the possibility . Rather , they had intended to construct an office building for occupancy by government agencies , law firms , and trade associations . The company announced that construction was scheduled to commence in mid @-@ 2001 , and to be open to tenants by mid @-@ 2003 . The architectural firm of Davis Carter Scott was hired to design the structure . The sale to Boston Properties closed on December 8 , 2000 . Meanwhile , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) had requested proposals from real estate firms for construction of a new 630 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 59 @,@ 000 m2 ) headquarters . Boston Properties submitted its building for consideration by the SEC shortly after the sale closed . But the SEC ruled out the site in mid @-@ February 2001 .
Boston Properties had submitted its building design for SEC consideration even though the site had not yet been zoned for office / retail space . About 4 @,@ 000 square feet ( 370 m2 ) of the 1 @.@ 22 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 49 ha ) site was still zoned for residential housing . In April 2009 , the D.C. Zoning Commission approved a " residential linkage " agreement with Boston Properties . The Zoning Commission did so because Monument Realty had agreed two years earlier to pay into a city @-@ run affordable housing construction fund and spend $ 2 million to build three townhouses in a low @-@ income area — satisfying the " residential linkage " requirement .
Despite the zoning victory , Boston Properties decided not to begin construction until it had a lead tenant signed . But six months later , in November 2001 , the law firm of Finnegan , Henderson , Farabow , Garrett & Dunner signed a letter of intent to lease 225 @,@ 000 square feet ( 20 @,@ 900 m2 ) of the building . Boston Propoerties announced that it intended to build a 535 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 49 @,@ 700 m2 ) , 11 @-@ story structure to accommodate its tenants . In March 2002 , the company said it would begin construction in September . It also announced that the 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) ground floor would be devoted to retail , and there would be four levels of underground parking . The Finnegan firm 's contact was signed in March 2002 , at which time Boston Properties increased the floor space to 535 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 49 @,@ 700 m2 ) and delayed the expected completion date to late 2004 .
Boston Properties closed the parking lot in late August 2002 , and began construction the following month . A month after construction began , the law firm of Shea & Gardner signed a lease at 901 New York Avenue for 75 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space . Boston Properties now said the delivery date for the building was September 2004 . In February 2003 , the law firm of Powell Goldstein Frazer & Murphy signed a lease for 75 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space ( even though the media had previously reported that it had turned down Boston Properties ) . By now the building 's square footage was said to be 538 @,@ 461 square feet ( 50 @,@ 024 @.@ 7 m2 ) on 11 stories . By September 2003 , more than 80 percent of the building had been leased , although the delivery date was again delayed to late 2004 . In May 2004 , the law
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throne and , along with fellow Lancastrian malcontents , raised an army . Richard of York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his titles , including the claim to the throne , passed to his eldest son Edward . Nobles who were previously hesitant to support Richard 's claim to the throne considered the Lancastrians to have reneged on the Act — a legal agreement — and Edward found enough backing to denounce Henry and declare himself king . The Battle of Towton was to affirm the victor 's right to rule over England through force of arms .
On reaching the battlefield , the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered . Part of their force under the Duke of Norfolk had yet to arrive . The Yorkist leader Lord Fauconberg turned the tables by ordering his archers to take advantage of the strong wind to outrange their enemies . The one @-@ sided missile exchange , with Lancastrian arrows falling short of the Yorkist ranks , provoked the Lancastrians into abandoning their defensive positions . The ensuing hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat lasted hours , exhausting the combatants . The arrival of Norfolk 's men reinvigorated the Yorkists and , encouraged by Edward , they routed their foes . Many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing ; some trampled each other and others drowned in the rivers , which are said to have made them run red with blood for several days . Several who were taken as prisoners were executed .
The power of the House of Lancaster was severely reduced after this battle . Henry fled the country , and many of his most powerful followers were dead or in exile after the engagement , letting Edward rule England uninterrupted for nine years , before a brief restoration of Henry to the throne . Later generations remembered the battle as depicted in William Shakespeare 's dramatic adaptation of Henry 's life — Henry VI , Part 3 , Act 2 , Scene 5 . In 1929 , the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to commemorate the event . Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle were found in the area centuries after the engagement .
= = Setting = =
In 1461 , England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses , a series of civil wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster over the English throne . The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England , Henry VI , an indecisive man who had bouts of madness . The leader of the Yorkists was initially Richard , Duke of York , who resented the dominance of a small number of aristocrats favoured by the king , principally his close relatives the Beaufort family . Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both factions , York 's attempts to displace Henry 's favourites from power escalated into a full @-@ blown conflict . After capturing Henry at the Battle of Northampton in 1460 , the duke , who was of royal blood , issued his own claim to the throne . Even York 's closest supporters among the nobility were reluctant to usurp an established royal lineage ; instead , the nobles passed by a majority vote the Act of Accord , which ruled that the duke and his heirs would succeed the throne upon Henry 's death .
The Queen of England , Margaret of Anjou , refused to accept an arrangement that deprived her son — Edward of Westminster — of his birthright . She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton ; there she began raising an army , promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England . Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England , preparing for her arrival . York marched with his army to meet this threat , but he was lured into a trap at Wakefield and killed . The duke and his second son Edmund , Earl of Rutland , were decapitated by the Lancastrians and their heads were impaled on spikes atop the Micklegate Bar , a gatehouse of the city of York . The leadership of the House of York passed onto the duke 's heir , Edward .
The victors of Wakefield were joined by Margaret 's army and they marched south , plundering settlements in their wake . They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , in the Second Battle of St Albans , and continued pillaging on their way to London . As a result , the city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted . The Lancastrian army was short on supplies and had no adequate means to replenish them . When Margaret learned that Richard of York 's eldest son Edward , Earl of March and his army had won the Battle of Mortimer 's Cross in Herefordshire and were marching towards London , she withdrew the Lancastrians to the city of York . Warwick and the remnants of his army marched from St Albans to join Edward 's men and the Yorkists were welcomed into London . Having lost custody of Henry , the Yorkists needed a justification to continue taking up arms against the king and his Lancastrian followers . On 4 March , Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV . The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York 's earlier claim , as several nobles previously opposed to letting Edward 's father ascend the throne viewed the Lancastrian actions as a betrayal of the legally established Accord .
The country now had two kings — a situation that could not be allowed to persist , especially if Edward was to be formally crowned . Edward offered amnesty to any Lancastrian supporter who renounced Henry . The move was intended to win over the commoners ; his offer did not extend to wealthy Lancastrians ( mostly the nobles ) . The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family 's city and to formally depose Henry through force of arms . The Yorkist army moved along three routes . Warwick 's uncle , Lord Fauconberg , led a group to clear the way to York for the main body , which was led by Edward . The Duke of Norfolk was sent east to raise forces and rejoin Edward before the battle . Warwick 's group moved to the west of the main body , through the English Midlands , gathering men as they went . On 28 March , the leading elements of the Yorkist army came upon the remains of the crossing in Ferrybridge that spanned the River Aire . They were rebuilding the bridge when they were attacked and routed by a small band of Lancastrians , consisting of approximately 500 men led by Lord Clifford .
Learning of the encounter , Edward led the Yorkist main army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle ; although the Yorkists were superior in numbers , the narrow bridge was a bottleneck , forcing them to confront Clifford 's men on equal terms . Edward sent Fauconberg and his horsemen to ford the river at Castleford , which should have been guarded by Henry Earl of Northumberland , but he arrived late , by which time the Yorkists had crossed the ford and were heading to attack the Lancastrians at Ferrybridge from the side . The Lancastrians retreated but were chased to Dinting Dale where they were all killed . Clifford was slain by an arrow to his throat . Having cleared the vicinity of enemy forces , the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at Sherburn @-@ in @-@ Elmet . The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster , approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Towton , and made camp there . As dawn broke on the next day , the two rival armies packed up their camps under dark skies and in strong winds . Although it was Palm Sunday , a day of holy significance to Christians , the forces prepared for the battle ahead . As a result of this , a few documents named the engagement as the Battle of Palme Sonday Felde , but the name did not gain wide acceptance . Popular opinion favoured naming the battle after the village of Towton because of the battlefield 's proximity to the settlement , which was the most prominent in the area at that time .
= = Force compositions = =
Contemporary sources declare that the two armies were huge , stating that more than 100 @,@ 000 men fought in the battle . One of the sources , an account in William Gregory 's Chronicle of London ( 15th century ) by a soldier who had served in the Wars , claimed that the Yorkists had 200 @,@ 000 soldiers , while the Lancastrian army had even more . Later historians believe that these figures were exaggerated , and that a combined figure of around 50 @,@ 000 is more likely . Nevertheless , the armies gathered at Towton were among the largest at the time . An analysis of skeletons found in a mass grave in 1996 showed that the soldiers came from all walks of life at that time ; they were on average 30 years old , and several were veterans of previous engagements . Many knights and noblemen , approximately three @-@ quarters of the English peers at that time , fought in the battle . Eight of them were sworn to the Yorkist cause whereas the Lancastrians had at least 19 .
The battle would decide which of the two kings would rule over England , but while Edward fought beside his men , Henry remained in York with Margaret . The Lancastrians regarded their king as a mere puppet of his wife and were wary of his mental instability . In comparison , Edward was inspirational to his followers . Eighteen years old , he was 6 @-@ foot @-@ 3 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 92 m ) tall and was an imposing sight in armour . Skilled in combat , Edward led his men from the front , motivating them to do their best and uplifting their spirits . Edward 's preference for bold offensive tactics would dictate the Yorkist plan of action for this engagement .
The Yorkists had other prominent leaders . Warwick had a flamboyant appeal to his followers . Edward Hall , a 16th @-@ century chronicler , attributed to Warwick an inspirational scene before the Battle of Towton ; Hall wrote that Warwick , wounded at Ferrybridge , slew his horse and cried , " Let him fly that will , for surely I will tarry with him that will tarry with me " , daring any Yorkist to quit the fight ahead . The description is likely apocryphal ; military historian Christopher Gravett said that the tale demonstrates Warwick 's loyalty to Edward and his fellow men if it is true . Warwick placed great value on his uncle , Lord Fauconberg , whom Hall called a " man of great policy , and of much experience in martial feats " . Small in stature and a veteran of the Anglo @-@ French wars , Fauconberg was highly esteemed by his peers in matters of military affairs . He was quick to adapt to new situations ; among his previous achievements were the administration of the French town of Calais , leading several piracy expeditions of import , and the command of the vanguard at the Battle of Northampton . Of those appointed to raise men for the battle , Norfolk likely never made it to the engagement due to his advanced age , and his knights — Walter Blount and Robert Horne — would have taken command of his contingent . In any event , Norfolk was an " unpredictable ally " ; he had joined the Yorkists to establish a power base for himself in eastern England , and wavered in his support for their cause on various occasions .
Without their king on the battlefield , the Lancastrians relied on Henry Beaufort , Duke of Somerset , to command their army . He was fairly experienced in matters of war and is credited with clever manoeuvres that led the Lancastrians to victory at Wakefield and St Albans . According to several historians , however , Sir Andrew Trollope , and not Somerset , was the Lancastrians ' primary strategist . Trollope formerly served under Warwick in Calais before defecting to the Lancastrians in the early stages of the Wars of the Roses . His change of allegiance was a major blow to the Yorkists , for he was familiar with their men and had played a key role in their victories in France . Other notable Lancastrian leaders included Henry Holland , Duke of Exeter , and the northern magnates Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , Lord de Ros and Ralph Dacre , who also accompanied the army . Another leading northern Lancastrian was Lord Clifford , who had died earlier in the retreat from Ferrybridge .
= = Deployment = =
Very few historical sources give detailed accounts of the battle and they do not describe the exact deployments of the armies . The paucity of such primary sources led early historians to adopt Hall 's chronicle as their main resource for the engagement , despite its authorship 70 years after the event and questions over the origin of his information . The Burgundian chronicler Jehan de Waurin ( 1398 – 1474 ) was a more contemporary source , but his chronicle was made available to the public only from 1891 , and several mistakes in it discouraged historians at that time from using it . Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall 's version , supplemented by minor details from other sources .
The battle took place on a plateau between the villages of Saxton ( to the south ) and Towton ( to the north ) . The region was agricultural land , with plenty of wide open areas and small roads on which to manoeuvre the armies . Two roads ran through the area : the Old London Road , which connected Towton to the English capital , and a direct road between Saxton and Towton . The steeply banked Cock Beck flowed in an S @-@ shaped course around the plateau from the north to west . The plateau was bisected by the Towton Dale , which ran from the west and extended into the North Acres in the east . Woodlands were scattered along the beck ; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north @-@ western side of the plateau , and south of Towton Dale , Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck . The area to the north @-@ east of this forest would be known as Bloody Meadow after the battle .
According to Gravett and fellow military enthusiast Trevor James Halsall , Somerset 's decision to engage the Yorkist army on this plateau was sound . Defending the ground just before Towton would block any enemy advance towards the city of York , whether they moved along the London – Towton road or an old Roman road to the west . The Lancastrians deployed on the north side of the dale , using the valley as a " protective ditch " ; the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale . The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes ; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck . The width of their deployment area did not allow for a longer front line , depriving the Lancastrians of the opportunity to use their numerical superiority . Waurin 's account gave rise to the suggestion that Somerset ordered a force of mounted spearmen to conceal itself in Castle Hill Wood , ready to charge into the Yorkist left flank at an opportune time in battle .
The Yorkists appeared as the Lancastrians finished deployment . Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall . Edward 's army was outnumbered and Norfolk 's troops had yet to arrive to join them .
= = Fighting = =
As Somerset was content to stand and let his foes come to him , the opening move of the battle was made by the Yorkists . Noticing the direction and strength of the wind , Fauconberg ordered all Yorkist archers to step forward and unleash a volley of their arrows from what would be the standard maximum range of their longbows . With the wind behind them , the Yorkist missiles travelled farther than usual , plunging deep into the masses of soldiers on the hill slope . Many of the shafts bore bodkin arrowheads , capable of piercing plate armour and penetrating into the flesh underneath . The response from the Lancastrian archers was ineffective as the heavy wind blew snow in their faces . They found it difficult to judge the range and pick out their targets and their arrows fell short of the Yorkist ranks ; Fauconberg had ordered his men to retreat after loosing one volley , thus avoiding any casualties . Unable to observe their results , the Lancastrians shot until they had used up most of their arrows , leaving a thick , prickly carpet of arrows in the ground in front of the Yorkists .
After the Lancastrians had ceased shooting their arrows , Fauconberg ordered his archers to step forward again to shoot . When they had exhausted their ammunition , the Yorkists plucked arrows off the ground in front of them — arrows shot by their foes — and continued shooting . Coming under attack without any effective response of its own , the Lancastrian army moved from its position to engage the Yorkists in close combat . Seeing the advancing mass of men , the Yorkist archers shot a few more volleys before retreating behind their ranks of men @-@ at @-@ arms , leaving thousands of arrows in the ground to hinder the Lancastrian attack .
As the Yorkists reformed their ranks to receive the Lancastrian charge , their left flank came under attack by the horsemen from Castle Hill Wood mentioned by Waurin . The Yorkist left wing fell into disarray and several men started to flee . Edward had to take command of the left wing to save the situation . By engaging in the fight and encouraging his followers , his example inspired many to stand their ground . The armies clashed and archers shot into the mass of men at short range . The Lancastrians continuously threw fresher men into the fray and gradually the numerically inferior Yorkist army was forced to give ground and retreat up the southern ridge . Gravett thought that the Lancastrian left had less momentum than the rest of its formation , skewing the line of battle such that its western end tilted towards Saxton .
The fighting continued for three hours , according to research by English Heritage , a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites . It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk 's men . Marching up the Old London Road , Norfolk 's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank . The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists . By the end of the day , the Lancastrian line had broken up , as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives . Polydore Vergil , chronicler for Henry VII of England , claimed that combat lasted for a total of 10 hours .
= = Aftermath = =
The tired Lancastrians flung off their helmets and armour to run faster . Without such protection , they were much more vulnerable to the attacks of the Yorkists . Norfolk 's troops were much fresher and faster . Fleeing across what would later become known as Bloody Meadow , many Lancastrians were cut down from behind or were slain after they had surrendered . Before the battle , both sides had issued the order to give no quarter and the Yorkists were in no mood to spare anyone after the long , gruelling fight . A number of Lancastrians , such as Trollope , also had substantial bounties on their heads . Gregory 's chronicle stated 42 knights were killed after they were taken prisoner .
Archaeological findings in the late 20th century shed light on the final moments of the battle . In 1996 workmen at a construction site in the town of Towton uncovered a mass grave , which archaeologists believed to contain the remains of men who were slain during or after the battle in 1461 . The bodies showed severe injuries to their upper torsos ; arms and skulls were cracked or shattered . One exhumed specimen , known as Towton 25 , had the front of his skull bisected : a weapon had slashed across his face , cutting a deep wound that split the bone . The skull was also pierced by another deep wound , a horizontal cut from a blade across the back .
The Lancastrians lost more in their rout from the battlefield . Men struggling across the river were dragged down by currents and drowned . Those floundering were stepped on and pushed under water by their comrades behind them as they rushed to get away from the Yorkists . As the Lancastrians struggled across the river , Yorkist archers rode to high vantage points and shot arrows at them . The dead began to pile up and the chronicles state that the Lancastrians eventually fled across these " bridges " of bodies . The chase continued northwards across the River Wharfe , which was larger than Cock Beck . A bridge over the river collapsed under the flood of men and many drowned trying to cross . Those who hid in Tadcaster and York were hunted down and killed .
A newsletter dated 4 April 1461 reported a widely circulated figure of 28 @,@ 000 casualties in the battle , which Charles Ross and other historians believe was exaggerated . The number was taken from the heralds ' estimate of the dead and appeared in letters from Edward and the Bishop of Salisbury , Richard Beauchamp . Other contemporary sources gave higher numbers , ranging from 30 @,@ 000 to 38 @,@ 000 ; Hall quoted an exact figure of 36 @,@ 776 . An exception was the Annales rerum anglicarum , which stated the Lancastrians had 9 @,@ 000 casualties — an estimate Ross found to be more believable . The Lancastrian nobility had heavy losses . Trollope and Northumberland fell in battle , and Lord Dacre was said to have been killed by an archer who was perched in a " bur tree " ( a local term for an elder ) . Conversely , the Yorkists lost only one notable member of the gentry — Horne — at Towton .
On receiving news of their army 's defeat , Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son . They were later joined by Somerset , Roos , Exeter , and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped from the battlefield . The Battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England ; the linchpins of their power at
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court ( Northumberland , Clifford , Roos , and Dacre ) had died or fled the country , ending the house 's domination over the north of England . Edward further exploited the situation , naming 14 Lancastrian peers as traitors . Approximately 96 Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also attainted — 24 of them members of parliament . The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause ; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him . The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched , remaining in the care of their families . Edward also pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule .
Although Henry was at large in Scotland with his son , the battle put an end ( for the time being ) to disputes over the country 's state of leadership since the Act of Accord . The English people were assured that there was now one true king — Edward . He turned his attention to consolidating his rule over the country , winning over the people and putting down the rebellions raised by the few remaining Lancastrian diehards . He knighted several of his supporters and elevated several of his gentry supporters to the peerage ; Fauconberg was made the Earl of Kent . Warwick benefited from Edward 's rule after the battle . He received parts of Northumberland 's and Clifford 's holdings , and was made " the king 's lieutenant in the North and admiral of England . " Sir David ap Mathew ( Sir David Mathew ) of Llandaff ( 1400 – 1484 ) , a loyal Yorkist and Seneschal , was named Grand Standard Bearer of England , and is credited with saving the life of Edward IV in the battle ; as a result , he was granted the right to use ' Towton ' on the Mathew family arms .
By 1464 , the Yorkists had " wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England . " Edward 's reign was not interrupted until 1470 ; by then , his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England , restoring Henry to the throne . The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief , as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the Battle of Barnet in 1471 .
= = Literature = =
In the sixteenth century William Shakespeare wrote a number of dramatisations of historic figures . The use of history as a backdrop , against which the familiar characters act out Shakespeare 's drama , lends a sense of realism to his plays . Shakespeare wrote a three @-@ part play about Henry VI , relying heavily on Hall 's chronicle as a source . His vision of the Battle of Towton ( Henry VI , Part 3 , Act 2 , Scene 5 ) , touted as the " bloodiest " engagement in the Wars of the Roses , became a set piece about the " terror of civil war , a national terror that is essentially familial " . Historian Bertram Wolffe said it was thanks to Shakespeare 's dramatisation of the battle that the weak and ineffectual Henry was at least remembered by English society , albeit for his pining to have been born a shepherd rather than a king .
Shakespeare 's version of the battle presents a notable scene that comes immediately after Henry 's soliloquy . Henry witnesses the laments of two soldiers in the battle . One slays his opponent in hope of plunder , only to find the victim is his son ; the other kills his enemy , who turns out to be his father . Both killers have acted out of greed and fell into a state of deep grieving after discovering their misdeeds . Shakespearian scholar Arthur Percival Rossiter names the scene as the most notable of the playwright 's written " rituals " . The delivery of the event follows the pattern of an opera : after a long speech , the actors alternate among one another to deliver single @-@ line asides to the audience . In this scene of grief — in a reversal of the approach adopted in his later historical plays — Shakespeare uses anonymous fictional characters to illustrate the ills of civil war while a historical king reflects on their fates . Emeritus Professor of English Literature Michael Hattaway comments that Shakespeare intended to show Henry 's sadness over the war , to elicit the same emotion among the audience and to expose Henry 's ineptness as king .
The Battle of Towton was re @-@ examined by Geoffrey Hill in his poem " Funeral Music " ( 1968 ) . Hill presents the historical event through the voices of its combatants , looking at the turmoil of the era through their eyes . The common soldiers grouse about their physical discomforts and the sacrifices that they had made for the ideas glorified by their leaders . They share their superiors ' determination to seek the destruction of their opponents , even at the cost of their lives . Hill depicts the participants ' belief that the event was pre @-@ destined and of utmost importance as a farce ; the world went about its business regardless of the Battle of Towton .
= = Legacy = =
In 1483 Richard III , younger brother of Edward IV , started to build a chapel to commemorate the battle . Richard died at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 and the building was never completed . It eventually fell into disrepair and collapsed . The ruins of the structure were evident five centuries later . In 1929 , a stone cross supposedly from the chapel was used to create the Towton Cross ( also known as Lord Dacre 's Cross ) to commemorate those who died in the battle . Several mounds on the battlefield were thought to contain casualties of the battle , although historians believe these to be tumuli of much earlier origin . More burial sites related to the battle are found on Chapel Hill and around Saxton . Lord Dacre was buried at the Church of All Saints in Saxton and his tomb was reported in the late 19th century to be well maintained , although several of its panels had been weathered away . The bur tree from which Dacre 's killer shot his arrow was cut down by the late 19th century , leaving its stump on the battlefield . Centuries after the battle , relics that have been found in the area include rings , arrowheads and coins .
The people of Elizabethan @-@ era England remembered the battle as dramatised by Shakespeare , and the image of the engagement as the charnel house where many sons of England were cut down endured for centuries . However , at the start of the 21st century , the " largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil " was no longer prominent in the public consciousness . British journalists lamented that people were ignorant of the Battle of Towton and of its significance . According to English Heritage , the battle was of the " greatest importance " ; it was one of the largest , if not the largest , fought in England and it resulted in the replacement of one royal dynasty by another . Hill expressed a different opinion . Although impressed with the casualty figures touted by the chroniclers , he believed the battle brought no monumental changes to the lives of the English people .
The Battle of Towton was associated with a tradition previously upheld in the villages of Tysoe , Warwickshire . For centuries the villagers had made it a point to clear an area on a slope of the Vale of the Red Horse on each anniversary of the engagement , exposing a large figure of a horse cut into the red soil . They claimed to do this to honour the Earl of Warwick 's inspirational deed of slaying his horse to show his resolve to stand and fight with the common soldiers . Local historian Mary Dormer Harris believed that the villagers modified the original Red Horse , which dated to pre @-@ historic times , to a version that reflected mediaeval horses . The tradition died in 1798 when the Inclosure Acts implemented by the English government redesignated the common land , on which the equine figure was located , as private property . The scouring was revived during the early 20th century but has since stopped .
= The Beast Below =
" The Beast Below " is the second episode of the fifth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was written by executive producer and head writer Steven Moffat and broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 10 April 2010 .
In the episode , the Doctor — a time travelling alien played by Matt Smith — and his new companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) arrive in the distant future aboard the Starship UK , a ship constructed to transport the population and major cultural artifacts of the United Kingdom away from Earth to escape the death of the sun . However , they discover that the government of the ship secretly tortures a Star Whale that guides the ship , the abandonment of which is believed will destroy the ship and kill everyone on board .
The episode , which featured the first time Amy was away from her home world , was designed to show how important she was to the Doctor and his need for a companion . As part of the second production block of the series , the episode 's production took place in Autumn 2009 . " The Beast Below " was seen by 8 @.@ 42 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD , the fifth most @-@ watched programme in the week it was broadcast . It was met with a positive to mixed reception from critics ; many praised the chemistry between Smith and Gillan , but some thought that there were too many imaginative concepts that did not make a satisfying conclusion , or that the message of the episode was not as strong as it should have been .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
In the distant future , the Doctor and Amy arrive on the Starship UK , a colony spaceship containing the population of the United Kingdom who have left the planet to escape deadly solar flares . They come across a crying girl , Mandy , whom all the other adults aboard consciously ignore . The Doctor , having discovered that the ship does not seem to be powered by normal engines , tells Amy to follow Mandy while he explores the engine room . There , he finds the engine controls to be a false front , and encounters a masked woman called Liz 10 , who also is aware of the ship 's oddness and of the Doctor 's identity .
Meanwhile , Amy confronts Mandy , who explains she had lost her friend to the " beast below " after he refused to follow Starship UK rules and ran afoul of the robot @-@ like Smilers that watch over the ship . Ignoring Mandy 's warnings , Amy enters a tent which covers a hole in the ship . There she finds a tentacle @-@ like creature reaching up from the pit and quickly backs out of the tent into the monk @-@ like Winders , who police the ship . Amy is taken to one of the many voting booths on the ship , where an automated video explains that each adult votes after being shown the truth of Starship UK . After the video , Amy is given the opportunity to either protest the truth or have the booth make her forget it . Amy chooses to forget , but not before recording a video to show herself after the memory wipe , urging her to get the Doctor off the ship before he learns its nature . The Doctor and Mandy arrive ; Mandy explains that the voting takes place every five years and everyone chooses to " forget " . The Doctor , however , triggers the " protest " sequence , sending him and Amy into the bowels of the ship .
Finding himself and Amy in the mouth of a giant creature , the Doctor uses his sonic screwdriver to make the creature throw them up ; with Liz 10 's help , they evade the Smilers waiting for them upon their escape . Liz 10 reveals herself to be Queen Elizabeth X and the Doctor begins to question her age , which she believes is around 50 , although her body clock was slowed to retain its youthful appearance . The Winders arrive and take Liz 10 , the Doctor , Amy and Mandy to the Tower of London , where it is revealed that all of Starship UK rides atop a giant Star Whale that provides the ship 's locomotion . The Star Whale , believed to be the last of its kind , arrived at Earth at the time of the solar flares ; it was captured and the ship was constructed around it . However , in order to direct the whale , the pain center of its brain has been exposed to receive frequent jolts of electricity . The Winders show Liz 10 that she ordered this centuries ago , but every ten years she finds her way to the Tower and chooses to have her memory wiped to prevent herself from remembering . She implemented the voting programme to do the same to the population , out of fear that remembering the truth would lead to the populace demanding the whale be freed , destroying the ship and killing everyone aboard .
The Doctor is furious , realising to his despair that he has to choose between saving the humans or the Star Whale , and angrily chastises Amy for choosing to forget about the whale so he would not face such a choice , telling her he is taking her home after they are finished there . Liz 10 says there has to be another way , but the Doctor slams his fist on the control pad and angrily tells them not to talk to him , because " nobody human has anything to say to [ him ] " . He then decides to alter the controlling device programming to render the Star Whale brain @-@ dead , allowing it to continue through space but no longer feel the pain . As the Doctor works , Amy sees Mandy has found her friend alive , as the whale refuses to eat children . Amy , considering all she has seen and heard , takes control and uses Liz 10 's hand to strike the " abdicate " button that disables the controlling device and allows the Star Whale to break free . To everyone 's surprise , the Whale does not leave , and in fact the ship moves faster . Amy explains to the Doctor that she saw the similarities between him and the Star Whale , and deduced that the Whale came to Earth willingly at the time of crisis . The Doctor and Amy reconcile and return to the TARDIS . Amy is about to tell the Doctor of her impending wedding when she is interrupted by a call to the TARDIS from Winston Churchill , who is face @-@ to @-@ face with a Dalek .
= = = Continuity = = =
It is noted that the Earth was abandoned in the 29th century due to solar flares ; this was a central plot point of the classic serials The Ark in Space and The Sontaran Experiment . Liz 10 mentions the Doctor 's previous encounters with British monarchs , including Victoria ( " Tooth and Claw " ) , Elizabeth I ( seen in " The Shakespeare Code " and referenced in The End of Time ) and Elizabeth II ( Silver Nemesis ) . Liz 10 herself is seen again in " The Pandorica Opens " confronting an intruder in the Royal Collection in the 52nd century . The workman 's tent investigated by Amy is in front of a shop called " Magpie Electricals " ; a shop that first appears in " The Idiot 's Lantern " . The episode also continues the story arc of the crack pattern , where it appears at the end of the episode on the side of the Starship UK .
= = Production = =
Executive producer and head writer Steven Moffat wrote the episode as an introduction for Amy into the role of the Doctor 's companion . The episode showcases her first adventure away from her home world and her first time in space . The climax of the episode , where the Doctor decides the best thing he can do is kill the Star Whale as painlessly as possible but Amy comes up with an alternative solution that is more humane , was designed to stand out in the Doctor 's memory as a failure of a huge scale . It also reinforced the Doctor 's need for a companion and showed how important Amy would be to him .
" The Beast Below " was in the second production block of the series . The read @-@ through for the episode took place 20 August 2009 . Scenes set in Liz 10 's Buckingham Palace were filmed at Margam Country Park , Port Talbot on a night shoot on 22 September 2009 . The interior of the orangery was used as the Palace . The room in the Tower of London where the climax takes place was filmed at Neath Abbey . The industrial streets of Starship UK were filmed in a disused factory in Mamhilad , with the art department designing it in accordance to Moffat 's specific description in the script . Gillan put in some of her own wonder at the set into Amy 's actions when she admires the street for the first time .
The set for the whale 's tongue was challenging for both the art department and the actors . With guidance from the stunt co @-@ ordinator , Smith and Gillan were required to slide down a short slide before dropping six feet . Gillan stated that this was the " most bizarre " moment of filming for her . For the opening scene in which the Doctor holds Amy 's ankle while she is suspended in space , Gillan was hoisted on wires above the TARDIS prop in front of a greenscreen while a wind machine created the effects of being in space .
Both Sophie Okonedo and Terence Hardiman , who played Liz 10 and government head Hawthorne respectively , have had experience in Doctor Who related roles . Okonedo previously portrayed Alison Cheney , a companion of the alternate Ninth Doctor known as the Shalka Doctor in the online flash @-@ animated serial Scream of the Shalka . Hardiman later voiced King Sitric in the Big Finish audio play The Book of Kells .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Beast Below " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 10 April 2010 . Unofficial overnight viewing figures stated that 6 @.@ 4 million viewers watched on BBC One with an additional 330 @,@ 000 watching a simulcast on BBC HD . This meant that the show was the most watched show of the day . When time @-@ shifted figures were added , the viewing figures on BBC One were 7 @.@ 93 million while BBC HD 's ratings rose to 494 @,@ 000 , making the final consolidated figures for the episode 8 @.@ 42 million . It was the fifth most @-@ watched programme on BBC One for the week ending 11 April 2010 and the 11th for the week across all UK channels . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered
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" excellent " .
" The Beast Below " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray with the episodes " The Eleventh Hour " and " Victory of the Daleks " and special features on 7 June 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received positive to mixed reviews by television critics . Andrew Billen , writing in The Times , awarded the episode five stars , praising Matt Smith 's " mercurial " Doctor , Sophie Okonedo 's acting , and the concept of the episode . However , he worried that Moffat " may not be as interested in the Time Lord as the rest of his fans " , referring to a scene in which the Doctor dismisses the death of his people as a " bad day " . Keith Watson in Metro praised the developing relationship between the Doctor and Amy . Sam Wollaston in The Guardian noted the parallels between the future UK and modern Britain , and also confessed to " being in love with Amy Pond " .
SFX Magazine 's Russell Lewin gave " The Beast Below " four out of five stars , calling it " immensely satisfying " . He particularly praised the two lead performances and Amy 's characterisation as companion , as well as the writing and dialogue . Dan Martin , also of The Guardian , praised the story for testing the characters ' relationships rather than being just a visit to the Starship UK to make it better , though he commented that the " anti @-@ vivisection message " seemed to be lost along the way . He praised the way the Doctor was portrayed in terms of his more inhumane instincts in contrast to the Tenth Doctor and rated the episode as " four out of five " . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern said that the episode " neither moved [ him ] to wave a Save the Starwhale banner nor reach for the nearest harpoon " and made him feel " out of the loop " as it seemed more directed at children than adults . However , he praised the acting of Smith , Gillan , and Sophie Okonedo , as well as the creation of the Smilers .
IGN 's Matt Wales had a more mixed opinion about the episode , rating it a " good " 7 out of 10 . He considered it imaginative with " more brilliant ideas ... than most other shows can muster in an entire season " , but he thought the episode " never quite brought its cacophony of ideas together to form a satisfying whole " , and the conclusion " failed to resonate effectively against the hodgepodge of insane ideas and action " . Because of the large amount of ideas , Wales also pointed out that the characterisation was " scant " , especially on Liz 10 and the Smilers . However , he praised Smith 's and Gillan 's chemistry and Moffat 's " crackling dialogue " . In February 2013 , Moffat cited " The Beast Below " as his least @-@ favourite among the episodes he wrote , describing it as " a bit of a mess " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Beast Below " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Persoonia terminalis =
Persoonia terminalis , also known as the Torrington geebung , is a rare shrub belonging to the family Proteaceae , and native to northern New South Wales and southern Queensland in eastern Australia . Reported as a subspecies of Persoonia nutans in 1981 , it was described as a species by Lawrie Johnson and his colleague Peter Weston in 1991 . Two subspecies — P. t. terminalis and P. t. recurva — are recognised ; both are found on well @-@ drained acidic soils in sclerophyll forests , and P. t. terminalis is also found on granite outcrops . Although similar in appearance , they differ in leaf length and curvature . Both have a restricted range , with P. t. terminalis found in an area of under 100 square kilometres ( 39 square miles ) .
P. terminalis grows to 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 feet ) , with an upright or spreading habit , and narrow short leaves up to 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 inches ) in length . The yellow flowers mainly appear in December and January ( Australia 's temperate zone summer ) , and are followed by purple @-@ striped green drupes ( stone fruit ) . The fruit of persoonias are edible , and dispersed by wild vertebrates .
= = Taxonomy = =
Persoonia terminalis was first reported by Lawrie Johnson of the Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney , in the 1981 edition of Flora of New South Wales . He viewed it as a distinctive subspecies of Persoonia nutans , a broadly defined species that included many forms since classified as distinct . Queensland botanists Trevor Donald Stanley and Estelle M. Ross classed P. terminalis as part of Persoonia oxycoccoides in their 1983 work Flora of South @-@ eastern Queensland . They considered it more likely a species in its own right , as they believed the description of the Queensland populations did not match the P. oxycoccoides from central New South Wales . Upon re @-@ examining Persoonia nutans and Persoonia oxycoccoides , Johnson and Peter Weston concluded that there were in fact several distinct species , and that Persoonia terminalis was described as such in 1991 . The type specimen was collected 3 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the Torrington pub on the Emmaville – Torrington road by Weston and ecologist Peter Richards , and is now housed in the National Herbarium of New South Wales , which is part of the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust Sydney and Office of Environment and Heritage . The Herbarium houses over 1 @.@ 2 million other specimens . The generic name Persoonia is derived from the name of South African botanist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon . The specific name terminalis refers to the inflorescences ( clusters of flowers ) that are in this species at the ends of the branchlets . Its common name is the Torrington geebung .
It is classified within the genus as within the Lanceolata group , which consists of 58 closely related species with similar flowers but very different foliage . These species will often interbreed with each other in areas where two members of the group occur . P. terminalis has been reported to interbreed with Persoonia cornifolia and Persoonia sericea , two other members of the group .
Two subspecies are recognised : P. t. recurva has shorter leaves , with margins more curved downwards , that reach a maximum of 0 @.@ 75 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) in length , while P. t. terminalis has longer , straighter leaves measuring a maximum of 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long .
= = Description = =
Persoonia terminalis grows as a shrub reaching a height of 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 – 5 ft ) , with an upright or spreading habit . It has smooth bark , although new growth is covered in fine hair . The small , narrow leaves are 1 @.@ 2 – 2 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 16 – 3 ⁄ 32 inch ) wide and 3 @.@ 5 – 10 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 8 in ) long , with a convex upper surface and margins curved downwards . New leaves can be hairless or slightly hairy ; if the latter , they lose the hair with age . They are concolorous — that is , both leaf surfaces are the same colour , or slightly discolorous . The leaves are rougher than those of other persoonias .
The yellow flowers mainly appear in December and January ( summer in the temperate zone of Australia ) , although occasional flowers have been seen as late as July . They are terminal , that is , arising at the ends of branchlets , where they appear in groups of one to five . P. terminalis is described as mostly anauxotelic , which means each stalk bears an individual flower that is subtended by a scale leaf at its junction with the stem . A proportion of flowers have a true leaf at this junction instead , and are described as auxotelic . Each individual flower consists of a cylindrical perianth that splits into four segments or tepals , and contains both male and female parts . Within this , the central style is surrounded by the anther , which splits into four segments ; these curl back and resemble a cross when viewed from above . They provide a landing area for insects attending to the stigma , which is located at the tip of the style . Flowers are followed by the development of the fleshy purple @-@ striped green drupes . These are 1 – 1 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long by 30 @.@ 7 – 0 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 12 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 8 in ) wide , with the remnant style at the end .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
P. t. terminalis is found in the Torrington @-@ Binghi area on the western parts of the far Northern Tablelands in New South Wales , roughly halfway between Glen Innes and the Queensland border , at an altitude of between 900 and 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . It grows on acidic , sandy or stony granite soils in dry sclerophyll forest . The region is dotted with granite outcrops , where the subspecies is a component of Babingtonia odontocalyx – Brachyloma saxicola shrubland and Prostanthera staurophylla – Kunzea bracteolata low shrubland in the Torrington area , and Allocasuarina brachystachya shrubland in the Severn River Reserve . It is rated 2R on the ROTAP list .
P. t. recurva has two disjunct populations . One is found on the North Western Slopes in New South Wales , near Warialda north west of Inverell , and the other is southwest of Inglewood in southeastern Queensland , between 350 and 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 and 1 @,@ 480 ft ) above sea level . It grows on acidic sandstone @-@ based sandy soils in dry sclerophyll forest . Within the Warialda State Conservation Area , it is found in black cypress pine ( Callitris endlicheri ) — dirty gum ( Eucalyptus chloroclada ) woodland and smooth @-@ barked apple ( Angophora leiocarpa ) — black cypress pine woodland . Although P. t. recurva has not been recorded from Kings Plains National Park , it could be expected to be found there due to the availability of suitable habitat . It is rated as 3R on the ROTAP list .
Both subspecies are commonly found near the Severn River Nature Preserve , as well as in the Arakoola Nature Reserve , where they are components of a woodland ecological community dominated by smooth @-@ barked apple and long @-@ fruited bloodwood ( Corymbia dolichocarpa ) , which grows on sandstone soils .
= = Ecology = =
P. terminalis grows in a bushfire @-@ prone habitat , where fire is essential for many species to regenerate . P. t. terminalis is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed , which lies dormant in the soil . Large numbers of Persoonia seedlings appear after fire . However , rocky outcrop habitat is vulnerable to fires occurring at too @-@ frequent intervals of less than five years , which puts many species that regenerate by seed at risk of local extinction as plants are unable to mature to set seed before the next fire .
Colletid bees of subgenus Cladocerapis within the genus Leioproctus exclusively forage on and pollinate flowers of many species of Persoonia . Bees of subgenus Filiglossa in the same genus also specialise in feeding on Persoonia flowers , but do not appear to be effective pollinators . The fruit are adapted to be eaten by vertebrates , such as kangaroos and possums , as well as currawongs and other large birds .
= = Cultivation potential = =
Horticulturists and scientists Rodger Elliot and David L. Jones have proposed that cultivating the plant would aid in its conservation . Cultivating the plant would most likely require good water drainage , a sunny or part @-@ shaded position and acidic soil . P. terminalis is hardy to heavy frosts , and is expected to fare better in a temperate rather than subtropical garden climate . Propagation would theoretically be by seed or by taking cuttings of new growth , though plants of the genus Persoonia as a genus are generally difficult to propagate by any means in cultivation .
= The Haunting ( 1963 film ) =
The Haunting is a 1963 British supernatural horror film directed and produced by Robert Wise and adapted by Nelson Gidding from the 1959 novel The Haunting of Hill House by Shirley Jackson . It stars Julie Harris , Claire Bloom , Richard Johnson , and Russ Tamblyn . The film depicts the experiences of a small group of people invited by a paranormal investigator to investigate a purportedly haunted house .
Screenwriter Gidding , who had worked with director Wise on the 1958 film I Want to Live ! , began a six @-@ month write of the script after reading the book , which Wise had given to him . He perceived the book to be more about mental breakdown than ghosts , and although he was informed after meeting author Shirley Jackson that it was very much a supernatural novel , elements of mental breakdown were introduced into the film . The film was shot at MGM @-@ British Studios in the United Kingdom on a budget of $ 1 @.@ 050 million , with exteriors and the grounds shot at Ettington Park ( now the Ettington Park Hotel ) in the village of Ettington , Warwickshire . Julie Harris was cast by Wise who found her ideal for the psychologically fragile Eleanor , though during production she suffered from depression and had an uneasy relationship with her co @-@ stars . The interior sets were by Elliot Scott , credited by Wise as instrumental in the making of The Haunting . They were designed to be brightly lit , with no dark corners or recesses , and decorated in a Rococo style ; all the rooms had ceilings to create a claustrophobic effect on film . Numerous devices and tricks were used in the filming . Wise used a 30mm anamorphic , wide @-@ angle lens Panavision camera that was not technically ready for use and caused distortions . It was only given to Wise on condition that he sign a memorandum in which he acknowledged that the lens was imperfect . Wise and cinematographer Davis Boulton planned sequences that kept the camera moving , utilizing low @-@ angle takes , and incorporating unusual pans and tracking shots .
The Haunting is notable for its lesbian character , Theodora . Although her character 's sexual orientation is left ambiguous in the source novel , the film makes it known subtly and it is one of the few motion pictures of that era to depict a lesbian as feminine and not predatory . According to Harris , however , film censors demanded that Theo never be shown to touch Eleanor in a sensual or suggestive way , to keep the lesbianism less obvious .
Upon release on 18 September 1963 , the film performed moderately at the box office and was well received , although the plot was widely criticized for being incoherent . Today it has achieved cult status and is considered by many to be one of the best horror films in cinematic history , and one of the most unsettling . In 2010 , The Guardian newspaper ranked it as the 13th best horror film of all time . Director Martin Scorsese has placed The Haunting first on his list of the 11 scariest horror films of all time . The Haunting was released on DVD in its original screen format with commentary in 2003 , and was released on Blu @-@ ray on 15 October 2013 . The film was remade in 1999 by director Jan de Bont , starring Liam Neeson , Lili Taylor , Catherine Zeta Jones and Owen Wilson , but this version was heavily panned by critics and audiences alike .
= = Plot = =
Dr. John Markway narrates the history of the 90 @-@ year @-@ old Hill House , which was constructed by Hugh Crain as a home for his wife . She died when her carriage crashed against a tree as she approached the house for the first time . Crain remarried , but his second wife died in the house from a fall down the stairs . Crain 's daughter Abigail lived in the house for the rest of her life , never moving out of the nursery . She died calling for her nurse @-@ companion . The companion inherited the house , but later hanged herself from a spiral staircase in the library . Hill House was eventually inherited by a Mrs. Sanderson , although it has stood empty for some time .
Markway wishes to study the reported paranormal activity at Hill House . He secures a lease from Mrs. Sanderson to occupy the mansion for the duration of his investigation ; conditional to his acceptance is that he take Luke Sanderson , her heir , with him . Markway has chosen two individuals to accompany him — a psychic , Theodora , also known as Theo , and the meek Eleanor Lance , who experienced poltergeist activity as a child . Eleanor spent her adult life caring for her invalid mother , whose recent death has left Eleanor with severe guilt .
The large , maze @-@ like mansion 's walls were constructed with angles slightly askew , resulting in off @-@ center perspectives and doors that open and close by themselves . The immense library contains the ramshackle spiral staircase from which the previous owner hanged herself ; the vast conservatory is adorned with eerie statues . During their first night in the house , Eleanor and Theo are terrified by supernatural occurrences outside Theo 's bedroom door . Deafening banging is heard against the door and the voice of a young girl is heard echoing with laughter . Despite the turbulence , Eleanor feels a tentative affinity to Hill House .
The team explores the house the next day , discovering a cold spot outside the nursery and encountering other supernatural phenomena . Markway reveals more about the hauntings that have allegedly occurred . Following another night of loud disturbances the team discovers the words " HELP , ELEANOR , COME HOME " on a wall , which causes Eleanor severe distress .
That night , Theo moves into Eleanor 's room and they fall asleep in the same bed . Eleanor is awakened by the sounds of a man speaking indistinctly and a woman laughing . Fearful , Eleanor asks Theo to hold her hand and she feels it being crushed . As Eleanor hears the sound of a young girl crying , she shouts at whoever is causing the child pain . Theo awakens with a start and turns on the light . Eleanor then sees that Theo had moved from the bed to the couch , and was not the one she felt holding her hand .
The following day Dr. Markway 's wife Grace arrives at Hill House to warn her husband that a reporter has learned of Markway 's investigation of Hill House . Markway is concerned when Grace announces that she plans to join the group for the duration of the investigation . She demands a bed in the nursery despite her husband 's warning that it is likely the center of the disturbances . That night the group experiences loud banging and an unseen force attempting to force its way through the living room in which they are staying . The banging then proceeds to move its way up towards the nursery , where the sounds of it destroying the room are heard . This prompts Eleanor to run towards the source ; however Grace is nowhere to be found . Her disappearance is then confirmed the following morning . Eleanor 's mental instability worsens as she falls further under the spell of Hill House . She enters the library and climbs the dilapidated spiral staircase . Once she reaches the top , Grace appears unexpectedly at a trap door and the startled Eleanor nearly falls to her death . Markway rescues Eleanor but just misses seeing Grace , who has disappeared back into the house .
Markway becomes alarmed at Eleanor 's obsession with Hill House in spite of the dangers it poses for her . Despite Eleanor 's pleas to stay , Markway insists that she leave at once and asks Luke to accompany her home . Before he can join her in the car , Eleanor drives off and speeds down the road toward the front gates . She soon feels the steering wheel move by itself and the car advances erratically . At first she struggles to regain control but then surrenders to the unseen force . Suddenly Grace appears from behind a tree and steps in front of the car . Eleanor crashes into the tree and is killed . Luke observes it seemed that Eleanor deliberately aimed the car at the tree , but Markway asserts that something was in the car with her . He notes that the tree that claimed Eleanor 's life is the same one that killed the first Mrs. Crain . Theo remarks that Eleanor got what she wanted — to remain with the house .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Robert Wise was in post @-@ production on West Side Story when he read a review in Time magazine of author Shirley Jackson 's novel , The Haunting of Hill House . Wise read the book and found it frightening ; he passed it to screenwriter friend Nelson Gidding , whom he had worked with on the 1958 film I Want to Live ! . Gidding did a full story treatment for Wise before proceeding to work on the adaptation . As Gidding crafted the screenplay , he came to believe that the novel was not a ghost story at all , but rather a compilation of the insane thoughts of the lead character , Eleanor Vance . He theorised that Vance was having a nervous breakdown , envisaging a scenario in which Hill House is the hospital where she is held , Markway is her psychiatrist , the cold , banging , and violence are the results of shock treatment , and the opening and closing of doors reflected the opening and closing of hospital doors . Wise and Gidding traveled to Bennington , Vermont to meet Shirley Jackson who told them that it was a good idea , but the novel was definitely about the supernatural . Nonetheless , elements of the insanity concept remained in the script , so that the audience was left wondering whether the supernatural events in the film were in Eleanor 's mind or whether they were real . It was also during their visit with Jackson that Wise and Gidding chose the title for the film . As they did not want to keep the book title , they asked Jackson if she had considered an alternative title . She suggested The Haunting , which Wise and Gidding immediately adopted .
= = = Script = = =
Writing the screenplay took about six months . During this period , Gidding worked alone , and although he passed some of his work to Wise to show him that work on the screenplay was progressing well , he and Wise did not otherwise collaborate on the screenplay . The screenplay made other changes to the story . The number of characters was cut down , the back story was significantly shortened , most of the supernatural events depicted in the novel were kept off @-@ screen , and the greater part of the action was set inside the house to heighten the audience 's feeling of claustrophobia . Eleanor 's role as an outcast was also emphasised . The character of Theodora was given a sharper , slightly more cruel sense of humor in order to make her a foil for Eleanor but also to heighten Eleanor 's outsider status . The role of Luke was made more flippant , and Dr. Markway ( Montague in the novel ) was made a more confident character . The screenplay was finished just after Wise completed work on West Side Story .
Wise approached United Artists with the project , but after much delay they turned him down . Wise 's agent then suggested that , since Wise owed Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) a film under an old contract , Wise should take the project there . MGM agreed , but would only give Wise a $ 1 million budget . Wise knew he could not do the film at MGM 's Culver City Studios ( now the Sony Pictures Studios ) , so took it to England , as the Eady Levy gave tax breaks and financing to films made there as a way of subsidizing and promoting the British film industry . Someone suggested to Wise that he approach MGM 's Borehamwood Studios subsidiary . Wise had been asked to come to the United Kingdom for a Royal Command Performance of West Side Story , and during the trip made the financing pitch to MGM Borehamwood . They offered a budget of $ 1 @.@ 050 million . With the Eady Levy support , this allowed the film to go forward with production in the United Kingdom .
= = = Casting = = =
Although Susan Hayward was reported to be in the running for one of the two female leads , Julie Harris was chosen for the role of Eleanor Lance . Wise had seen Harris on stage , and felt she was right for the part of the psychologically fragile Eleanor . Harris agreed to do the film in part because the role was complex and the idea of the house taking over Eleanor 's mind was interesting . But she also chose it because she had a long @-@ standing interest in parapsychology . English actress Claire Bloom was cast as Theo . In part , however , the decision to cast Bloom and Johnson was because of Eady Levy requirements that the cast be partly British . To make Bloom 's character appear more bohemian , beatnik clothing designer Mary Quant was hired to design mod clothing specifically for the Theodora character .
Richard Johnson , under contract to MGM , was cast as Dr. Markway . Wise saw Johnson in a Royal Shakespeare Company production of The Devils . Impressed with his acting , he offered him the role . Johnson later said he received invaluable film acting advice from Wise . Wise told him to keep his eyes steady , to blink less , and to try not to time his acting ( Wise said he would take care of that in the editing room ) . Johnson also credited Wise with helping him to craft a much more natural acting performance . Russ Tamblyn , also under contract with MGM , initially turned down the role as Luke because he felt that the character was " a jerk " , although he thought that the script was very good . The studio forced him to reconsider , threatening him with suspension . Tamblyn told the British cinema magazine Film Review in 1995 that while reading the script a second time , he realised the character was much more interesting . " This is the ironic part , " he said , " it turned out to be one of my favourite films that I 've been in ! "
Stunt performer Connie Tilton appears twice in the film . She portrays the death of the " Second Mrs. Crain " by flinging herself backward down a flight of stairs . Uncredited actress Freda Knorr is seen in shots before and after the fall ; it is her face audiences associate with the " Second Mrs. Crain " . Tilton also appears when Abigail Crain 's Nurse @-@ Companion hangs herself at the top of the spiral staircase in the library . Although uncredited actress Rosemary Dorken is seen climbing the stairs and going past the camera , it is Tilton 's body that suddenly appears in shot again as the Nurse @-@ Companion hangs herself .
= = = Filming = = =
Wise called The Haunting one of his top ten or twelve favorites among the films he made , commenting that it was his favorite filmmaking experience . Ettington Park , ( now the Ettington Park Hotel ) , with its grounds near the village of Ettington , Warwickshire , was used for exterior shots of Hill House . According to actor Russ Tamblyn , Wise approached a society that kept track of British haunted houses , and they gave him a list of such places . Production designer Elliot Scott was sent around the country to look at each house , and Wise personally selected Ettington Park . Some of the cast and crew were housed in Ettington Park during exterior shooting . However , the location did not sit well with Harris and Bloom who upon arriving at Ettington Park thought it was " scary looking outside " , and Wise had to reassure them . Interior sets were constructed and shot at the MGM @-@ British Studios in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire . The interior sets were designed by Elliot Scott , credited by Wise as a " major contributor " to The Haunting . The sets were designed to be brightly lit , with no dark corners or recesses , and decorated in a Rococo style . All rooms had ceilings to
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The blackcap feeds mainly on insects during the breeding season , then switches to fruit in late summer , the change being triggered by an internal biological rhythm . When migrants arrive on their territories they initially take berries , pollen and nectar if there are insufficient insects available , then soon switch to their preferred diet . They mainly pick prey off foliage and twigs , but may occasionally hover , flycatch or feed on the ground . Blackcaps eat a wide range of invertebrate prey , although aphids are particularly important early in the season , and flies , beetles and caterpillars are also taken in large numbers . Small snails are swallowed whole , since the shell is a source of calcium for the bird 's eggs . Chicks are mainly fed soft @-@ bodied insects , fruit only being provided if invertebrates are scarce .
In July , the diet switches increasingly to fruit . The protein needed for egg @-@ laying and for the chicks to grow is replaced by fruit sugar which helps the birds to fatten for migration . Aphids are still taken while they are available , since they often contain sugars from the plant sap on which they feed . Blackcaps eat a wide range of small fruit , and squeeze out any seeds on a branch before consuming the pulp . This technique makes them an important propagator of mistletoe . The mistle thrush , which also favours that plant , is less beneficial since it tends to crush the seeds . Although any suitable fruit may be eaten , some have seasonal or local importance ; elder makes up a large proportion of the diet of northern birds preparing for migration , and energy @-@ rich olives and lentisc are favoured by blackcaps wintering in the Mediterranean .
The German birds wintering in British gardens rely on provided food , and the major items are bread and fat , each making up around 20 % of the diet ; one bird survived the whole winter eating only Christmas cake . Fruit is also eaten , notably cotoneaster ( 41 % of the fruit consumed ) , ivy and honeysuckle , and apple if available . Some birds have learned to take peanuts from feeders . Blackcaps defend good winter food sources in the wild , and at garden feeding stations they repel competitors as large as starlings and blackbirds . Birds occasionally become tame enough to feed from the hand .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Blackcaps are caught by Eurasian sparrowhawks in the breeding range , and by Eleonora 's falcons on migration . Eurasian jays and Eurasian magpies take eggs and young , as do mammals such as stoats , weasels and squirrels . Domestic cats are the most important predator , possibly killing up to 10 % of blackcaps . Blackcaps are occasionally hosts of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite . The level of parasitism is low because the cuckoo 's eggs are often rejected . Blackcaps have evolved adaptations which make it difficult for the parasitic species to succeed , despite the cuckoo 's tendency to lay eggs which resemble those of their host . Blackcaps are good at spotting alien eggs , and their own eggs are very alike within a clutch , making it easier to spot the intruder . There is , however , considerable variation between different clutches , making it harder for the cuckoo to convincingly mimic a blackcap egg . The open habitat and cup nest of the warbler make it a potential target for the cuckoo ; it may have experienced much higher levels of parasitism in the past , and countermeasures would have spread rapidly once they evolved .
The only blood parasites found in a study of blackcaps trapped on migration were protozoans from the genera Haemoproteus and Plasmodium . Of those affected , 45 @.@ 5 % were males and 22 @.@ 7 % were females , but the number of parasites was small , and the ability to store fat for the migration flight was unimpaired . Seventeen strains of H. parabelopolskyi are found only in the blackcap , and form a monophyletic group ; three further members of that group are found only in the garden warbler , and another three occur in the African hill babbler , supporting the shared ancestry of the three bird species . The protozoan Isospora ashmoonensis was first identified in a blackcap in Egypt . Blackcaps may carry parasitic worms that sometimes kill their hosts . External parasites include chewing lice and feather mites . The latter do little damage , although heavy infestations cause individual tail feathers to develop asymmetrically .
= = In culture = =
Aristotle , in his History of Animals , considered that the garden warbler eventually metamorphosed into a blackcap . The blackcap 's song has led to it being described as the " mock nightingale " or " country nightingale " , and John Clare , in " The March Nightingale " describes the listener as believing that the rarer species has arrived prematurely . " He stops his own and thinks the nightingale / Hath of her monthly reckoning counted wrong " . The song is also the topic of Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli 's " La Capinera " [ The Blackcap ] .
Giovanni Verga 's 1871 novel Storia di una capinera , according to its author , was inspired by a story of a blackcap trapped and caged by children . The bird , silent and pining for its lost freedom , eventually dies . In the book , a nun evacuated from her convent by cholera falls in love with a family friend , only to have to return to her confinement when the disease wanes . The novel was adapted as films of the same name in 1917 , 1943 and 1993 . The last version was directed by Franco Zeffirelli , and its English @-@ language version was retitled as Sparrow . In Saint François d 'Assise , an opera by Messiaen , the orchestration is based on bird song . St Francis himself is represented by the blackcap .
Folk names for the blackcap often refer to its most obvious plumage feature ( black @-@ headed peggy , King Harry black cap and coal hoodie ) or to its song , as in the " nightingale " names above . Other old names are based on its choice of nesting material ( Jack Straw , hay bird , hay chat and hay Jack ) . There is a tradition of the Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm bases being named for birds . A former base near Stretton in Cheshire was called HMS Blackcap .
= = Status = =
The blackcap has a very large range , and its population in Europe is estimated at 25 – 49 million breeding pairs . Allowing for birds breeding in Africa and Asia , the total population is between 80 – 196 million individuals . It is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern .
Blackcaps and other small birds are illegally trapped in large numbers in Mediterranean countries , particularly in Cyprus , where they are considered a delicacy . Despite hunting and natural hazards , the European population of the blackcap has been rising for several decades as the range extends northwards , for example to Scotland and Denmark . There are occasional nesting records from outside the main range , such as in northern Israel and the Faroes , and wandering birds may appear further afield in Iceland or on the islands of Arctic Russia . In the Baltic , the spread of the blackcap appears to have been helped by the availability of territories formerly occupied by the declining barred warbler .
= Frank Spedding =
Frank Harold Spedding ( October 22 , 1902 – December 15 , 1984 ) was a Canadian American chemist . He was a renowned expert on rare earth elements , and on extraction of metals from minerals . The uranium extraction process helped make it possible for the Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs .
A graduate of the University of Michigan and University of California , Berkeley , Spedding became an assistant professor and head of the department of physical chemistry at Iowa State College in 1937 . His efforts at building up the school were so successful that he would spend the rest of his career there , becoming a professor of chemistry in 1941 , a professor of physics in 1950 , a professor of metallurgy in 1962 , and ultimately professor emeritus in 1973 . He co @-@ founded , along with Dr. Harley Wilhelm , the Institute for Atomic Research and the Ames Laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission , and directed the Ames Laboratory from its founding in 1947 until 1968 .
Spedding developed an ion exchange method of separating and purifying rare earth elements using ion exchange resins , and later used ion exchange to separate isotopes of individual elements , including hundreds of grams of almost pure nitrogen @-@ 15 . He published over 250 peer @-@ reviewed papers , and held 22 patents in his own name and jointly with others . Some 88 students received their Ph.D. degree under his supervision .
= = Early life and education = =
Spedding was born on October 22 , 1902 , in Hamilton , Ontario , Canada , the son of Howard Leslie Spedding and Mary Ann Elizabeth ( Marshall ) Spedding . Soon after he was born , the family moved to Michigan , and then Chicago . He became a naturalized U.S. citizen through his father . The family moved to Ann Arbor , Michigan , where his father worked as a photographer , in 1918 . He entered the University of Michigan in 1920 , receiving a Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in chemical engineering in 1925 and a Master of Science ( M.S. ) in analytical chemistry the following year .
As an undergraduate , Spedding took issue with the prevailing explanation by Friedrich August Kekulé of how the six carbon atoms in benzene hold together and proposed an alternate explanation . His professor , Moses Gomberg , recognised this as being the same as the ( incorrect ) model advanced by Albert Ladenburg in 1869 . At Gomberg 's suggestion , Spedding applied to the University of California , Berkeley , to study for his doctorate under Gilbert N. Lewis . Gomberg wrote a recommendation so that Spedding was not only accepted , but given a teaching fellowship as well . Under Lewis 's supervision , Spedding earned his Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in 1929 , writing his thesis on " Line absorption spectra in solids at low temperatures in the visible and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum " . It was published that year in the Physical Review .
= = Early career = =
Spedding 's graduation coincided with the onset of the Great Depression , and jobs became hard to find . Spedding received a National Research Fellowship from 1930 to 1932 , enabling him to stay at Berkeley and continue his research into the spectra of solids . While hiking in northern California , he met Ethel Annie MacFarlane , who shared his passion for camping , hiking and mountain climbing . Born in Winnipeg , Manitoba , she was a graduate of the University of Saskatchewan and the University of Toronto , where she had earned a master 's degree in history . When they met , she was teaching at Victoria High School in Victoria , British Columbia . They were married on June 21 , 1931 . They had a daughter , Mary Anne Elizabeth , who was born in 1939 .
From 1932 to 1934 , Spedding worked for Lewis as a chemistry instructor . Around this time , he became interested in the chemistry of the rare earths . These were expensive and hard to find , and generally available only in minute amounts . In 1933 he won the Irving Langmuir Award for most outstanding young chemist . The award came with a cash prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 . He borrowed money to travel to Chicago to collect it . While he was there , he was approached by a man offering several pounds of Europium and Samarium . His benefactor was Herbert Newby McCoy , a retired chemistry professor from the University of Chicago , who had obtained a supply of these elements from the Lindsey Light and Chemical Company , where they were a byproduct of thorium production . A few weeks later , Spedding received a package in the mail containing jars of the metals .
In 1934 , Spedding was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship , allowing him to study in Europe . To save money , Spedding and his wife travelled to Europe by heading westward across the Pacific . His intention was to study in Germany under James Franck and Francis Simon , but they fled Germany after Adolf Hitler came to power in March 1933 . Instead he went to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in England , where he was welcomed by Ralph H. Fowler . Spedding worked with John Lennard @-@ Jones , and attended lectures given by Max Born . He paid a visit to Niels Bohr in Copenhagen , and gave a lecture in Leningrad .
When Spedding returned to the United States in 1935 , the country was still in the grip of the Great Depression , and the job market had not improved . He was George Fisher Baker assistant professor at Cornell University from 1935 to 1937 . It was another temporary position , but it did allow him to work with Hans Bethe . At one point he drove out to Ohio State University hoping to find a tenure track position . The position had already been filled , but the professor of chemistry there , W. L. Evans , knew that Winfred F. ( Buck ) Coover at Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa , had a position . " I wouldn 't normally have chosen the place , " Spedding later recalled , " but I was desperate . I thought : I can go there and build up physical chemistry and when jobs really open up I can go to another school . "
Spedding took up the position as assistant professor and head of the department of physical chemistry at Iowa State College in 1937 . His efforts at building up the school were so successful that he would spend the rest of his career there , becoming a professor of chemistry in 1941 , a professor of physics in 1950 , a professor of metallurgy in 1962 , and ultimately professor emeritus in 1973 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
By February 1942 , the United States had entered World War II , and the Manhattan Project was building up . At the University of Chicago , Arthur H. Compton established its Metallurgical Laboratory . Its mission was to build nuclear reactors to create plutonium that would be used in atomic bombs . For advice on assembling the laboratory 's Chemistry Division , Compton , a physicist , turned to Herbert McCoy , who had considerable experience with isotopes and radioactive elements . McCoy recommended Spedding as an expert on the rare earth elements , which were chemically similar to the actinide series that included uranium and plutonium . Compton asked Spedding to become the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Chemistry Division .
Due to lack of space at the University of Chicago , Spedding proposed to organise part of the Chemistry Division at Iowa State College in Ames , where he had colleagues who were willing to help . It was agreed that Spedding would spend half of each week in Ames , and half in Chicago . The first problem on the agenda was to find uranium for the nuclear reactor that Enrico Fermi was proposing to build . The only uranium metal available commercially was produced by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company , using a photochemical process that produced ingots the size of a quarter that were sold for around $ 20 per gram . Edward Creutz , the head of the group responsible for fabricating the uranium , wanted a metal sphere the size of an orange for his experiments . With Westinghouse 's process , it would have cost $ 200 @,@ 000 and taken a year to produce .
The other major problem was the purity of the uranium . Impurities could act as neutron poisons and prevent a nuclear reactor from working , but the uranium oxide that Fermi wanted for his experimental reactor contained unacceptably large amounts of impurities . As a result , references published before 1942 typically listed its melting point at around 1 @,@ 800 ° C ( 3 @,@ 270 ° F ) when pure uranium metal actually melts at 1 @,@ 132 ° C ( 2 @,@ 070 ° F ) . The most effective way to purify uranium oxide in the laboratory was to take advantage of the fact that uranium nitrate is soluble in ether . Scaling this process up for industrial production was a dangerous proposition ; ether was explosive , and a factory using large quantities was likely to blow up or burn down . Compton and Spedding turned to Mallinckrodt in Saint Louis , Missouri , which had experience with ether . Spedding went over the details with Mallinckrodt 's chemical engineers , Henry V. Farr and John R. Ruhoff , on 17 April 1942 . Within a few months , sixty tons of highly pure uranium oxide was produced .
Spedding recruited two chemistry professors at Ames for his group there , Harley Wilhelm and I. B. Johns . Spedding and Wilhelm began looking for ways to create the uranium metal . At the time , it was produced in the form of a powder , and was highly pyrophoric . It could be pressed and sintered and stored in cans , but to be useful , it needed to be melted and cast . The Ames team found that molten uranium could be cast in a graphite container . Although graphite was known to react with uranium , this could be managed because the carbide formed only where the two touched .
To produce uranium metal , they tried reducing uranium oxide with hydrogen , but this did not work . They then investigated a process ( now known as the Ames process ) originally developed by J. C. Goggins and others at the University of New Hampshire in 1926 . This involved mixing uranium tetrachloride and calcium metal in a calcium oxide @-@ lined steel pressure vessel ( known as a " bomb " ) and heating it . They were able to reproduce Goggin 's results in August 1942 , and by September , the Ames Project had produced a 4 @.@ 980 @-@ kilogram ( 10 @.@ 98 lb ) ingot . Starting in July 1943 , Mallinckrodt , Union Carbide , and DuPont began producing uranium by the Ames process , and Ames phased out its own production by early 1945 . As a result , the Ames Laboratory never moved to Chicago , but Spedding was present at the University of Chicago on 2 December 1942 , to witness the first controlled nuclear chain reaction in Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 .
Throughout the war , the laboratory held regular information sessions known as " Speddinars " . In addition to its work with uranium , the Ames Laboratory produced 437 pounds ( 198 kg ) of extremely pure cerium for the cerium sulphide crucibles used by the plutonium metallurgists . Fears that world supplies of uranium were limited led to experiments with thorium , which could be irradiated to produce fissile uranium @-@ 233 . A calcium reduction process was developed for thorium , and some 4 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) was produced .
= = Later life = =
After World War II , Spedding founded the Institute for Atomic Research and the Ames Laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission . He directed the Ames Laboratory from its founding in 1947 until 1968 . It was initially established on the grounds of Iowa State College . Permanent buildings were constructed that were opened in 1948 and 1950 , and subsequently named Wilhelm Hall and Spedding Hall . Spedding was " universally acknowledged as one of the world ’ s foremost experts on the identification and separation of rare earths " . He developed an ion exchange method of separating and purifying rare earth elements using ion exchange resins . He later used ion exchange to separate isotopes of individual elements , including hundreds of grams of almost pure nitrogen @-@ 15 .
During his career , Spedding published over 260 peer @-@ reviewed papers , and held 22 patents in his own name and jointly with others . Some 88 students received their Ph.D. degree under his supervision . After his retirement in 1972 , he authored 60 books . He received the William H. Nichols Award from the American Chemical Society in 1952 , the James Douglas Gold Medal from the American Institute of Mining , Metallurgical , and Petroleum Engineers in 1961 and the Francis J. Clamer Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1969 . He was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize in chemistry , but never won . An award called the Frank H. Spedding Award is presented at the annual Rare Earth Research Conference .
Spedding suffered a stroke in November 1984 , and was hospitalised , but sent home . He died suddenly on December 15 , 1984 , and was buried in the cemetery at Iowa State University . He was survived by his wife , daughter , and three grandchildren . His papers are housed in the Special Collections Department of Iowa State University .
= Hot Tottie =
" Hot Tottie " is a song by recording artist Usher . It was written by Usher , Ester Dean , Jay @-@ Z and Polow da Don , with the latter producing it . The song features guest vocals from rapper Jay @-@ Z and background vocals by Ester Dean . It is the second single in the United States and Canada from his EP , Versus , which is an extension of his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond . The song was sent to rhythmic and urban airplay on August 9 , 2010 . " Hot Tottie " samples Big Tymers 's " Big Ballin ' " off their 1998 album How You Luv That Vol . 2 .
" Hot Tottie " is an R & B song with hip hop tones , accompanied by strobing , electronic beats . It received positive reviews , with many critics noting it as a standout from the EP . It peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and was a top ten hit on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Usher performed the song on The Early Show and on his OMG Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
The song was leaked onto the internet during late July 2010 along with the track " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " . It was originally reported to feature R & B singer Ciara . However , when the official mix of the song appeared online , Ester Dean , who sung vocals on the demo of the track , was singing the female vocal interludes . The song was released from Versus as the EP 's urban single , whereas the latter track was released as the mainstream single . " Hot Tottie " is an R & B song that includes hip hop , which is over " strobing , electronic beats " with Usher 's vocals Auto @-@ Tuned in parts . In an interview with MTV News at his World Leadership Awards in Atlanta , Usher called the song , which was already receiving rotation on radio due to a leak , " incredible " , and confirmed that the song would be on his upcoming release of Versus . On August 31 , 2010 a remix of the song , which features Lil ' Kim , was released online . Usher performed the song on an untelevised portion of his appearance on The Early Show on September 3 , 2010 , and is performing it on his OMG Tour . The original version of " Hot Tottie " with Ciara was leaked on July 15 , 2011 , with Jay @-@ Z 's verse omitted .
= = Critical reception = =
Coining the track as " sleazed @-@ up , " Andy Kellman of Allmusic noted the track as a standout from Versus . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Globe called " Hot Tottie " the essential track on the EP , and said that Jay @-@ Z " bumps up the fun factor " on the " burbling " track . Mark Edward Nero of About.com gave the song a positive review , saying that it was " a rock @-@ solid tour de force featuring Usher vocalizing how smooth he is . " Nero also commended Jay @-@ Z 's verse but said the only negative to the song was Ester Dean 's vocals which were similar to those of Rihanna . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly stated that the song is " nasty in all the right ways " , Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times says that Usher remains on the " R & B ’ s A @-@ list " with tracks like the song , calling it " as intoxicating as its namesake " .
= = Chart performance = =
Based on airplay only , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 100 . In its second week it rose to number eighty @-@ eight . In its third week , due to the release of Versus , the song 's sales elevated to number twenty @-@ five after selling 52 @,@ 000 digital downloads , and collected greatest gainer recognitions . It later peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the chart , while reaching number seventeen on the Hot 100 Airplay and twenty @-@ one on the Hot Digital Songs chart . The song reached number nine on the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number twenty @-@ seven on the US Pop Songs chart . Internationally , " Hot Tottie " peaked at number sixty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 . Although it was not released officially as a single in the UK , the song reached number 104 on the UK Singles Chart and number twenty @-@ seven on the UK R & B Chart due to sales after the release of Versus only .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Vocal recording – Studio at the Palms , Paradise , Nevada
Mixing – No Excuses Studio , Santa Monica , California
Personnel
Songwriting – Usher Raymond IV , Ester Dean , Shawn Corey Carter , Polow da Don
Production – Polow da Don
Recording – Jeremy " Jay " Stevenson
Mixing – Jeremy " Jay " Stevenson
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Versus .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= 2001 Italian Grand Prix =
The 2001 Italian Grand Prix ( formally the LXXII Gran Premio Campari d 'Italia )
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012 , the Indians installed a corkscrew @-@ shaped wind turbine atop Progressive Field , the first major league team to do so . The corkscrew – shaped wind turbine , however , was subsequently removed prior to Opening Day 2013 .
= = = Amenities = = =
The ballpark features several eateries from which spectators can watch the game . A glass @-@ enclosed multilevel restaurant named the " Terrace Club " is located along the left field foul line on the suite level . Spectators need a valid game ticket and a pass to enter to the Terrace Club . On non @-@ game days it is used for private and corporate events , such as business meetings , parties and weddings . The " Budweiser Patio " is a buffet eatery used mostly for corporate or private parties , located just behind the right field foul pole between the visitors ' bullpen and section 117 . A new children 's play area named " Kids Clubhouse " , located on the mezzanine level , opened in May 2012 . It includes arts and craft areas , a climbing wall , a mini field where children can practice sliding and fielding , and a batting cage . There are large windows where adults can watch the game from the Kids Clubhouse .
= = Awards and honors = =
2008 - named Best MLB Stadium by Sports Illustrated
= = Ballpark firsts = =
All firsts are by the Cleveland Indians unless otherwise stated
= Roar ( song ) =
" Roar " is a song by American singer Katy Perry for her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) . It was released as the lead single from the record on August 10 , 2013 . The song was written by Perry , Bonnie McKee , Dr. Luke , Max Martin , and Cirkut , and produced by the latter three . It is a power pop song , containing elements of glam rock and arena rock , with lyrics centering on standing up for oneself and self @-@ empowerment .
" Roar " received generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many appreciated its overall production , while others felt that its lyrical content contained " clichés " . The song was a commercial success , becoming Perry 's eighth non @-@ consecutive number one song on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and also topping charts in Australia , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . Additionally , it also reached the top five in most international charts , including France , Germany , Italy , Japan and Switzerland .
To promote the song , Perry performed under the Brooklyn Bridge at the closing ceremony of the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards , on The X Factor Australia , at the Sydney Opera House in late October 2013 , and on the German TV show Schlag den Raab . Grady Hall and Mark Kudsi directed the song 's music video , which features Perry trying to adapt to the jungle where she survived a plane crash , and taming a tiger . It garnered generally mixed reviews from music critics . " Roar " was nominated for Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . The song topped the charts in 14 countries and sold 12 million units .
= = Production and composition = =
The song was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios . " Roar " was recorded in four other studios : Luke 's in the Boo , Playback Recording Studio and Secret Garden Studios , all located in the state of California , as well as MXM Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . All its development took place in March 2013 . McKee told MTV that " Roar " is " kind of a ' pick yourself up and dust yourself off and keep going ' , female @-@ empowerment song " and " kind of an epiphany song . " Perry said she wrote the song after undergoing therapy , saying she was " sick of keeping all these feelings inside and not speaking up for myself " .
Musically , " Roar " is styled in power pop , and features elements of glam rock and arena rock . Throughout the song , Perry " flexes diva @-@ like vocals " , singing the lyric " Hey ! " several times in a way resemblant of The Lumineers . The song 's instrumentation is composed of " pounding " pianos and " booming " bass drums . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc. on Musicnotes.com , " Roar " is composed in the key of B ♭ major and set in a 44 time signature at a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute . Perry 's vocal range spawns from the low note B ♭ 3 to the high note E ♭ 5 , while the music follows the chord progression of B ♭ – Cm – Gm – E ♭ . The song shares the theme of empowerment with Perry 's single " Firework " . Perry described the track as a song speaking about standing up for oneself .
= = Release = =
The song 's release was announced with the release of a video teaser , entitled " Burning Baby Blue " , that saw Perry burning a blue wig . More video teasers were released onto YouTube , that showed Perry at a funeral with a coffin decorated with the singer 's famous pink and white pinwheels dress , and entering a recording booth while dressed with a " throwback " jacket featured in the single 's cover art , which was revealed on August 8 , 2013 . It features a tiger print border around Perry , who wears a blue Japanese silk sukajan jacket , with the image of a tiger printed on its back . On the same day of the song 's digital release , a lyric video for it , produced by Joe Humpay , Aya Tanimura , Tim Zimmer , and Tuan Le , was released onto YouTube . It primarily shows Perry doing daily activities such as eating breakfast , going to the bathroom , and taking a bath , while texting the lyrics of " Roar " to friends . Some words are substituted with various Emoji characters . It was target of plagiarism accusations by music producer Dillon Francis , who felt it copied the concept of instant messaging from his video entitled " Messages " .
The first video teaser for " Roar " was released on August 2 , 2013 along with an announcement that the American release was scheduled for August 12 with a subsequent release to mainstream radio on August 13 . However , the song debuted two days earlier than expected by ' leaking ' on August 10 . The UK release was originally scheduled for September 8 , but on August 30 Perry announced the release date would be moved up to September 1 .
= = Critical reception = =
Miriam Coleman from Rolling Stone appreciated the songs 's " easy poppy beat " and its " repeated refrains " , factors she believed contributed to make the song a " determined note for the new album " . James Montgomery of MTV described it as " one of the more perfect pop songs to come down the pipeline in quite a while " . Gerrick D. Kennedy from Los Angeles Times also gave a positive review , classifying " Roar " as a " sweet , poppy confection with a bit of bite " . Melinda Newman from HitFix saw the song as a " change of pace " for Perry , whilst Andrew Hampp from Billboard believed it to be a return to the style of her album One of the Boys , but criticized its tempo and its lyrics that " rarely rise above easy clichés and rhymes " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as " more of a yelp than a roar " .
= = = Controversy = = =
Upon the release of " Roar " , many accused Perry of copying Sara Bareilles ' " Brave " . When Bareilles herself was asked about the controversy between the two songs , she responded : " Katy 's a friend of mine and we 've known each other a really long time " , and was upset that there was a " negative spin on two artists that are choosing to share positive messages . " She also mentioned she had known about " Roar " before its release and stated " If I 'm not mad I don 't know why anybody else is upset " . In response to the accusations , Dr. Luke tweeted on August 14 , 2013 : " Roar was written and recorded before Brave came out . " In direct response to the attention " Brave " received as a result of the plagiarism accusations , Bareilles ' record label , Epic Records , decided to promote " Brave " to the mainstream pop radio format .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = North America = = =
On the Billboard Hot 100 , the song debuted at number 85 on the week @-@ ending August 14 , 2013 due to radio airplay . The following week , during its first week on sale , " Roar " sold 557 @,@ 000 digital copies , earning Perry the highest first @-@ week sales numbers of 2013 and also her biggest digital song sales week ever , breaking her previous record held by " Firework " , which sold 509 @,@ 000 digital copies for the week ending January 8 , 2011 . The song soared eighty @-@ three positions to number two in its second week , kept from the top spot by only Robin Thicke 's " Blurred Lines " , while becoming Perry 's twelfth top @-@ ten hit single in the United States , and her ninth consecutive single to peak within the top three on the Hot 100 . After another week at number two , " Roar " reached number one for the chart dated September 4 , 2013 , becoming Perry 's eighth number one on the Hot 100 and her ninth digital number @-@ one single , after selling 448 @,@ 000 copies . " Roar " spent a total two weeks at number one before it was surpassed by Miley Cyrus ' " Wrecking Ball " . On its seventh frame , the song moved 2 @-@ 1 ( peak audience impressions of 159 million ) and became Perry 's sixth number one on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay , as well as becoming her fastest climb to the top position .
" Roar " also reached number one on both the US Mainstream Top 40 and Adult Pop Songs . The number @-@ one position on the Pop Songs chart gave Perry her tenth number one , tying her with Rihanna for the most number ones on the airplay @-@ based chart . The number @-@ one position on the Adult Pop Songs chart also gave Perry multiple milestones ; it became her eighth chart topper , tying her with Maroon 5 and P ! nk as the act with the most number @-@ ones there . It also made the fastest ascension to the top spot ; a record previously held by Perry 's own single " California Gurls " ( 2010 ) . It also set airplay records in both of the charts , by becoming the most weekly @-@ played song in history , with 16 @,@ 065 and 5 @,@ 309 plays per week , respectively .
The song has also reached the top spot on both the Adult contemporary chart and Hot Dance Club Songs . In addition to this , the track also reached number one on both the On Demand and Streaming charts , with a weekly peak of 2 @.@ 1 million and 12 million , respectively . " Roar " surpassed digital sales of four million in its seventeenth week , faster than any other song in digital history . Its sales reached 4 @.@ 41 million by the end of 2013 , becoming the sixth best @-@ seller of the year . Perry has seven of her songs with sales more than four million , the most for any artist . By February 2014 , " Roar " had surpassed five million sales , and was Perry 's fifth song to reach that level . Perry is the only artist to have six songs go 5x Platinum . As of October 2015 , the single has sold 6 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
On August 31 , 2013 , " Roar " debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 on the strength of digital downloads . In doing so , it became only the eleventh song to debut at number one on the chart , and it also became Perry 's third number @-@ one debut , making her the artist with most number @-@ one debuts at the time . It also became Perry 's ninth Canadian Hot 100 number one , breaking the tie she shared with Rihanna for the most chart toppers . It has so far spent five non @-@ consecutive weeks atop the chart . " Roar " was also in the top of the Canadian Digital Chart for three non @-@ consecutive weeks ; there , it was Perry 's sixth number @-@ one single . In Mexico , it reached number one on the Monitor Latino English @-@ language airplay chart .
= = = Europe and Oceania = = =
In the United Kingdom , " Roar " entered at number one on the UK Singles Chart on September 8 , 2013 , selling 179 @,@ 500 copies in its first week and ending the prolonged number @-@ one run of Ellie Goulding 's " Burn " . The song became Perry 's fourth UK number @-@ one single . The single spent two weeks atop the chart before being succeeded by " Talk Dirty " by Jason Derulo ft . 2 Chainz . The song also debuted atop the adjacent UK chart of Scotland and the Irish Singles Chart . It has been certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting sales of over 600 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . " Roar " was the 6th best @-@ selling song of 2013 in the United Kingdom and has sold a total of 1 @.@ 02 million copies as of January 2015 , thus making Katy Perry one of only 18 artists ever to achieve more than one million sales in the UK , where it became her second single after " Firework " to sell over a million copies .
The song reached number four on the Italian Singles Chart , where it was eventually certified Platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry , for sales of over 15 @,@ 000 digital copies . In Spain , the single peaked at number five on the sales chart , according to PROMUSICAE . In Austria , it became a number @-@ one on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , while in Germany and Switzerland it reached numbers two and three , respectively . In the Belgian Ultratop 50 , " Roar " peaked at number five in Flanders and number seven in Wallonia . In France the song peaked at number six . The single also reached the top five in Norway . " Roar " found placings among the top @-@ ten of the airplay charts in Croatia , Czech Republic , Hungary , and Slovakia . Within the unofficial digital charts of Greece , Luxembourg and Portugal , compiled outside of the respective countries by Billboard , " Roar " peaked at number two in both the Greece and Luxembourg charts and at number eight in the Portuguese chart .
" Roar " entered at the top of the New Zealand Singles Chart after just four days on sale , becoming Perry 's ninth number @-@ one single , second top debut and her eleventh top ten . After less than five weeks , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand certified the single quadruple @-@ platinum , denoting sales exceeding 60 @,@ 000 units . The song is listed as the 48th best @-@ selling single of all time in New Zealand , making Perry the only singer to have the most entries , which including " California Gurls " , " Firework " and " E.T .. In Australia , the song debuted at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart , before climbing to number one the following week ; thus becoming Perry 's third number one single in Australia . In less than a month , Australian Recording Industry Association certified the single two @-@ times platinum , and as of October 2013 , the song received a quadruple @-@ platinum certification , denoting sales of 280 @,@ 000 copies . " Roar " has been certified 11 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and has sold 630 @,@ 000 copies in Australia alone . " Roar " peaked at number two in the Venezuelan Pop Rock Chart . On the Gaon Chart of South Korea , it reached number one on the international chart . In Japan , the song entered the Japan Hot 100 at number seven . The reached number one in both the Media Forest airplay chart in Israel , and the Lebanese Singles Chart . Similarly , in South Africa , the song peaked at number two on the EMA airplay chart .
In Russia , on the Tophit Weekly General Airplay chart the song debuted at number 395 on August 25 , 2013 and it has climbed the chart , peaking so far at number five on November 17 , 2013 . On the Top Hit Weekly Audience Choice chart , it peaked at number three on the issue dated October 27 , 2013 . According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , " Roar " sold 9 @.@ 9 million units ( combined sales and track @-@ equivalent streams ) globally throughout 2013 and was the fifth best @-@ selling single of the year .
= = Music video = =
Filming of the official music video for " Roar " began on August 7 , 2013 and ended on August 9 , 2013 . The video was released on September 5 , 2013 , directed by Grady Hall and Mark Kudsi , and filmed at the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden . A 21 @-@ second teaser of the video had previously been uploaded on August 25 , 2013 . Nokia posted a two @-@ minute behind the scenes video on September 4 , 2013 . On November 14 , 2013 , an extended 17 @-@ minute behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video was uploaded to Perry 's official VEVO account .
= = = Synopsis = = =
At the beginning of the video , Katy and her boyfriend ( played by actor and model Brian Nagel ) have crashed their plane in the middle of the jungle . Katy shows signs of worry , while her boyfriend takes pictures of himself and dumps his bags on her to explore . As it turns to night , they wander through the jungle as he throws things back at her . Suddenly , he is attacked by a tiger and Katy dumps her bags and runs off screaming . She approaches a lake and is almost bitten by a crocodile when she puts her hand in the water . She sits on a rock and ends up covered in tarantulas . As she looks into the lake while singing the chorus , she sees a reflection of a tiger instead of herself . Behind her in the darkness there are dozens of pairs of blinking eyes , but they are revealed to be fireflies which fly around her before forming an image of a roaring tiger in the sky .
Presumably a few days later , Katy has since made friends with a monkey and uses her stiletto heel to form a spear . She uses it to shoot a banana , which she gives to the monkey . In another scene , she bathes in the lake , with the help of an elephant who sprays her with water from the lake using its trunk . Katy helps a crocodile by brushing its teeth using a toothbrush she has salvaged , and tries to reach her clothes which have been taken by the elephant . At night , she holds a torch and explores a cave . Inside , she watches an animated drawing on the wall in which humans try to kill a tiger with fire ; attempting to burn it as it grows stronger and shooting spears which it sends firing back towards them . The next morning , Katy emerges from the cave , wearing a leopard @-@ print bikini top , a grass skirt , laced up legs and bare feet , displaying a boost of confidence and holding the spear she made earlier . She stands on top of a waterfall , overlooking the jungle , and then swings across the sky on a vine .
With the help of the monkey , Katy builds a cat toy which she uses to distract the tiger who ate her boyfriend earlier in the video . She lures it into an area of the jungle , and traps it inside . She comes face @-@ to @-@ face with the tiger and the two of them roar at each other , until her roar tames the tiger as it sits in front of her submissively . Afterwards , she is shown sitting on a giant grass throne , wearing a flower crown as the rest of the jungle animals sit around her , including the tiger , monkey and elephant . The tiger is shown wearing a collar that says " Kitty Purry " , a reference to her real @-@ life cat of the same name . Katy takes selfies with the monkey on her boyfriend 's phone , applies lipstick made from berry juice , and gives the elephant a pedicure . She then awakens from sleeping in the plane , leading the viewer to think all the previous events have just been a dream , but walks out of the plane still in the jungle , stretching her arms and yawning with the animals sitting around her .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the music video received mixed reviews from critics . Idolator contributors Robbie Daw , Sam Lansky , and Carl Willott gave it mostly lackluster reviews . Daw considered that the release of such a " safe " video was a disappointment for Perry and expressed eagerness to her next single ; while Lansky likened its " edg [ iness ] " to that of a " woman 's antiperspirant commercial " ; and the latter divided the video in what he considered to be of " good cheesy " and " bad cheesy " : he highlighted the fake set , Perry 's acting and the ending , but criticized the CGI , which he deemed " dopey " , the product placement and Perry 's " overly literal roar @-@ off with a tiger " . The only writer for the website that gave the visual a favorable review was Mike Wass , who appreciated the " campy element [ s ] " in it , while noting that it drew inspiration from the music video for " Doctor Jones " by the dance @-@ pop group Aqua . In total , the reviews had an average score of approximately 6 out of 10 .
James Montgomery from MTV believed that the video drew inspiration from Sheena , Queen of the Jungle and stated the video did not take itself too seriously , describing it as " camp " . Slant Magazine writer Sal Cinquemani was neutral about the video , noting that although Prism was being billed as a departure for Perry , both " Roar " and its video were not . Perry was criticized by PETA for using exotic animals in the video for " Roar " . Merrilee Burke from PETA stated : " Animals used for entertainment endure horrific cruelty and suffer from extreme confinement and violent training methods . " Burke also declared that the animals involved in the music video were allegedly provided by a company who was criticized by US officials . Perry responded by obtaining a letter from the American Humane Association , which had representatives present at the three @-@ day shoot . It stated that " After reviewing the reports , we believe that the Guidelines for the Safe Use of Animals in Filmed Media were followed and that no animal was harmed in the making of this music video " .
On July 7 , 2015 , the music video for " Roar " became the fourth video to reach 1 billion views on Vevo , making Perry the first artist in history to have two music videos with 1 billion views . The music video for " Roar " is the thirteenth most viewed YouTube video of all time , receiving over 1 @.@ 46 billion views as of July 2016 .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
On September 16 , 2013 , the song was unexpectedly used during player introductions by the Cincinnati Bengals in their home opener against the rival Pittsburgh Steelers on Monday Night Football , to tie in the song 's jungle theme with the team 's nickname . Throughout the game , the song was also played sporadically during game breaks . Although the Bengals won the game 20 @-@ 10 , the song drew much criticism by Bengals fans and even some of the team 's players . One Bengals fan even told the Wall Street Journal that Steeler fans sitting near him were laughing at the Bengals fans throughout the game ; the Steelers themselves have used the Styx song " Renegade " frequently at Heinz Field since 2001 . Four days after the game , the team publicly apologized , announcing that while the song would not be nixed from Paul Brown Stadium 's playlist completely , the team would use a hard rock or classic rock song for player introductions moving forward .
" Roar " was also used as the theme song of world number 1 tennis player Serena Williams during the 2014 US Open Championships . Williams , dressed in a matching leopard @-@ themed dress , won the championship .
Perry first performed " Roar " at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards , under the Brooklyn Bridge , during the ceremony 's closing . She performed the song on Saturday Night Live on October 12 , 2013 . While hosting We Can Survive : Music for Life on October 23 , 2013 , she performed the song with Sara Bareilles , Bonnie McKee , Ellie Goulding , Kacey Musgraves , and duo Tegan and Sara . She also performed the song on the Australian version of The X Factor on October 28 , 2013 . Perry then performed the song the following day at the Sydney Opera House . She performed the song on German TV show Schlag den Raab on November 16 , 2013 . On December 14 , 2013 , Perry performed " Roar " at the NRJ Music Awards , but suffered technical difficulties which resulted in her performance being stopped by the host halfway through who asked for it to be restarted . This led many to believe that Perry had initially been lip @-@ syncing the performance . NRJ later released an apology to Perry , stating that she had been singing live but that the wrong mix of the song was played over her live vocals , which resulted in her being visually out of sync with the backing track .
On February 1 , 2015 , Perry performed the song during the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show .
= = Cover versions and usage in media = =
In 2013 , the song was covered on the episode " A Katy or a Gaga " of the TV series Glee . The song is also featured in the film Horrible Bosses 2 . It has become the new entrance music for Amanda Nunes .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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the use of chemistry :
" [ I ] have a pronounced kink for television work and devote most of my spare time in experimenting that branch of the science . Have a deep @-@ rooted conviction that chemistry is going to provide the solution and am working along those lines . "
The McKenzies had a mutual interest in tropical fish and had an enormous fish pond in the front yard . She spoke of heating water electrically to house tropical fish at home in the early 1920s , and of having given talks on radio 2FC about tropical fish in the days when she was doing electrical contracting work . In January 1933 the American journal Aquariana published an article written by McKenzie concerning ' Some interesting inhabitants of Sydney seashores ' , in which she recommended keeping sea horses in a salt @-@ water tank .
= = Women 's technical education = =
In the 1930s , McKenzie turned her attention increasingly to teaching other women about electricity and radio . She had observed the need over years of working in the field herself . In 1925 , she told the Australian Woman 's Mirror : " [ T ] here are such a lot of women experimenters [ amongst my customers ] that I would like to form a Women 's Wireless Club . ' In 1931 she told a Sunday Sun reporter that she wanted to see a course of lectures on domestic radio and electricity established in girls ' schools and technical colleges . The following year she took matters into her own hands , opening a Women 's Radio College on Phillip Street in 1932 . She persuaded employers to take on some of her trainees , as one of them later recalled :
During the Depression I joined Mrs Mac 's electrical school in Phillip Street . It was the first time girls were involved with electrical circuits , Morse and making radio sets . Later Mrs Mac decided it was time to use our skills in industry , so she persuaded Airzone Ltd to take one of us ( me ) on trial in their radio section . Soon the others followed from the school , and we started the component parts section , and we were absorbed into many other sections .
McKenzie believed that electricity could save women from domestic drudgery , writing that ... " To see every woman emancipated from the " heavy " work of the household by the aid of electricity is in itself a worthy object . " To this end in 1934 she founded an educational initiative , the Electrical Association for Women ( EAW ) at 170 King Street in the centre of Sydney , later moving a few blocks away to 9 Clarence Street .
Concerned with safety when using electrical appliances , and no doubt drawing on her own experience in receiving an accidental electric shock that knocked her out for an hour , McKenzie delivered at least one talk on resuscitation , advising that conventional resuscitation should proceed for up to thee @-@ quarters of an hour following electrocution . She knew of one case where recovery took 4 hours .
By 1936 , McKenzie had sold the Wireless Shop , and was busy at the Electrical Association for Women . She gave electric cooking demonstrations in the EAW kitchen , which was fitted out with show electrical appliances by the Sydney County Council . She compiled the EAW Cookery Book , Australia 's first " all @-@ electric " cookery book , which ran into seven editions and remained in print until 1954 . She wrote an illustrated book for children about electrical safety called The Electric Imps in 1938 .
In July 1938 , McKenzie was one of 80 women in attendance at the inaugural meeting of the Australian Women 's Flying Corps ( later known as the Australian Women 's Flying Club ) held at the Feminist Club of New South Wales at 77 King Street . McKenzie was appointed treasurer and instructor in Morse code to the organisation .
= = Women 's Emergency Signalling Corps = =
In 1939 McKenzie established the Women 's Emergency Signalling Corps ( WESC ) in her Clarence Street rooms – known affectionately as " Sigs " . Her original idea was to train women in telegraphy so that they could replace men working in civilian communications , thereby freeing those skilled men up to serve in the war . By the time war broke out , 120 women had been trained to instructional standard .
= = Women 's Royal Australian Naval Service = =
McKenzie campaigned energetically to have some of her female trainees accepted into the Air Force and Navy as telegraphists . She encountered a great deal of official resistance . In 1940 she wrote to the Minister of the Navy , former Prime Minister WM ( Billy ) Hughes , saying " I would like to offer the services of our Signalling Corps , if not acceptable as telegraphists then at least as instructors . " Despite her suggestion being dismissed , some time later McKenzie and six trainees were provided third @-@ class train tickets to Melbourne to meet with the Naval Board for testing .
In early January 1941 , Commander Newman , the Navy 's Director of Signals and Communications , visited the WESC headquarters on Clarence Street to test McKenzie 's trainees . Finding they were highly proficient , he recommended the Navy admit them . Hughes still took some convincing . After McKenzie threatened to take her offer to the Air Force instead , the urgent need for trained telegraphists prevailed , and on 21 April a Navy Office letter authorised the entry of women into the Navy . This was the beginning of the Women 's Royal Australian Naval Service – the WRANS . The minister 's condition was that " no publicity ... be accorded this break with tradition ' .
On 28 April 1941 , McKenzie accompanied 14 of her WESC trainees ( twelve telegraphists and two domestic helpers ) . They had their medical test on 25 April and arrived at HMAS Harman in Canberra on 28 April 1941 . The women were dressed in their green WESC uniform which had been designed by McKenzie herself – it was several months before a female Navy uniform was ready . Francis Proven became WRANS number 1 . From this initial intake of 14 , the WRANS ranks expanded to some 2 @,@ 600 by the end of the war , representing about 10 per cent of the entire Royal Australian Naval force at the time . All told , McKenzie trained about 3 @,@ 000 women , one @-@ third of whom went into the services . Many others remained at the Clarence Street school as instructors .
In May 1941 , the Air Force appointed McKenzie as an honorary flight officer of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force , so she could legitimately instruct Air Force personnel . This was the only official recognition McKenzie received during the war for her efforts .
= = Postwar wireless training = =
Violet McKenzie helped with rehabilitation after the war , keeping her school open for as long as there was a need for instruction in wireless signalling . In the postwar years , she trained men from the merchant navy , pilots in commercial aviation , and others needing the trade qualification known as a " signaller 's ticket " . In 1948 , a reporter from Sky Script visit to the school and described the scene , and the diversity of students :
At a table in a corner recently there were six elementary trainees : One was a Chinese quartermaster , another a half @-@ Burmese . Two were Americans … One … an aircraft skipper down from New Guinea to get his wireless ticket ; and the other chap a ship 's officer with the same objective . In another corner there 's an ANA commander preparing for his 20 @-@ word @-@ a @-@ minute exam : an English ship 's wireless officer ... an ex @-@ RAF Wing @-@ Commander ... an Indian Navy man ... [ and ] groups of airline ' types ' also on the job .
McKenzie told a journalist that , after the war , " All the airmen came back and wanted to join Qantas , but they needed to build up their Morse speed and learn to use the modern equipment . " The Department of Civil Aviation fitted out a room at the school with transmitters , receivers and radio compass so that pilots could train for their wireless ticket at the school . From 1948 , McKenzie held a First Class Flight Radio Telephony Operator License .
One of the ex @-@ RAAF airmen who retrained for a civilian career with McKenzie wrote :
Being unemployed , we spent almost all of each weekday at the school , so if a tuition fee had been applicable , Mrs Mac would have earned a tidy sum of money . That , of course , was not her way of doing things . She required no payment for the training she provided , and I suspect that she was quite out of pocket over the whole affair ... It would be true to say that a great number of the pilots whose futures were finally fulfilled in airlines in Australia owe a deal to Mrs Mac ... There was no other school operating in Sydney at the time , providing Morse training to potential airline pilots , and no other school then or thereafter giving such training completely free of charge .
Famous aviators who trained for their wireless ticket at McKenzie 's school include Patrick Gordon Taylor and Cecil Arthur Butler . McKenzie also trained Mervyn Wood , later Commissioner of Police in New South Wales , and the principals of the Navigation Schools at both the Melbourne and Sydney Technical Colleges .
According to a People magazine profile of McKenzie written in January 1953 , McKenzie received an unceremonious notice from the owners of 10 Clarence Street to quit the premises . The Sands Directory indicates that she moved her operation briefly to No 6 Wharf at Circular Quay in 1953 , before retiring to her home at Greenwich Point in 1954 . McKenzie wrote that she closed the school when the airlines established their own school and the government added a signals training section to the Navigation School at the Technical College . She continued to help the occasional pupil with special difficulties at her home .
= = Later life = =
= = = Correspondence with Einstein = = =
In early 1949 McKenzie started writing to Albert Einstein . Her first letter to him wished him a speedy recovery from recent illness . Two of her letters are held in the Einstein archives in Jerusalem . It is clear from the second letter that he wrote back to her at least once . Some accounts claim that McKenzie corresponded regularly with Einstein for as long as 15 years before his death in 1955 , but the documentary record suggests such reports exaggerate the extent of the correspondence . She also sent him several gifts over the years including shells ( for his daughter ) that airmen would collect across the Pacific on her request and a boomerang which had been brought to her from Central Australia by an airline pilot . She wrote that , " Some of your mathematical friends might like to plot its flight ! " There are other reports that she sent him a didgeridoo , and a recording of didgeridoo music when he replied that he couldn 't work out how to play the instrument .
= = = Awards and honours = = =
On 8 June 1950 , McKenzie was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for her work with the WESC . In 1957 she was elected a Fellow of the Australian Institute of Navigation . In 1964 she became Patron of the Ex @-@ WRANS Association . In 1979 she was made a Member of the Royal Naval Amateur Radio Society . In 1980 a plaque celebrating her " skills , character and generosity " was unveiled at the Missions to Seamen Mariners ' Church , Flying Angel House . The Church has since relocated to 320 Sussex St , where the plaque can be seen in the garden .
= = = Final years = = =
Violet McKenzie was nine years older than her husband Cecil , but she outlived him by 23 years . After his death in 1958 , she shared her house for a time with Cecil 's sister Jean , a primary school teacher . In May 1977 , after a stroke paralysed her right side and confined her to a wheelchair , McKenzie moved to the nearby Glenwood Nursing Home . She died peacefully in her sleep on 23 May 1982 . At her funeral service , held at the Church of St Giles in Greenwich , 24 serving WRANS formed a Guard of Honour . McKenzie was cremated at the Northern Suburbs Crematorium . The June 1982 edition of the newsletter
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pillar with an arched top , and to the right of each pillar a hand raised above the elbow , with an open palm , signifies Sati 's blessing . While three panels were plain , the other memorials were sculpted . All of them are worn out , but one of them hints that its subject may be the immolation of Sati on her husband 's funeral pyre .
Icon
The Ganesha form worshipped here is called Girijatmaja ( Sanskrit : गिरिजात ् मज ) . The name is either interpreted as " mountain @-@ born " or as " Atmaja of Girija " , the son of Parvati , who herself is daughter of the mountain Himavan , a personification of the mountains of Himalayas . The features of the Ganesha icon , seen on the back wall of the cave , are the least distinct vis @-@ a @-@ vis the other Ashtavinayak temples . Though the temple faces the inauspicious south , - according to a local tradition - the deity faces north , with his back to his worshipper and his face visible on the other side of the mountain . The Peshwa rulers even tried in vain to locate the face of Ganesha on the other side . The central icon was covered with brass @-@ plated wooden armour , given as a gift by Junnar . Brahmins , The armour is not present currently . After it was removed , Ganesha could be seen with his trunk turned to the left side , facing east , with one of his eyes visible . The icon is covered with sindoor and is directly formed / sculpted on the stone wall of the cave .
Like all Ashtavinayaka temples , the central Ganesha image is believed to be svayambhu ( self @-@ existent ) , a naturally occurring stone formation resembling an elephant @-@ face .
= = = Legend = = =
According to the Ganapatya scripture Ganesha Purana , Ganesha incarnated as Mayuresvara or Mayureshwar ( Mayūreśvara ) , who had six arms and a white complexion . His mount was a peacock . He was born to Shiva and Parvati in the Treta yuga , for the purpose of killing the demon Sindhu .
Once Parvati ( Girija ) asked her husband Shiva who he was mediating on . He said he was mediating on " the supporter of the entire universe " - Ganesha , and initiated Parvati with the Ganesha Mantra " Gam " . Desiring to have a son , Parvati underwent austerities meditating on Ganesha , for twelve years at Lenyadri . Pleased by her penance , Ganesha blessed her with the boon that he will be born as her son . Accordingly , on the fourth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month Bhadrapada ( Ganesh chaturthi day ) , Parvati worshipped a clay image of Ganesha , which came alive . Thus , Ganesha was born to Parvati at Lenyadri . Later , he was named Gunesha by Shiva . Shiva gave him a boon that whosoever remembers him before starting a job , will successfully complete that task . For 15 years Gunesha grew up at Lenyadri . Sindhu , who knew that his death would be at the hands of Gunesha , sent demons like Krur , Balasur , Vyomasur , Kshemma , Kushal , and many more , to kill Gunesha , but all of them were instead killed by him . At the age of six , the architect @-@ god Vishwakarma worshipped Gunesha and endowed him with the weapons Pasha ( noose ) , Parashu ( axe ) , Ankusha ( hook ) and Padma ( Lotus ) . Once , little Gunesha knocked an egg from a mango tree , from which emerged a peacock . Gunesha mounted the peacock and assumed the name Mayuresvara . Mayuresvara later killed Sindhu and his army @-@ generals at Morgaon , the most important Ashtavinayaka temple .
= = = Worship = = =
Lenyadri is one of the eight revered Ganesha temples collectively called Ashtavinayaka . While some believe that order of visiting the temples in an Ashtavinayaka pilgrimage is irrelevant , Lenyadri is usually visited as the 6th temple .
The caves including the temple lie under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India . Sardar Deshpande is the priest in charge of the temple 's activities . He does not stay in Lenyadri . The priests there claim to be Yajurvedi Brahmins . The festivals of Ganesh Jayanti and Ganesh Chaturthi are celebrated in the temple , when pilgrims crowd all Ashtavinayak temples .
= = Other viharas ( monk dwellings ) = =
Cave 1
Cave 1 is divided into four parts : a veranda , a middle room , a cell , and a half cell . The veranda has a bench along the right wall . Its front possibly had two quadrangular pillars , traces of one are seen around the ceiling . A rock beam was present over the pillars , above the beam ribs and a rail pattern could have existed . In a recess below the veranda is an earth @-@ filled cistern . A door with a small window to the left leads into the middle room . The middle room has a bench along the right wall . Towards the back of the middle room , to the left , is the half cell and to the right the cell . The half @-@ cell has a bench along the right wall and to the left , has a square window connecting it to cave 2 . A door with grooves for fitting a wooden frame , leads into the cell which has a bench along its right wall .
Cave 2
Cave 2 is similar to cave 1 in design . The veranda has two pillars and two pilasters , a bench between each pillar and pilaster with curtains in the back , which have a rail pattern . Over the pillars rests the rail @-@ patterned rock beam , above which is the ceiling . Parts of the pillars and pilasters are broken . In front over the beam project rock imitations of rafters . A doorway with grooves for a wooden frame , leads into a middle room , with a bench along the left wall . The position of the hall @-@ cell and cell are exchanged with respect to cave 1 design . Each has a bench .
Cave 3
Cave 3 has an open veranda and a cell . The veranda has a bench along the back wall . A door leads to a cell , which has a seat in a left recess . In front of the recess , below the seat , are vertical bands . Between caves 2 and 3 there is a seat in the front , in a recess .
Cave 4
Cave 4 has an open veranda and a cell . The veranda has a bench , along the back wall . A grooved door leads to a cell , which has a bench along the right wall . A broken window is to the left of door and to its right , a small hole , which could have been used to wash feet before entering the cell .
Cave 5
Cave 5 is located 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) lower to left of cave 4 . It is divided into 3 parts : veranda , a middle hall and seven cells of varying size , three in the back wall and two in each side wall . Thus it is known as a saptagarbha layana ( seven cell dwelling ) . The veranda had two pillars and two pilasters with pot capitals of the Satakarni period ( B.C. 90 @-@ A.D. 300 ) , of which only the right broken pilaster and a trace of the base of the right pillar remain . In front of the veranda , an open court with two steps lead to the veranda . To the right of the court is a cistern . In the back wall of the veranda , to the left of the door to the middle hall , close under the broken verandah ceiling , is a single line inscription , flanked by the Buddhist trident in the beginning and swastika at the end . It is translated as : " A meritorious gift of a seven @-@ celled cave and cistern by a guild of corn @-@ dealers . " The door also has windows on both its sides . Throughout the middle hall in the front of the cells is a bench . A bench is also built in the back wall of the cells .
Cave 8
Cave 8 is a difficult @-@ to @-@ reach dwelling . It consists of a veranda with a cell and a half cell in its back wall , both entered through the veranda . The cell has a broken door , a small window , benched recess and a peg hole . The half cell has an open front and a bench at the back .
Cave 9
Cave 9 located to the right of Cave 8 , can be entered via the latter 's veranda . Cave 9 has its own veranda and a hall . The veranda has four Satakarni @-@ period , broken pillars . The hall has a larger central door - with windows on either side - and a side door , both having grooves for wooden frames . The purpose of this hall is unknown and speculated to be a school or study .
Cave 10
Cave 10 is located at a higher level than cave 9 and is difficult to reach as its front is broken . An open veranda with a broken ceiling and floor leads to a middle room through a grooved broken door , which has windows on either side . The right wall of the hall has a recess with a seat . A cell to the left of the room has a seat in a recess . A door from the cell leads to a half @-@ cell which has a recess and seat . Traces of painting are seen on the ceiling . Outside the veranda to the left is a cistern .
Cave 11
Cave 11 is difficult to reach with a broken front and a hall . To the left of a hall is a cell , lower in height than the hall . The hall has a grooved doorway and a recess with a seat at the back . Outside the hall is a view seat . The cave bears traces of paint .
Cave 12
Cave 12 is a small dwelling entered by a door from the veranda of cave 11 . It has its own open veranda , which has a partly broken floor and ceiling and recessed benches on the left and right of the door to the middle room . The middle room has a small window to the left of the door and a seat recess in its right wall . In the back wall of the middle room to the left is a half cell - which has a seat recess - and a cell with a grooved door . The floor of the cave has a coating of cement , while the ceiling of the middle room bears painted concentric circles .
Cave 13
Cave 13 on a slightly higher level than cave 12 , is a small dwelling with an open court and from 2 steps lead to a veranda . To the right of the court is a cistern . The veranda has a bench along its right wall . The front of the veranda has 2 benches , flanked by a plain eight @-@ sided pillar and pilaster ; some remnants of these survive . On the right pilaster is a double crescent ornament . A grooved door leads to a middle room , which has a bench along the right wall and seat recess to the left . A window is to the left of door . In the back wall of the middle room a cell ( left ) - with a grooved bench and a bench - and a half cell ( right ) are seen . The ceiling has traces of painting .
Cave 15
Cave 15 is a small dwelling consisting of a cell with an unproved doorway and a veranda . Though the side walls of the cave are still preserved , the ceiling is half broken .
Cave 16
Cave 16 is a small dwelling , on a slightly higher level above cave 15 . It has a cell with a bench along its right wall and a veranda , which leads to the cell through a door . The side walls as well as a part of the ceiling are broken .
Cave 17
Cave 17 comprises a series of three small dwellings located along a row with a shared veranda . The first dwelling has a doorway flanked by broken windows on either side , leading to a middle room . The back room of the middle dwelling has a cell to the right and a half cell to the left . A window is located to left of door to the cell . The cell also has traces of painting . The half cell has a bench . The second dwelling has a middle room , a half cell to the left , and a cell , reached from the right of the half cell . The middle room has a bench . The half cell has a recess in its back wall , along with a bench . A grooved door leads from the half @-@ cell to the cell , which also has a bench . A window in the right cell overlooks in to the middle room . In front of the doorway is a bench . The third and largest of the three dwellings consists of a middle hall . At the back wall of the hall there are two cells and two seat recesses . Along the right and rear walls runs a bench . The right cell as well as the left cell have grooved doorways , a window to the left of the doorway and a bench along each of their rear walls . In front of the hall door is a bench . In front of the broken veranda are holes for fixing wooden pillars . To the left of the veranda are two cisterns . Between cave 17 and cave 18 , there are three other cisterns . In the recess of the first cistern , an inscription reads translated : " A meritorious gift of a cistern by Saghaka a goldsmith , son of Kudira of Kalyana . " Another inscription in the recess of the second cistern reads translated : " A meritorious gift of a cistern by Lachhinika ( wife ) of Torika the Na daka [ and ] Nadabalika , wife of Isimulasami . "
Cave 18
Cave 18 is a dining hall with a front wall and a grooved doorway , on either side of which are windows . A bench runs along the back and side walls . The passage to the hall has 3 broken steps and an open court in the front . A cistern is located to the left of the court .
Cave 19
Cave 19 is a cell without a front wall and a bench runs along the left wall . The ceiling shows signs of a dressed stone or wooden screen from the right wall to the end of the bench . To the right is a small cell in the same roof , probably connected with cave 19 . The small cell has a bench along its right wall and the grooved doorway . The cave has two cisterns .
Cave 20
Cave 20 is a small dwelling , hard to reach as the front is broken . To the right is a passage and to the left a cell with a bench along the entire left wall .
Cave 21
Cave 21 is approached through a small crevice from cave 20 , in the absence of any direct approach . Its living space has a veranda of fairly large size . There is also an inner cell with a grooved door frame . Seating benches have been cut into shallow spaces both in the cell and in the veranda .
Cave 22
Cave 22 adjoins cave 21 on the left and it was also a dwelling unit with a bench for the entire length of the back wall . A window from this hall overlooks another smaller room . An entry through a grooved door gives access to a long corridor and in the back wall of which is an inscription that discloses the name of the donor and the monastic order .
Cave 23
Cave 23 has two dwelling units with a long passage with shallow niches with seating provisions on the left wall . A door provides links to the rooms . A 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) niche in the back wall between the two rooms gives no clue of its purpose .
Cave 24
Cave 24 is a long cave with difficult access that leads into a cistern with seating arrangements in the niches . There is a door access to the passage , which also has benches for seating .
Cave 25
Cave 25 is longer than cave 24 with several small and big rooms . These rooms also have seating arrangements in niches which display irregular excavations denoting poor condition of the rock , which probably stopped further work on this cave .
Cave 26
This is plain cave located below cave 6 , which is a chaitya ( chapel ) cave .
= = Chaityas ( chapels ) = =
Cave 6
Cave 6 is the main chaitya @-@ griha of the Lenyadri caves and one of the earliest examples of a Hinayana chaitya @-@ griha . Its plan is similar to the Ajanta Caves chaitya @-@ griha , though smaller in size . It has a veranda , pillars and pilasters with animal @-@ capitals , and a shrine with 5 steps at the entrance . The shrine hall is entered by a plain and a socketed @-@ door measuring 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in width and 2 @.@ 79 metres ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) in height . The hall measures 13 @.@ 3 metres ( 44 ft ) in length ; 6 @.@ 7 metres ( 22 ft ) in width and 7 metres ( 23 ft ) in height . It has a row of five pillars and one pilaster on each side of the chaitya or Dagoba or stupa ( central relic @-@ shrine ) , located at the rear of the hall . The Satakarni period pillars begin with a four @-@ plated pyramid structure , then a waterpot base , followed by an eight @-@ sided shaft , above a reversed pot , then a capital in five plates , and on the top the amalaka or cogwheel pattern . The capital has animal figures like lions , elephants , a sphinx and tigers . Parts of the pillar are broken . Behind the relic @-@ shrine , are six eight @-@ sided pillars , arranged in a curve . " The stupa consists of a drum with a moulding below and railing above , a globular dome and a corbelled ( with " a projection jutting out from a wall to support a structure above it " ) dome with a railing at the base . " The stupa has Buddhist tridents carved on it . A hole is carved for fixing garlands in the front and 5 holes on the top probably to fix a central wooden umbrella and side flags . A 2nd century , swastika @-@ flanked inscription on the back wall of the veranda translates : " A meritorious gift of a chapel cave by the distinguished Sulasadata , son of Heranika of Kalyana [ modern Kalyan near Mumbai ] . "
Between caves 5 and 6 , on higher level , is an excavation originally intended either for a dwelling or for a seat , but converted into a cistern following discovery of a rock @-@ fault . On its left side is a bench .
Cave 14
This cave , also a chaitya @-@ griha , has a flat roof . However , it has no pillars in the hall that measures 6 @.@ 75 metres ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) in length ; 3 @.@ 93 metres ( 12 @.@ 9 ft ) in width and 4 @.@ 16 metres ( 13 @.@ 6 ft ) in height . It has a pillared veranda ; pillars are in octagonal shape . The stupa is in three steps with a base of 2 @.@ 6 metres ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) diameter . The rim has a railing design surrounded by a cylindrical drum with “ a square harmika with railing pattern and an inverted stepped pyramidal abacus . ” A carved chhatri covers the ceiling . The pillars of the veranda consist of octagonal shafts resting on ghata base over a stepped pedestal . An inverted kalasha adorns the top , which also has a corbelled abacus . Inscription on the back wall of the veranda dates the cave to the 2nd century A.D. The inscription translates as : " A meritorious gift of a chapel cave given by ' nanda , a son of Tapasa an Upasaka , and grandson of Kapila an Upasaka . "
= = Unnumbered Caves = =
On another spur of the same Lenyadri hill , there are four more caves ( not numbered ) that face south @-@ south west and are cut into precipitous hill slopes . Based on their unfinished conditions , they are interpreted as early caves . The details are : a small chaitya with a relic @-@ shrine and a door , with unfinished irregular rock faces . The entrance is decorated with ornamentation that depict relic @-@ shrine , a lotus flower and geometrical patterns ; another is an inaccessible cave with two rooms , a well , and stone beds in three adjoining rooms with an incomplete relic @-@ shrine in low relief ; two other adjoining caves have a chapel and a front veranda .
= Beyond : Two Souls =
Beyond : Two Souls is an interactive drama action @-@ adventure video game for the PlayStation 3 home video game console , created by French game developer Quantic Dream and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . It was released in October of 2013 . The game features Jodie Holmes , one of two player characters . The other is an incorporeal entity named Aiden : a separate soul linked to Jodie since birth . Jodie , who is portrayed by actress Ellen Page , possesses supernatural powers through her psychic link to Aiden , growing from adolescence to adulthood while learning to control Aiden and the powers they share . Willem Dafoe co @-@ stars as Nathan Dawkins , a researcher in the Department of Paranormal Activity and Jodie 's surrogate @-@ father @-@ figure . The actors in the game worked during the year @-@ long project in Quantic Dream 's Paris studio to perform on @-@ set voice acting and motion capture acting .
Despite being a video game , Beyond : Two Souls premiered at the 2013 Tribeca Film Festival , marking only the second time the film festival recognised a video game . David Cage , writer and director of the game , explained that game development studios should provide " interactive storytelling " that can be played by everyone , including non @-@ gamers . The game received polarized critical reception upon its release . Sales reached over one million copies worldwide by the end of 2013 , two months after the game 's release . A PlayStation 4 version was released as both a standalone title in November 2015 and in the Quantic Dream Collection with Heavy Rain , in March 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Beyond : Two Souls is an interactive drama action @-@ adventure game , requiring the player to move and guide the character into interactions with objects and other non @-@ player characters in the scene to progress the story . The player primarily controls Jodie through the in @-@ game environments . At almost any time , however , the player ( or second player during a two @-@ player game ) can switch to control Aiden instead . Aiden , as an incorporeal entity , exists permanently in noclip mode and can move through walls , ceilings , and other obstacles ; however , he is limited to moving only within a certain radius around Jodie due to their spiritual tethering .
While playing as Jodie , the game mechanics include interactive objects marked with a white dot , which can be interacted with by tilting the controller stick in its direction . If Jodie must perform a specific action , icons pop up on the screen to prompt the player to press and / or hold certain controller buttons . Conversation prompts float in the air , defaulting to a certain choice if too much time passes before selection . During action sequences , like chases or hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , the cinematography moves into slow motion whilst
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uj , the Australian Mounted Division was at Khalasa ( three hours ' march behind ) and the 7th Mounted Brigade was at Bir el Esani . The No. 11 Light Armoured Motor Battery ( LAMB ) was sent ahead of the Anzac Mounted Division to a position on the north slopes of the Gebel el Shereif to guard their flank as they moved forward . The divisional headquarters at Asluj closed at 17 : 30 , and the last Anzac divisional troops left the railway station a half @-@ hour later .
From Asluj , the Anzac Mounted Division rode along the banks of the Wadi Imshash for about 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) , arriving about midnight at the crossroads east of Thaffha . Here , the division paused for two hours before continuing in two columns . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade column rode northeast , following the track to Bir Arara where the leading regiment , the 7th Light Horse arrived at 02 : 00 . They waited until 04 : 00 for the remainder of the brigade to arrive before continuing the advance towards Bir el Hamman . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade encountered an Ottoman outpost , occupying Hill 1390 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south @-@ west of Hamam , which fired on a screen of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade . The 7th Light Horse Regiment moved forward to occupy the Hill 1200 @-@ to @-@ Hill 1150 line 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Hamam , at 07 : 00 , while the brigade remained at Bir el Hamam until 09 : 30 . The Anzac Mounted Division ( less the 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) — led by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment ( New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ) in the second column — rode north from the crossroads east of Thaffha past Goz Esh Shegeib . Here a small force of Ottoman soldiers were " brushed aside " before the advance continued to Iswaiwin . As the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade approached Iswaiwin at 06 : 45 , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade could be seen arriving at Bir el Hamman . Opposition units were seen in trenches near Hill 1070 ( also known as Hill 1069 , the EEF infantry 's first objective on the western side of Beersheba ) , and about two hostile squadrons were seen moving north from Beersheba towards Kh el Omry . Dust and smoke were also seen rising from Chetwode 's XX Corps artillery bombardment , west and south @-@ west of Beersheba . After passing Iswaiwin , the Anzac Mounted Division concentrated near Khashim Zanna , on a line from Bir el Hamman to Bir Salim Abu Irgeig .
Following in reserve , the Australian Mounted Division marched out of Khalasa at 17 : 00 to arrive at Asluj at 20 : 30 on 30 October . After watering only their transport animals , they began their approach march from Asluj at 24 : 00 ( following the Anzac Mounted Division on their 32 to 34 miles ( 51 to 55 km ) ride ) arriving at 04 : 50 on 31 October at the Thaffha crossroads . The division continued , until linking with Desert Mounted Corps headquarters at 10 : 15 and establishing their divisional headquarters at Khashim Zanna ( on Hill 1180 ) at 12 : 30 . Khashm Zanna , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Beersheba and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the main Ottoman defence on the eastern side of Beersheba at Tel el Saba , gave a clear view of the Beersheba plain and the battlefield . Their headquarters joined the headquarters of the Anzac Mounted Division and the Desert Mounted Corps , which had arrived at dawn on 31 October .
The 7th Mounted Brigade advanced direct from Bir el Esani to the vicinity of Goz en Naam , cutting the Khalasa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road and holding a line connecting the XX Corps on their left and the Australian Mounted Division on their right . At 07 : 45 the brigade reported to the EEF by pigeon that they were holding a position from Goz el Namm to Point 1210 , and that Ras Harlein and Ras Ghannan were held by unknown numbers of defenders .
= = Battle = =
= = = Bombardment = = =
The coordinated EEF bombardment began a " multiple – dimensional phased attack " at 05 : 55 , including successful wire @-@ cutting on two divisional fronts . The artillery was to subsequently shift its fire to target the Ottoman fortifications , trench lines and rear areas . During these bombardments , the newly organised Heavy Artillery Groups were to conduct counter – battery work targeting Ottoman guns . During this bombardment , shells from Ottoman counter @-@ battery artillery fire fell on some of the assembled infantry ; the 231st Brigade , 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division , and the 179th Brigade , 60th ( London ) Division , suffered severely :
High explosive is bursting between us and the guns . Shrapnel comes over . Burst above us and rains down on us . Steady stream of wounds . Young Morrison , elbow . Brown , arm . Low , head , and so on and so on . We ought to move back to our old position . Stupid to be in front of these guns which are banging away all the time , kicking up hells delight , and drawing fire which we are a catching .
The EEF bombardment was suspended to allow dust to settle and artillery observers to check their targets ; the wire appeared to be still intact , The bombardment resumed at 07 : 45 .
= = = Preliminary attacks = = =
At 08 : 20 a final , intense ten @-@ minute bombardment targeted the Ottoman trenches 30 yards ( 27 m ) in front of the infantry , to cover the work of wire @-@ cutting units . They cut gaps in the barbed wire entanglements so the battalions of the 181st Brigade , 60th ( London ) Division could launch their attack on Hill 1070 ( also known as Hill 1069 ) . Then the 2 / 22nd Battalion , London Regiment advanced to attack the redoubt on the hill , while the 2 / 24th Battalion , London Regiment attacked some defences just to the north . The 181st Brigade quickly captured both objectives , taking 90 prisoners while suffering about 100 casualties .
Our guns give a bang followed by another and we are smothered with flying bits . A PREMATURE BURST from our guns 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . Cries of that 's got us . Several casualties . One fellow ( Rogers ) jaw all blown to fragments . Blood spurting from nose . Gives one or two heaves . Is bound up but expires and is carried away . High explosive busting lower down near the guns does not get them and they continue to bark in our ears . We [ are ] getting not only the report but the hungry rasp of the flame . Ground and stones and tunics spattered with blood but we still stay in front of the guns ! I take cover behind my spare water bottle and gas helmet so far as head is concerned ... We wonder how things are going . We have heard the bombardment and the machine guns , and the Stokes gun barrage of ten minutes which was to precede the assault by the 15th and 14th [ Regiments , 179th Brigade ] so presumably the dominating hill on our left , Hill 1070 , has come off all right .
During this attack , the leading brigades of the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division advanced to conform to the 181st Brigade 's advance . As a consequence of the 231st Brigade suffered accurate shrapnel fire , it moved slightly to the right forcing the 230th Brigade ( on the left ) , to fill the gap with two supporting companies of the 10th Buffs . As the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division 's advance approached the Ottoman trenches , heavy machine @-@ gun fire slowed their progress . By 10 : 40 , the 231st Brigade was within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of the front line ; the 230th Brigade was about 400 yards ( 370 m ) behind . These advances ( and the capture of Hill 1070 ) made it possible for the EEF 's heavy guns to move forward , to target barbed wire protecting the main Ottoman defensive line and Ottoman observation posts .
= = = XX Corps attack = = =
With the EEF guns moved forward into captured Ottoman positions , shelling recommenced at 10 : 30 , continuing with pauses to let the dust settle until noon , when there was still some concern that the wire in front of the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division had not been cut . " In practice , much of the barbed wire had to be cut by the advancing troops as they came across the obstacle . "
The commanders of the 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions decided to begin the main assault at 12 : 15 , screened by dust and smoke from another bombardment . Four brigades — the 179th , the 181st , ( 60th Division ) the 231st and the 230th ( 74th Division ) — launched the attack with two battalions in the first line ( except the 181st Brigade , which deployed three ) . The first @-@ line battalions were mainly organised with two of their " four companies in first line , each on a front of two platoons , the companies in two ' waves ' each of two lines " , advancing between 50 and 100 yards ( 46 and 91 m ) apart with a third wave to follow ( if required ) 300 yards ( 270 m ) behind . The 2 / 22nd Battalion , London Regiment remained to guard Hill 1070 .
At 12 o 'clock we heard that Hill 1070 had been taken and at 12 @.@ 15 we went over the top . I was in the front of the first assaulting wave as platoon runner to Sergeant Boasted . We were in a little wadi behind a ridge . It was necessary to get over the ridge , and off the skyline as quickly as possible . Once over the ridge it was a rush down the valley and a charge up the opposite ridge where the Turkish trenches were at the top . Over the ridge I noticed at once that there were scattered groups of machine gunners ... in emplacements of rocks and shallow trench . They were out there to keep a protecting fire on the Turkish trenches . To me they seemed to be right in the open and in suicide position ... Once over the ridge we all rushed down the slope past the machine gunners . Bullets were falling everywhere ... I just went on running , yelling , cheering and shouting out the Sergeant 's orders at the top of my voice . Every minute I was expecting a bullet to get me but my good luck stuck to me ... When we got to the Turkish trenches we jumped straight in and shot or bayoneted or took prisoner all that were there . I was lucky , the section of trench I jumped in was empty . On either side I could hear shooting and fighting but it was soon all over ... We advanced about 300 yards beyond the trenches where we worked " like hell " with our entrenching tools digging ourselves in .
The 2 / 15th Battalion , London Regiment on the right of the 179th Brigade , suffered severely from machine @-@ gun fire ; however , when the machine @-@ gun positions were captured all resistance ceased . The 24th and 25th Battalions of the Royal Welch Fusiliers of the 231st Brigade ( 74th Division ) " met with stout resistance " at one location , where the Ottoman soldiers fought to the last man . Intense hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in the trenches continued until 13 : 30 , when the Ottoman trench line on the western side of Beersheba ( stretching from the Khalasa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road in the south to the Wadi es Saba in the north ) was captured . During this fighting , the two Royal Welch Fusiliers battalions captured three @-@ quarters of the prisoners ( and suffered two @-@ thirds of the casualties ) of the XX Corps . The XX Corps captured 419 prisoners , six guns , " numerous machine guns " and materiel ; casualties included 136 killed , 1 @,@ 010 wounded and five missing ( most casualties from shrapnel from Ottoman artillery and machine guns during the preliminary bombardment ) .
The final objective of the XX Corps , as described in the " XX Corps Instructions " , was to destroy the opposition units at Beersheba , in cooperation with the Desert Mounted Corps . The instructions continued , " The objective of the attack by the XX Corps on Z day is the capture of the line of works between the Khelasa – Beersheba road and the Wadi esh Sabe , the capture of the enemy guns between Beersheba and the trenches west of the town , and in co @-@ operation with the cavalry to drive the enemy from the remainder of his defences at Beersheba " . However , it is claimed , " West of Beersheba the XX Corps had all its objectives and could without doubt have captured Beersheba itself before the mounted troops . " The objective of the infantry divisions was not to capture Beersheba , but to keep the main garrison occupied while the Desert Mounted Corps captured the town . The official British historian stated , " The capture of Beersheba itself was the task of the Desert Mounted Corps , which required the water in the town for its horses " . " XX Corps Instructions " stated : " outposts will be placed approximately on the ' Blue Line ' ( Tracing " A " ) to cover the consolidation of the position and reorganization of the attacking troops . " No units were to go beyond the ' Blue Line ' without orders or to capture guns .
After the capture of the main trenches , some guns from the 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions were to target defences north and south of the main attack ; others were deployed forward into the captured position to pursue the Ottoman forces with fire , attack stubborn defenders and deal with counterattacks . A further advance by the 2 / 13th Battalion , London Regiment , 60th ( London ) Division , through the forward infantry battalions , attacked and captured two field guns beyond the final objective with Lewis Guns after forcing the Ottoman detachments to retreat . Desert Mounted Corps headquarters reported seeing Ottoman troops retiring into Beersheba at midday , but it was not until late in the afternoon that two infantry brigades of the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division and the Imperial Camel Brigade , monitoring these defences north of the Wadi es Saba , became uncertain that the trenches were still defended . The 230th Brigade ( 74th Division ) was ordered to launch an attack at 18 : 00 and an hour later , the reserve 230th Brigade occupied the northern trenches " with little difficulty " . They had been abandoned by all but a few snipers , since Beersheba had already been captured by the light @-@ horsemen 's charge which had begun at 16 : 30 . The 60th ( London ) and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions bivouacked on the battlefield behind a line of outposts ; the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division remained , covering the western flank while the 10th ( Irish ) Division bivouacked at Goz el Basal .
= = = Ottoman reinforcements and withdrawals = = =
With the loss of two battalions of the 67th Regiment defending the western side of Beersheba , Ismet Bey ( commanding the Beersheba garrison ) sent in his last reserve ( the third battalion of the 2nd Regiment ) to reinforce the south @-@ western sector . At the same time , he withdrew two companies of the 81st Regiment ( defending the area north of the Wadi es Saba ) back into Beersheba .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps attacks = = =
The Anzac and the Australian Mounted Divisions rode between 25 and 35 miles ( 40 and 56 km ) from Asluj and Khalasa respectively , circling south of Beersheba during the night of 30 – 31 October to get into position to attack from the east . The Australian Mounted Division ( in Desert Mounted Corps reserve ) deployed southeast of Beersheba ( near Khashim Zanna ) to support the Anzac Mounted Division 's attacks . The 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade , Australian Mounted Division ) was deployed as a screen , linking with the 7th Mounted Brigade on their left and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade on their right , in front of the Australian Mounted Division .
The first objective of the Anzac Mounted Division was to cut the road from Beersheba to Hebron and Jerusalem , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north @-@ east of the town at Tel el Sakaty ( also known as Sqati ) , to prevent reinforcement and retreat in that direction . The second objective , the redoubt on the height of Tel es Saba ( which dominated the east side of Beersheba north and south ) had to be captured , before an attack across the open ground could be launched . By dawn the Anzac Mounted Division was deployed with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade at Bir Salim abu Irqaiyiq , and the 1st Light Horse Brigade in support behind the New Zealanders , with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade concentrated near Bir Hammam .
While the infantry battle was being fought on the west side of Beersheba , Edward Chaytor ( commanding the Anzac Mounted Division ) ordered the 2nd Light Horse Brigade to attack Tel el Sakaty at 08 : 00 and gain control of the Jerusalem road . At the same time , he ordered the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( with the 1st Light Horse Brigade in support ) to attack the Ottoman garrison holding fortifications on Tel el Saba . These hard @-@ fought attacks continued into the afternoon , when two regiments of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ( Australian Mounted Division ) were ordered to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division 's attack on Tel el Saba .
If there was one lesson more than another I had learned at Magdhaba and Rafa , it was patience , and not to expect things to happen too quickly . At Beersheba , although progress was slow , there was never that deadly pause which is so disconcerting to a commander .
= = = = Tel el Sakaty = = = =
Soon after the Anzac Mounted Division 's 2nd Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades advances began at 09 : 00 , they were targeted by heavy artillery fire from the hills on the north side of the Beersheba @-@ to @-@ Jerusalem road . The two brigades were also forced to slow their advance across the plain , cut by a number of narrow , deep wadis , which made fast riding impossible . At this time , shells from the XX Corps ' bombardment could be seen bursting on the hills west of Beersheba .
At 10 : 05 , the leading troops of the 7th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ; not to be confused with the 7th Mounted Brigade near Ras Ghannam to the , south of Beersheba ) , were seen approaching Tel el Sakaty . By 11 : 17 , they reported their advance was increasingly difficult due to hostile units defending the high ground south of Sakaty . An Ottoman convoy of 10 wagons was seen leaving Beersheba on the road to Jerusalem , and the regiment was ordered to cut the road before the convoy escaped . Through heavy shell and shrapnel bombardment and point @-@ blank machine @-@ gun fire , they galloped to a position just south of the road . While an artillery battery got into position to support the light @-@ horse regiment 's attack on Tel el Sakaty , at 11 : 40 the 5th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) was ordered to engage the Ottoman left flank . As they crossed the Wadi Khalil and the road to Jerusalem , the 5th Light Horse Regiment was also heavily shelled by artillery and fired on by machine guns from the high ground north and northwest overlooking the area . Five minutes later , the 7th Light Horse Regiment cut the road and captured the convoy ( 47 prisoners , eight horses and eight wagons loaded with forage ) . However , the regiment was pinned down just beyond , in a small wadi in the rough country north of Wadi Khalil by the gun battery and machine guns located on Tel el Sakaty ( above the road ) . With the arrival of the 5th Light Horse Regiment , by 13 : 30 the two regiments ( supported by artillery ) were advancing to attack the high ground northeast of Sakaty . At 14 : 45 , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade reported that three Ottoman guns appeared to have been put out of action by EEF artillery fire . While they continued to hold the road to Jerusalem , the 5th and 7th Light Horse Regiments found cover in the Wadi Aiyan ( although targeted from the high ground north of Sakaty by five Ottoman machine guns ) where they remained until evening . The 1 @,@ 100 @-@ strong Ottoman 3rd Cavalry Division defended this hilly area north of Beersheba .
The 5th and 7th Light Horse Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) continued to hold an outpost line during the night , covering the Beersheba @-@ to @-@ Jerusalem road and the northeastern approaches behind Tel el Sakaty . The remainder of the 7th Light Horse Regiment withdrew 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south at 18 : 00 to bivouac for the night , with the 5th Light Horse Regiment on the right . One squadron at a time was sent to water at Bir el Hamam , and a good water supply was also found in the Wadi Hora by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade . The 7th Light Horse Regiment with two men injured ( one wounded in action ) , captured a total of 49 prisoners ( 39 of whom were captured in the Wadi Aiyan ) .
= = = = Tel el Saba = = = =
At about 08 : 55 , some 200 Ottoman cavalry with transport and guns were seen moving north from Beersheba along the road to Jerusalem ; shortly afterwards , an aircraft reported seeing a large camp at Tel el Saba . This was the main Ottoman defensive position on the east side of Beersheba , located on the prominent 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) of Tel el Saba and dominating the eastern side of the town . With its steep sides littered by boulders , this flat – topped hill was strongly garrisoned by a battalion ( described as 300 rifles and a machine gun company of eight machine guns ) deployed for general defence . Without trees or scrub for cover , the area " was swept by the fire of numerous machine guns and field guns concealed in the town ... [ and ] on the strongly entrenched hill of Tel el Saba . " Enfilade fire from two directions would have annihilated attackers .
At 09 : 10 the Anzac Mounted Division 's New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade advanced towards Tel el Saba with the intention of enveloping it from the north , supported by Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) ( which came into action at a range of 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) ) . However , at that distance the artillery was unable to make a dent on the Ottoman defence . The brigade advanced with the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment on the right and the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment on the left , each supported by four machine guns . Receiving heavy machine @-@ gun and artillery fire , the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment formed an advance guard and rode to within 1 @,@ 800 yards ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) of Tel el Saba across open country to the Wadi Saba . Here excellent cover for horses and machine guns was found , as well as good positions from which machine gunners could provide effective suppressive fire . The frontal attack would be launched on foot , since mounted attack from any direction was impossible . The Auckland regiment launched their attack under the north bank of the wadi , advancing on a narrow front under the good cover provided by the wadi . Due to heavy Ottoman machine @-@ gun fire , from a point 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the Ottoman position the attack was slowed ; one troop at a time advanced under cover from New Zealand machine guns .
By 10 : 00 , Chaytor ordered the 1st Light Horse Brigade to reinforce the attack on Tel el Saba from the south and cooperate in the attack . The brigade sent the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) , with one subsection of a machine @-@ gun squadron , to cover the New Zealanders ' left flank . At 10 : 15 they made a " dashing advance " across the plain against artillery and machine @-@ gun fire . Shortly afterwards two of the squadrons took up an exposed position on the bank of the wadi , covering the attackers ' left flank . Heavy machine gun , Hotchkiss and rifle fire targeted the Ottoman position , providing covering fire for the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment attack .
The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments engaged Ottoman soldiers near a bend in the Wadi Saba southeast of Tel el Saba at 11 : 00 ; a dismounted attack was launched by the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( with one troop from the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment ) along the south bank of the Wadi Saba . This force covered the main attack by the rest of the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment , which advanced on the north bank supported by machine @-@ gun cover fire . At the same time , the Inverness Battery attached to the 1st Light Horse Brigade came into action against Tel el Saba ; it covered the advances of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment and the Somerset Battery , which had moved to within 1 @,@ 300 yards ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) of Tel el Saba . By now , the attacking artillery was heavily shelling both Ottoman defensive positions and the hard @-@ to @-@ find Ottoman machine @-@ gun positions . Their positions were communicated to the artillery by flags , and accurate shelling targeted them . Hostile aircraft began to circle the battlefield , dropping bombs on groups of led horses with many casualties .
By 13 : 00 the 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) was ordered to reinforce the left of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment . About a half @-@ hour later , the Australian Mounted Division 's 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) and two artillery batteries were also ordered to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division 's attack on Tel el Saba . The horses of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade were all watered at 13 : 10 in the Wadi Saba .
Orders for a general attack on Tel el Saba issued at 13 : 55 , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and B Battery , Honourable Artillery Company ( HAC ) moved to reinforce the attack at 14 : 00 . At 14 : 05 , a squadron of the 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) was deployed to give effective covering fire on the right flank with machine and Hotchkiss guns and rifles , while the rest of the 2nd Light Horse Regiment attacked and captured two blockhouses . From these recent captures , they targeted the flank of the Tel el Saba defences , causing the defenders ' fire to " slacken " . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment was , by now across the Wadi Khalil and firing on the rear of the Tel el Saba position , but they were held up by Ottoman defenders on the slopes of the hills overlooking the Beersheba @-@ to @-@ Jerusalem road . The Australian and New Zealand troops from across the Wadi Saba covered the attack on Tel el Saba by the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) on the left , while the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment on the right closed in from the northeast .
The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment began their frontal assault at 14 : 05 , advancing steadily in short rushes under cover of all available guns and machine guns , to gain the trenches on a hill on the eastern flank 400 yards ( 370 m ) east of Tel el Saba at 14 : 40 . Here , they captured 60 prisoners and three machine guns . Two of the captured machine guns were turned against the main Ottoman redoubt , greatly weakening their position . The attacking troops of the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment reorganised before launching their final assault . They " moved forward steadily , and then rushed Tel el Saba , which fell at 15 : 00 " when a machine gun and several prisoners were captured . This captured machine gun was turned on escaping Ottoman soldiers running towards Beersheba . They killed about 25 Ottoman defenders on Tel el Saba and several others in the surrounding country ; while 132 prisoners , four machine guns , rifles , ammunition and horses were captured . The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment had seven killed and 200 wounded . One squadron of the 2nd Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) followed the retreating Ottoman soldiers to take up a position near the junction of the wadis to the west of Tel el Saba . From there , they fired on the retiring Ottoman units moving northwest over the high ground . At the same time , one squadron of the 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) advanced against a counterattack launched from Beersheba , " and drove it off " . Orders were received by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade at 17 : 50 to put Tel el Saba " in a state of defence " against the possibility of more counterattacks .
Chaytor began to move his headquarters to Tel el Saba when he saw that it had been captured at 15 : 00 . Ottoman artillery began to target Tel el Saba a quarter @-@ hour after its capture , and several hostile aircraft bombed the Tel . The attacks continued throughout the afternoon , and when the rest of the Anzac Divisional Headquarters moved to Tel el Saba at 18 : 00 , they were machine @-@ gunned by hostile aircraft . Hostile aircraft dropped five bombs at 17 : 00 on the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , killing four and wounding twenty @-@ eight Australians . Forty @-@ six horses were killed , and sixteen wounded . A bomb was dropped on the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance about the same time : " [ s ] ome six horses lay disembowlled , blood running everywhere " .
Just before sunset , the bearers returned from watering their horses ... 16 men with two horses each . As they dismounted , a German Taube came over – for the third time in 24 hours ! With the setting sun behind him , and flying very low , it was impossible to see him until he was right overhead . I then saw the observer leaning out of the cockpit and the bomb leave the plane a few hundred feet up . The bomb burst on impact with the hard ground ... a direct hit on our bearer lines ! He then turned and machine @-@ gunned the camp , which added to the confusion . In the black dust and smoke , horses were rearing and neighing , while a few galloped madly away . Men were running and shrieking . Grabbed my medical haversack and ran about 20 yards to reach Brownjohn . His left leg had been blown off ... bleeding badly . His hand was also wounded . Staff Sergeant Stewart came running and together we got a tourniquet on his thigh in about 90 seconds ... Others were attending Oates , high right arm blown off , and Hay with his left buttock cut clean away . I found Hamlyn being dressed , with a bad wound over his heart , and in great pain . Gave him a shot of morphia . Cogan , Brown and Whitfield also slightly wounded . Bill Taylor was one of the worst types of casualty – shell shock . Apparently standing between two horses , only a few feet from the bomb , he was not hit . But we placed him on a stretcher , a pathetic , incoherent ,
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weeping wreck , unable to walk .
= = = = Ottoman response = = = =
During the final attack and capture of Tel el Saba , the 1st Light Horse Brigade reported at 14 : 20 a squadron of Ottoman cavalry leaving Beersheba and heading north . At about 14 : 30 , they targeted the Anzac divisional headquarters with high @-@ explosive shells fired from Ottoman field guns . However , after the capture of Tel el Saba " Beersheba was now untenable and , unknown to the attackers , a withdrawal was ordered " . German commander of the Eighth Army Kress von Kressenstein explained :
The understrength Turkish battalion entrusted with its defence doggedly held out with great courage and in so doing fulfilled its obligation . They held up two English cavalry divisions for six hours and had prevented them from expanding their outflanking manoeuvres around the Beersheba @-@ Hebron road .
Ismet Bey , commanding the Beersheba garrison , ordered a general retirement north from Beersheba at 16 : 00 . He withdrew to the headquarters of the 143rd Regiment ( XX Corps ) , located about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Beersheba in the Judean Hills . At the same time , the 27th Division 's engineers were ordered to destroy the Beersheba water supply . The 48th Regiment , which had been deployed to defend the southern sector of the Beersheba defences from the Khalasa road to Ras Ghannam with one battalion and a machine @-@ gun company defending Tel el Saba , was the first unit to retire . They moved to establish a rearguard position on the Wadi Saba before the Australian light horsemen captured the town .
= = = = Beersheba = = = =
When Tel el Saba was captured at 15 : 00 , the Anzac Mounted Division ordered an attack on the final objective : the town of Beersheba . Chaytor ordered the 1st and the 3rd Light Horse Brigades to make a dismounted advance to the Beersheba Mosque in the northern outskirts of Beersheba , on a line stretching from Point 1020 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Tel el Saba to Point 970 south of the town . These brigades were deployed with the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) on the right , the 1st Light Horse Brigade in the centre , and the 4th Light Horse Brigade ( Australian Mounted Division ) on their left .
As the 1st and 3rd Light Horse Brigades continued their dismounted attacks , they were shelled by Ottoman artillery . By 17 : 30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade had blocked all exits from Beersheba in the mosque area , including the hospital and barracks , capturing 96 prisoners , hospital staff , a priest , medical @-@ corps details and 89 patients . The brigade established an outpost line in this sector , having suffered seven men killed and 83 wounded , 68 horses killed and 23 wounded . The 10th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) held an outpost line north of Beersheba during the night , when a group of Ottoman soldiers approached the line at about 21 : 00 . They were surrounded on three sides before the regiment fired on them with machine @-@ guns , killing 50 .
= = = = Light Horse charge = = = =
Allenby was at Chetwode 's XX Corps headquarters at el Buqqar when he sent a telegram to Chauvel , ordering the capture of Beersheba " before nightfall " . However , before the telegram reached Chauvel the 4th Light Horse Brigade was preparing for their mounted attack . Aerial reconnaissance had established the feasibility of such an attack , since the trenches stretching across the direction of the charge were not reinforced by barbed wire or horse pits . The commander of the 12th Light Horse Regiment said :
It was clear to me that the job had to be done before dark , so I advised galloping the place as our only chance . I had some experience of successful mounted surprise attacks on the Boer camps in the South African war .
When the possibility of a charge by mounted infantry riding home , was raised in the Australian Mounted Division 's Preliminary Instruction No. 1 ( dated 26 October 1917 ) ; it suggested the bayonet was equal to the sword as a weapon for mounted attack " if used as a sword for pointing only " . The Preliminary Instruction advised that the bayonet be hand @-@ held , since controlling a horse during a charge would be difficult if the bayonet was fixed to the rifle . Divisional armourers were ordered to sharpen all bayonets " at once . "
At 11 : 30 Brigadier William Grant 's 4th Light Horse Brigade arrived at Iswaiwin , where men and horses rested while the battle was being fought by the XX Corps and the Anzac Mounted Division , until 15 : 45 when they were ordered to saddle up " at once " . At 16 : 00 Grant sent for the commanders and seconds @-@ in @-@ command of the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments , issuing orders for their attack on Beersheba . The 4th Light Horse Regiment of Victorians and the New South Wales ' 12th Light Horse Regiment were 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Beersheba when they formed up behind a ridge about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Hill 1280 . On the left of the Anzac Mounted Division , the 4th Light Horse Regiment deployed north of the Iswaiwin @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road ( also known as the Black W road ) , with the 12th Light Horse Regiment south of the road on their left . They were armed with " neither sword nor lance [ but ] ... with bayonets in their hands " . The regiment 's " A " , " B " and " C " squadrons formed three squadron lines ( in that order ) between 300 and 500 yards ( 270 and 460 m ) apart , each squadron line extended to 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . One subsection of the 4th Machine Gun Squadron was attached to each regiment , although Lieutenant Colonel Murray Bourchier ( commander of the 4th Light Horse Regiment which fought in the trenches and redoubt ) said " The Hotchkiss guns were useless , the fast pace affording no time to get them into action " .
While " direction was given to the movement " by Grant and his brigade major , with Bourchier and Cameron leading their regiments the first half @-@ mile was covered at a walk . Afterwards , Grant joined the reserve squadrons and regimental headquarters , while the regimental commanders remained " never far behind the vanguard " ; " [ a ] t 16 : 30 the two regiments moved off at the trot , deploying at once " . As the leading squadrons , preceded by scouts 70 to 80 yards ( 64 to 73 m ) in front , came within range of Ottoman riflemen manning the defences " directly in their track " a number of horses were hit by sustained rapid fire .
In these Ottoman trenches ( primarily facing south , with a few shallow trenches facing east ) , the defenders saw the light horsemen charge and " opened fire with shrapnel on the 4th and 12th Regiments immediately they deployed " . As the advance became a gallop , the 12th Light Horse Regiment was fired from the trenches on Ras Ghannam . The Notts Battery opened fire on machine @-@ gunners in the trenches at Ras Ghannam ; after a second shot , the Ottoman soldiers were seen in retreat . The two regiments had ridden nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) when the 12th Light Horse Regiment ( on the left ) was targeted by heavy machine @-@ gun fire from the direction of Hill 1180 , " [ c ] oming from an effective range which could have proved destructive ; but the vigilant officers of the Essex Battery ... got the range at once , and ... put them out of action with the first few shells " . The charging regiments were again fired on about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Beersheba . Here the Notts Battery silenced and drove out a garrison in a redoubt at Point 980 ( indicated in red on the brigade 's war @-@ diary sketch map ) which was enfilading the charge . The remainder of the 4th Machine Gun Squadron and the reserve squadron of the 12th Light Horse Regiment , advanced towards Point 980 and the town in the wadi on the left , to protect the left flank of the charging regiments .
I consider that the success was due to the rapidity with which the movement was carried out . Owing to the volume of fire brought to bear from the enemy 's position by machine @-@ guns and rifles , a dismounted attack would have resulted in a much greater number of casualties . It was noticed also that the morale of the enemy was greatly shaken through our troops galloping over his positions thereby causing his riflemen and machine gunners to lose all control of fire discipline . When the troops came within short range of the trenches the enemy seemed to direct almost all his fire at the horses .
= = = = = 4th Light Horse Regiment attacks trenches = = = = =
[ A ] great sight suddenly sprung up on our left , lines and lines of horsemen moving . The Turks were on the run and the Aus . Div. was after them . We could see the horses jumping the trenches , dust everywhere .
As the 4th Light Horse Regiment approached the fortifications directly in front of them , their leading squadron jumped the advance trenches at the gallop and the main 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) -deep , 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -wide trenches , defended by Ottoman soldiers . The leading squadron then dismounted in an area of tents and dugouts in the rear , where they were joined by a troop of the 12th Light Horse Regiment . While the led horses were galloped to cover , the troopers launched a dismounted attack on the trenches and dugouts , killing between 30 and 40 , before the remainder surrendered . The defenders " fought grimly , and a considerable number were killed " , while four Gallipoli veterans were shot dead as they dismounted a few feet from the Ottoman trenches . As the second line of squadrons approached the Ottoman trenches one of the troops in " B " squadron dismounted , to attack and capture the advance trench before continuing to support the attack on the main trenches . Stretcher @-@ bearers rode forward , working amidst the dismounted fighting around the earthworks ; where one was shot dead at close range . After capturing the redoubt east of Beersheba it was consolidated by the 4th Light Horse Regiment , which held the area overnight in case of counterattack .
= = = = = 12th Light Horse Regiment captures Beersheba = = = = =
When the leading squadrons charged up to the trenches and the redoubt , the squadron commander and about 12 troopers of 12th Light Horse Regiment , dismounted to attack with rifle and bayonet , while the remainder of the regiment continued to gallop passed the redoubt on the right , to ride through a gap in the defensive line . When the second line squadron of the 12th Light Horse Regiment approached the trenches and redoubt , most of the squadron continued mounted riding through the gap . However , as both squadron commanders had dismounted to fight in the trenches and earthworks , the troopers who continued mounted were led by Captains Robey and Davies . These leading troops stopped to assemble at a point near where the road from Asluj crossed the Wadi Saba , behind the main Ottoman defences . When Robey and Davies mounted troopers were reorganised , they rode along the Asluj road into Beersheba in force , to capture the town .
When they reached a red brick building in Beersheba near the Mosque , Robey 's squadron rode towards the western side of the town , towards the north , to reach a point about 200 yards ( 180 m ) south of the railway station , then they proceeded across the railway line before turning to the right , to finish up near an oval roofed building on the northern outskirts of the town . Meanwhile , Davies ' squadron rode up the main street to join Robey on the northern outskirts . Here both squadrons turned about , to stop and capture an Ottoman column , attempting to escape Beersheba . Most of the column surrendered along with nine guns . One troop " silenced " Ottoman soldiers holding trenches east of Beersheba when about 60 of them tried to escape . They were recaptured by a troop from the 12th Light Horse Regiment 's " C " Squadron . A large proportion of the Ottoman troops in the town , were eventually killed or captured . It has been estimated more than half the Ottoman dismounted troops in Beersheba , were captured or killed , while 15 of the 28 guns in the town were captured . The 12th Light Horse Regiment handed over 37 officers and 63 other ranks prisoners to Brigade Headquarters at 23 : 00 with four guns and transport . Together the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments captured 1 @,@ 148 prisoners , 10 field guns , four machine guns , a huge quantity of military stores , an aerodrome , and railway rolling stock . Total captures by Desert Mounted Corps for the day amounted to 1 @,@ 528 prisoners . All available engineer units were sent to develop the wells in the town but the supply was not great . Fortunately on 25 October there had been thunderstorms which left pools of water over a wide area from which the horses were watered .
The prisoners were moved to an area , near the railway viaduct on the outskirts of Beersheba , where they were assembled and counted . Only the 3rd Cavalry Division had managed to withdraw earlier in the day . Meanwhile , the 12th Light Horse Regiment established all round defensive positions , including picquets guarding the pumping station which were withdrawn at 23 : 00 , when brigade headquarters arrived , and took over garrisoning duties . A patrol of one NCO and eight men made a reconnaissance at 23 : 00 , towards the southwest returning at 03 : 00 , with 23 prisoners to report " All Clear . " The 12th Light Horse Regiment bivouacked at 24 : 00 in Beersheba before being ordered at 04 : 00 to stand to arms and saddled up .
The capture of Beersheba by the 12th Light Horse Regiment has been largely written out of history . " The honor and the glory of securing the town went to the 4th Australian Light Horse in a cavalry charge that in notoriety ranks with the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava in 1854 . " Allenby overlooks the 12th Light Horse Regiment 's capture of Beersheba in his report to Wigram intended for the King . According to him , only the 4th Light Horse Regiment , charged and captured the town . " Time was short , and the Brigade Commander , Brigadier – General Grant DSO , sent his leading regiment to charge the trenches . This Regiment , the 4th Light Horse , galloped over the trenches , which were 8 feet deep and 4 feet wide , and full of Turks . This ended all resistance , and put a neat finish to the battle . " His Despatches of 16 December 1917 to the Secretary of State for War , republished in The London Gazette do not identify further , the " Australian Light Horse , " be they regiments or brigades .
= = = = = Supporting units = = = = =
Chauvel ordered the 5th and 7th Mounted Brigades to move in support by following the charge , with the 7th Mounted Brigade covering the left as it advanced from the direction of Ras Ghannam ; and at 16 : 40 , the 11th Light Horse Regiment was ordered by the 4th Light Horse Brigade to advance in support . These supporting units have been described as the 11th Light Horse Regiment " follow [ ing ] at the trot , and then came FitzGerald 's 5th Mounted Brigade , while away on the left the 7th Mounted Brigade advanced briskly along the Khalasa road " , there was no " substantial following in close support .
The 11th Light Horse Regiment 's 489 troopers and 23 officers were about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the southwest , covering the outpost line connecting the Australian Mounted Division with the 7th Mounted Brigade across the Iswaiwin @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road . They had replaced the 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) at 15 : 45 . At 17 : 30 the 11th Light Horse Regiment moved to rejoin the 4th Light Horse Brigade headquarters , arriving in Beersheba at 19 : 30 . The regiment then moved to the western and northern edges of the town , to man an outpost line against a counterattack .
The 5th Mounted Brigade , trained and armed for a mounted attack , was " close behind Chauvel 's headquarters , " while the 4th Light Horse Brigade was " nearer Beersheba " , when the decision to charge was made . " Chauvel had hesitated for a moment whether to employ the 5th Mounted Brigade , which was in reserve and was armed with the sword unlike the Australians , but as the 4th Light Horse Brigade was close in he decided that it should attack . " Although the 5th Mounted Brigade was ordered to advance on Beersheba in the rear of the 4th Light Horse Brigade , the Worcestershire Yeomanry saddled up and rode to water at Hannam at 16 : 00 . The regiment eventually " moved off as rearguard to Bde ( 5th Mounted Brigade ) " at 21 : 30 , arriving in Beersheba at 00 : 30 on 1 November .
The 7th Mounted Brigade , with one section of the Light Armoured Motor Battery and one Ford car attached , had ridden out of Esani at 20 : 00 on 30 October across country ( via Itweil el Semin ) to Ras Ghannam on the Asluj @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road . They were about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Beersheba , when they established links with the Desert Mounted Corps on the right and the XX Corps on the left , at the Khalasa @-@ to @-@ Beersheba road . Their orders were to hold a line covering Point 1210 , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of Ras Ghannam and Gos en Naam . They established observation posts on a line 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Ras Ghannam stretching to Gos en Naam , established communications with the Australian Mounted Division south @-@ west of Khashim Zanna at 09 : 00 , and was in close touch with the XX Corps Cavalry Regiment . The remainder of the brigade assembled south of their outpost line , " ready to act . " At about 10 : 00 the 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) reported that its headquarters were at Point 1180 , that Ras Ghannam was strongly defended , and that they were in touch with the 7th Mounted Brigade on their left . The 7th Mounted reported at 13 : 45 that their battery had shelled the opposition en masse on the northern slopes of Ras Ghannam .
At 16 : 00 , when the Ottoman garrison was reported to have begun its retreat from Beersheba , the 7th Mounted Brigade received orders to cooperate ( from the direction of Ras Ghannam ) in the Australian Mounted Division attack on Beersheba . Verbal orders to cooperate in the attack were also received by the 7th Mounted Brigade from the 4th Light Horse Brigade half @-@ an @-@ hour later . The leading squadron of the Sherwood Rangers Regiment pushed forward with a squadron of the Notts Hussars , which had been holding the line from Point 1210 to Ras Ghannam . They arrived at Ras Ghannam at 16 : 50 to find the defenders gone " without firing a shot " . The rest of the Sherwood Rangers Regiment were occupying the trenches east of Ras Ghannam when they were informed that Beersheba had been captured by the 4th Light Horse Brigade . Then the 7th Mounted Brigade rode unopposed down the Asluj road into Beersheba to water their horses at about 23 : 00 .
= = = Casualties = = =
The XX Corps captured 419 prisoners while Desert Mounted Corps captured 1 @,@ 528 Ottoman soldiers . Ottoman casualties were believed to be about half that number , while around 500 dead were found on the battlefield .
The heaviest Allied losses were suffered by the British infantry of XX Corps ( which lost 116 killed in action ) , although the total number of the
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were withdrawn to Syria for a period of rest and garrison duty .
However , in late May 1942 Rommel and the Afrika Korps attacked into Libya . The 2nd Division was rushed back from Syria and dug in at Minqar Qaim . Encircled by the Germans , the division was forced to breakout on 26 June and withdrew to positions around El Alamein . Here , suffering regular artillery barrages , it dug in to await an expected attack . In late August , no attack had been launched and it was decided a raid for prisoners would be undertaken by two companies , one of them being Manahi 's B Company . This was successfully executed on 26 August . The next month , the battalion was taken out of the line for a brief period of rest before returning for the Second Battle of El Alamein . During the fourth stage of the battle , in what was codenamed Operation Supercharge , Manahi and his company was involved in a bayonet charge against well dug in Germans that had resisted a previous attack by another battalion .
By now , it was clear that the Germans were in retreat and the Allies pursued them into Libya and Tunisia . After a battle at Tebaga Gap , during which Moana @-@ Nui @-@ a @-@ Kiwa Ngarimu of the battalion 's C Company won the Victoria Cross ( VC ) , planning began for a push into Tunisia 's capital city Tunis . Before this could be achieved , a defensive line around Enfidaville needed to be broken .
= = = Takrouna = = =
By April 1943 , the 2nd Division had advanced into mountainous country overlooking Enfidaville . Takrouna was a hill , 300 metres high , held by soldiers of the Italian Trieste Division 's I / 66 ° Battalion as well as a German platoon . A village was situated on the summit of the hill with a prominent ledge to one side . The Māori Battalion was tasked by Major General Howard Kippenberger , commander of 2nd Division , with the capture of Takrouna , and B Company would make the main assault on 19 April , with C and D companies on the flanks . The initial attack petered out due to heavy gunfire from the enemy . Bennett ordered Manahi , now a lance sergeant , to take his platoon of 12 men to make a feint attack while the remainder of B Company linked up with C Company . The platoon split into two sections , with one under the command of Manahi . At dawn , they began their attack up a steep and at times near sheer slope and were successfully able to overwhelm the Italians defending the ledge , capturing 60 prisoners . The New Zealanders then dug in and prepared for a counterattack . Artillery and mortar fire killed half of the platoon , including its commander . This left Manahi in command .
With two attempts to contact the battalion having failed , Manahi made his way down Takrouna to locate reinforcements and supplies . Ignoring an officer 's advice that he abandon the ledge , he returned with a section from C Company as well as ammunition and stretcher bearers . A further platoon arrived to further consolidate his position . The expected counterattack then commenced , and this was successfully beaten off . It was only then , after having been on Takrouna for 16 hours that Manahi and what was left of his section withdrew , leaving the platoon to hold the position .
Despite reinforcements , a further counterattack launched by Italian soldiers of the Trieste Division on 21 April dislodged the New Zealanders and control of the ledge was lost . Kippenberger ordered the Māori Battalion to send reinforcements to rectify the situation . Manahi returned with a platoon to recapture the lost position , and with artillery support the attack was successful and by midday the ledge was reoccupied by the New Zealanders . However , the village on the summit remained in the hands of the Italians . Later in the afternoon of 21 April , Manahi led an attacking party which , working with another party , captured the village and took 300 prisoners . After the battle , he assisted with the recovery of the bodies of his dead comrades .
Manahi 's exploits quickly became known throughout the division , and within a few days of his actions a nomination for the VC had been prepared by the commander of his battalion . Brigadier Harding , commander of 5th Infantry Brigade , endorsed the nomination as did four generals ( Kippenberger , Freyberg , Montgomery and Alexander ) . General Henry Maitland Wilson , commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Middle East Forces , likewise endorsed the award after considering the evidence . However , when the nomination reached the Army Council in London , the award was downgraded , most likely by Lord Alanbrooke , to an immediate Distinguished Conduct Medal ( DCM ) which was duly gazetted on 22 July 1943 .
The decision was a disappointment to many in the 2nd Division . Reports that Manahi 's men had killed Italians attempting to surrender were thought by some historians to be a factor in the downgrading of his award . The official New Zealand history of the Māori Battalion stated that the surrendering soldiers were " shot , bayonetted or thrown over a cliff " but only after an Italian grenade had been thrown into a building in which wounded New Zealanders were sheltering . However , these reports may not have emerged until after the downgrading , and at the time the killings were alleged to have occurred , Manahi himself was reportedly dealing with an advance by Italian soldiers against the ledge . Another factor in the downgrading may have been the recent VC nomination for Ngarimu , just three weeks earlier . The subsequent nomination of Manahi , a Māori like Ngarimu and from the same battalion , may have led to a perception that VCs were being too easily awarded .
= = = Return to New Zealand = = =
The surrender of the Axis forces in Tunisia in May left the Allies in control of North Africa . The 2nd Division withdrew to its base in Egypt and it was announced that 6 @,@ 000 of its personnel would return to New Zealand for a three @-@ month furlough . Manahi , as one of the original members of the Māori Battalion , was among those selected and shipped out on 15 June 1943 . However , Manahi was not to return to the war for it was later decided that the Māori soldiers on furlough would be exempt from active duty .
On returning to Rotorua , Manahi entered a carpentry course and then began working at the Rotorua Hospital as a carpenter . Once the war was over , he was selected for the New Zealand Victory Contingent , destined for England to celebrate the Commonwealth 's role in the war . As part of the contingent , he participated in the Victory Parade in London on 8 June 1946 . This fulfilled his last military obligations , and he was discharged in August 1946 .
= = Later life = =
Following his discharge , Manahi returned to the work force . Employed by the Ministry of Works , he became a traffic inspector which involved traveling around the Bay of Plenty . A keen sportsman , he became involved in swimming coaching as well golf and fishing . When his wife died in 1976 , he moved away from Rotorua to nearby Maketu , on the coast . He still commuted to Rotoroa to spend time at the local branch of the New Zealand Returned Servicemen 's Association ( RSA ) . On the evening of 29 March 1986 , on the way home from the RSA , he was involved in a car crash . He received severe chest and abdominal injuries and was rushed to Tauranga Hospital where he died later in the evening . His tangi ( funeral ) was held at the marae ( tribal meeting area ) in his home village of Ohinemutu , and was attended by members of the Maori Battalion . Survived by two sons , he was buried at Muruika cemetery .
= = The Manahi VC Committee = =
The situation regarding Manahi 's VC recommendation during the Battle of Takrouna still rankled with many members of the Māori Battalion but while he was alive , Manahi 's modesty and unwillingness to bring any attention to himself meant that he was not interested in changing the situation . Following his death , the Manahi VC Committee was established by his former comrades and iwi to lobby for an upgrade to his award .
The committee lobbied the New Zealand government to make representations to Buckingham Palace regarding the posthumous grant of the VC to Manahi . The Queen 's father , King George VI , had ruled in 1949 that no further awards from the Second World War ought to be made . The New Zealand government was reluctant to make a formal approach and it took until 1997 for Prime Minister , Jenny Shipley to formally broach the subject with Buckingham Palace . The feedback indicated the elapsed time since the events of Takrouna was likely to be a barrier to awarding Manahi a VC .
Finally , in 2000 , Manahi 's iwi , Te Arawa , lodged a claim with the Waitangi Tribunal , and was supported in doing so by the New Zealand RSA . Te Arawa alleged the failure of the New Zealand government to give full consideration of the award of a VC to Manahi constituted a breach of the Treaty of Waitangi , which required the government to act in good faith regarding grievances of Māori . In December 2005 the tribunal reported that there was no breach of the treaty . While not making any formal conclusions or recommendations , the tribunal suggested that the Manahi VC Committee work with the New Zealand government in making an approach to Buckingham Palace . In October 2006 , after further dialogue with Buckingham Palace , the New Zealand Minister of Defence , Phil Goff , announced that Manahi would be recognised by the presentation of an altar cloth , a personal letter from the Queen acknowledging his gallantry and a sword . The award was presented by Prince Andrew to Manahi 's sons , Rauawa and Geoffrey , at a ceremony in Rotorua on 17 March 2007 . The sword was later presented to the Chief of the New Zealand Defence Force , Lieutenant General Jerry Mateparae , along with a patu ( war club ) in memory of Haane Manahi .
= Marianos Argyros =
Marianos Argyros ( Greek : Μαριανός Ἀργυρός , fl . 944 – 963 ) was a Byzantine aristocrat and member of the Argyros family . A monk , in 944 he supported the assumption of sole rule by Constantine VII , and was allowed to leave the monastery and enter imperial service . He held a succession of senior military commands , fighting in southern Italy against local rebels and the Fatimids , and in the Balkans against the Magyars . In 963 , he tried to oppose the takeover of the imperial throne by the general Nikephoros Phokas by assuming control over Constantinople and arresting his father , Bardas Phokas the Elder . During the ensuing clashes , he was hit on the head by a platter , and died on the next day , 16 August 963 .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and the palace coups of 944 = = =
Marianos was the eldest son of the general Leo Argyros , active in the first decades of the 10th century . He had a brother , Romanos Argyros , who in 921 married Agathe , a daughter of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) . The Argyroi therefore were counted among the firmest supporters of the Lekapenos regime . Romanos Lekapenos had risen to power in 919 as regent over the young Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos ( r . 913 – 959 ) , whom he married to his daughter Helena . By December 920 , his position had become so unassailable that he was crowned senior emperor . To consolidate his hold on power , and possibly aiming to supplant the ruling Macedonian dynasty with his own family , Romanos raised his eldest son Christopher to co @-@ emperor in 921 , while the younger sons Stephen and Constantine were proclaimed co @-@ emperors in 924 . Christopher died in 931 , and as Constantine VII remained sidelined , Stephen and Constantine assumed an increased prominence , although formally they still ranked after their brother @-@ in @-@ law in the college of emperors . However , in 943 , the elderly Romanos drafted a will which would leave Constantine VII as the senior emperor following his death . This greatly upset his two sons , who started planning to seize power through a coup d 'état , with Stephen apparently the ringleader and Constantine a rather reluctant partner .
It is in this context that Marianos Argyros is first mentioned in December 944 . At the time , he was a monk , and a confidant of Stephen Lekapenos . According to the 11th @-@ century historian John Skylitzes , he had earlier been honoured and trusted by Romanos , but Marianos nevertheless supported the coup of the Lekapenoi brothers on 20 December , which successfully deposed their father and exiled him to a monastery on the island of Prote . A few weeks later , however , with the support of the populace , Constantine VII managed to sideline the Lekapenoi , who joined their father in exile . It appears that Marianos had changed sides in time , for he participated in the arrest of the Lekapenoi . As a reward , Constantine VII , now sole ruler , freed him of his monastic vows and raised him to the rank of patrikios and the post of Count of the Stable . His abandonment of the monastic habit earned him the nickname " Apambas " or " Apabbas " ( Ἄπαμβας / Ἀπαββᾶς ) , whose etymology is unclear .
= = = Command in southern Italy = = =
Marianos then disappears from the scene until he was sent at the head of troops from the themes of Macedonia and Thrace in an expedition to southern Italy , dated by modern scholars to 955 . A rebellion that had broken out in the local Byzantine themes of Langobardia and Calabria , involving also the imperial vassal city @-@ state of Naples . The Byzantine expeditionary force encircled and besieged Naples , until the city surrendered . Marianos then took over the governance of the Byzantine provinces of Italy : in 956 , he is attested as strategos ( governor ) of Calabria and Langobardia in a charter of privilege for the monastery of Monte Cassino . At about the same time , following a Fatimid raid on Almeria , war had broken out between the Fatimids and the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba . Fatimid sources report that the Umayyads proposed joint action with Byzantium , but Marianos appears to have been focused on suppressing the rebellion rather than engaging in war with the Fatimids . Byzantine envoys even went to the Fatimid caliph , al @-@ Mu 'izz , and offered to renew and extend the existing truce . Al @-@ Mu 'izz however , determined to expose the Umayyads ' collaboration with the infidel enemy and emulate the achievements of his father , refused .
The Caliph dispatched new forces to Sicily under Ammar ibn Ali al @-@ Kalbi and his brother al @-@ Hasan ibn Ali al @-@ Kalbi . In spring / summer 956 , the Fatimid fleet clashed with and defeated the Byzantine fleet in two battles in the Straits of Messina , followed by Fatimid raids on the Calabrian coast . In the aftermath of these raids , Marianos travelled to the Fatimid court in person , and sought a truce in exchange for the resumption of a payment of tribute and the annual release of prisoners of war taken in the East . Al @-@ Mu 'izz agreed to these terms , but warfare resumed soon after , when the Byzantine admiral Basil destroyed the mosque built by the Fatimids at Rhegion and raided Termini . Marianos therefore returned to the Fatimid court in a second embassy in 957 , going first through Sicily , where he apparently delivered to the local Fatimid governor , Ahmad ibn al @-@ Hasan al @-@ Kalbi , the agreed tribute . During the reception by al @-@ Mu 'izz , Marianos presented a letter by Constantine VII confirming the terms agreed during the first embassy , but this time al @-@ Mu 'izz rejected the terms . As a result of the breakdown in these negotiations , Constantine VII sent a massive expedition to Italy under admirals Krambeas and Moroleon , while Marianos commanded the land troops . The Fatimids under the Kalbid brothers al @-@ Hasan and Ammar were victorious over Marianos , but following the arrival of the Byzantine reinforcements the Fatimid fleet left Calabria , only to suffer a shipwreck on its return to Sicily . Marianos is no longer mentioned in Italy after that , although he may have led a third embassy to al @-@ Mu 'izz in September 958 , which led to the conclusion of a five @-@ year truce between the two powers .
= = = Command in the Balkans and death = = =
In ca . 959 / 961 , he defeated a raid by the Magyars into Thrace , taking many of them prisoner . In connection with this operation , Theophanes Continuatus refers to him as " monostrategos of the theme of Macedonia and katepano of the West " , a position equivalent to that of the Domestic of the Schools of the West , in command of all the " western " ( European ) troops . It is unclear , however , whether this means a permanent appointment or was an ad hoc position , i.e. as strategos of Macedonia and temporary overall commander of detachments from the other European themes . The latter is more likely , as it is documented that Leo Phokas the Younger held the post of Domestic of the West , but was fighting against the Arabs in the east at the time .
On 15 March 963 , Emperor Romanos II ( r . 959 – 963 ) unexpectedly died , leaving his young sons Basil II and Constantine VIII as emperors . The powerful general Nikephoros Phokas ( the brother of Leo ) decided to seize the throne for himself , but was opposed by the parakoimomenos and guardian of the young emperors , Joseph Bringas . Seeking support , Bringas offered Marianos the high command in the east and potentially even the throne if he would aid him . Marianos first suggested trying to win over Nikephoros Phokas ' popular nephew and lieutenant , the strategos of the Anatolics John Tzimiskes . The latter not only refused , however , but took his letter straight to his uncle , who summoned his armies to Caesarea and had them proclaim him emperor in early summer . As Phokas ' army advanced across Asia Minor on Constantinople , Marianos then tried to stage a coup in Constantinople with men of the Macedonian regiments and armed prisoners of war . This move was opposed by the populace , however , resulting in clashes in the streets . The populace became especially enraged when Marianos tried to forcibly remove the Phokades ' elderly father , Bardas , from the Hagia Sophia where he had sought sanctuary , on 15 August . Marianos was reportedly hit on the head by a platter , thrown by a woman from a nearby house roof . Mortally wounded , he died on the next day . Phokas ' supporters rapidly prevailed thereafter . Bringas was forced to flee himself to the Hagia Sophia , and on 16 August Nikephoros Phokas was crowned senior emperor as guardian of Basil and Constantine .
= 1815 North Carolina hurricane =
The 1815 North Carolina hurricane caused the most severe flooding in New Bern , North Carolina since 1795 . First detected east of the Lesser Antilles on 26 August , the disturbance drifted toward the northwestern Leeward Islands , arriving by 29 August . The hurricane soon approached Charleston , South Carolina , on 1 September , and subsequently made landfall near Cape Lookout in North Carolina on 3 September . The gale reached New England by 5 September , departing the region on 6 September . The hurricane caused significant impact even before coming ashore : many vessels were damaged , grounded , capsized , or destroyed offshore throughout the course of the storm . Extensive damage to corn , cotton , and rice crops was also noted . Flood waters brought rivers as much as 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal , inundating streets and structures . Overall , the hurricane inflicted at least 15 deaths throughout its existence , and more than $ 60 @,@ 000 ( 1815 USD ) in property damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The 1815 North Carolina hurricane was first detected far east of the Lesser Antilles on 26 August . The disturbance was next sighted at Saint Barthélemy on 29 August , where it produced severe winds . Eventually , it approached Charleston , South Carolina by 1 September , before making landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina on 3 September , where the hurricane 's effects lasted for three days . The storm then swept inland , curving east of Wilmington and nearing New Bern soon thereafter . The hurricane subsequently veered northeastward at Edenton , its deviation in track coinciding with a shift in winds toward the northeast west of the system 's trajectory . Tracking northeast , the system entered the Chesapeake Bay and passed into the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean after transiting over Norfolk , Virginia on 5 September , and continued to parallel the East Coast of the United States . Gales were observed on Long Island and in portions of New England , with heavy rain and strong winds noted . The disturbance remained offshore , however , and the system eventually departed the region on the morning of 6 September .
= = Impact = =
Maritime losses as a result of the hurricane were considerable . On the evening of 31 August , the 140 @-@ ton British vessel Spring , which originated from Liverpool , was beached near Cape Romain within the vicinity of the Raccoon Keys . Massive waves caused the boat to disintegrate , and the crew fled on a longboat toward Charleston , South Carolina , surviving but losing the ship 's cargo . The craft Brutus , meanwhile , overturned while en route toward Charleston from New York City , suffering the loss of its rigging and main boom . Despite experiencing damage to its cargo of cheese and potatoes , the ship arrived in Charleston safely . Meanwhile , off of Savannah , Georgia , the storm dismasted the clipper Richmond Packet which was delivering Spanish wine . Along the coast of Charleston , high waves prevented ships from docking at port , and boats did not remain with their moorings , with one breaking free and washing aground at James Island . Moving up the coast , the storm leveled fields of cotton , pushed salt water upstream , and destroyed dams protecting rice fields on the Cooper River , destroying the year 's harvest . An editor of the newspaper Savannah Republican composed a poem reflecting upon and lamenting the plight of seamen who died in the storm . At Sullivan 's Island near Charleston , the hurricane beached several vessels , and from Charleston to Georgetown , intense gusts and copious rainfall ruined cotton and rice fields in low @-@ lying regions .
The hurricane destroyed ships from Cape Fear to Currituck , North Carolina , ruined crops , uprooted forests , displaced gristmills , and demolished roads inland . At Wilmington , the storm inflicted damage to numerous buildings , among them the Cape Fear Bank , which suffered the loss of its chimneys . The city 's wharves also experienced moderate damage , with a sloop from Bermuda capsizing and a brig separating from port , drifting toward a nearby plantation . A saltworks at Masonboro Island and several other offshore barrier islands endured severe damage , with the hurricane producing a 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) -high storm surge in some regions , driving thousands of pounds of salt to sea . In all , the salterns at Masonboro Island suffered approximately $ 60 @,@ 000 ( 1815 USD ) in losses . Damage was similarly severe near Bear Island and locations along the White Oak River . At Swansboro , meanwhile , two schooners struck a sand bar and another two were grounded nearby , and three other vessels later washed into a nearby forest . A second saltworks was completely obliterated , and on a nearby beach , a residence was destroyed , with five family members drowned . A second house was also swept away , with four individuals inside killed . Majestic shade trees throughout the state were uprooted , and doors of houses near Cape Lookout burst open despite being firmly locked shut . At Edenton , the hurricane was believed to have been worse than the 1806 Great Coastal hurricane . Winds uprooted numerous trees at Fayetteville , obstructing roads , with similar impacts at Raleigh . Significant crop damage was also noted at Winston @-@ Salem , where fences were toppled , and fields of corn , orchards , and forests ruined .
The remnants of a small unidentified vessel were discovered , abandoned , near the origin of the New River , likely delivering cheese from New England . At Beaufort on the Outer Banks , several structures along the shoreline experienced damage , and several under construction ships were wrecked . Nearby at the Shackleford and Bogue Banks , several watercraft were destroyed . On the eastern sector of the latter , Fort Hampton was nearly washed away by the high storm surge generated by the hurricane . The barracks of the fort were lifted afloat for some time , with survivors clinging to its roof . To the north , another 30 boats were found destroyed near Ocracoke . Six men were killed after being knocked overboard upon the Julia , which was washed aground between Hatteras and Ocracoke . Additionally , a number of vessels were grounded near Cape Hatteras . Inland , thousands of trees and many structures were toppled , and fields of crops were flooded , disrupting the impending harvests . New Bern suffered especially acutely , with the waters of the Neuse River breaking their banks and inundating the town with 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water ; there , the flood was considered to be the worst since 1795 . Buildings disintegrated under the force of high winds and flood waters , and many people attempted to escape their residences . Meanwhile , at Washington , the storm caused the neighboring Pamlico River to rise at a speed of 15 in ( 38 cm ) per hour before peaking at a height 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal . Massive amounts of lumber and naval goods were swept away by the high waters , and numerous ships broke free of their moorings , of which two were beached .
Four British ships were forced to dock at Norfolk , Virginia after experiencing damage on 5 September , and at Long Island , similarly severe gales were endured by ships at Long Island . Heavy rain occurred in sections of New England on 5 and 6 September , though no significant damage occurred .
= Ersatz Monarch @-@ class battleship =
The Ersatz Monarch @-@ class ( Replacement Monarch @-@ class ) battleship was a projected new class of four battleships which were to be constructed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1914 – 19 . Designed to replace the Monarch @-@ class battleships ( which later became coastal defense ships ) , each of the new battleships were to carry ten 35 cm ( 14 in ) L / 45 guns as their primary armament , a slight improvement over her predecessors , the Tegetthoff class . The ships were 175 @.@ 2 metres ( 575 ft ) and were designed to displace 24 @,@ 560 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 170 long tons ; 27 @,@ 070 short tons ) .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy intended to lay down the first vessel in July 1914 , but the outbreak of World War I that month caused the Navy to postpone construction until September . Ultimately , none of the vessels were laid down and they were formally cancelled in late 1917 . However , four of the 35 cm guns had been built and were transferred to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army for use on the Italian Front .
= = History = =
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered the construction of four new battleships to replace the aging Monarch class in May 1914 . As a result , the new class was known by the contract name for the first vessel , Ersatz Monarch . The ships were to cost 82 – 83 million kronen each . The class was to be built in two separate shipyards : two battleships were to be built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino and two by Ganz & Co – Danubius .
= = = Proposals = = =
The construction of the Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships had already begun in 1910 when Skodawerke A.G made the first of many attempts to obtain the approval for a new generation of " super " dreadnoughts to replace the aging Monarch @-@ class ships . The original proposal laid forth on 18 April 1911 consisted of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 34 cm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns with three guns in each of the two superimposed turrets .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Naval Technical Committee later submitted three proposals by Austrian chief naval architect Franz Pitzinger on the general characteristics of the new class in December 1911 . The first of the three proposals called for a 22 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 22 @,@ 000 t ; 25 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ) battleship with 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns . A later proposal had the new class weighing 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ; 26 @,@ 000 short tons ) and equipped with 13 @.@ 6 @-@ inch ( 350 mm ) guns . The last proposal had the battleship weighing as much as 24 @,@ 100 long tons ( 24 @,@ 500 t ; 27 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Despite the first two proposals on the main guns ' caliber , the final decision for the caliber was to be a modified and slightly larger version of the original proposal by Skodawerke A.G , with the main turrets to be equipped with 13 @.@ 78 @-@ inch ( 350 @.@ 0 mm ) to 13 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 350 @.@ 5 mm ) guns . The final design for the main turrets ' caliber was influenced by the Imperial German Navy , which had incorporated this caliber on its new Mackensen @-@ class battlecruisers .
By January 1913 , the Naval Technical Committee delivered its first official proposal for the new Ersatz Monarch @-@ class battleships . The committee decided to choose the largest of the three initial proposals for the ship 's tonnage , with each ship weighing roughly 24 @,@ 100 tons . The battleships were to be equipped with a total of ten 13 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 350 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns , eighteen 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns , and twenty @-@ two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 90 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns . The main guns were to be between 13 @.@ 78 inches ( 350 @.@ 0 mm ) and 13 @.@ 8 inches ( 350 @.@ 5 mm ) . It took another year and a half for this final design to be formally approved in July 1914 . During this time , a further 12 designs were put forth .
= = Layout = =
= = = Armament and propulsion = = =
The standard weight for the class was to be 24 @,@ 100 long tons ( 24 @,@ 500 t ; 27 @,@ 000 short tons ) per ship . The ships ' length would have been 574 feet ( 175 m ) and the beam 93 @.@ 5 ft ( 28 @.@ 5 m ) while the draft would have been 27 @.@ 6 ft ( 8 @.@ 41 m ) . The four battleships of the Ersatz Monarch class would have been equipped with four @-@ shaft steam turbines that produced 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) and contained 15 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers ( nine coal @-@ fired and six oil @-@ fired ) . These engines would have enabled the four battleships to travel at 21 knots ( 38 @.@ 9 km / h ) . Their total range would have been 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 000 km ) while traveling at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . Each battleship was to be manned by a crew of 1 @,@ 050 to 1 @,@ 100 officers and men . According to the approved gun designs from January 1913 , the members of the Ersatz Monarch class would have had 10 13 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 350 mm ) guns , 14 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns , 20 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 90 mm ) guns , two 1 @.@ 85 @-@ inch ( 47 mm ) guns and six 21 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 550 mm ) torpedo tubes .
= = = Armor = = =
The armor plating on the ships would have been 12 in ( 300 mm ) thick around the belt , barbettes , turrets and the conning tower , while the deck would have had 2 @.@ 85 @-@ inch ( 72 mm ) thick armor . The underwater defenses of the battleships were a drastic change from previous Austro @-@ Hungarian battleship designs . The new design was similar to recent French and Russian designs . A horizontal armor deck was built into the vessel inwards from the bottom edge of the armor belt , as far as the last vertical bulkheads . The new guns that were approved for the final design were modified to increase the effect of a broadside . However , in order to keep a stable balance between the ships ' protection , stability , and firepower , the battleships were to only be equipped with 10 guns . This new layout was unusual , having two turrets with three guns mounted on each of them being superimposed over two twin guns .
= = Construction and cancellation = =
With the final design in place , four ships from the class were ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in July 1914 . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy followed the traditional German custom of not naming the new ships until they were formally launched . As a result , the Navy only referred to them as " replacements " for the old Monarch @-@ class ships , hence the name " Ersatz " ( replacement ) . The four battleships themselves were simply referred to as " Battleships VIII @-@ XI " . Because several design sketches that all had slight differences were put forth , the exact final appearance of the ships are not known . However , they all would have been built with raised forecastles in order to give them better seaworthiness than their predecessors of the Tegetthoff class . The battleships would have been equipped with lattice towers that would hold searchlight platforms .
Each battleship would have cost about 83 million kronen . The first battleship would have been laid down in July 1914 , but this date was later pushed back to September due to the outbreak of World War I at the end of July . The first battleship , " Battleship VIII , " was scheduled to have been completed on 30 June 1917 . The second battleship , referred to as " Battleship IX , " would have been laid down
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on 1 January 1915 and launched on 31 December 1917 . The third and fourth battleships , " Battleship X " and " Battleship XI , " were scheduled to be laid down on 1 June 1916 and completed on 31 May 1919 .
The main guns were to be built by Skoda , and while the battleships themselves were never laid down , the guns for one battleship had been ordered prior to the beginning of World War I. These were the only orders that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had placed for any part of the four battleships . It was assumed that following a victorious conclusion to the war in just two months , work on the battleships would resume . As the war continued , four of the main guns that were ordered from the Skoda works were handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army for use on the Italian Front . The rest of the completed main guns were later taken by the French as a war prize following the end of the war . In late 1917 , the construction on all four vessels was canceled .
= Widener Library =
The Harry Elkins Widener Memorial Library , housing some 3 @.@ 5 million books in its " vast and cavernous " stacks , is the center piece of the Harvard College Libraries ( the libraries of Harvard 's Faculty of Arts and Sciences ) and , more broadly , of the entire Harvard Library system . It honors 1907 Harvard College graduate and book collector Harry Elkins Widener , and was constructed by his mother Eleanor Elkins Widener after his death in the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912 .
The library 's holdings , which include works in more than one hundred languages , comprise " one of the world 's most comprehen sive research collec tions in the humanities and social sciences . " Its 57 miles ( 92 km ) of shelves , along five miles ( 8 km ) of aisles on ten levels , comprise a " labyrinth " which one student " could not enter without feeling that she ought to carry a compass , a sandwich , and a whistle . "
At the building 's heart are the Widener Memorial Rooms , displaying papers and mementos recalling the life and death of Harry Widener , as well as the Harry Elkins Widener Collec tion , " the precious group of rare and wonder fully interesting books brought together by Mr. Widener " , to which was later added one of the few perfect Gutenberg Bibles — the object of a 1969 burglary attempt conjectured by Harvard 's police chief to have been inspired by the heist film Topkapi .
Campus legends holding that Harry Widener 's fate led to institu tion of an undergrad uate swimming @-@ proficiency requirement , and that an additional donation from his mother subsidizes ice cream at Harvard meals , are without foundation .
= = Background , conception and gift = =
= = = Predecessor = = =
By the opening of the twentieth century alarms had been issuing for many years about Harvard 's " disgrace fully inadequate " : 276 library , Gore Hall , completed 1841 ( when Harvard owned some 44 @,@ 000 books ) : 5 and declared full in 1863 . : 5 Librarian Justin Winsor concluded his 1892 Annual Report by pleading , " I have in earlier reports exhausted the language of warning and anxiety , in represent ing the totally inadequate accommo da tions for books and readers which Gore Hall affords . Each twelve months brings us nearer to a chaotic condition " ; : 15 his successor Archibald Cary Coolidge asserted that the Boston Public Library was a better place to write an undergraduate thesis . : 29 Despite substantial additions in 1876 and 1907 , in 1910 a committee of architects termed Gore
unsafe [ and ] unsuitable for its object ... no amount of tinkering can make it really good ... hopelessly over crowded ... leaks when there is a heavy rain ... intolerably hot in summer ... books are put in double rows and are not infrequently left lying on top of one another , or actually on the floor ... : 51 – 2
With dormitory basements pressed into service as overflow storage for Harvard 's 543 @,@ 000 books , : 50 the committee drew up a proposal for replacement of Gore in stages . Andrew Carnegie was approached for financing without success .
= = = Death of Harry Widener = = =
In 1912 , Harry Elkins Widener — scion of two of the wealthiest families in America , a 1907 graduate of Harvard College , and an accomplished bibliophile despite his youth — died in the sinking of the RMS Titanic . His father George Dunton Widener perished as well , but his mother Eleanor Elkins Widener survived .
Harry Widener 's will instructed that his mother , when " in her judgment Harvard University shall make arrange ments for properly caring for my collec tion of books ... shall give them to said University to be known as the Harry Elkins Widener Collection " , and he had told a friend , not long before he died , " I want to be remembered in connection with a great library , [ but ] I do not see how it is going to be brought about . "
To enable the fulfillment of her son 's wish Eleanor Widener briefly consid ered funding an addition to Gore Hall , but soon determined to build instead a completely new and far larger library building — " a perpetual memorial " : 90 to Harry Widener , housing not only his personal book collection but Harvard 's general library as well . As Biel has written , " The [ Harvard architects ] committee 's Beaux Arts design [ for Gore Hall 's projected replacement ] , with its massiveness and symmetry , offered monumen tal ity with nothing more particular to monumen tal ize than the aspira tions of the modern university " — until the Titanic sank and " through delicate negotia tion , [ Harvard ] convinced Eleanor Widener that the most eloquent tribute to Harry would be an entire library rather than a rare book wing . " : 88 – 9
= = = Terms and cost of gift = = =
To her gift Eleanor Widener attached a number of stipulations , : 43 including that the building 's architects be the firm of Horace Trumbauer & Associates , which had built several mansions for both the Elkins and the Widener families . : 27 " Mrs. Widener does not give the University the money to build a new library , but has offered to build a library satisfactory in external appearance to herself , " Harvard President Abbott Lawrence Lowell wrote privately . " The exterior was her own choice , and she has decided architec tur al opinions . " : 167 Harvard historian William Bentinck @-@ Smith has written that
To [ Harvard officials ] Mrs. Widener was a lovely and generous lady whose wealth , power , and remoteness made her a somewhat terrifying figure who must not be roused to annoyance or outrage . Once [ construction ] began , all financial transactions were the donor 's private business , and no one at Harvard ever knew the exact cost . Mrs. Widener was counting on $ 2 million , [ but ] it is probable the cost exceeded $ 3 @.@ 5 million .
Though Harvard awarded Trumbauer an honorary degree on the day of the new library 's dedication , it was Trumbauer associate Julian F. Abele who had overall responsi bility for the building 's design , which largely followed the committee 's outline ( though with the committee 's central circula tion room shifted from center to the northeast corner , yielding pride of place to the Memorial Rooms ) .
After Gore Hall was turned into a " pile of stones and rubbish " to make way , : 13 ground was broken on February 12 , 1913 , and the corner stone laid on June 16 . By later that year some 50 @,@ 000 bricks were being laid each day .
= = Building = =
At Harvard 's " geographical and intellec tual heart " directly across Tercenten ary Theatre from Memorial Church , Widener Library is a hollow rectangle of " Harvard brick with Indiana limestone traceries " , 250 by 200 by 80 feet high ( 76 by 61 by 24 m ) : 167 and enclosing 320 @,@ 000 square feet ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) , " colon naded on its front by immense pillars with elaborate [ Corinthian capitals ] , : 362 all of which stand at the head of a flight of stairs that would not disgrace the capitol in Washing ton . " Sources describe the building 's style as ( variously ) Beaux @-@ Arts , : 88 Georgian , : 57 : 457 Hellenistic , : 281 or " the austere , formalistic Imperial [ or ' Imperial and Classical ' ] style displayed in the Law School 's Langdell Hall and the Medical School Quadrangle " . : 361
The east , south , and west wings house the stacks , while the north contains administrative offices and various reading rooms , including the Main Reading Room ( now the Loker Reading Room ) — which , spanning the entire front of the building and some 42 feet ( 13 m ) in both depth and height , was termed by architec tur al historian Bainbridge Bunting " the most ostenta tious interior space at Harvard . " : 154 A topmost floor , supported by the stacks framework itself , contains thirty @-@ two rooms for special collections , studies , offices , and seminars . : 327 @-@ 8
The Memorial Rooms ( see § Widener Memorial Rooms ) are in the building 's center , between what were originally two light courts ( 28 by 110 ft or 8 @.@ 5 by 33 m ) now enclosed as additional reading rooms .
= = = Dedication = = =
The building was dedicated immediately after Com mence ment Day exercises on June 24 , 1915 . Lowell and Coolidge mounted the steps to the main door , where Eleanor Widener presented them with the building 's keys . The first book formally brought into the new library was the 1634 edition of John Downame 's The Christian Warfare Against the Devil , World , and Flesh , : 18 believed ( at the time ) to be the only volume , of those bequeathed to the school by John Harvard in 1636 , to have survived the 1754 burning of Harvard Hall .
In the Memorial Rooms , after a benediction by Bishop William Lawrence , a portrait of Harry Widener was unveiled , then remarks delivered by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge ( speaking on " The Meaning of a Great Library " on behalf of Eleanor Widener ) and Lowell ( " For years we have longed for a library that would serve our purpose , but we never hoped to see such a library as this " ) . Afterward ( said the Boston Evening Transcript ) " the doors were thrown open , and both graduates and under graduates had an opportu ni ty to see the beauties and utilities of this important univer sity acquisition . "
" I hope it will become the heart of the University , " Eleanor Widener said afterward , " a centre for all the interests that make Harvard a great university . "
= = = Widener Memorial Rooms = = =
The central Memorial Rooms — an outer Rotunda housing memorabilia of the life and death of Harry Widener , and an inner Library displaying the 3300 rare books collected by him — were described by the Boston Sunday Herald soon after the dedication :
The [ Rotunda ] is of Alabama marble except the domed ceiling , with fluted columns and Ionic capitals [ while the Library ] is finished in carved English oak , the carving having been done in England ; the high bookcases are fitted with glass shelves and bronze sashes , the windows are hung with heavy curtains [ and ] upon the desks are vases filled with flowers .
The big marble fireplace and the portrait of Harry Widener occupy a large portion of the south wall . Standing front of the fireplace one may look through the vista made by the doorways , the staircases within and the stairs without and get a glimpse of the green campus .
Conversely , " even from the very entrance [ of the building ] one will catch a glimpse in the distance of the portrait of young Harry Widener on the further wall [ of the Memorial Rooms ] , if the intervening doors happen to be open . " : 325
For many years Eleanor Widener hosted Commencement Day luncheons in the Memorial Rooms . : 20 The family underwrites their upkeep , including weekly renewal of the flowers — originally roses but now carnations .
= = = Amenities and deficiencies = = =
Touted as " the last word in library construction " , the new building 's amenities included telephones , pneumatic tubes , book lifts and conveyors , elevators , and a dining @-@ room and kitchenette " for the ladies of the staff " . : 676 Advertisements for the manufacturer of the building 's shelving highlighted its " dark brown enamel finish , harmonizing with oak trim " , and special interchangeable regular and oversize shelves meant that books on a given subject could be shelved together regardless of size .
The Library Journal found " especially interesting not so much the spacious and lofty reading rooms " as the innovation : 255 of placing student carrels and private faculty studies directly in the stack , reflecting Lowell 's desire to put " the massive resources of the stack close to the scholar 's hand , reuniting books and readers in an intimacy that nineteenth @-@ century [ " closed @-@ stack " library designs ] had long precluded " . : 45 @-@ 6 ( Competition for the seventy : 327 coveted faculty studies has been a longstanding administrative headache . )
Nonetheless certain deficien cies were soon noted . : 107 : 89 A primitive form of air conditioning was aban doned within a few months . : 97 " The need of better toilet facilities [ in the stacks ] has been pressed upon us during the past year by several rather distressing experiences , " Widener Superintendent Frank Carney wrote opaquely in 1918 . And Coolidge wrote to J. P. Morgan , Jr . , " There is something rather humiliating in having to proclaim to the world that we have 300 [ carrels in the stacks ] which furnish unequalled opportunity to the scholar and investigator who wishes to come here , but that in order to use these opportu ni ties he must bring his own chair , table and electric lamp . " ( A week later Coolidge wrote again : " Your very generous gift [ has helped ] pull me out of a most desperate situation . " ) : 102
Later @-@ built tunnels , from the stacks level furthest underground , connect to nearby Pusey Library , Lamont Library , and Houghton Library . An enclosed bridge connecting to Houghton via a Widener window — built after Eleanor Widener 's heirs agreed to waive : 75 her gift 's proscription of exterior additions or alterations : 79 — was removed in 2004 . ( Houghton and Lamont were built in the 1940s to relieve Widener , which had become simultaneously too small — its shelves were full — and too large — its immense size and complex catalog made books difficult to locate . But with Harvard 's collections doubling every 17 years , by 1965 Widener was again close to full , prompting construction of Pusey . )
= = Collections and stacks = =
The ninety @-@ unit Harvard Library system , : 361 of which Widener is the anchor , is the only academic library among the world 's five " megalibraries " — Widener , the New York Public Library , the Library of Congress , France 's Bibliothèque Nationale , and the British Library : 352 — making it " unambigu ously the greatest univer sity library in the world , " in the words of a Harvard official .
According to the Harvard College Library 's own description , Widener 's humanities and social sciences collections include
holdings in the history , literature , public affairs , and cultures of five continents . Of particular note are the collec tions of Africana , Americana , European local history , Judaica , Latin American studies , Middle Eastern studies , Slavic studies , and rich collec tions of materials for the study of Asia , the United Kingdom and Commonwealth , France , Germany , Italy , Scandinavia , and Greek and Latin antiquity . These collec tions include significant holdings in linguistics , ancient and modern languages , folklore , economics , history of science and technology , philosophy , psychology , and sociology .
The collection 's 3 @.@ 5 million volumes occupy 57 miles ( 92 km ) of shelves : 4 along five miles ( 8 km ) of aisles , on ten levels divided into three wings each . : 4
Again alone among the " megalibraries " , only Harvard allows patrons the " long @-@ treasured privilege " of entering the general @-@ collections stacks to browse as they please , instead of requesting books through library staff . Until a recent renovation the stacks had little signage — " There was the expecta tion that if you were good enough to qualify to get into the stacks you certainly didn 't need any help " ( as one official put it ) so that " learning to [ find books in ] Widener was like a rite of passage , a test of manhood " , and a 1979 monograph on library design complained , " After one goes through the main doors of Harvard 's Widener Library , the only visible sign says merely ENTER . " At times color @-@ coded lines and shoeprints have been applied to the floors to help patrons keep their bearings .
As of 1997 the library reshelved some 600 @,@ 000 volumes each year . Another 3 million Widener items reside offsite ( along with many millions of items from other Harvard libraries ) at the Harvard Depository in Southbor ough , Massachu setts , from which they are retrieved overnight on request . : 170 @-@ 1 A project to insert barcodes into each book , begun in the late 1970s , has some 1 million volumes yet to reach .
= = = Harry Elkins Widener Collection = = =
The works displayed in the Memorial Rooms comprise Harry Widener 's collec tion at the time of his death , " major monuments of English letters , many remarkable for their bindings and illustrations or unusual provenance " : : 9 Shakespeare first folios ; : 362 a copy of Poems written by Wil . Shake @-@ speare , gent . ( 1640 ) in its original sheepskin binding ; an inscribed copy of Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson ; Johnson 's own Bible ( " used so much by its owner that several pages were worn out and Johnson copied them over in his own writing " ) ; and first editions , presenta tion copies , and similarly valuable volumes of Robert Louis Stevenson , Thackeray , Charlotte Brontë , Blake , George Cruikshank , Isaac Cruikshank , Robert Cruikshank and Dickens — including the petty cash book kept by Dickens while a young law clerk . Book collector George Sidney Hellman , writing soon after Harry Widener 's death , observed that he was " not satisfied alone in having a rare book or a rare book inscribed by the author ; it was with him a prerequisite that the volume should be in immaculate condition . "
Harry Widener " died suddenly , just as he was beginning to be one of the world 's great collectors , " said the Collection 's first curator . : 6 " They formed a young man 's library , and are to be preserved as he left it " — except that the Widener family has the exclusive privilege of adding to it . Harvard 's " greatest typographical treasure " : 17 is one of the only thirty @-@ eight perfect copies extant of the Gutenberg Bible , purchased while Harry was abroad by his grandfather Peter A. B. Widener ( who had intended to surprise Harry with it once the Titanic docked in New York ) and added to the Collection by the Widener family in 1944 .
Like all Harvard 's valuable books , works in the Widener Collec tion may be consulted by researchers demonstrating a genuine research need .
= = = Parallel classification systems and dual catalogs = = =
Like many large libraries , Widener originally classified its holdings according to its own idiosyncratic system — the " Widener " or " Harvard " system — which ( writes Battles ) follows " the division of knowledge in its [ early twentieth @-@ century ] formulation . The Aus class contains books on the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ; the Ott class serves the purpose for the Ottoman Empire . Dante , Molière , and Montaigne each gets a class of his own . " : 15
In the 1970s new arrivals began to be classified according to a modified version of the Library of Congress system . : 256 : 159 The two systems ' differences reflect " competing theories of knowl edge ... In a sense , the Widener system was Aristotelian ; its divi sions were empirical , describing and reflecting the languages and cultural origins of books and highlighting their relations to one another in language , place , and time ; [ the Library of Congress system ] , by contrast , was Platonic , looking past the surface of language and nation to reflect the idealized , essential discipline in which each [ item ] might be said to belong . " : 158 @-@ 9
Because of the impracticality of reclassifying millions of books , those received before the changeover remain under their original " Widener " classifications . Thus among works on a given subject , older books will be found at one shelf location ( under a " Widener " classification ) and newer ones at another ( under the corresponding Library of Congress classification ) .
In addition , an accident of the building 's layout led to the development of two separate card catalogs — the " Union " catalog and the " Public " catalog — housed on different floors and having a complex interrelationship " which perplexed students and faculty alike . " It was not until the 1990s that the electronic Harvard On @-@ Line Library Information System was able to completely supplant both physical catalogs . : 137 @,@ 192
= = = Departmental and special libraries = = =
The building also houses a number of special libraries in dedicated spaces outside the stacks , includ ing :
There are also special collections in the history of science , linguis tics , Near Eastern languag es and civiliza tions , paleogra phy , and Sanskrit .
The contents of the Treasure Room , holding Harvard 's most precious rare books and manuscripts ( other than the Harry Elkins Widener Collection itself ) were transferred to newly built Houghton Library in 1942 . : 15
= = In literature and legend = =
= = = Swim @-@ requirement , ice @-@ cream , and other legends = = =
Legend holds that to spare future Harvard men her son 's fate , Eleanor Widener insisted , as a condition of her gift , that learning to swim be made a requirement for graduation . ( This requirement , the Harvard Crimson once elaborated erroneously , was " dropped in the late 1970s because it was deemed discriminatory against physically disabled students " . ) " Among the many myths relating to Harry Elkins Widener , this is the most prevalent " , says Harvard 's " Ask a Librarian " service . Though Harvard has had swimming requirements at various times ( e.g. for rowers on the Charles River , or as part of a now @-@ defunct freshmen training regimen ) Bentinck @-@ Smith writes that " There is absolutely no evidence in the President 's papers , or the faculty 's , to indicate that [ Eleanor Widener ] was , as a result of the Titanic disaster , in any way responsi ble for [ any ] compulsory swimming test . "
Another story , holding that Eleanor Widener donated a further sum to underwrite perpetual availability of ice cream ( purportedly Harry Widener 's favorite dessert ) in Harvard dining halls , is also without foundation . A Widener curator 's compilation of " fanciful oral history " recited by student tour guides includes " Flowers mysteriously appear every morning outside the Widener Room " and " Harry used to have carnations dyed crimson to remind him of Harvard , and so his mother kept up the tradition " in the flowers displayed in the Memorial Rooms .
= = = Literary references = = =
In H. P. Lovecraft 's fictional universe Cthulhu Mythos , a 17th @-@ century edition of the Necro nom i con is hidden somewhere in the Widener stacks .
Thomas Wolfe , who earned a Harvard master 's degree in 1922 wrote of " [ wandering ] through the stacks of that great library like some damned soul , never at rest — ever leaping ahead from the pages I read to thoughts of those I want to read " ; his alter ego Eugene Gant read with a watch in his hand , " laying waste of the shelves . "
Historian Barbara Tuchman considered " the single most formative experience " of her career the writing of her undergrad uate thesis , for which she was " allowed to have as my own one of those little cubicles with a table under a window " in the Widener stacks , which were " my Achimedes ' bathtub , my burning bush , my dish of mold where I found my personal penicillin . "
= = Burglary and other incidents = =
Over the years , Widener has been the scene of various criminal exploits " infamous for their fecklessness and ignominity . " : 59
= = = Joel C. Williams = = =
In 1931 former graduate student Joel C. Williams was arrested after attempting to sell two books bearing Harvard College Library stamps to a Harvard Square book dealer , after which ( the Harvard Crimson reported ) " C. R. Apted , Superin tend ent of Caretakers , together with officials of the Library , made a trip to Williams ' home " , where ( posing as " book buyers " to spare the feelings of Williams ' family ) : 88 they found thousands of books stolen over the prior eight to ten years , : D many badly damaged , in barrels and wastebaskets . The " absolutely crazy " Williams would " go to students studying in Widener and ask them what course they were taking . He would then borrow all the books for that course in the library . Then no one could get any to study , " library official John E. Shea later recalled .
Despite the misleading implication of bookplates placed in the 2504 : D recovered books , Harvard 's charges against Williams were dropped after he was indicted on book @-@ theft charges in another jurisdic tion , which imposed a sentence of hard labor . After the unrelated arrest of a book @-@ theft ring operating at Harvard , there was a " noticeable
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broadening " . The previous weight given to non @-@ PDPA members in top positions ceased to be an important matter in the media by June 1981 . This was significant , considering that up to five members of the Revolutionary Council were non @-@ PDPA members . By the end of 1981 , the previous contenders , who had been heavily presented in the media , were all gone ; two were given ambassadorships , two ceased to be active in politics , and one continued as an advisor to the government . The other three changed sides , and began to work for the opposition .
The national policy of reconciliation continued : in January 1984 the land reform introduced by Taraki and Amin was drastically modified , the limits of landholdings were increased to win the support of middle class peasants , the literacy programme was continued , and concessions to women were made . In 1985 the Loya Jirga was reconvened . The 1985 Loya Jirga was followed by a tribal jirga in September . In 1986 Abdul Rahim Hatef , a non @-@ PDPA member , was elected to the NFF chairmanship . During the 1985 – 86 elections it was said that 60 percent of the elected officials were non @-@ PDPA members . By the end of Karmal 's rule , several non @-@ PDPA members had high @-@ level government positions .
= = = = Civil war and military = = = =
In March 1979 , the military budget was 6 @.@ 4 million US $ , which was 8 @.@ 3 percent of the government budget , but only 2 @.@ 2 of gross national product . After the Soviet intervention , the defence budget increased to 208 million US $ in 1980 , and 325 million US $ by 1981 . In 1982 it was reported that the government spent around 22 percent of total expenditure .
When the political solution failed ( see " PDPA base " section ) , the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily . The change from a political to a military solution did not come suddenly . It began in January 1981 , as Karmal doubled wages for military personnel , issued several promotions , and decorated one general and thirteen colonels . The draft age was lowered , the obligatory length of arms duty was extended and the age for reservists was increased to thirty @-@ five years of age . In June 1981 , Assadullah Sarwari lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo , replaced by Mohammad Aslam Watanjar , a former tank commander and Minister of Communications , Major General Mohammad Rafi was madeMinister of Defence and Mohammad Najibullah appointed KHAD Chairman .
These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army during the Soviet intervention . Before the invasion the army could field 100 @,@ 000 troops , after the invasion only 25 @,@ 000 . Desertions were pandemic , and the recruitment campaigns for young people often drove them to the opposition . To better organize the military , seven military zones were established , each with its own Defence Council . The Defence Councils were established at the national , provincial and district level to empower the local PDPA . It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defense .
= = = = Economy = = = =
During the civil war and the ensuing Soviet war in Afghanistan , most of the country 's infrastructure was destroyed . Normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted . The Gross national product ( GNP ) fell substantially during Karmal 's rule because of the conflict ; trade and transport was disrupted with loss of labor and capital . In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154 @.@ 3 billion Afghan afghanis , a drop from 159 @.@ 7 billion in 1978 . GNP per capita decreased from 7 @,@ 370 in 1978 to 6 @,@ 852 in 1981 . The dominant form of economic activity was in the agricultural sector . Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of gross domestic product ( GDP ) in 1981 ; 56 percent of the labor force was working in agriculture in 1982 . Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982 , and employed 10 percent of the labor force . All industrial enterprises were government @-@ owned . The service sector , the smallest of the three , accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981 , and employed an estimated one @-@ third of the labour force . The balance of payments , which had grown in the pre @-@ communist administration of Muhammad Daoud Khan , decreased , turning negative by 1982 at 70 @.@ 3 million $ US . The only economic activity which grew substantially during Karmal 's rule was export and import .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Karmal observed in the spring of 1983 that without Soviet intervention , " It is unknown what the destiny of the Afghan Revolution would be ... We are realists and we clearly realize that in store for us yet lie trials and deprivations , losses and difficulties . " Two weeks before this statement Sultan Ali Keshtmand , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers , lamented the fact that half the schools and three @-@ quarters of communications had been destroyed since 1979 . The Soviet Union rejected several Western @-@ made peace plans , such as the Carrington Plan , since they did not take into consideration the PDPA government . Most Western peace plans had been made in collaboration with the Afghan opposition forces . At the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) Leonid Brezhnev , the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee , stated ;
" We do not object to the questions connected with Afghanistan being discussed in conjunction with the question of security in the Persian Gulf . Naturally here on only the international aspects of the Afghan problem can be discussed , not internal Afghan affairs . The sovereignty of Afghanistan must be fully protected , as must its nonaligned status . "
The stance of the Pakistani government was clear , demanding complete Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the establishment of a non @-@ PDPA government . Karmal , summarizing his discussions with Iran and Pakistan , said " Iran and Pakistan have so far not opted for concrete and constructive positions . " During Karmal 's rule Afghan – Pakistani relations remained hostile ; the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was the catalyst for the hostile relationship . The increasing numbers of Afghan refugees in Pakistan challenged the PDPA 's legitimacy to rule .
The Soviet Union threatened in 1985 that it would support the Baloch separatist movement in Pakistan if the Pakistani government continued to aid the mujahideen in Afghanistan . Karmal , problematically for the Soviets , did not want a Soviet withdrawal , and he hampered attempts to improve relations with Pakistan since the Pakistani government had refused to recognise the PDPA government .
= = = Fall from power and succession = = =
Mikhail Gorbachev , then General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , said , " The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help . " Karmal 's position became less secure when the Soviet leadership began blaming him for the failures in Afghanistan . Gorbachev , worried over the situation , told the Soviet Politburo " If we don 't change approaches [ to evacuate Afghanistan ] , we will be fighting there for another 20 or 30 years . " It is not clear when the Soviet leadership began to campaign for Karmal 's dismissal , but Andrei Gromyko discussed the possibility of Karmal 's resignation with Javier Pérez de Cuéllar , the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations in 1982 . While it was Gorbachev who would dismiss Karmal , there may have been a consensus within the Soviet leadership in 1983 that Karmal should resign . Gorbachev 's own plan was to replace Karmal with Mohammad Najibullah , who had joined the PDPA at its creation . Najibullah was thought highly of by Yuri Andropov , Boris Ponomarev and Dmitriy Ustinov , and negotiations for his succession may have started in 1983 . Najibullah was not the Soviet leadership 's only choice for Karmal 's succession ; a GRU report noted that the majority of the PDPA leadership would support Assadullah Sarwari 's ascension to leadership . According to the GRU , Sarwari was a better candidate as he could balance between the Pashtuns , Tajiks and Uzbeks ; Najibullah was a Pashtun nationalist . Another viable candidate was Abdul Qadir , who had been a participant in the Saur Revolution .
Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985 . During Karmal 's March 1986 visit to the Soviet Union , the Soviets tried to persuade Karmal that he was too ill to govern , and that he should resign . This backfired , as a Soviet doctor attending to Karmal told him he was in good health . Karmal asked to return home to Kabul , and said that he understood and would listen to the Soviet recommendations . Before leaving , Karmal promised he would step down as PDPA General Secretary . The Soviets did not trust him and sent Vladimir Kryuchkov , the head of intelligence in the KGB , into Afghanistan . At a meeting in Kabul , Karmal confessed his undying love for the Soviet Union , comparing his ardor to his Muslim faith . Kryuchkov , concluding that he could not persuade Karmal to resign , left the meeting . After Kryuchkov left the room , the Afghan defence minister and the state security minister visited Karmal 's office , telling him that he had to resign from one of his posts . Understanding that his Soviet support had been eliminated , Karmal resigned from the office of the General Secretary at the 18th PDPA Central Committee plenum . He was succeeded in his post by Najibullah .
Karmal still had support within the party , and used his base to curb Najibullah 's powers . He began spreading rumors that he would be reappointed General Secretary . Najibullah 's power base was in the KHAD , the Afghan equivalent to the KGB , and not the party . Considering the fact that the Soviet Union had supported Karmal for over six years , the Soviet leadership wanted to ease him out of power gradually . Yuli Vorontsov , the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan , told Najibullah to begin undermining Karmal 's power slowly . Najibullah complained to the Soviet leadership that Karmal used most of his spare time looking for errors and " speaking against the National Reconciliation [ programme ] " . At a meeting of the Soviet Politburo on 13 November 1986 it was decided that Najibullah should remove Karmal ; this motion was supported by Gromyko , Vorontsov , Eduard Shevardnadze , Anatoly Dobrynin and Viktor Chebrikov . A PDPA meeting in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship , and exiled him to Moscow where he was given a state @-@ owned apartment and a dacha . Karmal was succeeded as Revolutionary Council chairman by Haji Mohammad Chamkani , who was not a member of the PDPA .
= = Later life and death = =
For unknown reasons , Karmal was invited back to Kabul by Najibullah , and " for equally obscure reasons Karmal accepted . " If Najibullah 's plan was to strengthen his position within the Homeland Watan Party ( the renamed PDPA ) by appeasing the pro @-@ Karmal Parchamites , he failed . Karmal 's apartment became a center for opposition to Najibullah 's government . When Najibullah was toppled in 1992 , Karmal became the most powerful politician in Kabul through leadership of the Parcham . However , his negotiations with the rebels collapsed quickly , and on 16 April 1992 the rebels , led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar , took Kabul . After the fall of Najibullah 's government , Karmal was based in Hairatan . There , it is alleged , Karmal used most of his time either trying to establish a new party , or advising people to join the National Islamic Movement ( NIM ) . Abdul Rashid Dostum , the leader of NIM , was a supporter of Karmal during his rule . It is unknown how much control Karmal had over Dostum , but there is little evidence that Karmal was in any commanding position . Karmal 's influence over Dostum appeared indirect – some of his former associates supported Dostum . Those who spoke with Karmal during this period noted his lack of interest in politics . In June 1992 it was reported that he had died in a plane crash along with Dostum , although these reports later proved to be false . In early December 1996 , Karmal died in Moscow 's Central Clinical Hospital from liver cancer . The date of his death was reported by some sources as 1 December and by others as 3 December . The Taliban summed up his rule as follows :
" [ he ] committed all kinds of crimes during his illegitimate rule ... God inflicted on him various kinds of hardship and pain . Eventually he died of cancer in a hospital belonging to his paymasters , the Russians . "
= Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan =
Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , KCSS ( Urdu : صدرالّدين آغا خان , Ṣadr ad @-@ Dīn Āghā Khān , 17 January 1933 – 12 May 2003 ) served as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from 1966 to 1978 , during which he reoriented the agency 's focus beyond Europe and prepared it for an explosion of complex refugee issues . He was also a proponent of greater collaboration between non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) and UN agencies . The Prince 's interest in ecological issues led him to establish the Bellerive Foundation in the late 1970s , and he was a knowledgeable and respected collector of Islamic art .
Born in Paris , France , he was the son of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan and Princess Andrée Aga Khan . He married twice , but had no children of his own . Prince Sadruddin died of cancer at the age of 70 , and was buried in Switzerland .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Born in Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine , France , he was the only child of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan III and his French @-@ born second wife , the former Andrée Joséphine Carron . He received his early education in Lausanne , Switzerland , before graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1954 from Harvard College . At Harvard , he lived in Eliot House with Paul Matisse , grandson of French artist Henri Matisse , with future Paris Review founders George Plimpton and John Train , and with Stephen Joyce , grandson of Irish writer James Joyce . Along with Plimpton , he was an editor for the Harvard Lampoon . After three years of post @-@ graduate research at the Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies , Prince Sadruddin began a lifelong career of international service .
Although he was raised in Europe by his French mother , his father , who was the 48th hereditary Imam of the Nizari Ismaili Muslims , had a strong influence on him . He recalled that his father " insisted that I learnt the Koran and encouraged me to understand the basic traditions and beliefs of Islam but without imposing any particular views . He was an overwhelming personality but open @-@ minded and liberal . "
Together with his father Prince Sadruddin traveled widely in Muslim countries , coming into contact with his Islamic roots from a young age . He described Iran as the cradle of his family , though he never lived there . When he was a child , his paternal grandmother used to recite to him the great epic poems of Persian history . He held French , Iranian , and Swiss citizenship , and was fluent in French , English , German and Italian , while also speaking some Persian and Arabic .
= = = UNESCO = = =
Prince Sadruddin joined the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) in 1958 , and became the Executive Secretary to its International Action Committee for the Preservation of Nubia in 1961 . This initiative brought together archaeologists from Eastern Europe and the West at the height of the Cold War . The construction of the Aswan Dam threatened ancient Egyptian treasures including Abu Simbel , the temples of Philae and Kalabsha , and the Christian churches of Nubia . He would later describe it as " one of UNESCO 's great achievements " because of the challenging historical context in which it took place — in particular the ongoing tensions in the Middle East and the Cold War .
= = = UN High Commissioner for Refugees = = =
Prince Sadruddin began as a Special Envoy to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) in 1959 with a focus on World Refugee Year ( 1959 – 1960 ) . The initiative became known for its Stamp Plan , a philatelic programme that raised funds through United Nations member countries , as well as the support of the Universal Postal Union . At the time , the UNHCR 's resources were primarily focused on supporting refugees crossing from Eastern Europe .
In January 1966 , Prince Sadruddin was appointed United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees after serving for three years as Deputy High Commissioner . At the age of 33 he became the youngest person ever to lead the UNHCR . For the next twelve years he directed the UN refugee agency through one of its most difficult periods , coordinating the international response to the 1971 Bangladesh crisis that uprooted 10 million people , the 1972 exodus of hundreds of thousands of Hutus from Burundi to Tanzania , and the Vietnamese boat people tragedy of the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1972 , Prince Sadruddin played a key role in finding new homes for tens of thousands of South Asians expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin .
Prince Sadruddin 's determination not to discriminate between European and Third World refugees helped prepare the UNHCR for a change in the landscape of internationally displaced persons . During the 1950s , between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 refugees of European origin required assistance . By the 1970s the European refugee problems were mostly solved , but had been replaced by millions of displaced persons in the Third World . He had widened the UNHCR mandate well beyond its original focus on Eastern Europe , extending the organisation 's reach to refugees from Palestine , Vietnam , Angola and Algeria . As the scale and complexity of refugee issues continued to increase , the UNHCR and the international community at large was better positioned to adapt . By the end of 1977 when he chose to step down from the position , he had become the longest @-@ serving UN High Commissioner for Refugees . He continued to serve in various capacities dealing with humanitarian situations on behalf of the UN .
= = = United Nations diplomatic career = = =
Prince Sadruddin had , since 1978 , been variously : Special Consultant and Chargé de Mission to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , Special Rapporteur of the UN Human Rights Commission and Convenor and Co @-@ Chairman of the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues and of the Independent Working Group on the UN Financial Emergency . He was later Coordinator for United Nations Humanitarian and Economic Assistance Programmes Relating to the People of Afghanistan and Executive Delegate of the Secretary @-@ General for a United Nations Inter @-@ Agency Humanitarian Programme , which dealt with problems of Iraq 's border areas .
His appointment in September 1990 as Personal Representative of the UN Secretary @-@ General for Humanitarian Assistance Relating to the Crisis between Iraq and Kuwait required diplomatic finesse . Iraq 's President Saddam Hussein was deeply suspicious of the UN , and was loath to do anything that would benefit the country 's Shia Muslims . Despite this , Prince Sadruddin was able to successfully negotiate with Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz for the establishment of a UN relief program for tens of thousands of Shia Muslims trapped in worsening conditions in the marshlands of southern Iraq .
Prince Sadruddin was nominated and passed over twice for the post of UN Secretary @-@ General . Although he won the 1981 vote , the Soviet Union considered him too Western and vetoed his election . When he was nominated again in 1991 , the United States and Britain expressed their disagreement with his belief in a policy of boosting aid to Iraq .
= = = Environmental protection and advocacy = = =
In 1977 , Prince Sadruddin , together with Denis de Rougemont and a few other friends , established a Geneva @-@ based think @-@ tank , Groupe de Bellerive ( named after Bellerive , the municipality where he lived in Geneva ) , and a non @-@ profit organisation , the Bellerive Foundation . The foundation collaborated with international institutions , British and Scandinavian bilateral aid organizations , and other NGOs such as the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) . It became a leading grassroots action group promoting environmental protection , natural resource conservation and the safeguarding of life in all its forms .
Initially , Bellerive worked with UNICEF and the United Nations Children 's Fund in the struggle against deforestation . Prince Sadruddin was motivated in part by what he called " ecological refugees " , who were forced to leave regions that could no longer sustain them due to desertification and other environmental changes . The foundation worked with Swiss specialists to develop low @-@ cost , energy @-@ efficient cooking stoves that relied on renewable energy sources such as methane and biogas . It distributed these among needy rural populations , primarily in Africa . Other areas of concern for Bellerive included the proliferation of nuclear weapons , and the protection of threatened species .
As a resident of Switzerland , Prince Sadruddin was concerned about the impact of insensitive tourist development and deforestation on the European Alps . At the World Economic Forum in 1990 , he launched Alp Action to protect the mountain ecosystem and preserve the Alps ' cultural diversity and vitality . The Bellerive Foundation program encouraged eco @-@ tourism , aiming to reduce the impact of outdoor adventure sports on the fragile alpine habitat . During its years of operation , Alp Action successfully launched over 140 projects in seven countries . It found inspiration in the system of national parks of the Canadian Rockies .
A long @-@ standing trustee and former Vice @-@ President of the World Wide Fund for Nature International , Prince Sadruddin led Bellerive 's support for threatened species . Bellerive was also amongst the first organisations to warn of the potential human health hazards of modern intensive farming methods .
In May 2006 , the activities of the Bellerive Foundation were merged into the Geneva @-@ based Aga Khan Foundation ( founded in 1967 by Prince Sadruddin 's nephew Karim Aga Khan IV ) to form the Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan Fund for the Environment . The US $ 10 million fund is dedicated to finding practical solutions to environmental problems . The fund concentrates its activities in six areas that were important to Prince Sadruddin : environmental education ; natural resource management in fragile zones ; nature parks and wildlife reserves ; environmentally and culturally appropriate tourism infrastructure ; environmental health ; and research .
= = = Death and remembrance = = =
Prince Sadruddin died of cancer in Boston , Massachusetts , on 12 May 2003 , coincidentally , the same day as his elder half @-@ brother Prince Aly Khan had died 43 years earlier . His body was conveyed to Switzerland , where members of the diplomatic corps , government officials and close friends were invited to pay their last respects at the Château de Bellerive , and sign books of condolence at various locations around the world . Ruud Lubbers , then UNHCR High Commissioner , expressed the sadness of the UNHCR and the entire humanitarian community , commenting that " he left an indelible print on UNHCR 's history — leading the agency through some of the most challenging moments . Sadruddin 's name became synonymous with UNHCR . "
In accordance with his wishes , Prince Sadruddin 's burial took place at a private ceremony attended by members of his family . Traditional Muslim ceremonies were led by Sheikh Ahmed Ahmed Ibrahim , who leads the prayers at the mausoleum of the Prince 's father , Aga Khan III , in Aswan , Egypt . Last respects were paid beneath the arches of the Château de Bellerive , before the bier was carried to the local cemetery of Collonge @-@ Bellerive . A tribute from the Canton of Geneva read : " The destiny of this family of high Persian nobility , descended from the Prophet Muhammad , is inextricably linked to that of this small European town and to an ambitious project to improve the human condition . "
The United Nations community celebrated Prince Sadruddin 's life at a memorial ceremony held in his honour at its headquarters in New York on 28 October 2003 . He was remembered for representing the moral and compassionate side of the international community . Then United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan commented that " he combined respect for humankind with concern for our environment . He worked on behalf of the poor and dispossessed , while celebrating humanity through culture and art . " He concluded his tribute by praising Prince Sadruddin as " a role model to many of us ... his example will continue to inspire new world citizens for several generations to come . "
He was survived by his wife of 31 years , Princess Catherine ; his three stepsons Alexandre , Marc and Nicolas ; as well as his nephews and niece Prince Karim , Prince Amyn and Princess Yasmin ; and his cousin Mme. Francoise Carron . It was Prince Sadruddin 's and Princess Catherine 's wish that their remains be buried in Muslim soil in Egypt .
= = Personal life = =
Prince Sadruddin 's life was deeply influenced by his family roots and cultural heritage . It is claimed that his paternal lineage goes back to Muhammad , the Prophet of Islam , through the Prophet 's daughter Fatima and cousin Ali . Prince Sadruddin 's grandmother was the granddaughter of the Qajar Emperor Fath 'Ali Shah .
International service was a family tradition , and throughout his life Prince Sadruddin was surrounded by it . His father held influential roles in British India . He also served two terms as President of the League of Nations . Prince Sadruddin 's older half @-@ brother , Prince Aly Khan , was Pakistan 's Ambassador to the United Nations . Prince Karim Aga Khan IV , the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims and present Aga Khan , was a nephew to Prince Sadruddin , and is the founder and Chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network . His brother , Prince Amyn , had previously worked with the United Nations before joining the Aga Khan 's secretariat . Meanwhile , Prince Sadruddin 's niece Princess Yasmin , has devoted herself to the fight against Alzheimer 's disease .
Prince Sadruddin had a taste for culture , including music , art and literature . He was a familiar figure at music festivals and other cultural events , both in Europe and overseas . His concern for the environment was complemented by his enjoyment of the outdoors ; he was a keen skier and an accomplished sailor . While still at Harvard in 1953 , Prince Sadruddin became the founding publisher of the Paris Review , which was established with the aim of bringing original creative work to the fore . Every year the Review awards the Aga Khan Prize for Fiction ( established by his father ) for the best short story that it published in the past year .
= = = Marriages = = =
On 27 August 1957 , in Bellerive , Switzerland , Prince Sadruddin married Nina Dyer ( 1930 – 1965 ) . An Anglo @-@ Indian fashion model , she was the former wife of Baron Hans Heinrich Thyssen @-@ Bornemisza . She converted to Islam , taking the name " Shirin " ( lit . " sweetness " ) . They had no children and divorced in 1962 .
His second marriage took place in November 1972 , in the British West Indies . He married Catherine Aleya Beriketti Sursock who was born in Alexandria , Egypt in 1938 . She was formerly the wife of Lebanese aristocrat Cyril Sursock ( son of Nicolas Sursock and Donna Vittoria Serra of the Dukes di Cassano ) . She and Prince Sadruddin had no children , but from this marriage he gained three stepchildren : Alexandre Sursock ( married to Thai Princess Mom Rajawongse Charuvan Rangsit Prayurasakdi ) , Marc Sursock and Nicolas Sursock .
= = = Art collection = = =
During his lifetime Prince Sadruddin assembled one of the finest private collections of Islamic art in the world . He became a knowledgeable and respected collector , accumulating a priceless collection of paintings , drawings , manuscripts and miniatures over 50 years . He had also gathered a collection of primitive and African art which he sold sometime prior to 1985 .
Prince Sadruddin 's interest in Islamic art was sparked in his youth by his paternal grandmother 's library of Persian books , mystical texts and astrological treatises . While at Harvard in the 1950s , he would make purchases in New York , and eventually began to acquire from dealers in Paris , Geneva and London . He would bid regularly at Sotheby 's and Christie 's auctions in Europe and North America . For advice , he looked to his friend Stuart Cary Welch , a noted historian of Islamic art at Harvard University .
His collection is vast and diverse , and includes Arabic , Persian , Turkish , and Indian pieces dating from the 10th century . One example is a Quranic page of North African origin written with gold lettering in the Kufic script – it is more than 1 @,@ 000 years old . Prince Sadruddin 's Persian roots are well represented in calligraphic as well as pictoral specimens reflecting a range of periods and dynastic patrons . Also included are several examples of Ottoman callgraphies , manuscripts and paintings .
Over the years , parts of his collection were exhibited in New York , London , and Zurich , including a touring show , " Princes , Poets and Paladins " , which was organized by the British Museum in 1998 . The full collection has been housed at the new museum established by Prince Sadruddin 's nephew , the present Aga Khan , in Toronto .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Prince Sadruddin received several honorary doctorates and national decorations from states as diverse as Pakistan , Poland and the Vatican , as well as the United Nations Human Rights Award . He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991 . He was awarded the Bourgeois d 'Honneur de Geneve , made a Commandeur of the Légion d 'honneur of France and a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Sylvester ( KCSS ) of the Holy See , and was a recipient of the Order of the Nile of Egypt . Furthermore , he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) , this for his services to humanitarian causes and the arts . He was an honorary citizen of Patmos , Greece , where he owned a house .
= James McAvoy =
James McAvoy ( / ˈmækəvɔɪ / ; born 21 April 1979 ) is a Scottish actor . He made his acting début as a teen in 1995 's The Near Room and continued to make mostly television appearances until 2003 , when his feature film career began and he continued to work in both areas from then on . His notable television work includes the drama show State of Play , the adult comedy @-@ drama Shameless , and the science fiction show Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune . Besides screen acting , McAvoy has performed in several West End productions , receiving three nominations for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor . He has also done voice work for animated films including Gnomeo & Juliet and Arthur Christmas ( both 2011 ) .
In 2003 , McAvoy appeared in a lead role in Bollywood Queen , a British Indian take on the Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet , directed by Jeremy Wooding . This was followed by a supporting role , the faun Mr. Tumnus , in The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe ( 2005 ) . His performance in Kevin Macdonald 's drama The Last King of Scotland ( 2006 ) garnered him several award nominations . The critically acclaimed romantic drama war film Atonement ( 2007 ) earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination and his second BAFTA nomination . He appeared opposite Angelina Jolie as a newly trained assassin in the action thriller Wanted ( 2008 ) .
Since then , he is notable for playing the young Professor Charles Xavier in the 2011 superhero film X @-@ Men : First Class , a role he reprised in X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse ( 2016 ) . McAvoy starred in the 2013 crime comedy @-@ drama film Filth for which he won Best Actor in the British Independent Film Awards .
= = Early life and family = =
McAvoy was born in Glasgow , Scotland , the son of Elizabeth ( née Johnstone ) , a psychiatric nurse , and James McAvoy , Sr. , a builder . He was brought up as a Roman Catholic . His parents divorced when he was seven . McAvoy 's mother suffered from poor health and subsequently decided it was best that he live with his maternal grandparents , Mary and James Johnstone , a butcher who lived in a terraced council house in the nearby Drumchapel area of Glasgow . His mother lived with them intermittently . The actor has a sister , Joy , and a younger half @-@ brother , Donald . McAvoy has not been in contact with his father since childhood . He attended St. Thomas Aquinas Secondary in Jordanhill , Glasgow , a Catholic school , and briefly considered joining the Catholic priesthood . In a 2006 interview , McAvoy said that he considered becoming a priest as a child because it seemed to be a way to explore the world via missionary work . During his education , he worked at a local bakery .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
McAvoy 's acting debut came at the age of 15 in The Near Room ( 1995 ) . He later admitted that he was not very interested in acting when joining the movie , but was inspired to study the craft after developing feelings for his co @-@ star , Alana Brady . He continued to act while still a member of PACE Youth Theatre . McAvoy eventually graduated from the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama in 2000 . Throughout the early 2000s , he made guest appearances in television shows and began working on movies . In 2001 , McAvoy 's performance as a gay hustler in the play Out in the Open impressed director Joe Wright so much
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tini because the elongated mandibles ( a well @-@ known feature in Myrmeciinae ants ) , were considered primitive and short mandibles were derived . This theory was proven false after Sphecomyrma specimens had small mandibles . Currently , phylogenetic analyses recognise Sphecomyrma as a sister group to modern living ants , meaning that is a stem @-@ group formicid . This means that it is more closely related to the ants in contrast to any other organism , but the crown @-@ group formicids ( as in the most recent common ancestor of modern ants and their descendants ) are more closely related to each other and distantly related to Sphecomyrma . By the end of the Mesozoic , the sphecomyrmines including these ants vanished .
= = Description = =
Sphecomyrma ants can be distinguished from other ants by their extremely primitive body structure , small , narrow wasp @-@ like mandibles , short scapes ( the basal segment of the antenna ) and the exceptionally long funiculus , which is four times longer than the scape . The suture ( a pattern of shallow grooves on the head ) is well developed and the trochantellus ( the proximal end of the femur ) is absent . The node ( a segment between the mesosoma , the middle part of the body , and gaster ) of the petiole is noticeably dome @-@ shaped and is separated from the propodeum , the first abdominal segment , and parts of the metasoma , the posterior part of the body , by several constrictions . The cuticle ( outer exoskeleton of the body ) is not sculptured and is covered with either scattered or spare setae , which are different types of bristle or hair @-@ like structures . The body structure shows that Sphecomyrma ants were medium @-@ sized formicids . Workers are known to have stingers .
= = = S. canadensis = = =
S. canadensis was described from a holotype and paratype specimen , one of which is from Canadian amber and the other , the paratype , is poorly preserved and was collected from Medicine Hat amber . The holotype and paratype specimens , numbered CAS 330 and CAS 205 respectively , are currently preserved in the Biosystematics Research Institute in Ottawa , Canada . Its body is similar to S. freyi , but it has a narrower head than S. canadensis ( the head of S. freyi is 1 @.@ 00 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) wide ) . The mesosoma is more robust and the third funicular segment is extremely short and as long as the second segment , while it is twice as long in S. freyi . The width and length of the head are the same at 0 @.@ 66 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 026 in ) and the scapes measure 0 @.@ 50 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) The length of the mesosoma varies in the holotype and paratype , ranging from 1 @.@ 32 to 1 @.@ 57 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 052 to 0 @.@ 062 in ) .
= = = S. freyi = = =
S. freyi ants are small , measuring 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) . The mandibles are wasp @-@ like , its 12 @-@ segmented antennae are far apart from each other and the second funicular segment is longer than all the other segments . This is unusual for ants , but such case occurs in Nothomyrmecia macrops . The scapes are very short at 0 @.@ 57 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 022 in ) . The compound eyes are very long and convex , situated on the middle side of the head . The clypeus ( one of the sclerites that make up the " face " of an arthropod or insect ) is broad and convex and the ocelli ( photoreceptors ) are well developed . The mesosoma is slender and closely resembles those of Methocha malayana , measuring 1 @.@ 48 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 058 in ) . The mesonotum is also long and slender with a distinct convexed scutum and scutellum , but these two features are separated from each other by an axillary region . Spiracles are present on the metathorax , but they are situated just below the scutellum . The petiole has a raised node and separated from the propodeum and the gaster . The gaster measures 1 @.@ 51 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 059 in ) , and an acute protruding stinger , measuring 0 @.@ 33 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 013 in ) is present . The legs are long and slender with two tibial spurs present at each tibia , and the tarsal claws have a median tooth . The two worker specimens have little morphological differences , but they range in size . The head and segments of the antenna tend to be smaller in the holotype specimen while in the paratype they are slightly larger . The pubescence is short but scattered throughout the body , measuring 0 @.@ 001 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 × 10 − 5 in ) . The colour of the specimens appears to be light @-@ brown . The metapleural gland exhibits a notably wide and oval @-@ shaped orifice , ( openings into the body ) . The separation between the orifice and the posterior portion of the propodeum is twice the diameter than the orifice itself . The cuticle situated in the anterior portion ( referring to what is in front ) of the orifice is thinner in contrast to the cuticle surrounding the mesosoma , where it is notably transparent . An oddly shaped chamber can be seen beneath the cuticle , but this is most likely the atrium ( chamber with a hardened , thickened wall ) . The gland itself is covered in a whitish mass and is located in the anterodorsal region ( meaning in front and toward the back ) of the subcuticular chamber . The gland is said to be shrunken from its original size .
= = = S. mesaki = = =
S. mesaki was found in a small piece of amber barely larger than the ant itself . The incomplete specimen numbered AMNH NJ @-@ 1023 is currently preserved at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . The appendages breach the surface of the amber while the petiole and gaster are completely absent . Engel and Grimaldi coined the specific epithet after Bob Mesak , the original collector who donated the specimen to the museum . The species is discernible from the other species by a portion of the clypeus having an elongated ventral lobe . The broad but shallow scrobes of the antennae , the size of the head and oval @-@ shaped eyes can further distinguish S. mesaki from other Sphecomyrma ants . The only body parts of the ant that are preserved are the legs , mesosoma and head . The head is notably large , but it is shorter than its mesosoma . The head is 2 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 087 in ) long and 1 @.@ 95 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 077 in ) wide , with the eyes alone measuring 0 @.@ 66 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 026 in ) . The vertex is covered in sparse pilosity with 0 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 0079 in ) setae . Ocelli are present on top of the ants ' head , precisely located just above the dorsal tangent . The base of the antennae emerges from the scrobes , which are equally as long as the scape . The eyes are well developed and located above the bottom of the antennae . The clypeus is setose , meaning that it bears bristles or setae , except on the middle part . The mandibles are small and only contain two teeth . The antennae are moderately long , the scapes are very short but the pedicel is even shorter . The mesosoma measures 2 @.@ 66 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 105 in ) and is setose . Several setae are seen around the metanotum ( the dorsal sclerite ) and propodeum . The coxae , the proximal segment and functional base of the leg , are setose ( bearing bristle or setae ) , inflated and large . The metapleural gland opening is small and noticeable , located away from the propodeum and above the metacoxa ( the hind of the coxa ) . The legs are moderately long . The forelegs first tarsomere ( subsegments of the tarsus ) is longer than the combined length of other tarsomeres more distant than the first subsegment . The number of stiff setae varies on each tarsomere : for example , the first tarsomere has seven pairs while the fourth tarsomere has only two pairs . The pretarsal claw has a single subapical tooth and the metasoma is absent .
= = = Unplaced specimens = = =
An additional specimen was described as a possible Sphecomyrma male , but it was never assigned to a specific species . The specimen numbered AMNH NJ @-@ 242 was collected from the White Oaks outcrop in 1995 and is currently preserved in the American Museum of Natural History . The entire body of the male specimen is completely preserved . As most ant genera are based on the morphology of workers , assigning males to a species or a genus is rarely done unless they are taken from a colony . However , its size , petiole structure , the absence of the trochantellus and basal antennal structure are similar to that of a Sphecomyrma worker . It is a small ant , measuring 3 @.@ 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 123 in ) with three ocelli present on the vertex . Stiff hairs can be found on its frons and vertex . It has large eyes and the face has two pairs of long setae along with smaller setae . The scape is short and is around the same length as the flagellomere ( one of the three main segments of the antenna ) ; the pedicel is only slightly longer than the flagellomere by 0 @.@ 3 times , and the total length of the antenna is 2 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 10 in ) . Most of its mouthparts are covered in bubbles from the amber , but two palpals ( a pair of appendages found near the mouth ) are seen protruding . The mesosoma is 1 @.@ 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 049 in ) in length and the petiole is 0 @.@ 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 014 in ) , which has pairs of long setae on the apex of the nodus . Both tibias have a pair of setose and the apical spurs on the hind tibia is pectinate . The forewings measure 2 @.@ 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 089 in ) and the hindwings are 0 @.@ 7 times the length of the forewings . The shape of the wings is consistent with other formicids . The hindwings have seven hamuli but none is found around the anterior portions . The gaster is 1 @.@ 22 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 048 in ) long and the first and second segments are equally as long as each other ( these two segments alone cover two @-@ thirds of the gaster ) . The terminalia ( the last segments of the abdomen ) is difficult to examine due to a layer of froth covering the area , but there are two pairs of setose lobes .
= = Ecology = =
As some scientists such as Dlussky believed Sphecomyrma was not an ant , they thought it was solitary and semi @-@ communal . Further statements include that the morphology of sphecomyrmines would prevent workers from transporting larvae or engaging in trophallaxis ( transfer of food between two nestmats ) with them . However , wasps with antennal proportions similar to sphecomyrmines are able to feed their own larvae . The presence of the metapleural gland also shows that Sphecomyrma was a eusocial ( the highest level of organisation of animal sociality ) insect and lived in colonies , as this gland possibly acts as a disinfectant in order to nest in soil and leaf litter without infecting the colony 's nestmates and brood . The large eyes , long appendages and thin exoskeleton suggests that workers were epigaeic , where they foraged above ground and out in the open . Fossil evidence further suggests that they foraged socially with other worker ants .
= Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch =
Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch is a role @-@ playing video game , developed by Level @-@ 5 . It was released for the PlayStation 3 in Japan on November 17 , 2011 , and published in Western regions by Namco Bandai Games in January 2013 . The game is a significantly enhanced version of Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn , released for the Nintendo DS in Japan in December 2010 , featuring similar gameplay and story elements .
Players control Oliver , a young boy who sets out on a journey to save his mother . The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on foot , by boat , or on a dragon . While players navigate Oliver throughout the game 's world , other characters can be controlled during battles against enemies ; during these battles , players use magic abilities and creatures known as " familiars " , which can be captured and tamed .
Development began in 2008 , simultaneous to Dominion of the Dark Djinn . The game 's animated sequences were produced by Studio Ghibli , while the original score was co @-@ composed by Joe Hisaishi . The art style was also inspired by Studio Ghibli 's other productions . The character development of Oliver was a large focus of the game , intending to make children empathize with the character and for adults to relive their adolescence . The developers used the power of the PlayStation 3 to its full potential to render the world with great detail not possible in Dominion of the Dark Djinn .
Following its announcement , Ni no Kuni was widely anticipated . It was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise particularly directed at its story , graphic design and gameplay . Wrath of the White Witch became one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 games , selling over 170 @,@ 000 units within a week of its Japanese release , and over one million units within fourteen months of its Western release . The game won year @-@ end accolades , including Best RPG awards from several gaming publications . A sequel , Ni no Kuni II : Revenant Kingdom , was announced in December 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch is a role @-@ playing game that uses a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete quests — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . Outside of quests , players can freely roam the overworld . Players explore towns , villages , dungeons and dangerous places scattered throughout the world , and possess the ability to travel between the world and Oliver 's hometown of Motorville . Upon leaving a location , players enter the World Map , which can be used to select a destination . The world may be fully explored from the beginning of the game without restrictions , although story progress unlocks more gameplay content and forms of transport to navigate the world : players initially run to navigate the world , though later gain the ability to travel by boat , or on the back of a dragon .
When players encounter enemies , they enter a battle system . Battles take place on an open battlefield , allowing players to freely roam around the area . During battles , players command a single human ally , or one of the familiars accompanying them ; all characters and familiars are manually moved around the battlefield . To fight enemies , players use magical abilities and " familiars " . Familiars are creatures that can be tamed , in order to be suitable to send out in battle to fight for players . Familiars level up and evolve alongside the human characters ; each familiar has unique statistics and capabilities , and can be upgraded through the use of treats , and equipped with items . When all enemies in a battle are defeated , players may receive experience points , currency and items . When a specific amount of experience is earned , characters ' levels will increase , and their abilities will improve . Health is lost when players are attacked by enemies , while mana points are depleted through the use of magic . Should a party member lose health or mana points , they can be restored by using provisions . Health and mana can also be restored by picking up orbs , known as " glims " ; a golden glim restores all health , and enables the powerful " Miracle Move " , which may deal significant damage to enemies or provide assistance to allies .
The errands that can be undertaken at the request of townspeople and the bounty hunts available from the Taskmaster are collectively known as " tasks " . When tasks are completed , players will earn a number of stamps for their current merit stamp card , which can be exchanged for upgrades . The in @-@ game Wizard 's Companion book includes pages featuring Oliver 's spells , as well as a bestiary , short stories , alchemy recipes and maps .
= = Plot = =
Ni no Kuni follows the journey of Oliver , a resident of Motorville . While trying out a new vehicle designed by his friend Philip , Oliver almost drowns , but is saved by his mother Allie ; however , she immediately dies from heart problems after saving him . As Oliver cries , his tears cause his doll , a gift from his mother , to come to life and reveal itself as a fairy named Drippy , who tells Oliver that he is from another world where an evil wizard named Shadar took control . He also tells Oliver that each person from his world has a " soulmate " , a person that shares a link with someone in Oliver 's world , and that his mother looks very much like a great sage , Alicia , who was captured by Shadar . Realizing that Alicia must have been Allie 's soulmate , Oliver sets out with Drippy to travel to the other world and rescue Alicia in the hope that doing so will bring Allie back in his world .
In the other world , Oliver finds a multitude of broken @-@ hearted people affected by Shadar , and uses his new @-@ found magic abilities to restore those pieces of heart which they lack , and travels the world to seek out the four great sages who may be able to help . Along the way , he meets Esther , daughter of one of the great sages , and Swaine , a thief who initially steals a crucial item from them , but who ultimately decides to help . As they enlist the sages ' help , they learn of a wand known as Mornstar that could be used to defeat Shadar , but are at a loss as to how to retrieve it , as it was recently destroyed by Shadar . Soon after , they find themselves many years in the past by the actions of a stranger , and are able to retrieve the wand there .
After returning to the present and retrieving three magical stones to complete the wand , Oliver learns that his mother Allie was in fact the great sage , Alicia . Realizing she could not defeat Shadar , and that he had destroyed his soulmate in the other world to avoid the possibility of being defeated through them , she chose to travel into both the future and into Oliver 's world in the hopes of finding his next soulmate ; after settling in to this new world , she eventually gave birth to her son , Oliver , who unknowingly became Shadar 's soulmate . After he is defeated , Shadar 's past is shown . He was once a soldier who helped a young girl against orders , and whose hometown was destroyed to set an example ; a being known as the White Witch called to him to embrace his despair and become the Dark Djinn , Shadar . The spirit of Alicia talks to the dying Shadar , who realises that the girl he saved was the young Alicia herself . Shadar then uses his power to sever the link between himself and Oliver , in order to save Oliver from dying as well .
With Shadar defeated , Oliver prepares to return home , but the White Witch appears and casts a spell known as " manna " , an ash @-@ like substance that turns all living beings in the three major cities into undead @-@ like creatures . A girl named Pea , who has been appearing to Oliver on occasion , travels with the group and uses her magic to clear the cities of manna and restore the people to normal ; the group then travel to defeat the White Witch herself . They discover that she was a young queen called Cassiopeia from thousands of years ago who had noble intentions , but was manipulated by her " council of twelve " , calling themselves the Zodiarchs , who desired to run the country . Feeling powerless , she found and used the manna spell , believing it would bring peace and prosperity to her people . When the horrific effects of manna were revealed , she gradually witnessed the death of all of her subjects , including the council , and found herself on her own ; she was gradually driven to despair and became the White Witch , believing that all life must be destroyed in an attempt to " start over " . Her power created an illusory version of the council to oversee the destruction of the world , but the remains of her kind intentions also created the council member that helped the group by sending them back in time , as well as Pea , the incarnation of her as a child . Having been defeated , Cassiopeia fuses together with Pea and is restored to her former , kind self . After assisting the group in destroying the Zodiarchy , the last manifestations of the council , Cassiopeia declares that she will dedicate her life to making amends for her actions and Oliver bids farewell to his friends before returning to his old life in Motorville .
= = Development = =
Conceived as a project for Level @-@ 5 's tenth anniversary in 2008 , Ni no Kuni : The Another World was announced in the September 2008 issue of Famitsu , as a title for the Nintendo DS . In June 2010 , Level @-@ 5 announced that the game would also be released for the PlayStation 3 , with significant differences ; the DS version was renamed Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn , while the PlayStation 3 version was given the title Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch . Both versions were revealed to be in development separately , only retaining the same " story axle " , while features such as artwork , graphics and specifications all received significant changes . Journalists noted that the game 's announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry .
To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Namco Bandai collaborated with several retail outlets to provide a special edition version of the game , with extra features and content . The " Wizard 's Edition " includes a unique case packaging , the Wizard 's Companion book , a Drippy plush doll , as well as exclusive downloadable content . The game was originally released in Japan on November 17 , 2011 , and in Western regions in early 2013 : on January 22 in North America , January 31 in Australia , and February 1 in Europe .
= = = Story and setting = = =
The team wanted the theme of the game to resonate with children ; they initially considered the idea of expressing adventure and dreams . They later explored the concept of a child 's greatest influence , their mother , and the possibility of losing them . Although the framework of the story was completed prior to Studio Ghibli 's involvement with the game , they still took part in many discussions regarding some ideas , including the game 's final scenes .
The majority of the game takes place in a magical world , referred to as the " other world " . To avoid making the world map feel outdated , the team modernized the design by arranging the terrain in " fun and fascinating ways " . The game 's open world was designed to remind players of a " miniature diorama " , intending to invoke reminiscence to an older time , as well as the feeling of freshness . Other segments of the game are set in Oliver 's fictional hometown of Motorville . The town is modelled after an American town in the peak of the automotive industry during the 1950s and 1960s ; this decision was made due to Oliver 's interest in cars and machines . Motorville is geographically based near the city of Detroit , Michigan ; the Japanese version of the town was named " Hotroit " .
= = = Art design = = =
Level @-@ 5 collaborated with Studio Ghibli to produce the game 's animated sequences , and the game features graphics and visuals replicating the traditional animation style of Studio Ghibli films . The collaboration began when musician Naoya Fujimaki , who had previously worked with both companies , introduced Level @-@ 5 president Akihiro Hino to Studio Ghibli president Toshio Suzuki . At the time , Studio Ghibli had completed work on Ponyo ( 2008 ) , and the animation team had no ongoing projects , which influenced Suzuki 's decision to collaborate with Level @-@ 5 . Another influencing factor of the collaboration was witnessing Hino 's passion for the project . Studio Ghibli approached the production process in the same way that they would create an animated film . Work on the animation began in July 2008 , and took much longer than the predicted three months .
Studio Ghibli 's Yoshiyuki Momose served as the game 's director of animation , staging the scenes and directing actors during the motion capture sessions . He was also assigned to drawing character designs and storyboards . Hino wished the game to have a heartwarming feel ; the artwork and character movements was greatly inspired by Studio Ghibli 's work , particularly due to their attention to detail , as well as their talent in creating storyboards and utilizing camera control . The development team constantly watched Studio Ghibli 's films during development . Game director Ken Motomura regularly worked with Studio Ghibli , swapping and reviewing assets , while Hino worked with the studio in regards to the game 's dialogue and animated sequences . To make Studio Ghibli 's hand @-@ drawn cutscenes and the game engine 's real @-@ time cutscenes transition seamlessly , Level @-@ 5 adjusted the latter 's color tones , shadows and character movements . For the backgrounds , the team used deep colors , unifying them so they would not look like " a mass of polygons " . The team found particular difficulty in animating the game 's cel shaded appearance , and spent time researching Studio Ghibli animation to recreate their traditional animation .
When designing the familiars , Level @-@ 5 accounted for the characteristics of their surrounding area , which inspired the later design . Some of the initial familiar designs were deemed either creepy or " overly @-@ cute " , and adapted accordingly to match the style of Studio Ghibli 's artwork .
= = = Character development = = =
For the game 's characters , the team wished to explore the concept of opposites , mainly represented by the White Witch 's goal to destroy the world , and Oliver 's attempts to save it . The character performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology , followed by manual adjustment by the team to make a " more anime @-@ like movement " . The game 's characters were particularly inspired by Level @-@ 5 's previous work on the Professor Layton series ( 2007 – present ) . During development , Momose suggested that the team design the clothes in a modern fashion , in order for players to gain a " stronger sense that you have stepped out of the familiar and into a different world " .
The game 's main playable character , Oliver , is a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy . The team decided to make him a child as they wished to showcase a coming of age story . They wanted children to empathize with Oliver 's development , and adults to relive the excitement of their adolescence . A major part of the story is Oliver 's personal development , which Hino describes as " the process of how a child grows into an adult " . In regards to Oliver 's physical appearance , Momose made his outfit represent a young boy in 1950s America , which was the inspiration for his hometown .
For the localization of the game , the team decided to give the character of Drippy a Welsh accent , citing comedian Rhod Gilbert as a reference point . Steffan Rhodri was ultimately cast as Drippy ; the team immediately felt that he fit the role , during his first audition . The Fairy Godmother character was initially conceived as an " older lady with a perm " , which evolved into the concept of a " mountain @-@ like woman " . The method that she uses to give birth , in which the offspring burst forth , was inspired by the process that sea anemones lay eggs . The character of Cassiopeia was conceived in a quick meeting , after which the background information and story documents were handed to Momose , who drew the character based on the information . Cassiopeia underwent various changes throughout development . In particular , Momose suggested possible alterations to her physical appearance , such as the size of her head , and changing colors to reflect her emotions . The character Pea was named as a reference to the fairy tale The Princess and the Pea , while her Japanese name of Kokoru is a reference to the word " kokoro " ( 心 , heart ) .
= = = Technical and gameplay development = = =
Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch was developed for the PlayStation 3 . The team planned to bring the game to the console from the beginning of development , but opted to work on the DS version of the game beforehand due to the larger number of DS users in Japan at the time . The team found the PlayStation 3 allowed them to render the game world with great detail , using the hardware to its full potential to present the animation , world and music . Hino felt that the PlayStation 3 version allowed the game 's music to accompany the imagery , which was not possible on the DS version . The team found particular technical difficulty in animating Oliver 's cape , which was overcome by a combination of mathematical calculations and hand @-@ drawn motions by the programmers and graphic artists , respectively .
The team considered utilizing the PlayStation Move controller for casting spells in the game , in a similar fashion to the use of the touchscreen in the DS version , though ultimately decided against it as it would limit the potential sales . The battle system was revised over ten times , in order to achieve something new and unique . For about a year of development , the battle system used a turn @-@ based system , though this was ultimately changed when the team felt that it was not fun for players . The team eventually merged turn @-@ based combat and action elements , popular in Japanese and Western regions , respectively , in order to appeal to both regions .
Level @-@ 5 worked with localization company Shloc to translate the game ; the two studios collaborated for many weeks . The team found great difficulty when localizing the game for Western regions , particularly due to the large amounts of text and audio that required translation . Other minor changes to the artwork and animation also occurred , such as making Oliver bow in a Western manner . By December 12 , 2012 , development on the localized version of Wrath of the White Witch was completed and the game was submitted for manufacturing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch received critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 85 out of 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " , based on 89 reviews . GameRankings assigned it an average review score of 86 % based on 64 reviews . Reviewers praised the visual design , characters and story , soundtrack , and combat system . Colin Moriarty of IGN named Ni no Kuni " one of the best RPGs " , and among the best PlayStation 3 exclusives , and Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot wrote that it joins the " hallmark of the greatest RPGs " .
The game 's artistic design received acclaim , being favorably compared to Studio Ghibli 's previous work . Eurogamer 's Oli Welsh wrote that the artists of Level @-@ 5 and Studio Ghibli have collaborated to make a game that belongs to both studios . Moriarty of IGN called the game " unquestionably gorgeous " , surpassing the visuals of most other games . Destructoid 's Jim Sterling echoed these remarks , stating that " few titles can hope to come as close " . GameSpot 's VanOrd felt that the " cartoonish visuals are heightened by extraordinary visual details " , contributing to the " sense of wonder " created by the game . Stephanie Bendixsen of Good Game called the art " vibrant and exciting " , noting that it " brings the game to life in the most beautiful way " .
Brittany Vincent of GamesRadar found the story poignant , and IGN 's Moriarty named it one of the game 's standout features . GameSpot 's VanOrd felt that the game 's themes and dialogue positively contributed to the story , appreciating the use of humor , and GameTrailers called the writing " top notch " . Conversely , Joystiq 's Sinan Kubba wrote that the story lacked the charm that the art style possessed , while Polygon 's Philip Kollar
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felt that the game 's art style was the only motive to complete the story , which he felt was predictable . Some reviewers commented on the pacing of the story ; Eurogamer 's Welsh found that it was " too slow to surprise or to develop its mysteries " , while GamesRadar 's Vincent found the pace believable . The game 's side quests also received praise ; GameTrailers felt that they provide insight into the world and Eurogamer 's Welsh commended their variety , while Polygon 's Kollar conversely found them uninteresting and " single @-@ minded " .
The world and environments of the game drew acclaim from many reviewers . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Andrew Fitch named the world one of the game 's standout features , praising the diversity of the locales . Jason Schreier of Kotaku praised the " care and precision " with which the world was crafted . Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer called the world " breathtaking " , and Destructoid 's Sterling felt that the world was " adorable " , praising the design and use of the familiars .
The game 's characters polarized reviewers . Some felt that the characters were inventive and interesting , while others noted that they lacked personality . Bendixsen of Good Game called the characters " imaginative and wacky " , while IGN 's Moriarty felt that Oliver 's uniqueness was one of the standout points of the game , and found that it made him care about the character . Destructoid 's Sterling disliked Oliver , but found that the supporting characters compensate . Wallace of Game Informer felt that the characters lack personality , and only exist to assist Oliver 's journey . Joystiq 's Kubba echoed similar remarks , stating that the characters have " the depth of a toothbrush " . Similarly , the voice acting received mixed reactions ; IGN 's Moriarty felt that the English voice for Oliver was the most disappointing , but praised the other voice acting , and Ian Dransfield of VideoGamer.com wrote that the English dub is " worth hearing " .
Many reviewers found the battle system a refreshing mix from other role @-@ playing games . Fitch of Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that " it keeps getting better the longer you play " . Joystiq 's Kubba called the game 's combat a " triumph " , praising its ability to blend different styles , and GameTrailers found it " immensely satisfying " . Kotaku 's Schreier felt that the combat never feels unfair , although criticized the use of the artificial intelligence during the battle . Phil Iwaniuk of Official PlayStation Magazine found the game 's consistent battle encounters irritating , but that combat is " otherwise a pleasure " . Polygon 's Kollar felt that the game 's artificial intelligence resulted in a " sloppy " and " frustrating " combat system .
Reviewers praised the use of music in the game . IGN 's Moriarty felt that it was appropriate in every situation , praising its ability to create emotion and involve players in the experience . GameTrailers found the soundtrack " powerful " , commenting on its appropriate use during gameplay , and GamesRadar 's Vincent named it " breathtaking " . Sterling of Destructoid favorably compared the soundtrack to Dragon Quest VIII , praising the orchestral qualities and " sense of fun " . Chris Scullion of Computer and Video Games wrote that the music ensures the game " sounds as good as it looks " . Eurogamer 's Welsh called the music " a lush and romantic treat " , though criticized the repetitiveness of the battle music .
= = = Sales = = =
Within seven days of its original release in Japan , Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch sold over 170 @,@ 000 units . Following its release in the United Kingdom , the game topped the charts , and sold out in many stores across the region . By March 2014 , the game had shipped over 1 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 games . Many pre @-@ orders of the game 's special edition , the " Wizard 's Edition " , were cancelled due to overselling as a result of a glitch in the order system . All canceled orders were compensated with a voucher and the game 's strategy guide .
= = = Awards = = =
Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . Prior to its release , it won Best RPG Game from Computer and Video Games . The game appeared on several year @-@ end lists of the best role @-@ playing games of 2013 , receiving wins from Destructoid , Game Revolution , GameTrailers , IGN , the 18th Satellite Awards and the Spike VGX 2013 Awards . It also received Best Game from The Huffington Post . The game also won Best Sound from Cheat Code Central , and Excellence in Animation at the SXSW Gaming Awards . At the 13th National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards , it received multiple wins , including awards for Animation , Art Direction , Original Light Mix Score , Original Family Game , as well as Original / Adapted Song for " Kokoro no Kakera " .
= Edzell Castle =
Edzell Castle is a ruined 16th @-@ century castle , with an early @-@ 17th @-@ century walled garden . It is located close to Edzell , and is around 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Brechin , in Angus , Scotland . Edzell Castle was begun around 1520 by David Lindsay , 9th Earl of Crawford , and expanded by his son , Sir David Lindsay , Lord Edzell , who also laid out the garden in 1604 . The castle saw little military action , and was , in its design , construction and use , more of a country house than a defensive structure . It was briefly occupied by English troops during Oliver Cromwell 's invasion of Scotland in 1651 . In 1715 it was sold by the Lindsay family , and eventually came into the ownership of the Earl of Dalhousie . It was given into state care in the 1930s , and is now a visitor attraction run by Historic Scotland ( open all year ; entrance charge ) . The castle consists of the original tower house and building ranges around a courtyard . The adjacent Renaissance walled garden , incorporating intricate relief carvings , is unique in Scotland . It was replanted in the 1930s , and is considered to have links to esoteric traditions , including Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The first castle at Edzell was a timber motte and bailey structure , built to guard the mouth of Glenesk , a strategic pass leading north into the Highlands . The motte , or mound , is still visible 300 metres ( 980 ft ) south @-@ west of the present castle , and dates from the 12th century . It was the seat of the Abbott , or Abbe , family , and was the centre of the now vanished original village of Edzell . The Abbotts were succeeded as lords of Edzell by the Stirlings of Glenesk , and the Stirlings in turn by the Lindsays . In 1358 , Sir Alexander de Lindsay , third son of David Lindsay of Crawford , married the Stirling heiress , Katherine Stirling . Alexander 's son , David , was created Earl of Crawford in 1398 .
Edzell became the property of a junior branch of the Lindsay family descended from the 3rd Earl , and in 1513 it was inherited by David Lindsay ( d . 1558 ) . Around 1520 , David Lindsay decided to abandon the original castle , and built a tower house and barmkin , or courtyard , in a more sheltered location nearby . The selection of a site overlooked by higher ground to the north suggests that defence was not the primary concern . David became the Earl of Crawford in 1542 , on the death of his cousin the 8th Earl , who had disinherited his own son Alexander , the " Wicked Master " . He proceeded to extend the simple tower house , in around 1550 , by the addition of a large west range , incorporating a new entrance gate and hall . Lord Crawford also built Invermark Castle , 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Edzell , possibly as a hunting lodge , at around the same time .
= = = Sir David Lindsay , Lord Edzell = = =
David Lindsay , the 9th Earl 's son , was educated in Paris and Cambridge , and travelled in continental Europe . His father had nominated the son of Alexander , the Wicked Master , as heir to the earldom , returning the title to the senior line of the family , and thus Lindsay did not succeed to the earldom on his father 's death . However , he was knighted in 1581 , became a Lord of Session ( a senior judge ) , taking the title Lord Edzell , in 1593 , and in 1598 was appointed to the Privy Council . A Renaissance Man , he undertook improvements to his estates , including mining and woodland planting . Two German prospectors from Nuremberg , Bernard Fechtenburg and Hans Ziegler , were invited to search for precious metals around Edzell .
In August 1562 , David Lindsay received Mary , Queen of Scots , at Edzell . The Queen was on a Royal progress , with the aim of subduing the rebellious Earl of Huntly , and spent two nights at Edzell . During her stay she convened a meeting of the Privy Council , attended by the nobility of Scotland . Her son , King James VI , visited Edzell twice ; on 28 June 1580 , and in August 1589 .
Sir David further extended the castle in the late 16th century , with the addition of a large north range with round corner towers . He laid out the garden in 1604 , with symbols of England , Scotland and Ireland , to celebrate the Union of the Crowns of the previous year , when James VI acceeded to the English throne on the death of his cousin , Elizabeth I. Sir David died in 1610 , heavily in debt as a result of fines handed down for the unruly conduct of his son , and with both the garden and the north range incomplete .
= = = Damage and decline = = =
Edzell was not affected by the campaigns of the Royalist Marquess of Montrose in the 1640s , although other properties of the Covenanting Presbyterian David Lindsay ( son of Sir David ) , were attacked . During the Third English Civil War , Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland and , in September 1651 , his troops took Edzell , and were stationed there for one month . By the time of the Presbyterian settlement of 1689 , the Lord of Edzell , David 's son John Lindsay , had switched allegiances from Presbyterianism to Episcopalianism . Along with the parish minister , he was barred from the parish church , and Episcopal services were held in the great hall at Edzell .
The castle began to decline around the time of the 1715 Jacobite Rising . The last Lindsay lord of Edzell , another David , was a Jacobite , a supporter of the exiled James Stuart , the " Old Pretender " . Faced with mounting family debts , David sold the castle to the 4th Earl of Panmure , a fellow Jacobite , for £ 192 @,@ 502 Scots , equivalent to £ 16 @,@ 042 sterling . Lord Panmure , however , forfeited his lands and property for taking part in the failed rebellion . Edzell was sold , by the Crown , to the York Buildings Company , a London waterworks company which had branched into the buying and selling of forfeited property . They proceeded to " asset strip " the property .
The castle saw its last military event in 1746 , when a unit of government troops , of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , occupied the building , causing further damage . By 1764 , the York Buildings Company was bankrupt , and the remaining contents of the castle , including the roofs , were removed and sold to pay the company 's creditors . The avenue of beech trees , which linked the castle and the village , was felled , and the property was sold to William Maule , Earl Panmure , nephew of the attainted Earl of Panmure . He died in 1782 , and the property passed to his nephew , George Ramsay , 8th Earl of Dalhousie .
= = = Later history = = =
The castle remained the property of the earls of Dalhousie , who appointed a caretaker from the 1870s , and built a cottage for him in 1901 , which is now in use as a visitor centre . In 1932 , the walled garden passed into state care , followed by the rest of the castle in 1935 . The castle and garden are currently maintained by Historic Scotland and are open to the public year round . The motte and castle are protected as Scheduled Ancient Monuments , while the castle is also a Category A listed building , the highest level of protection for an historic building , and the garden is included in the Inventory of Historic Gardens and Designed Landscapes , the national listing of significant gardens . The caretaker 's house is a Category B listed building .
= = Description = =
= = = The motte = = =
The motte , still known as Castlehillock , is the only remainder of the first Edzell Castle . It lies 300m south @-@ west of the later castle , by a bend in the West Water , and comprises a low , partially natural mound . The motte is aligned north @-@ west to south @-@ east , and is around 36 metres ( 118 ft ) long by 16 metres ( 52 ft ) across at its broadest point , and around 4 metres ( 13 ft ) high . An outer bailey , or courtyard , up to 61 metres ( 200 ft ) across formerly surrounded the motte , and was bordered by a deep ditch .
= = = The castle = = =
The castle comprises the early 16th @-@ century tower house , the slightly later west range , and the late 16th @-@ century north range . Other buildings to the east and south have now vanished . The red sandstone walls were originally harled .
The four @-@ storey tower house was named the Stirling Tower after the original lords of Edzell , the Stirlings of Glenesk , although it is not old enough to have been built by them . It is 16 metres ( 52 ft ) high , and measures 13 metres ( 43 ft ) by 10 metres ( 33 ft ) on plan . The walls are over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thick at the basement , narrowing to 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) on the first floor . The tower house is entered from the north , via a door protected by " inverted keyhole " shaped gun holes . A slot adjacent to the door would have held a draw @-@ bar , to reinforce the entry , and several mason 's marks remain around the door . The hall occupies the first floor , above two vaulted cellars . Marks in the wall show the position of a minstrels ' gallery and a timber screen , which concealed a serving area accessed via a narrow stair from the cellar . The broad main spiral stair led up to three further storeys of private chambers , before reaching a caphouse , a small rooftop chamber giving access to a parapet walk . The four corners of the tower have bart
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commercials were a series of six television commercials featuring Batman , created by ad @-@ agency Campbell @-@ Ewald and aired from 2000 to the beginning of 2002 .
The ads were based on the film series and was basically an amalgamation of both directors visuals . For example , The Batmobile was the one used in Batman and Batman Returns , while the Batsuit was a combination of what was worn by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever and George Clooney in Batman & Robin . The commercials also featured the Danny Elfman Batman theme from Tim Burton 's two films .
Actor Bruce Thomas portrayed Batman in these ads , while Michael Gough reprised the role of Alfred Pennyworth from the four films in Batman : The Motion Picture Anthology in one of the ads . Baywatch actress Brooke Burns played Vicki Vale in an ad as well . Actor Brian Stepanek played the Riddler in an ad and Curtis Armstrong played the Joker in another .
= = Christopher Nolan = =
= = = Batman Begins ( 2005 ) = = =
Following a rejected Batman origin story reboot Joss Whedon pitched in December 2002 , Warner Bros. hired Christopher Nolan and David S. Goyer to script Batman Begins . The duo aimed for a darker and more realistic tone , with humanity and realism being the basis of the film . The film was primarily shot in the United Kingdom and Chicago , and relied on traditional stunts and scale models with minimal use of computer @-@ generated imagery . Christian Bale starred as Batman , Liam Neeson starred as Ra 's al Ghul , and Cillian Murphy as The Scarecrow . Katie Holmes also starred in the movie as Bruce 's love interest , Rachel Dawes , a role created for the film . Alfred was played by Michael Caine and Jim Gordon was portrayed by Gary Oldman . A new Batmobile ( called the Tumbler ) and a more mobile Batsuit were both created specifically for the film .
Batman Begins was both critically and commercially successful . The film opened on June 15 , 2005 , in the United States and Canada in 3 @,@ 858 theaters . It grossed $ 48 million in its opening weekend , eventually grossing over $ 372 million worldwide . The film received an 85 % overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes . Critics noted that fear was a common motif throughout the film , and remarked that it had a darker tone compared with previous Batman films . The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and for three BAFTA awards . It was also listed at No. 81 on Empire 's " 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " and has maintained a standing on IMDb.com 's " Top 250 " .
= = = The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) = = =
Christopher Nolan reprised his duties as director , and brought his brother , Jonathan , to co @-@ write the script for the second installment . The Dark Knight featured Christian Bale reprising his role as Batman / Bruce Wayne , Heath Ledger as The Joker , and Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent / Two @-@ Face . Principal photography began in April 2007 in Chicago and concluded in November . Other locations included Pinewood Studios , Ministry of Sound in London and Hong Kong . On January 22 , 2008 , after he had completed filming The Dark Knight , Ledger died from a bad combination of prescription medication . Warner Bros. had created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight , developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screen shots of Ledger as the Joker , but after Ledger 's death , the studio refocused its promotional campaign .
The film received broad critical acclaim , and set numerous records during its theatrical run . With just over $ 1 billion in revenue worldwide , it is the 21st @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time , unadjusted for inflation . The film received eight Academy Award nominations ; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor .
= = = The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) = = =
Nolan wanted the story for the third and final installment to keep him emotionally invested . " On a more superficial level , I have to ask the question , " he reasoned , " how many good third movies in a franchise can people name ? " He returned out of finding a necessary way to continue the story , but feared midway through filming he would find a sequel redundant . The Dark Knight Rises is intended to complete Nolan 's Batman trilogy . By December 2008 , Nolan completed a rough story outline , before he committed himself to Inception . In February 2010 , work on the screenplay was commencing with David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan . When Goyer left to work on the Superman reboot , Jonathan was writing the script based on the story by his brother and Goyer . Tom Hardy was cast as Bane and Anne Hathaway plays Selina Kyle . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt was cast as John Blake , and Marion Cotillard was cast as Miranda Tate . Filming began in May 2011 and concluded in November . Nolan chose not to film in 3 @-@ D but , by focusing on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format , hoped to push technological boundaries while nevertheless making the style of the film consistent with the previous two . Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice @-@ President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues . The Dark Knight Rises featured more scenes shot in IMAX than The Dark Knight . Cinematographer Wally Pfister expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX .
Upon release , The Dark Knight Rises received a positive critical response and was successful at the box office , going on to outgross its predecessor and become the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time grossing over $ 1 @.@ 08 billion . However , unlike its predecessors , the film was not nominated for any Oscars during its year of eligibility at the 85th Academy Awards , much to the surprise of film industry insiders .
= = = Proposed Justice League film = = =
= = = = Justice League : Mortal = = = =
In February 2007 , during pre @-@ production for The Dark Knight , Warner Bros. hired husband and wife screenwriting duo Michelle and Kieran Mulroney to script a Justice League film featuring a younger Batman in a separate franchise . George Miller was hired to direct the following September , with Armie Hammer cast as Batman a month later and Teresa Palmer as Talia al Ghul . Filming had nearly commenced for at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney , but was pushed back over the Writer 's Guild of America strike , and once more when the Australian Film Commission denied Warner Bros. a 45 percent tax rebate over lack of Australian actors in the film . Production offices were moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada for an expected July 2008 start and a planned summer 2009 theatrical release date , but Warner Bros. ultimately canceled Justice League following the success of The Dark Knight . Hammer 's option on his contract lapsed and the studio was more willing to proceed with Christopher Nolan to finish his trilogy separately with The Dark Knight Rises .
= = DC Extended Universe = =
= = = Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) = = =
On June 13 , 2013 , a source from Warner Bros. told The Wrap that they were discussing more Man of Steel films , as well as a Superman / Batman film , Wonder Woman , and Aquaman . Warner Bros. announced that Superman and Batman would unite in a new film , a follow @-@ up to Man of Steel ( 2013 ) , taking its inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns and set for release in 2015 . Goyer stated at the Superman 75th Anniversary Panel at Comic @-@ Con , that Batman and Superman would face off , and titles under consideration were Superman vs Batman or Batman vs Superman .
On August 22 , 2013 , The Hollywood Reporter announced the casting of Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman . On January 17 , 2014 , it was announced that the film had been delayed from its original July 17 , 2015 release date to May 6 , 2016 , in order to give the filmmakers " time to realize fully their vision , given the complex visual nature of the story " . The film 's release was moved again to March 25 , 2016 , " avoiding a high @-@ profile showdown with Captain America : Civil War on May 6 , 2016 " .
= = = Suicide Squad ( 2016 ) = = =
In February 2009 , Warner Bros. was developing a Suicide Squad film , with Dan Lin producing , and Justin Marks writing the script . In September 2014 , David Ayer signed on to direct and write the screenplay for the film . Charles Roven is also set to produce the film . In November 2014 and March 2015 , it was announced that Deadshot , Harley Quinn , Killer Croc and the Joker will appear in the film portrayed respectively by Will Smith , Margot Robbie , Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje and Jared Leto .
= = = Justice League ( 2017 ) = = =
Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel , Warner Bros hired Will Beall to script a new Justice League film in June 2012 . With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013 , Goyer was hired to write a new Justice League script , with the Beall draft being scrapped . In April 2014 , it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script . Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July , after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman .
= = = Untitled Justice League Sequel ( 2019 ) = = =
In March 2016 , it was revealed that Affleck signed on a three @-@ picture deal that carries him through 2019 's sequel , while also have a minor appearance in Suicide Squad .
= = = The Batman ( TBA ) = = =
In July 2015 , it was revealed that Ben Affleck was in talks to direct , star and co @-@ write with Geoff Johns a screenplay for a stand @-@ alone Batman film . In January 2016 , Affleck hinted that he was inspired by his Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice director Zack Snyder to possibly take on helming the film . In March 2016 , Johns claimed that the appearance of Robin 's suit covered in graffiti from Dawn of Justice would be explored later and the identity of the deceased character was intentionally unspecified . Following the release of Dawn of Justice , William Morris Endeavor 's co @-@ CEO Patrick Whitesell confirmed that Affleck had written a screenplay for a standalone Batman film that he hoped would be optioned by Warner Bros as well to direct . Warner Bros. CEO Kevin Tsujihara confirmed in April 2016 that the studio was moving ahead with Affleck 's stand @-@ alone Batman film , which the actor would star in and direct . In May 2016 , Jeremy Irons confirmed that he was " tied into The Batman " , while Affleck stated that his solo Batman film would borrow from the comics , but mainly be an " original story " . Affleck was confirmed as the film 's director at Comic @-@ Con 2016 .
= = Animated films = =
= = = Batman solo = = =
1993 : Mask of the Phantasm , set in the continuity of Batman : The Animated Series with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
1998 : Subzero , set in the continuity of Batman : The Animated Series with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2000 : Return of the Joker , set in the continuity of Batman Beyond with Will Friedle voicing Batman
2003 : Mystery of the Batwoman , set in the continuity of The New Batman Adventures with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2005 : The Batman vs. Dracula , set in the continuity of The Batman with Rino Romano voicing Batman
2010 : Under the Red Hood , an adaptation of Batman : Under the Hood with Bruce Greenwood voicing Batman
2011 : Year One , an adaptation of Batman : Year One with Benjamin McKenzie voicing Batman
2012 : The Dark Knight Returns - Part 1 , an adaptation of the first half of The Dark Knight Returns with Peter Weller voicing Batman
2013 : The Dark Knight Returns - Part 2 , an adaptation of the second half of The Dark Knight Returns with Peter Weller voicing Batman
2013 : DC Super Heroes Unite , an adaptation of Lego Batman 2 : DC Super Heroes with Troy Baker voicing Batman
2014 : Son of Batman , a loose adaptation of Batman and Son with Jason O 'Mara voicing Batman
2014 : Assault on Arkham , set in the continuity of Batman : Arkham with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2015 : Batman vs. Robin
2015 : Batman Unlimited : Animal Instincts
2016 : Batman : Bad Blood , an animated film also featuring Batwoman and Batwing with Jason O 'Mara voicing Batman
2016 : Batman : The Killing Joke , an adaptation of Batman : The Killing Joke with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2017 : The Lego Batman Movie , a spin @-@ off of The Lego Movie .
= = = With other heroes = = =
2008 : Justice League : The New Frontier , based on the comic of the same name with Jeremy Sisto voicing Batman
2009 : Superman / Batman : Public Enemies , based on the comic of the same name with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2010 : Justice League : Crisis on Two Earths , a loose adaptation of various DC comics with William Baldwin voicing Batman
2010 : Superman / Batman : Apocalypse , based on Superman / Batman : The Supergirl from Krypton with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2010 : DC Super Friends , based on the Fisher @-@ Price toyline with Daran Norris voicing Batman
2012 : Justice League : Doom , based on JLA : Tower of Babel with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
2013 : Justice League : The Flashpoint Paradox , based on Flashpoint with Kevin McKidd voicing Batman
2014 : JLA Adventures : Trapped in Time , an original story with Diedrich Bader voicing Batman
2014 : Justice League : War , based on Justice League : Origin with Jason O 'Mara voicing Batman
2014 : Lego DC Comics : Batman Be @-@ Leaguered animated television special , with Troy Baker reprising his role as Batman from the Lego video games .
2015 : Justice League : Throne of Atlantis , based on Throne of Atlantis with Jason O 'Mara voicing Batman
2015 : Justice League : Gods and Monsters
2015 : Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : Justice League vs. Bizarro League , with Troy Baker reprising his role .
2016 : Lego DC Comics Super Heroes : Justice League : Cosmic Clash , with Troy Baker reprising his role .
= = = The Lego Movie series = = =
2014 : A Lego @-@ themed version of Batman appears in The Lego Movie , voiced by Will Arnett .
2017 : The character receives his own spin @-@ off film , The Lego Batman Movie , voiced again by Will Arnett .
= = = Other = = =
2008 : Batman : Gotham Knight , a collection of original shorts with Kevin Conroy voicing Batman
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
= = = Critical and public response = = =
= = = Academy Awards = = =
= Platine War =
The Platine War ( 18 August 1851 – 3 February 1852 ) was fought between the Argentine Confederation and an alliance consisting of the Empire of Brazil , Uruguay and the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes . The war was part of a long @-@ running contest between Argentina and Brazil for influence over Uruguay and Paraguay , and hegemony over the Platine region ( areas bordering the Río de la Plata ) . The conflict took place in Uruguay , on the Río de la Plata , and northeastern Argentina . Uruguay 's internal troubles , including the long @-@ running Uruguayan Civil War , " La Guerra Grande " ( The Great War ) , were heavily influential factors leading to the Platine War .
In 1850 , the Platine region was politically unstable . Although the Governor of Buenos Aires Juan Manuel de Rosas had used his position to gain dictatorial control over other Argentine provinces , his rule was plagued by a series of regional rebellions . Meanwhile , Uruguay struggled with a long @-@ running civil war which started after acquiring independence from Brazil in 1828 after conclusion of Cisplatine War . Rosas backed the Uruguayan Blanco party in this conflict , and further desired to extend Argentine borders to areas formerly occupied by the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . This meant asserting control over Uruguay , Paraguay , and Bolivia . This threatened Brazilian interests and sovereignty since the old Spanish Viceroyalty had also included territories which had since been incorporated into Brazil 's province of Rio Grande do Sul .
Brazil actively pursued ways to eliminate threat from Rosas . In 1851 , it allied with the Argentine breakaway provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios ( led by Justo José de Urquiza ) , and the anti @-@ Rosas Colorado party in Uruguay . Brazil next secured the south @-@ western flank by signing defensive alliances with Paraguay and Bolivia . Faced
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reason I am who I am . " Cyrus co @-@ wrote " Don 't Walk Away " because it was to be included on her own studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) . " Hoedown Throwdown " , a song in which Cyrus calls dance steps , took much time to write . It became an ongoing collaboration between Chelsom , Cyrus , choreographer Jamal Sims , and the song 's writers , Adam Anders and Nikki Hasman .
" Dream " is a cover of the Diana DeGarmo song " Dream , Dream , Dream " from DeGarmo 's debut album , Blue Skies . Jessi Alexander said she was inspired to write " The Climb " while driving to the home of her songwriting partner , Jon Mabe . Once she arrived , they decided to write a song about overcoming obstacles . Alexander referred to the process as a form of " therapy " . It had initially been passed over by several artists until Chelsom chose it and offered it to Cyrus . Under the name Hannah Montana , Cyrus performs the song " Let 's Do This " , which was originally written and recorded by American country singer Adam Tefteller . The last track is a remixed version of Cyrus ' hit " The Best of Both Worlds " ( 2006 ) . The song is used as the theme song of the Disney Channel television show Hannah Montana , the basis of the film , and was originally released on the television series ' first soundtrack .
Several other artists appear on the soundtrack . Billy Ray Cyrus ' song on the album , " Back to Tennessee " , is the title track of his eleventh studio album . Written by Cyrus , Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder , the song reflects the desire of both Cyrus and his character in the film , Robbie Ray Stewart , to return to their roots . Disney artist Steve Rushton sings " Everything I Want " and " Game Over " . Rascal Flatts perform acoustic versions of previous efforts originally released on Feels Like Today ( 2004 ) and Me and My Gang ( 2006 ) . When approached about participating in the soundtrack , Taylor Swift sent her ballad " Crazier " because it " was perfect to fall in love to " . Swift also shares a writing credit with Martin Johnson of Boys Like Girls on the opening track " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " .
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , the album is country heavy , but merges adult contemporary music , country pop , country rock , and teen pop styles . According to About.com , each of Cyrus ' songs incorporate her " husky twang " . The up @-@ tempo songs are mainly performed by Montana and ballads are kept at a minimum . Songs like " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " , " Let 's Get Crazy " , and " Spotlight " are the most true to pop . " Let 's Get Crazy " carries a groove and creates a beat from paparazzi flashbulbs . Cyrus ' songs are more mid @-@ tempo . " Hoedown Throwdown " is an instructional dance song that mixes the album 's country style with R & B and hip @-@ hop . " The Climb " has solid , clear vocals and is a standard @-@ issue power ballad that places piano solos between chiming electric guitars . " Crazier " is a waltzing ballad that has Swift in relaxed soprano vocals .
Lyrically , the album explores a variety of concepts . With the exception of " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " , which speaks about staying grounded and relying on family , Montana 's songs describe the " glitzy @-@ world " and privileges of a celebrity . " Let 's Get Crazy " centers on having fun at a party . " The Good Life " is a " sugar @-@ coated celebration of Gucci handbags and Prada shoes " . " The Best of Both Worlds " explicitly alludes to Cyrus ' character 's double life as Montana : regular adolescent that moved from Nashville , Tennessee to Malibu , California by day and pop star by night . In the song , Montana talks about the privileges and advantages that are faced in leading in two lives with references to Orlando Bloom , concerts , friendship and film premieres . The songs Cyrus performs as herself are more reflective , personal , and sentimental . " Hoedown Throwdown " is a tribute to down @-@ home fun . " The Climb " describes life as a difficult but rewarding journey . " Butterfly Fly Away " is a father @-@ daughter duet by Miley and Billy Ray Cyrus about the coming of age . In " Back to Tennessee " Billy Ray Cyrus laments leaving Tennessee . Country group Rascal Flatts provide an acoustic version of " Backwards " and " Bless the Broken Road " with Williamson County Youth Orchestra .
= = Singles = =
" The Climb " was released as the lead single from the album on March 5 , 2009 through digital distribution . The song was critically appreciated for its lyrical content and Cyrus ' strong vocals . It achieved commercial success and reached the top ten on charts in the United States , Australia , Canada , and Norway , as well as reaching the top twenty in many other countries . In the United States , the song topped Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks for fifteen consecutive weeks .
" Hoedown Throwdown " was released on March 10 , 2009 . The song managed to make commercial success by reaching the top ten of the Irish Singles Chart and top twenty in numerous regions . After the release of the soundtrack , Disney still kept sending promotional songs .
" Crazier " was premiered on Radio Disney and Disney Channel , the latter promoting the home release of the film . The song charting at number seventeen on the Billboard Hot 100 , sixty @-@ four in the Australian Singles Chart , sixty @-@ seven in the Canadian Hot 100 , and one @-@ hundred on the UK Singles Chart .
Other charted songs
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " peaked at number seventy @-@ six on the Canadian Hot and at number eighty @-@ one in the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Promotion = =
On October 10 , 2008 , Cyrus performed " Let 's Get Crazy " , " Let 's Do This " , and the 2009 Movie Mix of " The Best of Both Worlds " as Montana for the taping of third season of Hannah Montana at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre in Irvine California . On January 19 , 2009 , Cyrus premiered " The Climb " at the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event in celebration of Barack Obama 's inauguration . Cyrus and her father performed in London in an Apple Store ; the taped performance was sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes : Live from London . Cyrus has performed songs from the album on the Academy of Country Music , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , American Idol , Good Morning America , Live with Regis and Kelly , the AOL Sessions , the twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , The Today Show , and the first D23 Expo .
Promotional songs from Hannah Montana : The Movie were premiered on Radio Disney and Disney Channel . " Let 's Do This " was first to premiere on Radio Disney and Disney Channel on December 13 , 2008 , the video being taken from the taping in Irvine . Due to digital downloads , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart ( Hot 100 – 123 ) ; the song charted in the Hot Canadian Digital Singles at number sixty @-@ nine , but failed to reach the Canadian Hot 100 . " Let 's Get Crazy " was then premiered on January 19 , 2009 . The music video is an excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie in which Miley Stewart , portrayed by Cyrus , is forced to enter Lilly Truscott 's , portrayed by Emily Osment , Sweet Sixteen as Montana . The song peaked at number fifty @-@ seven in the Billboard Hot 100 and twenty @-@ six in the Canadian Hot 100 , therefore becoming Montana 's highest chart effort in Canada . " Back to Tennessee " was premiered only on Disney Channel with a video that interspersed scenes from the film . The song peaked at number forty @-@ seven on Hot Country Songs .
Radio Disney premiered the entire soundtrack on March 21 , 2009 , with a rebroadcast the next day . The Miley Sessions , a series of promotional music videos that featured Cyrus singing in a recording studio were released to Disney.com in March 2009 . The videos feature Cyrus in a recording studio singing . Disney Channel aired a series of commercial segments entitled Hannah Montana : The Movie Playback , in which Cyrus is in the same setting describing the music of the album . Cyrus also embarked for a five city acoustic radio promo tour that reached over two @-@ hundred @-@ fifty for six days to promote the album . In addition , Cyrus performed four songs from the album on her first worldwide concert tour , the Wonder World Tour .
= = Critical reception = =
The album received generally positive reviews from critics . Warren Truitt of About.com described the album as Cyrus ' attempt to gradually capture a more mature audience by sharing the album with artists like the Rascal Flatts and Swift . Truitt also made musical comparisons to Shania Twain in " Dream " , Kelly Clarkson in " Don 't Walk Away " , Avril Lavigne in " The Good Life " , and Gwen Stefani in " Spotlight " and " Let 's Get Crazy " . Heather Phares of Allmusic noted the presence of many drastically different genres makes the album " a little weird " . She stated that Cyrus ' songs which were performed as herself were " the best songs " , and also compared Cyrus to Twain . Phares also noted that Swift 's " Crazier " was " the best song on Hannah Montana : The Movie " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly stated , " the distance between tween and twang isn 't actually all that far ; think of this [ ... ] as a sort of country @-@ lite starter kit for her legion of young Disney @-@ fed fans " . In the end , she said Hannah Montana : The Movie was " the Miley show — whether it broadcasts from Nashville or Hollywood " , despite appearances by other artists .
= = Commercial performance = =
Hannah Montana : The Movie debuted on the Billboard 200 at number two with 139 @,@ 000 copies sold on the issue date April 11 , 2009 . After four weeks of ascending and descending the chart , the album reached the number one position , becoming the first soundtrack of the year to top the Billboard 200 . In its fourth week the album sold 133 @,@ 000 copies , a decline of 32 percent compared to previous week 's haul of 196 @,@ 000 . It also topped Billboard Top Country Albums for nine non @-@ consecutive weeks and Top Soundtracks for nineteen non @-@ consecutive weeks . After two months , the album became certified platinum for shipments of one million copies by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The album has sold 2 @,@ 085 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of April 2014 and 3 million worldwide . In Canada , the album debuted at number two , and peaked at number one for two consecutive weeks .
Hannah Montana : The Movie made its debut in the New Zealand RIANZ Album Chart at number eleven and eventually topped the chart for a week . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the soundtrack peaked at number six and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , selling more than 70 @,@ 000 copies . In Spain , the album debuted at number eighteen and peaked at the top spot for four weeks . The album was later certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España for the shipment of 80 @,@ 000 copies . In Austria , the soundtrack peaked at number one for one week and was eventually certified gold for sales above 10 @,@ 000 . Hannah Montana : The Movie also topped the Portuguese chart and reached the top twenty of charts in Belgium , Denmark , Mexico , Norway , Poland , Sweden , and Switzerland .
= = Awards and accolades = =
Hannah Montana : The Movie was nominated for " Choice Music : Album Soundtrack " and " Favorite Soundtrack " at the Teen Choice Awards and 2009 American Music Awards but lost to the Twilight soundtrack , respectively . Five of the songs , " Back to Tennessee " , " Butterfly Fly Away " , " Don 't Walk Away " , " Hoedown Throwdown " , and " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " are included on the short list for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 82nd Annual Academy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Karaoke series Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana The Movie was released to selected countries . The artwork underwent minor changes , the background are yellow stripes , the Hannah Montana logo was placed at the bottom left corner , and in the top right corner letters spell " Karaoke Series " . It features eight karaoke instrumental versions of tracks from the original soundtrack .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Second Northern War =
The Second Northern War ( 1655 – 60 , also First or Little Northern War ) was fought between Sweden and its adversaries the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1655 – 60 ) , Russia ( 1656 – 58 ) , Brandenburg @-@ Prussia ( 1657 – 60 ) , the Habsburg Monarchy ( 1657 – 60 ) and Denmark – Norway ( 1657 – 58 and 1658 – 60 ) . The Dutch Republic often intervened against Sweden .
In 1655 , Charles X Gustav of Sweden invaded and occupied western Poland – Lithuania , the eastern half of which was already occupied by Russia . The rapid Swedish advance became known in Poland as the Swedish Deluge . The Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a Swedish fief , the Polish – Lithuanian regular armies surrendered and the Polish king John II Casimir Vasa fled to the Habsburgs . Frederick William , Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia initially supported the estates in Royal Prussia , but allied with Sweden in return for receiving the Duchy of Pr
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ussia as a Swedish fief . Exploiting the hurt religious feelings of the Roman Catholic population under Protestant occupation and organizing Polish – Lithuanian military leaders in the Tyszowce Confederation , John II Casimir Vasa managed to regain ground in 1656 . Russia took advantage of the Swedish setback , declared war on Sweden and pushed into Lithuania and Swedish Livonia .
Charles X Gustav then granted Frederick William full sovereignty in the Duchy of Prussia in return for military aid , and in the Treaty of Radnot allied himself with the Transylvanian George II Rákóczi who invaded Poland – Lithuania from the southeast . John II Vasa found an ally in Leopold I of Habsburg , whose armies crossed into Poland – Lithuania from the southwest . This triggered Frederick III of Denmark 's invasion of the Swedish mainland in the spring of 1657 , in an attempt to settle old scores from the Torstenson War while Sweden was busy elsewhere . Brandenburg left the alliance with Sweden when granted full sovereignty in the Duchy of Prussia by the Polish king in the treaties of Wehlau and Bromberg .
Frederick III 's war on Sweden gave Charles X Gustav a reason to abandon the Polish – Lithuanian deadlock and fight Denmark instead . After marching his army to the west and making a dangerous crossing of the frozen straits in the winter of 1657 / 58 , he surprised the unprepared Frederick III on the Danish isles and forced him into surrender . In the Treaty of Roskilde , Denmark had to abandon all Danish provinces in what is now Southern Sweden . The anti @-@ Swedish allies meanwhile neutralized the Transylvanian army and Polish forces ravaged Swedish Pomerania .
In 1658 Charles X Gustav decided that instead of returning to the remaining Swedish strongholds in Poland – Lithuania , he would rather attack Denmark again . This time , Denmark withstood the attack and the anti @-@ Swedish allies pursued Charles X Gustav to Jutland and Swedish Pomerania . Throughout 1659 , Sweden was defending her strongholds in Denmark and on the southern Baltic shore , while little was gained by the allies and a peace was negotiated . When Charles X Gustav died in February 1660 , his successor settled for the Treaty of Oliva with Poland – Lithuania , Habsburg and Brandenburg in April and the Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark in May . Sweden was to keep most of her gains from Roskilde , the Duchy of Prussia became a sovereign state , and otherwise the parties largely returned to the status quo ante bellum . Sweden had already concluded a truce with Russia in 1658 , which gave way to a final settlement in the Treaty of Cardis in 1661 .
= = Terminology = =
In English language , German , Russian and Scandinavian historiography , these conflicts were traditionally referred to as First Northern War . The term " Second Northern War " , coined in Polish historiography ( Druga Wojna Północna ) , has lately been increasingly adopted by German and English language historiography . Another ambiguous term referring to the Second Northern War is the Little Northern War , which however might also refer to the 1741 @-@ 43 war . In Poland , the term " The Deluge " is also ambiguous , as it is sometimes used for a broader series of wars against Sweden , Brandenburg , Russia , Transylvania and the Cossacks .
= = Prelude = =
In 1648 , the Peace of Westphalia had ended the Thirty Years ' War , during which the Swedish Empire emerged as a major European power . In the Torstenson War , a theater of the Thirty Years ' War , Sweden had defeated the former Baltic great power Denmark . Sweden had been at peace with Russia since the Treaty of Stolbovo had ended the Ingrian War in 1617 . Sweden had remained in a state of war with the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth since the Polish – Swedish War ( 1626 – 29 ) , which was concluded by the repeatedly renewed truce ( Altmark , Stuhmsdorf ) .
On the other hand , the Commonwealth , under king John II Casimir Vasa since 1648 , experienced a crisis resulting both from the Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising in the southeast and from the paralysis of the administration due to the internal quarrels of the nobility , including feuds between the king and the Lithuanian hetman Janusz Radziwiłł and feuds among disagreeing sejmiks who had been able to stall each other 's ambitions with the liberum veto since 1652 . As a consequence , the Commonwealth lacked a sufficient defense .
In January 1654 , the anti @-@ Polish alliance of Pereiaslav was concluded between the rebellious Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Alexis of Russia , who was in control of a well @-@ equipped army that was undergoing modernization . In 1654 , when Charles X Gustav succeeded his cousin Christina on the Swedish throne , Russian forces were advancing into the unprotected Commonwealth , and by focusing on the northeast these drew close to the Swedish sphere of interest at the Baltic coast . Seeing the great success on the Russian side , Sweden also decided to intervene , among other reasons using the explanation that it was to protect the Protestant population in Poland . Having a close relationships with the Prince of Transylvania , Sweden had intentions to defeat the Catholic Poland . Sweden also drew the rising Cossack Hetmanate to its side that stood in the strong opposition to the Polish government and promised military support if the Cossacks will break with the Russians . Bohdan Khmelnytsky sent an expedition headed by the Kiev colonel to Halychyna which soon turned back due to mutiny within its ranks . The leader of Hetmanate did not participate in actions due to poor health conditions .
Sweden , at that time an expansionist empire with an army designed to be maintained by the revenues of occupied territory , was conscious that a direct attack on her main adversary Russia could well result in a Dano @-@ Polish – Russian alliance . Also , Sweden was prevented from forming a Swedish – Polish alliance by the refusal of John II Casimir to drop his claims to the Swedish crown and the unwillingness of the Polish – Lithuanian nobility to make the territorial and political concessions an alliance with Sweden would eventually cost , final negotiations in Lübeck during February 1655 ended without a result . Thus , Sweden opted for a preemptive attack on the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth to occupy its yet available territories before the Russians .
= = Swedish campaigns in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth = =
Swedish forces entered Poland – Lithuania from Swedish Pomerania in the west , and Livonia in the north . The division on the western flank consisted of 13 @,@ 650 men and 72 artillery pieces commanded by Arvid Wittenberg who entered Poland on 21 July 1655 and another 12 @,@ 700 to 15 @,@ 000 commanded by Charles X Gustav who followed in August , while the division on the northern flank consisted of 7 @,@ 200 men commanded by Magnus de la Gardie who had already seized Dünaburg with them on 12 July .
On the western front , Wittenberg was opposed by a Polish levy of 13 @,@ 000 and an additional 1 @,@ 400 peasant infantry . Aware of the military superiority of the well @-@ trained Swedish army , the nobles of Greater Poland surrendered to Wittenberg on 25 July in Ujście after the Battle of Ujście , and then pledged loyalty to the Swedish king . Wittenberg established a garrison in Poznań ( Posen ) .
On the northern front , Prince Janusz Radziwiłł signed the Treaty of Kėdainiai with Sweden on 17 August 1655 , placing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Swedish protection . Though Radziwiłł had been negotiating with Sweden before , during his dispute with the Polish king , Kėdainiai provided a clause stipulating that the two parts of the Commonwealth , Poland and Lithuania , need not fight each other . Part of the Lithuanian army opposed the treaty however , forming a confederation led by the magnate and Polish @-@ Lithuanian hetman Paweł Jan Sapieha at Wierzbołów .
On 24 August , Charles X Gustav joined Wittenberg 's forces . The Polish king John II Casimir left Warsaw the same month to confront the Swedish army in the west , but after some skirmishes with the Swedish vanguard retreated southwards to Kraków . On 8 September Charles X Gustav occupied Warsaw , then turned south to confront the retreating Polish king . The kings met at the Battle of Żarnów on 16 September , which like the next encounter at the Battle of Wojnicz on 3 October was decided for Sweden . John II Casimir was exiled to Silesia while Kraków surrendered to Charles X Gustav on 19 October .
On 20 October , a second treaty was ratified at Kėdainiai in the north . The Union of Kėdainiai unified Lithuania with Sweden , with Radziwiłł recognizing Charles X Gustav as Grand Duke of Lithuania . Over the following days , most of the Polish army surrendered to Sweden : on 26 October Koniecpolski surrendered with 5 @,@ 385 men near Kraków , on 28 October Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Lanckoroński and Great Crown Hetman Stanisław " Rewera " Potocki surrendered with 10 @,@ 000 men , and on 31 October the levy of Mazovia surrendered after the Battle of Nowy Dwór .
= = Occupation of Poland @-@ Lithuania and the Brandenburgian intervention = =
Meanwhile , Russian and Cossack forces had occupied the east of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth as far as Lublin , with only Lwow ( Lviv , Lemberg ) remaining under Polish – Lithuanian control . In late October , Charles X Gustav headed northwards and left Wittenberg in Kraków with a mobile force of 3 @,@ 000 Swedish and 2 @,@ 000 Polish troops , and an additional number scattered in garrisons , to control the southern part of the Swedish @-@ occupied commonwealth .
In the north , the Royal Prussian nobles concluded a defensive alliance with the Electorate of Brandenburg on 12 November in the Treaty of Rinsk , permitting Brandenburgian garrisons . Danzig ( Gdansk ) , Thorn ( Torun ) and Elbing ( Elblag ) had not participated in the treaty , with Thorn and Elbing surrendering to Sweden . In the Treaty of Königsberg on 17 January 1656 , Frederick William , Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia , took the Duchy of Prussia , formerly a Polish fief , as a fief from Charles X Gustav . The Brandenburgian garrisons in Royal Prussia were withdrawn , and when Marienburg ( Malbork ) surrendered in March , Danzig remained the only town not under Swedish control .
The rapid Swedish invasion and occupation of the Polish – Lithuanian territories became known in Poland as the " ( Swedish ) deluge . "
= = Polish – Lithuanian recovery = =
The " deluge " and religious differences between the primarily Protestant Swedes and the primarily Catholic Poles , resulting in cases of maltreatment and murder of Catholic clergy and monks as well as cases of looting of Catholic churches and monasteries , gave rise to some partisan movements in the Swedish @-@ occupied territory . A guerilla force attacked a small Swedish garrison at Koscian in October 1655 and killed Frederick of Hesse , brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Swedish king . The Pauline monastery Jasna Góra in Częstochowa successfully resisted a Swedish siege throughout November 1655 to January 1656 . On 20 November a manifesto was issued in Opole ( Oppeln ) calling for public resistance and the return of John II Casimir , and in December a peasant force took Nowy Sącz . On 29 December , the partisan Tyszowce Confederation was constituted under participation of Lanckoroński and Potocki , and on 1 January 1656 John II Casimir returned from exile . Later in January , Stefan Czarniecki joined in , and by February most Polish soldiers who were in Swedish service since October 1655 , had switched sides to that of the confederation .
Charles X Gustav , with a force of 11 @,@ 000 horse , reacted by pursuing Czarniecki 's force of 2 @,@ 400 men , confronting and defeating him in the Battle of Gołąb in February 1656 . Charles X Gustav then intended to take Lwow , but his advance was halted in the Battle of Zamość , when he was nearly encircled by the growing Polish – Lithuanian armies under Sapieha and Czarniecki , and barely escaped on 5 and 6 April breaking through Sapieha 's lines during the Battle of Sandomierz at the cost of his artillery and baggage . A Swedish relief force under Frederick of Baden was destroyed by Czarniecki on 7 April in the Battle of Warka . In the same month , John II Casimir with the Lwów Oath proclaimed Virgin Mary queen of Poland , and promised to lift the burdens inflicted on the peasantry if he regained control .
= = Brandenburgian @-@ Swedish alliance and Russia 's war on Sweden = =
On 25 June 1656 , Charles X Gustav signed an alliance with Brandenburg : the Treaty of Marienburg granted Greater Poland to Frederick William in return for military aid . While the Brandenburgian elector was free of Swedish vassalage in Greater Poland , he remained a Swedish vassal for the Duchy of Prussia . Brandenburgian garrisons then replaced the Swedish ones in Greater Poland , who went to reinforce Charles X Gustav 's army . On 29 June however , Warsaw was stormed by John II Casimir , who had drawn up to Charles X Gustav with a force of 28 @,@ 500 regulars and a noble levy of 18 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 . Thereupon , Brandenburg actively participated in the war on the Swedish side , prompting John II Casimir Vasa to state that while his Tartars already had the Swedes for breakfast , he would now take Frederick William into custody , where neither sun nor moon would shine .
Already in May 1656 , Alexis of Russia had declared war on Sweden , taking advantage of Charles being bound in Poland , and Livonia , Estonia and Ingria secured only by a Livonian army of 2 @,@ 200 infantry and 400 dragoons , Magnus de la Gardie 's 7 @,@ 000 men in Prussia , and 6 @,@ 933 men dispersed in garrisons along the Eastern Baltic coast . Alexis invaded Livonia in July with 35 @,@ 000 men and took Dünaburg .
In late July , Danzig was re @-@ inforced by a Dutch garrison , and a combined Danish and Dutch fleet broke the naval blockage imposed on Danzig by Charles X Gustav . On 28 – 30 July , a combined Brandenburgian @-@ Swedish army was able to defeat the Polish – Lithuanian army in the Battle of Warsaw , forcing John II Casimir to retreat to Lublin . In August , Alexis ' army took Livonian Kokenhausen ( Koknese ) , laid siege to Riga and Dorpat ( Tartu ) and raided Estonia , Ingria and Kexholm .
On 4 October , John II Casimir stormed Łęczyca in Greater Poland before heading for Royal Prussia , and on 8 October , Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski with 12 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 Lithuanian and Crimean Tartar cavalry overran a Brandenburgian @-@ Swedish force in the Battle of Prostken in Ducal Prussia . Gosiewski then ravaged Ducal Prussia , burning 13 towns and 250 villages , in a campaign that entered folklore because of the high death toll and the high number of captives deported to the Crimea .
On 22 October , Gosiewski was defeated by Swedish forces in the Battle of Filipów and turned to Lithuania . Also on 22 October , besieged Dorpat surrendered to Alexis , while the Russian siege of Swedish @-@ held Riga was lifted . John II Casimir meanwhile took Bromberg ( Bydgoszcz ) and Konitz in Royal Prussia , and from 15 November 1656 until February 1657 stayed in Danzig , where a Swedish siege had to be lifted due to Dutch intervention , just 55 kilometers away from Charles X Gustav 's quarters in Elbing .
= = Swedish – Brandenburgian – Transylvanian – Romanian alliance and the truces with Russia = =
In the Treaty of Labiau on 20 November , Charles X Gustav of Sweden granted Frederick William of Brandenburg full sovereignty in the Duchy of Prussia in turn for a more active participation in the war . In the Treaty of Radnot on 6 December , Charles X Gustav promised to accept George II Rákóczi of Transylvania as king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in return for his entrance into the war . Rákóczi entered the war in January 1657 , crossing into the commonwealth with a force of 25 @,@ 000 Transylvanian @-@ Wallachian @-@ Moldavian men and 20 @,@ 000 Cossacks who broke the Polish siege of Kraków before they met with Charles X Gustav , who had led a Swedish @-@ Brandenburgian army southwards . The following month saw the Swedisch @-@ Brandenburg @-@ Transylvanian @-@ Romanian @-@ Cossack forces play cat and mouse with the Polish – Lithuanian forces , moving about all of the commonwealth without any major engagements , except the capture of Brest by Charles X Gustav in May , and the sack of Warsaw by Rákóczi and Gustaf Otto Stenbock on 17 June .
Due to internal conflicts within the Cossacks practically there was no participation of Cossack Hetmanate in that war . Worn out from previous campaigns and requesting Bohdan Khmelnytsky to break with Sweden , Alexis of Russia eventually signed the Truce of Vilna or Niemież with the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , and did not engage the Swedish army in any major battle throughout 1657 even though he still reinforced his armies in Livonia . On 18 June , a Swedish force defeated a Russian army of 8 @,@ 000 men commanded by Matvey V. Sheremetev in the Battle of Walk at Walk ( Valga ) . In early 1658 , Sweden and Russia agreed on a truce , resulting in the Treaty of Valiesar ( Vallisaare , 1658 ) and the Treaty of Kardis ( Kärde , 1661 ) . The Russian war with Poland – Lithuania on the other hand resumed in 1658 .
= = Austro – Brandenburgian – Polish alliance , Danish campaigns in Sweden = =
Like Sweden , John II Casimir was also looking for allies to break the deadlock of the war . On 1 December 1656 , he signed an alliance with Ferdinand III of Habsburg in Vienna , essentially a declaration of Ferdinand III 's intend to mediate a peace rather than provide military aid , which did not come into effect until Ferdinand 's death on 2 April 1657 . The treaty was however renewed and amended on 27 May by Ferdinand 's successor Leopold I of Habsburg , who agreed in Vienna to provide John II Casimir with 12 @,@ 000 troops maintained at Polish expense ; in return , Leopold received Kraków and Posen in pawn . Receiving the news , Frederick III of Denmark promptly declared war on Sweden , and by June the Austrian army entered the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth from the south , immediatetly stabilizing the situation in southern Poland , while Denmark attacked Swedish Bremen @-@ Verden and turned to Jämtland and Västergötland in July .
When Charles X Gustav left the Commonwealth and headed westwards for an anti @-@ Danish counterstrike , the Swedish – Brandenburgian – Transylvanian alliance broke apart . Rákóczi of Transylvania was unable to withstand the combined Austrian and Polish – Lithuanian forces without Swedish support , and after a pursuit into Ukraine he was encircled and forced to capitulate , with the rest of the Transylvanian army defeated by the Tartars .
Brandenburg changed sides in return for Polish withdrawal of claims to Ducal Prussia , declaring Frederick William the sole sovereign in the Duchy with the treaties of Wehlau on 19 September and Bromberg on 6 November . In addition , the aforementioned treaties secured Brandenburg the Lands of Lauenburg and Bütow at the border of Brandenburgian Pomerania , while the Bishopric of Ermeland was returned to Poland .
= = Denmark and Pomerania = =
The attack of Frederick III of Denmark in June 1657 , aimed at regaining the territories lost in 1645 , provided an opportunity for Charles X Gustav to abandon the unfortunate Polish – Lithuanian battlefields . With 9 @,@ 950 horse and 2 @,@ 800 foot , he marched through Pomerania and Mecklenburg . In Holstein , the Swedish force was split with Carl Gustaf Wrangel heading west to clear Bremen @-@ Verden and Charles X Gustav heading north to clear Jutland . When these aims were achieved , Charles X Gustav in September moved to the Swedish port of Wismar and ordered his navy into the inconclusive Battle of Møn .
Meanwhile , Polish forces led by general Stefan Czarniecki ravaged southern Swedish Pomerania , and destroyed and plundered Pasewalk , Gartz ( Oder ) and Penkun . The Habsburg and Brandenburg allies however were reluctant to join Czarniecki , and against John II Casimir 's wish decided against taking the war to the Holy Roman Empire fearing the start of a new Thirty Years ' War .
The harsh winter of 1657 / 58 had forced the Dano @-@ Norwegian fleet in port , and the Great and Little Belts separating the Danish isles from the mainland were frozen . After entering Jutland from the south , a Swedish army of 7 @,@ 000 veterans undertook the March across the Belts ; on 9 February 1658 , the Little Belt was crossed and the island Funen ( Fyn ) captured within a few days , and soon thereafter Langeland , Lolland and Falster . On 25 February , the Swedish army continued across the Great Belt to Zealand with the Danish capital Copenhagen . Although only 5 @,@ 000 men made it across the belts , the Swedish attack was completely unexpected ; Frederick III was compelled to surrender and signed the disadvantageous Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658 .
Sweden had won its most prestigious victory , and Denmark had suffered its most costly defeat . Denmark was forced to yield the provinces of Scania , Halland , Blekinge and the island of Bornholm . Halland had already been under Swedish control since the signing of the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645 , but they now became Swedish territory indefinitely . Denmark also had to surrender the Norwegian province Trøndelag to Sweden .
Yet , Swedish @-@ held territory in Poland had been reduced to some towns in Royal Prussia , most notably Elbing , Marienburg and Thorn . With Transylvania neutralized and Brandenburg defected , Charles X Gustav 's position in the region was not strong enough to force his stated aim , the permanent gain of Royal Prussia . He was further pressed militarily when an Austro @-@ Polish army laid siege to Thorn in July 1658 , and diplomatically when he was urged by France to settle . France was unwilling to intervene militarily , and Sweden could not afford to violate the Peace of Westphalia by attacking the Habsburg and Brandenburgian possessions in the Holy Roman Empire , which would likely have driven several Germans into the anti @-@ Swedish alliance . Thus , Charles X Gustav opted to instead attack Denmark again .
When the Danes stalled and prolonged the fulfillment of some provisions of the Treaty of Roskilde by postponing payments and not blocking foreign fleets from access to the Baltic Sea , and with half of the 2 @,@ 000 Danish soldiers that were obliged by Roskilde to enter Swedish service deserting , the Swedish king embarked from Kiel with a force of 10 @,@ 000 men on 16 August . While everyone expected him to head for Royal Prussia , he disembarked on Zealand on 17 August , and headed for Copenhagen , which was defended by 10 @,@ 650 Danes and 2 @,@ 000 Dutch . This time however , the town did not surrender , and a long siege ensued . When Swedish forces took Kronborg in September , they controlled both sides of the Øresund , yet in November a Dutch fleet broke the Swedish naval blockade of Copenhagen in the Battle of the Sound .
Meanwhile , the anti @-@ Swedish alliance had deployed an army to Denmark , to confront Charles X Gustav with a force of 14 @,@ 500 Brandenburgers commanded by Frederick William , 10 @,@ 600 Austrians commanded by Raimondo Montecuccoli , and 4 @,@ 500 Poles commanded by Czarniecki . By January 1659 , the allied forces stood at Fredriksodde , Kolding and Als . Charles X Gustav then tried a decisive assault on Copenhagen on 21 and 22 February , but was repelled .
= = Sweden entrenched = =
In 1659 , the war was characterized by Swedish forces defending their strongholds on the southern Baltic coast against allied assaults . A combined force of 17 @,@ 000 Austrians and 13 @,@ 000 Brandenburgers led by general Jean @-@ Louis Raduit de Souches invaded Swedish Pomerania , took and burned Greifenhagen , took Wollin island and Damm , besieged Stettin and Greifswald without success , but took Demmin on 9 November . Counterattacks were mounted by general Müller von der Lühnen , who lifted the siege laid on Greifswald by the Brandenburgian prince elector , and major general Paul Wirtz , who from besieged Stettin managed to capture the Brandenburgian ammunition depot at Curau and took it to Stralsund . The Brandenburgians withdrew ravaging the countryside while retreating .
In the occupied and annexed Danish provinces , guerilla movements pressed Swedish garrisons . After an uprising , Norwegians took Trondheim in late 1658 . In Scania and Zealand , the " snaphaner " led by Lorenz Tuxen and Svend Poulsen ( " Gøngehøvdingen " ) ambushed Swedish forces . The Swedish garrison of Bornholm was forced to surrender to Danish insurgents , with the commander killed .
In Royal Prussia ( Eastern Pomerania in contemporary Poland ) , Thorn had fallen already in December 1658 , but Elbing and Marienwerder withstood . On 24 November , Sweden had to abandon Funen and Langeland after the defeat in the Battle of Nyborg . In January 1660 , Sweden lost the Livonian fortress Mitau .
Meanwhile , conflicts arose within the anti @-@ Swedish alliance between Habsburg and Poland @-@ Lithuania when Habsburg demanded ever more contributions while not showing the war efforts Poland @-@ Lithuania had expected . With the Russo @-@ Polish War ongoing , most Polish – Lithuanian forces were bound in Ukraine . England , France and the Dutch Republic had agreed on a petition in the First Concert of the Hague , urging Sweden to settle for peace with Denmark on the terms of Roskilde , and peace talks mediated by France were taking place throughout 1659 .
= = New Sweden = =
In New Sweden , in May 1654 , the Dutch Fort Casimir was captured by soldiers from the New Sweden colony led by governor Johan Risingh . Fort Casimir was renamed Fort Trinity ( in Swedish , Trefaldigheten ) . Soon after Sweden opened the Second Northern War in the Baltic by attacking the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , the Dutch moved to take advantage and an armed squadron of ships under the direction of Director @-@ General Peter Stuyvesant seized New Sweden . The Dutch moved an army to the Delaware River in the summer of 1655 , easily capturing Fort Trinity and Fort Christina . The Swedish settlement was incorporated into Dutch New Netherland on September 15 , 1655 . At first the Swedish and Finnish settlers continued to enjoy local autonomy . They kept their own militia , religion , court , and lands .
= = Peace = =
Charles X Gustav fell ill in early 1660 and died on 23 February of that year . With his death , one of the major obstacles to peace was gone and the Treaty of Oliwa was signed on 23 April . Sweden was accepted as sovereign in Swedish Livonia , Brandenburg was accepted as sovereign in Ducal Prussia , and John II Casimir withdrew his claims to the Swedish throne , though he was to retain the title for life . All occupied territories were restored to their pre @-@ war sovereigns .
However , Denmark was not keen on peace after their recent successes and witnessing the weakness of the Swedish efforts . The Netherlands withdrew their blockade , but were soon convinced by the Denmark to support them again . France and England intervened for Sweden and the situation was again teetering on the edge of a major conflict . However , the Danish statesman Hannibal Sehested negotiated a peace treaty without any direct involvement by foreign powers . The conflict was resolved with the Treaty of Copenhagen ( 1660 ) . Sweden returned Bornholm and Trøndelag to Denmark . The treaty of 1660 established political borders between Denmark , Sweden and Norway which have lasted to the present day , and secured the Swedish dominium maris baltici .
Russia , still engaged in the Russo @-@ Polish War ( 1654 – 67 ) , settled her dispute with Sweden in the Treaty of Kardis , which restored Russian @-@ occupied Swedish territory to Sweden .
= = = List of peace treaties = = =
Treaty of Königsberg : Sweden and Brandenburg @-@ Prussia ( 1656 , superseded by Bromberg and Oliva )
Treaty of Bromberg : Brandenburg @-@ Prussia and Poland @-@ Lithuania
Treaty of Roskilde : Sweden and Denmark ( 1658 , superseded by Copenhagen )
Treaty of Oliwa : Sweden and Brandenburg @-@ Prussia , Austria and Poland @-@ Lithuania ( 1660 )
Treaty of Copenhagen : Sweden and Denmark ( 1660 )
Treaty of Kärde : Sweden and Russia ( 1661 )
= Greater yellow @-@ headed vulture =
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture ( Cathartes melambrotus ) , also known as the forest vulture , is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae . It was considered to be the same species as the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture until they were split in 1964 . It is found in South America in tropical moist lowland forests . It is a fairly large bird , with a wingspan of 166 – 178 cm ( 65 – 70 in ) , a weight of 1 @.@ 65 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 6 lb ) and a body length of 64 – 75 cm ( 25 – 30 in ) . The body plumage is black , and the head and neck , which are featherless , range in color from deep yellow to pale orange . It lacks a syrinx , and its vocalizations are therefore limited to grunts or low hisses .
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture feeds on carrion and locates carcasses by sight and by smell , an ability which is rare in birds . It is dependent on larger vultures , such as the king vulture , to open the hides of larger animal carcasses , as its bill is not strong enough to do this . Like other New World vultures , the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture utilizes thermals to stay aloft with minimal effort . It lays its eggs on flat surfaces , such as the floors of caves , or in the hollows of stumps . It feeds its young by regurgitation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The greater yellow @-@ headed and the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture were distinguished as separate species and described in 1964 by Alexander Wetmore ; both species had earlier been known as yellow @-@ headed vultures . The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture 's genus is Cathartes , which means " purifier " , and is Latinized from the Greek kathartēs / καθαρτης . The common name , vulture , is derived from the Latin word vulturus , meaning " tearer , " in reference to its feeding habits .
The exact taxonomic placement of the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Although they are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities assert their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible .
= = Description = =
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture is 64 – 75 centimetres ( 25 – 30 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 166 – 178 centimetres ( 65 – 70 in ) , a tail length of 25 – 29 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) and a weight averaging 1 @.@ 65 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 6 lb ) . Its plumage is black with a green or purple sheen . The throat and the sides of the head are featherless . The skin on the head ranges in color from deep yellow to pale orange with a blue crown . The nape and the area near the nostrils are pale pinkish . The undersides of the wings are black , while the flight feathers are a lighter shade . The quills of the eleven primary feathers appear to be white when seen from above . The tail is rounded and long for a vulture , extending to or slightly beyond the tip of the closed wing . The sexes are outwardly similar . The head is dull greyish in juveniles , which otherwise resemble adults .
The irises of its eyes are red , its feet are black , and its beak is flesh @-@ colored . The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid . Its beak is thick , rounded , and hooked at the tip . Because of its habit of urohidrosis , the scaly portions of its legs are often streaked white with uric acid
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at Yorktown in October 1781 , virtually ending the war in the east , the conflict on the western frontier continued . Irvine quickly learned that the Americans living on the frontier wanted the army to launch an expedition against Detroit to end ongoing British support for the American Indian war parties . Irvine investigated , then wrote to George Washington , the American commander @-@ in @-@ chief , on December 2 , 1781 :
It is , I believe , universally agreed that the only way to keep Indians from harassing the country is to visit them . But we find , by experience , that burning their empty towns has not the desired effect . They can soon build others . They must be followed up and beaten , or the British , whom they draw their support from , totally driven out of their country . I believe if Detroit was demolished , it would be a good step toward giving some , at least , temporary ease to this country .
Washington agreed with Irvine 's assessment that Detroit had to be captured or destroyed in order to end the war in the west . In February 1782 , Irvine sent Washington a detailed plan for an offensive . Irvine estimated that with 2 @,@ 000 men , five cannons , and a supply caravan , he could to capture Detroit . Washington replied that the bankrupt U.S. Congress would be unable to finance the campaign , writing that " offensive operations , except upon a small scale , can not just now be brought into contemplation . "
With no resources available from either Congress or the Continental Army , Irvine gave permission for volunteers to organize their own offensive . Detroit was too far and too strong for a small @-@ scale operation , but militiamen such as David Williamson believed that an expedition against the American Indian towns on the Sandusky River was feasible . It was to be a low @-@ budget campaign . Each volunteer had to provide at his expense a horse , rifle , ammunition , rations , and other equipment . Their only payment would be an exemption from two months of militia duty , plus whatever plunder might be taken from the Indians . Because of ongoing Indian raids — the wife and children of a Baptist minister were killed and scalped in western Pennsylvania on May 12 , 1782 — there was no shortage of men willing to volunteer .
Because of Washington 's reservations , Irvine believed he was not authorized to lead the expedition himself . However , he did what he could to influence the planning of the campaign . Irvine wrote detailed instructions for the yet to be chosen commander of the volunteers :
The object of your command is , to destroy with fire and sword ( if practicable ) the Indian town and settlement at Sandusky , by which we hope to give ease and safety to the inhabitants of this country ; but , if impracticable , then you will doubtless perform such other services in your power as will , in their consequences , have a tendency to answer this great end .
= = Organizing the expedition = =
On May 20 , 1782 , the volunteers began gathering at the rendezvous point at Mingo Bottom ( present Mingo Junction , Ohio ) , on the Indian side of the Ohio River . They were mostly young men of Irish and Scots @-@ Irish ancestry , and came primarily from Washington and Westmoreland counties in Pennsylvania . Many were Continental Army veterans . The exact number of men who took part in the expedition is unknown . An officer wrote to General Irvine on May 24 that there were 480 volunteers , although additional men may have subsequently joined the group , bringing the total to more than 500 . Given the daunting nature of the task ahead of them , many of the volunteers made out their " last wills and testaments " before leaving .
Because this was a volunteer expedition and not a regular army operation , the men elected their officers . The candidates for the top position were David Williamson , the militia colonel who had commanded the Gnadenhütten expedition , and William Crawford , a retired Continental Army colonel . Crawford , a friend and land agent of George Washington , was an experienced soldier and frontiersman . He was a veteran of these kinds of operations , having destroyed two Mingo villages during Dunmore 's War in 1774 . He had also taken part in the failed " squaw campaign " .
Fifty @-@ year @-@ old Crawford had been reluctant to volunteer , but he did so at the request of General Irvine . Williamson , although popular with the militia , was in disfavor with regular army officers such as Irvine because he had allowed the Gnadenhütten massacre . Hoping to avoid a repetition , Irvine made it known that he favored Crawford 's election as commander . The election , which was acrimonious , ended in a close vote : Crawford received 235 votes to Williamson 's 230 . Colonel Crawford took command , and Williamson became second @-@ in @-@ command with the rank of major . The other majors included John B. McClelland , Thomas Gaddis , and either James Brenton or Joseph Brinton .
At Crawford 's request , Irvine allowed Dr. John Knight , a Continental Army officer , to accompany the expedition as surgeon . Another volunteer from Irvine 's staff was a foreigner with an aristocratic bearing who called himself " John Rose " . Rose asked to serve as Crawford 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Unknown even to General Irvine until several years later , " Rose " was actually Baron Gustave Rosenthal , a Baltic German nobleman from the Russian empire who had fled to America after killing a man in a duel . Rosenthal is the only Russian known to have fought on the American side of in the Revolutionary War .
= = Journey to the Sandusky = =
Crawford 's volunteers left Mingo Bottom on May 25 , 1782 , carrying provisions for 30 days . In planning the operation , General Irvine had estimated the 175 @-@ mile ( 282 km ) journey to Sandusky would take seven days . The campaign began with high spirits . Some volunteers boasted they intended " to extermenate the whole Wiandott Tribe . "
As was often the case with militia , who were poorly trained amateur soldiers , there was difficulty maintaining military discipline . The men wasted their rations , and often fired their muskets at wild game , despite orders to the contrary . They were slow to break camp in the mornings , and often failed to take their turn at guard duty . Crawford also proved to be a less capable leader than expected . Rose wrote that Crawford in councils " speaks incoherent , proposes matters confusedly , and is incapable of persuading people into his opinion . " The expedition often halted as the commanders debated what to do next . Some volunteers lost heart and deserted .
The journey across the Ohio Country was mostly through woods . The volunteers initially marched in four columns , but the thick underbrush compelled them to form just two . On June 3 , Crawford 's men emerged into the open country of the Sandusky Plains , a prairie region just below of the Sandusky River . The following day , they reached Upper Sandusky , the Wyandot village where they expected to find the enemy . However , they discovered it had been abandoned . Unknown to the Americans , the Wyandots had recently relocated their town eight miles ( 13 km ) to the north . The new Upper Sandusky , also called the " Half King 's Town " , was near present @-@ day Upper Sandusky , Ohio ) and close to Captain Pipe 's town ( near present @-@ day Carey , Ohio ) . The Americans were unaware that Pipe 's town was nearby .
Crawford 's officers held a council of war . Some argued the abandoned village proved that the Indians knew about the expedition and were concentrating their forces elsewhere . Others expressed the desire to call off the expedition and return home immediately . Williamson asked for permission to take 50 men and burn the abandoned village , but Crawford refused as he did not wish to divide his forces . The council decided to continue the march for the rest of the day , but then to go no further . As the column halted for lunch , John Rose was sent north with a scouting party . Soon , two men returned to report that the scouts were skirmishing with a large force of Indians which was advancing towards the Americans .
= = British and Indian preparations = =
While planning the expedition , General Irvine had advised Crawford that , " Your best chance of success will be , if possible , to effect a surprise " against Sandusky . The British and Indians , however , learned about the expedition even before Crawford 's army had left Mingo Bottom . Thanks to information from a captured American soldier , on April 8 the notorious British agent Simon Girty relayed to Detroit an accurate report of Crawford 's plans .
Officials of the British Indian Department in Detroit had accordingly prepared for action . In command at Detroit was Major Arent Schuyler DePeyster , responsible to Sir Frederick Haldimand , the Governor General of British North America . DePeyster used agents such as Girty , Alexander McKee , and Matthew Elliott , who all had close relations with American Indians , to coordinate British and Indian military actions in the Ohio County . In a council at Detroit on May 15 , DePeyster and McKee told a gathering of Indian leaders about the Sandusky expedition and advised them to " be ready to meet them in a great body and repulse them . " McKee was sent to the Shawnee villages in the Great Miami River valley to recruit warriors to repel the American invasion . Captain William Caldwell was dispatched to Sandusky with a company of mounted Butler 's Rangers , as well as a number of Indians from the Detroit area led by Matthew Elliott .
Indian scouts had spied on the expedition from the beginning . As soon as Crawford 's army moved into the Ohio Country , the warning was sent to Sandusky . As the Americans approached , women and children from the Wyandot and Delaware towns were hidden in nearby ravines , while British fur traders packed their goods and hurried out of town . On June 4 , Delawares under Captain Pipe and Wyandots under Dunquat , the " Half King " , along with some Mingos , joined forces to oppose the Americans . The size of the combined Delaware , Wyandot , and Mingo force has been estimated at anywhere from 200 to 500 . British reinforcements were nearby , but Shawnees from the south were not expected to arrive until the next day . When the American scouts appeared , Pipe 's Delawares pursued them , while the Wyandots temporarily held back .
= = Battle of Sandusky = =
= = = June 4 : " Battle Island " = = =
The first skirmishing of the Crawford expedition began at about 2 p.m. on June 4 , 1782 . The scout party led by John Rose encountered Captain Pipe 's Delawares on the Sandusky Plains and conducted a fighting retreat to a grove of trees where they had stored their supplies . The scouts were in danger of being overrun , but were soon reinforced by the main body of Crawford 's army . Crawford ordered the men to dismount and drive the Indians out of the woods . After intense fighting , the Americans gained possession of the grove , later known as " Battle Island " .
The skirmish became a full @-@ scale battle by 4 : 00 p.m. After the Americans drove Captain Pipe 's Delawares out of the woods and onto to prairie , the Delawares were reinforced by Dunquat 's Wyandots . Elliott also arrived on the scene and coordinated the actions of the Delawares and the Wyandots . Pipe 's Delawares skillfully outflanked the American position and then attacked their rear . A few Indians crept close to the American lines in the tall prairie grass . The Americans responded by climbing trees to get a better shot at them . Gunsmoke filled the air , making it difficult to see . After three and a half hours of incessant firing , the Indians gradually broke off the attack with the approach of nightfall . Both sides slept with arms at the ready , and surrounded their positions with large fires to prevent surprise night attacks .
In the first day of fighting , the Americans lost 5 killed men and 19 wounded . The British and Indians suffered 5 killed and 11 wounded . The American volunteers scalped several of the Indian dead , while the Indians stripped the clothing from dead Americans and scalped at least one . Fifteen Pennsylvanians deserted during the night and reached home to report Crawford 's army had been " cut to pieces . "
= = = June 5 : Reinforcements = = =
Firing began early on the morning of June 5 . The Indians did not close , but remained at a distance of two or three hundred yards . Such long range firing with smooth bore muskets caused little loss to either side . The Americans thought that the Indians held back because they had suffered heavy losses on the previous day . In fact , the Indians were buying time , waiting for reinforcements to arrive . Crawford decided to hold his position trees and make a surprise attack on the Indians after nightfall . At this point , he was still confident of success , although his men were low on ammunition and water . Simon Girty , the British agent and interpreter , rode up with a white flag and called for the Americans to surrender , which was refused .
That afternoon , the Americans finally noticed that about 100 British rangers were fighting alongside the Indians . Unaware that the expedition had been watched from the beginning , the Americans were surprised that British troops from Detroit had been able to join in the battle on such short notice . While the Americans were discussing this , Alexander McKee arrived with about 140 Shawnees under the leadership of Blacksnake , who took up a position to Crawford 's south , effectively surrounding the Americans . The Shawnees repeatedly fired their muskets into the air , a ceremonial show of strength known as a feu de joie ( " fire of joy " ) , which shook American morale . Recalled Rose , the feu de joie " completed the Business with us . " With so many enemies gathering around them , the Americans decided to retreat after dark rather than make a stand . The dead were buried , and fires were burned over the graves to prevent their discovery and desecration . The severely wounded were placed on biers in preparation for the withdrawal .
That night the Americans began to withdraw silently from the battlefield . Indian sentries detected the movement and attacked , creating confusion . Many volunteers became lost in the dark , separating into small groups . Crawford became concerned about his family members — his son John , his son @-@ in @-@ law William Harrison , and his nephew , also named William Crawford . With Dr Knight , Crawford remained near the battlefield as his men passed , calling for his missing relatives and not finding them . Crawford became angry when he realized the militia , despite his orders , had left some of the wounded behind . After all the men had passed , Crawford and Knight , with two others , finally set off , but were unable to find the main body of men .
= = = June 6 : Battle of the Olentangy = = =
When the sun rose on June 6 , about 300 Americans had reached the abandoned Wyandot town . Because Colonel Crawford was missing , Williamson assumed command . Fortunately for the Americans , the pursuit of the retreating army was disorganized because Caldwell , overall commander of the British and Indian forces , had been wounded in both legs . As the retreat continued , a force of Indians finally caught up with the main body of Americans on the eastern edge of the Sandusky Plains , near a branch of the Olentangy River . Some Americans fled as the attack began , while others milled around in confusion . However , Williamson made a stand with a small group of volunteers and drove off the Indians after an hour of fighting . Three Americans were killed and eight more wounded in the " Battle of the Olentangy " . Indian losses are unknown .
The Americans buried their dead and resumed the retreat , the Indians and British rangers pursuing and firing occasionally from at long range . Williamson and Rose kept most of the men together by warning them that an orderly retreat was their only chance to get home alive . The Americans fell back more than 30 miles ( 48 km
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critical examination of his faith . From this time onwards Smuts was , by gradual degrees , to start to move away from the uncompromisingly Calvinist outlook within which he had been raised .
If Stellenbosch marked Smuts 's intellectual awakening , it also was where he came to mature socially . Here he began to cast off the shyness and reserve which afflicted him , joining the local militia , becoming a regular contributor to the college magazine , and becoming leader of the Victoria College debating society . For the first time , in both verbal and literary debate , Smuts began to grapple with the political and social issues facing South Africa .
Though Smuts did much to cast off his shyness and reserve , he made few hard @-@ and @-@ fast friendships at Stellenbosch . Yet it was here that he met the woman who was to play a central role in his life thereafter . Sybella Margaretha Krige , known to all as Isie , was the daughter of Japie Krige , a prominent local wine and dairy farmer . Six months younger than Smuts , she had shared a similar upbringing with much the same resulting character traits . As their son , also name Jan Christian , was later to write :
Isie was an intelligent young woman who , like Smuts , had scored highly in her Matriculation exam . It was thought , as a girl , a future in higher education was largely closed to her . The time spent in her company , whether reading poetry and singing together at the piano , or walking together in the mornings and evenings on the journey to and from Victoria College , did much to break down Smuts 's social isolation , enabling him to cast some of those protective prejudices which he had harboured of the " puerile element " , that is to say his peers . As he wrote in his diary some years later : " [ She ] , less idealistic than I , but more human , recalled me from my intellectual isolation and made me return to my fellows . "
= = = = Political Awakening = = = =
In 1888 Cecil Rhodes paid a visit to Victoria College . As the leader of the College debating society , Smuts was called upon to deliver the welcoming address on behalf of the student body . Rhodes , on the verge of becoming Prime Minister of Cape Colony , was a vocal advocate of Southern African political and economic unity . Now , on the occasion of this visit , Smuts chose to give his address on the theme of Pan @-@ Africanism .
Smuts 's engagement with politics was very much a product of his time at Stellenbosch . While his parent 's political moderation and rejection of Afrikaner exclusivism had left him largely unencumbered by any innate prejudices , it was his time at Victoria College which saw him develop his own independent political outlook . These views developed in tandem with another of Smuts 's fixations , his philosophical pursuit of the embodiment of unity . This intellectual quest was later to develop into his philosophy of Holism , but even at this early undeveloped stage he brought these ideas to bear in shaping his political opinions . So it was that Smuts emerged as an outspoken supporter of South African unity , and , by extension , a supporter of Rhodes .
Two essays written during this time foreshadow Smuts 's later views , both political and philosophical . The first of these , entitled South African Customs Union , was written in 1890 in competition for the JB Ebden prize offered by the University of the Cape of Good Hope . This essay , an examination of the economic relations of the colonies and states of South Africa , though ' Highly Commended ' by the judges , failed to win the prize . Nevertheless , despite achieving only modest success , it is unsurpassed as a clear and authoritative statement of Smuts 's political outlook at this time .
Within the essay Smuts considered the vexed question of the political and economic relations of the colonies and states of South Africa . Though close in terms of geographical proximity , their troubled relations over the preceding quarter century had done much to create an atmosphere of political estrangement . Smuts considered that this estrangement had come about largely as the result of petty jealousies , fostered by politicians interested more in their own parochial concerns than those of South Africa as a whole . And it was to South Africa as a whole that Smuts looked ; he did not take the side of one colony or state over the others , but rather treated the region as one single unity . In his own words he summed this up :
A call for unity was his emotional response to the question . Coming down to earth , he proposed two concrete policies as steps towards its ultimate realisation - expansion of a pan @-@ South African railway system , fostering greater commercial links and binding the region together , combined with the elimination of all regional tariffs and trade barriers with the formation of a South African customs union .
The writing of this essay was an important formative experience for Smuts . For the first time he had seriously grappled with questions of contemporary politics , and in doing so came to comprehend something of his own political role in resolving them . As he was to write :
Seminal though this moment was , it was just a start . As his biographer , WK Hancock , noted : " All the same , [ Smuts ] knew that nations are not made by administrative arrangements alone " . In The Conditions of Future South African Literature , his next essay of significance , he dealt with the other significant factor in nation @-@ building - the cultural and emotional ties needed to form a united community . Within this essay , not at first sight written on an overtly political topic , Smuts declared that a true South African literature did not and could not exist until a true South African nation had been born . The question then arose - what was hindering this development ? Smuts identified the inhibiting factor as the relations between Briton and Boer - particularly the effect of the influx of British emigrants to the gold mines of the Transvaal on the deeply conservative Afrikaner population . The relations between these two groups were fraught ; the discover of gold and the rapid industrialisation of the Transvaal had done much to disturb the settled ways of the Boer population . With its vast mineral wealth the Transvaal was rapidly becoming the most significant economic unit of South Africa , but the sudden tide of primarily British immigrants caused a great deal of unrest , with the established population decrying the immorality and degeneracy they perceived in the new mineworkers . These divisions , though strongest in the Transvaal , existed to one degree or another throughout South Africa . Smuts , though sympathising with the concerns of the old population , fearful their established ways and traditions would be swamped in a flood of migration , urged the Afrikaners to embrace the new spirit of dynamism which he saw the new migrants injecting . Likewise he exhorted the new population to integrate with the old , to consolidate the white population both for the sake of a future South African nation but also to secure their survival in the face of the vastly greater Native population .
= = A New Direction = =
In later years Smuts summed up this period :
In the examinations of 1891 , Smuts took a double @-@ First in Literature and Science . He applied for , and won , the Ebden scholarship for overseas study offered by the University of the Cape of Good Hope . On 23 September 1891 he departed the Cape , on board the ship Roslyn Castle , bound for the United Kingdom and a place at Cambridge University .
= = = Cambridge = = =
Smuts was admitted to Christ 's College , where he elected to study Law .
The choice of Law marked the start of a new chapter for Smuts . The preceding years at Stellenbosch had been ones of tremendous intellectual development . From the narrow focus of his upbringing , his outlook had now expanded , awakening within him a consciousness of the breadth of knowledge now open before him . Smuts , though remaining an adherent of the Church , and respectful of the Bible and its teachings , had developed a more questioning and critical outlook during the course of his studies . Whereas at the outset of his university career he was content to follow his parents ' wishes and be ordained into the Church , as his time at Victoria College came to an end he found himself more and more unwilling to commit to this path . Though he had now as yet wholly rejected the idea of ordination , he wished for a period of more diversified study before making that decision . So it was that Smuts came to select Law , rather than Divinity or Philosophy - the logical choices for a future Minister of Religion .
During his time at Cambridge Smuts maintained a regular correspondence with his old friend and tutor Professor Marais . Smuts 's choice of Law gave rise to a lively discussion between the two , with Marais regretting Smuts 's choice , declaring Law to be ' simply classified humbug ' and accusing ' those who pore over legal tomes ' of having a ' contracted view of life ' . In response Smuts published an essay in Christ 's College Magazine in defence of Law . Entitled ' Law - A Liberal Study ' , it attempted to rebut these criticisms , declaring that from Moses onwards lawyers had been the ' great lights and ornaments of the Church ' and identifying within Law ' ... as it develops through the ages of human history , ... the deepest , truest , most permanent thought and social achievement of progressive humanity.'
Aside from friendship on this intellectual level , Marais was also able to come to Smuts 's rescue at a time of awkward crisis .
Smuts came to Cambridge at the age of twenty @-@ one , three or more years older than the typical university undergraduate . He was isolated from the other men of his year by a different social background , different upbringing , and different attitudes . Smuts 's disdain for frivolity and laxity combined with his lack of interest in sports and his decision to take up lodgings outside the college , did much to divide him from the other students . During his first year at Cambridge , Smuts suffered from tremendous homesickness , describing himself as being ' utterly desolate ' . Yet during this time Smuts had not found himself without social opportunities - as his biographer WK Hancock wrote :
This could of course have simply been a case of Smuts 's diffidence and reserve re @-@ asserting itself in the face of new and unfamiliar surrounding ; however Smuts 's biographers almost universally ascribe it to the poverty Smuts endured during this first year .
The Ebden scholarship was usually worth £ 200 per year . However , in 1891 , due to a failure of the fund 's investments , it was worth only £ 100 . The sale of Smuts 's personal livestock holdings on the family farm had enabled him to pay his sea passage and left him with a small residue to bank , yet despite this there remained a substantial gap between his resources ad his essential needs as a student . During his first term Christ 's College provided him with a small scholarship , but the gap remained . This was a crippling burden for Smuts , yet it was Professor Marais who was to come to his rescue . Smuts , having confided his difficulties to Marais towards the end of 1891 received by immediate return a cheque for £ 50 . Marais urged Smuts to write to him whenever he felt himself in need , in return of which Smuts took out a life insurance policy naming Marais as beneficiary . Should Smuts have died this policy would cover the loans , but while he lived , Smuts 's integrity was Marais 's only cover .
With Marais 's loans combined with the Ebden scholarship , Smuts began to enjoy a degree of financial security . Though far from affluent he was at least able to meet his basic expenses . From his second year onwards Smuts began to enter more into the social arena of the university . He ceased to be lonely , making a number of friends and acquaintances , principally amongst the other colonial students . Though no longer so reclusive as he had been during his first year , he remained extremely serious and devoted to his work ; an attitude which served as a barrier separating him from the English undergraduates , though not from the Fellows at Cambridge , with many of whom he struck up friendships .
In respect of his studies , he achieved the unique distinction of sitting both parts of the Law Tripos in the same year , passing both with first @-@ class honours . Over the course of his studies at Cambridge Smuts won many academic awards and accolades , culminating , in 1893 , with the award of the prestigious George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence - a particular honour given that the prize was very rarely awarded as the rigorous academic standard required was very rarely met . This was all combined with extensive extracurricular reading and private research into various topics including poetry , philosophy , botany , and archaeology . As his biographer WK Hancock wrote :
= = = Aftermath = = =
Smuts 's time at Cambridge had been one of outstanding success ; his tutor Professor FW Maitland , himself one of the most eminent legal minds of the time , described Smuts as the most brilliant Law student he had ever taught . With testimonials such as this , in summer 1894 Smuts was able to persuade the Ebden trustees to award him £ 100 for a further year 's study . After a short holiday in Strasbourg , spent studying English conveyancing and German philosophy , Smuts returned to England . For a short time he contemplated moving to the Netherlands to seek a Dutch degree , but by October 1894 he had instead decided to read for the Bar . In December 1894 he passed the Honours Examination of the Inns of Court , passing first in his year . Smuts was called to the Middle Temple and soon received an offer of a fellowship in Law from his old college , Christ 's . The possibility of a distinguished legal career in England , whether in practice or in academia , now lay before him . Instead , he rejected both paths ; in June 1895 , as his Ebden funding came to an end , the homesick Smuts returned to the Cape , determined to make his future there .
= = Select bibliography = =
= = = Smuts , General = = =
Cameron , T - Jan Smuts : An Illustrated Biography , ( 1994 )
Hancock , WK - Smuts : 1 . The Sanguine Years , 1870 – 1919 , ( 1962 )
Ingham , K - Jan Christian Smuts : The Conscience of a South African , ( 1986 )
Millin , SG - General Smuts , ( 2 vols ) , ( 1933 )
Smuts , JC - Jan Christian Smuts , ( 1952 )
= Filton Abbey Wood railway station =
Filton Abbey Wood railway station serves the town of Filton in South Gloucestershire , England , inside the Bristol conurbation . It is 4 @.@ 4 miles ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter
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Islands for political prisoners .
The first group of 200 prisoners were transported under the control of Dr James Pattison Walker from Calcutta . Deportees included many prominent leaders of the Wahabi movement ( an Islamic " reform movement " ) and the subsequent revolution . ) The prisoners landed at the Andaman Islands on 10 March 1858 . Walker soon put the convicts on the arduous task of clearing the dense forest of Ross Island , building their own shelters and other buildings , and laying roads . The prisoners were chained and collared around the neck with identity tags , and were in a poor state of health . In the beginning there were no basic amenities . During the rainy season they had to live in tents . In November 1858 temporary barrack @-@ type huts with walls made of mats and with leaking thatched roofs provided accommodation for about 1 @,@ 000 prisoners .
At one stage , of the 8 @,@ 000 prisoners who had been transported to the islands under the penal project , 3 @,@ 500 had died due to sickness . Sir Robert Napier , who came to Port Blair to investigate , found the conditions " beyond comprehension " as there was no food , clothing and shelter provided to the convicts . However , Ross Island was comparatively a better place than in the earlier initial years as Colonel RC Tytler and his wife Harriet had improved the facilities for the community . Tytler had been posted as Superintendent of the Convict Settlement , also known as the " British gulag " , from April 1862 to February 1864 . He tried to improve the conditions at the camp , where the death rate of the prisoners was 700 per year . At that time the doctors at the camp reported that only 45 prisoners out of the 10 @,@ 000 were considered medically fit .
According to reports in the 1870s , intense rain , malaria , pneumonia and dysentery caused many deaths . During this time the authorities also embarked on testing of pharmaceutical drugs like quinine ( cinchona alkaloid ) by forcibly feeding it to 10 @,@ 000 prisoners which resulted in severe side effects such as nausea , diarrhea and depression ; as result the prisoners started injuring each other so that authorities would hang them . Instead , a new system of " flogging and a reduced diet " was introduced and they were made to sleep in a kind of " trellis @-@ work cage " . The prisoners also faced hardships from the indigenous tribes , some of whom were cannibals , who tortured and killed them while working in the field , and also attacked the colony .
In 1891 , there were 12 @,@ 197 convicts who had been exported from British India . Some of the convicts who were freed were engaged in agriculture , and those who were forced to do service were given monetary compensation of US $ 25 per month . However , even then escape from the penal colony was impossible and any escapee who tried was killed .
At the beginning of World War I in 1914 , Dr. Robert Heindl of Germany had noted that the 15 @,@ 000 political prisoners at the penal colony could create an undesirable revolution and therefore their release in one stage , following capture of the island by a German ship by bombardment , was risky . He suggested that after due care and adequate security had been put in place the convicts of the penal colony could be shifted to the mainland in small boats .
From the time of its establishment in 1858 till it was disbanded on 7 October 1945 , the penal colony was administered by 24 Chief Commissioners . This deserted fortress is now a tourist attraction .
= = Notable events = =
Four days after their first landing on the island , one of the convicts , Narain , who had been convicted for sedition , tried to escape but was caught and shot dead . Another prisoner , Naringun Singh , who was a deserter , committed suicide by hanging . When 81 out of the 288 inmates tried to escape they were savagely attacked by the aboriginal people of Andamans which made them turn back to the prison camp seeking medical help . However , all of them were summarily put to death by hanging in one single day . JP Grant , President in Council in Calcutta complained to the higher authorities , but Walker was not reprimanded ; instead , he put the convicts at the Penal Colony into an " iron collar " to prevent them from escape . Finally , on 3 October 1859 he was removed from the penal settlement as he had suggested branding the convicts on their forearms with information of the crime and sentence that they had been given .
On 23 April 1858 , out of the 91 escapees one person who was saved by the Anadamanese people was Dudnath Tiwari , a political prisoner . He was absorbed into the aboriginal culture , married two of their girls , and learned their language . However , when the Andamanese were on the verge of mounting a massive attack on the penal colony on 16 May 1859 , he ran away and secretly conveyed this information to the Superintendent . The aboriginals attacked the camp with bows and arrows but were completely routed by the superior weapons of the British . This battle came to be known as the " Battle of Aberdeen " , the first initiative by the local people to seek independence from the British rule . This resulted in change of approach by the British to handle the local people : steps were initiated to seek peace with them and a British officer was appointed to look after their welfare .
A notable incident that occurred was the assassination of Lord Mayo , the Viceroy of India who had visited the islands on an inspection tour . He had visited the Ross Island penal settlement . The attack on Lord Mayo was carried out by Sher Ali , one of the convicts of the penal colony who was on a sick leave ; the assassination was carried out while Mayo was returning after a pleasant trip to Mount Harriet on the evening of 8 February 1872 . Another political prisoner who suffered the longest period of 47 years of incarceration was Musai Singh who was released for good behavior in July 1907 on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of India 's First War of Independence in 1857 .
Fazal Haq Khairabadi , a renowned poet and intellectual in the Mughal court , a friend of Urdu poet Ghalib and a mentor of David Ochterlony , was accused of inflaming the Muslims of Delhi to wage " jihad " against the British Raj during the First War of Independence . He refused to plead not guilty and seek amnesty , and was thus transported to the penal colony . He was at the penal colony from 8 October 1859 till his death in 1861 . His son made efforts to have his father released but could only take part in his father 's funeral at Port Blair . One of the notable actions Khairabadi did while in the penal colony was to write on the details of the First War of Independence and his experience of the " Kalapani " , using charcoal sticks and rags of cloth ; these were later published in Arabic as Al @-@ Surat @-@ ul Hindia and Al @-@ Fitnat @-@ ul @-@ Hindia .
= SM U @-@ 69 =
SM U @-@ 69 was a Type U 66 submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during the First World War . She had been laid down in February 1914 as U @-@ 10 the fourth boat of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) but was sold to Germany , along with the others in her class , in November 1914 .
The submarine was ordered as U @-@ 10 from Germaniawerft of Kiel as the first of five boats of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy became convinced that none of the submarines of the class could be delivered to the Adriatic via Gibraltar . As a consequence , the entire class , including U @-@ 10 , was sold to the German Imperial Navy in November 1914 . Under German control , the class became known as the U 66 type and the boats were renumbered ; U @-@ 10 became U @-@ 69 , and all were redesigned and reconstructed to German specifications . U @-@ 69 was launched in June 1915 and commissioned in September . As completed , she displaced 791 tonnes ( 779 long tons ) , surfaced , and 933 tonnes ( 918 long tons ) , submerged . The boat was 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long and was armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun .
As a part of the 4th Flotilla , U @-@ 69 sank 31 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of 102 @,@ 875 in five war patrols . U @-@ 69 left Emden on her sixth patrol on 9 July 1917 for operations off Ireland . On 11 July , U @-@ 69 reported her position off Norway but neither she nor any of her crew were ever heard from again . British records say that U @-@ 69 was sunk by destroyer HMS Patriot on 12 July , but a German postwar study cast doubt on this . U @-@ 69 's fate is officially unknown .
= = Design and construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had competitively evaluated three foreign submarine designs , it selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for its new U @-@ 7 class of five submarines . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 30 metres ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 79 metres ( 12 @.@ 4 ft ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ; 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged . The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun .
U @-@ 10 was laid down on 7 February 1914 , and her construction was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months .
Neither U @-@ 10 nor any of her sister boats were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , U @-@ 10 and her four sisters were sold to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 .
U @-@ 10 was renumbered by the Germans as U @-@ 69 when her class was redesignated as the Type U 66 . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 69 was launched on 24 June 1915 . On 4 September , SM U @-@ 69 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ernst Wilhelms . On 4 March 1916 , U @-@ 69 was assigned to the IV . U @-@ Halbflotille .
U @-@ 69 successfully completed five war patrols in which she sank 31 ships with a combined a total of 102 @,@ 875 gross register tons ( GRT ) . U @-@ 69 's most successful month for number of ships sunk was April 1916 , when she sank eight ships of 21 @,@ 051 tons in a span of six days . The month with the highest tonnage sunk was June 1917 when she sank five ships of 28 @,@ 808 tons in a nine @-@ day span ; nearly half of that total came from one ship , the 13 @,@ 441 @-@ ton British armed merchant cruiser Avenger sunk on 14 June . Avenger had been patrolling off the Shetland Islands and was returning to Scapa Flow , when she was struck by a single torpedo on the port side . The ship began listing heavily and non @-@ essential crew were evacuated while destroyers arrived and took her under tow . Despite strenuous efforts to save her , Avenger foundered ten hours after being hit when her internal bulkheads collapsed . One man was killed in the attack .
U @-@ 69 began her sixth and final patrol on 9 July when she departed from Emden , destined for operations off Ireland . U @-@ 69 's position report at 02 : 30 on 11 July reported that she was 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) south of Lindesnes , Norway , and was the last known contact with U @-@ 69 . According to author Dwight Messimer , two British sources report that HMS Patriot sank U @-@ 69 at position 60 ° 25 ′ N 1 ° 32 ′ E on 12 July . An observer in a kite balloon deployed by Patriot spotted a surfaced U @-@ boat at 07 : 00 . The U @-@ boat submerged and Patriot hunted the submarine until noon , when it loosed two depth charges that brought thick brown oil to the surface . A postwar study by Germany cast doubt on whether or not the submarine attacked by Patriot was U @-@ 69 . Officially , her fate remains unknown .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= Resident Evil : Extinction =
Resident Evil : Extinction is a 2007 action horror film and the third installment in the Resident Evil film series based on the Capcom survival horror series Resident Evil . The film follows the heroine Alice , along with a group of survivors from Raccoon City , as they attempt to travel across the Mojave desert wilderness to Alaska and escape a zombie apocalypse . The film was directed by Russell Mulcahy and produced by Paul W. S. Anderson .
The film received mixed reviews from critics . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on January 1 , 2008 .
This film was initially titled Resident Evil : Afterlife according to the leaked script . For unknown reasons , it was renamed to Resident Evil : Extinction . The title Afterlife was used for the fourth installment of the series .
= = Plot = =
Alice ( Milla Jovovich ) wakes up disoriented in a mansion . She wanders through the halls , where she defeats several obstacles , including a deadly laser beam obstacle and a giant blade that falls from the ceiling . However , she is eventually killed by a bounding mine . Her body is dumped into a pit filled with hundreds of Alice clones . The camera zooms out to show a shack camouflaging the facility 's above @-@ ground entrance - with the rest of the facility located underground , surrounded by a high fence and thousands of zombies .
Despite the best efforts of the bio @-@ tech company Umbrella Corporation to cover up the contamination of The Hive and the release of the T @-@ virus to the surface , going so far as to authorize the bombing of Raccoon City , the T @-@ virus has spread around the world . As the virus spread , it affected not only humans , but other animals as well , and the environment deteriorated , turning cities into desolate landscapes and the wilderness into wastelands . The real Alice ( from whom the clones are made ) wanders the wastelands of the Southwestern U.S. She responds to a group asking for help on the radio . It turns out that they are bandits who attempt to rape and kill her , but she manages to kill them all . On her travels , she finds a dead man 's diary which states that there is an uninfected area in Alaska .
Meanwhile , Dr. Sam Isaacs , former head of Project Alice and the head of the North American Umbrella facility , operated in Nevada , considers Alice 's recapture be a top priority , since she has the ability to bond with the T @-@ virus and not suffer mutation . He tries to persuade the Umbrella board , operating via holograms from the world @-@ wide Umbrella facility , that he can use her blood to develop a permanent cure as well as tame the infected zombies . The new Umbrella chairman Albert Wesker ( Jason O 'Mara ) orders Isaacs to use the clones to create a cure , and he refuses to authorize Alice 's recapture until they are informed of her location .
Meanwhile , a convoy of survivors led by Claire Redfield ( Ali Larter ) travels across the country in search of supplies . The convoy includes Raccoon City survivors Carlos Oliveira ( Oded Fehr ) and L.J. ( Mike Epps ) , along with new survivors K @-@ Mart ( Spencer Locke ) , Mikey ( Christopher Egan ) , Chase ( Linden Ashby ) and Nurse Betty ( Ashanti Douglas ) and others .
While searching a motel for supplies , L.J. is bitten by a zombie , which he keeps secret . The next morning the convoy is attacked by crows that had been feeding on the infected . The crows almost overwhelm the convoy , killing Nurse Betty and Otto and taking out the flamethrower operator , causing the weapon to careen out of control . Alice appears and saves Carlos and the others from a fiery death , using her telekinesis powers to fill the sky with fire , killing the crows . Alice is introduced to Claire and gives her a diary she found . Alice and Carlos convince Claire to take her convoy to Alaska . They agree to go to Las Vegas to search for gasoline and supplies for their trip to Alaska .
Dr. Isaacs ' attempts to domesticate the infected have led to a new zombie breed that remembers basic things , such as how to use phones and cameras . Wesker 's security officer , Captain Alexander Slater ( Matthew Marsden ) , is adamant about Isaacs ' disregard for Umbrella 's regulations . Slater does admit that the " super zombies " would be useful , but reiterates that Isaacs is out of control . Wesker , in private , informs Slater to keep watch on Isaacs ' actions , and tells Slater that if Issacs disobeys orders , Slater should fire Isaacs .
Umbrella triangulates Alice 's location based on the signal sent out by her telekinesis abilities . Dr. Isaacs has a crate of his new zombies sent to ambush the convoy , against Wesker 's specific orders . L.J. succumbs to his infection and bites Carlos . Most of the convoy , including Chase and Mikey , are killed in the ambush . Umbrella tries to shut Alice down remotely , but she breaks free from their programming and continues to fight . She finds Isaacs at the scene , and he becomes infected as he tries to flee . Alice and K @-@ Mart use Isaacs ' computer to track the helicopter 's flight path , leading them to Umbrella 's underground location .
The convoy goes to the site , which is surrounded by zombies . Carlos sacrifices himself by plowing his truck into the zombie mob and blowing them all up , giving Alice and Claire time to load survivors into the helicopter . Alice decides to stay behind . Ordered by Wesker to terminate Isaacs , Slater arrives with a group of commandos , and finds the scientist locked in his lab , injecting himself with massive doses of anti @-@ virus in an attempt to counteract the infection , explaining that the zombies are enhanced and as such , he requires a bigger dosage of the anti @-@ virus ; he disobeys Slater 's command to stop , since it will only increase his mutation . Isaacs refuses , and Slater reveals that his employment is terminated and shoots him , triggering his mutation into a monstrous Tyrant . Despite retaining his intelligence and thought , Isaacs kills Slater and all the facility employees , but is confined to the lab 's lower levels .
Entering the facility , Alice meets a holograph of the Red Queen 's sister AI , the White Queen ( Madeline Carroll ) . The White Queen informs Alice that her blood is the cure to the T @-@ virus , defending the Red Queen 's actions as well . She then tells Alice about Dr. Isaacs . Alice agrees to deal with him . On her way to the lab 's lower levels , Alice discovers one of her clones , still in development . The clone awakens , but seems to die from shock upon seeing Alice . Alice finds a replica of the mansion she lived in and finds Isaacs , who fights her with equal strength and telekinesis . Finding themselves in a replica of The Hive 's laser corridor , Alice awaits for the grid 's arrival , watching Isaacs getting sliced into cubes . Just as Alice is about to meet the same fate , the system is deactivated by her clone , which has inexplicably revived .
Later , in Tokyo , Japan , Wesker , who is the head of the Tokyo Umbrella facility , informs the rest of the Umbrella chairmen , all holograms , that the North American facility has been lost . Alice 's hologram makes an appearance , declaring that she is coming for him , and she 's bringing some of her " friends . " Standing beside her clone , Alice looks out onto a huge number of pods containing her developing clones .
= = Cast = =
Milla Jovovich as Alice and the clones : A former Umbrella security operative who being tracked down by the Umbrella Corporation in order to develop a serum from her blood . Since being exposed to the T @-@ Virus outbreak in Raccoon City , Alice has been captured and subjected to experiments .
Ali Larter as Claire Redfield : Based on the video game character of the same name , she plays a prominent role in Resident Evil 2 , Resident Evil Code : Veronica , and Resident Evil : The Darkside Chronicles . In the film , she leads the convoy of survivors alongside Carlos .
Oded Fehr as Carlos Oliveira : A former U.B.C.S. commando elite soldier , based on the video game character of the same name in Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis . He is a survivor of the Nemesis program as well as the destruction of Raccoon City . He also serves as Alice 's love interest . Eventually , after bitten by a zombified L.J. , Carlos sacrifices himself by blowing up the zombie mob on a truck for clearing the path to Alice & the remaining survivors on Nevada desert to escape . Since the events of Resident Evil : Apocalypse , he has helped lead Claire 's convoy of survivors .
Iain Glen as Dr. Sam Isaacs : The head scientist of the North American facility . Dr. Isaacs had been involved in the creation of the Nemesis program as well as the creation of Program Alice in Apocalypse . He is turned into the Tyrant monster as a result of a bite by a " super @-@ zombie " and from then injecting himself with too much anti @-@ virus . He is based on William Birkin from the video games .
Ashanti as Nurse Betty : A tough young woman who acts as the medical unit in Claire 's convoy . She is a nurse , helping to aid members of the group to full recovery . Betty drives the paramedic vehicle and is a love interest of L.J. She sacrifices herself by locking herself inside the bus with the crows when they attack .
Mike Epps as L.J. Wade : Former citizen of Raccoon City , who survived the Nemesis program and Raccoon City 's destruction in the previous film . He also travels with Claire 's convoy . He is Betty 's love interest . He is bitten by a zombie in the motel near the beginning of the film and later turns into a zombie himself when super @-@ zombies attack .
Spencer Locke as K @-@ Mart : A girl found by Claire 's companions hiding out in a K @-@ Mart store prior to the outbreak .
Christopher Egan as Mikey : A young mature computer junkie who drives the " computer station " portion of the convoy . Mikey is responsible for monitoring the radio in search of other survivors as well as monitoring the motion sensor perimeter cameras . He is killed by the super zombies .
Jason O 'Mara as Albert Wesker : Based on the video game character of the same name , he is a prominent antagonist in many of the video games . In the film , he is the Chairman of Umbrella , and through holographic technology ( him being in Tokyo ) , he has regular meetings with committee members including Dr. Isaacs who gave the order to find and capture Alice .
Madeline Carroll as The White Queen : The sister computer of the original Red Queen . She is designed to protect and preserve human life and monitor the Umbrella facility , like her sister computer . However , the White Queen has more advanced holographic technology .
Matthew Marsden as Captain Slater : Wesker 's second @-@ in @-@ command after Dr. Isaacs .
Linden Ashby as Chase : A cowboy and ex @-@ cop whose expertise is with a rifle .
Joe Hursley as Otto : a survivor who drives the school bus , is later pecked to death by the infected crows .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Resident Evil : Extinction was first discussed by Resident Evil franchise writer Paul W. S. Anderson after Resident Evil : Apocalypse opened at number 1 on the US box office in 2004 , earning more than $ 23 @.@ 7 million dollars on its opening weekend . Anderson told SciFi Wire that he would like to oversee a third installment , under the original title of Resident Evil : Afterlife . Shortly after , the film and another planned sequel were officially announced by Sony Screen Gems on June 13 , 2005 .
On November 7 , 2005 , Davis Film , Constantin Film and Screen Gems announced their distribution rights worldwide with the film 's title being changed from Resident Evil : Afterlife to Resident Evil : Extinction . Impressed with Russell Mulcahy 's work on Highlander , Highlander II : The Quickening , The Shadow and Ricochet , Anderson signed Mulcahy on as director , stating , " Russell pioneered a very distinct visual style , a lot of moving camera and crane work , lots of very fast cutting . He ’ s got a very cool eye and sees great ways to shoot . His work certainly had a big influence on me as a filmmaker and that ’ s why I was very excited to work with him on this movie . "
= = = Casting = = =
On June 12 , 2005 , Milla Jovovich was announced to reprise her role as the heroine Alice . In an interview with BlackFilm.com on September 9 , 2005 , Mike Epps confirmed that he would be reprising his role from Resident Evil : Apocalypse as L.J. Wayne , noting that " Black people die in
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of the first soul songs . The composition was improvised one evening late in 1958 when Charles , his orchestra , and backup singers had played their entire set list at a show and still had time left ; the response from many audiences was so enthusiastic that Charles announced to his producer that he was going to record it .
After his run of R & B hits , this song finally broke Charles into mainstream pop music and itself sparked a new subgenre of R & B titled soul , finally putting together all the elements that Charles had been creating since he recorded " I Got a Woman " in 1954 . The gospel and rhumba influences combined with the sexual innuendo in the song made it not only widely popular but very controversial to both white and black audiences . It earned Ray Charles his first gold record and has been one of the most influential songs in R & B and rock and roll history . For the rest of his career , Charles closed every concert with the song . It was added to the National Recording Registry in 2002 and ranked at number 10 in Rolling Stone 's " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .
= = Background = =
Ray Charles was 28 years old in 1958 , with ten years of experience recording primarily rhythm and blues music for the Downbeat and Swingtime record labels , in a style similar to that of Nat King Cole and Charles Brown . Charles signed with Atlantic Records in 1954 where producers Ahmet Ertegun and Jerry Wexler encouraged him to broaden his repertoire . Wexler would later remember that Atlantic Records ' success came not from the artists ' experience , but the enthusiasm for the music : " We didn 't know shit about making records , but we were having fun " . Ertegun and Wexler found that a hands @-@ off approach was the best way of encouraging Charles . Wexler later said , " I realized the best thing I could do with Ray was leave him alone " .
From 1954 into the 1960s Charles toured for 300 days a year with a seven @-@ piece orchestra . He employed another Atlantic singing trio named the Cookies and renamed them the Raelettes when they backed him up on the road . In 1954 Charles began merging gospel sounds and instruments with lyrics that addressed more secular issues . His first attempt was in the song " I Got a Woman " , based either on the melodies of gospel standards " My Jesus Is All the World to Me " or an uptempo " I Got a Savior ( Way Across Jordan ) " . It was the first Ray Charles record that got attention from white audiences , but it made some black audiences uncomfortable with its black gospel derivatives ; Charles later stated that the joining of gospel and R & B was not a conscious decision .
In December 1958 , he had a hit on the R & B charts with " Night Time Is the Right Time " , an ode to carnality that was sung between Charles and one of the Raelettes , Margie Hendricks , with whom Charles was having an affair . Since 1956 Charles had also included a Wurlitzer electric piano on tour because he did not trust the tuning and quality of the pianos provided him at every venue . On the occasions he would play it , he was derided by other musicians .
= = Composition and recording = =
According to Charles ' autobiography , " What 'd I Say " was accidental when he improvised it to fill time at the end of a concert in December 1958 . He asserts that he never tested songs on audiences before recording them , but " What 'd I Say " is an exception . Charles himself does not recall where the concert took place , but Mike Evans in Ray Charles : The Birth of Soul places the show in Brownsville , Pennsylvania . Shows were played at " meal dances " which typically ran four hours with a half @-@ hour break , and would end around 1 or 2 in the morning . Charles and his orchestra had exhausted their set list after midnight , but had 12 minutes left to fill . He told the Raelettes , " Listen , I 'm going to fool around and y 'all just follow me " .
Starting on the electric piano , Charles played what felt right : a series of riffs , switching then to a regular piano for four choruses backed up by a unique Latin conga tumbao rhythm on drums . The song changed when Charles began singing simple , improvised unconnected verses ( " Hey Mama don 't you treat me wrong / Come and love your daddy all night long / All right now / Hey hey / All right " ) . Charles used gospel elements in a twelve @-@ bar blues structure . Some of the first lines ( " See the gal with the red dress on / She can do the Birdland all night long " ) are influenced by a boogie @-@ woogie style that Ahmet Ertegun attributes to Clarence " Pinetop " Smith who used to call out to dancers on the dance floor instructing what to do through his lyrics . In the middle of the song , however , Charles indicated that the Raelettes should repeat what he was doing , and the song transformed into a call and response between Charles , the Raelettes , and the horn section in the orchestra as they called out to each other in ecstatic shouts and moans and blasts from the horns .
The audience reacted immediately ; Charles could feel the room shaking and bouncing as the crowd was dancing . Many audience members approached Charles at the end of the show to ask where they could purchase the record . Charles and the orchestra performed it again several nights in a row with the same reaction at each show . He called Jerry Wexler to say he had something new to record , later writing , " I don 't believe in giving myself advance notices , but I figured this song merited it " .
The Atlantic Records studio had just purchased an 8 @-@ track recorder , and recording engineer Tom Dowd was familiarizing himself with how it worked . In February 1959 Charles and his orchestra finally recorded " What 'd I Say " at Atlantic 's small studio . Dowd recalled that it did not seem special at the time of recording . It was second of two songs during the session and Charles , the producers , and the band were more impressed with the first one at the session , " Tell the Truth " : " We made it like we made all the others . Ray , the gals , and the band live in the small studio , no overdubs . Three or four takes , and it was done . Next ! " In retrospect , Ahmet Ertegun 's brother Nesuhi credits the extraordinary sound of the song to the restricted size of the studio and the technologically advanced recording equipment used ; the sound quality is clear enough to hear Charles slapping his leg in time with the song when the music stops during the calls and responses . The song was recorded in only a few takes because Charles and the orchestra had perfected it while touring .
Dowd , however , had two problems during the recording . " What 'd I Say " lasted over seven and a half minutes when the normal length of radio @-@ played songs was around two and a half minutes . Furthermore , although the lyrics were not obscene , the sounds Charles and the Raelettes made in their calls and responses during the song worried Dowd and the producers . A previous recording called " Money Honey " by Clyde McPhatter had been banned in Georgia and Ahmet Ertegun and Wexler released McPhatter 's song despite the ban , risking arrest . Ray Charles was aware of the controversy in " What 'd I Say " : " I 'm not one to interpret my own songs , but if you can 't figure out ' What I Say ' , then something 's wrong . Either that , or you 're not accustomed to the sweet sounds of love . "
Dowd solved the recording issues by mixing three versions of the song . Some call @-@ outs of " Shake that thing ! " were removed , and the song was split into two three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute sides of a single record , titling the song " What 'd I Say Part I " and " What 'd I Say Part II " . The recorded version divides the parts with a false ending where the orchestra stops and the Raelettes and orchestra members beg Charles to continue , then goes on to a frenzied finale . Dowd later stated after hearing the final recording that not releasing the record was never an option : " we knew it was going to be a hit record , no question . " It was held for the summer and released in June 1959 .
= = Reception = =
Billboard magazine initially gave " What 'd I Say " a tepid review : " He shouts out in percussive style ... Side two is the same . " The secretary at Atlantic Records started getting calls from distributors , however . Radio stations refused to play it because it was too sexually charged , but Atlantic refused to take the records back from stores . A slightly sanitized version was released in July 1959 in response to the complaints and the song hit number 82 . A week later it was at 43 , then 26 . In contrast to their earlier review , Billboard several weeks later wrote that the song was " the strongest pop record that the artist has done to date " . Within weeks " What 'd I Say " topped out at number one on Billboard 's R & B singles chart , number six on the Billboard Hot 100 , and it became Charles ' first gold record . It also became Atlantic Records ' best @-@ selling song at the time .
" What 'd I Say " was banned by many black and white radio stations because of , as one critic noted , " the dialogue between himself and his backing singers that started in church and ended up in the bedroom " . The erotic nature was obvious to listeners , but a deeper aspect of the fusion between black gospel music and R & B troubled many black audiences . Music , as was much of American society , was also segregated , and some critics complained that gospel was not only being appropriated by secular musicians , but it was being marketed to white listeners . During several concerts in the 1960s , the crowds became so frenetic and the shows so resembled revival meetings while Charles performed " What 'd I Say " that the police were called in , when the organizers became worried that riots might break out . The moral controversy surrounding the song has been attributed to its popularity ; Charles later acknowledged in an interview that the beat was catchy , but it was the suggestive lyrics that attracted listeners : " ' See the girl with the diamond ring . She knows how to shake that thing . ' It wasn 't the diamond ring that got ' em . " " What 'd I Say " was Ray Charles ' first crossover hit into the growing genre of rock and roll . He seized the opportunity of his immense newfound success and announced to Ertegun and Wexler that he was considering signing with ABC @-@ Paramount Records ( later renamed ABC Records ) later in 1959 . While he was in negotiations with ABC @-@ Paramount , Atlantic Records released an album of his hits , titled What 'd I Say .
= = Legacy = =
Michael Lydon , another of Charles ' biographers , summarized the impact of the song : " ' What 'd I Say ' was a monster with footprints bigger than its numbers . Daringly different , wildly sexy , and fabulously danceable , the record riveted listeners . When ' What 'd I Say ' came on the radio , some turned it off in disgust , but millions turned the volume up to blasting and sang ' Unnnh , unnnh , oooooh , oooooh ' along with Ray and the Raelets . [ It ] became the life of a million parties , the spark of as many romances , and a song to date the Summer by . " The song 's impact was not immediately seen in the U.S. ; it was particularly popular in Europe . Paul McCartney was immediately struck by the song and knew when he heard it that he wanted to be involved in making music . George Harrison remembered an all @-@ night party he attended in 1959 where the song was played for eight hours non @-@ stop : " It was one of the best records I ever heard . " While the Beatles were developing their sound in Hamburg , they played " What 'd I Say " at every show , trying to see how long they could make the song last and using the audience in the call and response , with which they found immense popularity . The opening electric piano in the song was the first John Lennon had ever heard , and he tried to replicate it with his guitar . Lennon later credited Charles ' opening of " What 'd I Say " to the birth of songs dominated by guitar riffs .
When Mick Jagger sang for the first time with the band that would become the Rolling Stones , he performed a duet of " What 'd I Say " . Eric Burdon from the Animals , Steve Winwood of the Spencer Davis Group , Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys , and Van Morrison counted the song as a major influence on why they were interested in music and incorporated it into their shows . Music historian Robert Stephens attributes the birth of soul music to " What 'd I Say " when gospel and blues were successfully joined ; the new genre of music was matured by later musicians such as James Brown and Aretha Franklin . " In an instant , the music called Soul comes into being . Hallelujah ! " wrote musician Lenny Kaye in a retrospective of Atlantic Records artists .
In the late 1950s , rock and roll was faltering as its major stars dropped from public view . Elvis Presley was drafted , Buddy Holly and Eddie Cochran died in 1959 and 1960 respectively , Chuck Berry was in jail , and Jerry Lee Lewis had been disgraced by press reports that he married his 13 @-@ year @-@ old cousin . Music and culture critic Nelson George disagrees with music historians who attest the last two years of the 1950s were barren of talent , pointing to Charles and this song in particular . George writes that the themes in Charles ' work were very similar to the young rebels who popularized rock and roll , writing
By breaking down the division between pulpit and bandstand , recharging blues concerns with transcendental fervor , unashamedly linking the spiritual and the sexual , Charles made pleasure ( physical satisfaction ) and joy ( divine enlightenment ) seem the same thing . By doing so he brought the realities of the Saturday @-@ night sinner and Sunday @-@ morning worshipper — so often one and the same — into raucous harmony .
" What 'd I Say " has been covered by many artists in many different styles . Elvis Presley used the song in a large dance scene in his 1964 film Viva Las Vegas and released it as a single with the title song on the B @-@ side . It became a gold record . Cliff Richard , Eric Clapton with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , the Big Three , Eddie Cochran , Bobby Darin , Alvin and the Chipmunks , Nancy Sinatra , Sammy Davis , Jr . , Trini Lopez , Roy Orbison , Johnny Cash and June Carter , Rare Earth and The Ronettes all put their own style on the song . Checkmates , Ltd. released a version of the song as part of a medley on their 1967 debut album , Live ! At Caesar 's Palace . Jerry Lee Lewis found particular success with his rendition in 1961 , which peaked at number 30 and spent eight weeks on the charts . Charles noticed , later writing " I saw that many of the stations which had banned the tune started playing it when it was covered by white artists . That seemed strange to me , as though white sex was cleaner than black sex . But once they began playing the white version , they lifted the ban and also played the original . "
Charles later spoofed this double standard on the television comedy show Saturday Night Live in 1977 . He hosted an episode and had the original band he toured with in the 1950s to join him . In one skit , he tells a producer that he wants to record the song , but the producer tells him that a white band named the " Young Caucasians " , composed of beaming white teenagers , are to record it first , which they do on the show , in a chaste , sanitized , and unexciting performance . When Charles and his band counter with their original version , Garrett Morris tells them , " Sorry . That 'll never make it . "
Charles closed every show he played for the rest of his career with the song , later stating , " ' What 'd I Say ' is my last song onstage . When I do ' What 'd I Say ' , you don 't have to worry about it — that 's the end of me ; there ain 't no encore , no nothin ' . I 'm finished ! "
It was ranked tenth on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , with the summary , " Charles ' grunt- ' n ' -groan exchanges with the Raeletts were the closest you could get to the sound of orgasm on Top Forty radio during the Eisenhower era " . In 2000 , it ranked number 43 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs in Rock and Roll and number 96 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Dance Songs , being the oldest song in the latter ranking . The same year it was chosen by National Public Radio as one of the 100 most influential songs of the 20th century . A central scene in the 2004 biopic Ray features the improvisation of the song performed by Jamie Foxx , who won an Academy Award for his portrayal of Charles . For its historical , artistic , and cultural significance , the Library of Congress added it to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2002 . The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame featured it as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll in 2007 .
= 2007 Canadian Grand Prix =
The 2007 Canadian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 10 June 2007 at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in Montreal , Canada . It was the sixth race of the 2007 Formula One season . The race was won by Lewis Hamilton , starting from pole position , in his first season in the top formula . It was Hamilton 's first win in Formula One and the first Formula One race won by a black driver . Nick Heidfeld finished second and Alexander Wurz was third , making it the first Grand Prix of the 2007 season that drivers from teams other than Ferrari and McLaren achieved podium positions .
The safety car was deployed an unprecedented four times during the course of the race . One of these periods was due to Robert Kubica 's crash , which resulted in him suffering a sprained ankle and concussion . During the race Felipe Massa and Giancarlo Fisichella were disqualified for failing to stop at the end of the pit lane when the exit was closed .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
A test session was held on May 17 and 18 at the Paul Ricard circuit in France , with the track configured to replicate the characteristics of the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve for the final two days after it had been in the style of the Monaco for the first two . Despite the fact that the McLaren team had dominated on the Monaco set up of the circuit , Ferrari were better on the Canadian set up .
Kimi Räikkönen had the fastest time on the first day , with a time of 1 : 28 @.@ 833 . Rain after lunch caused the test to be halted , when the test resumed Räikkönen was forced to finish early when his car experienced electronic problems . Scott Speed achieved the second fastest time , two tenths of a second behind Räikkönen , with Seven tenths separating the first eight drivers . The Red Bull team focused on testing their suspension . Rubens Barrichello and Christian Klien shared testing for the Honda team over the day , however Klien 's engine failed on his first lap . James Rossiter in the Super Aguri completed the most laps with 115 .
Räikkönen was also the fastest on the second day with a time of 1 : 28 @.@ 624 , with Renault driver Giancarlo Fisichella ending the day with the second fastest time . Fisichella also completed 111 laps , the second most of the day , behind James Rossiter 's 131 . Pedro de la Rosa was third fastest despite completing fewer laps than other drivers due to his engine failing early in the day . The testing session was stopped twice , when Adrian Sutil 's and Jenson Button 's engines failed . Red Bull continued to perform high and low downforce work and BMW performed low and medium downforce work . Fisichella was optimistic about the race after these tests saying " he had more grip , the brakes were good and the front suspension gave him a better turn @-@ in " .
During the two weeks leading up to the Grand Prix , Räikkönen and Felipe Massa released statements to the press saying they believed that everything would be different in Canada because of the very different conditions — as shown at Paul Ricard . Fernando Alonso believed McLaren had momentum from their win in Monaco , and Martin Whitmarsh said that they were realistic about dominating the race .
= = = Practice = = =
Practice started on the Friday with Alonso leading at the end of both the two practice sessions . In both sessions , he outpaced his team mate and the closest Ferrari driven by Felipe Massa . BMW Sauber were pleased with 5th place in the first session and 7th in the second from Nick Heidfeld despite his report that the car was " very difficult to drive " . But Robert Kubica 's car suffered a fuel leak resulting in him being unable to post a timed lap in the morning session , Kubica also told the press after the fuel leak , " the car has been quite difficult to drive . " Both Red Bull drivers finished in the top ten of the morning practice . Honda were slower than its customer team Super Aguri in the first practice , but Barrichello was faster than Takuma Sato in the second practice . Toyota 's suspension problems meant that their second practice was cut short , but not before Ralf Schumacher narrowly missed a groundhog that ran across the track . After experiencing problems with Jarno Trulli 's suspension , Toyota stopped both drivers for 45 minutes as a precautionary measure . By the time they got the cars back on the track , they only managed a few extra laps until the problem recurred . Heikki Kovalainen ended his practice day by going into the wall at turn 7 , damaging the suspension . His team mate , Fisichella , performed better , staying in the top 8 in both sessions . At the end of the afternoon practice , Mark Webber slowed down unexpectedly before turn 8 causing Scott Speed to drive into the back of the Red Bull . Webber had overtaken Speed just before this incident .
The Saturday morning practice session was 17 minutes shorter than the scheduled 60 minutes , due to Kovalainen 's Renault having a suspected engine failure . The failure caused oil to be split on the track , this failure persisted during the race weekend . This resulted in a red flag period , from 10 : 33 am until 10 : 50 am local time . Hamilton led the practice with the fastest lap ; with Räikkönen , Alonso and Massa posting the second , third and fourth fastest laps respectively . Sato finished the session with the fifth fastest lap in the Super Aguri car , outpacing the Honda works team for the second time during the race weekend . Toyota continued a disappointing race weekend , with the 14th and 16th fastest laps . Their suspension problems from the day before had not been resolved , and the two drivers were given instructions to avoid the kerbs at turn 8 to minimise further damage to the suspension . Red Bull came back with both of the two repaired cars entering the top ten .
= = = Qualifying = = =
In qualifying Hamilton took his first pole position as part of a McLaren one @-@ two . Heidfeld improved on his practice performance to take third position , in front of the Ferraris of Räikkönen and Massa . Massa shared the third row with Mark Webber , who did not seem to be suffering the same braking problem that almost put team mate David Coulthard out in the first session of qualifying , he had only one attempt at a lap in the second session as a result . Nico Rosberg , Robert Kubica , Giancarlo Fisichella and Jarno Trulli completed the top ten .
Consistent with previous form , the Hondas of Barrichello and Button failed to make it into the top ten ; they qualified 13th and 15th respectively . Takuma Sato , once again out @-@ qualified the two Honda cars , just missing out on the top ten , in front of Vitantonio Liuzzi . He made it through to the second session of qualifying by 94 hundredths of a second , where he qualified in 14th . Scott Speed was the slowest car in the second session of qualifying putting him in 16th position .
Anthony Davidson missed out on the second session of qualifying , putting his Super Aguri in 17th position , 3 places behind his team mate Sato . Ralf Schumacher and his team were disappointed with qualifying in 18th . Heikki Kovalainen crashed into the wall at turn 5 , damaging his rear suspension and losing his rear wing , resulting in the session being stopped temporarily . Once the debris had been cleared , Kovalainen in his repaired car managed one impressive lap that put him in 13th , after which six drivers outqualified him . Kovalainen then had to make an engine change due to an engine failure and was demoted to the back of the grid . Wurz , Sutil and Albers qualified in 19th , 20th and 21st respectively after being pushed up a place by Kovalainen 's engine change .
= = = Race = = =
Lewis Hamilton led from the start , preventing Fernando Alonso from overtaking at turn one . Alonso ran wide allowing Nick Heidfeld to overtake him and move into second place . Alonso damaged his car in the process and subsequently ran off the track at turn one a further three times during the race . Jenson Button had a gearbox problem at the start of the race and was unable to select first gear causing him stall on the grid . Christijan Albers started from pit lane . The first accident of the race involved Scott Speed who clipped the rear wing of Wurz ' Williams and went into the hairpin with a broken suspension .
Alonso ran across the grass at turn one again on lap 15 , which resulted in him falling further behind Hamilton . Three laps later he made a similar mistake at the same turn , resulting in him sliding across the grass for the third time in the race . This caused him to drop back to fourth as it allowed Massa to go round the inside of Alonso into third . Massa moved into second when Heidfeld pitted on lap 20 . Hamilton pitted on lap 22 , rejoining the race in third place .
On lap 22 Adrian Sutil crashed at turn four and the safety car had to be deployed ; Hamilton had pitted just before the incident . Thus the pit lane was closed but Alonso and Nico Rosberg were forced to pit in order to avoid running out of fuel , and were given ten @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalties . When the pit lane was re @-@ opened and the rest of the field pitted , Massa and Giancarlo Fisichella left the pit lane while the red light was still on . Both were later disqualified from the race on lap 51 .
The race was restarted on lap 26 , and on the approach to the hairpin later in the lap Robert Kubica hit the back of Jarno Trulli 's Toyota . The impact forced Kubica onto the grass at the edge of the track , where a bump launched his car into and along the concrete wall just before the hairpin . After losing three wheels , the nose and suffering major damage to the sidepods in the initial impact , the BMW flipped back across the track and came to rest against the barrier in the run @-@ off area on the other side of the track . Although initial reports said that he had broken his leg , Kubica only suffered a sprained ankle and concussion . The safety car was deployed again after this crash . The safety car was also deployed on lap 50 , due to debris from a crash involving Christijan Albers on the previous lap , and on lap 55 due to Vitantonio Liuzzi crashing into the wall of champions once again . On Lap 58 , Jarno Trulli was trying to pass Wurz but later his front track rod clipped away causing him to crash . Cement was placed at the hairpin around Kubica 's accident . Räikkönen ran wide after he misjudged the braking on the dust . The Super Aguri of Takuma Sato went past him as a result and moved into 10th place . On lap 37 , Trulli and Nico Rosberg were battling for position going into turn 1 . Both span off the track in almost synchronised fashion without touching each other . This occurrence amused reporters due to it resembling a form of dance . Both drivers were able to keep going . Also on this lap Anthony Davidson made an unscheduled pit stop . He claimed after the race that a beaver had damaged his front wing although Canadian reports said it more likely to have been a groundhog . One lap later David Coulthard was forced to retire due to a gearbox problem . Ralf Schumacher also stopped on this lap and this allowed Massa , Fisichella and Sato to move ahead of both of them . Räikkönen had his second pit stop on lap 52 at the same time as Alonso . The latter was able to pass him just after they had exited the pits side @-@ by @-@ side . This moved him into 5th .
Including the two disqualifications , ten drivers failed to finish the race , six of them because of accidents including Kubica . Four of them gearbox failures . Several cars were damaged during the race : Wurz 's rear wing was damaged in the incident that took out Speed , while Davidson hit a groundhog on the racetrack . This meant that the safety car had to be deployed on four occasions . At the final restart on lap sixty , all of the remaining twelve cars were on the same lap creating some close racing and a lot of overtaking . Hamilton sustained his consistent pace throughout all of the incidents and pulled clear of Heidfeld in the closing stages , taking his first race win relatively comfortably . Barrichello dropped ten places on his final pit stop . Hamilton 's championship lead was strengthened when Sato overtook the reigning world champion to move into sixth place around the outside of the final chicane , having switched to the harder tyres on his final stop .
Austria 's Alexander Wurz drove through the field in his Williams from 19th at the start to finish third by taking one pitstop , completing 40 laps on super soft tires . By finishing third Wurz , recorded his third career podium , in the race that marked ten years since his debut race in F1 . Nick Heidfeld finished in second place after trailing Hamilton for the majority of the race . The safety car deployments also allowed Heikki Kovalainen to move up to fourth after starting at the back of the grid . The race was the first time in the 2007 season where a driver from a team other than Ferrari or McLaren made the podium .
Sato overtook the McLaren @-@ Mercedes of world champion Fernando Alonso on lap 67 , just after overtaking Ralf Schumacher and having overtaken Ferrari 's Kimi Räikkönen earlier in the race . He finished sixth after having a race that had seen him move from the middle of the grid ; to the back of the pack and to a high of fifth before a pit @-@ stop error caused him to move back to eleventh ; were moved up 5 places in the last 15 laps . Sato was voted " Driver of the Day " on the ITV website over Hamilton 's first win . This was the last time that Super Aguri scored Formula One points , and its biggest single points haul . The team 's only other point came at the 2007 Spanish Grand Prix .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Reaction to the race was mainly focused on Hamilton and the fact that it was his first Grand Prix victory , making him the first black driver to ever win a Formula One race . It was also thought impressive that it had taken only six races for him to win and , in the process , take the lead in the drivers ’ championship at the age of 22 . Niki Lauda said he was " stunned " by the victory and Damon Hill believed " People should not underestimate what he had achieved in a short space of time " . Speculation began about the possibility of him winning the drivers championship .
Alonso and the Ferrari team were disappointed with the outcome of the race . Alonso was now eight points behind Hamilton in the drivers championship , as a result of finishing 7th . Ferrari lost ground in both the constructors and driver championship , after gaining a total of just four points from the race . Alonso believed Hamilton to have been " very lucky " to have won the race and did not congratulate his team @-@ mate after the race . Hamilton 's performance was felt to have been faultless and all the more impressive due to four separate deployments of the Safety Car .
As a result of his crash Kubica was unable to race at the next Grand Prix in the United States . The decision to not allow him to race was made by the sport 's governing body the FIA , as they believed it was a too much of a risk for him to race in case of another crash so soon after this one . This was despite the fact Kubica had said in a statement that he was " ready to race " . He was replaced by Sebastian Vettel for the next race .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Heikki Kovalainen was given a ten @-@ place grid penalty after he made an unscheduled engine change . This was due to an engine failure during the Saturday practice session ( P3 ) .
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= El Camino ( The Black Keys album ) =
El Camino is the seventh studio album by American rock duo the Black Keys . It was co @-@ produced by Danger Mouse and the group , and was released on Nonesuch Records on December 6 , 2011 . The record was the band 's follow @-@ up to their commercial breakthrough , Brothers ( 2010 ) , and was their third collaboration with Danger Mouse . El Camino draws from popular genres of the 1950s to 1970s , such as rock and roll , glam rock , rockabilly , surf rock and soul . Danger Mouse contributed as a co @-@ writer on each of the 11 songs alongside guitarist Dan Auerbach and drummer Patrick Carney .
The album was recorded from March to May 2011 in Nashville , Tennessee , at Easy Eye Sound Studio , which Auerbach opened the year prior . The band approached writing and recording differently than on previous albums , as they entered the studio without having written any material and deliberated longer on how to structure songs . After struggling to translate the slower songs from Brothers to a live setting , the band wrote more uptempo , hook @-@ laden tracks for El Camino . The album 's cover art depicts a minivan similar to one the group toured in early in their career , but in an inside joke , they named the record after the El Camino muscle car . A faux newspaper advertisement and parody car commercial playing on this joke were used to promote the record prior to release .
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Lonely Boy " was released as the lead single in October 2011 and became the group 's highest @-@ charting single in several countries , including the United States , Australia , and Canada . The album received positive reviews from critics and was ranked by many publications as one of the year 's best albums . It debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 and reached the top five of the album charts in Australia , Canada , Belgium ( Flanders ) , and New Zealand . The album was certified platinum in France , Ireland , the United Kingdom , and the US , as well as multi @-@ platinum in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . The Black Keys supported the album with the El Camino Tour , their first headlining arena tour . Four additional singles were released , including " Gold on the Ceiling " and " Little Black Submarines " , which were rock radio successes . Among other accolades , El Camino won the award for Best Rock Album at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards , while " Lonely Boy " received honors for Best Rock Performance and Best Rock Song . The album has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in the US .
= = Background = =
From 2001 to 2009 , the Black Keys experienced underground success , but after the release of their critically acclaimed sixth studio album , Brothers , the group achieved a commercial breakthrough . The single " Tighten Up " was a sleeper hit on radio , eventually spending 10 weeks at number one on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart in the United States and becoming their first song to enter the Billboard Hot 100 . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart and sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , including 870 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The band also gained additional exposure by continuing to license their songs in popular media , making them Warner Bros. Records ' most @-@ licensed band of the year . At the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards in February 2011 , the band won awards for Best Alternative Music Album ( for Brothers ) and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ( for " Tighten Up " ) .
The band 's sudden success proved overwhelming , as they found themselves booking additional promotional commitments and facing demand for additional touring dates . In January 2011 , the group canceled concerts in Australia , New Zealand , and Europe , citing exhaustion , thus clearing out most of their touring schedule into April . Drummer Patrick Carney said , " We 've been touring long enough to know when we 're about to hit our breaking point . " The desire to record another album soon after Brothers also led to the decision . Carney said , " We could have waited another year or so , and milked the Brothers album and kept touring , but we like bands , and our favourite bands growing up and even today , are bands that put out a lot of music and every album is different from the last . "
= = Recording = =
El Camino was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee , at Easy Eye Sound Studio , which was opened by guitarist / vocalist Dan Auerbach in mid @-@ 2010 after he relocated from the group 's long @-@ time hometown of Akron , Ohio . Carney spoke of how the success of Brothers impacted the follow @-@ up record : " For me , there were physical jitters about everything that was going on . Seeing how big the shows were getting , feeling like people were paying attention , kind of made me anxious , and I think that 's part of the reason [ El Camino 's ] songs are so fast . I think we wanted to just muscle through it . " Despite the growing expectations of the band , Carney said that the El Camino recording sessions were much more relaxed than those for Brothers , during which he had been dealing with his divorce .
The band hired Danger Mouse to co @-@ produce the record with them , based on their experience with him producing their 2008 album Attack & Release and the single " Tighten Up " . Danger Mouse served as co @-@ writer for all of the songs on El Camino . Speaking of their willingness to involve him in the songwriting process , Carney said , " It took us a long time to be able to trust somebody like that , and not be arrogant little kids about it . " Auerbach said , " It was difficult at times . Some days it worked great . Some days it was just infuriating . You gotta lose any kind of insecurity . It was a totally different way of thinking for me . "
Recording for El Camino began on March 3 , 2011 . In contrast to their previous records , the Black Keys entered the studio for their new album without having developed any new material , with the exception of the lyrics to " Little Black Submarines " , which Auerbach and Danger Mouse had pre @-@ written . Each day , the band began from scratch and in Auerbach 's words , " brainstormed until we had songs and we did a song every two days or so " . The material was then refined over several days , and after arrangements were agreed upon , the group quickly finished recording the songs , often in just one or two takes . Each song was recorded in a live take of guitar and drums before overdubs were added . This was done to give the music what Auerbach called " that human element , that live feel " . Similarly , the group eschewed playing to a click track , despite a tendency to speed up during choruses , to keep a natural feel in the performance . " Dead and Gone " was the first song to be completed .
The band recorded using a Quad @-@ 8 mixing console that was first installed in Nashville 's Creative Workshop studio in 1969 and later bought by Auerbach from a man in North Carolina . During the sessions , the band listened to playback of their progress on a speaker they purchased from Muscle Shoals Sound Studio after the last day of recording Brothers . Guitar and drums tracks were recorded in the studio 's " live room " , while vocals were recorded in the control room . The studio 's bathrooms served as an echo chamber for recording vocals and handclaps .
For the first time , the band deliberated over the musical details of each song . Auerbach said , " we were getting into the nuances of each song by asking ourselves , ' How long should this intro be ? How long should the pre @-@ chorus be ? Should there even be a pre @-@ chorus ? ' We were playing with tempos and BPMs , seeing how a vocal hook does or doesn 't work at a faster speed . And usually , we went with the faster option . " Differing from the band 's lyrics @-@ first approach on Brothers , the lyrics for El Camino were written after the music , often being improvised at the microphone . Explaining their focus on melody , Auerbach said , " the words had to fit in this pre @-@ existing space . It was really confining and totally different from anything I 'd done before . "
The sessions for El Camino lasted through May 26 , 2011 , and overall , the band spent 41 days recording , the longest time spent on any of their albums . Mixing and mastering were completed in mid @-@ June .
= = Composition = =
El Camino follows the Black Keys ' garage rock style but places less emphasis on blues than the group 's previous records . The album instead draws more influence from other popular genres from the 1950s to the 1970s , including rock and roll , glam rock , rockabilly , surf rock and soul . Carney explained the album 's direction , " After the first three or four songs were recorded , it kind of became apparent that they 're all rooted in this early rock and roll feel . It was around that time that we decided to make a whole album that was built around that . " The band cited several older musical acts as musical influences on the album , including the Clash , the Cramps , T. Rex , Johnny Burnette , Ramones , the Beatles , Sweet , and the Cars . Following the sonic expansion on their previous two albums , Attack & Release and Brothers , for El Camino they sought to strip @-@ down their sound by writing an album of " efficient rock @-@ and @-@ roll songs and minimal instrumentation " .
In contrast to some of the slower , quieter tracks from Brothers , the songs on El Camino are more uptempo and employ more hooks and guitar riffs . During the tour for Brothers , the Black Keys realized that many of that album 's songs were too slow to effectively translate to a live setting , leading them to write more fast @-@ paced material for El Camino . Carney said , " This record stemmed from that , the fact that it 's easier for our songs to come across well live if they are fast . So we were just trying to make a guitar rock album that was more upbeat than anything we 've ever recorded . " Realizing halfway through the recording sessions that all the songs they had written to that point were uptempo , the group decided to maintain the faster pace as a common thread throughout the album .
= = Packaging and title = =
The album was named after the Chevrolet El Camino , a coupé utility car . The inspiration came from the band sighting an El Camino while on tour in Canada in 2010 ; Carney admitted that the title was selected " as a joke " . " El camino " is Spanish for " the road " or " the path " . The band found out the phrase 's meaning after selecting it as an album title , and they joked about the record taking on deeper meaning afterwards . Andy Gill of The Independent said of the title , " it 's a nod to the pilgrimage of dues @-@ paying , the months of one @-@ night @-@ stands in tiny Midwest towns which hone raw talent into rock 'n'roll gold . " Michael Carney , the duo 's art director and Patrick 's brother , was initially hesitant about the title . Patrick recounted the conversation with his brother about selecting the title and artwork :
I told my brother the idea and my brother was like , " You know , if you name the record El Camino , everybody 's going to think of the car the El Camino . " And I was like , " Yeah exactly . That 's the fucking point ! " And he was like , " OK , but why don 't we just put a car on the cover that 's not an El Camino ? " And I said , " OK , what kind of car ? " He says , " Just put the first car you guys ever toured in on the cover . "
The vehicle in the cover image is a Plymouth Grand Voyager similar to the navy blue one that the group toured in for the first year and a half of their career . Commenting on the puzzled reaction the group received to putting an image of a used van on the cover of an album named for a muscle car , Michael said , " That 's the reaction we were going for . It didn 't work in Europe because they don 't know what an El Camino is over there , so it made perfect sense to them . " Patrick compared the appearance of Akron to the cover image , calling his hometown " A busted up parking lot with a busted up car . " The interior sleeve booklet for the album features images of various vans from Akron , Ohio , including those produced under the brands Ford , Chevrolet , Chrysler , and Dodge . Each copy of the album bears a sticker on the exterior that says " Play loud " .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Prior to the release of El Camino , promotional copies were limited to a small pressing of just 50 , given mostly to music labels and the Black Keys ' manager . Preview listens for journalists were strictly controlled to only one @-@ time listens and they were held within the duo 's manager 's office , an uncommon practice within the music industry . The group opted to not put the record on music streaming services , citing financial reasons . Patrick Carney said that streaming services are not yet " at a point where you 're able to replace royalties from record sales with the royalties from streams . For a band that makes a living selling music , it 's not at a point where it 's feasible for us . " As is common practice for the band , several songs from the album were licensed for use in popular media , including ESPN 's Band of the Month for December , Lifetime 's TV drama Army Wives , and the video game MLB 12 : The Show . The group noted though that they were planning to reduce the amount of licensing in comparison to previous records to avoid overexposure . Carney said , " When no one 's buying your records , it 's easy to justify selling a song . But once you start selling records , you can 't really justify having two songs in Cadillac commercials . It looks greedy . "
According to Michael Carney , the promotional strategy for the album embraces " the spirit of doing it the wrong way " . Warner Bros. Records COO Livia Tortella elaborated that " They 've latched onto that idea at a time when the real spirit of alternative has , in many ways , gone away from our music . The spirit of rock should be that : outside of the norm , not just mainstream and predictable . " The music video originally shot for their lead single " Lonely Boy " employed a big budget and several people , but the band decided instead to release a one @-@ shot video consisting solely of footage of an extra – actor and part @-@ time security guard Derrick Tuggle – dancing . The video went viral , garnering more than 400 @,@ 000 views on YouTube in 24 hours . On October 9 , 2011 , the band placed an ad in the Akron Beacon Journal advertising their used tour van as a " 1994 El Camino " for sale . The ad read , " 1994 El Camino : 273 @,@ 000 mi . 200 cubic @-@ in . 3.3L 95hp V @-@ 6 engine , 3 @-@ speed turbo autom shift , sapphire stylus , some ticks / pops , light surface noise . Working AM / FM radio , tan metalflake / woodie panels , some rust . Black vinyl seats . Priced to sell – Grab the Keys and go ! Contact Pat or Dan at ( 330 ) 510 – 1206 . " The phone number in the ad led to a recorded message of Patrick Carney describing the car and asking for the caller to leave a message . The band launched the promotional website WannaBuyAVan.com with a video parodying a low @-@ budget used car commercial for the same van . Actor / comedian Bob Odenkirk plays the salesman in the video trying to pass off the van as an El Camino .
The album 's release date of December 6 , 2011 , contrasts with the conventional record release strategy within the music industry . Carney said , " There 's a rule you release albums in February – March , then you tour the summer . Then there 's the September – October schedule . Our new album is out on December 6 . I asked the label for a list of major rock bands that had released albums in December . In the last 10 years there 's maybe four . But our manager said it 's a shame more bands don 't , ' cos it would force the industry not to shut down . " The group had intended to release El Camino in September but decided to push it until December to allow for a three @-@ month break . Ultimately , they booked this free time up with additional concerts and a promotional tour .
A week prior to the release date , the duo decided to stream five tracks from El Camino on their website after the album leaked online . The Black Keys appeared as the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on December 3 , 2011 , for the second time that year , and they performed " Lonely Boy " and " Gold on the Ceiling " . Two days later , the group held an album release concert at Webster Hall in New York City that was streamed live on MTVHive.com. The group made several appearances on late @-@ night talk shows , including Late Show with David Letterman and The Colbert Report , as well as at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards . The group was the subject of a cover story in Rolling Stone for their issue dated January 19 , 2012 ; in a widely publicized quote , Carney criticized Canadian rock band Nickelback , saying that " rock and roll is dying because people became OK with Nickelback being the biggest band in the world " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Lonely Boy " was released as the album 's lead single on October 26 , 2011 , and became one of the group 's most successful singles . It topped several rock radio charts , including the Alternative Songs and Rock Songs charts in the US , and the Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts in Canada . On the singles charts , " Lonely Boy " was the group 's highest @-@ charting song in several countries , peaking at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 , number 2 on the Australian Singles Chart , and number 33 on the Canadian Hot 100 . " Lonely Boy " was certified nine @-@ times platinum in Canada , triple @-@ platinum in Australia , platinum in New Zealand , and gold in Denmark . " Gold on the Ceiling " was released as the album 's second single , and like its predecessor , it topped the US Alternative Songs chart and the Canadian Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts . On the singles charts , the song reached number 94 on the Hot 100 , number 34 on the Australian Singles Chart , and number 51 on the Canadian Hot 100 . The song was certified platinum in Australia and Canada . " Dead and Gone " was released as a third single in Europe , while " Run Right Back " was released as a fourth single in the United Kingdom . " Little Black Submarines " was released as the record 's fifth single on October 8 , 2012 , and was a rock radio success ; it peaked at number two on the US Alternative Songs chart and the Canadian Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts , as well as number 54 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
El Camino received high praise from music critics . According to review aggregator website Metacritic , the album received an average review score of 84 / 100 based on 37 reviews , indicating " Universal acclaim " . Critics mainly praised the instrumentation of the songs on the album , as well as the album production . Spin gave the record an 8 / 10 rating , calling it " irresistibly gaudy " and " catchier , glitzier , ballsier " . The reviewer said the songs contain " classic cock @-@ rock sonic tchotchkes : handclaps , talk @-@ box guitar breaks , rainbow keyboards . The overall effect is something akin to ZZ Top with glitter in their beards . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the record an " A – " , writing that the group " make a small @-@ room racket that sounds massive enough for a bigger @-@ is @-@ better world " . Maerz said that " El Camino trades the soulful stylings of Brothers for harder @-@ driving , faster @-@ riffing rock & roll " . James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph rated the album four @-@ stars @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five , praising Danger Mouse for " sharpen [ ing ] up the sweet , melodic choruses that offset the duo 's unholy racket " and give each song a " timeless quality , as suited to a Seventies mid @-@ west saloon as a students ' indie disco " . Despite what Lachno judged to be " tawdry " lyrics , he said that " the Black Keys are here to rock , not talk . On this evidence , few bands right now do it better . " Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times assigned the album a maximum four @-@ star rating , calling it " butt @-@ shaking music " and " an album with lyrics that are both unpretentious and un @-@ dumb " . Roberts praised the nostalgic elements of the group 's music and said that the album " scratches an itch you didn 't even know you had " .
Michael Hann of The Guardian gave the record a maximum rating of five stars , writing that it is " dripping with an easy , attractive confidence " . Commenting on the various musical influences on the album , Hann said , " they stride fearlessly into areas that might once have been off @-@ limits " . His review concluded , " They sound like a band who think they 've made the year 's best rock 'n'roll album , probably because that 's exactly what they 've done . " Rob Harvilla of Pitchfork Media scored El Camino a 7 @.@ 4 / 10 and called it " their best and ( not coincidentally ) goofiest album " . Describing the music , he said , " The riffs are glam @-@ nasty , the lyrics sublimely knuckleheaded , the basslines nimble and bombastic , the mood frivolous and fun and unabashedly corny . " Will Hermes of Rolling Stone rated the album four stars and called it their " grandest pop gesture yet , augmenting dark @-@ hearted fuzz blasts with sleekly sexy choruses and Seventies @-@ glam flair " . AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine rated the album four stars and said , " More than any other Black Keys album , El Camino is an outright party , playing like a collection of 11 lost 45 singles , each one having a bigger beat or dirtier hook than the previous side . " Kitty Empire of The Observer was more critical of the album ; in a three @-@ star review , Empire commented that it sounded like Danger Mouse " tightened up the Black Keys ' act rather than loosened it " and that " El Camino may be fast and fun , but it is also somewhat undemanding . " The reviewer noted that the album had " increased vigour " , but that it came at the expense of " the subtleties that made Brothers such an intriguing ride . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In the US , El Camino debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and sold 206 @,@ 000 copies in its first week on sale . This marks the highest single @-@ week album sales and , to that point , charting position that the group had achieved in the country . In Canada , the album debuted at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart and sold 27 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In its first two weeks on sale , El Camino sold nearly 293 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album has been certified : triple @-@ platinum in Canada ; double @-@ platinum in Australia and New Zealand ; platinum in the U.S. , United Kingdom , and Ireland ; and gold in Belgium , the Netherlands , and France . As of April 2014 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in the United States .
= = = Accolades = = =
El Camino appeared on several end @-@ of @-@ year rankings by music publications and critics . The album was ranked by Mojo as the sixth @-@ best album of 2012 , even though it was released in 2011 . American Songwriter ranked it as the ninth @-@ best album of 2011 , while Rolling Stone ranked it as the 12th @-@ best . The album placed 21st on the " Best Albums " list from The Village Voice 's 2011 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Paste ranked the record as the 22nd @-@ best of the year before it had been released . Spin placed it at number 36 on its list of the 50 best albums of the year , writing , " Glam @-@ blooze guitar , poppy melodies ,
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In critical cases the parties concerned would rush to Spain via Tangiers but unfortunately sometimes the patient was dead and buried by the time they arrived . The Spanish authorities would not allow access across the land frontier even on compassionate grounds .
Franco 's death in 1975 led to the beginnings of diplomatic movement between Britain and Spain on the Gibraltar issue , though not immediately . Spain applied to join the European Economic Community ( EEC ) and NATO , for which it needed British support . In 1980 , talks between British and Spanish ministers led to the Lisbon Agreement , a statement on co @-@ operation between the two countries which committed them to starting negotiations on Gibraltar 's future and lifting the Spanish restrictions on communications with Gibraltar . Although Britain promised to " honour the freely and democratically expressed wishes of the people of Gibraltar " , Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher indicated in the House of Commons that sovereignty would be on the table , in a change from the previous policy . However , the border was not reopened due to " technical issues " – code for unresolved issues between the two governments – and the agreement was strongly opposed by many Gibraltarians , who did not wish their sovereignty to be under discussion and objected to the lack of Gibraltarian representatives at the talks . The outbreak of the Falklands War in 1982 caused a further delay . Argentina carried out an unsuccessful sabotage operation , kept secret at the time , that was intended to sink a Royal Navy frigate in Gibraltar 's harbour ; the saboteurs were captured by the Spanish police in Algeciras before they could carry out their attack . A further agreement was reached in Brussels in 1984 which clarified the Lisbon Agreement and required that Britain allow Spaniards to live and work in Gibraltar , which they would have the right to do anyway as EEC citizens . The border was finally fully reopened on 4 – 5 February 1985 .
= = = Modern Gibraltar = = =
After the border reopened , the British government reduced the military presence in Gibraltar by closing the naval dockyard . The RAF presence was also downgraded ; although the airport officially remains an RAF base , military aircraft are no longer permanently stationed there . The British garrison , which had been present since 1704 , was withdrawn in 1990 following defence cutbacks at the end of the Cold War . A number of military units continue to be stationed in Gibraltar under the auspices of British Forces Gibraltar ; the garrison was replaced with locally recruited units of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment , while a Royal Navy presence is continued through the Gibraltar Squadron , responsible for overseeing the security of Gibraltar 's territorial waters . In March 1988 a British military operation against members of the Provisional IRA ( PIRA ) planning a car bomb attack in Gibraltar ended in controversy when the Special Air Service shot and killed all three PIRA members .
The military cutbacks inevitably had major implications for Gibraltar 's economy , which had up to that point depended largely on defence expenditure . It prompted the territory 's government to shift its economic orientation and place a much greater emphasis on encouraging tourism and establishing self @-@ sufficiency . Tourism in Gibraltar was encouraged through refurbishing and pedestrianising key areas of the city , building a new passenger terminal to welcome cruise ship visitors and opening new marinas and leisure facilities . By 2011 , Gibraltar was attracting over 10 million visitors a year compared to a population of 29 @,@ 752 , giving it one of the highest tourist @-@ to @-@ resident ratios in the world .
The government also encouraged the development of new industries such as financial services , duty @-@ free shopping , casinos and Internet gambling . Branches of major British chains such as Marks & Spencer were opened in Gibraltar to encourage visits from British expatriates on the nearby Costa del Sol . To facilitate the territory 's economic expansion , a major programme of land reclamation was carried out ; a tenth of Gibraltar 's present @-@ day land area was reclaimed from the sea . These initiatives proved enormously successful . By 2007 , Chief Minister Peter Caruana was able to boast that Gibraltar 's economic success had made it " one of the most affluent communities in the entire world . " As of 2013 , Gibraltar is ranked as the second most prosperous territory within the European Union and the 18th most prosperous worldwide in terms of gross domestic product by purchasing power parity per capita ( the United Kingdom , for comparison , is 33rd worldwide and Spain is 44th ) . Today , Gibraltar has one Big Four accounting firm office per 10 @,@ 000 people , the second highest in the world after the British Virgin Islands , and a bank per 1 @,@ 700 people , the fifth most banks per capita in the world .
Gibraltar 's relationship with Spain continued to be a sensitive subject . By 2002 , Britain and Spain had proposed an agreement to share sovereignty over Gibraltar . However , it was opposed by the government of Gibraltar , which put it to a referendum in November 2002 . The agreement was rejected by 17 @,@ 000 votes to 187 – a majority of 98 @.@ 97 % . Although both governments dismissed the outcome as having no legal weight , the outcome of the referendum caused the talks to stall and the British government accepted that it would be unrealistic to try to reach an agreement without the support of the people of Gibraltar .
The tercentenary of the capture of Gibraltar was celebrated in the territory in August 2004 but attracted criticism from some in Spain . In September 2006 , tripartite talks between Spain , Gibraltar and the UK resulted in a deal ( known as the Cordoba Agreement ) to make it easier to cross the border and to improve transport and communications links between Spain and Gibraltar . Among the changes was an agreement to lift restrictions on Gibraltar 's airport to enable airlines operating from Spain to land there and to facilitate use of the airport by Spanish residents . It did not address the vexed issue of sovereignty , but this time the government of Gibraltar supported it . A new Constitution Order was promulgated in the same year , which was approved by a majority of 60 @.@ 24 % in a referendum held in November 2006 .
= Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal =
Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal ( known as Ratchet & Clank 3 in Europe and Japan and Ratchet & Clank 3 : Up Your Arsenal in Australia ) is a 2004 3D platform video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2 . It is the third installment in the Ratchet & Clank series and was released in North America on November 3 , 2004 . Shortly after it was released in Japan on November 25 , the first volume of the Ratchet & Clank manga , drawn by Shinbo Nomura , was released . A demo of this game was included in Sly 2 : Band of Thieves .
The gameplay is similar to previous games in the series but introduces new features such as a new control system and more levels in the upgrade system for weapons . It follows Ratchet and Clank 's adventure through a fictional universe to defeat a robotic villain , Dr. Nefarious , who intends to destroy all organic life . Characters such as Dr. Nefarious and Sasha , a Cazar starship captain who helps Ratchet throughout the game , are introduced , and a number of characters return from the original Ratchet & Clank .
Up Your Arsenal is the first in the series to offer online multiplayer as well as single @-@ player . The service was terminated in June 2012 , however the PlayStation 3 HD version features the online mode . Multiplayer features three different modes of play available on all of the maps and has a selection of the weapons from the single @-@ player game . As well as the multiplayer mode , it has many other differences compared to its predecessors such as higher quality graphics , larger worlds , and drivable vehicles . The voice cast from the previous game return as their respective characters , and new actors were hired to voice the new characters .
The game was met with critical acclaim upon release , earning an average review score of 91 % at Metacritic .
= = Gameplay = =
Despite straying further from a classic platform game , Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal still offers some of the basic features of a platform game but with a strong mix of action and shooting ; PGNx Media has dubbed it a " combat @-@ platformer " . It offers melee and long range combat and boasts a large , varied arsenal as one of its primary features as it has been in previous games .
As the player progresses through the game new weapons and upgrades can be obtained . As well as the 20 weapons available to the player , each weapon ( apart from the RY3NO ) has eight levels of strength , which is different to the previous game 's four levels of strength . Five upgrades are available after a weapon 's purchase and then three after that once the game has been completed , the player starts " challenge mode " , and purchases the weapon 's upgrade . Alongside the weapons , which are primarily used in combat , there are ten gadgets that can be collected for use in other situations .
For most of the game the player will be in control of Ratchet but in some areas the player takes control of Clank , Ratchet 's ally . Clank can give commands to smaller robots called Gadgebots to perform tasks with the use of a command menu to solve puzzles and attack enemies . Clank also features in " Giant Clank " scenarios where Clank transforms into a larger and more advanced form and can battle similar size enemies ; in this form he gains increased firepower with rockets and bombs and a large amount of health . During the single @-@ player game , the player can also play as Captain Qwark in 2D side @-@ scrolling levels ( called " Vid Comics " ) , which build upon the history of Captain Qwark and his previous conflicts with Dr. Nefarious .
The game offers a large range of enemies and different stages . It also features online multiplayer modes , such as Deathmatch , Capture The Flag , and Siege ( in which the player storms the opponent 's base and tries to destroy the power core inside ) . It supports up to eight players at a time and supports voice chat through a PS2 @-@ compatible headset . Internet connection is needed if playing online against other players .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player character and main protagonist is Ratchet , a Lombax from the planet Veldin ( voiced by James Arnold Taylor ) . He wields a wrench as a melee weapon and can use a large arsenal of weapons . Clank , Ratchet 's robotic sidekick and co @-@ protagonist ( voiced by David Kaye ) , is usually attached to Ratchet 's back and uses attachments to help Ratchet 's movements . Dr. Nefarious , the main antagonist of the game ( voiced by Armin Shimerman ) , is the robotic form of a former organic life form . He has a hatred for organic life and tries to destroy it . At the end of the game , Doctor Nefarious is left stranded on an asteroid , eventually making cameos and reappearances in later titles .
= = = Story = = =
While playing chess in Clank 's penthouse , Ratchet receives word that his home planet , Veldin , is under attack by an army of aliens known as Tyhrranoids . Posing as an officer in the Galactic Rangers , he leads an assault that drives off the invaders , who appear to use very sophisticated weapons and equipment . At a post @-@ victory briefing , the Galactic President informs the duo that a villain known as Dr. Nefarious is believed to be responsible for organizing the invasion . As very little is known about Nefarious , the Rangers decide to track down the only man to have ever beaten him : Captain Qwark . Ratchet discovers Qwark living with an indigenous tribe on planet Florana and takes him to the Starship Phoenix , where he meets Ranger Captain Sasha . Upon regaining his sanity , Qwark forms the " Q @-@ Force " , an " elite " squad that answers only to him , and orders Ratchet , Clank , and Q @-@ Force operative Skidd McMarx to infiltrate Nefarious 's base on planet Aquatos . Hacking his database , Clank obtains a map of Tyhrranosis , the Tyhrranoid home world . After the Q @-@ Force succeeds in destroying the Tyhrranoid queen , Dr. Nefarious sends them a mocking transmission ; Ratchet 's friend Al traces it to a munitions factory on planet Daxx .
There , Ratchet and Clank learn that Nefarious has constructed a weapon called the Biobliterator , but are unable to find any information on it . They also find a music video produced by pop star Courtney Gears ( a parody of Britney Spears ) , in which she instructs robots to destroy organic lifeforms . Clank sets up a meeting with Gears , but she renders him unconscious and turns him over to Dr. Nefarious . Aware of Clank 's fame as the star of " Secret Agent Clank " , Nefarious asks him to serve as the face of his plan to wipe out all organic races , but he refuses . In response , Nefarious creates an evil double named Klunk and has him take Clank 's place . Unaware of the deception , Ratchet undertakes a mission with Skidd to investigate enemy activity on the Obani Moons . When Ratchet returns to the Phoenix , Gears abducts Skidd and turns him into a robot . Ratchet confronts and disables her in combat , then gets Skidd to safety . Meanwhile , Sasha locates Nefarious 's ship , the Leviathan , at a remote spaceport , and sends him and Qwark to apprehend the doctor . Nefarious reveals that the whole encounter is a trap , and he activates the Leviathan 's self @-@ destruct system before escaping . Qwark refuses to leave , citing the need to gather intel , and seemingly perishes when the ship explodes .
After a brief memorial for Qwark on the Phoenix , Ratchet goes to assist Ranger forces battling a Tyhrranoid invasion in the city of Metropolis . Unveiling his newly @-@ completed Biobliterator , Nefarious uses it to turn both Metropolis 's citizens and his Tyhrranoid soldiers into robots . Making yet another escape , he orders Klunk to kill Ratchet . After besting the clone , Ratchet and Clank are reunited and vow to stop Nefarious . While searching the remains of the Leviathan , they find evidence that Qwark faked his death . A secret message hidden onboard the Phoenix reveals the location of a secret hideout , where Qwark , overcome with cowardice , refuses to fight any longer . After fighting off an attack on the Phoenix , the duo intercept the Biobliterator and Clank destroys it with an ion cannon . However , Sasha informs them that a second , more advanced , Biobliterator is being prepped for launch at Nefarious 's main command center on planet Mylon , Ratchet and Clank locate Nefarious and defeat him , but he activates the Biobliterator , which transforms into a giant , heavily armed robot . Before he can crush Ratchet , Qwark flies in to distract him , giving the duo an opening to destroy the Biobliterator . Nefarious 's teleporter malfunctions , stranding him and his butler Lawrence on a distant asteroid . With the galaxy safe once again , the Q @-@ Force and their allies attend a private screening of the latest Secret Agent Clank holofilm .
= = Development = =
Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal was the main focus of the Insomniac Team during development . The team of around 115 people were aiming to create a new Ratchet and Clank game that would differ significantly from its predecessors and almost end up being two games in one . Insomniac believed that one of the key processes in the development process was the rigorous testing . Working closely with Sony and listening to fans of the Ratchet and Clank series , they gathered feedback and made improvements to the game . They felt that they had created a game that would appeal to a number of genres with the inclusion of elements of platform , action and side @-@ scrolling gameplay .
At the same time , Jak 3 was being developed by Naughty Dog , a company closely tied with Insomniac . Naughty Dog 's Jak & Daxter series and the Ratchet & Clank series are in similar genres ; each game in both series ' has been released at a similar time and both contain references to each other . Ryan Schneider , an employee of Insomniac , said , " The analogy that I like to use is that at Insomniac we like to look at it as how Tiger Woods and Michael Jordan and Kobe Bryant act when it comes to their professions . We don 't really look at it as how we compare to other athletes or other games , we just try to do the best that we can and elevate the sport . "
= = Reception = =
Before its release , IGN was highly anticipating the final version of the game as they had played two previous versions of the game already . Concentrating on the multiplayer aspect of the game , they praised the developers for moving a solely platform game into the multiplayer genre so well . Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal was featured at the E3 games festival in 2004 , where there was a playable demo . Only the multiplayer Siege mode and a single @-@ player demo were available but they were enough to get 1UP.com 's award for best action game at E3 .
Soon after its release , Ratchet & Clank : Up Your Arsenal received critical acclaim . GameSpy awarded it 5 stars out of 5 , and IGN said that " You MUST buy this immediately " due to its extensive line @-@ up of weaponry , high quality graphics and polished sound effects . IGN did , however , believe it was easier than the previous game , Going Commando , while GameSpot thought that the gameplay was too similar to the previous title , but both reviewers considered these as minor issues and they made little difference to the overall score . Gaming magazines GamesTM and Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine both mentioned that the offbeat comedy that was apparent throughout the majority of the game was one of the points that made it unique . X @-@ Play said " A mixture of excellent gameplay tweaks and new activities make the third one easily the strongest game in the series and one of the best games of this year " and giving it a full five star rating . According to Metacritic 's collection of reviews , 12 separate reviewers gave the game the highest possible score . In 2006 , Edge Magazine featured a " Time Extend " article on Ratchet & Clank : Up your Arsenal and among other points , focused on the amount and variety of weapons available to the player . In August 2005 Up Your Arsenal entered the Greatest Hits line @-@ up . Since its release , it has sold over 2 @.@ 15 million copies in the US alone . IGN listed the game 18th on their list of " The Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " .
= Maze Prison escape =
The Maze Prison escape ( known to Irish republicans as the Great Escape ) took place on 25 September 1983 in County Antrim , Northern Ireland . HM Prison Maze ( also known as Long Kesh ) was a maximum security prison considered to be one of the most escape @-@ proof prisons in Europe , and held prisoners convicted of taking part in armed paramilitary campaigns during the Troubles . In the biggest prison escape in UK history , 38 Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) prisoners escaped from H @-@ Block 7 ( H7 ) of the prison . One prison officer died of a heart attack as a result of the escape and twenty others were injured , including two who were shot with guns that had been smuggled into the prison . The escape was a propaganda coup for the IRA , and a British government minister faced calls to resign . The official inquiry into the escape placed most of the blame onto prison staff , who in turn blamed the escape on political interference in the running of the prison .
= = Previous IRA escapes = =
During the Troubles , Irish republican prisoners had escaped from custody en masse on several occasions . On 17 November 1971 , nine prisoners dubbed the " Crumlin Kangaroos " escaped from Crumlin Road Jail when rope ladders were thrown over the wall . Two prisoners were recaptured , but the remaining seven managed to cross the border into the Republic of Ireland and appeared at a press conference in Dublin . On 17 January 1972 , seven internees escaped
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and comply with thousands of regulations worldwide — including advertising restrictions , penalties for selling tobacco products to minors , and substantial health warnings on packaging . We 're investing billions into developing and scientifically assessing a portfolio of products that have the potential to be less harmful and that are satisfying so smokers will switch to them . And , like any other company with a responsibility to its business partners , shareholders and employees , we ask only that laws protecting investments , including trademarks , be equally applied to us .
The statement also provided readers with a " balanced view " , and facts about the issues raised by Oliver , including the company 's marketing practices and " approach to regulation " . Philip Morris included links to its " Be Marlboro " campaign , which is " aimed at competing for existing adult smoker market share " , reasons why the company is challenging Australia and Uruguay 's censorship of their trademarks , and " facts about smoking prevalence in Australia after the introduction of plain packaging " .
Chris Morran of Consumerist said Philip Morris did a " really poor job of trying to defend its actions " . He wrote , " ... this should be where the very serious folks at Philip Morris go point by point and explain where Oliver exaggerated and embellished , but they don 't . It 's a classic non @-@ response in which the accused tried to undercut the accuser 's argument by claiming he can 't possibly be providing the truth . " He noted that Philip Morris does not deny making legal threats to suppress regulations on cigarette packaging and questions how the company : " [ expects ] to be taken seriously when it readily admits that the products it sells are ' harmful to health ' " . Furthermore , Morran takes aim at the company 's claim that it " [ supports ] and [ complies ] with thousands of regulations worldwide " , writing :
... the tobacco industry doesn 't support these regulations . It only supports the ones it can 't fight in a courtroom . Once it loses a battle — or realizes a battle can 't be won — then suddenly Big Tobacco , just like every other heavily regulated industry , claims to support and abide by the rules .
Finally , he said of the statement 's final sentence : " That 's honestly the best Philip Morris and Big Tobacco can come up with — We 've spent a lot of money and have a lot of investors so please don 't mess with our packaging because it might cause us to earn smaller profits ... It 's an argument that might be tenable if cigarettes did anything other than poison the people who buy them — or live in the same house with them . "
= Christmas Attack Zone =
" Christmas Attack Zone " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 90th overall episode of the series . It was written by show story editor Tracey Wigfield and directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on December 9 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Alan Alda , Elizabeth Banks , Will Forte , and Elaine Stritch .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Avery Jessup ( Banks ) convince Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) to confide in and grow closer to his visiting mother Colleen Donaghy ( Stritch ) at Christmas time . At the same time , actor Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to stop the release of his new film before it ruins his new serious persona , and Liz also tries to fix Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) relationship with her former boyfriend Paul L 'Astname ( Forte ) .
This episode of 30 Rock received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Christmas Attack Zone " was watched by 4 @.@ 759 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 5 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is invited by her boss Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) to spend Christmas with him to help him deal with a visit from his mother , Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) . Liz finds it strange that Jack 's fiancée Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) will not spend the holiday with him and immediately realizes that Jack has not told his mother about Avery 's pregnancy . Avery becomes angry , but she and Liz convince him to tell her which he promises to do . Jack tells Colleen about the news but she is not excited about the pregnancy as Jack and Avery are not married . To get back at her , Jack calls his biological father Milton Greene ( Alan Alda ) , the father she never told him he had , and invites him to spend Christmas with him , and does not inform him that Colleen will be present . The next day , Milton arrives and Jack explains the reason for his visit is so that he can ambush Colleen as she looks down on his relationship with Avery . Later , Avery arrives and is angered about what Colleen said about her relationship with Jack . Liz tries to warn Colleen about Jack 's plan but to no avail . She is shocked to see Milton , but immediately figures out what Jack is up to . Colleen gets even with Jack by faking a heart attack , which causes Milton and Avery to feel sorry for her thus abandoning their plan to reprimand Colleen . At the hospital , Avery reveals that she and Jack had planned to elope over New Year 's and extends an invitation to everyone . After the announcement , Liz leaves and travels to White Haven , Pennsylvania to spend Christmas with her family .
Meanwhile , actor Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is nominated for a Golden Globe Award for his role in the drama feature Hard To Watch but realizes that in order to win the award he needs to act as a serious actor . As a result , Tracy buys the rights to his new comedy movie , The Chunks 2 : A Very Chunky Christmas , in order to block the distribution of the feature and improve his chances at winning the award . Later , Tracy decides to do a charity event by screening Hard To Watch — a story of an inner @-@ city boy living in the ghetto — for a women 's shelter . At the charity event , Tracy introduces the movie but decides against showing it , realizing that laughter is the best medicine and instead screens The Chunks 2 : A Very Chunky Christmas . The people in the shelter find the movie hilarious thus making Tracy happy .
At the same time , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) is having a hard time dealing with her break @-@ up with Paul L 'Astname ( Will Forte ) . Liz , seeing Jenna miserable , visits Paul and tells her that Jenna misses him . Paul visits Jenna , though not to resume their relationship , instead to tell her that he has come up with a brilliant costume for the New Queer 's Eve party in which guests dress up as a pop culture phenomenon from the previous year . Unbeknownst to Paul , Jenna also has the same costume idea as his and as a result the two get back together . At the party , Paul dresses like actress Natalie Portman 's character in the 2010 movie Black Swan , and Jenna dresses up as former Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Lynn Swann .
= = Production = =
" Christmas Attack Zone " was written by 30 Rock story editor Tracey Wigfield , her first episode for the fifth season , and her fourth writing credit overall after " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " , " Future Husband " , and " Don Geiss , America and Hope " . This episode was directed by co @-@ executive producer and staff writer John Riggi , making it his fifth for the series after directing " Goodbye , My Friend " , " The Problem Solvers " , " The Moms " , and " Let 's Stay Together " . This episode of 30 Rock originally aired in the United States on December 9 , 2010 , on NBC as the tenth episode of the show 's fifth season and the 90th overall episode of the series .
Co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed to Entertainment Weekly that " Christmas Attack Zone " was " the big [ episode ] for us . It 's the long @-@ awaited reunion of Jack 's biological parents . A couple of years ago , Jack discovered his real father , but just to avoid an argument , he hasn 't told his mother that he knows her shameful sex secret . " The character Professor Milton Greene , Jack Donaghy 's biological father , was played by guest actor Alan Alda , best known for his role as Hawkeye Pierce from the television series M * A * S * H. Alda and Alec Baldwin have worked together , having appeared in the 2004 biographical drama film The Aviator . This was Alda 's third appearance on the show . After the airing of the season three finale episode " Kidney Now ! ' , in which Jack organizes a benefit concert to get Milton a kidney , it was unknown whether or not the benefit concert for Milton was a success , however , in the season four episode " Into the Crevasse " , Milton is shown to have written his book From Peanut to President , a biography of United States President Jimmy Carter . In this episode it is revealed that Jack sent Milton a kidney from British singer @-@ songwriter Elvis Costello who participated in the benefit concert in " Kidney Now ! " . In October 2010 , it was confirmed that Alda would return as his 30 Rock character on the fifth season . In an interview with TV Guide , Alda said that he first met Elaine Stritch twenty years ago " but never worked with her before . I always knew the reunion would be interesting . We kid with each other a lot , and our characters have a common enemy in their son . " This was Elaine Stritch 's seventh appearance as Colleen Donaghy , Jack 's mother , on the series . She guest starred in the episodes " Hiatus " , " Ludachristmas " , " Christmas Special " , " Señor Macho Solo " , " The Natural Order " , and " The Moms " .
Avery Jessup , fiancée of Baldwin 's
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etic for siding with the dark templar , Tassadar returns with Zeratul to Aiur and with the assistance of Raynor and the templar Fenix , Tassadar launches an attack on the Overmind and ultimately sacrifices himself to kill the creature .
In Brood War , the Protoss are now led by Zeratul and Artanis . They begin to evacuate the surviving population of Aiur to the dark templar homeworld of Shakuras under a fragile alliance between the two untrusting branches of the Protoss . On Shakuras , they are misled by Kerrigan into attacking the Zerg to advance Kerrigan 's quest to securing power over the Zerg . This deception comes after she reveals that a new Overmind has entered incubation . Meanwhile , Earth decides to take action in the sector , sending a fleet to conquer the Terran Dominion and capture the new Overmind . Although successfully taking the Dominion capital Korhal and enslaving the Overmind , the UED 's efforts to capture Mengsk are thwarted by a double agent working for Kerrigan , Samir Duran . Kerrigan , allying with Mengsk , Fenix and Raynor , launches a campaign against the UED , recapturing Korhal . However , she turns against her allies ; Fenix and Duke both perish in the ensuing attacks . Kerrigan later blackmails Zeratul into killing the new Overmind , giving her full control over the entire Zerg Swarm . After defeating a retaliatory attack by the Protoss , Dominion and the UED , consequently destroying the last of the UED fleet , Kerrigan and her Zerg broods become the dominant power in the sector .
Four years later , in Wings of Liberty , Kerrigan and the Zerg suddenly vanish from the Koprulu Sector , allowing the Protoss to once again take on a passive role in the galaxy . Meanwhile , Raynor forms a revolutionary group named Raynor 's Raiders in order to overthrow Mengsk . On Mar Sara , Raynor liberates the local population from Dominion control and also discovers a component of a mysterious Xel 'Naga artifact . The Zerg suddenly reappear and overrun Mar Sara , forcing Raynor to arrange an evacuation to his battlecruiser , the Hyperion . The Raiders embark on a series of missions to undermine Mengsk , stop frequent Zerg infestations on Terran worlds , gather psychic individuals for military assets , and find the remaining pieces of the Xel 'Naga artifact , which they sell to the enigmatic Moebius Foundation in order to fund their revolution . Soon after , Zeratul delivers a psychic crystal that allows Raynor to share visions involving an ominous prophecy where Zerg @-@ Protoss hybrids and an enslaved Zerg swarm wipe out the Terrans and the Protoss . The vision reveals that only Kerrigan has the power to prevent the eradication of all life in the sector and beyond . After collecting more artifact pieces , the Raiders forge an alliance with Valerian Mengsk , Arcturus ' son , who is their secret benefactor from Moebius Foundation . After recovering the final artifact piece , Valerian and Raynor work together to invade the Zerg world of Char and use the artifact to restore Kerrigan 's humanity , thus weakening the Zerg at the cost of much of the Dominion fleet . However , an agent of Arcturus makes an attempt on Kerrigan 's life , and Raynor defends her and takes her in for medical examination .
In Heart of the Swarm , the Dominion discovers where Raynor and Kerrigan are hiding and launch an attack on them . Kerrigan manages to escape , but is cut off from Raynor and upon hearing news that he was captured and executed , she returns to Zerg territory to retake control of the swarm and enact revenge on Mengsk . During her quest , she has an encounter with Zeratul , who advises her to travel to Zerus , the original homeworld of the Zerg , where she not only regains her powers as the Queen of Blades , returning stronger than ever , but also learns that a fallen Xel 'Naga named Amon was responsible for making the Zerg what they are : A warring swarm , bound to a single overriding will . After confronting a legion of servants of Amon , including a breed of Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids , Mengsk informs Kerrigan that Raynor is still alive and uses him as a leverage against her , keeping the location where he is imprisoned a secret , until she joins forces with the Hyperion to locate and rescue him . However , seeing that she discarded her humanity after all the effort he took to restore it , Raynor rejects her , despite her confession that she loves him , and part ways with her . Kerrigan then turns her attention to Korhal and sends her forces to bring down Mengsk once and for all . However , during their showdown , Mengsk uses the artifact to immobilize her , but Raynor appears to protect her , and Mengsk is ultimately killed by Kerrigan . With the Dominion under control of Mengsk 's son Valerian , Kerrigan bids farewell to Raynor and departs with the Zerg Swarm to confront Amon and his forces .
In Legacy of the Void , Zeratul invades a Terran installation under control of Amon in order to pinpoint the exact location of his resurrection , taking advantage of a sudden attack by Kerrigan and the Zerg swarm . After obtaining the exact location , he departs to an ancient Xel 'Naga temple where he has a vision of Tassadar , who prompts him to claim the artifact in possession of the Terrans . Zeratul then returns to warn Artanis of Amon 's return , but he decides to proceed with his plans of leading his army to reclaim Aiur . However , Amon awakens on Aiur and takes control of the majority of the Protoss race through the Khala , the telepathic bond that unites all emotions for the Khalai faction of the Protoss . Only Zeratul and the Nerazim , the Dark Templar , are immune due to their lack of connection to the Khala , and the Nerazim proceed to save as many Khalai as they can by severing their nerve chords , which connect them to the Khala , with Zeratul sacrificing himself to save Artanis in the occasion . After escaping the planet with an ancient vessel , the Spear of Adun , Artanis reclaims the artifact as Zeratul suggested and gathers allies among the many Protoss tribes scattered across the galaxy in order to remake his army and launch another assault on Aiur . Using the artifact , Artanis ' forces restrain Amon 's essence , time enough for the other Khalai Protoss who were still under his control to sever their nerve chords and banish Amon to the Void .
In a short epilogue after the end of Legacy of the Void , Kerrigan calls for Artanis and Raynor 's help to confront Amon inside the Void to defeat him once and for all . In the occasion , they meet Ouros , the last of the Xel 'Naga who reveals that to confront Amon on equal terms , Kerrigan must inherit Ouros ' essence and become a Xel 'Naga herself , as Ouros himself is at the last of his strengths . Assisted by the Zerg , Terran and Protoss forces , the empowered Kerrigan vanquishes Amon , before disappearing without a trace . Two years later , Kerrigan appears before Raynor in human form and he departs with her to never be heard from again , while the Zerg , the Terran and the Protoss civilizations begin to rebuild in an age of peace and prosperity .
= = Games = =
The StarCraft series includes a core set of titles which carry the main storyline . These games were released in chronological order , with each new title following on from the events that are depicted in the previous title . A full second game , StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty , was released on July 27 , 2010 , taking place four years after the end of Brood War . Two expansions , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void ( both currently stand alone games ) , were planned from the beginning ; the former was released on March 12 , 2013 .
All the games in the main series are real @-@ time strategy games , where the player views the events as a military commander for each of the three species . In addition , two spin @-@ off titles have been released ; these are authorized expansion packs to the original which focus on other characters and settings based at the same time as the main storyline . Like the main series , these two titles are also real @-@ time strategy games . A spin @-@ off , StarCraft : Ghost , which was to be a third person action @-@ stealth game was in development , but has been placed on indefinite hiatus .
= = = StarCraft = = =
StarCraft , released for Windows on March 31 , 1998 , is the first video game in the StarCraft series . A science fiction real @-@ time strategy game , StarCraft is set in a distant sector of the Milky Way galaxy . A Mac OS version of the game was released by Blizzard Entertainment in March 1999 . A Nintendo 64 port including StarCraft , Brood War and a new secret mission " Resurrection IV " was released in the United States on June 13 , 2000 . The game 's story revolves around the appearance of two alien races in Terran space , and each race 's attempts to survive and adapt over the others . The player assumes three roles through the course of the three campaigns : a Confederate colonial governor who becomes a revolutionary commander , a Zerg cerebrate pushing forward the species ' doctrine of assimilation , and a Protoss fleet executor tasked with defending the Protoss from the Zerg . StarCraft soon gained critical acclaim , winning numerous awards , including being labelled " the best real @-@ time strategy game ever made " and being ranked the seventh best game of all time by IGN in both 2003 and 2005 , and the eleventh best game in 2007 .
StarCraft : Brood War is the official expansion pack for StarCraft , developed by Blizzard Entertainment and Saffire . Released for Windows and Mac OS in the United States on November 30 , 1998 , the expansion directly continues the events of StarCraft . The expansion 's story continues only days after the conclusion of the original game . It starts with the Protoss ' struggle to ensure the survival of their species and continues with the intervention of the United Earth Directorate into local Terran affairs . The livelihood of both the Protoss and the previously silent Earth government is then threatened by the ever @-@ increasing power of Sarah Kerrigan and her Zerg broods . In addition , the expansion introduces new features and improvements . A total of seven new units with different functions and abilities are included , the artificial intelligence behavior was modified , new graphical tilesets for terrain were added and the game 's level editor received improved scripting tools to facilitate cut scenes with the in @-@ game engine . The expansion received critical praise for fixing various balance issues with the original game , development attention on par with that of a full game and for continuing with single player campaigns that were heavily story @-@ driven .
= = = StarCraft II = = =
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty is the official sequel to StarCraft released for Windows and Mac OS X by Blizzard Entertainment on July 27 , 2010 . The game was announced at the Worldwide Invitational in South Korea on May 19 , 2007 with a pre @-@ rendered cinematic cut scene trailer and a gameplay demonstration of the Protoss . Further demonstrations regarding the game 's new features have been showcased at subsequent Blizzcons and other games conventions . The game incorporates a new 3D graphics engine and adds new features such as the Havok physics engine . StarCraft II also incorporates DirectX 10 level effects in Windows . Originally envisioned as a single game , StarCraft II was split into three parts during development , one for focusing on each race . The base game , Wings of Liberty , follows the Terrans , while two expansion packs , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void are to be released to complement Wings of Liberty after release and further the story from the views of the Zerg and Protoss , respectively . The story of Wings of Liberty continues from four years after the conclusion of Brood War , and revolves around Jim Raynor 's struggles against the Terran Dominion .
StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm is an expansion pack to StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty and was released on March 12 , 2013 . It is part two of the StarCraft II trilogy . The expansion includes additional units and multiplayer changes from Wings of Liberty , as well as a continuing campaign focusing on Kerrigan and the Zerg race . It spans 27 missions ( 20 main missions and 7 side missions ) .
The saga of StarCraft is ultimately completed with StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , which was released on November 10 , 2015 . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void is a stand @-@ alone game in which new units are added to all three races as well as changing existing units , and also makes groundbreaking changes to the economy @-@ aspect of the game . The story of Starcraft is concluded by following the Protoss Race in their quest to reclaim their homeworld and for Kerrigan to ultimately slay the greatest threat to the entire universe . The game is divided by a 3 @-@ mission prologue , a 19 @-@ mission main story campaign followed by a 3 @-@ mission epilogue wrapping up .
At BlizzCon 2015 during the " Future of Starcraft 2 " presentation it was revealed that Blizzard will release additional mission packs to keep players engaged with Starcraft 2 . The first pack is called Nova Covert Ops , and will center around the character Nova . The mission pack will consist of three episodes , with a total of nine new missions . It does not require the purchase of StarCraft II , and can be played with the Starter Edition . The release date for the first episode is 29 March 2016 . At the same time Blizzard has announced that new commanders are planned to be added to the Co @-@ Op mode in Legacy of the Void as a DLC , with Karax to be the first addition given for free .
= = = Spin @-@ off titles = = =
The success of StarCraft has spurred the creation of two authorized add @-@ on titles to StarCraft , as well as a deviation into genres other than real @-@ time strategy . Insurrection was the first add @-@ on pack released for StarCraft . Although developed and published by Aztech New Media , it is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment . It was released for the PC on July 31 , 1998 . The expansion 's story focuses on a Confederate colony during the course of the first campaign of StarCraft . As in StarCraft , the player takes control of each race in three separate campaigns . In the first campaign , Terran colonists attempt to defend themselves from the Zerg invasion of the sector as well as from a rising insurgency . The second campaign has the player directing a Protoss task force sent to clear the Zerg infestation of the colony by any means necessary . In the final campaign the player assumes the role of a Zerg cerebrate , whose goal is to crush all opposition on the surface . The expansion contains 30 new campaign missions and over 100 new multiplayer maps , although it does not include new content such as units and graphical terrain tilesets . Insurrection was criticized by reviewers for lacking the quality of the original game and it is not widely available . Although the add @-@ on is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment , they offer no comment on support or availability of the game .
Retribution is the second of the two authorized add @-@ on packs released for StarCraft . The add @-@ on was developed by Stardock and published by WizardWorks Software . It was released for the PC in late 1998 . The game is set during the second campaign in StarCraft , revolving around the acquisition of a crystal of immense power connected to the Xel 'Naga . Divided into three campaigns , the player assumes the roles of a Protoss fleet executor , the commander of a Dominion task force and a Zerg cerebrate , all tasked with retrieving the crystal from a Dominion colony and getting it off the planet as quickly as possible . As with its predecessor , Retribution does not include any new gameplay features beyond its single player campaigns and an abundance of multiplayer levels . The add @-@ on was not well received by reviewers , and instead was regarded as average but at least challenging . Retribution is not widely available , and Blizzard Entertainment offers no comment regarding support or the availability of Retribution despite authorizing the add @-@ on .
StarCraft : Ghost is a tactical stealth game for consoles developed under supervision of Blizzard Entertainment . Announced in 2002 , the game was constantly delayed due to various issues , most notably including a change of development team from Nihilistic Software to Swingin ' Ape Studios in July 2004 . As updates for the game became less frequent and the graphics and game mechanics more outdated , suspicion began to grow that Blizzard would cancel the game . On March 24 , 2006 , Blizzard indefinitely postponed the game 's development . The story of the game is based around Nova , a psychic assassin in the employ of the Terran Dominion . Although frequently used as an example of development hell , Blizzard Entertainment 's Rob Pardo has indicated that he would like the game to be completed in the future , and Blizzard Entertainment refuses to list the game as having been canceled .
On August 23 , 2014 in an interview with Polygon about the cancellation of Blizzard 's next gen MMO Titan Chris Metzen confirmed that StarCraft : Ghost was also cancelled . " It was hard when we canceled Warcraft Adventures . It was hard when we canceled StarCraft : Ghost , " he said
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rap trio Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa , and noted that the final track was " like five different things , it 's hip @-@ hop , it 's the girls , it 's a female anthem , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa , [ and ] Britney and Miley " . He further opined that the women 's collaboration made for a " historical moment [ ... ] as big as when Britney kissed Madonna " Miley said : " There 's only one bitch that I want on my album , and that is Britney bitch ! " . Speculation of a collaboration between Cyrus and Britney Spears first arose after they shared a brief exchange over Twitter in July 2013 . The following month , producer Sean Garrett confirmed that the pair had recorded a " nuts " collaboration for Bangerz . He later stated that Cyrus " [ was ] throwing around those ideas " of featuring Gwen Stefani and Nicki Minaj as the guest vocalist , but felt that the final cut with Spears was " absolutely the right one . "
= = Release and reception = =
" SMS ( Bangerz ) " is the third track on Miley Cyrus 's fourth studio album Bangerz , which was released in October 2013 . Although the song never entered the Billboard Hot 100 , the album 's strong digital downloads helped it reach number 10 on Billboard 's Bubbling Under the Hot 100 chart , as well as number 157 on the UK Singles Chart . The song is marked as explicit by the RIAA due to its explicit language . Although in October 2013 Cyrus claimed she wanted the song to be the third single off Bangerz , " Adore You " was the album 's third single release instead . Talking about plans for a music video , Cyrus hoped " that the video will be as epic as the ' Work Bitch ' one , so I think that would be the smartest choice . "
Upon the album 's release , " SMS ( Bangerz ) " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly provided a favorable review , calling the track one of the best included on Bangerz and describing it as " a merry rap @-@ off with Britney " . Caroline Sullivan from The Guardian opined that Spears ' inclusion was " a stroke of skewed inspiration " , which contributed in making its parent album Cyrus ' " game @-@ changer " . Writing for Slant Magazine , Kyle Fowle called the song an " Auto @-@ Tuned Euro @-@ house jam " that helped make the album both " a message of empowerment " and " a straightforward party album " . In contrast , Mariah Eakin of The A.V. Club provided a more mixed review , saying that " Cyrus absolutely cannot rap , as horrifyingly evidenced by her Kreayshawn @-@ like turns " highlighted in the track . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters cautioned that " braggadocio can only go so far ( especially with a song that features such a formless sense of melody ) " , and felt that Mike Will Made It has a " horrid sense of how hooks work , leaving a slew of missed @-@ attempts and mangled opportunities in his wake . "
= = Live performance = =
An episode of MTV Unplugged starring Cyrus premiered through MTV on January 29 , 2014 ; she performed an acoustic version of " SMS ( Bangerz ) " without Spears , among several additional tracks from Bangerz . The song was used as the opening number on the worldwide Bangerz Tour , lasting throughout 2014 . Blake Hannon provided a positive review for the performance , praising the " synthy rush of the title track . " Cyrus returned to perform the song during the musical festival on June 21 , 2014 , Summertime Ball at Wembley Stadium of London , in front of 80 @,@ 000 people .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Bangerz .
Recording
Recorded at Nightbird Studios ( West Hollywood , California ) ; Conway Recording Studios ( Los Angeles , California ) ; Glenwood Studios , ( Burbank , California )
Mixed at The Penua Project / Innersound Management at Larrabee Sound Studios ( North Hollywood , California )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= Vinkensport =
Vinkensport ( Dutch for " finch sport " ) is a competitive animal sport in which male common chaffinches are made to compete for the highest number of bird calls in an hour . Also called vinkenzetting ( " finch sitting " ) , it is primarily active in the Dutch @-@ speaking region of Flanders in Belgium .
Vinkensport traces its origins to competitions held by Flemish merchants in 1596 , and is considered part of traditional Flemish culture . As of 2007 , it was estimated that there are over 13 @,@ 000 enthusiasts , called vinkeniers ( " finchers " ) , breeding 10 @,@ 000 birds every year . Animal rights activists have opposed the sport for much of its history .
= = Description = =
In a contest , a row of small cages , each housing a single male finch , are lined up approximately six feet apart along a street . The close proximity of the cages increases the number of calls , as the birds sing for mates and to establish territory . A timekeeper begins and ends the contest with a red flag . Every time a bird sings a correct terminating flourish to their call — most often transcribed as susk @-@ e @-@ wiet — a tally mark in chalk is made on a long wooden stick . The bird singing its song the most times during one hour wins the contest . Champion finches regularly sing hundreds of calls in contests .
= = History and practices = =
The earliest known records of vinkeniers are from 1596 ( with some sources advocating a slightly earlier 1593 origin ) with Flemish merchants competing . By the late nineteenth century , vinkenzetting 's popularity had diminished significantly , but it saw a resurgence after the First World War . As of 2007 , it was estimated that there are over 13 @,@ 000 vinkeniers breeding 10 @,@ 000 birds every year . However , the popularity of this folk sport is waning in the 21st century . There is also a museum of the sport ( Nationaal Volkssportmuseum Vinkensport ) in the village of Hulste in the Harelbeke municipality of Belgium .
Vinkeniers use a variety of methods to increase the number of calls in their birds . Techniques to develop singing aptitude include selective breeding programs , high @-@ protein diets , and stimulating them with music and recordings of bird song . As wild finches generally begin singing during the spring mating season , keepers may also use artificial lights placed in aviaries to encourage increased song .
Some vinkeniers claim that finches from the different regions of Belgium sing in different dialects ; with birds from the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders singing " in Dutch " and those from the French @-@ speaking Wallonia singing undesirably " in French " . The use of " Dutch " and " Walloon " to describe these two supposed types of finches has been suggested to refer to a simple difference in calling not literally linked to either the Flemish or Walloon communities of Belgium , and some linguists even suggest that " Walloon " simply means " foreign " . While minute regional differences ( a.k.a. dialects ) in song have been observed in the chaffinch ( also within Belgium ) , the differences have only been reliably distinguishable by the use of sonograms . Taxonomically , there are no officially @-@ recognized subspecies of chaffinch within Belgium .
= = = Cheating incidents = = =
As with other sports , vinkensport has had its cheating scandals , as well as accusations of artificial enhancement . One finch sang a record 1 @,@ 278 susk @-@ e @-@ weits in one hour , and the owner was later accused of doping the bird with testosterone . After one contestant sang exactly the same number of calls in two rounds , the box was opened and a mini CD player was discovered within .
= = = Opposition to the sport = = =
Throughout much of its history , certain attributes of the sport have garnered criticism . Early proponents of the sport would blind birds with hot needles in order to reduce visual distractions . Thomas Hardy — the celebrated English author and poet who was also an antivivisectionist and member of the RSPCA — is said to have written his poem " The Blinded Bird " as a protest against the practice . In 1920 , a campaign by blind World War I veterans banned the practice , and today the birds are kept in small wooden boxes that let air in but keep distractions out .
Modern animal rights activists , such as those from the Flemish Bird Protection Society , accuse trainers of " brainwashing " birds into singing more than is natural or healthy by playing looped recordings of finch calls , and that caging birds in the intentionally small and dark contest boxes is cruel . The finch is a popular aviary bird in many countries and it is forbidden in the European Union to catch birds in the wild , despite vinkeniers purporting that wild birds sing better than captive ones . Though chaffinch populations are currently not considered to be threatened , a 2002 court case at the Belgian Constitutional Court upheld a 1979 EU law banning the capture of wild finches .
= Catch a Fire =
Catch a Fire , released on 13 April 1973 , is the fifth album by Jamaican reggae band The Wailers , and the first the band released on Island Records . After touring and recording in the United Kingdom with Johnny Nash , Nash 's departure to the United States left the band without enough money to return home ; they approached producer Chris Blackwell , who agreed to advance the Wailers money for an album and paid their fares back to Jamaica , where they recorded Catch a Fire . The album features nine songs , two of which were written by Peter Tosh and the rest by Bob Marley . After Marley 's return to London to present the tapes to Blackwell , the producer reworked the tracks with contributions by Muscle Shoals session musician Wayne Perkins , who played guitar on two overdubbed tracks .
The album 's supporting concert tour throughout England and the United States helped establish the band as international stars . Catch a Fire peaked at number 171 and number 51 on Billboard 's 200 and Black Albums charts , respectively . The album has received critical acclaim , including being listed at number 126 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , the second highest placement of the five Bob Marley albums on the list , after the posthumous compilation album Legend
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the last twelve years . The Prime Minister and Sankey met to write a letter to the Judges demanding that they give in ; as soon as Schuster heard about this he rushed to Whitehall to " stop the madness " . The protests from the Judges increased through 1931 and 1932 , with several judges including Albert Clauson and Arthur Luxmoore threatening to sue the government . After negotiations between Schuster and the judges failed to bring an end to the crisis the section of the act cutting judges ' pay was quietly dropped .
Soon after becoming Permanent Secretary Schuster had decided that his aim should be to make sure that the entire court system was under the control of his office , rather than partially under his control and partially under the control of HM Treasury as it had been when he started . The 1931 Royal Commission on the Civil Service recommended that all Civil Service departments take a more business @-@ like approach to their work , and spurred Schuster into making a further attempt to reorganise and reform the Lord Chancellor 's Office . As such he persuaded Sankey to set up a Departmental Committee on the Business of the Courts , with Lord Hanworth ( one of Schuster 's friends ) chairing the committee and Schuster himself sitting as a member . As he had under Lord Birkenhead Schuster attempted to reform the County Courts . Hee partially succeeded in doing when his recommendations were included in the Administration of Justice [ Appeals ] Act 1934 which sent appeals from the county courts straight to the Court of Appeal rather than the Divisional Courts . He also attempted to have the number of jury trials in civil cases reduced , something which Hanworth supported but which was blocked by the King 's Bench Division .
Schuster also took part in law reform after Lord Sankey decided to set up a Law Revision Committee in January 1934 which consisted of Sankey , Schuster , four judges , five barristers , one solicitor and two academic lawyers . The committee produced 86 reports from 1934 to 1939 on a variety of subjects , and many of their recommendations were made into legislation after negotiations with the Home Office . Although the Law Revision Committee fell into disuse after this it was re @-@ formed as a permanent Law Commission in 1965 .
In 1934 Schuster was subject to a public attack by Lord Hewart , the Lord Chief Justice . On 7 December 1934 his clerk found a bill amongst Hewart 's parliamentary papers with a clause that allowed the Lord Chancellor to appoint any Lord Justice of Appeal as Vice President of the Chancery Appeal Court , a right traditionally held by the Lord Chief Justice . Hewart immediately made plans to attend the House of Lords , where Lord Sankey was expected to move the Second Reading of the bill in question . Immediately after second reading Hewart rose and began a speech that was " as violent an attack as has ever been made in the Lords " . In it he criticised the officials of the Lord Chancellor 's Department ( which to listeners clearly meant Schuster specifically ) and insinuated that the bill was part of a conspiracy to move power from the judiciary to the politicians ( and thus the civil service ) and create a Ministry of Justice . The speech provoked uproar in the house ; a public quarrel between senior judges and civil servants had not happened in centuries , especially in such a traditionally calm and collected place . Lord Reading , himself a former Lord Chief Justice , adjourned the debate , and the following Friday Lord Hailsham , at the time the Leader of the House of Lords , made a defence of Schuster , saying that " I can show that this is an absolute delusion [ and ] that there was no such scheme ever hatched " . He showed that the proposal of a Ministry of Justice had originated in 1836 , long before Schuster became Permanent Secretary , and in addition that the report Schuster had helped prepare for Sankey was clearly biased against the creation of such a Ministry as he himself was opposed to it . He went on to praise Schuster as " the author and instigator of many great reforms " , and along with a similar speech by Lord Sankey and an amendment to the offending bill this helped appease Hewart .
= = = Lords Hailsham and Maugham ( 1935 – 1938 , 1938 – 1939 ) = = =
Lord Hailsham returned to power on 7 June 1935 after the election of a new government , and by this point his health was beginning to decline , limiting his effectiveness . The Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War alerted the Civil Service and MI5 to the ambitions of Italy and Germany , and the Committee of Imperial Defence was asked to review the defence legislation that had been used in the First World War and present it to Warren Fisher . Fisher was horrified at how outdated the laws were , and with the permission of the Cabinet organised a War Legislation Committee under Schuster to draft a new code of defence regulations . Norman Brook , later head of the Civil Service , served as secretary , and the Committee was described as " a model piece of organisation " thanks to the work of Schuster as chairman . The regulations drafted by the Committee were eventually made into law after the passing of the Emergency Powers ( Defence ) Act 1939 .
Lord Hailsham left his position in 1938 due to his failing health , and was replaced by Lord Maugham , who was appointed on 15 March . His appointment was done on Schuster 's advice and was considered quite a surprise as he had no real political experience ; even Maugham himself admitted he had not expected to be offered the job . Schuster and Maugham had a difficult relationship , especially after the start of the Second World War in 1939 , due to their differing political opinions . Schuster did not play an active part in policy decisions in this period , partially because of his disagreements with Maugham and partially because Maugham preferred to work on legislation and policy changes himself . Schuster later said that he got on with all of his Lord Chancellors except one — Maugham .
= = = Lords Caldecote and Simon ( 1939 – 1940 , 1940 – 1945 ) = = =
Lord Maugham resigned on 3 September 1939 , giving his failing health as a reason ( he was 73 when he left the post ) , and he was replaced by Lord Caldecote a day later . Caldecote only held the office for eight months , but during this period spent a large amount of time preparing legislation for the Second World War . Putting the country on a war footing would impact on the ability of people to fulfil their civil obligations if , for example , they were conscripted , and Schuster was made chairman of a Cabinet subcommittee " to consider the problems arising from the inability of persons , owing to war conditions , to fulfil their contractual and other obligations , and in particular to consider the complaints already made to MPs and government departments " . The subcommittee made six reports and their recommendations were eventually made into the Liabilities ( Wartime Adjustment ) Acts of 1941 and 1944 . Schuster also led the committee that drafted the USA ( Visiting Forces ) Bill that provided that any criminal proceedings in relation to the behaviour of US soldiers stationed in Britain would be led by the US military authorities rather than the British government .
Lord Caldecote was forced to leave his position after only 8 months due to the fall of Neville Chamberlain 's government , of which he was a part . He was replaced by Lord Simon , who took up his position on 12 May 1940 . Simon frequently delegated to Schuster and accepted his advice on judicial appointments , such as that of Arthur Thompson Denning to the High Court in 1944 . Schuster also had influence in committee appointments ; when Simon was asked to select a chairman for the Committee on Reconstruction Priorities he delegated to Schuster , who chose Sir Walter Monckton .
= = Retirement = =
Schuster retired in 1944 , and on 22 June of that year he was raised to the peerage as Baron Schuster , of Cerne in the County of Dorset . By the time he retired Schuster had served as Permanent Secretary for 29 years under 10 Lord Chancellors , records that have not yet been broken . He also served as High Sheriff of Dorset in 1941 . In retirement he undertook work for the Allied Commission for Austria and " tackled the unexpected with the zest of a young man " despite being 75 . He returned to Britain in 1946 . He served as Treasurer of the Inner Temple in 1947 , and in 1948 and 1949 took his seat in the House of Lords to voice his opinions on legislation , something he had previously been unable to do publicly due to the tradition of Civil Service neutrality . He participated in debates over the Criminal Justice Act 1948 and Criminal Justice Act 1949 , and was noted for being polite to the point of obsequiousness . He gave the Romanes Lecture in 1949 on the subject of " Mountaineering " and continued to play an active part in public life , helping reconstruct the Inner Temple after it was bombed in the Second World War . On 27 June 1956 he fell ill at an old Wykehamist dinner and was taken to Charing Cross Hospital , where he died the next morning .
= = Personal life = =
Schuster met William Walter Merry when he was Rector of Lincoln College , Oxford and the two became friends due to their shared love of mountaneering . Through him he met Merry '
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Mokashi 's struggle to make the film is included as one of the twenty inspiring stories in the book " Connect the Dots " by Rashmi Bansal , under the title " Truth Shall Prevail " in " Zubaan " section of the book .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre = = =
Mokashi started as an backstage worker for a theatre group in Pune . He has been associated with Marathi theatre since 1988 and worked as an actor in Pune based organisations like Theatre Academy and Maharashtra Cultural Center . He also participated in the plays made for children by a Berlin based theatre group , Grips @-@ Theater . After acting in couple of plays , Mokashi got associated with Prithvi Theatre , Mumbai . While working as an organiser for their theatre festivals , Mokashi directed his first play Sangeet Debuchya Mulee ( Debu 's Daughters : The Musical ) in Marathi for 1999 Prithvi Theatre festival . The play was also written by Mokashi himself . He directed few more plays including Mukam Post Bombilwadi ( Bombilwadi : The Village ) , Sangeet Lagnakallol ( The Roaring Marriage : The Musical ) and Samudra ( The Ocean ) .
All his plays got critical acclaim and won several awards on release . Sangeet Debuchya Mulee made satirical comments on the current communal harmony in India , through the daughters of a saintly social reformer in Maharashtra , Debuji Zhingraji Janorkar , popularly known as Gadge Maharaj . The play 's narrative format used Kirtans , call @-@ and @-@ response chanting or responsory , which were popularised by the 13th century Hindu saint , Dnyaneshwar and another 16th century Varkari saint , Tukaram . His 2001 comedy play , Mukam Post Bombilwadi , showcased tumultuous events upon Adolf Hitler 's accidental landing in a small village in coastal Maharashtra . The 2004 musical play , Sangeet Lagnakallol , was set in early 1900s referencing the characters and situations from Shripad Krushna Kolhatkar 's book , Sudaamyaache Pohe ( 1910 ) and Ram Ganesh Gadkari 's book , Sampoorna Baalakraam ( 1925 ) . His other plays like Mangalawarache Mundake ( 2001 ) discussed environmental concerns and Samudra ( 2005 ) , starring Atul Kulkarni , explored a mystery based upon ancient Vedic mythological history .
= = = Feature films = = =
Mokashi did a few small @-@ time roles for Hindi TV serials and feature films , including Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam ( 1999 ) but soon he turned to writing and directing . Mokashi came across a biography of Dadasaheb Phalke , also known as the father of Indian cinema , written by Bapu Watve . With an idea of making film on Phalke , Mokashi started his research with the help of National Film Archive of India , Pune and finished the script by March 2005 . As Mokashi did not undergo any formal training for film @-@ making and did not assist any other film directors earlier , he found it difficult to find producers for the film and it took three years to raise finances for the film . Declining the suggestions of making the film in Hindi , casting big stars , adding at least one title track , Mokashi decided to produce the film by himself through his production company , " Mayasabha Productions " . Made with the budget of ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) , Mokashi had to mortgage his house to complete the film .
Mokashi made directorial debut with his much acclaimed feature film , Harishchandrachi Factory . The film shoot was completed in December 2005 and post production work was finished in eight months in 2008 . In an interview with Rediff.com , Mokashi told that the film " had a technical release in the remote places of Maharashtra so [ it ] could participate in various festivals across the country . " The film made in Marathi language depicts the struggle of Dadasaheb Phalke in making of India 's first full @-@ length feature film , Raja Harishchandra ( 1913 ) . Unlike typical biopic films , Mokashi used light humoured adventure style for the film . The film gathered wide critical acclaim and Mokashi was praised for the narrative storyline of the film . The film also participated in several national and international film festivals .
The film was selected as India 's official entry to 82nd Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category along with 62nd British Academy Film Awards and 66th Golden Globe Awards but was not listed among the final five nominations . Mokashi 's next feature film Elizabeth Ekadashi was released on 14 November 2014 . The film received critical acclaim and commercial success and was selected as the opening film of ' Indian Panorama ' at The International Film Festival of India ( IFFI ) . The film won National Film Award for Best Children 's Film at the 62nd National Film Awards in 2015 .
= = Other work = =
After Mokashi 's film competed for Academy Awards , in July 2010 , he launched Shailaja Dekhmukh 's Marathi book " ... And The Oscar Goes To ... " about Academy award winning films and its history . In January 2011 , he inaugurated 5th National Book Exhibition at Nagpur and mentioned that if he hadn 't read Dadasaheb Phalke 's biography in 2005 , he would not have made the film . In March 2011 , UTV World Movies launched a short film contest , " Premier : The Short Film Festival " , for amateur and professional film makers . Mokashi was on the jury panel along with writer @-@ director Sooni Taraporevala and director Raj Kumar Gupta . The top three winners were given a chance to work with Mokashi . In November 2011 , Mokashi was made part of Disney and PVR Cinemas ' joint initiative " My City My Parks " , which focused on encouraging children about urban greenery . Mokashi inaugurated the event along with Bollywood actor Abhay Deol and director Amole Gupte . The child participants of the event were asked to create a project on the topic of environmental conservation , in the form of a film , photo @-@ journal , murals or a theatre performance . Gupte and Mokashi also worked as mentors for the shortlisted participants .
= = = Seminars and discussions = = =
Mokashi has attended several seminars and discussions about Indian cinema . In August 2010 , Film and Television Institute of India in collaboration with Film Writers Association , India organised a two @-@ day seminar on film scripts , " The Uniqueness of the Indian Script " , at Pune . Mokashi was part of seminar session , " The Road Ahead : Globalism , the Digital Revolution and Other Attractions " , with actor Kamal Haasan as its chairperson . The session also included other filmmakers like Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra , Rohan Sippy and Vikramaditya Motwane . In May 2011 , Mokashi was seen explaining and exploring the myths about Indian history in an event organised by actor Nandu Madhav , who had portrayed Dadasaheb Phalke in Mokashi 's film . At 84th Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan in December 2011 , he opened a discussion about Marathi cinema with fellow participants like actor Mohan Agashe , actress Mrinal Kulkarni , Smita Talwalkar and director Umesh Vinayak Kulkarni . He mentioned that Marathi film industry should experiment with new subjects , however he also said that these experimentations may not guarantee favourable audience responses . Lately in May 2012 , Mokashi participated in the centenary of Indian cinema celebration organised by P. L. Deshpande Arts Academy in Mumbai . He was accompanied by another Marathi film director , Chandrakant Kulkarni , and was involved in two discussions , " Dadasaheb Phalke 's cinematic journey " and " Hundred Years of Indian Cinema " .
= = Creative work = =
= = Awards = =
Plays
2004 – Alpha Gaurav Awards : Best Direction – Sangeet Lagnakallol
Feature films
Harishchandrachi Factory
2008 – 56th National Film Awards : National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Marathi
2008 – John Abraham National Awards in the fourth edition of SIGNS
2009 – Ahmedabad International Film Festival : Best Feature Film
2009 – 18th Aravindan Puraskaram : Best Debutant Director
2009 – Balasaheb Sarpotdar Award : Best Feature Film
2009 – Gollapudi Srinivas Award : Best Debutant Director
2009 – 14th International Film Festival of Kerala : Hassan Kutty Award for Best Debut Indian Film
2009 – 46th Maharashtra State Film Awards : Best Feature Film
2009 – 46th Maharashtra State Film Awards : Best Director
2009 – 1st International Film Festival Kolhapur : Public Choice Award
2009 – Marathi International Film and Theatre Awards : Best Screenplay
2009 – Pune International Film Festival : Best Director ( Marathi Section )
2010 – Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles : Audience Choice Awards
Elizabeth Ekadashi
2015 – 13th Pune International Film Festival : Government of Maharashtra " Sant Tukaram " Best International Marathi Film
2015 – Salaam Pune Awards : Best Film
2015 – 62nd National Film Awards : National Film Award for Best Children 's Film
Other awards
2009 – Maharashtra Ratna : Jewel of Maharashtra
2010 – Majha Sanman Puraskar : Excellence in art
2010 – Acharya Atre Foundation , Pune : Excellence in cinema
2011 – P. B. Bhave Memorial Trust : Excellence in cinema
2012 – The Maharashtra Chapter of the Federation of Film Society of India : Contribution to the Marathi cinema .
= Patrick Corbin =
Patrick Alan Corbin ( born July 19 , 1989 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) .
At Cicero – North Syracuse High School , Corbin did not pitch for his high school 's baseball team until his junior season . He played college baseball at Mohawk Valley Community College in his freshman season , and was noticed by scouts in a traveling showcase . He transferred to Chipola College for his sophomore season .
After a standout season at Chipola , the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim drafted Corbin in the second round of the 2009 MLB Draft . The Angels traded Corbin to the Diamondbacks in 2010 as part of a package for Dan Haren . Corbin made his MLB debut with the Diamondbacks in 2012 , and was named an All @-@ Star in 2013 . Corbin missed the 2014 season due to an injury to the ulnar collateral ligament in his pitching elbow .
= = Early life = =
Corbin is from Clay , New York . His father , Dan Sr. , worked as a driver for a sausage company , while his mother , Patty , works as a nurse at a rehabilitation center for the elderly .
Corbin 's father built a basketball court in his backyard for his children . As a child , Corbin identified basketball as his favorite sport . He played Pop Warner football , basketball in the Catholic Youth Organization , and Little League baseball . For baseball , Corbin was a fan of the New York Yankees .
= = Amateur career = =
= = = High school = = =
Corbin attended from Cicero – North Syracuse High School ( C @-@ NS ) in Cicero , New York . His father suggested that he sign up for the school 's baseball team during his freshman year , but Corbin declined , preferring to play with his friends . However , he did play for the basketball and football teams . His friends on the basketball team convinced him to try out for the baseball team in his junior year , and with little training , he was able to throw as fast as 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) .
In 2007 , his senior season at C @-@ NS , Corbin had an 8 – 0 win – loss record , allowing only 33 hits and 16 runs while striking out 76 batters in 47 innings pitched . C @-@ NS became the top ranked team in the state of New York , and Corbin was named to the All @-@ League team and first team All @-@ Central New York . He graduated from C @-@ NS with a record of 14 – 0 and 139 strikeouts .
For the C @-@ NS basketball team , Corbin broke the school 's record for most three @-@ point field goals in a single game . He was named to the All Section Basketball team after completing his senior season .
= = = College = = =
Corbin 's grades at C @-@ NS were not good enough for him to enroll at a four @-@ year college that would allow him to play college baseball . As a result , Corbin enrolled at Mohawk Valley Community College , a junior college in Utica , New York , for his freshman year . At Mohawk , Corbin played baseball and basketball . Scouts from two teams attempted to sign Corbin as an undrafted free agent for a $ 75 @,@ 000 signing bonus . Though Corbin 's father wanted his son to sign , Corbin 's coach suggested they wait another season . After the season , he joined a travel baseball team , where scouts took notice of Corbin after recording his fastball above 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) . In a tournament in Georgia , Corbin opposed a team led by Zack Wheeler . Corbin allowed only one hit in a shutout .
Corbin transferred to Chipola College in Marianna , Florida , also a junior college , for his sophomore year , so that he could play baseball throughout the year in the warmer weather . At Chipola , Corbin stopped playing basketball , focusing exclusively on baseball . While training , Corbin added 15 to 20 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 1 kg ) . Competing for the Chipola Indians , who play in the Panhandle Conference of the Florida State College Activities Association ( FSCAA ) , a member of the National Junior College Athletic Association ( NJCAA ) Region 8 , Corbin pitched to a 5 – 2 record with a 4 @.@ 32 earned run average ( ERA ) and 86 strikeouts in 74 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was named to the Panhandle Conference 's All @-@ Conference first team , and was voted the league 's fourth best player . Chipola reached the FJCAA / NJCAA Gulf District Tournament , but lost to Santa Fe College in the championship game . Corbin had a 1 – 0 record and a 2 @.@ 77 ERA in 13 innings pitched during the tournament , resulting in his being named to the All @-@ Tournament team .
Following the 2009 season , Corbin signed a letter of intent with the University of Southern Mississippi . He planned to transfer to Southern Miss in order to continue his college baseball career with the Southern Miss Golden Eagles , competing in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's Division I.
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft and minor leagues = = =
Scouts from every Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team evaluated Corbin prior to the 2009 MLB Draft , including Tom Kotchman of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , a personal friend of Chipola 's head coach . With Kotchman 's recommendation , the Angels drafted Corbin in the second round of the draft , with the 80th overall selection . He was the first junior college player selected in the draft . On the day of the draft , Corbin played basketball with his roommate .
Corbin signed with the Angels , receiving a $ 450 @,@ 000 signing bonus , foregoing his commitment to Southern Miss . Corbin pitched for the Orem Owlz of the Rookie @-@ level Pioneer League in 2009 , where Kotchman served as his manager . Corbin struggled in his first professional experience . In his first six appearances , five of them starts , he allowed 23 hits and 12 earned runs in 17 1 ⁄ 3 innings , giving him a 6 @.@ 23 ERA . Corbin later related that he attempted to strike out too many batters while pitching for Orem .
Baseball America ranked Corbin the Angels ' 12th best prospect prior to the 2010 season , projecting him as a mid @-@ rotation starting pitcher . Corbin altered his approach , as he sought to pitch to contact . He began the 2010 season with the Cedar Rapids Kernels of the Class A Midwest League . Corbin had an 8 – 0 record and 3 @.@ 86 ERA , allowing 25 earned runs in 58 1 ⁄ 3 innings in nine starts for Cedar Rapids . He struck out 70 batters while allowing 78 hits and 20 walks . During the season , the Angels promoted Corbin to the Rancho Cucamonga Quakes of the Class A @-@ Advanced California League . With Rancho Cucamonga , Corbin had a 5 – 3 record and 3 @.@ 88 ERA , allowing 26 earned runs in 60 1 ⁄ 3 innings in 11 starts . Combined , Corbin had a 3 @.@ 87 ERA , 106 strikeouts , and 28 walks in 118 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched with Cedar Rapids and Rancho Cucamonga .
At the trade deadline , Corbin was traded to the Diamondbacks with Joe Saunders , Rafael Rodríguez and Tyler Skaggs for Dan Haren . The Diamondbacks assigned Corbin to the Visalia Rawhide of the California League . Corbin pitched to a 1 @.@ 38 ERA in 26 innings with Visalia . In 2011 , while pitching for the Mobile Bay Bears of the Class AA Southern League , he set a franchise record with 27 1 ⁄ 3 consecutive scoreless innings . He finished the season with a 9 – 8 win @-@ loss record and 142 strikeouts in 160 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His strikeout total led the Southern League , and Mobile won the league championship .
The Diamondbacks invited Corbin to spring training in 2012 , where he pitched to a 0 @.@ 57 earned run average . Corbin began the 2012 season with Mobile , pitching to a 2 – 0 record and 1 @.@ 67 ERA in four starts .
= = = Major leagues = = =
On April 30 , 2012 , the Diamondbacks promoted Corbin to the major leagues to start in place of Josh Collmenter , who was moved to the bullpen . Joe Martinez was optioned to the Reno Aces of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League to make room for Corbin on the roster . Corbin allowed three runs in 5 2 ⁄ 3 innings in his MLB debut against the Miami Marlins , picking up the win . Corbin also had two sacrifice bunts and scored a run in the victory . After pitching to
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FC on November 27 , 2012 . First @-@ time coach Ryan Nelsen replaced Mariner as of January 7 , 2013 . On April 25 , 2013 , Payne signed the first ever young designated player in MLS , Matías Laba . On July 9 , Payne controversially traded Luis Silva to D.C. United for an undisclosed amount of allocation money . The club fired Payne on September 4 . Following the removal of Payne , recently appointed MLSE president Tim Leiweke reasoned that there were philosophical differences between the two as to how Toronto FC should move forward into 2014 and beyond . Leiweke , who brought David Beckham to the LA Galaxy in early 2007 , quickly revealed that he intended to make TFC more competitive with similarly ambitious , blockbuster signings . On September 20 , Toronto FC announced that the vacant general manager position had been filled by Tim Bezbatchenko .
Under Bezbatchenko , Toronto FC made several high profile moves during the 2013 – 14 off season . Among the transfers were MLS veterans Justin Morrow and Jackson ; Brasileiro star Gilberto , United States international Michael Bradley of A.S. Roma , and the return of Toronto FC leading goal scorer De Rosario . On January 10 , 2014 , Tottenham Hotspur announced they had agreed a deal with the club over the transfer of England international Jermain Defoe for a reported fee of £ 6 million , as well as an Advertising Rights Agreement with Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Ltd . This would see Defoe earn a reported £ 90 @,@ 000 a week , making him the highest earner in MLS . These moves required the trade of Matias Laba to Vancouver , to comply with MLS 's maximum of three designated players per team . On February 7 , 2014 , Brazil national team keeper Júlio César joined on loan from Queens Park Rangers . The team started the year with promise , but much like 2010 , they floundered after the World Cup break . On August 31 , Nelsen was fired by Bezbatchenko a day after a 0 – 3 defeat to the New England Revolution at BMO field , where Nelsen criticized Bezbatchenko in his post @-@ match press conference for putting the players under needless pressure in the media . The head coaching position was filled by former American international and Chivas USA assistant , Greg Vanney . Although the club won the most games in its history , it failed to reach the playoffs for the eighth consecutive year .
After completing only 11 months of his four @-@ year contract with TFC , Defoe joined Premier League club Sunderland on January 16 , 2015 , as part of a player exchange sending Jozy Altidore in the other direction . Three days later , the club signed Italian international Sebastian Giovinco on an annual salary of $ 7 million . On September 26 , Giovinco scored and assisted in a 3 – 2 win over Chicago , putting him on 35 points for the season , breaking Chris Wondolowski 's league record . Toronto FC clinched a playoff berth on October 14 , for the first time in franchise history , and Giovinco 's totals of 22 goals and 16 assists made him the first TFC player to win the MLS Golden Boot . The team were eliminated in the knockout round of the 2015 MLS Cup Playoffs by a 3 – 0 loss at 401 Derby rivals Montreal Impact . On June 29 , 2016 , Toronto FC won its fifth Canadian Championship , as they beat Vancouver 2 – 2 on aggregate , winning on away goals . Giovinco scored a hat @-@ trick against D.C. United , on July 23 , 2016 , in a 4 – 1 home win , surpassing De Rosario 's previous all @-@ time record as Toronto FC 's top scorer by two goals to 35 goals .
= = Stadium = =
BMO Field ; Toronto , Ontario ( 2007 – present ) [ primary venue ]
Rogers Centre ; Toronto , Ontario ( 2012 – present ) [ early season and marquee @-@ game venue ]
Before the 2007 Major League Soccer season , construction was completed on a new stadium at Exhibition Place in Toronto at a cost of $ 62 @.@ 5 million . On September 20 , 2006 , MLS 's official website announced that BMO Financial Group had officially purchased the naming rights for the new stadium . It is the largest soccer @-@ specific stadium in Canada . It is owned by the City of Toronto , while MLSE , the team 's owner , operates it .
As the National Soccer Stadium , it served as a major venue for the 2007 FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup , including hosting the opening and final matches . In 2008 , it played host to the 2008 MLS All @-@ Star Game . BMO Field has also hosted various high profile teams in international friendlies such as Real Madrid in 2009 . It was chosen as a neutral venue to host the 2010 MLS Cup in November 2010 . It also holds other sports , such as Rugby Sevens during the 2015 Pan American Games and beginning in 2016 , the Toronto Argonauts Canadian Football League team .
Following criticism of BMO Field 's use of FieldTurf and its rapid deterioration , MLSE agreed to a deal with the city to replace it with a natural grass surface in time for the 2010 MLS Season . Along with the grass , a heating and drainage system was also installed at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million to MLSE .
In March 2012 , TFC played its first @-@ ever match in the Rogers Centre , the 49 @,@ 982 @-@ capacity home of Major League Baseball 's Toronto Blue Jays and former home of the Argonauts , hosting the LA Galaxy in the home leg of the 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League Championship Round . The retractable @-@ roof stadium was also the venue for a friendly against Liverpool of the English Premier League in July of that year .
= = = Expansion = = =
Expansion to the north end that cost $ 2 million and added 1 @,@ 249 seats was completed for the start of the 2010 MLS Season . A $ 120 million renovation to the stadium was officially announced September 23 , 2014 . It includes a second tier of seating that would add 8 @,@ 400 seats , raising the capacity of the stadium to 30 @,@ 991 . New suites , washrooms , concourse and a roof would also be added . Construction began in September 2014 and would be divided into two phases , with the completion of the project set for May 2016 . The expansion would accommodate a Canadian football field with artificial turf end @-@ zones when the Toronto Argonauts move to BMO Field in 2016 .
= = Club culture = =
= = = Supporters = = =
Toronto FC 's initial seasons saw TFC fans set the standard for MLS fan support , selling out its first three seasons . Referred to as the model franchise off the field by MLS commissioner Don Garber , the club was credited for starting " MLS 2 @.@ 0 " for their embrace of supporters ' culture . Lack of on @-@ field success caused frustration among the fanbase , spurring fan protests against ownership . In response , MLSE acknowledged the lack of quality on the on @-@ field product , lowering ticket prices in 2013 to 2007 levels . Following a resurgence of interest in the club due to the major signings of Jermain Defoe and Michael Bradley , the club capped season tickets at 17 @,@ 000 for the 2014 season .
Toronto FC 's recognized supporters ' groups are the Red Patch Boys , U @-@ Sector , Inebriatti , Kings in the North , Tribal Rhythm Nation and Original 109 .
= = = Mascot = = =
The official mascot for Toronto FC is Bitchy the Hawk .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Toronto FC 's biggest rival , Montreal Impact , joined MLS in 2012 . In the years leading up to this , they emerged as fierce rivals during the Canadian Championship . The proximity of the two cities and the fact that Toronto and Montreal are long @-@ standing rivals in NHL ice hockey contributes to these meetings being combative . Since both teams have joined MLS , the rivalry has intensified and the matches have become a Canadian soccer classic , which has also been named the 401 Derby , named after Ontario Highway 401 linking the two cities . On March 16 , 2013 , Toronto FC fans set an MLS record for travelling support with 3 @,@ 200 away fans in Montreal to watch TFC lose 2 – 1 , eclipsing their own record of 2 @,@ 400 at Columbus Crew in 2008 .
Columbus Crew and Toronto FC have competed for the Trillium Cup since 2008 . Although a manufactured rivalry , the meetings have since sparked bitterness . On March 28 , 2009 , approximately 1 @,@ 700 Toronto FC supporters travelled to Columbus Crew Stadium and witnessed a 1 – 1 draw , during which they lit a number of flares and allegedly committed vandalism . Following the game some altercations broke out between the two supporter groups . Overwhelmed security called police who ended the melees and made arrests , at which time a TFC fan was tasered while being subdued . The first rematch back in Columbus Crew Stadium following the incident was boycotted by Toronto FC supporters in wake of restrictions imposed on them by Crew officials .
Toronto FC also have a rivalry with Vancouver Whitecaps FC .
= = = Colours = = =
The official team colours include red as the primary colour , with black , grey and white as secondary colours .
The primary kit ( jersey , shorts and socks ) is red with black trim , whereas the secondary kit includes white jerseys with a large red stripe below a smaller blue stripe across the chest and blue and red trim , white socks with blue trim , and with either red or blue shorts ( the choice of which is subject to the opponent kit ) . In its first three seasons , Toronto FC 's secondary kit colours were light and dark grey . The following four seasons saw white secondary kits , whereas in 2014 , the secondary kits were changed to onyx . As with all MLS teams , the kits are produced by Adidas . In 2013 and 2014 , a shadow @-@ print maple leaf was featured on Toronto FC 's primary jerseys .
Since the club 's formation in 2007 , it has been sponsored by the Bank of Montreal ( BMO ) . The sponsorship was initially worth $ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 million per season , but in 2010 , a new five @-@ year deal worth $ 4 million per season was signed . In February 2016 , it was announced that BMO had extended its sponsorship agreement through 2016 .
= = Ownership = =
Toronto FC are operated by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Ltd . , who also own and operate the Toronto Maple Leafs , the Toronto Raptors and the Toronto Marlies , along with sports ventures like Leafs TV , NBA TV Canada and GolTV Canada . The company is also involved in real estate and property management , owning such sports venues such as the Air Canada Centre and being a partner in the development of Maple Leaf Square . The partners of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment are Larry Tanenbaum and rival media outlets Rogers Communications and Bell Media ; Rogers and Bell own each of the primary sports television outlets in Canada ( Sportsnet and TSN respectively ) , while Tanenbaum and Bell share ownership of the Toronto Argonauts , who share BMO Field with Toronto FC beginning in 2016 .
= = Players and staff = =
= = = Current roster = = =
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth . Squad correct as of March 1 , 2016 .
= = = Current staff = = =
As of October 2015
= = = Head coaches = = =
As of March 6 , 2016
1 . ^ Includes league , playoff , Canadian Championship and CONCACAF Champions League games .
= = Youth development = =
= = = Toronto FC II = = =
Toronto FC II was established in November 2014 and is the farm club of Toronto FC . Toronto FC II competes in the United Soccer League , the third division of the American and Canadian soccer league system . The team serves as a reserve team for TFC and a bridge between the Academy and First Team . The team began play in March 2015 . Their home stadium is the newly constructed 3 @,@ 500 seat stadium at the Ontario Soccer Centre in Vaughan , just north @-@ northwest of Toronto . Jason Bent is the team 's first head coach .
Previously , Toronto FC had a one @-@ year partnership with the Wilmington Hammerheads of the USL .
= = = TFC Academy = = =
TFC Academy is the youth academy and development system of Toronto FC that was established in 2008 . The academy consists of multiple teams spanning different age groups , from U10 to U19 . The academy currently plays in League1 Ontario .
In June 2012 , TFC academy moved to their new KIA Training Ground in Downsview Park , located in North York . Built at a cost of $ 21 million to MLSE , the facility has seven pitches : three full @-@ sized grass pitches and four artificial turfs with two capable of being bubbled for year @-@ round use . The 36 @,@ 000 square foot facility also contains first team facilities , gym , kitchen , and offices .
= = Broadcasting = =
Toronto FC games are exclusively broadcast by either the TSN or Sportsnet families of channels . Games that are not covered under national broadcast contracts with MLS or other competition organizers are divided evenly between the two broadcasters , pursuant to agreements between their parent companies ( Bell Canada and Rogers Communications respectively ) in connection to their joint 2011 purchase of MLSE .
TSN holds the national broadcast contract with MLS from 2011 to 2016 , including rights 30 games per season involving Canadian teams , of which ( in 2013 ) 12 feature Toronto FC . It also holds 11 of the team 's 22 " regional " MLS broadcasts . In both cases , games may air either on TSN 's main channel or TSN2 , and are usually called by Luke Wileman ( play @-@ by @-@ play ) and Jason de Vos ( colour ) .
Sportsnet has broadcast rights to Toronto FC 's remaining 11 MLS games ; it also owns the rights to both the Canadian Championship , in which TFC participates annually , and the CONCACAF Champions League , in which TFC may compete depending on the results of that year 's Canadian Championship . Such games may air either on Sportsnet 's regional channels , Sportsnet 360 , or Sportsnet One . Games on Sportsnet involving TFC are generally called by Gerry Dobson ( play @-@ by @-@ play ) and Craig Forrest ( colour ) .
GolTV Canada , acquired by MLSE in 2009 , carried several live Toronto FC games each season from 2009 to 2012 , normally commentated by Wileman . The channel continues to carry repeats of TFC games and other ancillary coverage of the team . Other previous broadcasters for the 2007 to 2010 seasons included The Score and CBC Sports ( through CBC Television and Bold ) .
Similar to the TV rights , radio broadcasts are divided between Sportsnet 590 and TSN Radio 1050 ; Dan Dunleavy calls the games , while Bob Iarusci joins him as colour commentator for home games .
= = Honours = =
Canadian Championship
Winners ( 5 ) : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2016
Runners Up ( 2 ) : 2008 , 2014
Minor Trophies
Trillium Cup ( 2 ) : 2011 , 2014
= = Record = =
= = = Year @-@ by @-@ year = = =
= = = Team records = = =
= = = = Most goals = = = =
As of July 23 , 2016
MLS Regular Season , MLS Cup Playoffs , Canadian Championship and CONCACAF Champions League
Bold indicates player still active with club .
= = = = Most appearances = = = =
MLS Regular Season , MLS Cup Playoffs , Canadian Championship and CONCACAF Champions League
As of July 23 , 2016
Bold indicated player still active with club .
= = = = Club captains = = = =
= = = = International results = = = =
= = = Players of the year = = =
= = Attendance = =
Average attendance
The largest attendance for a Toronto FC game at the team 's home stadium , BMO Field , was on May 10 , 2015 , when they hosted the Houston Dynamo in front of 30 @,@ 226 . The highest overall attendance for a home game was on March 7 , 2012 , when they hosted the Los Angeles
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brigade , two Royal Marine brigades and supporting arms . Training for Operation Puma culminated in landing exercises in the Hebrides from the Landing Ship , Infantry HMS Royal Scotsman . The operation was renamed Operation Pilgrim and after a number of delays was put on hold by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff . On 13 September a token force including a troop from No. 4 Commando was dispatched to West Africa . The troop was based in Sierra Leone and Nigeria until returning to Britain in February 1942 , after the cancellation of the operation . While this was happening a new second in command ( 2IC ) was appointed , Major Charles Vaughan , and a Captain Lord Lovat joined the unit as the training officer . Lovat had been attached to the Lofoten raid as an observer and had applied for a posting to the commandos .
= = = Operation Bludgeon = = =
In February 1942 , A , B and C Troops were dispatched to the Outer Hebrides under the command of Captain Lord Lovat for extra training . Returning to Troon in March , they were immediately sent to Dartmouth , Devon where they embarked on HMS Prins Albert . Once on board they were informed about Operation Bludgeon and started mission training . The objective of this raid was a large building that was a short distance inland from the Dutch coast , and that was used by senior German officers . For the duration of the operation B Troop were issued with flamethrowers to set the building on fire . After several days training , the commandos moved around the coast and anchored in the Thames waiting for the order to go . The operation was eventually cancelled , due to the increased German E @-@ Boat activity in the area of the landing .
= = = St Nazaire = = =
The St Nazaire raid had the objective of destroying the Normandie dry dock , which would prevent its use by any large German warship if that had been damaged or in need of repair . The majority of land force for the raid was supplied by No. 2 Commando , led by Lieutenant Colonel Newman . However the Special Service Brigade headquarters , used the raid to provide experience for their other units and 92 men were drawn from , No 's 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 and 12 Commandos to go on the raid . The No. 4 Commando contingent was 12 other ranks commanded by Lieutenant H Pennington . They had all previously served in the Royal Engineers and left under the impression they were going on a Harbour Demolition Course . After their training at Cardiff and Southampton Docks only six of the 12 were selected to go on the raid . Three of the six including Lieutenant Pennington were killed before they were able to land , when their Motor Launch was engaged by the German coastal defence batteries . The other men who had not been selected for the raid were returned to No. 4 Commando .
= = = Operation Abercrombie = = =
Operation Abercrombie was a raid on the French coastal town of Hardelot . Only B and C Troops supported by detachments from the Royal Engineers and the Carleton and York Regiment of Canada participated . The raid was under the overall command of Lord Lovat , with the objective of capturing prisoners and causing as much damage as possible . For this raid they were going to try a different system to cross the channel . Instead of using Infantry Landing Ships to cross the Channel they would be taken across on Motor Gun Boats towing Assault Landing Craft ( LCA ) . The combined force left Dover on 19 April 1942 . En route , one LCA sank with the loss of two commandos who were manning a Bren gun in the bow . The raid was called off and they returned to Dover . A replacement LCA was obtained and they returned to France on 21 April . This time the crossing was uneventful and the commandos made a successful landing . However , the two commando troops were discovered cutting the barbed wire beach obstacles and German machine guns opened fire . The raiders did carry out a reconnaissance of the area but were unable to capture any prisoners . The commandos returned without loss , but one man was wounded in the leg . The smaller Canadian detachment was unable to locate the target beach and returned to Britain . After the raid there was another change in command . Lieutenant Colonel Lister left to form No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando and Major Vaughan became the temporary commanding officer . Vaughan left shortly afterwards to take over command of the Commando Depot at Achnacarry and was succeeded by Lord Lovat with Major Derek Mills @-@ Roberts becoming the 2IC .
= = = Dieppe Raid = = =
Originally conceived in April 1942 , " Operation Rutter " was to conduct a major division @-@ sized raid on a German held port of Dieppe on the French channel coast and to hold it for the duration of at least two tides . They would effect the greatest amount of destruction of enemy facilities and defences before withdrawing . The original plan was approved by the Chiefs of Staff in May 1942 . This plan included two parachute landings behind the artillery batteries on either side of the main landing beaches . The parachute operation was later cancelled and instead No. 3 , No. 4 and the newly formed ' A ' ( Royal Marine ) Commando were to land by sea and attack the artillery batteries and the harbour . The Dieppe Raid was a major operation planned by Admiral Lord Mountbatten and Combined Operations Headquarters . The attacking force consisted of around 6 @,@ 000 troops . The Royal Navy supplied 237 ships and landing craft , and the Royal Air Force 74 squadrons of aircraft , of which 66 were fighter squadrons .
Landing on the eastern flank No. 3 Commando would assault the Goebbels artillery battery , while No. 4 Commando would be responsible for the Hess battery on the western flank . The Hess battery consisted of six 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in a concrete emplacement 1 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) inland from the coastal cliffs . The emplacement was surrounded by two rows of barbed wire , and protected by several machine gun posts . A nearby anti @-@ aircraft tower could also defend against a ground attack on the guns . The commandos were responsible for their own planning and selected two landing beaches codenamed Orange one and two . Orange One at Varengeville was overlooked by a chalk cliff but had two gullies leading to the top of the cliff . Before the war there were steps down to the beach . But these had been removed and the gullies filled with barbed wire and other obstacles . The second beach Orange Two was at Quiberville 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) further west at the mouth of the River Saane . This offered access to the top of the cliffs but was covered by two machine gun pillboxes and barbed wire and it was further away from their target . Intelligence had estimated that the strength of the battery was between 120 – 175 men , supported by two infantry companies stationed nearby .
The plan was for four troops ( A , B , C and F ) , headquarters and attached specialists , to be divided into two groups . Group one under the command of Major Mills @-@ Roberts would land at Orange One and consisted of C Troop , a section from A Troop , the mortar detachment and some of the specialists . They would scale the cliffs and form a fire base in the woods in front of the battery to support the assault . Group two commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Lovat would land at Orange Two and take out the beach defences . B and F Troops would then advance move along the river and assault the battery from the rear . The rest of A Troop would be the reserve , positioned between the two beaches . After the attack Group two would withdraw through Group one and be picked up by the waiting LCAs on Orange One beach .
No. 4 Commando made the crossing to Dieppe on board HMS Prins Albert . The crossing was uneventful and at 04 : 50 just before daybreak Group one landed unopposed . Using two Bangalore torpedos to blow a hole in the barbed wire , they managed to scale the cliffs . As they approached the battery at 05 : 45 it opened fire on the main landing force coming ashore at Dieppe . This was 30 minutes before Group one was expected to be in a position but Mills @-@ Roberts responded by speeding up the advance to get their guns into action sooner . Once in position they opened fire on the battery with their mortars , Bren machine guns and sniper rifles . One of the mortar bombs landed inside the battery and exploded the stored charges , putting the guns out of action .
Group two had an opposed landing being greeted by machine gun fire from the two pillboxes guarding the beach . Leaving a section from A Troop to deal with them the rest of the Group ran the 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the rear of the battery , bypassing German infantry positions on the way . The A Troop section having finished off the pillboxes , set out for Orange one beach , ambushing a German patrol on route . While this was happening Lovat and the other two troops , were preparing to assault the battery from different directions . The men from B Troop approached from behind the anti @-@ aircraft tower , as they could still see some Germans moving about on it , they detached three men to deal with them . At the same time they stumbled across and captured a machine gun post . At 06 : 15 the assault started , F Troop discovered a group of Germans forming up to put in their own assault on the fire base . Charging into them they were dispersed without loss to the commandos . The troop continued their advance , moving between some buildings and an orchard , when they were themselves caught in the open by heavy gun fire . Two men in the lead the troop commander Captain Pettiward and Lieutenant McDonald were killed while Troop Sergeant Major Stockdale was wounded . It was during this action that the already wounded Captain Porteous , acting as the liaison officer between the two groups was awarded the Victoria Cross .
The two Groups were in position , when a pre arranged strafing attack by the Royal Air Force commenced , this signalled an increasing in the rate of fire from Group one . At 06 : 30 a very flare fired by Lovat signalled the start of the assault . Group one ceased firing and B and F Troops charged the battery with bayonets fixed . The objective for B Troop was the battery buildings , while F Troop targeted the guns . Captain Porteous now commanding F Troop was wounded again , this time in the thigh but urged his men on . He was shot for the third time and passed out just as the guns were captured . Demolition experts from F Troop destroyed the guns with pre @-@ formed charges while B Troop searched the battery buildings for intelligence materials . Carrying their wounded with them and escorting prisoners both troops withdrew through the fire base . Still in contact with the Germans both groups of commandos made it to Orange One beach and at 08 : 15 were taken off by the LCAs . They crossed the channel without incident arriving at Newhaven docks at 17 : 45 the same day .
For their part in the raid Lovat was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and Mills @-@ Roberts the Military Cross . The cost to the Commando was at first thought to be 23 dead but six were only severely wounded and were eventually reported to be prisoners of war . No. 4 Commandos assault on the battery was the only successful part of the whole operation . The War Office claimed it as " a classic example of the use of well trained infantry ... and a thoroughness in planning , training and execution " , and in February 1943 issued an infantry training pamphlet " in order that all may benefit from the story of a stimulating achievement " .
= = = Between Dieppe and Normandy = = =
After Dieppe the headquarters staff changed again . Lovat was promoted to brigadier and given command of the 1st Special Service Brigade . Mills @-@ Roberts was promoted and sent to North Africa to take over command of No. 6 Commando . They were replaced by Robert Dawson as the CO and Ronald Menday as 2IC . Other changes included moving to a new base in Falmouth and the formation of a heavy weapons troop in each commando . The new troop with mortar and Vickers machine gun sections provided the heavy weapons needed for their new role as assault infantry . By now the Commandos had started to move away from smaller raiding operations . They were formed into units intended to spearhead future Allied landing operations . To assist in this they were given the organic fire support weapons , that had been absent when they were a raiding force .
In June 1943 , 10 months after the Dieppe raid , No. 4 Commando started a new round of training . The program included mountain warfare training at the Commando Snow and Mountain Warfare Training Centre in Scotland . The emphasis here was on fighting and living in the mountains and instruction in how to train a partisan force . Afterwards they moved to another new base in Sussex . Instead of occupying one town , the troops spread out . A and B Troops were billeted at Seaford , C and D Troops at Newhaven and E and F Troops at Lewes . Training was now almost non stop and a number of large scale landing exercises , using the new Landing Craft Infantry took place . In February 1944 , while the rest of No. 4 continued to practice day and night assault landings and live firing exercises . C Troop was sent to qualify as parachutists at the parachute training centre RAF Ringway . The ranks of No. 4 Commando swelled in April 1944 with the arrival of two French troops from No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando . Other new arrivals were the Lee – Enfield No. 4 rifle , which replaced the old SMLE rifles and the Vickers K machine gun , issued two per troop to provide fire support . To learn the characteristics of these new weapons , the commandos spent days on the rifle ranges learning how to handle them .
= = = Normandy = = =
Brigadier Lord Lovat , in command of the 1st Special Service Brigade , issued orders for the brigade 's forthcoming role in the landings .
The Intention . The 6th Airborne Division and 1st Special Service Brigade would be responsible for holding the left flank of the Allied bridgehead of the invasion of Normandy .
The method . The Commando Brigade , consisting of No.s 3 , 4 and 6 Army Commandos and No. 45 ( Royal Marine ) Commando , to land on the extreme flank of the Allied Forces on Queen beach ( Sword ) and cut inland to join forces with two brigades dropped inland by glider and parachute . No. 4 Commando to destroy a battery and the garrison in Ouistreham and then rejoin the Brigade . The rest of the Brigade , landing 30 minutes after No.4 , to fight through enemy defences to reach and reinforce Brigades of the 6th Airborne Division , meeting astride the bridges spanning the River Orne and the Caen Canal . Glider Regiments of the Airlanding Brigade would arrive later the same evening descending in country cleared of the enemy .
On 25 May 1944 , No. 4 Commando arrived in Southampton . They occupied a large marshalling area with tight security . Orders detailed their role in the invasion . " The two French troops would attack and destroy a strong point that dominated the beaches known as the Casino , followed by the five British fighting troops , supported by the heavy weapons troop , who were to push on further into the town to destroy a coastal battery . " The German defenders in the area came from the 1st Battalion , 736th Infantry Regiment part of the 716th Infantry Division . They were responsible for the Casino strong point with its 7 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) and 5 @.@ 0 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) guns , the coastal battery with its six 15 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) guns and ten machine guns posts , stretching from the Orn9e canal along the seafront to Queen beach at La Breche , where the commando would be landing .
The six British troops on board the Infantry Landing Ships , HMS Princess Astrid and HMS Maid of Orleans and the two French troops on LCIs 523 and 527 left the Solent on 5 June 1944 . When out at sea they were informed that the invasion was going to be in Normandy and more specifically Ouistreham . For the landing each man carried a rucksack weighing 80 pounds ( 36 kg ) containing extra ammunition , for the Brens , mortars , Vickers K guns and PIATs . This was on top of their own personal weapon and ammunition . Unusually each man chose whether to would wear a steel helmet or the Commando green beret . No. 4 Commando were in the second wave and landed behind the initial assault battalion , from the East Yorkshire Regiment , part of the 3rd Infantry Division . Captain Porteous described how their dead and wounded were " just swilling around in the water . " Captain McDougal later wrote , " as we were coming ashore the assault troops were committing suicide by trying to dig in on the beach . In passing I kicked the nearest man telling him to keep going . The man was dead . So was the man next to him and a third was seriously wounded by machine gun fire . " The Commandos followed their drills and cleared the beach as quickly as possible . Once clear they headed for their assembly area , which was also the commando medical post . Leaving their rucksacks behind , they set off along the Lion sur Mer road towards their objectives .
Lieutenant Colonel Dawson had decided that the two French troops should take the lead into Ouistreham , followed by the six British troops . The French were unopposed apart from some mortar rounds and machine gun fire as they neared their objective . No. 8 French Troop occupied houses at the front and sides of the Casino strong point . An assault to capture the Casino was driven back . While this was going on the other French troop , No. 1 , approached the Casino from the rear . Taking up firing positions they too started to engage the strong point but their fire had almost no effect . The French commander Capitaine de frégate Philippe Kieffer was just about to order an all out assault by both troops , when reports that British amphibious tanks were in Ouistreham reached him . Sending a guide to bring one forward , the tank arrived in front of the Casino and proceeded to destroy the German gun emplacements . Within 30 minutes of the tanks ' arrival , all the strong point guns were silenced and No. 1 Troop had assaulted and captured the objective . With its capture the French Commandos were now in control of the western suburbs of Ouistreham .
The rest of No. 4 Commando was moving along the Lion sur Mer road towards their objective the gun battery . The battery was located at the extreme left of the landing beaches . The Orne canal formed its northern boundary and the Casino strong point was to the south . It was surrounded by barbed wire and had three machine gun posts . Two of the posts faced where the canal joined the sea and the third faced up the canal towards the port . To the west of the battery were the houses of the town and the port area of Ouistreham . The order of march was : C Troop to deal with any opposition on route , D Troop who were to force an entrance into the battery , A Troop to provide covering fire for the assaulting troops . In the assault E Troop would take the left hand guns , and F Troop the right . Bringing up the rear was the headquarters and the heavy weapons troop . The heavy weapons troop set up a fire base to support both the French and British attacks if needed . Progress along the road was rapid with only intermittent artillery fire slowing them down . As they advanced , a tank from the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars joined them , just in time to engage German snipers who had started shooting at E and F Troops .
As C Troop reached the forming up point for the assault it met heavy machine gun fire from the gun battery . A Troop bypassed them to occupy houses to cover the assault . The next to arrive was D Troop , which had a special ladder to cross the anti @-@ tank ditch around the battery . Realising that the man carrying the ladder had been killed crossing the beach and the ladder left behind , they looked for another way to cross . They discovered wooden planks bridging the gap that the defenders used to access the town . D Troop crossed and captured the machine gun posts around the battery . With the machine guns taken , E and F Troops began their assault . The attack was successful but they discovered the guns were only wooden dummies made from telegraph poles . The real guns had been removed three days previously and positioned further inland .
Having captured its objectives , No. 4 Commando reformed and set out to join the rest of the brigade , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away . Lieutenant Colonel Dawson was wounded during the fighting and Major Menday temporarily took command . The march inland to the Orne bridges was uneventful and upon arrival No. 4 Commando dug in on a ridge of high ground to the east of the River Orne towards Sallenelles . Their new position was 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) towards Sallenelles beside the Hauger château . Not long after they arrived and started digging in , the gliders of the 6th Airlanding Brigade began landing to their rear .
= = = Orne bridgehead = = =
Expecting a Germans counterattack , protective trenches were completed by nightfall . The first night 6 / 7 June was uneventful and " stand to " was 04 : 30 , but there were still no signs of a German attack . During the day there was some sniping in the morning and in the afternoon E and F Troop were subjected to a mortar barrage . By now the trenches were complete with overhead protection and arranged to give an all @-@ round defence . In the French troops ' area some activity was observed and Menday , still in command , suspected an attack from the direction of Sallenelles . Nothing come of that but in the evening of 7 June , some dive bombers strafed the brigade position . By the end of the second day there was still no signs of the expected German ground attack . That night was also uneventful but just after stand to on 8 June , German infantry were observed advancing through the woods to their front . Holding fire until the last minute , the Germans were beaten back but A Troop found themselves surrounded on three sides and forced to withdraw . That night the Germans attacked again , this time targeting C Troop , but were again driven back . Shortly thereafter a group from No. 45 ( Royal Marine ) Commando arrived and reported that the Germans had broken through and were on the road behind No. 4 Commando . Captain Porteous and D Troop moved down the road to deal with them . Outnumbered two to one D Troop charged , killing some and forcing the rest to withdraw .
The next morning 10 June , from 09 : 30 to 10 ; 00 the No. 4 Commandos position was subjected to heavy artillery and mortar bombardment . For the two hours before this , No. 6 Commando was heavily bombed , which was followed up by a ground assault that lasted until midday . Suspecting an attack on their own position No. 4 Commando stood to . The attack did not materialise until 17 : 00 , when massed German infantry were observed forming up in front of F Troop . At the same time an artillery Forward Observation Officer arrived from brigade , he contacted the 25 pounder guns attached to the 6th Airborne Division and requested 12 rounds of rapid fire . The rounds landed on target and another 12 were called for , breaking the German attack . The British artillery was not alone — since digging in , the Commandos had been on the receiving end of artillery and mortars which was steadily taking its toll in casualties . E Troop for example were now under the command of a section sergeant and had only 20 men left from a complement of 65 .
Elsewhere the Germans were attacking A , C and the French troops . C Troop had ambushed the Germans , moving forward to attack and then fought off a second attack . The attack on the French position was supported by a tank , which they only managed to knock out with a PIAT after it had got behind them . In both these attacks the commandos were involved in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat to keep the Germans from overrunning their positions . From 11 June the German pressure on the commando line lessened . They were still subject to artillery and mortar fire but there were no more infantry attempts to dislodge them . In the days since landing No. 4 Commando had taken 50 percent casualties . Before the landings 1st Special Service brigade had been informed they would be withdrawn in a few days , after the Allies had broken out from the beachhead . Problems capturing Caen meant the commandos and airborne division had to remain to secure the left flank along the line of the Orne . They did not get relieved for 82 days , during which they not only held the left flank but on 18 August started their own break out . With No. 4 Commando leading the first village liberated was Bavent followed by Beaumont en Auge . Breuzville was entered over the night of 25 / 26 August and Boulleville the following day . Here they remained until 6 September when the brigade was withdrawn and sent back to Britain , for 14 days leave .
= = = Walcheren = = =
On their return from leave , No , 4 Commando had been made back up to full strength with casualty replacements . The commando were informed they would be joining the 4th Special Service Brigade to replace No. 46 ( Royal Marine ) Commando . Arriving in Belgium they discovered that the brigade was already well into training for Operation Infatuate . This was an assault landing on the island of Walcheren to open the sea route into Antwerp . The city had already been liberated but the northern bank of the Scheldt was still in German hands , enabling them to sink shipping trying to use the port . The First Canadian Army would attack across the causeway from the east . In support of them 4th Special Service Brigade would carry out an assault from the sea . The majority of the brigade would land at Westkapelle , No. 4 Commandos objective was further south at Flushing , with the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade landing behind them .
In preparation for the landing orders were issued to ensure everyone was fit and to concentrate on weapons firing and street fighting . The two French troops were still under command and just for this operation No. 4 Commando took command of a section from the Dutch Troop , No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando , and groups from the Special Boat Section ( SBS ) , Royal Engineers and the Royal Artillery to call for artillery fire support . For some reason the old method of calling troops by letters of the alphabet was dropped and the troops were now numbered . The No.1 to No.4 Troops were British and No.s 5 and 6 French . The heavy weapons troop was No. 4 Troop . The final plan for the assault was for the SBS and a section from No. 1 Troop , to go first and reconnoitre a suitable landing point . Following them , the rest of No.1 , No. 2 Troop and commando headquarters would secure the beachhead . They would then be joined by the remaining troops , passing through the beachhead and into the town . No.1 Troop would secure the left flank and No. 2 Troop the right .
The operation to liberate the island started at 04 : 45 1 November 1944 , when No. 4 Commando left Breskens by LCAs for their objective the town of Flushing . On their way in and 60 minutes before they were expected to land a heavy artillery bombardment started . By 05 : 45 the SBS group landed beside the Oranje Molen windmill . They cleared the mines , other obstacles and dealt with the German guards without firing a shot . Then they marked the landing spot for the rest of the commando , No. 1 and No.2 Troops were the next to land . They extended the beachhead and captured machine gun posts and heavy gun emplacements . Another weapon captured was a 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun which supported the other troops when they moved into the town . The final wave landed at 06 : 30 , but had to contend with heavy and accurate fire . One LCA carrying the heavy weapons troop was sunk containing most of their weapons and equipment . Once on the island No. 3 and No.5 Troop moved into the town held by the large numbers of Germans defending the area . No. 6 Troop captured the post office and 50 prisoners . In the afternoon No. 1 Troop was released to support No. 3 and together they advanced again before nightfall . No. 4 Commando had by then secured most of the old town and their flanks were secure .
The advance continued the next day . No. 5 Troop , unable to use the streets , advanced by mouse @-@ holing , blowing holes in house walls , with ready @-@ made charges every man carried . No. 6 Tro
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op had dug in and controlled the area between the old and new towns , which allowed the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade which was following up to bypass them . By that afternoon No. 4 Commando controlled the town .
On 3 November the commandos gave control of Flushing to the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division and prepared to move by sea to support the rest of the brigade at Westkapelle . Before they could disembark , weather conditions deteriorated and they were forced to march around the coast to reach brigade headquarters at Zoutelande . Lack of supplies curtailed their involvement in the battle for the next two days . Supplies eventually caught up with them and on 6 November they prepared to continue . By now intelligence from Dutch residents and prisoners had revealed that the remaining Germans were holed up in the wooded area between Domburg and Vrouwenpolder .
At 04 : 45 , 7 November No. 4 Commando were ready to start their assault , with No. 3 Troop on the left , the two French troops in the middle and No. 2 Troop on the right . The commandos moved forward , winning a number of small skirmishes , when at 08 : 15 three German officers appeared and offered the surrender of all the remaining German forces in the area . Lieutenant Colonel Dawson met with the German commander and a formal surrender was agreed and 900 prisoners were taken . Other Germans surrendered to some of the Royal Marine commandos at the same time . In the whole operation No. 4 Commando had suffered 13 dead , 21 wounded versus about 200 German dead and the capture of 1 @,@ 200 prisoners and large amounts of weapons and equipment . The total casualties for 4th Special Service Brigade were 103 dead , 68 missing and 325 wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
No. 4 Commando remained at Walcheren until 14 November 1944 , then moved to De Haan , Belgium , to rest and re @-@ equip . They then moved to Blankenberge in Belgium where reinforcements arrived to bring them back up to full strength . They returned to Walcheren to defend the northern coastal areas . Of particular concern was the island of Schouwen @-@ Duiveland , with an estimated garrison of 5 @,@ 000 men and artillery . The objective was " to prevent enemy infiltration and sabotage " . Lieutenant Colonel Dawson allocated stretches of the coast to each troop and taking the offensive to the enemy , started a programme of raids on Schouwen @-@ Duiveland . At this stage of the war these raids were generally successful . Most patrols brought back prisoners and inflicted casualties on the German defenders . One raid was supposed to meet a party from the Dutch resistance that landed without being discovered , but was then disturbed by a German patrol who first fled rather than putting up any resistance . The commandos later learned that this Dutch resistance group had been captured by the German patrol and all its members were hanged the next morning .
In March 1945 , No. 4 Commando was relieved by No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando and moved to Middelburg and stayed at Bergen @-@ Op @-@ Zoom by April . While responsible for the security of the immediate area , they conducted small raids from the sea against Zuid Holland . Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945 . On the No. 4 Commando front the two French troops crossed the channel to Schouwen and Lieutenant Colonel Dawson accepted the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the region . Within days of the surrender No. 4 Commando moved to Recklinghausen in Germany as part of the occupation forces . In Recklinghausen part of their duties were to provide the guard force for a civilian internment camp . The camp housed several thousand Nazi civilians who were not prisoners of war . Inmates included those with no identification and those known to have served in concentration camps . The two French troops returned to French control and were demobilised . Other men were posted to No.s 3 and 6 Commandos in Britain , who were preparing for a move to the Far East to continue the fight in the Burma campaign . By June 1945 the strength of No. 4 Commando had been reduced to 188 all ranks . During a visit in October 1945 , Lieutenant General Robert Sturges informed them that the War Office had decided to disband all army commandos . Those not due to be demobilised would be returned to their parent regiment or corps . No. 4 Commando was formally disbanded in January 1946 .
= = Battle honours = =
In the British Army battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign , generally ( although not always ) one with a victorious outcome . The following battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos for service in the Second World War ( * * indicates where No. 4 Commando were present ) .
= Till I Die ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Till I Die " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , featuring American rappers Big Sean and Wiz Khalifa . It was written by Brown , Sean Anderson , Cameron Thomaz , Marcella Araica and Nathaniel " Danja " Hills , while the production was handled by Danja . " Till I Die " was released digitally on April 13 , 2012 , as the third single from Brown 's fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was sent to rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States on May 1 , 2012 . " Till I Die " is an uptempo hip hop and R & B song that displays elements of electro music and features military drumbeats , R & B synths and " arcade @-@ game blips " . The song contains lyrics about women , smoking weed , partying in the club and living the good life .
" Till I Die " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised the production and the trio 's verses . Although it was released worldwide , the song only charted in the United States . It peaked at number 12 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 15 on the Rap Songs chart . The accompanying music video for " Till I Die " was directed by Brown and features cameo appearances by Snoop Dogg , Andy Milonakis , Kreayshawn , Jamie Kennedy , Method Man and Redman . The video was dedicated to Beastie Boys ' member Adam Yauch , who died from cancer in May 2012 . Brown included " Till I Die " in his set list at Supafest Australia .
= = Background and composition = =
" Till I Die " was written by Cameron Jabril Thomaz , Chris Brown , Marcella Araica , Nathaniel " Danja " Hills and Sean Anderson , while production was handled by Danja . The audio mixing was completed by Jaycen Joshua , with assistance by Trehy Harris . On March 28 , 2012 , Brown announced via his official Twitter account that he would be releasing " Till I Die " and " Sweet Love " as the next two singles from Fortune , after the lead single " Turn Up the Music " . The audio of " Till I Die " and its artwork were posted online on April 10 , 2012 , showing Brown wearing a navy blue suit and sunglasses , and standing beside a motorcycle in front of a neon @-@ glowing backdrop . It was released as a one @-@ track digital download in Oceania and most European countries on April 13 , 2012 . However , in the United States , " Till I Die " was released digitally on April 17 , 2012 , and sent to rhythmic contemporary radio on May 1 , 2012 .
" Till I Die " is an uptempo hip hop and R & B song , which last for a duration of three minutes and 57 seconds . The song blends military drumbeats and R & B synths with elements of electro music . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that it also uses " arcade @-@ game blips " . According to Lewis Corner of Digital Spy , " Till I Die " opens with a " dubstep intro " . Throughout the song , Brown , Big Sean and Wiz Khalifa rap about " smoking and intoxication " , " women and weed " , " partying and balling in the club " , and living the good life . During the first verse , Brown references American politician Sarah Palin in the line " Sippin and I 'm faded / Super medicated / Said she wanna check the poll / I said ok Sarah Palin " . Rob Markman of MTV News noted that Brown harmonizes the line " I 'm high " in the background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Till I Die " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Becky Bain of Idolator appreciated the " nice blend of electro and R & B " music in the song , writing that it " has a unique sound that 's both experimental and easy to lay back to " . Andrew Martin of Complex magazine described " Till I Die " as a " laid @-@ back , summer @-@ primed production " , while Becca Longmire of Entertainment Wise viewed it as a potential hit . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush complimented the song for having a " nice R & B groove " and added that " it will certainly get some spins on urban radio " . Bene Viera of VH1 praised Brown 's verse , writing that " he 's seriously going to make some rappers step up their game " . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine called it one of the many " excellent collaborations " on Fortune .
Maura Johnston of The Village Voice wrote that the song " sounds like a reverse @-@ engineered version " of American pop duo Karmin 's cover of " Look at Me Now " ( 2011 ) , and further explained that it contains " lyrics to prove that he 's still a badass " . Melinda Newman of HitFix described " Till I Die " as " pot hazy " . In a review of Fortune , Barry Walters of Spin magazine wrote that " Till I Die " , along with " Sweet Love " and " Don 't Wake Me Up " , contain " thin melodies and stock shock lyrics " that make Brown 's previous singles sound better . He described the song as " proudly stoned " . Melissa Ruggieri of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution noted that " Big Sean and Wiz Khalifa trade the most profane verses " in the song .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Till I Die " debuted at number 74 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in the issue dated April 28 , 2012 . It peaked at number 12 in the issue dated August 11 , 2012 . On the Rap Songs chart , the song debuted at number 25 in the issue dated June 23 , 2012 , and peaked at number 15 in the issue dated August 11 , 2012 . " Till I Die " peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The accompanying music video for " Till I Die " was directed by Brown and filmed in Los Angeles , California on May 10 , 2012 . Later that day , several images from the shoot were posted online , showing Brown , Big Sean and Wiz Khalifa sitting on top of a yellow car , as well as images of the latter two posing shirtless . The video premiered online on May 30 , 2012 . Following its release , Brown tweeted that the video is dedicated to Beastie Boys ' member Adam Yauch , who died from cancer in early May 2012 . The video features cameo appearances by Andy Milonakis , Kreayshawn , Jamie Kennedy , Snoop Dogg , Method Man and Redman .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins in an office with the mail guy ( played by Kennedy ) , handing out mail to co @-@ workers , while Brown 's song " Beautiful People " plays in the background . As the audio of " Till I Die " begins , Brown , wearing a grey suit , beanie , gold fronts and gold chains , appears out of nowhere tripping the mail guy , and starts rapping his verse . He then appears in an elevator where he meets Wiz Khalifa and Big Sean , who then raps his verse . As they leave work , the trio catch a ride with Snoop Dogg in his yellow Pontiac Parisienne , as Sean continues rapping his verse . This scene is intercut with scenes of them hanging out in an abandoned warehouse surrounded by smoke and flashing lights . Khalifa then raps his verse as they arrive at a mansion where Method Man and Redman are seen smoking . The video ends with more scenes of the trio back at the abandoned warehouse and shows the memory to Adam Yauch .
= = = Reception = = =
Bene Viera of VH1 praised Brown " for creating a video that fits perfectly with the song " . Viera continued writing that the song " wouldn 't be [ a ] proper smoker 's anthem " without the cameo appearance by Snoop Dogg . Rob Markman of MTV News noted that the video was different from Brown 's previous music videos for the Fortune album , writing that " ' Till I Die ' is a fun and welcomed departure from it all " . A reviewer for Rap @-@ Up described the video as " wild " and " colorful " , and noted that it seems to be inspired by the Beastie Boys ' classic " ( You Gotta ) Fight for Your Right ( To Party ! ) " ( 1987 ) . Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly called the video " a weird one " . Becky Bain of Idolator described it as " the brats @-@ on @-@ parade clip " , and wrote that the dedication to Yauch " would be a nice sentiment if anything in this video resembled anything Yauch stood for " . Maura Johnston of The Village Voice called it a " dumb " video and wrote that it reminded her of the " Our Lips Are Sealed " video by The Go @-@ Go 's .
= = Live performances = =
Brown performed " Till I Die " for the first time with Big Sean at Supafest Australia in April 2012 , as part of a set list which included " Run It ! " , " Yeah 3x " , " Look at Me Now " , " She Ain 't You " , " Wet the Bed " and " Turn Up the Music " , among others . Rap @-@ Up praised his set , writing that " A tatted Chris Brown thrilled with his chart @-@ topping hits " . The staff of Dolly magazine called it " one of his most electrifying performances " to date .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Till I Die " ( featuring Big Sean and Wiz Khalifa ) – 3 : 57
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Ian Chappell =
Ian Michael Chappell ( born 26 September 1943 ) is a former cricketer who played for South Australia and Australia . He captained Australia between 1971 and 1975 before taking a central role in the breakaway World Series Cricket organisation . Born into a cricketing family — his grandfather and brother also captained Australia — Chappell made a hesitant start to international cricket playing as a right @-@ hand middle @-@ order batsman and spin bowler . He found his niche when promoted to bat at number three . Known as " Chappelli " , he earned a reputation as one of the greatest captains the game has seen . Chappell 's blunt verbal manner led to a series of confrontations with opposition players and cricket administrators ; the issue of sledging first arose during his tenure as captain and he was a driving force behind the professionalisation of Australian cricket in the 1970s .
John Arlott called him , " a cricketer of effect rather than the graces " . An animated presence at the batting crease , he constantly adjusted his equipment and clothing , and restlessly tapped his bat on the ground as the bowler ran in . Basing his game on a sound defence learned during many hours of childhood lessons , Chappell employed the drive and square cut to full effect . He had an idiosyncratic method of playing back and across to a ball of full length and driving wide of mid on , but his trademark shot was the hook , famously saying " three bouncers an over should be worth 12 runs to me " . A specialist slip fielder , he was the fourth player to take one hundred Test catches .
Since his retirement in 1980 , he has pursued a high @-@ profile career as a sports journalist and cricket commentator , predominantly with Channel Nine . He remains a major figure in Australian cricket : in 2006 , Shane Warne called Chappell the biggest influence on his career . Chappell was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1986 , the FICA Cricket Hall of Fame in 2000 and the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2003 . On 9 July 2009 , Ian Chappell was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame .
= = Family and early career = =
The first of three sons born in Adelaide to Martin and Jeanne ( née Richardson ) , Chappell was steeped in the game from an early age . His father was a noted Adelaide grade cricketer who put a bat in his hands as soon as he could walk , and his maternal grandfather was famous all @-@ round sportsman Vic Richardson , who captained Australia at the end of a nineteen @-@ Test career . Chappell was given weekly batting lessons from the age of five , as were younger brothers Greg and Trevor , who both also went on to play for Australia .
Chappell grew up in the beachside suburb of Glenelg and attended the local St Leonard 's Primary School where he played his first competitive match at the age of seven . He was later selected for the South Australian state schoolboys team . He then enrolled at Prince Alfred College , a private secondary school noted for producing many Test cricketers , including the Australian captains Joe Darling and Clem Hill . His other sporting pursuits included Australian football and baseball : Chappell 's performances for South Australia in the Claxton Shield won him All @-@ Australian selection in 1964 and 1966 as a catcher . He credits Vic Richardson , who had represented both SA and Australia in baseball during the 1920s , for his love of the sport . At the age of 18 , his form in grade cricket for Glenelg led to his first @-@ class debut for South Australia ( SA ) against Tasmania in early 1962 . Chappell replaced West Indian Gary Sobers who was selected for a Test match in the Caribbean .
The aggressive style of Sobers and SA captain Les Favell heavily influenced Chappell during his formative years in major cricket . In 1962 – 63 , Chappell made his initial first @-@ class century against a New South Wales team led by Australian captain Richie Benaud , who was bemused by the young batsman 's habit of gritting his teeth as he faced up ; to Benaud , it looked as if he was grinning . Chappell spent the northern summer of 1963 as a professional in England 's Lancashire League with Ramsbottom and played a single first @-@ class match for Lancashire .
= = International career = =
In 1963 – 64 , Chappell batted at number three for SA for the first time , in a match against Queensland at Brisbane , and scored 205 not out . He was the youngest member of the SA team that won the Sheffield Shield that season . A century against Victoria early the following season resulted in Chappell 's selection for a one @-@ off Test against Pakistan at Melbourne in December 1964 . He made 11 and took four catches , but was dropped until the Fourth Test in the 1965 – 66 Ashes series . Chappell supplemented his aggressive batting with brilliant fielding in the slips , and he showed promise as a leg @-@ spinner . At this point , the selectors and captain Bob Simpson considered him an all @-@ rounder : he batted at number seven and bowled 26 ( eight @-@ ball ) overs for the match .
= = = Hesitant start = = =
He retained his place for the following Test and for the tour of South Africa in summer 1966 – 67 . Playing in a side defeated 1 – 3 , Chappell struggled to make an impression . His highest score in ten Test innings was 49 , while his five wickets cost 59 runs each . On the advice of Simpson , he ceased playing the hook shot as it was often leading to his dismissal . In the first Test of 1967 – 68 against India , he failed twice batting in the middle order . Heading into the second Test at Melbourne , Chappell 's place was in jeopardy , but he rode his luck to score 151 – his innings contained five chances that the Indians failed to take . However , in the remainder of the series , he managed only 46 runs in four innings , so his selection for the 1968 tour of England was based as much on potential as form .
In England , Chappell rewarded the faith of the selectors by scoring the most first @-@ class runs on the tour ( 1 @,@ 261 runs , including 202 not out against Warwickshire ) , leading the Australian Test aggregates with 348 runs ( at 43 @.@ 50 ) . His top score was 81 in the fourth Test at Leeds . Wisden lauded his play off the back foot and judged him the most difficult Australian batsman to dismiss . In a summer severely affected by rain , Australia drew the series and retained The Ashes .
= = = Promotion to number three = = =
A string of big scores and a record number of catches during the 1968 – 69 season earned Chappell the Australian Cricketer of the Year award . Against the touring West Indies , Chappell hit 188 not out , 123 , 117 , 180 and 165 before the New Year . Two of these centuries came in the Test series , when Chappell 's average for 548 runs was 68 @.@ 50 . Chappell was elevated to number three in the batting order and became a less @-@ frequent bowler ; he was also appointed vice @-@ captain of the team .
Following up with a successful tour of India in late 1969 , Chappell demonstrated his fluency against spin bowling by compiling Test innings of 138 at Delhi and 99 at Kolkata . His ability against both fast and slow bowling earned high praise , including from his captain Bill Lawry . When the Australians arrived in South Africa in early 1970 , following their victory over India , Lawry told the local media that Chappell was the best all @-@ round batsman in the world . His appraisal looked misguided when Chappell managed just 92 runs ( at 1
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1 @.@ 5 average ) , with a top score of 34 , as Australia lost 0 – 4 .
On this tour , Chappell clashed with cricket administrators over pay and conditions for the first time . The South African authorities requested that an extra Test be added to the fixture and the Australian Board of Control consented . Incensed that the players were not consulted about the change , Chappell led a group of his teammates in a demand for more money to play the proposed game . Eventually the match was cancelled after Chappell and his supporters refused to back down .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Chappell became South Australian captain when the long @-@ serving Les Favell retired at the start of the 1970 – 71 season . His younger brother Greg made his debut in the second Test of the summer against Ray Illingworth 's England . Facing an English attack led by the hostile fast bowling of John Snow , Chappell scored a half @-@ century in each of the first two Tests , but failed to capitalise on good starts while Greg Chappell scored 108 in his initial innings . Rain caused the abandonment of the third Test without a ball being bowled . Temporarily promoted to open the batting , Chappell failed in the fourth Test as Australia lost . In the fifth Test at Melbourne , he returned to number three and started nervously . Dropped on 0 and 14 , Chappell found form and went on to post his maiden Ashes century ( 111 from 212 balls ) , which he followed with scores of 28 and 104 in the sixth Test .
The washed @-@ out Test resulted in a late change to the schedule and an unprecedented seventh Test was played at Sydney in February 1971 . Trailing 0 – 1 in the series , Australia could retain The Ashes by winning this game . Australia 's performances were hampered by playing slow , defensive cricket . In a radical attempt to breathe some aggression into the team , the selectors sacked captain Bill Lawry and appointed Chappell in his stead . Dismayed by the manner of Lawry 's dismissal , Chappell responded with an attacking performance as captain , he won the toss , put England in and dismissed them for 184 , and Australia led the first innings by 80 runs , but set 223 to win they folded for 160 and lost The Ashes after holding them for 12 years . Chappell gained some consolation at the end of a dramatic summer when he led SA to the Sheffield Shield , the team 's first win for seven years .
Chappell 's battles against the short @-@ pitched bowling of Snow during the season compelled him to reappraise his game . Following a conversation with Sir Donald Bradman , he decided to reinstate the hook shot and spent the winter months practising the stroke by hitting baseballs thrown by his brother Greg . Although he still regularly lost his wicket after playing the shot , Chappell felt that the psychological benefit of showing aggression to opposing bowlers offset the times that he was dismissed for a low score .
= = = A team in his own image = = =
Ian Chappell fashioned an Australian team in his own image between 1971 and 1975 : aggressive , resourceful and insouciant .
Australia lost an unofficial Test series to a Rest of the World team led by Gary Sobers that toured in 1971 – 72 as a replacement for the politically unacceptable South Africans . Chappell was the outstanding batsman of the series , with four centuries included in his 634 runs , at an average of 79 @.@ 25 . He took the team to England in 1972 and was unlucky not to regain The Ashes in a rubber that ended 2 – 2 . The series began disastrously for Chappell when he was out hooking from the first ball he faced in the opening Test at Manchester . He fell the same way in the second innings and Australia lost the match . However , the team regrouped and had the better of the remaining matches , apart from the fourth Test at Leeds , played on a controversial pitch that the Australians believed was " doctored " to suit the England team . Greg Chappell emerged as a prolific batsman during the series , batting one place below his brother in the order . The siblings shared several crucial partnerships , most notably 201 at the Oval in the last Test when they became the first brothers to score centuries in the same Test innings . Australia won the game , an effort that Chappell later cited as the turning point in the team 's performances .
In 1972 – 73 , Australia had resounding victories against Pakistan ( at home ) and the West Indies ( away ) . Chappell 's leadership qualities stood out in a number of tight situations . He hit his highest Test score of 196 ( from 243 balls ) in the first Test against Pakistan at Adelaide . Pakistan " appeared probable winners of the last two Tests on the second last day of each game " , yet Chappell 's team managed to win on both occasions .
On indifferent pitches in the Caribbean , Chappell was the highest @-@ scoring batsman of the Test series with 542 runs ( at 77 @.@ 4 average ) . He hit 209 in a tour match against Barbados , two Test centuries and a " glorious " 97 on a poor pitch at Trinidad in the third Test , batting with an injured ankle . This set up a dramatic last day when the West Indies needed just 66 runs to win with six wickets in hand at lunch . The home team collapsed against an inspired Australian bowling attack supported by Chappell 's aggressive field @-@ placements . Chappell 's team would be the last to leave the West Indies as winners for 22 years .
= = = The ugly Australians = = =
Australia played six Tests against New Zealand on both sides of the Tasman in 1973 – 74 . Chappell led his team to a 2 – 0 victory in the three Tests played in Australia . During the third Test at Adelaide , he equalled the world record of six catches in a Test match by a fielder , which was beaten by his brother Greg the following season . In the drawn first Test at Wellington , the Chappells became the first brothers to each score a century in both innings of a Test match . The Australians lost to the Kiwis for the first time ever in the second Test at Christchurch , when Chappell was involved in a verbal confrontation with the leading New Zealand batsman , Glenn Turner . The Australians then played an ill @-@ tempered tour match at Dunedin that didn 't enhance the reputation of Chappell or his team , before winning the final Test at Auckland . On this tour , the behaviour of the team was questioned with some journalists labelling them " ugly Australians " . In 1976 , Chappell wrote about his attitude to the opposition :
... although we didn 't deliberately set out to be a ' bunch of bastards ' when we walked on to the field , I 'd much prefer any team I captained to be described like that than as ' a nice bunch of blokes on the field . ' As captain of Australia my philosophy was simple : between 11.00am and 6.00pm there was no time to be a nice guy . I believed that on the field players should concentrate on giving their best to the team , to themselves and to winning ; in other words , playing hard and fairly within the rules . To my mind , doing all that left no time for being a nice guy .
The increasing prevalence of verbal confrontation on the field ( later known as sledging ) concerned cricket administrators and became a regular topic for the media . Its instigation is sometimes attributed to Chappell . By his own admission , he was a frequent user of profanity who was often at " boiling point " on the field , but claims that the various incidents he was involved in were not a premeditated tactic . Rather , they were a case of him losing his temper with an opponent .
= = = The Ashes regained and the first World Cup = = =
The highlight of Chappell 's career was Australia 's 4 – 1 win over England in 1974 – 75 that reclaimed The Ashes . Strengthened by the new fast bowling partnership of Dennis Lillee and Jeff Thomson , the Australians played aggressive cricket and received criticism for the amount of short @-@ pitched bowling they employed . Chappell scored 90 on an " unreliable " pitch on the first day of the opening Test at Brisbane . He finished the six Tests with 387 runs at 35 @.@ 18 average , and took 11 catches in the slips . The Test matches attracted big crowds and record gate takings , enabling Chappell to negotiate a bonus for the players from the Australian Cricket Board ( ACB ) . Although this more than doubled the players ' pay , their remuneration amounted to only 4 @.@ 5 % of the revenue generated by the series .
Within months , Chappell was back in England leading Australia in the inaugural World Cup . His dislike of the defensive nature of limited @-@ over cricket led to the Australians placing a full slips cordon for the new ball and employing Test @-@ match style tactics in the tournament . Despite the apparent unsuitability of this approach , Chappell guided the team to the final where they lost a memorable match to the West Indies .
The workload of the captaincy was telling on Chappell and the four @-@ Test Ashes series that followed the World Cup dampened his appetite for the game . After winning the only completed match of the series , the first Test at Birmingham , Australia 's retention of the Ashes was anti @-@ climactic : the third Test at Leeds was abandoned due to vandalism of the pitch during the night before the last day 's play . In the last Test at the Oval , Chappell scored 192 from 367 balls to set up an apparent victory . However , England managed to bat for almost 15 hours to grind out a draw and Chappell announced his resignation from the captaincy on the final day of the match . In 30 Tests as captain , he scored 2 @,@ 550 runs at an average of 50 , with seven centuries .
= = = First retirement = = =
Remaining available for Test cricket , he played in the 1975 – 76 series against the West Indies under the captaincy of his brother Greg . Australia avenged their loss in the World Cup final by winning 5 – 1 , claiming the unofficial title of best team in the world . During the season , Chappell incurred censure for his behaviour in a Sheffield Shield match and was warned not to continue wearing a pair of adidas boots with the three stripes clearly visible . This breached the prevailing protocol of cricketers wearing all white . His highest innings of the summer was 156 during Australia 's only loss , at Perth in the second Test . Wisden nominated him as the most influential player of the series for his 449 runs at an average of 44 @.@ 90 . Throughout the course of the series , Chappell passed two significant milestones when he became the fourth Australian to make 5 @,@ 000 runs in Test cricket and the first player to hold one hundred Test catches for Australia . The summer ended in controversy and triumph in the domestic competition . During a dispute with the SACA over team selection , he threatened a " strike " action by the SA team . After the matter was resolved , Chappell led the side to the Sheffield Shield title for the second time in his career and shared the inaugural Sheffield Shield player of the season award with his brother Greg . He retired from first @-@ class cricket at the end of the season , aged only 32 .
= = World Series Cricket and aftermath = =
In 1976 , Chappell toured South Africa with Richie Benaud 's International Wanderers team , released his autobiography Chappelli and was named as one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Year . He was hired to spend the summer of 1976 – 77 as a guest professional in the Melbourne district competition where he was paid more than he had been as Australian captain . During the season , he was involved in a famous altercation with a young English all @-@ rounder who was in Victoria on a cricketing scholarship , Ian Botham . Both men have put forward vastly different versions as to what happened during the physical confrontation in a Melbourne pub . The animosity between them continues and Channel Nine used it as a marketing ploy when Botham temporarily partnered Chappell as a television commentator during the 1998 – 99 season . Botham again revived the feud in his 2007 autobiography with another version of the incident .
= = = Rebel skipper = = =
Throughout his career , Chappell found the ACB obdurate in his attempts to make a living from the game . In 1969 and 1970 , they refused his applications to play professionally in England . As Australian captain , he made several unsuccessful representations at ACB meetings in an effort to secure a more realistic financial deal for the Australian players . In consultations with the then @-@ president of the ACTU , Bob Hawke , he explored the possibility of unionising the players .
Approached to lead an Australian team in World Series Cricket ( WSC ) , a breakaway professional competition organised by Kerry Packer for Channel Nine , Chappell signed a three @-@ year contract worth A $ 75 @,@ 000 in 1976 . His participation was , " fundamental to the credibility of the enterprise " . Chappell devised the list of Australian players to be signed , and was involved in the organisation and marketing of WSC . His central role was the result of , " years of personal disaffection with cricket officialdom " , in particular Don Bradman . Recently , Chappell wrote :
While captaining Australia , I was approached on three separate occasions before WSC to play ' professional ' cricket , and each time I advised the entrepreneurs to meet the appropriate cricket board because they controlled the grounds . On each occasion , the administrators sent the entrepreneurs packing and it quickly became clear they weren 't interested in a better deal for the players . That 's why I say the players didn 't stab the ACB in the back . The administrators had numerous opportunities to reach a compromise but displayed little interest in the welfare of the players . It wasn 't really surprising then that more than 50 players from around the world signed lucrative WSC contracts and a revolution was born . About half of the WSC players were from Australia and this high ratio can , in part , be attributed to Bradman 's tight @-@ fisted approach to the ACB 's money .
In WSC 's debut season of 1977 – 78 , Chappell hit the first Supertest century and finished fifth in overall averages . The prevalence of short @-@ pitched fast bowling and a serious injury to Australian David Hookes led to the innovation of batting helmets ; Chappell was one of the many batsmen to use one . Following their 1975 – 76 tour of Australia , the West Indies adopted a four @-@ man fast bowling attack , while the World XI contained fast bowlers of the calibre of Imran Khan , Mike Procter , Garth Le Roux , Clive Rice and Sarfraz Nawaz . The constant diet of pace bowling undermined the confidence of some batsmen during WSC . Chappell 's form fell away during the second season and he scored only 181 runs at 25 @.@ 85 in four Supertests . During the last six days of the season , the WSC Australians lost the finals of both the limited @-@ overs competition ( to the West Indies XI ) and the Supertest series ( to the World XI ) , thus forfeiting the winner @-@ takes @-@ all prize money . After the latter match , Chappell vented his frustrations on World XI captain Tony Greig by refusing to shake his hand and criticising Greig 's inconsequential contribution to his team 's victory . The final act of the competition was a series between the WSC Australians and the WSC West Indies played in the Caribbean in the spring of 1979 . After the Australians suffered a heavy defeat in the first Supertest at Jamaica , Chappell rallied his team to draw the five match series one @-@ all . His best effort were scores of 61 and 86 at Barbados .
= = = Return to Tests = = =
Convinced to return to official cricket when WSC ended , Chappell resumed as captain of SA in 1979 – 80 , a decision he later regretted . It was a season too far for the increasingly irascible Chappell . Reported by an umpire for swearing in a match against Tasmania , he received a three @-@ week suspension . In his first match after the ban , he was again reported for his conduct in a game against the touring English team . Given a suspended ban by the ACB , he was then selected for Australia 's last three Tests of the season . His Test career finished with scores of 75 and 26 not out at the MCG against England in February 1980 . In his final first @-@ class match , SA needed to beat Victoria to win the Sheffield Shield . Although Chappell scored 112 , SA lost the match and the shield . Ironically , the umpires voted him the competition 's player of the season for a second time .
= = = ODI record = = =
Chappell 's aggressive approach suited limited @-@ overs cricket : he scored his runs at a strike @-@ rate of 77 runs per hundred balls . The timing of his career limited him to 16 ODI matches , but he appeared in a number of historic fixtures such as the first ODI ( at the MCG in 1971 ) , the first World Cup final ( at Lord 's in 1975 ) and the first day / night match ( during WSC , at VFL Park in 1978 ) . He passed fifty in half of his innings with a top score of 86 at Christchurch in 1973 – 74 . In his final season of international cricket , he scored 63 not out ( from 65 balls ) against the West Indies at the SCG to win the player of the match award ; five days later he hit an unbeaten 60 from 50 balls in his penultimate ODI appearance , against England . As captain , he recorded six wins and five losses from 11 matches . He is also credited to have hit the first ever six in an ODI match ( which is in fact the first ODI match ever played ) .
= = = Captaincy statistics = = =
= = = Legacy = = =
The title of the ABC 's documentary The Chappell Era , broadcast in 2002 , encapsulated Chappell 's significance to Australian cricket . Subtitled Cricket in the ' 70s , it chronicled the rise of the Australian cricket team under Chappell , the fight for better pay for the players , and professionalisation of the game through WSC . During the program , Chappell reiterated his criticisms of cricket 's administration at the time .
In Wisden , Richie Benaud wrote , " Chappell will be remembered as much for his bid to improve the players ' lot as he will for his run @-@ getting and captaincy " . During the WSC period , he founded a players ' association with a loan provided by Kerry Packer . Despite Chappell 's continued support for the organisation after his retirement , apathy and a lack of recognition from the ACB led to its demise in 1988 . Revived in 1997 as the Australian Cricketers ' Association ( ACA ) , it is now an important organisation within the structure of Australian cricket . In 2005 , Chappell became a member of the ACA executive .
Chappell was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1986 , the FICA Cricket Hall of Fame in 2000 and the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2003 . Two new grandstands at the Adelaide Oval were named the Chappell Stands ; at the dedication ceremony in 2003 , the SACA president Ian McLachlan called the Chappells , " the most famous cricketing family in South Australia " . In 2004 , the Chappell family was again honoured with the creation of the Chappell – Hadlee Trophy , an annual series of ODI matches played between Australia and New Zealand .
Chappell is the leading advocate for greater formal recognition of the first Australian sporting team to travel overseas , the Australian Aboriginal cricket team in England in 1868 .
= = Media career = =
Following the path of his grandfather Vic Richardson , who was a radio commentator for many years , Chappell entered the media in 1973 by writing ghosted magazine articles and a column for The Age . He did television commentary for the 0 – 10 Network and the BBC before playing WSC . During the 1980s , Chappell spent eight years co @-@ hosting with Mike Gibson , Wide World of Sports , an innovative magazine @-@ style program broadcast by Channel Nine on Saturday afternoons and co @-@ hosted a sister show , Sports Sunday , for five years . Early in his stint on the former program , he swore without realising that he was live to air . A similar incident occurred during a live telecast of the 1993 Ashes series . Channel Nine suspended him on both occasions .
Chappell began working as a commentator for Channel Nine 's cricket coverage in the 1980 – 81 season , a position he retains .
= = = Leadership critiques = = =
= = = = Greg Chappell = = = =
The major controversy of his first season was the Underarm Incident , which involved his two younger brothers in an ODI played between Australia and New Zealand at the MCG . Chappell showed no fraternal bias and was vehement in his criticism of his brother Greg 's tactic . He wrote in a newspaper column on the matter : " Fair dinkum , Greg , how much pride do you sacrifice to win $ 35 @,@ 000 ? "
= = = = Kim Hughes = = = =
He supported the claims of Rod Marsh to the Australian captaincy over the incumbent , Kim Hughes , in the early 1980s . The constant campaign against Hughes destabilised his authority . Compounding the situation , the ACB compelled Hughes to be interviewed by Chappell on a regular basis .
During the 1981 Ashes , Ian Chappell introduced an interview between Hughes and Richie Benaud by claiming the Australian captain was " thought of that dumb so and so who couldn 't run a bath and who keeps getting caught at deep fine leg . " He also criticised Hughes ' batting . " Hughes needs to score the runs when they are needed most . He is not doing this and his inconsistency is rubbing off on others ... there is a not a lot of thought in his batting " .
On the morning of the second test against the West Indies in 1984 – 85 , Chappell asked Hughes " Three months ago , you claimed Australia possessed no Test @-@ worthy legspinner . So what is Bob Holland doing in the team ? " Hughes resigned as captain after that match .
Following Hughes ' resignation , Australian cricket went into turmoil and Chappell received a share of the blame for the outcome .
= = = = Allan Border & Bob Simpson = = = =
Chappell had a direct influence on Hughes ' successor , Allan Border . Early in his captaincy tenure , Border was struggling with the burdens of the position so the ACB appointed Bob Simpson as team coach to assist . This led to animosity between Chappell and Simpson as Chappell derided the need for a coach . Simpson responded by writing that the peer influence of older players helping younger players fell away during the era when the Chappell brothers led the team , and he was redressing the problem .
Chappell believed that the Border @-@ Simpson leadership was too defensive and that Simpson usurped too much of Border 's control of the team ; Border heeded Chappell 's assessment and adopted a more aggressive on @-@ field approach later in his career and became known as " Captain Grumpy " to his team mates . Mark Taylor , who captained the team after Border , moved to dilute Simpson 's authority . Chappell remains a long @-@ standing critic of the use of coaches by national teams .
= = = = Steve Waugh = = = =
Ian Chappell was often critical of Steve Waugh as captain , believing him to be a selfish player and unimaginative captain . When Waugh was appointed captain in 1999 Chappell said :
I think he 's been a selfish cricketer . . . I 've always felt that the things you do as a player leading up to getting the captaincy do have an effect [ on ] how players perceive you . I 've had the feeling that a selfish player when he becomes captain . . . gets a little less out of his players than someone who is not selfish .
Chappell felt Shane Warne should have been picked as captain instead and his criticism of Waugh 's captaincy did not abate during Waugh 's stint in that role , despite his success . Waugh later wrote of Chappell :
Ian Chappell … always sweated on my blunders and reported them with an ' I told you so ' mentality ... To say Chappell 's criticism irked me would be an understatement , though I knew that , like anyone , he was entitled to an opinion . I don 't mind the fact he criticised me — in fact , I would much rather someone make a judgement than not , but I have always felt that a critic must be either constructive or base his comments on fact ... It was something I had to live with , and when I realised he was never going to cut me much slack , I decided anything he said that was positive would be a bonus and the rest just cast aside .
Chappell rated Ricky Ponting a better captain than Waugh .
= = = Player Critiques = = =
Chappell has been a vocal critic of a number of Australian players , most recently Ed Cowan and George Bailey .
= = = Major League Baseball = = =
When the Los Angeles Dodgers and Arizona Diamondbacks met in Major League Baseball 's season opening series at the Sydney Cricket Ground in Sydney on 22 and 23 March 2014 , Chappell , who had represented South Australia as a catcher in the Claxton Shield before embarking on his successful cricket career , was a commentator for the broadcasts , carried on Australia 's Channel Nine and in the United States by MLB Network . He worked with Matt Vasgersian and former Cy Young Award winner John Smoltz .
= = = Books and writings = = =
Chappell 's first book was an account of the 1972 Ashes tour , Tigers Among the Lions , followed by a series of books of cricketing humour and anecdotes published in the early 1980s . The more analytical The Cutting Edge , an appraisal of modern cricket , appeared in 1992 . Ashley Mallett 's biography , Chappelli Speaks Out ( published in the UK as Hitting Out – the Ian Chappell Story ) was written in collaboration with Chappell and released in 2005 . It caused controversy due to Chappell 's assessment of Steve Waugh , who he described as " selfish " and as a captain , " ran out of ideas very quickly " . Waugh responded by writing , " to say Chappell 's criticism irked me would be an understatement . " He categorised the criticisms as " personal " and noted that Chappell , " always sweated on my blunders and reported them with an ' I told you so ' mentality " . In 2006 , Chappell released an anthology of his cricket writings entitled A Golden Age . He is a regular contributor to Cricinfo.com.
= = Personal life = =
After leaving school , Chappell spent two years as a clerk in a sharebroker 's office , which he left to play league cricket in England . He then worked as a promotions representative for Nestlé and , later , the cigarette manufacturer WD & HO Wills . After eight years with Wills , Chappell capitalised on his fame as Australian captain by forming his own company specialising in advertising , promotion and journalism , which has remained his profession . He is twice married , and has a daughter ( Amanda ) with his first wife Kay . Chappell now lives in Sydney with his second wife Barbara @-@ Ann . In recent years , Chappell has been a high @-@ profile activist for better treatment of asylum seekers by the Australian government , in particular its policy of mandatory detention . He supports Australia cutting ties with the United Kingdom and becoming a republic , being a founding member of the Australian Republican Movement .
= Constitution Center ( Washington , D.C. ) =
Constitution Center ( formerly known as the David Nassif Building ) is an office building located at 400 7th Street SW in Washington , D.C. It is 140 feet ( 43 m ) high and has 10 floors . Covering an entire city block , it is the largest privately owned office building in the District of Columbia . Current tenants include the Federal Housing Finance Agency and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency . As of February 2014 , Constitution Center was worth $ 725 @.@ 8 million , making it the most valuable , taxable property in the city .
= = Original structure = =
In the 1950s , the U.S. Congress , then the governing institution of the District of Columbia , undertook the Southwest D.C. urban renewal project , the first in the capital district and one of the earliest such programs in the nation . In 1946 , Congress passed the District of Columbia Redevelopment Act , which established the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency ( RLA ) and provided legal authority to clear land and funds to spur redevelopment in the capital . Congress also gave the National Capital Planning Commission ( NCPC ) the authority to designate which land would be redeveloped , and how . The RLA was not funded , however , until passage of the Housing Act of 1949 . A 1950 study by the NCPC found that the small Southwest quarter of the city suffered from high concentrations of old and poorly maintained buildings , overcrowding , and threats to public health ( such as lack of running indoor water , sewage systems , electricity , central heating , and indoor toilets ) . Competing visions for the redevelopment ranged from renovation to wholesale leveling of neighborhoods , but the latter view prevailed as more likely to qualify for federal funding . Original plans called for the demolition of almost all structures in Southwest Washington beginning in 1950 , but legal challenges led to piecemeal razing of the area until the mid @-@ 1950s .
Issues surrounding the planning and construction of L 'Enfant Plaza ( immediately to the west of the site ) delayed construction of any buildings on the block until the late 1960s . In 1963 , the RLA purchased the land from the Westminster Memorial Church , Fifth Baptist Church , and homeowners . The United States Department of Health , Education and Welfare wished to purchase the site for its new headquarters , but the RLA declined to sell the property . ( The federal government does not pay taxes on land and structures it owns , and the RLA wanted a private owner who would add to
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Ohlone has been used by some of the members and the popular media to replace the name Costanoan . Ohlone might have originally derived from a Spanish rancho called Oljon , and referred to a single band who inhabited the Pacific Coast near Pescadero Creek . The name Ohlone was traced by Teixeira through the mission records of Mission San Francisco , Bancroft 's Native Races , and Frederick Beechey 's Journal regarding a visit to the Bay Area in 1826 @-@ 27 . Oljone , Olchones and Alchones are spelling variations of Ohlone found in Mission San Francisco records . However , because of its tribal origin , Ohlone is not universally accepted by the native people , and some members prefer to either to continue to use the name Costanoan or to revitalize and be known as the Muwekma . Teixeira maintains Ohlone is the common usage since 1960 , which has been traced back to the Rancho Oljon on the Pescadero Creek . Teixeira states in part : " A tribe that once existed along the San Mateo County coast . " Milliken states the name came from : " A tribe on the lower drainages of San Gregorio Creek and Pescadero Creek on the Pacific Coast " . The popularity of the name Ohlone is largely because of the book The History of San Jose and Surroundings by Frederic Hall ( 1871 ) , in which he noted that : " The tribe of Indians which roamed over this great [ Santa Clara ] valley , from San Francisco to near San Juan Bautista Mission ... were the Ohlones or ( Costanes ) . " Two other names are growing in popularity and use by the tribes instead of Costanoan and Ohlone , notably Muwekma in the north , and Amah by the Mutsun . Muwekma is the native people 's word for the people in the language of Chochenyo and Tamyen . Amah is the native people 's word for the people in Mutsun .
= = Divisions = =
Linguists identified eight regional , linguistic divisions or subgroups of the Ohlone , listed below from north to south :
Karkin ( also called Carquin ) : The Karkin resided on the south side of the Carquinez Strait . The name of the Carquinez Strait derives from their name . Karkin was a dialect quite divergent from the rest of the family .
Chochenyo ( also called Chocheño , Chocenyo and East Bay Costanoan ) : The Chochenyo speaking tribal groups resided in the East Bay , primarily in what is now Alameda County and the western ( bayshore ) portion of Contra Costa County .
Ramaytush ( also called San Francisco Costanoan ) : The Ramaytush resided between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific in the area which is now San Francisco and San Mateo Counties . The Yelamu grouping of the Ramaytush included the villages surrounding Mission Dolores , Sitlintac and Chutchui on Mission Creek , Amuctac and Tubsinte in Visitation Valley , Petlenuc from near the Presidio , and to the southwest , the villages of Timigtac on Calera Creek and Pruristac on San Pedro Creek in modern @-@ day Pacifica .
Tamyen ( also called Tamien , Thamien , and Santa Clara Costanoan ) : The Tamyen resided on Coyote Creek and Calaveras Creek , and the language was spoken in the Santa Clara Valley . ( Linguistically , Chochenyo , Tamyen and Ramaytush were very close , perhaps to the point of being dialects of a single language . ) The Tamyen village was near the original site of the first Mission Santa Clara located on the Guadalupe River ; Father Pena mentioned in a letter to Junípero Serra that the area around the mission was called Thamien by the Ohlone .
Awaswas ( also called Santa Cruz Costanoan ) : Local bands of Awaswas speakers resided on the Santa Cruz coast and adjacent Santa Cruz Mountains between Point Año Nuevo and the Pajaro Rivers ( Davenport and Aptos ) .
Mutsun ( also called Mutsen , San Juan Bautista Costanoan ) : A number of distinct local territorial tribes of Mutsun speakers lived in the Hollister Valley ( along the lower San Benito River , middle Pajaro River , and San Felipe Creek ) and along nearby creeks of the eastern Coast Range valleys ( including San Luis and Ortigalita creeks ) .
Rumsien ( also called Rumsen , Carmel or Carmeleno ) : A few independent Rumsien @-@ speaking local territorial tribes resided from the Pajaro River to Point Sur , and the lower courses of the Pajaro , as well as the lower Salinas , Sur and Carmel Rivers ( San Carlos , Carmel , and Monterey Counties ) .
Chalon ( also called Soledad ) : Local bands of Chalon speakers resided along the upper course of the San Benito River and farther east in the Coast Range valleys of Silver and Cantua creeks . Kroeber also mapped them on the middle course of the Salinas River , but some recent studies give that area to the Esselen people .
These division designations are mostly derived from selected local tribe names . They were first offered in 1974 as direct substitutes for Kroeber 's earlier designations based upon the names of local Spanish missions . The spellings are anglicized from forms first written down ( often with a variety of spellings ) by Spanish missionaries and soldiers who were trying to capture the sounds of languages foreign to them .
Within the divisions there were over 50 Ohlone tribes and villages who spoke the Ohlone @-@ Costanoan languages in 1769 , before being absorbed into the Spanish Missions by 1806 .
= = Present day = =
The Mutsun ( of Hollister and Watsonville ) and the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe ( of the San Francisco Bay Area ) are among the surviving groups of Ohlone today petitioning for tribal recognition . The Esselen Nation also describes itself as Ohlone / Costanoan , although they historically spoke both the southern Costanoan ( Rumsien ) and an entirely different Hokan language Esselen .
= = = Contemporary Ohlone groups = = =
Ohlone tribes with petitions for Federal Recognition pending with the Bureau of Indian Affairs are :
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe , San Francisco Bay Area :
With 397 enrolled members in 2000 , the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe comprises " all of the known surviving Native American lineages aboriginal to the San Francisco Bay region who trace their ancestry through the Missions Dolores , Santa Clara and San Jose " and who descend from members of the historic Federally Recognized Verona Band of Alameda County . On 21 September 2006 , they received a favorable opinion from the U.S. District in Washington , D.C. , of their court case to expedite the reaffirmation of the tribe as a federally recognized tribe . The Advisory Council on California Indian Policy has assisted in their case . They lost the case in 2011 , and have filed an appeal .
Amah @-@ Mutsun Band of Ohlone / Costanoan Indians , Woodside :
The Amah @-@ Mutsun Band has over 500 enrolled members and comprises " various surviving lineages who spoke the Hoomontwash or Mutsun Ohlone language . " The majority descend from the native people baptized at Mission San Juan Bautista .
Ohlone / Costanoan Esselen Nation , Monterey and San Benito Counties :
The Ohlone / Costanoan Esselen Nation has approximately 500 enrolled members . Their tribal council claims enrolled membership is currently at approximately 500 people from thirteen core lineages that trace direct descendancy to the Missions San Carlos and Soledad . The tribe was formerly federally recognized as the " Monterey Band of Monterey County " ( 1906 – 1908 ) . Approximately 60 % reside in Monterey and San Benito Counties .
Costanoan Band of Carmel Mission Indians , Monrovia .
Costanoan Ohlone Rumsen @-@ Mutsen Tribe , Watsonville .
Costanoan @-@ Rumsen Carmel Tribe , Pomona / Chino
Indian Canyon Band of Costanoan , Mutsun Indians , near Hollister .
= = Population = =
Published estimates of the pre @-@ contact Ohlone population in 1769 range between 7 @,@ 000 and 26 @,@ 000 combined with Salinans . Historians differ widely in their estimates , as they do with the entire population of Native California . However , modern researchers believe that American anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber 's projection of 7 @,@ 000 Ohlone " Costanoans " was much too low . Later researchers such as Richard Levy estimated " 10 @,@ 000 or more " Ohlone .
The highest estimate comes from Sherburne F. Cook , who in later life concluded there were 26 @,@ 000 Ohlone and Salinans in the " Northern Mission Area " . Per Cook , the " Northern Mission Area " means " the region inhabited by the Costanoans and Salinans between San Francisco Bay and the headwaters of the Salinas River . To this may be added for convenience the local area under the jurisdiction of the San Luis Obispo even though there is an infringement of the Chumash . " In this model , the Ohlone people 's territory was one half of the " Northern Mission Area " . It was however known to be more densely populated than the southern Salinan territory , per Cook : " The Costanoan density was nearly 1 @.@ 8 persons per square mile with the maximum in the Bay region . The Esselen was approximately 1 @.@ 3 , the Salinan must have been still lower . " We can estimate that Cook meant about 18 @,@ 200 Ohlone based on his own statements ( 70 % of " Northern Mission Area " ) , plus or minus a few thousand margin for error , but he does not give an exact number .
The Ohlone population after contact in 1769 with the Spaniards spiralled downwards . Cook describes rapidly declining indigenous populations in California between 1769 and 1900 , in his posthumously published book , The Population of the California Indians , 1769 – 1970 . Cook states in part : " Not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident . " The population had dropped to about 10 % of its original numbers by 1848 .
The population stabilized after 1900 , and as of 2005 there were at least 1 @,@ 400 on tribal membership rolls .
= = Language = =
The Ohlone language family is commonly called " Costanoan " , sometimes " Ohlone " . Costanoan is a member of the hypothetical Penutian language phylum , and ( along with the Miwok languages ) the Utian language family . The most recent work suggests that Costanoan , Miwok , and Yokuts may all be sub @-@ families within a single Yok @-@ Utian language family .
Costanoan comprises eight dialects or separate languages : Awaswas , Chalon , Chochenyo ( aka Chocheño ) , Karkin , Mutsun , Ramaytush , Rumsien , and Tamyen .
= = Salvaging records = =
The chroniclers , ethnohistorians , and linguists of the Ohlone population began with : Alfred L. Kroeber who researched the California natives and authored a few publications on the Ohlone from 1904 to 1910 , and C. Hart Merriam who researched the Ohlone in detail from 1902 to 1929 . This was followed by John P. Harrington who researched the Ohlone languages
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from 1921 to 1939 , and other aspects of Ohlone culture , leaving volumes of field notes at his death . Other research was added by Robert Cartier , Madison S. Beeler , and Sherburne F. Cook , to name a few . In many cases , the Ohlone names they used vary in spelling , translation and tribal boundaries , depending on the source . Each tried to chronicle and interpret this complex society and language ( s ) before the pieces vanished .
There was noticeable competition and some disagreement between the first scholars : Both Merriam and Harrington produced much in @-@ depth Ohlone research in the shadow of the highly published Kroeber and competed in print with him . In the Editor 's Introduction to Merriam ( 1979 ) , Robert F. Heizer ( as the protege of Kroeber and also the curator of Merriam 's work ) states " both men disliked A. L. Kroeber . " Harrington , independently working for the Smithsonian Institution cornered most of the Ohlone research as his own specialty , was " not willing to share his findings with Kroeber ... Kroeber and his students neglected the Chumash and Costanoans , but this was done because Harrington made it quite clear that he would resent Kroeber 's ' muscling in . ' "
Recent Ohlone historians that have published new research are Lauren Teixeira , Randall Milliken and Lowell J. Bean . They all note the availability of mission records allow for continual research and understanding .
= = Notable Ohlone people = =
1777 : Xigmacse , chief of the local Yelamu tribe at the time of the establishment of the Mission San Francisco , and thus the earliest known San Francisco leader .
1779 : Baltazar , baptized from the Rumsen village of Ichxenta in 1775 , he became the first Indian alcalde of Mission San Carlos in 1778 . After his wife and child died , he fled to the Big Sur coast in 1780 to lead the first extensive Ohlone resistance to colonization .
1807 : Hilarion and George ( their baptismal names ) were two Ohlone men from the village Pruristac who served as alcaldes ( mayors ) of the Mission San Francisco in 1807 . As such , they were at the beginning of a long line of Mayors of San Francisco .
1877 : Lorenzo Asisara was a Mission Santa Cruz man who provided three surviving narratives about life at the mission , primarily from stories told to him by his own father .
1913 : Barbara Solorsano died 1913 , Mutsun linguistic consultant to C. Hart Merriam 1902 @-@ 04 , from San Juan Bautista .
1930 : Ascencion Solorsano de Cervantes , died 1930 , renowned Mutsun doctor , principal linguistic and cultural informant to J. P. Harrington .
1934 : Jose Guzman died 1934 , he was one of the principal Chochenyo linguistic and cultural consultants to J. P. Harrington .
1939 : Isabel Meadows , died 1939 , the last fluent speaker of Rumsen and a primary Rumsen consultant to J.P. Harrington .
2006 : Ralph Allan Espinoza , Director and founder of the only non @-@ profit , Native American affiliated food bank in the U.S. , " God Provides " located in El Monte , California .
2016 : Anne Marie Sayers , Mastun Ohlone leader , tribal chair of the Indian Canyon , California , the only federally recognised Indian country from Sonoma to Santa Barbara .
= 1862 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1862 Atlantic hurricane season featured six tropical cyclones , with only one making landfall . The season had three tropical storms and three hurricanes , none of which became major hurricanes . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote @-@ sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated . Jose Fernandez @-@ Partagas and Henry Diaz initially documented five tropical cyclones in a 1995 report on this season . A sixth system was added by Michael Chenoweth in 2003 from records taken in Colón , Panama .
The first tropical cyclone was observed as a tropical storm offshore the East Coast of the United States from June 15 to June 17 . The second and third systems were active in mid @-@ August and mid @-@ September , respectively , and both attained Category 2 intensity at their peaks on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale and neither made landfall . A fourth tropical cyclone caused flooding in Saint Lucia and brought heavy rain to parts of Barbados on October 5 , but its track prior to that date is unknown . The fifth hurricane was known to be active for a few days in October off the East Coast of the United States . Finally , a sixth system was centered near Panama – between November 22 and November 25 .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) rating of 46 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
Based on reports from four ships , a tropical storm is known to have existed for two days in mid @-@ June off the East Coast of the United States . It formed approximately 340 miles ( 550 km ) east of Savannah , Georgia on June 15 and moved slowly north before dissipating two days later , while located about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east of Virginia Beach , Virginia .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale was first seen on August 18 , while located approximately 620 miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) east of Florida . Over the next three days , it tracked north and moved parallel to the East Coast of the United States . The system dissipated roughly 310 miles ( 500 km ) south of Newfoundland on August 21 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
On September 12 , a Spanish ship , the Julian de Unsueta , was de @-@ masted by a strong gale and thrown onto its beam ends . A few days later , she docked at Saint Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands . On September 13 , the barques Montezuma and Gazelle were also both de @-@ masted by a hurricane near Barbados . No information is available on the hurricane between September 14 to September 16 , but on September 17 , the barques Abbyla and Elias Pike encountered the hurricane , roughly 500 miles ( 800 km ) off the coast of North Carolina . Several ships reported encountering hurricane conditions on September 19 off the East Coast of the United States , some as far north as Sable Island . Based on these reports , the track began about 500 miles ( 800 km ) northeast of the Virgin Islands on September 12 and ended on September 20 off the coast of Nova Scotia .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
On October 5 , a tropical storm caused flooding in Saint Lucia . That day and throughout the next , high winds and heavy rain were observed in Speightstown , Barbados . The storm may also have affected Saint Vincent . No track has been identified for the storm and it has been assigned a single location in the HURDAT database .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane was first seen on October 14 approximately 310 miles ( 500 km ) west of Bermuda . A schooner , Albert Treat , encountered the storm and was thrown onto its beam ends . The schooner suffered considerable damage and three men drowned . The next day , further north , the barque Acacia fell onto its beam ends , but managed to reach safety . Throughout October 16 the hurricane traveled northward , parallel to the East Coast of the United States . The ship Oder reported losing its sails in a hurricane off Sable Island that day . The storm became extratropical around midday on October 16 and dissipated completely by October 17 .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
Based on meteorological records kept by an officer of the U.S. steamer James Adger , a strong tropical storm was centered to the northwest of Aspinwall , Panama from November 22 through to November 25 . The storm weakened late on November 24 and began drifting slowly westward on November 25 before dissipating later that day .
= Einar Jolin =
Einar Jolin ( 7 August 1890 – 29 August 1976 ) was a Swedish painter best known for his decorative and slightly naïve Expressionist style . After studying at Konstfack , Stockholm in 1906 and at the Konstnärsförbundet målarskola ( the Artists Association Art School ) , Jolin and his friend Isaac Grünewald went to Paris for further studies at Henri Matisse 's academy from 1908 to 1914 .
He painted portraits , still lifes and cityscapes , always accentuating what he called " the beautiful " in his motifs . He mainly worked in oils and watercolors , using delicate brush strokes and light colors . His most noted works are his paintings of Stockholm during the 1910s and 1920s in his trademark naïve style .
Jolin made numerous travels , collecting impressions and inspiration for his paintings . He journeyed to Africa , India and the West Indies , but favored the countries around the Mediterranean Sea , especially the island of Capri where he also exhibited his works .
He had several exhibitions at Liljevalchs konsthall in Stockholm and in 1954 , he toured the United States with an exhibition , during which Dag Hammarskjöld purchased a painting for his office in the United Nations building .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Einar Jolin was born 7 August 1890 in Stockholm . He was the son of professor Severin Jolin and grandson of actor Johan Christopher Jolin . He grew up on Kammakargatan 45 in the Jolinska Huset ( Jolin Residence ) , a three @-@ story townhouse with a garden , built by his grandfather . Jolin grew up in the middle of Stockholm close to Tegnérlunden , Adolf Fredrik Church and Vasaparken , which may have influenced his depiction of houses , roof tops , and views of Stockholm in his paintings . Jolin loved his house with its exotic furnishings . For interior paintings , he often selected props from things in the house – Gustavian and Empire style furniture , Chinese embroideries and East Indian tableware . Other residents in the house were his parents , brother Eric , sisters Ingrid and Signe , grandmother Mathilde Wigert @-@ Jolin and his aunt , artist Ellen Jolin ( 1854 – 1939 ) who was the first to teach Jolin the basic techniques of painting .
Jolin 's artistic education started at the Technical School ( later known as Konstfack ) in Stockholm in 1906 . The school mainly taught painting techniques and Jolin was more interested in learning about style . Within the year , he started looking for another place to continue his studies . At the beginning of the 20th century , the Konstnärsförbundet ( The Artist 's Association ) had a school on Glasbruksgatan in Stockholm . Jolin applied there in the autumn of 1907 . His future teacher Karl Nordström reviewed his drawings and Jolin was admitted to the school the same year . Jolin joined the inner circle at the school , a group of Scandinavian artists who would later become known as De Unga ( The Young Ones ) or 1909 års män ( The Men of 1909 ) . Among these were Isaac Grünewald , Leander Engström , Birger Simonsson and Gösta Sandels . Jolin described the pupils at the school as : " ... a bunch of individuals with long hair , great muffler scarves and slouch hats worn askew in a way that really impressed me since I was only seventeen and the youngest of the bunch . The most amazing of them all was of course Isaac who had longer and more raven hair than anybody else and a fluttering violet scarf . I had not yet beheld such a creature . We became good friends . " Jolin 's education at the Artist 's Association was curtailed by the school 's closure in the spring of 1908 .
= = = Paris = = =
In 1908 , Jolin and Isaac Grünewald left Sweden for the vibrant life in Paris and its art community . The Swedish painter , graphic artist and forester Carl Palme knew Henri Matisse and helped the artist to find a suitable location for the new Matisse Academy . An abandoned nunnery in central Paris became the first home for the academy . Together with Grünewald and Leander Engström , Jolin joined the Matisse Academy , where their friends from Stockholm had already been accepted as pupils . At the Academy , Jolin would develop his sense for a stylish line in combination with bright and clean colours in his paintings .
Jolin 's time at the Academy proved more educational for him than the schools he had previously attended and the experience he got from having an established artist as mentor , was important for his development as an artist . Even so , the influence of Matisse on his young pupils should not be exaggerated . Jolin learned croquis at the academy and also developed a natural , spontaneous speed in his brushwork . He mostly painted models and still life , and during a visit to the south of France in 1911 , he made his earliest landscapes . At the school , Jolin got his first nickname ; the other students , as well as Matisse , used to call him " The Puppy " since he was the youngest of the students .
During his time in Paris , Jolin became good friends with Nils Dardel . Jolin also spent some time in Senlis where he depicted its street life 1913 , before returning to Stockholm the following year .
= = = Return to Stockholm = = =
In the spring of 1914 , when Jolin and his friends from the Matisse Academy returned to Stockholm , the group became known as De Unga ( The Young Ones ) . Their participation and paintings created uproar in the Baltic Exhibition in Malmö . Albert Engström , artist and influential member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts as well as other members of the Swedish art world at that time , stated that they were perplexed and unable to understand The Young Ones ' works .
Jolin had planned to return to Paris the following summer , but the outbreak of World War I on 28 July 1914 , forced him to reconsider his decision . With the road to France closed , he decided to stay in Stockholm , and managed to obtain a studio workshop on Fiskargatan 9 , in the so @-@ called " Scandalous House " near Katarina Church in the southern part of town . From his window he had a wide view of the city , the Stockholms ström and the harbour entrance . In that apartment , during the years 1914 – 1915 , he created some of his best @-@ known vistas of Stockholm .
In 1917 , Jolin rented a studio at Kungsbroplan in Stockholm and painted diligently . At the end of that year he was visited by Herman Gotthardt , a wholesaler from Malmö , who had recently taken up art collecting as a hobby . He studied Jolin 's numerous works and , as at this time the artists sold very few paintings , it came as a surprise to him when Gotthardt bought 16 canvases . Jolin received seven thousand crowns ( sek ) for the paintings , and at home the same evening he was able to show his parents the money from his first major sales , saying : " Look here , this is what I earned today " .
Jolin spent most of 1918 in Copenhagen , where he showed his paintings at an art gallery at Nikolaiplads . They sold well enough for him to stay in Denmark almost a year . Jolin enjoyed life in the Danish capital , the social life was more spontaneous than in Stockholm and people from different professions , or social standings , mixed with each other in a way that appealed to him .
= = = Travelling = = =
After World War I , traveling was once again possible for the many young artists who had been forced to stay home during the six years of war . In 1920 , Jolin went on a journey , first to Italy , North Africa and Spain for new international impressions , and then on to India , Africa and the West Indies . In the spring of 1924 , Jolin went to Spain with his first wife , Britt von Zweigbergk . Like many other artists he painted the bullfights , but contrary to the strong , and sometimes bloody , bullfight painted by his colleague and close friend Gösta Adrian @-@ Nilsson ( GAN ) , Jolin 's works were created in the calm and orderly manner that had earned him his second nickname : Eleganten Einar ( Einar , the Elegant ) .
In 1931 , Jolins friend , GAN moved to Bastugatan 25 , and in 1936 , Jolin followed his example and rented an apartment in the same building , where he lived until 1943 . At that time the street was home to numerous artists and writers . The Swedish writer Ivar Lo @-@ Johansson , who had a studio apartment at number 21 , described life in the area thus : " In a part of a street , no longer than three hundred meters , everything existed . Bastugatan had become a kind of Montmartre to art , a concept . " In 1990 , Lo @-@ Johansson 's apartment was converted into a literary museum by the Ivar Lo @-@ Johansson Society .
During the years from 1935 to 1956 , Jolin spent much of his time travelling . In 1954 , he toured the United States with an exhibition . It was opened in January , by Swedish ambassador Erik Boheman , at Galerie St. Etienne in New York . Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld , attended the exhibition and bought a painting depicting Riddarholmen for his study of the United Nations building . The exhibition was shown on national TV in the United States . Jolin also exhibited his works at galleries in several other countries , and in 1957 , the Liljevalchs konsthall hosted a retrospective exhibition featuring over 200 of his paintings .
= = = Family and later life = = =
With the birth of his first daughter , Michaela , in 1958 , Jolin settled down to a more quiet life as a father and family man . His second daughter Angelina was born in 1966 . He continued to paint , mostly still life and portraits , at his studio apartment at Stagneliusvägen 34 , in Fredhäll . He spent most summers with his family in Tällberg in the Dalarna County or at Villa San Michele on the island of Capri . Although he held some minor exhibitions , his work from the 1960s to his death in 1976 , did not receive the same acclaim as his earlier paintings .
Jolin married three times and had three children . His first marriage was to Britt von Zweigbergk , 1921 – 1936 , during which time they had a son , Christopher Jolin , born in 1925 . He was married secondly to Clorinda Campbell Kissack in the years 1943 – 1950 , and thirdly in 1952 – 1976 ( his death ) to singer Tatjana Angelini @-@ Scheremetiew . Einar Jolin died on 29 August 1976 , and is buried at Norra Begravningsplatsen in Stockholm .
= = Career = =
= = = Style = = =
Although influenced by Matisse , the Oriental art that Jolin discovered at Musée Guimet was even more important to his style . Chinese and Japanese art became the base for the decorative , slightly naïve style in light colours , that he developed during the 1910s and 1920s . Jolin 's style deviates from that of the traditional Expressionists , in that he simplifies his motifs in an almost primitive way , painting an imagined reality rather than raw emotions .
Jolin , as well as Dardel , used a naïve style in their paintings before this concept had been introduced into the Swedish art world . Both Jolin and Dardel were inspired by French naïvists , not just by Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , but also by Séraphine Louis who lived in Sentis and Wilhelm Uhde , a specialist in naïve painting . Matisse , Jolin 's and Dardel 's mentor , was no stranger to naïve art but it was not prominent in his work . Jolin also appreciated the cultivated and sophisticated , older painting , and was deeply impressed during his visits to the Louvre , where he was inspired by the works of masters such as Rubens , Watteau and Chardin .
= = = Expressionism = = =
In 1913 to 1914 Jolin started to paint in his own naïve interpretation of Expressionism . By the end of the 1910s his works became more expressed and the shapes more plastic , but in 1916 , Jolin 's paintings were still inspired by the years he spent in France . That spring , members of the Konstnärsförbundet ( The Artists Association ) and their young pupils , were invited to present the new style , Expressionism , to the Swedish audience as exhibition number two ( number one being Anders Zorn , Bruno Liljefors and Carl Larsson ) at the new art venue , the Liljevalchs konsthall , in Djurgården . Participating in the second exhibition were a number of noted Swedish artists at that time , including Leander Engström , Isaac Grünewald , Gösta Sandels , Birger Simonsson and Jolin who exhibited thirteen paintings .
Two so dissimilar painters and tempers as Einar Jolin and GAN were both called Expressionists . During most of the 1910s this term was used in a number of contexts in Sweden . In 1915 , the Herwarth Walden gallery Der Sturm in Berlin , a venue for Expressionists , presented an exhibition , Schwedishe Expressionisten ( Swedish Expressionism ) , with works by Swedish artists . Jolin participated with six paintings , three of these were vistas from Stockholm . The rest of the participants were Isaac Grunewald , Edward Hald , GAN and Sigrid Hjertén . In the autumn of 1915 , Jolin and GAN held a joint exhibition in Lund University 's art museum . Despite their differences , their friendship continued during GAN 's years in Stockholm ( 1916 – 1919 ) . Jolin was tired of Isaac Grünewalds increasingly dominant role among the young Swedish artists at that time , a sentiment shared by GAN . Expressionism never became a dominant style for Jolin , not in the way GAN and other members of the group embraced it . GAN always objected to Jolin 's choice to include colors such as pearl gray and light purple or violet in his paintings .
During the years 1925 – 35 , Jolin 's style is characterized by light , soft , grey notes and pastels . Later on , still life featuring Oriental porcelain , preferably displayed on a reflecting mahogany tabletop , became a more common motif . He also painted numerous portraits of the Swedish socialites at that time .
In the 1930s , Nils Palmgren , named a group of Swedish painters " The Purists " , an expression originally coined by the French artists Amedée Ozenfant and Le Corbusier . Palmgren referred to painters such as Torsten Jovinge , Erik Byström , Wilhelm Wik and Helge Linden . But , according to Palmgren , Einar Jolin could also be called a Purist since he constantly stressed that colors should be kept pure , contours clear and the composition of the motif orderly . During his more than 70 @-@ year career , Jolin always followed his own path . Through his motifs , characteristic portrayals , still lifes and pictures of Stockholm , an observer can follow Jolin on his journeys to other cultures , explore the collected artifacts in his house or get acquainted with what Stockholm looked like during the first part of the 1900s . Nils Palmgren ends his 1947 biography on Einar Jolin with the words :
Nils Palmgren on Jolin :
Let us just say this : The artistic hallmark of Einar Jolin comes from his eternal worship of natures beauty , the beauty in landscapes , women , flowers and animals , fabrics and things . He is a tenderhearted , although a bit pretentious guardian of the artistic purity , the simple line , the clear spaces and the poet of soft shapes . His best human qualities are character , pride and courage to walk alone against the tide .
= = = Depicting Stockholm = = =
Jolin started to depict Stockholm when he moved to Fiskargatan , on the tall cliffs of southern Stockholm in 1914 . From his studio he could see most of the city . He divided the view , facing Stadsgården or Riddarholmen , into smaller frames for his painings . Noted works from that time are : Strömmen mot Kastellholmen ( Over the Strömmen on to the Kastellholmen ) 1914 , now in the Stockholm City Museum ; Utsikt över Riddarholmen ( View of Riddarholmen ) 1914 , bought by the Nationalmuseum but kept in the Moderna Museet , and Utsikt mot Kastellholmen ( View towards the Kastellholmen ) 1915 , now in the Malmö Konstmuseum . In the Stockholm från Söders höjder ( Stockholm from the heights of Söder ) 1938 , elements from Oriental art are present in the naked , branches of the trees and the red buoys looking like Chinese lanterns hanging in the trees . These paintings are defined by swift , flowing brushwork and forceful contours framing fresh , light colours . His composition of the motif involved putting details against big blocks of cool pink , sheer blue , ivory turquoise and emerald , thereby creating a populated setting . There is always an air of teaming citylife along the docks and busy boating on the water of the Strömmen in these paintings .
Jolin was a strong advocate for the architectural and aesthetic preservation of the capital , as is written in his draft for a pamphlet called Mot strömmen ( Against the Tide ) . According to him , Stockholm had become an ugly town , by insensitive mixing of styles , densification , and centuries of eager renovation . Jolin wanted to bring out the beautiful and the genuine in the cityscape , as well as restore , what he considered to be distorted parts of the city , to their former glory . According to Palmgren , perhaps it was that dream Jolin expressed in his depictions of Stockholm . At the end of the 19th century , and during some decades into the 20th century , artists depicted Stockholm in a variety of ways , each according to his own mind and individualism . Traditionalists worked side by side with Modernists , old with young , seasoned pursuers of the established view of the city and young enthusiastic individuals , such as J
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olin . By the middle of the 20th century , his focus shifted from the cityscape to other motifs such as chinoiserie settings , but in his youth , he and his friends from his years in Paris found inspiration in Stockholm and its surroundings .
Einar Jolin said of his 1957 retrospective exhibition at the Liljevalchs konsthall :
In my art I want to express what I have experienced when I have concentrated and immersed myself . There is this everyday view — man has named everything that surrounds her in life and she finds all this self evident and do not see the wonder of it . To me , art is to give form to the wonders of creation , to create beauty and harmony , to be able to lift a receptive observer from the trivial everyday life into the beautiful and fathomless in which we live . If I have succeeded in this , my life have not been in vain .
Throughout his life he continued to paint romanticized exteriors of Stockholm , whether in spring sunshine or winter haze , the city was always depicted as beautiful and unspoiled . He expressed the idea that only through the emotions of an individual could nature be depicted the right way . In the magazine Konst ( Art ) 1913 – 14 , he writes on False perspective and exaggerations in modern art etc. that : " Nature is wonderful , but a photo is nothing , because nature becomes wonderful only when it is seen and understood by a great human , and a great human always sees and feels something special in nature , something she wants to reproduce . "
= = Award = =
In 1957 , Jolin received the Prince Eugen Medal from His Majesty King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden .
= = Exhibitions = =
Some of the exhibitions of his work during his lifetime were :
1912 Salong Joël , Stockholm
1914 Baltic Exhibition , Malmö
1915 Stockholm
1916 Liljevalchs konsthall , Stockholm
1918 Liljevalchs konsthall , Stockholm
1918 Valand , Gothenburg
1918 Copenhagen , Denmark
1919 Liljevalchs konsthall , Stockholm
1922 Svensk @-@ Franska Konstgalleriet , Stockholm
1931 Galerie Moderne , Stockholm
1933 Konstakademin , Stockholm
1945 Galerie Blanche , Stockholm
1953 Sunset Club , Seattle , USA
1954 Galerie St Etienne , New York , USA
1954 Swedish Institute , Minneapolis , USA
1954 Upsala College , New Jersey , USA
1955 Swedish @-@ American Historical Museum , Philadelphia , USA
1957 Liljevalchs konsthall , Stockholm
1970 Royal Swedish Academy of Arts , Stockholm
1975 Handelsbanken , Stockholm
In 2010 – 2011 , The Liljevalchs art venue held a commemorative exhibition showcasing some of Jolins best works .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2009 , Jolin 's pictures continue to be popular at art auctions . At Stockholm auctioneer Bukowski 's fall auction in 2009 , one of Jolin 's paintings sold for 2 @.@ 53 million crowns ( about US $ 390 @,@ 000 ) .
= Nick Griffin =
Nicholas John Griffin ( born 1 March 1959 ) is a British politician who represented North West England as a Member of the European Parliament ( MEP ) from 2009 to 2014 . He served as chairman and then president of the far @-@ right British National Party ( BNP ) from 1999 to 2014 , when he was expelled from the party .
Born in Barnet , Griffin was educated at Woodbridge School in Suffolk . He joined the National Front at the age of 14 and , following his graduation from the University of Cambridge , became a political worker for the party . In 1980 he became a member of its governing body , and later wrote articles for several right @-@ wing magazines . He was the National Front 's candidate for the seat of Croydon North West in 1981 and 1983 , but left the party in 1989 . In 1995 he joined the BNP and in 1999 became its leader . He stood as the party 's candidate in several elections and became a member of the European Parliament for North West England in the 2009 European elections .
In 1998 Griffin was convicted of distributing material likely to incite racial hatred , for which he received a suspended prison sentence . In 2006 he was acquitted of separate charges of inciting racial hatred . Griffin has been criticised for many of his comments on political , social , ethical and religious matters , but after becoming leader of the BNP he sought to distance himself from some of his previously held positions , which include Holocaust denial . In recent years , events where Griffin has been invited to participate in public debates or political discussions have proven controversial and often resulted in protests and cancellations .
= = Early life and education = =
The son of former Conservative councillor Edgar Griffin and his wife Jean , Nicholas John Griffin was born on 1 March 1959 in Barnet and moved to Southwold in Suffolk aged eight . He was educated at Woodbridge School before winning a sixth – form scholarship to the independent Saint Felix School in Southwold , one of only two boys in the all @-@ girls school .
Griffin read Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf when he was 14 , and " found all but one chapter extremely boring " . He joined the National Front in 1974 , while he was still 14 , though he had to pretend he was 15 , and at the age of 16 is reported to have stayed at the home of National Front organiser Martin Webster . In a four @-@ page leaflet written in 1999 , Webster claimed to have had a homosexual relationship with Griffin , then the BNP 's publicity director . Griffin has denied any such relationship .
From 1977 , Griffin studied history , then law , at Downing College , Cambridge . His affiliation with the National Front was revealed during a Cambridge Union debate , and his photograph was published in a student newspaper . He later founded the Young National Front Student organisation . He graduated with a second @-@ class honours degree in law ( 2 : 2 ) , and a boxing blue , having taken up the sport following a brawl in Lewisham with a member of an anti @-@ fascist party . He boxed three times against Oxford in the annual Varsity match , winning twice and losing once . In an interview with The Independent , he said he gave it up because of a hand injury . He is a fan of Ricky Hatton and Joe Calzaghe , and an admirer of Amir Khan .
= = Political career = =
= = = 1970s – 1990 = = =
Following his graduation , Griffin became a political worker at the National Front headquarters . As a teenager he had accompanied his father to a National Front meeting , and by 1978 , he was a national organiser for the party . He helped set up the White Noise Music Club in 1979 , and several years later worked with white power skinhead band , Skrewdriver . In 1980 , he became a member of the party 's governing body , the National Directorate , and in the same year launched Nationalism Today with the aid of Joe Pearce , then editor of the NF youth paper Bulldog . As a National Front member , Griffin contested the seat of Croydon North West twice , in the 1981 by @-@ election and 1983 general election , securing 1 @.@ 2 % and 0 @.@ 9 % of the vote .
Membership of the National Front declined significantly following the election of the Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher . As a result , the party became more radicalised , and a dissatisfied Griffin , along with fellow NF activists Derek Holland and Patrick Harrington , began to embrace the ideals of Italian fascist Roberto Fiore , who had arrived in the UK in 1980 . By 1983 , the group had broken away to form the NF Political Soldier faction , which advocated a revival of country " values " and a return to feudalism with the establishment of nationalist communes . Writing for Bulldog in 1985 , Griffin praised the black separatist Louis Farrakhan , but his comments were unpopular with some members of the party . He also attempted to form alliances with Libya 's Muammar al @-@ Gaddafi and Iran 's Ayatollah Khomeini , and praised the efforts of Welsh nationalist movement Meibion Glyndŵr .
Following a disagreement with Harrington ( who subsequently formed the Third Way ) , and objections over the direction the party was heading , in 1989 , Griffin left the National Front . Along with Holland and Fiore , he helped form the International Third Position ( ITP ) , a development of the Political Soldier movement , but left the organisation in 1990 . In the same year , he lost his left eye when a discarded shotgun cartridge exploded in a pile of burning wood , since when he has worn a glass eye . The accident left him unable to work , and owing to other financial problems he subsequently petitioned for bankruptcy ( the accident occurred in France , where he later lost money in a failed business project ) . For several years thereafter , he abstained from politics and was supported financially by his parents . He later stewarded a public Holocaust denial meeting hosted by David Irving .
= = = 1993 – 1999 = = =
Griffin re @-@ entered politics in 1993 and , in 1995 , at the behest of John Tyndall , joined the British National Party ( BNP ) . He also became editor of two right @-@ wing magazines owned by Tyndall , Spearhead and The Rune . Referring to the election of the BNP 's first councillor , Derek Beackon , at a 1993 council by @-@ election in Millwall , he wrote :
The electors of Millwall did not back a post modernist rightist party , but what they perceived to be a strong , disciplined organisation with the ability to back up its slogan " Defend Rights for Whites " with well @-@ directed boots and fists .
Tyndall , also previously in the National Front , had founded the BNP in 1982 , but his " brutal , streetfighting background " and admiration for Hitler and the Nazis had made any kind of respectability impossible . In his 1999 leadership campaign , Griffin embarked on a strategy to make the party electable , by taking it away from Tyndall 's extremist image . He was helped by Tyndall 's lack of familiarity with the mainstream media , and in the party 's September election he defeated Tyndall to become head of the BNP . One of Griffin 's changes included moderating the party 's emphasis on the removal of multiculturalism , a policy it claims has a destructive influence on both immigrant and British cultures . This realignment was designed to position the BNP alongside successful European far @-@ right groups , such as the French Front National . Street protests were replaced by electoral campaigning , and some policies were moderated ( the compulsory repatriation of ethnic minorities was instead made voluntary ) . Other policies included the introduction of capital punishment for paedophiles , rapists , drug dealers and some murderers , and corporal punishment for less serious crimes such as juvenile delinquency . Griffin 's image as a Cambridge @-@ educated family man was in contrast to the extremist image presented by the BNP under Tyndall 's leadership . In October 1999 , Nick Griffin , supported by Tony Lecomber stood against Tyndall for leadership of the BNP . John Tyndall received just 411 ( 30 % ) of the votes , while Griffin the majority , 70 % .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
Griffin has stood as his party 's candidate in several English elections since joining the BNP . In 2000 , he stood in West Bromwich West , in a by @-@ election triggered by the resignation of Betty Boothroyd . He came fourth , with 794 votes ( 4 @.@ 21 % of those cast ) . Following the Oldham race riots he ran in Oldham West and Royton in the 2001 general election . He received 6 @,@ 552 votes ( 16 % ) , coming third ahead of the Liberal Democrats , but closely behind the second place Conservatives , who received 7 @,@ 076 votes . He again stood for election in the 2003 Oldham Council election , for a seat representing the Chadderton North ward . He came second to the Labour candidate , receiving 993 votes ( 28 % ) . In the 2004 European Parliament election , when he was the BNP candidate for the North West England constituency , the party received 134 @,@ 959 votes ( 6 @.@ 4 % of those cast ) , but won no seats . In the 2005 general election he contested Keighley in West Yorkshire , and polled 4 @,@ 240 votes ( 9 @.@ 2 % ) , finishing in fourth place .
Griffin was the BNP candidate in the 2007 Welsh National Assembly Elections , in the South Wales West region . The BNP received 8 @,@ 993 votes ( 5 @.@ 5 % of those cast ) , behind the Labour party 's 58 @,@ 347 votes ( 35 @.@ 8 % ) . In October 2007 , he was an unsuccessful candidate in the Thurrock Council election . In November 2008 , the entire membership list of the BNP was posted on the Internet ( though the list may have included lapsed members of the party and people who had expressed an interest in joining the party , but had not signed up ) . Griffin claimed that he knew the identity of the individual responsible , describing him as a hard @-@ line senior employee who had left the party in the previous year . He welcomed the publicity that the story generated , using it to describe the common perception of the average BNP member as a " skinhead oik " as untrue .
He was elected as a member of the European Parliament for North West England in the 2009 European Elections . The BNP polled 943 @,@ 598 votes ( 6 @.@ 2 % ) , gaining two MEPs . Griffin and fellow MEP Andrew Brons were subsequently pelted with eggs as they attempted to stage a celebratory press conference outside the Houses of Parliament . A second venue – a public house near Manchester – was chosen the following day . A line of police blocked a large group of protesters , who chanted " No platform for Nazi Nick " and " Nazi scum off our streets " . Griffin viewed the election as an important victory , claiming that his party had been demonised and blocked from holding public meetings . " In Oldham alone there have been hundreds of thousands of pounds spent on employing bogus community workers to keep us out . To triumph against that level of pressure as a political party has never been done before . "
In May 2009 , he was invited by the BNP representative on the London Assembly , Richard Barnbrook , to accompany him to a Buckingham Palace garden party hosted by Queen Elizabeth II . The invitation prompted objections from several organisations and public figures , including the Mayor of London Boris Johnson , and the anti @-@ fascist organisation Searchlight . Griffin declined this first invitation , but when invited personally in 2010 he accepted :
This event shows just how far this party has come in the last few years but I won 't be at the Palace for myself or my family . No ! I will be there to represent the patriots who made this possible ; I 'll be there for you . I 'll be there for all the stout @-@ hearted men and women who down through the turbulent years tramped the streets with me in all weathers knocking doors , and those who ran the gauntlets of hate wherever we went .
The Palace later decided to deny Griffin entry to the event , claiming that he had used his invitation " for party political purpose through the media " , and citing security concerns . Griffin claimed the decision was an " absolute scandal " , and appeared to be " a rule invented for me . "
In September 2009 , he appealed to party activists for £ 150 @,@ 000 of extra funding for the BNP . In the letter , he said that the party 's ailing fortunes were a direct result of " attacks on the party " . He also defended questions by the Electoral Commission about the transparency of BNP funding . In November 2009 , Griffin was a witness at the trial of an Asian man , Tauriq Khalid , at Preston Crown Court . The prosecution claimed that in November 2008 Khalid repeatedly drove past a demonstration that Griffin was attending , and on the second occasion shouted " white bastards " . Khalid admitted shouting derisory comments at Griffin and other demonstrators , telling the jury he shouted " Nick Griffin , you fucking wanker " and " Get the fuck out of Burnley , you 're not welcome here " , but denied shouting " white bastard " . Griffin gave evidence against Khalid , and affirmed that Khalid had shouted " white bastard " at him . Griffin said the man " leaned out of the car and pointed at me and made a gun and gang gesture " , and that he threatened him by shouting " I 'm going to ... " . Griffin said he had left the demonstration early , fearing for his safety . The 23 @-@ year @-@ old defendant denied his comments had any racial intent , and was found not guilty . Griffin later commented " I think it 's unfortunate and I think it 's wrong , but that 's the jury 's right . They saw all the evidence , I accept their decision . I 'm not going to lose any sleep over it . "
In the 2010 general election he contested the Barking constituency polling 6 @,@ 620 votes and finishing in third place . In 2011 , following the loss of many of the council seats the BNP held in England , Griffin narrowly survived a leadership challenge .
In 2010 Griffin announced that by 2013 he would stand down as leader , to focus on his European Parliament election campaign . He lost his seat in Europe in the May 2014 European election and stepped down as BNP leader on 19 July 2014 , becoming the organisation 's president . But on 1 October , the party announced that it had expelled Griffin , who , it claimed , was " deliberately fabricating a crisis " and leaking " damaging and defamatory allegations " . Following his departure from the BNP , he founded the British Unity Party , which has been described as a " non @-@ membership organisation with around two thousand followers on Facebook " .
= = Criminal charges = =
= = = 1998 = = =
In 1998 , Griffin was convicted of violating section 19 of the Public Order Act 1986 , relating to the offence of ' publishing or distributing racially inflammatory written material ' in issue 12 of The Rune , published in 1996 . Griffin 's comments in the magazine were reported to the police by Alex Carlile , then the Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament for Montgomeryshire . Following a police raid at Griffin 's home , he was charged with distributing material likely to incite racial hatred . Fellow BNP member Paul Ballard was also charged , but entered a guilty plea and did not stand trial . Griffin pleaded not guilty , and was tried at Harrow Crown Court . He called the French Holocaust denier Robert Faurisson and the nationalist Osiris Akkebala as witnesses , was found guilty and given a nine @-@ month sentence , suspended for two years , and a £ 2 @,@ 300 fine . Ballard was given a six @-@ month sentence , also suspended for two years . He said :
I am well aware that the orthodox opinion is that six million Jews were gassed and cremated and turned into lampshades . Orthodox opinion also once held that the world is flat .
Griffin claimed that the law under which he was convicted was an unjust law and he therefore had no obligation to follow it . He was secretly recorded by the ITV programme The Cook Report in 1997 describing Carlile as " this bloody Jew ... whose only claim is that his grandparents died in the Holocaust " .
= = = 2004 – 2006 = = =
On 14 December 2004 , Griffin was arrested at his home in Wales , on suspicion of incitement to racial hatred , over remarks he made about Islam in an undercover BBC documentary titled The Secret Agent . He was questioned at a police station in Halifax , West Yorkshire , before being freed on police bail . He said that the arrest was " an electoral scam to get the Muslim block vote back to the Labour party " and that the Labour government was attempting to influence the results of the following year 's general election .
Griffin 's arrest was made two days after those of John Tyndall and several other people , over remarks they had made in the same programme . Following its broadcast on 15 July 2004 , the police began an investigation into the programme 's contents . The following April he was charged with four offences of using words or behaviour intended or likely to stir up racial hatred . The trial began in January 2006 . Griffin stood alongside fellow party activist Mark Collett , who faced similar charges . Prosecuting , Rodney Jameson QC told the jury of six speeches that the accused had made in the Reservoir Tavern in Keighley on 19 January 2004 . Reading excerpts from them , he claimed that they included threatening , abusive and insulting words directed at " people of Asian ethnicity " , with the intention of " stirring up racial hatred " .
Griffin was also accused of calling murdered black teenager Stephen Lawrence a drug dealer and bully who stole younger pupils ' dinner money . In the witness box he defended himself by quoting passages from the Qur 'an , saying that his comments describing Islam as a " vicious , wicked faith " were attacking not a race , but a religion . During the two @-@ week trial he used a laptop to post daily updates on a blog on the BNP 's website . In his closing address , defence barrister Timothy King QC said :
The British National Party is a legal , political entity . It has a right in a democratic society to put forward ideas and policies which some might find uncomfortable and some might find even offensive . There has been a tendency in this case to over @-@ analyse speeches , to take one line here and one line there . You have got to look at the overall impact of these speeches — remember the context of each speech .
Griffin and Collett were cleared of half the charges against them — the jury remained divided on the other charges , and a retrial was ordered . On 10 November 2006 , after five hours of deliberations , the jury cleared them of all charges . They were met outside the court by about 200 supporters , who Griffin addressed with a megaphone . He attacked Tony Blair and the BBC , and defended the BNP 's right to freedom of speech . BNP Deputy Chairman Simon Darby later claimed that had Griffin been convicted , the BNP leader planned to go on hunger strike .
= = Public debates = =
Following his election as BNP leader , Griffin was invited to participate in debates at several universities . In November 2002 , the Cambridge Union Society invited him to take part in a debate the following January . Titled " This house believes that Islam is a threat to the west " , the resolution was controversial ; alongside more moderate speakers , one of those invited was Abu Hamza al @-@ Masri , a fundamentalist Muslim cleric . Some participants threatened to withdraw , and several official bodies criticised the invitations . The two had met earlier in the year , in a debate chaired by Rod Liddle , then editor of BBC Radio 4 's Today programme . He was also invited by the Cambridge Forum to a debate on extremism in December 2002 , with Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik . The venue was changed twice after protests from property owners , but the threat of a violent confrontation between the Anti @-@ Nazi League and BNP supporters forced the president of the Cambridge Forum , Chris Paley , to cancel the event . Paley called the decision an " own goal " for the values of free speech , and Öpik criticised it , emphasising his belief in " people 's right to make their own decisions in a democracy " .
In February 2005 , Griffin was asked to take part in a debate on multiculturalism at the University of St Andrews in Scotland . He was invited by the president of the students ' debating society , who said " We believe that the only way to get the truth of what the BNP are saying and to combat them is to do it in public in a debate . " The move was attacked by anti @-@ racist groups , some of whom refused to participate in the discussion . Griffin said " I am coming up because I was invited by the students at the university because they have a debate on an intelligent subject on which I have something to say . The people against it are the usual bunch of people who cannot win the argument and refuse to stand on a platform . " The society withdrew the invitation before the event was to take place .
In May 2007 , Griffin was invited to address a meeting at the University of Bath by politics student and BNP youth leader Danny Lake . Lake wanted Griffin to visit the university and explain the BNP 's policies to lecturers and students . The invitation was viewed by some as an attempt by the party to establish a foothold on the university campus . Eleven union general secretaries wrote to the university 's vice @-@ chancellor and asked her to reconsider the decision to allow the meeting . A large protest was planned , and following students ' concerns over their personal safety , the University cancelled the invitation .
Several months later , the Oxford Union invited Griffin to speak at a forum on the limits of free speech , along with other speakers including David Irving . The invitation was condemned by the Equality and Human Rights Commission head Trevor Phillips and the president of the Oxford Students ' Union . The Conservative MP Dr Julian Lewis resigned his membership of the Union . A rally against the invitation was held at Oxford Town Hall on 20 November , and included the Oxford Students ' Union president , the National Union of Students black students ' officer , and the Trades Union Congress south east regional secretary . Representatives of Unite Against Fascism also attended , as well as the University of Oxford 's Jewish student chaplain . Several Holocaust survivors spoke at the rally . Stephen Altmann @-@ Richer , co @-@ president of the Oxford University Jewish Society , said " I don 't think these people should be invited to the Oxford Union , by having them speak , it legitimises their views ... " On the night of the debate , about 50 protesters forced their way into the venue , and a crowd of hundreds gathered outside carrying banners bearing anti @-@ racist slogans and voicing anti @-@ BNP chants . Police blocked the entrances to the building , and removed the protesters encamped inside . Griffin was accompanied into the premises by security guards . The event was eventually split between two rooms , with Griffin speaking in one , and Irving in the other ; many Union Society members were unable to gain access . Although many present found the debate objectionable , some were supportive of both Griffin and Irving 's right to freedom of speech . The Oxford Union later endorsed the debate as a success .
Griffin travelled to the United States and spoke at Clemson University and Texas A & M University , but the reception he received in October 2007 at Michigan State University was markedly different from that in the other venues . Intending to address the " overpopulation of Islamists in Europe " , he was repeatedly interrupted , to the point where the event became a question and answer session . He was heckled by hostile elements of the audience , and at one point the fire alarm was activated .
= = = 2009 appearance on Question Time = = =
On 22 October 2009 , Griffin took part in the BBC 's topical debate programme , Question Time , as a representative of the BNP . He appeared alongside Bonnie Greer , Jack Straw , Baroness Warsi and Chris Huhne . He was challenged by members of the studio audience , and questioned by host David Dimbleby on comments he had previously made on the Holocaust . He was also critical of Islam . His invitation followed the election of two BNP MEPs to the European Parliament , and led to significant debate over the merits of the BBC 's decision . The appearance sparked a protest outside the BBC Television Centre prior to the recording of the programme , in which an estimated 500 people picketed the front entrance of the complex , many chanting anti @-@ Nazi slogans and others trying to break into the building to stop the programme being filmed . Some got past the police and security , but were expelled . Six protesters were arrested , and three police officers were injured , one needing hospital treatment .
The programme was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 2 million viewers , more than three times the average figure for Question Time , and on a comparable level with prime time entertainment shows . Griffin 's appearance dominated the following day 's media ; a follow @-@ up report in the New York Times said that " the early reading by many of Britain ’ s major newspapers was that Mr. Griffin lost heavily on points . "
In a press conference held on 23 October , Griffin stated that he would make a formal complaint about the format of the programme , which he said was " ... not a genuine Question Time ; that was a lynch mob " . He suggested that he should appear again , but that " ... [ we ] should do it properly , and talk about the issues of the day " , and added : " That audience was taken from a city that is no longer British ... That was not my country any more . Why not come down and do it in Thurrock , do it in Stoke , do it in Burnley ? Do it somewhere where there are still significant numbers of English and British people , and they haven 't been ethnically cleansed from their own country . "
= = Policies and views = =
Griffin describes himself as a " moderniser " , and " new nationalist " , and after his election as leader of the BNP , according to The Guardian contributor Francis Wheen , was " contemptuous " of the party 's traditional supporters . He has changed the BNP 's traditional focus on immigration and race , to a defence of what it sees as " our traditional principles against the politically correct agenda " espoused by mainstream politicians . He has portrayed himself as a defender of free speech , and has repeatedly spoken out against multiculturalism . During 2000 , he attempted to further the BNP 's popular appeal by targeting specific groups , including lorry drivers — some of whom were at the time engaged in mass protests against fuel prices — and farmers . The BNP also produced a journal devoted to rural matters .
The BNP 's constitution grants its chairman full executive power over all party affairs , and Griffin thus carried sole responsibility for the party 's legal and financial liabilities , and had the final say in all decisions affecting the party . The BNP 's policies include a halt to all immigration , the forced repatriation of all illegal immigrants , and the deportation of criminals whose original nationality was not British . It supports British withdrawal from the European Union ( EU ) .
Upon his election to the European Parliament Griffin unsuccessfully tried to form an alliance with right @-@ wing parties , which would have entitled the group members to extra funding . He also held talks with other far @-@ right European parties , such as Vlaams Belang and Jobbik . The BNP maintains ties with Roberto Fiore and fascist groups across Europe . Griffin criticised Gordon Brown 's Labour government for its attitude toward the BNP , accusing it of treating elected representatives of the BNP as " second @-@ class citizens " . Following his election , in a press conference held at a public house in Manchester , he criticised the privatisation of national industries , such as the railway network , and accused MPs generally of being involved in this " ... giant looting of Britain " . He accused private corporations and the " ruling elite " in Britain of building a " Eurocratic state " , a process he called " Mussolini fascism ... under Gordon Brown . " He supported the Gurkhas , stating that the BNP would allow them and their families entry to the country for medical treatment " for as long as they needed treatment , or for as long as they lived . " He also suggested the removal of 100 @,@ 000 Muslims " disloyal to Britain " and their replacement with the Gurkhas .
Griffin has frequently expressed views on Judaism , Islam and homosexuality . His comments on the Holocaust ( which he once referred to as " the Holohoax " ) made as an editor of The Rune demonstrate revisionism . He criticised Holocaust denier David Irving for admitting that up to four million Jews might have died in the Holocaust ; he wrote " True Revisionists will not be fooled by this new twist to the sorry tale of The Hoax of the Twentieth Century . " In 1997 , he told an undercover journalist that he had updated Richard Verrall 's booklet Did Six Million Really Die ? and , in the same year , he wrote Who are the Mindbenders ? , about a perceived domination of the media by Jewish figures . Despite this , the BNP had a Jewish councillor , Patricia Richardson , and spokesman Phil Edwards has stated that the party also has Jewish members . The BNP has stated that it does not deny the
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In August 1957 , he was promoted lieutenant general and succeeded Eric Woodward as General Officer Commanding Eastern Command , upon Woodward 's appointment as Governor of New South Wales . Headquartered in Sydney , Eastern Command covered the state of New South Wales and was the superior headquarters for the 2nd Division ( CMF ) . Pollard was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours promulgated on 9 June 1955 , and a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Birthday Honours promulgated on 13 June 1959 .
= = = Chief of the General Staff = = =
On 1 July 1960 , Pollard succeeded Lieutenant General Sir Ragnar Garrett as Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) , and was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours promulgated on 2 June 1961 . Although favoured by Garrett , Pollard 's succession had not been a foregone conclusion . The Minister for the Army , John Cramer , attempted to appoint Major General Ivan Dougherty , a retired CMF officer , but the proposal was defeated in cabinet on the advice of the Minister for Defence , Athol Townley , who feared the antagonism it was likely to engender among the senior ranks of the Regular Army .
As CGS , Pollard oversaw a major restructure of the Army . Following the lead of the US military , in 1960 the Australian Army replaced its " triangular " divisional structure of three infantry battalions under brigade headquarters , with a " pentropic " organisation consisting of five larger battalions without a brigade layer between division and battalion headquarters . The reorganisation had been sponsored by Garrett and agreed to by Townley in December 1959 . According to historian Chris Clark , Pollard was " personally ambivalent " about the change , which was intended to rationalise resources and strengthen the battalions for overseas deployments but also resulted in the disbandment of the citizens ' brigades and many other militia units . The US in any case abandoned the pentropic system in June 1961 , and the Australian Army ultimately returned to the triangular formation following a review commissioned by Pollard 's successor as CGS , Lieutenant General Wilton , in October 1964 . Another of Pollard 's focus areas as CGS was the academic qualifications of Army officers . Concerned that Duntroon graduates would begin to fall behind their tertiary @-@ educated peers in the community , he worked to make the college a degree @-@ granting institution , though this did not come to fruition until 1968 .
In December 1961 , Pollard told the Secretary of the Defence Committee that he considered the Army 's strength inadequate to support the government 's policy of " forward defence " , which involved meeting Communist aggression in South East Asia , well away from the Australian mainland . The CMF , he contended , was not properly equipped to provide relief for regular forces deployed overseas , and conscription " would appear to be politically and economically out of the question " . Nevertheless , the government reintroduced conscription in 1964 . As the threat of South Vietnam falling to a Communist takeover became more apparent , the Army began in 1962 to exercise specifically to combat counter @-@ insurgency operations , a type of warfare Pollard characterised as " frustrating groping at an elusive enemy " ; he added that " no purely military solution to a Communist insurgency situation is possible " . In May that year , the Federal government agreed to South Vietnam 's request for military instructors ; Pollard was responsible for laying down guidelines for the thirty advisors deployed in August as part of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam , led by his friend Colonel Ted Serong .
= = Retirement = =
Upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of sixty , Pollard left the military on 20 January 1963 , having recommended Wilton as his successor . He became a grazier on a farm at Wesburn , Victoria . In July 1965 , he was made Honorary Colonel ( later Colonel Commandant ) of the Royal Australian Regiment , in which capacity he visited Australian troops in South Vietnam . He served as Australian Secretary to Queen Elizabeth II for the Royal Visit in 1970 , and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in recognition of his services ; the honour was promulgated on 29 May 1970 , backdated to 3 May . In 1974 , he moved to a new property , which he christened Duntroon , at Wyrallah , New South Wales . Pollard died suddenly at his Wyrallah home on 9 March 1978 . He was survived by his wife and two sons , and cremated .
= The Damage a Man Can Do =
" The Damage a Man Can Do " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on November 16 , 2008 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Scott Buck and directed by Marcos Siega . In the episode , assistant district attorney Miguel Prado ( Jimmy Smits ) asks Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) for his assistance in killing a murderous gambler . Meanwhile , Dexter 's sister Ofr . Debra Morgan ( Jennifer Carpenter ) finds her boyfriend and informant Anton Briggs ( David Ramsey ) to be missing after she tells him that he is no longer legally obligated to work for her .
The episode marked the first time that another character had joined Dexter with a victim in one of his murder scenes . While filming this scene during October 2008 , Smits accidentally stabbed stunt man Jeff Chase with a real knife rather than the scene 's prop knife . The knife struck a small piece of plastic on Chase 's chest and he was unharmed . " The Damage a Man Can Do " received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Miguel introduces Dexter to former football player Billy Fleeter ( Jeff Chase ) , a debt enforcer who kills other gamblers to pay off his own debts . Dexter is initially hesitant when Miguel suggests that Dexter teach him how to murder Fleeter , but the two go to a casino where Dexter tries to explain his deceased father Harry 's ( James Remar ) " code " to Miguel . They later break into Fleeter 's house and , although they find the murder weapon , Dexter says that they need evidence proving that Fleeter has the incentive to kill again . Dexter finds a ledger recording each of Fleeter 's bets and he returns with Miguel to the casino where they prepare an unused storeroom for the murder . They arrange to kill Fleeter that night , but somebody recognizes Miguel in the casino and Dexter calls off the plan . Dexter is angered when Miguel criticizes Harry 's code , but he agrees to go ahead with Fleeter 's murder after Miguel mentions that he severely beat his abusive father and found it to be one of the most satisfying moments of his life . They drug Fleeter and take him to the casino storeroom . Miguel stabs and kills Fleeter , telling Dexter afterwards that he feels " fantastic " . While cleaning up the crime scene , Dexter has a vision in which his father tells him that sharing the code was a mistake and that Dexter is now responsible for Miguel 's actions .
Debra finds a bag of marijuana hidden in a cereal box in Anton 's apartment and asks her partner Det . Joey Quinn ( Desmond Harrington ) about Anton 's previous charges for drug possession . Quinn tells her vaguely that it can be found on file , but when she asks Anton for his informant number , he tells her that he has none . She discovers that he had been working for Quinn unofficially and that he is not legally obligated to disclose any information to the police . After she tells him that he no longer has to work as an informant due to a " clerical error " in the filing of his report , he disappears . Debra and Quinn continue to work on the case of serial killer " The Skinner " . Believing that The Skinner may be a tree @-@ trimmer , they bring in a number of them for questioning ; one contractor , George King ( Jesse Borrego ) , tells Debra about one of his suspicious workers , Mario ( Jerry Zatarain ) . When Mario tries to run from them , Debra and Quinn arrest him and he pleads to be sent back to Nicaragua at the mention of King 's name . Debra later visits Anton 's apartment and realizes that he has been taken by The Skinner , who recently trimmed the trees .
Dexter 's fiancée Rita Bennett ( Julie Benz ) is unusually temperamental due to her pregnancy hormones . She complains to Miguel 's wife Syl ( Valerie Cruz ) that Dexter refuses to help with the organization of their upcoming wedding . Despite having told Dexter that she did not want an engagement ring , Debra and Dexter choose a ring for Rita , and she apologizes for her behavior . Meanwhile , defense attorney Ellen Wolf ( Anne Ramsay ) tells her friend Lt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) that she thinks that Miguel is going out of his way to make her job harder . At the end of the episode , after killing Fleeter , Miguel makes an unannounced visit to Ellen 's house .
= = Production = =
" The Damage a Man Can Do " was filmed in early October 2008 . On playing Harry as a figment of Dexter 's imagination , James Remar told Vanity Fair that " it 's challenging to play a specter in somebody ’ s current existence . " He said : " In my own life , I find myself doing some task [ ... ] and having a conversation with my mother or father , who are both deceased . [ ... ] I suspect lots of people do it . And when I hold that conversation , different images of my parents appear to me . And so it 's my job to do my best to be that image in Dexter 's mind . " When asked about playing the only character to join Dexter in his " kill room , " Jimmy Smits said : " The crew has a great respect for what they are doing in those scenes . They are energized because those moments are the staple of the show , but at the same time they are very somber . Michael doesn 't really like to interface with a lot of people on those days , because it 's such a serious subject matter . "
Filming one take of the scene in which Miguel kills Fleeter , Smits accidentally picked up a real knife instead of a prop knife and stabbed Jeff Chase in the chest . Though he was not wearing " a metal breastplate like a lot of actors do in a scene like that , " Chase had a piece of plastic " the size of a Post @-@ it note " over his heart which was struck by the knife . He was unable to stop Smits when he picked up the knife as he was bound in Saran wrap and had his mouth taped shut with duct tape for the scene . Chase said that in rehearsals Smits had missed the plastic with the prop knife " eight out of ten times . "
= = Reception = =
Overall , the episode was received well by critics . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger thought that " The Damage a Man Can Do " had " some major foundational problems " , but he said that both Michael C. Hall and Jimmy Smits ' performances were " wonderful " . Paste magazine 's Jeffrey Bloomer likened the episode simply to pulp and felt that Dexter 's voice overs lacked their usual " dry , dark humor and gonzo wisdom " . IGN critic Matt Fowler believed that Dexter and Miguel 's conversations contained " traces of overly awkward dialogue all over " and that the pairings of Debra and Quinn , and LaGuerta and Ellen were " forced " while Miguel 's desire to kill seemed " unnatural " . Writing for TV Guide , Paula Paige said that her favorite part of the episode was Dexter 's spinning Fleeter on the table like a roulette wheel and also she enjoyed Rita 's storyline , calling her a " hormonal hoot " . TV Squad 's Debra McDuffee thought that Angel and Barbara 's romance was " painfully awkward " to watch and Rita 's storyline was " lame and stereotypical " . The A.V. Club 's Scott Tobias believed the episode to be " awesome " and said that he was " more anxious than usual to see what Dexter was up to , and equally anxious to get away from the peripheral dramas " . BuddyTV critic John Kubicek named " The Damage a Man Can Do " the sixty @-@ fourth best television episode of 2008 .
= Redux ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Redux " is the collective name for the two @-@ part fifth season premiere of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . " Redux I " first aired on November 2 , 1997 on Fox in the United States , with " Redux II " airing on November 9 . Both episodes subsequently aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland . Both episodes were written by series creator Chris Carter , with " Redux " directed by R. W. Goodwin and " Redux II " helmed by Kim Manners . " Redux " became the second @-@ most @-@ watched episode ever broadcast , earning more than 27 million viewers in the United States alone . The first part of the episode received mixed to negative reviews , whereas the second part received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . The episodes ' story continues on from the fourth season finale " Gethsemane " . " Redux I " follows Scully , who helps Mulder to fake his own death in an effort to discover which members of the FBI they can trust before the agents individually search for an answer to Scully 's cancer . " Redux II " continues immediately afterwards with Scully hospitalized , and Mulder is offered a deal to ally with The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) .
" Redux " , being a part of a three @-@ part episode arc , became a storyline milestone for the series . It marked the first episode in which Fox Mulder loses his belief in extraterrestrial life and the revelation that someone inside the FBI has tried to discredit Mulder and Scully 's work on the X @-@ Files . When writing the episode , Carter wanted to tie up loose ends from the previous seasons . Despite being the first two episodes of the season aired , they were the second and third episodes produced , the first being " Unusual Suspects " , which explained the origins of The Lone Gunmen .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
In Canada 's St. Elias Mountains , a frozen extraterrestrial body is discovered by an expedition team . Professor Arlinsky , the team 's leader , sends ice core samples containing presumably alien DNA to Fox Mulder . Both Mulder and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) eventually meet Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) , a Defense Department employee who claims that everything Mulder thinks he knows about aliens is a lie . Kritschgau tells Mulder that his sister Samantha Mulder 's abduction was fabricated , that all evidence of alien biology are merely scientific anomalies , and that the alien body discovered in Canada was fake . Kritschgau claims that the entire alien mythos is a hoax perpetrated by the U.S. government as a cover for the military – industrial complex . Distraught by Kritschgau 's claims , Mulder loses his faith . Later , the FBI investigates Mulder 's apparent suicide . Scully confirms the unseen body 's identity .
= = = Redux = = =
As a distraught Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) sits in his apartment , he receives a phone call from Kritschgau , who tells him that " they " may be listening . Mulder , spotting a small hole in his ceiling , rushes upstairs and bursts into the apartment above his and kills government employee Scott Ostelhoff . He tells Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) about the incident , telling her that Ostelhoff had made numerous calls to the FBI .
The FBI looks into the situation and finds Ostelhoff 's body ; however , they believe it is the body of a suicidal Mulder . The next day Scully identifies Ostelhoff 's body as Mulder and is met by assistant director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) who tells her that Section Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) is looking for her . She meets with them , and tells them about the previous incidents leading to Mulder 's apparent suicide . Meanwhile , Mulder has broken into the Department of Defense .
While Mulder is gone , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) searches Mulder 's apartment , believing he is not dead . Scully does some research into the phone records , coming to the conclusion that Ostelhoff was calling Skinner . Mulder meanwhile continues through the Department of Defense Headquarters finding more fake alien bodies inside . He heads through a tunnel to The Pentagon , where he finds an elaborate filing system and warehouse of evidence , the same warehouse that The Smoking Man was seen leaving at the very end of " Pilot " . Mulder ultimately tracks down a small metal vial that he believes may contain Scully 's cure .
Scully debriefs the FBI panel and explains that Mulder was a victim of an elaborate conspiracy and that she was given a fatal disease by someone in the room . As she is about to present her evidence , her nose bleeds and she collapses . Mulder brings the vial he found to the Lone Gunmen , who tell him it is not a cure , only deionized water .
= = = Redux II = = =
After hearing of Scully collapsing , Mulder arrives at the hospital where Scully is being treated . Before he is able to make contact with her , he is detained by Skinner and two FBI agents . Mulder is then brought to Blevins and a senior agent who demands information on why Scully lied about Mulder 's death . After the meeting , Mulder tells Skinner that a traitor in the FBI gave Scully her cancer . In the meantime , The Smoking Man has a meeting with the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) , trying to convince him that Mulder will join their side if he is given a good reason to do so .
Mulder later tells Scully that he wants to reveal the conspiracy to the public . As he is leaving , he meets with The Smoking Man who tells him that he can cure Scully 's cancer by using a chip included in the vial Mulder took from the Pentagon . Meanwhile , Kritschgau goes before the FBI panel , denying any knowledge of Ostelhoff 's murderer , also revealing that his son died that morning . Kritschgau claims to work for not only the Department of Defense but also a congressional lobbying firm known as Roush . Mulder sees Scully and her doctor about the chip . Scully 's family is skeptical , particularly her brother Bill , who is quite upset with Mulder . Scully decides to go ahead and have the chip inserted in her neck .
The Smoking Man contacts Mulder , arranging a meeting at a nearby diner . There Mulder meets his sister Samantha , who calls The Smoking Man her father . Samantha claims to not remember anything about her abduction and is reluctant to stay or tell Mulder where he can find her . The next day , The Smoking Man offers Mulder the truth if he quits the FBI and comes work for him ; Mulder refuses . Mulder later meets with Blevins , who now has evidence Skinner was withholding information concerning Ostelhoff 's death . Blevins tells Mulder he can help him if he names Skinner as the traitor in the FBI . Later , Mulder meets with Scully , telling her he was going to make the deal with The Smoking Man but now will not after his meeting with Blevins . Despite Scully 's pleas , he refuses to name Skinner as the traitor in the FBI .
Mulder meets with the FBI panel while " Quiet Willy " follows The Smoking Man with a long barrel revolver , equipped with silencer , telescopic sight and targeting laser . Mulder tells the panel of the conspiracy against him and Scully . Questioned by Blevins and the senior agent about whether he killed Ostelhoff , Mulder instead names Blevins as the traitor in the FBI . The Smoking Man , looking at a picture of a young Mulder and Samantha , is shot by " Quiet Willy " . Blevins is killed by the senior agent in his office , who makes it appear like a suicide . At the hospital , Skinner meets with Mulder , telling him that The Smoking Man is dead , although his body was not found . Mulder admits that he guessed when he named Blevins , who Skinner reveals was on the payroll for Roush . Mulder tells Skinner that Scully 's cancer has gone into remission .
= = Production = =
Chris Carter , when talking about " Redux " and " Redux II " , noted that he " wanted to tie up a lot of loose ends from the past season , and play the idea that the conspiracy is a hoax and that it had been done to hide various terrestrial and temporal misdeeds " . Despite being the season premiere , " Redux " was the second episode produced of the season due to David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson being needed for filming on The X @-@ Files movie . In " Redux II " , the role of " Quiet Willy " was originally intended for the character the " Gray @-@ Haired Man " , but was re @-@ written for a new character when actor Morris Panych was unavailable . The role went to Willy Ross , whose real name is Steve Allen . The tagline for " Redux " is changed to " All Lies Lead to the Truth " . Director R. W. Goodwin has said that the crew filming " Redux " were so impressed by actor John Finn 's monologue detailing the supposed military hoax that he received a round of applause after finishing his takes . The script for this speech was particularly long , with Goodwin comparing it to " the Yellow Pages " .
" Redux II " had four different storylines : Mulder 's quest , the medical treatment , Scully 's religious faith , and The Smoking Man 's cure for Dana Scully 's cancer . It was normal for the writers to add one or two different storylines for the different episodes , to create different interpretations , but Carter felt it took " the idea of the show " and spun it " in the most interesting way " . The episode also started what would become Fox Mulder 's loss of belief in extraterrestrials until the episode , " The Red and the Black " . While the writers kept " playing " with the idea of Mulder 's loss of faith , fans and viewers could not grow to accept his loss of faith , which left The Smoking Man victorious .
" Redux II " was highly praised by Carter , saying that " I think that Redux II is one of the best episodes we 've ever done " . Frank Spotnitz said " Redux II is one of my favorite episodes . I think the story has a crystal purity and clarity , and it just comes to a perfect point for me " . Anderson said " I thought it was a terrific episode , especially the scenes in the hearing room , and the whole progression of Scully praying . How it was written and shot and how it was edited . Fabulous " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Redux " first aired on November 2 , 1997 on Fox in the United States , with " Redux II " airing on November 9 . " Redux I " earned a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 1 , with a 22 share . It was viewed by 27 @.@ 34 million people . It was the highest rated episode of the season , and the second highest watched episode , in terms of viewers , after " Leonard Betts " , which aired after Super Bowl XXXI . " Redux II " earned a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 0 , with a 21 share . It was viewed by 24 @.@ 84 million people . Part of the reason " Redux I " was so widely viewed was because the show 's previous episode , " Gethsemane " , had created speculation about whether or not Mulder was actually dead . An article in the Wall Street Journal discussed fan theories behind Mulder 's madness while a cartoon ran in The New Yorker a few weeks later surrounding Mulder 's " death " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Redux " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff , writing for The A.V. Club , awarded the first episode a C + rating and wrote that " ' Redux [ Part 1 ] ' was a pretty good episode back in 1997 . It ’ s not a very good episode now " . VanDerWerff noted that the idea that Mulder had killed himself was not effective because the show 's audience knew that a movie had been scheduled for release in the summer of 1998 . Finally , he called the episode 's ending " one of the show ’ s weaker cliffhangers " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the first part of the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She heavily criticized the story 's pacing , noting that the episode " is all plot , plot , plot . [ And ] much of the plot is unbelievable . " Furthermore , Vitaris criticized several plot holes in the episode , including Mulder 's easy entrance into the Department of Defense and the characters antics , such as his attack of Ostelhoff . However , despite the overall negative review , Vitaris did mention that , " There 's only one truly galvanizing scene , as that 's the confrontation between Scully and Skinner after he follows her to the lab where she is performing her DNA test . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . The two heavily criticized the " Skinner @-@ as @-@ traitor " plot , noting sardonically that " the production team aren 't going to do [ reveal he is the antagonist ] , and the shock ' villain in the room ' reveal will be Section Chief Blevens – a character so important in the framework of the series that , barring his appearance in the Season Four finale , we haven 't seen him in ninety @-@ four episodes . " Not all reviews were so negative . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files named " Redux " and " Redux II " , together , as the tenth best " Episode of All Time " . In his critique of " Redux " , he noted " While many people don 't care for ' Redux ' , I think it does a good job of preparing us for the second hour ( although , it invalidates Gillian 's emotional context from the S4 finale ) . " In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " Redux " ( along with " Gethsemane " and " Redux II " ) was presented as the " Best Mythology Episode " .
" Redux II " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an A rating and noted that " whatever reservations I may have over a three @-@ episode story arc , this final entry does a good job of re @-@ investing us in the show 's basic ideals , returning us to a rough form of the status quo in a way that 's exciting , emotionally powerful , and satisfying despite only incremental forward momentum " . In addition , Handlen praised David Duchovny 's performance , stating that he " was on fire the whole episode " . Tom Kessenich praised the second part of the episode and wrote " ' Redux II ' is the standout hour of the two without question . With Scully on her deathbed , Mulder meets his sister only to lose her again and is put in a position where he may deal with the devil . The finale moments [ ... ] are quite simply perfect and as good as any the show ever produced . " Shearman and Pearson rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted " [ ' Redux II ' ] is a likable enough little romp , but it 's too leisurely to be exciting , too predictable to be revealing , and – most crucially , not really funny enough to be comedy . Vitaris gave the second part of the episode a slightly less negative review than the first , but only awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She criticized the ending , noting that " it 's all wrapped up neatly yet ambiguously . " However , Vitaris did note that " what makes ' Redux II ' tolerable is Duchovny , who always hits the right notes of anger , despair , grief , relief , or emotional numbness . " In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " Redux II " ( along with " Gethsemane " and " Redux " ) was presented as the " Best Mythology Episode " .
= Typhoon Agnes ( 1981 ) =
Typhoon Agnes produced among the heaviest rains recorded during the 20th century in South Korea , with 710 mm ( 28 in ) falling over a two @-@ day span . The storm originated as a tropical depression near Guam on August 25 , 1981 . Moving along a west @-@ northwest to northwest track , the system gradually strengthened as deep convection organized around it . The depression was assigned the name Agnes on August 27 following the development of gale @-@ force winds . Further intensification to typhoon @-@ status occurred by August 29 . Agnes attained its peak intensity on August 31 over the East China Sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Subsequent interaction with a mid @-@ latitude trough induced an extratropical transition as the cyclone slowed and turned north . The system had lost most of its tropical characteristics by September 1 , with the majority of convection sheared northeast over South Korea and Japan . Agnes later accelerated northeast and completed its transition on September 3 . The remnants continued along this course , impacting northern Japan and the Kamchatka Peninsula before last being noted on September 6 near the International Dateline .
Throughout the course of Agnes ' existence , several countries were affected by torrential rains and typhoon @-@ force winds . Hardest hit was South Korea where record @-@ breaking rains triggered widespread flooding . More than 12 @,@ 000 structures were damaged or destroyed by the storm and 191 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 @,@ 300 hectares ) of farmland was inundated . A total of 113 people lost their lives in the country while damage reached $ 134 million . Taiwan saw similarly destructive rains which left 32 people dead of missing . A further 14 lives were lost in mainland China where coastal flooding from the typhoon 's slow movement coincided with the spring tide , resulting in the greatest storm surge since 1949 along the Yangtze estuary and Hangzhou Bay . Much of Japan saw rains from the storm , though no significant damage or loss of life took place in the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 23 , 1981 , following several days of tranquil weather , a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough ( TUTT ) began building westward from the International Dateline , near Wake Island . Over the following 36 hours , an expansive area of convection developed southwest of the organizing TUTT . On August 25 , surface observations on Guam in the Mariana Islands indicated the presence of a low pressure system . Coinciding with this , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) declared the formation of a tropical depression at 06 : 00 UTC . Weather reconnaissance missions throughout the day indicated a 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) center west of Guam , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Following improvement in the convective structure , the JTWC began warning on the cyclone as Tropical Depression 18W at 18 : 00 UTC , at which time the depression was situated roughly 665 km ( 415 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Guam .
Tracking west @-@ northwest and later northwest around the southwestern edge of a subtropical ridge , steady intensification of the cyclone ensued . Early on August 27 , a reconnaissance plane measured a central pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 36 inHg ) and flight @-@ level winds of 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) , indicating the system had become a tropical storm . In light of this , the JTWC assigned the name Agnes to the storm . Additionally due to its proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration dubbed the system with the local name Pining . Strengthening occurred at a climatological rate , with Agnes attaining typhoon @-@ status on August 29 . A large , banding eye @-@ feature developed within the core of Agnes as it approached the Ryukyu Islands of southwestern Japan . The storm passed 170 km ( 105 mi ) south of Okinawa around 06 : 00 UTC on August 30 and emerged over the East China Sea . Early on August 31 , Agnes achieved its peak strength with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) and an estimated central pressure of 947 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 96 inHg ) . This ranked it as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The JMA estimated the system to have been slightly weaker , with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) .
As the storm moved over the East China Sea on September 1 , Agnes began to interact with a mid @-@ latitude trough situated south of South Korea and began a prolonged extratropical transition . Increasing wind shear exposed the center of the typhoon and displaced convection to the north and east . Subsequent slowing of the cyclone 's forward speed as it turned northward resulted in an extended period of heavy rain for much of South Korea . The JTWC estimated Agnes to have become predominantly extratropical by the end of September 1 , coinciding with the system weakening below typhoon intensity . The JMA , however , maintained the storm as a tropical system as it began moving northwest . The diminishing cyclone moved over the Korea Strait on September 3 and completed its extratropical transition that afternoon . Accelerating over the Sea of Japan , the remnant storm deepened slightly before striking the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 4 with an estimated pressure of 976 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 82 inHg ) . After moving over the Sea of Okhotsk , Agnes impacted the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia on September 5 . The system then moved over the open waters of the North Pacific and was last noted near the International Dateline on September 6 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Japan = = =
On August 30 , Typhoon Agnes moved through the southern Ryukyu Islands , bringing strong winds and heavy rain to the region . Several islands received more than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rain , and a peak value of 304 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) was measured on Ishigaki Island . Despite passing through as a typhoon , only Tokashiki received winds of such intensity with a peak gust of 122 km / h ( 76 mph ) . A few other islands reported winds greater than 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) .
After moving over the Sea of Japan , the storm 's remnants brought heavy rains to much of Japan the day after a 6 @.@ 6 Mw earthquake rocked eastern parts of the country . Air and sea transportation across the Korean Strait was cancelled for September 3 . Landslides were reported across Kyushu , though no casualties occurred . On Shin @-@ Kamigotō , Nagasaki , rain fell at rates of 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) per hour on
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, or that their favorite color was green . She found all the information focused on homosexual men . She recalled in a 2001 interview , " I thought , this is not about me . There is nothing here about love or happiness . There has to be something better " . Her research took up so much of her time at Northwestern that she ended up failing out of the school . Gittings found a purpose during this time , saying , " My mission was not to get a general education but to find out about myself and what my life would be like . So I stopped going to classes and started going to the library . There were no organizations to turn to in those days only libraries were safe , although the information contained was dismal . "
= = = After college = = =
At age 17 , she returned from Northwestern " in disgrace " after failing out of school and unable to tell her family why . But she was compelled to continue her search for information . She found some in the novels available at the time : Nightwood , The Well of Loneliness , and Extraordinary Women . Soon thereafter , her father discovered The Well of Loneliness in a pile of other things in her bedroom . He was so appalled at what he found that he instructed her to burn the book , but did so in a letter as he was unable to speak to her about it face to face . Still eager to learn more about homosexuality , Gittings took a night course in abnormal psychology where she met a woman , with whom she had a brief affair , her first . At age 18 , she left home to be on her own and moved to Philadelphia .
Gittings began to hitchhike on weekends to New York City , dressed as a man , to visit gay bars since she knew of none in Philadelphia , and knew of no other places to go to get " plugged into the gay community . " In a 1975 interview , she recalled , " I wore drag because I thought that was a way to show I was gay . It 's changed now , but in the early 50s there were basically two types of women in the gay bars : the so @-@ called butch ones in short hair and plain masculine attire and the so @-@ called femme ones in dresses and high heels and makeup . I knew high heels and makeup weren 't my personal style , so I thought ... I must be the other kind ! " However , Gittings found very little in common with the women she met in the bars , and after witnessing a gay male acquaintance get beaten up after leaving a bar , began to focus her energies on collecting books .
= = Activism in the 1950s and 1960s = =
= = = Daughters of Bilitis = = =
In 1956 , Gittings traveled to California on the advice of Donald Webster Cory , to visit the office of the new ONE , Inc . , an early homophile organization that dedicated itself to providing support to homosexuals in the US . While in California , she met Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin , who had co @-@ founded the Daughters of Bilitis ( DOB ) in San Francisco . " She was a cute , curly @-@ haired young woman wearing a shift and sandals . I remember she had this satchel , a backpack — I 'd never seen anything like it . Or her " , Lyon remembered . At her first meeting of the Daughters of Bilitis in someone 's living room , Gittings brought up the obscurity of the name , which she thought was impractical , difficult to pronounce and spell , and referenced a fictional bisexual character , not even homosexual . " Even then I was pretty assertive ... What were they doing with a name like that ? It wasn 't very nice of me , but they seemed to take it with reasonably good spirits . "
In 1958 , Martin and Lyon asked Gittings to start a chapter in New York City , which she did when less than a dozen women responded to her notice in the Mattachine Society newsletter asking for " all women in the New York area who are interested in forming a chapter of the DOB " on September 20 , 1958 . Gittings served as the chapter 's first president for three years commuting to New York from Philadelphia twice a month .
In 1982 , Gittings remembered , " I joined the movement in 1958 , when the subject of homosexuality was still shrouded in complete silence . There were no radio talk shows or TV documentaries . In all the United States , there were maybe a half dozen groups , two hundred people active in all . " The Daughters of Bilitis served as a social alternative to bars for lesbians , but took great care to deny that they were " arranging for ' immoral contacts ' . " While president of the DOB in New York , attending members numbered between ten and forty per meeting . They met twice a month and often invited doctors , psychiatrists , ministers and attorneys to address their meetings , even if the message was clearly disparaging to lesbians . Gittings recalled , " At first we were so grateful just to have people — anybody — pay attention to us that we listened to and accepted everything they said , no matter how bad it was ... anything that helped to break the silence , no matter how silly or foolish it may look to us today , was important . "
Gittings admitted that early meetings and writings in the Daughters of Bilitis urged their members not to upset mainstream heterosexual society ; that integration and acceptance would be won if heterosexuals could see that gays and lesbians were not dramatically different from themselves . She worked in clerical positions during this time , spending ten years as a mimeograph operator for an architectural firm . The New York chapter of the DOB distributed a newsletter to about 150 people , and Gittings worked on it while being required to stay overtime at her job . In 1959 , after using company envelopes to mail the newsletter out and covering the firm 's name with a sticker , someone wrote to the firm to notify them that a newsletter addressing lesbianism was being distributed . Gittings was sure that she would be fired , but her boss , a woman , stated cryptically that she was familiar with the topic , having served in the armed forces . She was not fired but cautioned to be more careful instead .
= = = The Ladder = = =
From 1963 @-@ 66 , she edited the organization 's magazine , The Ladder , following both Lyon and Martin as editors . Although the Daughters of Bilitis did take a political stand in the 1959 San Francisco mayoral race , Martin and Lyon preferred The Ladder to remain apolitical . Gittings was impressed with how her influence as editor impacted the magazine and the opinions of its readers . " I discovered the power of the press , the power to put in what you want in order to influence readers , " she said .
At the 1963 convention of the newly formed East Coast Homophile Organizations , the audience heard a speaker named Dr. Albert Ellis tell them that " the exclusive homosexual " was a psychopath . Articles and essays in The Ladder sometimes carried these viewpoints , since it was difficult to get psychiatrists and doctors to address homosexuality in any form . Gittings said , " People like Ellis talked about homosexuality being a sickness . And they talked about a cure ... We 'd sit there and listen and politely applaud and then go for the social hour afterward . " However , after Dr. Ellis spoke , so did gay activist Frank Kameny , making an impression upon Gittings with his point that it is useless to try to find cures and causes for homosexuality since there is no valid evidence that it is an illness . Said Gittings , " My thinking didn 't change until Frank Kameny came along and he said plainly and firmly and unequivocally that homosexuality is no kind of sickness or disease or disorder or malfunction , it is fully on par with heterosexuality ... Suddenly I found that I was looking at things that had happened in the past in a very different light and I was taking a position that was increasingly diverging from DOB ’ s positions . "
Gittings began to implement changes in The Ladder that included adding " A Lesbian Review " underneath the title on the cover and replacing the line drawings on the cover with photographs of actual lesbians , often taken by her partner , Kay Lahusen . Gittings distributed The Ladder in six bookstores in New York and Philadelphia , and one Greenwich Village store displayed the magazine prominently , selling 100 copies a month . The focus of the magazine shifted as well to tackling more controversial issues to spark debate , printing such articles titled " I Hate Women " remarking on women who are politically apathetic , and " To Act or to Teach ? " that was a back @-@ and @-@ forth debate on whether it was more effective to educate the public or take political action .
= = = Protests = = =
Gittings participated in many of the earliest LGBT actions in the United States . In 1965 , Gittings marched in the first gay picket lines at the White House , the US State Department , and at Independence Hall in Philadelphia to protest the federal government 's policy on discrimination of homosexuals , holding a sign that read " Sexual preference is irrelevant to federal employment . " The men who agreed to picket had to wear suits and ties , and the women who participated were to wear dresses , heels , and pantyhose so as to look employable by the federal government . Reactions from passersby were varied . A tourist witnessing the demonstration remarked , " I still don 't believe it . Somebody 's kidding . " A stunned high school student pointed out , " They all look so normal . "
Gittings recalled , " I remember a man said to his kids , ' Hold your noses — it 's dirty here . ' And there was a woman dragging a string of kids who said , very angrily , ' You should all be married and have children like me . ' " Leaflets were distributed to passersby that described their reasons for picketing , surprising some recipients who were unaware gays and lesbians could be fired so easily , and disgusting others . Gittings remembered , " It was risky and we were scared . Picketing was not a popular tactic at the time . And our cause seemed outlandish even to most gay people . " The evening prior to the group 's picketing the State Department , Secretary of State Dean Rusk announced the pickets at a press conference . Gittings connected the high @-@ profile visibility with a " breakthrough into mainstream publicity . "
From 1965 @-@ 69 , she and Frank Kameny led the Annual Reminder , picketing at Independence Hall in Philadelphia on July 4 , until the Stonewall Riots in June 1969 . After the riots , the annual Gay Pride Parade commemorating the riots took its place . Differences in Gittings ' political stance and the leadership of the DOB began to show , and came to a culmination in 1966 when she was ousted as the editor of The Ladder for , as one source claims , creating the issue that reported on the DOB convention late , but according to another source because she removed " For Adults Only " on the cover of the magazine without consulting the DOB .
In November 1967 , Gittings and Kameny worked together as co @-@ counsel in hearings held by the Department of Defense to discredit an expert witness named Dr. Charles Socarides , who testified that homosexuals could be converted to heterosexuality , and to call in question the policy held by the Department of Defense that homosexual employees could be fired for being named as homosexuals . " Publicity was the objective " , Gittings recalled many years later . Kameny and Gittings dressed conservatively , but wore buttons that said " Gay is Good " and " Pray for Sodomy . " " We held press conferences for the benefit of sharp @-@ eyed reporters . When we first went into a hearing room , we made certain to shake hands with all ... participants so ( they ) could not avoid reading our buttons . Although neither was an attorney , at the end of their cross @-@ examination , the Department of Defense removed Socarides from their lists of expert witnesses .
Gittings made hundreds of appearances as a speaker in the late 1960s . She carried on her mission to convince heterosexuals and homosexuals alike that homosexuality is not an illness , stating in a letter in 1967 :
" I keep trying to convince people in the movement that the charge of sickness is perhaps our greatest problem ... we can 't really progress in other directions until the unsubstantiated assumption of sickness ... is demolished ! It 's almost always there , however slyly or covertly or even unconsciously , however ' sympathetic ' the person : the attitude that homosexuality is somehow undesirable , some sort of twist or malfunction or failure or maladaptation or other kind of psychic sickness . And in our society sick people , by any definition of sick , just DO not get equal treatment . Equal treatment — no more , no less — is what we want ! And compassion — which many homosexuals gladly swallow because they think it represents an improvement in attitudes toward them — is not equal treatment . "
= = Activism in the 1970s and later = =
= = = American Library Association = = =
In the 1970s , Gittings continued her search for resources in libraries that addressed homosexuality in a positive , supportive way . In discussing her pursuit of the improvement of materials for gays and lesbians in libraries , she said , " For years I would haunt libraries and secondhand book shops trying to find stories to read about my people , and then I became active in other arenas of the gay rights movement , but I always kept an eye on the emerging literature ... It began to talk about homosexuals who were healthy and happy and wholesome and who had good lives ... That rang the bells for me — libraries , gay books ! "
Gittings found a home in the gay group that formed in 1970 in the American Library Association , the first gay caucus in a professional association , and became its coordinator in 1971 . She pushed the American Library Association for more visibility for gays and lesbians in the profession . She staffed a kissing booth at the Dallas convention of the ALA , underneath the banner " Hug a Homosexual , " with a " women only " side and a " men only " side . When no one took advantage of it , she and Patience and Sarah author Alma Routsong ( pen name : Isabel Miller ) kissed in front of rolling television cameras . In describing its success , despite most of the reaction being negative , Gittings said , " We needed to get an audience . So we decided , let 's show gay love live . We were offering free — mind you , free — same @-@ sex kisses and hugs . Let me tell you , the aisles were mobbed , but no one came into the booth to get a free hug . So we hugged and kissed each other . It was shown twice on the evening news , once again in the morning . It put us on the map . "
Gittings made an appearance on the Phil Donahue Show in 1970 and on PBS ' David Susskind Show in 1971 , along with six other lesbians , including Lilli Vincenz and Barbara Love . They were among the first open lesbians to appear on television in the US , and debated long @-@ held stereotypes about gays with Susskind . A week after her appearance on the David Susskind Show , a middle @-@ aged couple approached Gittings in the supermarket to claim , " You made me realize that you gay people love each other just the way Arnold and I do . "
= = = American Psychiatric Association = = =
In 1972 , Gittings and Kameny organized a discussion with the American Psychiatric Association entitled " Psychiatry : Friend or Foe to Homosexuals : A Dialogue " , where a panel of psychiatrists were to discuss homosexuality . When Gittings ' partner Kay Tobin Lahusen noticed that all the psychiatrists were heterosexual , she protested . Gittings remembered , " My partner , Kay , said , ' This isn 't right — here you have two psychiatrists pitted against two gays , and what you really need is someone who is both . ' The panel moderator , Dr. Kent Robinson , agreed to add a gay psychiatrist if we could find one . In 1972 who would come forward ? ... Kay and I wrote letters and made phone calls around the country . " A gay psychiatrist in Philadelphia finally agreed to appear on the panel in heavy disguise , and with a voice distorting microphone , calling himself " Dr. H. Anonymous " . He was John E. Fryer , and he discussed how he was forced to be closeted while practicing psychiatry . Gittings read aloud letters from psychiatrists she had solicited who declined to appear for fear of professional ostracism . She described the event as " transformative " .
In 1973 , homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual as a mental disorder , and Gittings celebrated by being photographed with the Philadelphia newspaper headlines , " Twenty Million Homosexuals Gain Instant Cure . "
Gittings spent 16 years working with libraries and campaigning to get positive gay and lesbian @-@ themed materials into libraries and to eliminate censorship and job discrimination . She wrote Gays in Library Land : The Gay and Lesbian Task Force of the American Library Association : The First Sixteen Years . , a brief history of the group . She helped start what was then called the National Gay Task Force , later to be named the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force ( NGLTF ) in 1973 . Gittings served on the board of the NGLTF throughout the 1980s . She inspired nurses to form the Gay Nurses Alliance in 1973 . She held exhibits at APA conventions in 1972 , 1976 , and 1978 , her last one being " Gay Love : Good Medicine " that portrayed gays as happy and healthy .
= = Legacy = =
Gittings appeared in the documentary films Gay Pioneers , Before Stonewall , After Stonewall , Out of the Past , and Pride Divide . In 1991 she remembered her decisions to be as open as she was throughout her life when she said , " Every time I had to make a decision to put myself forward or to stay back , to use my real name or not , to go on television or decline , to get out on some of the earliest picket lines or remain behind . I usually took the public position because there weren 't many of us yet that could afford the risk . "
In 1999 , Gittings was honored for her contributions to the LGBT cause at the seventh annual PrideFest America , in Philadelphia . The organization described Gittings as " the Rosa Parks of the gay and lesbian civil rights movement " .
Gittings was renowned for her " ferocious dedication to the cause with a cock @-@ eyed optimism , kindness , and gentle sense of humor . " As recognition for Gittings ' contributions to the promotion of gay and lesbian literature , in 2002 the Gay , Lesbian , Bisexual , and Transgender Round Table of the ALA renamed one of their three book awards the Stonewall Book Award @-@ Barbara Gittings Literature Award . In 2001 , the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation honored her by bestowing her the first Barbara Gittings Award , highlighting dedication to activism . The same year , the Free Library of Philadelphia announced its Barbara Gittings Collection of books dedicated to gay and lesbian issues . There are more than 2000 items in the collection , the second largest gay and lesbian collection of books in the US outside that of the San Francisco Public Library .
In 2003 , the American Library Association rewarded her with its highest tribute , lifetime honorary membership . She also earned the first John E. Fryer Award from the American Psychiatric Association in 2006 with Frank Kameny . The award goes to people who have made a significant impact on the mental health of gays and lesbians . In October 2006 , The Smithsonian Institution acquired a sign she carried in her picketing in 1965 , donated by Frank Kameny . In 2007 , readers of The Advocate included Gittings on a list of their 40 favorite gay and lesbian heroes .
On October 1 , 2012 , the city of Philadelphia named a section of Locust Street " Barbara Gittings Way " in Gittings ' memory . Also in 2012 she was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people .
= = Personal life = =
Gittings was an avid music lover , most interested in Baroque and Renaissance music . She sang in choral groups for most of her life , spending over 50 years in the Philadelphia Chamber Chorus . She was also a hiking and canoeing enthusiast . She and her lifelong partner , Kay Tobin ( also known as Kay Tobin Lahusen ; born 1930 ) met in 1961 at a picnic in Rhode Island . Gittings described how they began : " We hit it off , we started courting . I flew to Boston [ to see her ] and got off the plane with a big bunch of flowers in my hand . I couldn 't resist . I did not care what the world thought . I dropped the flowers , grabbed her and kissed her . That was not being done in 1961 . "
Gittings and Lahusen were together for 46 years . They donated copies of some materials and photographs covering their activism to the Cornell University Rare and Manuscript Collections . In 2007 , Lahusen donated all of their original papers and photographs to the New York City Public Library ( NYPL ) , whose head , Paul LeClerc , said , " The collection donated by Barbara Gittings and Kay Tobin Lahusen is a remarkable first @-@ hand chronicle detailing the battles of gays and lesbians to overcome the prejudice and restrictions that were prevalent prior to the activism and protest movements that started in the 1960s . "
The University of Massachusetts Amherst main library received a donation of over 1 @,@ 000 of Gittings ' and Lahusen 's books in 2007 ; it is the Gittings @-@ Lahusen Gay Book Collection , Call no . : RB 005 .
In 1997 , Gittings and Lahusen pushed the American Association of Retired Persons ( AARP ) to grant couple 's membership to them , for a reduced price on health insurance . One of her last acts as an activist was to come out in the newsletter published by the assisted living facility they reside in . On February 18 , 2007 , Gittings died in Kennett Square , Pennsylvania after a long battle with breast cancer . She is survived by her life partner , Kay Tobin Lahusen , and her sister , Eleanor Gittings Taylor . In 1999 , Gittings summed up her inspiration for her activism : " As a teenager , I had to struggle alone to learn about myself and what it meant to be gay . Now for 48 years I 've had the satisfaction of working with other gay people all across the country to get the bigots off our backs , to oil the closet door hinges , to change prejudiced hearts and minds , and to show that gay love is good for us and for the rest of the world too . It 's hard work — but it 's vital , and it 's gratifying , and it 's often fun ! "
= Kew Asylum =
Kew Lunatic Asylum is a decommissioned psychiatric hospital located between Princess Street and Yarra Boulevard in Kew , a suburb of Melbourne , Australia . Operational from 1871 to 1988 , Kew was one of the largest asylums ever built in Australia . Later known as Willsmere , the complex of buildings were constructed between 1864 and 1872 to the design of architects G.W. Vivian and Frederick Kawerau of the Victorian Public Works Office to house the growing number of " lunatics " , " inebriates " , and " idiots " in the Colony of Victoria .
The first purpose built asylum in the Colony of Victoria , Kew was also larger and more expensive than its sister asylums at Ararat and Beechworth . The asylum 's buildings are typical examples of the Italianate architecture style which was popular in Victorian Melbourne . Designed to be elegant , beautiful , yet substantial , and to be viewed as " a magnificent asylum for the insane " with the aim of portraying Melbourne as a civilised and benevolent city whilst avoiding the jail @-@ like appearance of other asylums . These aims were furthered by the use of low ha @-@ ha walls and extensively landscaped grounds . Long considered of cultural and historic significance to Melbourne , Kew Asylum and its complex of buildings were registered on the Register of the National Estate in March 1978 .
Despite initial grand plans and ideals , Kew Asylum had a difficult and chequered history , contributing to several inquiries throughout its 117 years of operation , including a Royal Commission . Overcrowding , mismanagement , lack of resources , poor sanitation and disease were common criticisms during the asylum 's first five decades ; out @-@ dated facilities and institutionalisation were criticisms of Kew 's later period .
Kew continued to operate throughout the 20th century as a " hospital for the insane " , " mental hospital " , or " psychiatric hospital " , treating acute , long @-@ term and geriatric patients until it closed in December 1988 . The main building and surrounding grounds were sold by the State Government in the 1980s and were redeveloped as residential properties .
= = Site and planning = =
During the 1850s , the existing lunatic asylums of the Colony of Victoria were overcrowded . Yarra Bend Asylum , while only six years old , was considered unsuitable and Carlton Lunatic Asylum ( which was originally a gaol ) was in a state of disrepair . As a result , in 1854 the Government of the Colony of Victoria commissioned a report proposing sites and designs for a new lunatic asylum . Contemporary educated opinion was that lunatic asylums should be built " on a healthy site , freely admitting light and air , and drainage ... [ on ] a gentle eminence in a fertile and agreeable country " . In a report by the New South Wales ' Inspector of Asylums , Frederick Norton Manning stated that " the site chosen is of primary importance . On it must depend the comfort , happiness and health of the inmates . " Thus a hilltop site , across the Yarra River from Yarra Bend was recommended in a report by G.W. Vivian of the Public Works Office . Vivian described the site as :
a section of land , about 400 acres in extent , situated on the River Yarra , about 4 miles from Melbourne , and ½ a mile to the north of the village of Kew ... the site selected is a fine slope , elevated about 100 feet above the level of the river , admitting of proper drainage and admirably adapted for ornamental grounds , the aspect chosen is south @-@ east , and during the summer months the refreshing influence of the sea @-@ breeze will be felt , without being exposed to south west gales .
G. W. Vivian , Report on the Proposed Kew Lunatic Asylum
The idea that breezes or wind @-@ swept locations were healthy came from a wider Victorian belief that associated disease with congestion and squalor , and that miasmas of impure air caused epidemics . The area Vivian recommended for the asylum had originally been set aside for a village reserve . Locals from Kew were upset by the proposal and petitioned the government , to no avail . 340 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 km2 ; 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ) of land in the County of Bourke , parish of Boroondara , city of Kew were permanently reserved as a " Site for Lunatic Asylum " in the Government Gazette of 1864 . Construction began in 1864 , however was halted almost immediately with reports of inferior works on the foundations . An investigation followed and Frederick Kawerau resigned . Contractor Samuel Amess continued construction at Kew using Kawerau 's designs . They were derived from plans earlier outlined by Vivian , and were basically identical to Kawerau 's designs for Ararat and Beechworth , though Kew was much larger , and more expensive at a cost of ₤ 198 @,@ 334 .
= = Distinctive features = =
The asylum complex is an example of the E @-@ plan lunatic asylums based on the model 1850s asylum in Colney Hatch , England , which itself was based on the 1830 design of Hanwell Asylum in London . Kew was also considered a barracks style asylum due to its perceived resemblance to stockades or gaols . The buildings are constructed from oversize bricks , made from local clay which was quarried on @-@ site . The bricks were then rendered with cement . The central administration block is three storied with a mansard roof and cupola . Two storeyed ward wings extend to each side , one for each sex . Each wing has a four storey , mansard @-@ roofed tower , which contained water tanks . The ward wings were surrounded by courtyards lined with iron columned verandas , many of which were retained when the complex was redeveloped . Internally , the dormitories had 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) ceilings and brightly coloured walls with the beds aligned in neat rows . The floors were of timber , principally so they could be scrubbed . The primary access to the complex was from a tree @-@ lined drive from Princess Street ( now known as " Main Drive " ) culminating in an elliptical carriageway in front of the main building . A second drive ( now known as " Lower Drive " ) extended from Princess Street to the rear gates of the asylum . This road was commonly used for deliveries to and from the asylum via the rear gatehouse .
While Kew 's plan and detail are similar to its sister asylums at Ararat and Beechworth , the Kew asylum is much larger with the front buildings and towers more impressive architecturally . Kew 's distinctive towers and mansard roofs make it one of the most prominent architectural landmarks in Melbourne and is clearly visible on the eastern skyline .
= = = Ha @-@ Ha walls = = =
Another distinctive feature of Kew Asylum and its sister asylums is the use of a variation on ha @-@ ha walls around the patients ' courtyards . They consisted of a trench , one side of which was vertical and faced with stone or bricks , the other side sloped and turfed . From the inside , the walls presented a tall face to patients , deterring them from escaping , while from outside the walls looked low so as not to suggest imprisonment . A journalist with The Argus described the walls as an " excellent arrangement , as it enables the patients to see the outside world , and does away with that gaol appearance and feeling inculcated by the walls of the old asylums " . Many of Kew 's ha @-@ ha walls were retained and remain intact , unlike those at Beechworth and Ararat which were partially dismantled or the trenches were filled in .
= = = Grounds and landscaping = = =
The grounds of the Kew Asylum were originally landscaped in the tradition of an English country park . This was consistent with the Victorian idea that pleasant or beautiful surroundings would help ease the mental anguish of the inmates . It has been proposed that the initial plantings on the site were supplied by Baron Ferdinand von Mueller , director of the Botanic Gardens . Initially , the grounds were planted with many conifers and large growing trees , oaks , elms and Moreton Bay figs ; and trees indigenous to the area , river red gum , yellow box , and lightwood were retained in the landscape . In 1913 the landscape gardener Hugh Linaker was employed to lay out the grounds of Mont Park Asylum . As landscape gardener for the State Lunacy Department he commenced a program of landscape improvements and tree plantings at other asylums in Victoria , including Kew .
The conifer plantings and oak avenues along Main and Lower Drives were well established and of a mature size by the 1940s . Conifers were widely planted from the 1860s along with Moreton Bay figs and occasionally oaks . Oaks and elms were more widely planted from the 1880s . It is not known if Linaker was responsible for the oak avenues , but it appears that many of the conifers , Monterey pines , Canary Island pines , Monterey cypress , hoop pine , Bunya Bunya pines and Himalayan cedars , predate Linaker and the oaks and elms may have been planted soon after his appointment . The use of Bhutan cypress in the landscape is almost certainly due to Linaker as he favoured upright trees . It is possible that the two remnant Monterey cypress along Main Drive and a Monterey pine along Lower Drive are trees from an earlier planting scheme . Several trees and plants on the grounds of Kew Asylum and Kew Cottages have been classified as of historical significance by the Victorian Heritage Council and the National Trust of Australia ( Victoria ) , and have been protected during the property 's redevelopment .
In addition to the asylum 's ornamental gardens , the grounds featured vegetable gardens , farms and recreational areas such as cricket ovals and bowling greens . Little evidence remains of these structures except that there is now a road that encircles the former cricket oval .
= = Patients = =
Many of Kew 's early patients were transferred from Yarra Bend Asylum and Carlton Lunatic Asylum and were housed in the two main wings —
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men in the right wing , women in the left . The wards were dormitory style and were divided by patient type — male / female , paying / pauper , manageable / refractory . The area of the women 's wards was smaller due to the laundries and drying courtyards being located on the women 's side of the asylum .
= = = Admission process = = =
Under the Lunacy Statute of 1867 , Lunacy Acts from 1880 to 1928 and Mental Hygiene Act of 1933 , people could be admitted to the asylum by a number of means :
At the request of a friend , relative or acquaintance , with medical certificates written by two medical practitioners . This method was amended by The Mental Health Act 1959 which stated a person could be admitted upon the recommendation of a medical practitioner who had examined the person . As soon as possible after admission the superintendent of the hospital was required to examine the patient and either approve the recommended admission or discharge the patient .
Any ( lunatic ) person found wandering at large or not under proper care and control could be brought before two justices who could order the person 's removal to an asylum . The police were usually responsible for bringing the person before the two justices .
Any prisoner of the Crown thought to be a lunatic could be removed from a jail to an asylum by order of the Chief Secretary .
Voluntary Boarders were those who requested that they be admitted for a mutually agreed period of time ( from 1915 onwards ) .
Until the end of World War I , there was little change in the admission process at Kew . Upon arriving , a variable amount of data was collected on the person being admitted . These basic details included age , sex , marital status and former address ( or name of the asylum / jail transferred from ) . Other details requested included names of relatives or friends , the person 's religion and occupation and whether others in the family have ever been classified as insane . Other information recorded , where available , were dates of previous admissions , " form of mental disorder " , bodily condition ( " satisfactory " , " unsatisfactory " , " feeble " , etc . ) and " duration of existing attack " . From approximately 1900 onwards , photographs were usually taken on admission . If the person was very restless , the photograph was omitted . Belongings , such as books and clothes , were often returned to friends or family . Inmates were required to dress in institutional clothes . This was useful in a number of ways as it assisted the public in easily identifying escaped inmates ; reduced the need to request clothes ( or money for clothes ) from the inmate 's family or their estate ; and minimised inmate conflict when inmates swapped or stole clothes from each other . The property and estates of people who were deemed to be insane were controlled and administered by the Master @-@ in @-@ Equity , also known as the Master @-@ in @-@ Lunacy .
= = = Diagnoses = = =
The diagnoses given to patients during Kew 's first fifty years were the common ailments found in most lunatic asylums of the pre @-@ Kraepelin era
Delusional insanity
Dementia
Epilepsy
General paralysis / paresis of the insane
Idiocy
Inebriation
Melancholia
Puerperal mania
It should be noted that some of these terms are still in use today , however they may now have different meanings . For example , from examining the notes on some of Kew 's early " dementia " patients , it can be deduced that many were most likely suffering from what we now term severe depression , catatonia or schizophrenia .
= = = Children at Kew = = =
In the early days of Kew Asylum , the distinction between " lunatics " and " idiots " ( or " imbeciles " ) was not made . Therefore , many wards of the state , " difficult " children and children with mental retardation were housed with the adults at Kew . By 1879 nearly 600 children , representing a quarter of all inmates , were accommodated in various institutions in Victoria . In the 1880s the government decided that a separate building should be built to accommodate child inmates . The Zox Commission recommended the Yarra Bend Asylum site as appropriate for buildings for " imbecile " children . However , a site between the main building and the entrance gates of Kew was chosen and in 1885 a contract was let for the erection of cottage units . The Kew Idiot Ward ( Kew Cottages ) was opened in May 1887 . The Idiot Ward was initially considered a ward of Kew Lunatic Asylum , however later became known as a separate institution – Kew Idiot Asylum . Although the Idiot Asylum only admitted children , many of those children remained in residence at the Cottages as adults .
= = = Inebriates at Kew = = =
Under the Lunacy Statute of 1867 , the Master @-@ in @-@ Lunacy was able commit inebriates to an asylum for any period up to twelve months . Inebriates who were able to pay the lodging fees at private inebriate asylums were able to be housed in inebriate @-@ specific institutions such as Northcote Inebriate Asylum . Paupers were placed in lunatic asylums . After the 1888 Zox Commission into Asylums , all private / semi @-@ private inebriate asylums were abolished under the provisions of the Inebriate Asylums Act 1888 . Northcote was taken over by the Government of Victoria in 1890 and converted into a public inebriate retreat . Brightside and Lara Inebriate Retreats were opened soon after , and many alcoholics were moved out of the lunatic asylums .
= = = Famous patients = = =
Ambrose Dyson – Political cartoonist and satirist . Died in Kew Asylum .
Edward / Ellen De Lacy Evans – Picaresque cross @-@ dressing woman from the 1870s .
Patrick McShane – Test cricketer & umpire . Died in Kew Asylum in 1903 .
Billy Midwinter – Test cricketer who played for both Australia and England . Died in Kew Asylum in 1890 .
Paris Nesbit – barrister , politician and newspaper editor .
Walter Richardson – father of Henry Handel Richardson , Australian author .
Harry Trott – Australian Test cricketer and Australian team captain .
Tom Wills – Victorian cricketer , one of the founders of Australian rules football .
= = Investigations and inquiries = =
Despite initial grand plans and ideals , Kew Asylum had a difficult and chequered history resulting in several inquiries , including a Royal Commission . The first inquiry occurred in 1876 , only five years after Kew opened . Another notable inquiry occurred in 1907 after a severe outbreak of Typhoid fever , which at the time was thought to have been virtually eradicated in Melbourne . This inquiry in turn led to amendments to the Lunacy Act , improvements to Kew ( and the state 's other asylums ) and the planned construction of Mont Park Asylum .
= = = Zox Royal Commission = = =
Public outcry at the treatment of the insane in the colony 's lunatic asylums increased in the 1870s , fueled by articles and woodcuts in magazines and the writings of " The Vagabond " in The Argus . Officially known as Royal Commission on Asylums for the Insane and Inebriate 1884 – 1886 , the Royal Commission chaired by Ephraim Zox was required to inquire into and report upon the state and condition of Asylums for the Insane and Inebriates , both public and private . The Royal Commission made some sixty five recommendations in its final report . A number of the Commission 's recommendations were implemented prior to the presentation of its final report , others were implemented through the Lunacy Amendment Act 1888 and some recommendations were not implemented until proclamation of the Lunacy Act 1903 in 1905 .
The Commission recommended that criminal patients be kept apart from other patients , thus male criminally insane patients were moved to J Ward of the Ararat Asylum and female dangerous patients to Sunbury Asylum .
The Commission also recommended that inebriates and idiots be housed in asylums separate from the insane which led to the construction of Kew Idiot Ward and various Inebriate Asylums .
The Zox Commission further recommended increasing the role of medical doctors at the asylums and that " Medical men have the sole and exclusive right to determine whether their fellow citizens are sane or insane . The medical expert therefore stands in the position of witness , jury and judge " . Prior to ( and in some instances , for a time after ) the Zox Commission , many superintendents at asylums did not have any training in insanity .
= = Changing names , changing society = =
During its 120 years of operation , Kew 's title changed numerous times . This has been in response to society 's changing views towards the treatment and care of mentally ill persons ; improvements in treatment leading to better health outcomes and changes in the Victorian Government 's various Health Acts . From its establishment until 1905 the institution at Kew was known as an asylum – a title which emphasised its function as a place of detention rather than a place where people could possibly be cured . Kew was also for a short period known as the Metropolitan Lunatic Asylum at Kew , possibly to differentiate it from its sister country asylums at Ararat and Beechworth . During this period , all people committed to the asylum were termed ' inmates ' rather than patients – again emphasising detention rather than cure .
The Lunacy Act of 1903 changed the title of all Victorian " asylums " to " hospitals for the insane " however this Act didn ’ t come into operation until March 1905 . From this time onwards , inmates began being referred to as patients . The Mental Hygiene Act of 1933 again altered Kew 's title to " Kew Mental Hospital " . The move from ' asylum ' to ' hospital ' and ' inmate ' to ' patient ' also reflected the increased involvement of the medical profession in the management and treatment of mental illness .
After World War II there was a period of significant change in the treatment and prognosis for people with a mental illness . Drugs such as lithium carbonate ( discovered in 1948 by Australian psychiatrist John Cade ) and chlorpromazine ( discovered in 1950 's ) lead to improvements in treatment . Thus many people with a mental illness could in many cases be treated in hospital for a shorter period and return to the community . The Mental Health Act of 1959 designated hospitals providing short @-@ term diagnosis and accommodation as " psychiatric hospitals " . Therefore , any institution could have a section designated as a mental hospital for long @-@ term or indefinite hospitalisation and a section designated as a psychiatric hospital for short term diagnosis and treatment of acute psychiatric illness .
In 1962 the decision was made to no longer house acute or short @-@ term patients at Kew and therefore it was formally proclaimed a Mental Hospital under the Mental Health Act of 1959 . Up until this time , Kew Mental Hospital was still colloquially known as " Kew Asylum " . In the 1960s Kew began to be known as " Willsmere " , however some authors state the name change to " Willsmere " was later .
In January 1982 three wards of Kew Mental Hospital were proclaimed a Psychiatric Hospital under the provisions of the Mental Health Act 1959 . These wards were then known as the Willsmere Unit and were established to receive and accommodate short @-@ term acute patients .
= = Shrinking grounds = =
When opened , Kew 's extensive 340 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 km2 ; 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ) of grounds were intended to be used for farming , agriculture and recreation for the inmates . However , as treatment methods , inmate profiles , superintendents and societal factors changed , use of the grounds changed accordingly .
A large area of the grounds between the asylum main buildings and Princess Street was allocated to Children 's Cottages in 1885 . When the Children 's Cottages became a separate institution , the area surrounding the cottages became no longer under asylum management and was no longer for asylum inmate use . Widening and straightening of Princess Street in 1939 @-@ 1940 resulted in the demolishing of Kew 's gatehouses , loss of land and the relocation of the main gates to Victoria Park , Kew . Construction of Yarra Boulevard during the 1930s lead to a section of the asylum 's river frontage being acquired by the roads department .
In 1958 , 58 acres ( 0 @.@ 2 km2 ; 0 @.@ 1 sq mi ) of the northern section of the asylum grounds were offered under a Crown Grant to the Talbot Colony for Epileptics . Later known as Royal Talbot ( now part of Austin Health ) , the hospital and training centre continue to operate on the site to this day . An area of Kew
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. The team decided to include a song for Sammy Fong to explain to Mei Li that they should not wed . In the span of a few hours , they wrote the lyrics and music to " Don 't Marry Me " . Once the songs were finalized , Robert Russell Bennett , who had orchestrated several of the creators ' most successful previous shows , did the same for the score of Flower Drum Song .
The musical opened for tryouts on October 27 , 1958 at Boston 's Shubert Theatre . The audience gave it an enthusiastic response , causing Rodgers to leave his seat repeatedly and race to the back of the theatre , looking for someone to hug . The Boston critics thought well of the work , stating that after the show was polished , it was likely to be a hit . Shortly after the Boston opening , Fields suffered a heart attack , and , after his release from the hospital , he had to return to New York to recuperate . Author C. Y. Lee , who had quietly watched the rehearsals , recalled that , at the Boston performances , Hammerstein would have a secretary mark on the script any sound of the chairs squeaking , as indicating that the audience was restless . Hammerstein rewrote some of the book to expand the focus from Ta himself to the romantic relationships of the two couples .
= = Productions = =
= = = Original Broadway production = = =
After the Boston tryouts , Flower Drum Song opened on Broadway at the St. James Theatre on December 1 , 1958 . Sets were designed by Oliver Smith , costumes by Irene Sharaff and lighting by Peggy Clark .
C.Y. Lee sat in the audience on the first night ; he later stated that he had been nervous and was " bowled over " by the positive audience reaction . The show attracted considerable advance sales ; even when these were exhausted , sales remained strong and sellouts were the norm . Cast album sales were similar to previous Rodgers and Hammerstein hits . The show received six Tony Award nominations , but won only one Tony ( Best Conductor and Musical Director , for Salvatore Dell 'Isola ) . It was overshadowed that year by Redhead , which though it received only slightly better reviews than Flower Drum Song , and had a considerably shorter run , dominated the Tony Awards in the musical categories . Flower Drum Song ran for 600 performances , a longer run than any other musical from the 1958 – 1959 season – it lasted longer than any of the shows with which it had competed for Asian performers .
Midway through the run , Larry Blyden left the show and was replaced in the role of Sammy Fong by Jack Soo , with Larry Leung assuming the role of Frankie Wing . The production returned $ 125 @,@ 000 profit to its backers on an investment of $ 360 @,@ 000 . Attendance began to decline in December 1959 , though it continued to draw at above the 70 % of capacity level which a Broadway play then needed to meet expenses . With the summer approaching , generally a bad time for attendance , it was decided to close the show , and the last Broadway performance was given on May 7 , 1960 .
In his autobiography , Rodgers wrote of the effect the success of Flower Drum Song had on his state of mind :
The entire experience of working on Flower Drum Song was rewarding in many ways , not the least of which was that it convinced me that I had overcome all traces of my depression . My only thought was to keep on doing what I was doing , and I saw nothing in the future that could stop me .
= = = Subsequent productions = = =
The show opened in London 's Palace Theatre on March 24 , 1960 and ran for 464 performances . Fewer Asian performers were used in London ; the West End production starred Yau Shan Tung as Mei Li , Kevin Scott as Ta , George Minami as Wang , Yama Saki as Linda Low , Tim Herbert as Sammy Fong and Ida Shepley as Madam Liang . The production used Haney 's choreography , Bennett 's orchestrations and the Broadway set and costume designs , but was directed and supervised by Jerome Whyte . Both the production and the London cast album were well received .
Following the closure of the Broadway production , a U.S. national tour began on May 10 , 1960 in Detroit . Four of the New York leads , Hall , Soo , Kenney and Luke , joined the tour . By this time , Hammerstein was in his final illness ( he died in August 1960 ) , and none of the three producers accompanied the show on the road . After three weeks in Detroit , the show moved to Los Angeles , where the premiere attracted a star @-@ studded audience , including three Scandinavian princesses . San Francisco gave the show a rapturous reception when it opened at the Curran Theatre on August 1 . Lee and Fields , both present for the local premiere , were given ovations . Geary Street , on which the theatre is located , was decorated with Chinese lanterns , and a marching band of " Chinese girl musicians " played outside . The tour continued to be successful , spending 21 weeks in Chicago alone . It closed on October 14 , 1961 in Cleveland , a month before the film of the musical opened .
Lewis calls the 1961 film version of Flower Drum Song , starring Umeki , Soo , Hall and Suzie Wong star Nancy Kwan , " a bizarre pastiche of limping mediocrity " . He comments that since the 1958 version of the musical was rarely revived , the film " would in future years come to stand for the stage musical it so crassly misrepresented " and would serve as the version that academics and latter @-@ day theatre critics would judge when they analyzed the musical . The film was the only Hollywood adaptation of a Rodgers and Hammerstein musical to lose money . Nevertheless , it was nominated for five Academy Awards and featured choreography by Hermes Pan . As early as mid @-@ 1961 , the musical was licensed for local productions . That summer , the San Diego Civic Light Opera filled the 4 @,@ 324 @-@ seat Balboa Park Bowl to overflowing for a highly successful run of the musical . It was less successfully revived by that company five years later ; though it still attracted large crowds , local critics complained that Hammerstein 's view of Asians was outdated . Other early productions included successful revivals by the St. Louis Municipal Opera in 1961 and 1965 and revivals in the San Francisco area in 1963 and 1964 , both times with Soo as Sammy Fong .
The musical proved difficult to produce for amateur and school groups , however , because it requires a cast either Asian or made up as Asian . Even professional companies found it difficult to round up an entire cast of Asian singer @-@ dancer @-@ actors . By the late 1960s , the musical was rarely staged , and was often relegated to dinner theater productions . The Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization , which licenses the partnership 's works , believes that the work 's loss of popularity was due in part to increased racial sensitivity in the U. S. after the civil rights movement . In addition , producers found the show to be thinly plotted , and the songs not integrated as organically with the characters and story , as compared with Rodgers and Hammerstein 's most popular musicals .
Flower Drum Song came to be seen by some as stereotypical and patronizing towards Asians , and that it was " inauthentic , even offensive in its relentlessly upbeat picture of a big @-@ city Chinatown " . In 1983 , the announcement that it would be produced in San Francisco started a furor ; the producers pointedly stated that the show would be set in the 1930s and would have " a greater sensitivity toward the Chinese immigration problems at that time " . They added a scene in which Mei Li listens apprehensively to a radio broadcast warning about the dangers to the United States caused by Asian immigration . Many lines of dialogue were cut , and producer Fred Van Patten stated that " [ w ] hat we 've done is cut things in the show that Asians said to make white people laugh . " The song " Chop Suey " was deleted , as was Master Wang 's line that all white men look alike ( based on a line in C. Y. Lee 's novel , in which Wang states that all foreigners look alike ) . The author gave a rare public interview to defend his novel and the musical adaptation . The production , which had been scheduled for a three @-@ week run , closed early . A well @-@ attended production in Oakland in 1993 adhered strictly to the 1958 script , though part of the ballet was cut for lack of rehearsal time ; a more heavily censored 1996 production in San Mateo also did well at the box office .
= = = 2002 revival = = =
In 1996 , while attending the successful revival of The King and I , Chinese @-@ American playwright David Henry Hwang considered whether other Rodgers and Hammerstein shows could be revived and decided to work on Flower Drum Song . To Chinese Americans , the musical " represented political incorrectness incarnate . But [ Hwang ] had a secret soft spot for the movie version . ' It was kind of a guilty pleasure ... and one of the only big Hollywood films where you could see a lot of really good Asian actors onscreen , singing and dancing and cracking jokes . ' " Ted Chapin , president of the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization , announced that an unnamed " Asian playwright " had approached him about revising Flower Drum Song . Chapin called the musical " a naive , old fashioned , anti @-@ feminist story with a truly great score . ... It 's one that ... needs changes . " Rodgers ' will urged his heirs to do what they believed he would have agreed to ( Hammerstein 's instructions are unknown ) , but during her lifetime , his widow Dorothy had refused to countenance major changes in the plays . Hwang 's involvement was soon revealed , and in 1997 , C. Y. Lee announced that the rewrite had his approval .
Hwang was given a free hand with dialogue ; he was not allowed to change lyrics . Hwang was inexperienced at writing musicals , and the producers hired veteran Robert Longbottom to direct the production and collaborate on the new script , " really a new musical which has a pre @-@ existing score . " Only the character names , the San Francisco Chinatown setting and some of the relationships were retained , but the pair sought to be faithful to the spirit of both Lee 's novel and the musical 's original concept of old @-@ world and older generation values struggling with new @-@ world temptations and the desires of the younger generation . This concept is reflected in the struggle for survival of Wang 's Chinese opera company , as it competes with the more modern , Americanized night club run by Ta . The role of Mei @-@ li ( as spelled in the revision ) was expanded . The character of Madam Liang was changed " from the wise @-@ owl aunt " to a " savvy career woman " in show business . Chinatown is portrayed as a more gritty and difficult place for new immigrants , and the pursuit of material success is given a more cynical face , especially in Act II . The song " The Other Generation " was deleted ; " My Best Love " , which had been cut in tryouts in 1958 , was restored in its place , and " The Next Time It Happens " was imported from Pipe Dream . New orchestrations were by Don Sebesky and music director David Chase . According to The New York Times , Hwang " has reshaped the story to elucidate two of his own abiding thematic interests : the idea of the theater as a prism for society and the generational clashes of diversely assimilated immigrants . "
In September 2000 , after development through a series of workshops , the new version was presented at two well @-@ attended workshops for potential backers . The show failed to raise enough money for an immediate Broadway run , but Hwang hoped that an extended Los Angeles run would lead to raising additional funds . The revival was originally planned for the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles , but to save money he moved it to the nearby 739 @-@ seat Mark Taper Forum . Producer Gordon Davidson engaged an all @-@ Asian cast , including Broadway star Lea Salonga as Mei @-@ li . When it finally opened on October 14 , 2001 , the production received rave reviews from the Los Angeles critics . The show regularly sold out and was so popular it became the first show at the Taper to extend its scheduled run . It finally closed on January 13 , 2002 .
The success of the Los Angeles run sparked sufficient investment to move the show to Broadway . Half the cast was dismissed after the Los Angeles run for unstated reasons . Mary Rodgers later commented that Randall Duk Kim replaced Tzi Ma as Wang because she had admired Kim 's performance as the Kralahome in the 1996 revival of The King and I , but Kim was unavailable for the Los Angeles run . Hwang considerably altered and trimmed his long script during Broadway rehearsals and previews ; " The Next Time It Happens " was removed from the show . During the runup to the Broadway opening , the show received mostly positive publicity .
Opening night at the Virginia Theatre on October 17 , 2002 was attended by veterans of the film and 1958 production . Though it received warm applause from the audience , the critics mostly panned it . Attendance was near @-@ capacity during the first month of the run , but then dropped off precipitously . The producers hoped the show could hold out long enough to get a boost from the Tony Awards ( though nominated for three , including best book , it won none ) , but in February , they announced that the show would close on March 16 , 2003 , after 169 performances . The show 's backers lost their entire investment .
The production was directed and choreographed by Longbottom , with scenic design by Robin Wagner , costume design by Gregg Barnes and lighting design by Natasha Katz . Critic Karen W
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in the Baltic . On 7 November 1915 , Undine was steaming north of Arkona with a pair of destroyers when she was attacked by the British submarine E19 , under the command of Lieutenant Commander Francis Cromie . E19 launched a pair of torpedoes at Undine at a range of 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , both of which hit . The second torpedo detonated her ammunition magazines and blew up the ship . Undine sank quickly at 13 : 08 ; only fourteen men were killed in the attack , and the majority of her crew was rescued by the escorting destroyers . The loss of Undine came on the heels of the sinking of the armored cruiser Prinz Adalbert two weeks earlier . These two losses were significant enough to compel the German Navy to curtail the movements of the fleet in the Baltic for the remainder of the year .
= The Vicar of Wakefield ( 1910 film ) =
The Vicar Of Wakefield is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film was adapted from Oliver Goldsmith 's novel The Vicar of Wakefield , but covers only part of the plot and deviates significantly from the book to allow the story to be told within the confines of a single reel of film .
The film begins with the vicar and his family heading to a picnic with Squire Thornhill , during the course of which the vicar notices Thornhill 's interest in his daughter , Olivia . The vicar warns his family that Thornhill is a degenerate young man , but Olivia is seduced and elopes with Thornhill . Secretly , Thornhill arranges a fake marriage ceremony to capitalize on his sexual desires while avoiding the responsibility that would come with the union . Olivia learns the marriage was fake and that she has duped into a form of consensual prostitution with Thornhill , but escapes and returns home . Thornhill decides to take his revenge by having the vicar incarcerated for his debts . While in prison , the vicar learns that the marriage was in fact legitimate ; Thornhill 's uncle , Sir William , then forces his nephew to apologize to Olivia and fulfill his obligations .
The identities of most of the cast are known , but the role of director , often erroneously credited to Theodore Marston is not . The film was released on December 27 , 1910 and met with positive reviews . The surviving print is in the Nederlands Filmmuseum and has been released on DVD .
= = Plot = =
The Thanhouser production is an adaptation of only part of the novel . The film departs significantly from the original plot , such as in the omission of the double @-@ wedding scene . It begins with Dr Charles Primrose , the vicar of Wakefield , attending a picnic with his landlord Squire Thornhill . The vicar does not like Squire Thornhill , who is reputed to be a degenerate young man , but he has no reservations once he sees Thornhill 's interest in his daughter , Olivia . The next scene shows Squire Thornhill convincing Olivia to elope with him , so the two can be married . But Squire Thornhill has no intention of marrying her , and commissions a farmer to arrange a fake wedding ceremony . The farmer accepts , but shakes his fist in anger at the squire after he has departed .
Squire Thornhill leaves in a carriage with Olivia , whose departure is soon reported to the rest of the family . Stricken with grief , the vicar heads off to reclaim his wayward daughter . At the end of the marriage ceremony the farmer receives his payment , and the squire and Olivia embrace . The vicar arrives shortly afterwards , but after failing to persuade his daughter to return home with him leaves in despair . Olivia learns later that the marriage was a sham , but continues to live in Thornhill 's house until he offers her as a prostitute to an acquaintance of his . Olivia flees in a rage and returns home , where she is reunited with her family . Thornhill , now out for revenge , has the vicar arrested and thrown into jail for unpaid debts .
Olivia goes to meet her father in prison , and upon exiting the farmer who had arranged the marriage between Olivia and Thornhill appears and gasps in shock . The vicar explains that Olivia is his daughter , and the farmer reveals his role in the plot , but that out of hatred for Thornhill he procured the services of a real priest to officiate at the wedding . The farmer heads to Thornhill 's house and reveals that the marriage was in fact legitimate . Thornhill 's uncle , Sir William , forces him to take responsibility for his actions and beg Olivia 's forgiveness . Olivia accepts Thornhill 's apology and the couple embrace and kiss . Although not in the surviving print , the synopsis concludes with " Sir William then discloses his identity and asks for the hand of Sophia [ another of the vicar 's daughters ] . The vicar is released from prison , and he and his family look forward to a future of happiness and plenty . "
= = Cast = =
Martin J. Faust as the vicar of Wakefield
Frank H. Crane
Anna Rosemond
William Garwood
Marie Eline
Bertha Blanchard
Lucille Younge
William Russell
= = Production = =
The film was adapted from Oliver Goldsmith 's novel The Vicar of Wakefield . The complex plot was broken down to a single @-@ reel adaptation by Edwin Thanhouser and / or Lloyd Lonergan . Edwin Thanhouser 's wife Gertrude assisted with the scenarios and editing of the films , but it is not specifically known if she contributed to this production .
The film 's director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Credit is sometimes given to Theodore Marston , an error that apparently originates with the American Film @-@ Index 1908 – 1915 . Film historian Q. David Bowers consulted one of the co @-@ authors of the book , Gunnar Lundquist , and confirmed that the credit of Marston as director was in error . Marston worked with Pathé , Kinemacolor , Vitagraph and other companies , but there is no record of him working with Thanhouser . This error has persisted in several works including The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film . Cameramen employed by the company at the time the film was made include Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory and Alfred H. Moses , Jr . , but the role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . This production is unique for having the cast members known , because most of the credits in Thanhouser 's 1910 productions are fragmentary .
= = Release and reception = =
The single @-@ reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on December 27 , 1910 . The film likely had a wide national release , theaters are known to have shown the film in Pennsylvania , Kansas , Indiana , and South Dakota . The film received positive reviews from trade publications including the The Moving Picture World , which praised the acting and the execution of the film as an education for audiences by exposing them to literary masterpieces . The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer was less enthusiastic , writing that " The production gave a very praiseworthy portrayal of the period , but a moving picture needs such different treatment from a novel that its interpretation in a picture is bound to lose much of the original interest . The acting was in every way adequate , although not great . "
The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film lists this film as the first adaptation of the Vicar of Wakefield . It was followed by identically titled adaptations , including Pathé Frères 's The Vicar Of Wakefield in 1912 and the Kinematograph Trading Company 's The Vicar Of Wakefield in 1913 , Ideal Film Company 's The Vicar Of Wakefield in 1916 . The Thanhouser Company reproduced the The Vicar of Wakefield in 1917 . The two Thanhouser films differ in more than just length , as the feature @-@ length adaptation shows the progression of motion pictures from " essentially static tableaus , each announced by a title card , to a series of scenes and sequences analyzed by editing , most notably with vivid close @-@ ups of the great stage actor Frederick Warde . "
A surviving print held in the Nederlands Filmmuseum was the source of the modern re @-@ release of film . It is 13 minutes 20 seconds long and features a new original score composed and performed by Raymond A. Brubacker . The film was released on DVD as Volume 4 of the Thanhouser Classics Video Collectors Set . It was also released as part of the Treasures from the Desmet Collection at the EYE Filmmuseum .
= Central Atlas Tamazight =
Central Atlas Tamazight language ( also known as Central Morocco Tamazight , Middle Atlas Tamazight , Tamazight , Central Shilha , and , rarely , Braber ; native name : ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ Tamazight [ tæmæˈzɪɣt ] , [ θæmæˈzɪɣθ ] ) is a Berber language of the Afro @-@ Asiatic language family , spoken by 3 to 5 million people in the Atlas mountains of Central Morocco , as well as by smaller emigrant communities in France and elsewhere .
Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the most @-@ spoken Berber languages , along with Kabyle , Shilha , Riff , and Shawiya , and in Morocco it rivals Shilha as the most @-@ spoken . All five languages may be referred to as ' Tamazight ' , but Central Atlas speakers are the only ones who use the term exclusively . As is typical of Afro @-@ Asiatic languages , Tamazight has a series of " emphatic consonants " ( realized as pharyngealized ) , uvulars , pharyngeals , and lacks the phoneme / p / . Tamazight has a phonemic three @-@ vowel system , but also has numerous words without vowels .
Central Atlas Tamazight ( unlike neighbouring Tashelhit ) had no known significant writing tradition until the 20th century . It is now officially written in the Tifinagh script for instruction in Moroccan schools , while descriptive linguistic literature commonly uses the Latin alphabet , and the Arabic alphabet has also been used .
The standard word order is verb – subject – object but sometimes subject – verb – object . Words inflect for gender , number , and state , using prefixes , suffixes , and circumfixes . Verbs are heavily inflected , being marked for tense , aspect , mode , voice , person of the subject , and polarity , sometimes undergoing ablaut . Pervasive borrowing from Arabic extends to all major word classes , including verbs ; borrowed verbs , however , are conjugated according to native patterns , including ablaut .
= = Classification = =
Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the four most @-@ spoken Berber languages , in addition to Kabyle , Shilha , and Riff , and rivals Shilha as the most @-@ spoken Berber language in Morocco . Differentiating these dialects is complicated by the fact that speakers of other languages may also refer to their language as ' Tamazight ' . The differences between all three groups are largely phonological and lexical , rather than syntactic . Tamazight itself has a relatively large degree of internal diversity , including whether spirantization occurs .
Central Atlas Tamazight speakers refer to themselves as Amazigh ( pl . Imazighen ) , an endonymic ethnonym whose etymology is uncertain , but may translate as " free people " . The term Tamazight , the feminine form of Amazigh , refers to the language . Both words are also used self @-@ referentially by other Berber groups to replace local terms such as ašəlḥi or rifi , although Central Atlas Tamazight speakers use them regularly and exclusively .
In older studies , Central Atlas Tamazight is sometimes referred to as " Braber " / " Beraber " , a dialetical Arabic term , or its Tamazight equivalent " Taberbrit " . This is related to the Standard Arabic and English term " Berber " , used to refer to all Berber dialects / languages , though eschewed by many Berbers because its etymology is pejorative .
Tamazight belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic language family ; Afroasiatic subsumes a number of languages in North Africa and Southwest Asia including the Semitic languages , the Egyptian language , and the Chadic and Cushitic languages . Along with most other Berber languages , Tamazight has retained a number of widespread Afroasiatic features , including a two @-@ gender system , verb – subject – object ( VSO ) typology , emphatic consonants ( realized in Tamazight as pharyngealized ) , a templatic morphology , and a causative morpheme / s / ( the latter also found in other macrofamilies , such as the Niger – Congo languages . ) Within Berber , it belongs , along with neighbouring Tashelhiyt , to the Atlas branch of the Northern Berber subgroup .
Tamazight is in the middle of a dialect continuum between Riff to its north @-@ east and Shilha to its south @-@ west . The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Shilha , and its verbal system is more similar to Riff or Kabyle . Moreover , Tamazight has a greater amount of internal diversity than Shilha .
Tamazight 's dialects are divided into three distinct subgroups and geographic regions : those spoken in the Middle Atlas mountains ; those spoken in the High Atlas mountains ; and those spoken in Jbel Saghro and its foothills . Although the characteristic spirantization of / b / > [ β ] ; / t / > [ θ ] or [ h ] ; / d / > [ ð ] ; / k / > [ ç ] or [ ʃ ] ; and / ɡ / > [ ʝ ] , [ ʃ ] or [ j ] is apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria , as in many Middle Atlas dialects , it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers , and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills of Jbel Saghro . Southern dialects ( e.g. Ayt Atta ) may also be differentiated syntactically : while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary / d / ( e.g. / d argaz / " it 's a man " ) , Southern dialects use the typically ( High Atlas , Souss @-@ Basin rural country , Jbel Atlas Saghro ) auxiliary verb / g / ( e.g. / iga argaz / " it 's a man " ) . The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological .
Groups speaking Tamazight include : Ait Ayache , Ait Morghi , Ait Alaham , Ait Youb , Marmoucha , Ait Youssi , Beni Mguild , Zayane , Zemmour , Ait Rbaa , Ait Seri , Guerouane , Ait Segougou , Ait Yafelman , Ait Sikhmane , Ayt Ndhir ( Beni Mtir ) .
There is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight . The dialect of the Ait Seghrouchen and Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight , and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache . Genetically , however , they belong to the Zenati subgroup of Northern Berber , rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs , and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight . The Ethnologue lists another group of Zenati dialects , South Oran Berber ( ksours sud @-@ oranais ) , as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight , but these are even less similar , and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group .
= = History = =
The Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago . By the 5th century BC , the city of Carthage , founded by Phoenicians , had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa ; in the wake of the Punic Wars , Rome replaced it as regional hegemon . The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period , but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight , such as ayugu , " plough ox " , from Latin iugum , " team of oxen " and aẓalim " onion " < Punic
bṣal @-@ im , bear witness to their ancestors ' contact with these conquerors .
Arabs conquered the area of modern @-@ day Morocco and Algeria around the 7th century , prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption of Islam . Particularly following the arrival of the Banu Hilal in modern @-@ day Tunisia in the 11th century , more and more of North Africa became Arabic @-@ speaking over the centuries . However , along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa , the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber .
Between the 12th and 15th centuries , the Central Atlas , along with the rest of Morocco , successively fell within the domain of the Berber Almoravid , Almohad , and Marinid dynasties . Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of the Alaouite Dynasty , the current Moroccan royal family . However , effective control of the region was limited ; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition of siba , recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims . The expansion of the Ait Atta starting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already Arabised Tafilalt region and put other regional tribes on the defensive , leading to the formation of the Ait Yafelman alliance .
The 1912 Treaty of Fez made most of Morocco a French @-@ Spanish protectorate ( under French and Spanish military occupation ) , leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner @-@ general . However , the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas , as in other areas , put up stiff military resistance to French rule , lasting until 1933 in the case of the Ait Atta .
After Morocco 's independence in 1956 , a strong emphasis was laid on the country 's Arab identity , and a national Arabic language educational system was instituted , in which Berber languages , including Middle Atlas Tamazight , had no place . However , in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages , including Central Atlas Tamazight . For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures , the government created the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture ( IRCAM ) in 2001 .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Central Atlas Tamazight is among the four most @-@ spoken Berber languages ( the other three being Kabyle , Shilha , and Riff ) , and rivals Shilha as the most @-@ spoken Berber language in Morocco . Central Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings , reaching east to Taza and west to the region near Rabat . It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco . It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara ( Tafilalt ) . Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas : Riff in the north , Central Atlas in the center , and Shilha in the south / southwest . Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha ; but Shilha- and Riff @-@ speakers cannot understand each other , although transitional varieties exist between these dialects , creating a smooth transition .
Figures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses . At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages , . Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40 ~ 49 % of Morocco 's Berber @-@ speakers , while Shilha commands 32 ~ 40 % and Riff 20 ~ 25 % .
= = Status = =
Tamazight , along with other Berber languages of Morocco , has a low sociolinguistic status , used mainly in the home , and rarely in official or formal contexts ; it is not an official language . However , media broadcasts and music are available in it , and there is a policy of teaching it in schools .
Of the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers , 40 – 45 % are monolingual , while the others use Arabic as a second language . Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children . Women are more likely to be monolingual than men , since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities . Since Tamazight is the language of the home , girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language . Bilingual Berber speakers have learned Moroccan Arabic via schooling , migration , media , or through the government . Most rural Berber children are monolingual . They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber , and require them to learn both Arabic and French .
Rural Morocco , including the Central Atlas area , suffers from poverty . Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing " contraction " as rural families , motivated by economic necessity , move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight , leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or regression . However , Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups . Moreover , Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment , although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole .
= = = Official status = = =
As of the Moroccan constitutional referendum , 2011 , the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic . In 1994 , King Hassan II declared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status ; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight , as well as Shilha and Rif , three times a day ; and educational materials for schools are being developed . On October 17 , 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree ( Dahir 1 – 01 – 299 ) creating and organizing the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture ( IRCAM ) . IRCAM 's board is composed of Amazigh experts , artists , and activists , all of whom are appointed by the king . The institute , located in Rabat , has played an important role in the establishment of the Tifinagh script in Morocco . There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber , calling for it to be recognized as an official language , used more extensively in the mass media , and taught more in schools .
A legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a " Moroccan character " , and uncommon names , including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas , are often rejected by the civil registry .
= = Orthography = =
Until the 20th century Tamazight , like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouring Tashelhiyt , was basically unwritten ( although sporadic cases , using Arabic script , are attested . ) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas , isolated from urban hubs . Scholars from the Middle Atlas , as elsewhere in North Africa , usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language , rather than their vernacular .
At present three writing systems exist for Berber languages , including Tamazight : Neo @-@ Tifinagh , the Latin alphabet and the Arabic script . To some extent , the choice of writing system is a political one , with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics . The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo @-@ Tifinagh , rendered official by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM . However , various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight , notably the dictionary of Taïfi ( 1991 ) .
= = Phonology = =
= = = Consonants = = =
Central Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of " flat " consonants , manifested in two ways :
For front segments , pharyngealization : / tˤ dˤ sˤ zˤ lˤ nˤ rˤ / )
For back segments , labialization : / xʷ ɣʷ qʷ χʷ ʁʷ / )
Note that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word . Historically Proto @-@ Berber only had two pharyngealized phonemes ( / dˤ , zˤ / ) , but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts .
In addition Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants , as well as a conspicuous lack of / p / in its plosive inventory .
All segments may be geminated except for the pharyngeals / ʕ ħ / . In Ayt Ndhir , which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization , the spirantizeable consonants appear in their stop forms when geminated , and additionally the geminate correspondents of / ʁ , dˤ , ʃ , ʒ , w , j / are usually / qː , tˤː , t ͡ ʃː , d ͡ ʒː , ɣʷː , ɣː / respectively . However some native Berber words have / ʁː / ( not / qː / ) where other dialects have singleton / ʁ / , and similarly for / ʃː , ʒː / . In addition , in Arabic loans singleton non @-@ spirantized [ b , t , tˤ , d , k , ɡ , q ] occur ( though [ b t d ] and to an extent [ tˤ ] often alternate with their spirantized versions in loans ) , giving this alternation marginal phonemic status .
In the table below , when consonants appear in pairs , the one on the left is voiceless .
Phonetic notes :
^ 1 / k ɡ / are fricatives [ x ɣ ] in the Ayt Ayache dialect
^ 2 rare — native speakers can freely substitute / χ ʁ /
^ 3 mainly in Arabic borrowings
^ 4 For a small number of speakers , / b / is sometimes lenited to [ β ] .
^ 5 / t / is aspirated [ tʰ ] .
= = = Vowels = = =
Tamazight has a typical phonemic three @-@ vowel system , similarly to Classical Arabic :
These phonemes have numerous allophones , conditioned by the following environments :
( # denotes word boundary , X denotes C [ − flat − / χ / − / ʁ / ] , C ̣ denotes C [ + flat ] , G denotes C , / χ / , and / ʁ / )
Phonetic Schwa
There is a predictable non @-@ phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters , realized as [ ɪ ̈ ] before front consonants ( e.g. / b t d ... / ) and [ ə ] before back consonants ( e.g. / k χ ... / ) . It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants , or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release . It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal , lateral , or / r / .
The occurrence of schwa epenthesis is governed morphophonemically . These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of [ ə ] :
( # denotes word boundary , L denotes / l r m n / , H denotes / h ħ ʕ w j / )
Examples :
/ tbrˤːmnt / > [ tbərːəmənt ] ( ' you ( fp ) turned ' )
/ datːħadˤar / > [ datːəħadˤar ] ( ' she is present ' )
/ ʕadˤːrˤ / > [ ʕadˤːərˤ ] ( ' to meet ' )
However note that word @-@ initial initial / j , w / are realized as / i , u / before consonants . In word @-@ medial or -final position [ əj ] , [ əʝ ] , and [ əw ] are realized as [ ij ] , [ ij ] , and [ uw ] respectively , and may become [ i ] and [ u ] in rapid speech .
Tamazight in fact has numerous words without phonemic vowels , and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels .
[ ə ] is written as 〈 ⴻ 〉 in neo @-@ Tifinagh and as 〈 e 〉 in the Berber Latin alphabet . French publications tended to include [ ə ] in their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability , perhaps due to the French vowel system . This can cause problems because alternations such as / iʁ ( ə ) rs / ' he slaughtered ' – / uriʁris / ' he did not slaughter ' would then have to conditioned morphologically .
= = = Stress = = =
Word stress is non @-@ contrastive and predictable — it falls on the last vowel in a word ( including schwa ) .
Examples :
/ sal / > [ ˈsal ] ( ' to ask ' )
/ dajtːħadˤarˤ / > [ dajtːəħaˈdˤarˤ ] ( ' he is present ' )
/ fsːr / > [ fəsːˈər ] ( ' to explain
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through 1956 until the cancellation of most of the company 's line . Williamson 's EC art has been lauded for its illustrative flamboyance , evident in such stories as " I , Rocket " , in Weird Fantasy # 20 ( Aug. 1953 ) , co @-@ penciled and co @-@ inked with Frank Frazetta ; and " 50 Girls 50 " , in Weird Science # 20 ( Aug. 1953 ) , co @-@ inked by Williamson and Frazetta . His final published EC story was the 10 @-@ page " A Question of Time " , in Shock Illustrated # 2 ( Feb. 1956 ) with partial inking by Torres , who put his initials on the last page . In the fall of 1956 , writer Larry Ivie introduced Williamson to future comics writers @-@ editor Archie Goodwin , with whom he would become friends and , later , a frequent collaborator . Williamson eventually helped Goodwin enter the comics field , having him script a Harvey Comics story , " The Hermit " , penciled by Reed Crandall and inked by Williamson .
From 1955 to 1957 , Williamson produced over 400 pages of three @-@ to @-@ five @-@ page stories for Atlas Comics , the 1950s forerunner of Marvel Comics , working in various genres but primarily Westerns . He continued to collaborate with Torres and Krenkel , as well as with Gray Morrow , George Woodbridge and Ralph Mayo . With Mayo , one of the first editors to give Williamson work , at Standard Comics , Williamson collaborated on the jungle girl series Jann of the Jungle # 16 – 17 ( April and June 1957 ) . Following Mayo 's death , Williamson drew stories solo for the planned # 18 , but the series was abruptly canceled before that issue could be published . His " prolific though somewhat uneven two @-@ year stint at Atlas " , where he first drew war comics , yielded superlative art in such stories as " The City That Time Forgot " , in Marvel Tales # 144 ( March 1956 ) ; " Menace from the Stars " , in Mystery Tales # 44 ( Aug. 1956 ) ; " The Unknown Ones " , in Astonishing # 57 ( Jan. 1957 ) ; " Dreadnaught " , in Navy Tales # 2 ( March 1957 ) ; and " Helpless " , in Battle # 55 ( Nov. 1957 ) . While " something appeared to be missing from a lot of his Atlas work : enthusiasm , " Williamson 's Atlas Westerns , at least , " form a strongly consistent body of work , characterized by minimal to nonexistent action , a preponderance of closeups and reaction shots , and well @-@ defined figures set against sparse backgrounds . "
From 1958 to 1959 Williamson worked for Harvey Comics collaborating with former EC artists Reed Crandall , Torres and Krenkel and inking the pencils of Jack Kirby ( for Race to the Moon # 2 – 3 and Blast @-@ Off # 1 ) . On inking Kirby , Williamson relates : " I remember going up to Harvey and getting work there . They said , ' We haven 't got any work for you , but we have some stories here that Jack penciled . Do you want to ink them ? ' I 'd never really inked anybody else before , but I said , ' Sure , ' because I looked at the stuff , and thought , I can follow this , it 's all there . I inked it and they liked it , and they gave me three or four stories to do . "
Additionally , Williamson drew stories for Classics Illustrated ( in collaboration with Crandall and Woodbridge ) ; Canaveral Press 's line of Edgar Rice Burroughs books ( inked by Crandall ) ; Westerns for Dell Comics ( including Gunsmoke # 8 – 12 ) and Charlton Comics , including two complete issues of the Cheyenne Kid , ( # 10 – 11 ) with Angelo Torres , and science @-@ fiction stories for ACG ( including " The Vortex " , in Forbidden Worlds # 69 ( 1958 ) . He also worked with former EC artist John Severin on the " American Eagle " feature in Prize Comics Western # 109 and 113 ( 1955 ) .
Williamson 's work during this decade was his most prolific in terms of comic book work and has garnered considerable praise for its high quality . He has been noted for his perfectionism and love for the medium . Despite its high reputation , S.C. Ringgenberg felt that Williamson 's artwork from this period could at times be uneven and uninspired . Williamson was single during this period and , according to The Art of Al Williamson , had a bohemian and undisciplined lifestyle .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1960 , with little work to be found in the comic book field due to a downturn in the industry , he went to work as an assistant to John Prentice on the Alex Raymond @-@ created comic strip Rip Kirby for a three @-@ year period . According to Williamson : " The reason that I was called in to help him out was that John had decided to go to Mexico and Mac [ Al McWilliams ] , John 's prior assistant , didn 't want to go ... The deal was : would I be willing to go to Mexico ? ... and I said ' Si ! ' ... " It proved to be a solid learning period for Williamson , as he credits Prentice with teaching him many fundamental illustration methods . According to Prentice : " ... he was terrific . He 's the best guy I ever had by far . " During that time , Williamson assisted John Cullen Murphy on the Big Ben Bolt boxing strip and Don Sherwood on the strip Dan Flagg . He produced some sample pages for a proposed Sunday strip version of Modesty Blaise .
He returned to comics in 1965 doing one story each in Gold Key Comics ' Ripley 's Believe It or Not # 1 ( June 1965 ) , The Twilight Zone # 12 ( Aug. 1965 ) , and Boris Karloff Tales of Mystery # 11 ( Sept . 1965 ) , and helped launch Warren Publishing 's black @-@ and @-@ white horror @-@ comics magazines Creepy and Eerie with several stories in early issues , while contributing to Warren 's war comics magazine Blazing Combat . He was instrumental in recruiting other former EC Comics artists as Frazetta , Krenkel , Torres , Crandall , and Evans , as well as artist Gray Morrow and writer @-@ editor Archie Goodwin .
In 1966 , he drew the first issue ( Sept . 1966 ) of a new Flash Gordon comic book series , published by King Features . Williamson 's work received positive reader response , and returned to draw issues # 4 – 5 ( March and May 1967 ) , as well as the cover of # 3 ( Jan. 1967 ) . Williamson received a National Cartoonist Society Best Comic Book art award for his work on that title . In 1967 , on the strength of a backup feature he had done in the Flash Gordon book , he took over another Alex Raymond creation , the long @-@ running Secret Agent X @-@ 9 comic strip , collaborating with writer Goodwin . At the start of their tenure , the title was changed to Secret Agent Corrigan .
Williamson helped assemble the first major book on Alex Raymond 's Flash Gordon , published by Nostalgia Press in 1967 , and wrote the introduction . In 1969 , Wally Wood 's alternative @-@ press comic book witzend # 1 published Williamson 's " Savage World " , a 1956 story originally drawn for a Buster Crabbe comic book that had been cancelled . With significant contributions by Frazetta , Krenkel , and Torres , the story is a prime sample of the " Fleagle Gang " style and has since been reprinted by Marvel Comics ( in the black @-@ and @-@ white comics magazine Unknown Worlds of Science Fiction # 1 , January 1975 ) , Pacific Comics and Kitchen Sink Press . Wood would later write the script for a three @-@ page story drawn by Williamson , " The Tube " , in another alternative @-@ press comic , publisher Flo Steinberg 's Big Apple Comix ( 1975 ) .
By the end of the decade , Williamson was beginning to encourage younger artists whom he would meet at comic book conventions , helping Bernie Wrightson to enter the comics profession .
= = = 1970s = = =
Williamson worked on Secret Agent Corrigan through the 1970s until he left the strip in 1980 . The first Corrigan anthology was published in France in 1975 , Le FBI joue et gagne , reprinting Williamson 's first episode on the feature . He returned to Warren Publishing in 1976 and again in 1979 to draw three additional stories in Creepy ( # 83 , 86 , 112 ) . These were published in France in the collection Al Williamson : A la fin de l 'envoi in 1981 .
He drew a few more stories for Gold Key Comics , in Grimm 's Ghost Stories # 5 and 8 ( Aug. 1972 , March 1973 ) , and The Twilight Zone # 51 ( Aug. 1973 ) , as well two mystery stories for DC Comics , in The Witching Hour # 14 ( May 1971 ) , with inker Carlos Garzon , and House of Mystery # 185 ( April 1970 ) , with Michael Kaluta , another artist whom he helped enter the professional field , assisting him . Comics historian Les Daniels noted that " Williamson 's atmospheric technique , which relied on subtle textures as much as hard lines , was not typical of traditional DC art " and that editor Joe Orlando " got complaints from the production department " over using Williamson 'a art . He drew various Flash Gordon illustrations . In the burgeoning fan movement , Williamson became an early subject of comics historians with the publication of Jim Vadeboncoeur 's Al Williamson : His Work in 1971 and the " Al Williamson Collector " by James Van Hise , featured in the fanzine Rocket 's Blast Comicollector in the early 1970s . Samples of his sketches appear in various fanzines of the period . Marvel Comics began regularly reprinting Williamson 's 1950 Atlas Comics Western stories , starting with The Ringo Kid # 1 ( Jan. 1970 ) and Kid Colt , Outlaw # 147 ( June 1970 ) , further introducing Williamson 's early work to a latter @-@ day generation .
= = = 1980s = = =
After leaving the Secret Agent Corrigan daily strip , he illustrated The Empire Strikes Back for Marvel Comics ' Star Wars movie adaptations with Carlos Garzon , as well as the 50th issue of the monthly Star Wars comic . Williamson was Lucasfilms ' first choice as illustrator for the Star Wars newspaper comic strip , a project Williamson had been offered years earlier but had declined to take on at the time . He was offered the Empire Strikes Back adaptation upon Lucasfilm 's specific request , as George Lucas had an appreciation of Williamson 's EC Comics and Flash Gordon work . Writer Archie Goodwin cited " the comfort of knowing that I would be working with Al Williamson , an old friend that I 've worked with over the years . He was absolutely the best Star Wars artist you could ever want to have . That makes it easier because you feel that whatever you do as a writer , you have an artist that will make it look great . He 's also an artist that Lucasfilm kind of begged and pleaded for and always wanted to have do Star Wars material . There was that comfort factor in it as well . "
A comic book adaptation of the Dino De Laurentiis ' film , Flash Gordon , written by Bruce Jones and illustrated by Al Williamson , was released by Western Publishing in both hardcover and softcover formats to coincide with the film 's release . A photograph of actor Sam J. Jones , who played Flash Gordon , was pasted into the original cover art . It was serialized in three issues of Whitman 's Flash Gordon comic book , # 31 @-@ 33 , March – May 1981 . Alden McWilliams inked the backgrounds for the last 25 pages . According to Williamson , " It was the hardest job I ever had to do in my life . " He then began drawing the Star Wars comic strip in February 1981 following Alfredo Alcala 's tenure , with Goodwin writing . He drew the daily and Sunday feature until March 11 , 1984 when the strip was canceled . Williamson 's daily strips on this series were completely reprinted in Russ Cochran 's three @-@ volume slipcase edition in 1991 .
Returning to comic books full @-@ time for the first time since 1959 , Williamson began work for Pacific Comics , collaborating with writer Bruce Jones for the Alien Worlds title ( # 1 , 4 , 8 ) , and " Cliff Hanger " , a six @-@ issue adventure @-@ strip backup feature in the Somerset Holmes miniseries . For Marvel , he illustrated the Blade Runner and Return of the Jedi movie adaptations . The two Archie Goodwin stories he illustrated for Epic Illustrated ( " Relic " in issue # 27 , 1984 ; and " Out of Phase " , in # 34 , 1986 ) have been considered to be some of his finest work , and Williamson himself named " Relic " as one of his best works . He drew a short story for Timespirits # 4 and the full issue of Star Wars # 98 . For DC Comics , he penciled and inked an eight @-@ page story by Elliot S. Maggin for Superman # 400 ( Oct. 1984 ) and he inked Rick Veitch on the classic , oft reprinted Alan Moore Superman / Swamp Thing story " The Jungle Line " in DC Comics Presents # 85 ( Sept . 1985 ) .
Following the expiration of his contract on the Star Wars newspaper strip , Williamson found that the weight of doing both pencil and inks suddenly became stressful to him , drastically reducing his output . As a response to this , in the mid @-@ 1980s Williamson made a successful transition to becoming strictly an inker , beginning at DC Comics inking Curt Swan on Superman # 408 – 410 and # 412 – 416 . The longtime Man of Steel artist would later describe Williamson as " his favorite inker " . Williamson then moved to Marvel where he inked such pencillers such as John Romita , Jr . , Gene Colan , John Buscema , Rick Leonardi , Pat Oliffe , Mike Mignola , Lee Weeks , and many others . John Romita , Sr. , Marvel 's art director during that time , considered Williamson to be " one of the best pencillers in the world but he really can 't make a living at penciling because he wants to do these beautifully pencilled pages with ample time to do them . That 's why Al is inking now ... and adding a greater dimension to the penciller he 's working with . " He won nine industry awards for Best Inker between 1988 and 1997 .
= = = 1990s = = =
Williamson provided the covers and additional artwork for Dark Horse Comics ' 20 @-@ issue Classic Star Wars ( Aug. 1992 – June 1994 ) , which reprinted his Star Wars daily strips . He later inked the Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace and A New Hope film adaptations for the company . Through 2003 , he was active as inker on several Marvel Comics titles , including Daredevil ( # 248 – 300 ) , Spider @-@ Man 2099 ( # 1 – 25 ) , and Spider @-@ Girl ( # 1 – 61 ) , and such non @-@ superhero projects as the four @-@ issue Marvel / Epic Comics miniseries Atomic Age ( Nov. 1990 - Feb. 1991 ) , by writer Frank Lovece and penciler Mike Okamoto , for which Williamson won a 1991 Eisner Award for Best Inker . Daredevil penciler John Romita , Jr. recalled that , " Working with Al Williamson was much like working with my father [ comics artist John Romita , Sr. ] in that I felt that I was protected from mistakes . ... If my art wasn ’ t correct , then Al would repair it . Oddly enough , Al said he never had to fix anything , claiming he just ' traced ' over my pencils . " In a 1988 interview Williamson indeed stated that " I 'm just tracing [ Romita 's ] pencils " and claimed that the only changes he made were occasionally leaving out an unnecessary background if he was in a rush .
In 1995 , Marvel released a two @-@ part Flash Gordon miniseries written by Mark Schultz and drawn by Williamson , which was his last major work doing both pencils and inks . Also with Schultz , he illustrated the short story " One Last Job " for Dark Horse Presents # 120 in 1997 . In 1999 , he drew the Flash Gordon character a final time when regular cartoonist Jim Keefe asked for his help on a Flash Gordon Sunday page .
= = = Later life and career = = =
Since 1998 , there have been six career retrospective books published ( see " Further Reading " section ) . Williamson cooperated with their production , with the exception of the books from Pure Imagination . He was interviewed for the 2003 Frank Frazetta documentary Painting with Fire , along with fellow surviving " Fleagle Gang " members Angelo Torres and Nick Meglin . In 2009 , a Williamson illustrated Sub @-@ Mariner story written by Schultz and dedicated to Sub @-@ Mariner creator Bill Everett was published . The story itself was originally drawn ten years previously . Williamson illustrated a " Xenozoic Tales " story written by Schultz that remains unpublished .
Living in Pennsylvania with his wife Corina , Williamson retired in his seventies and died on June 12 , 2010 , in Upstate New York . Some premature reports , based on unsubstantiated Twitter claims , erroneously gave June 13 , 2010 .
= = Legacy = =
Williamson has been a stylistic influence on a number of younger artists such as Tom Yeates , Mark Schultz , Frank Cho , Steve Epting , Tony Harris , Jim Keefe , Dan Parsons , Dave Gibbons and Paul Renaud .
= = Awards = =
1966 National Cartoonists Society Award for Best Comic Book
1966 Alley Award for Best Pencil Work
1967 Alley Award for " Best Feature Story " ( for " Lost Continent of Mongo " from Flash Gordon # 4 )
1969 Nova Award for excellence in illustrative art .
1984 Inkpot Award
2010 Inkwell Awards Joe Sinnott Hall of Fame Award
Harvey Award
1988 Al Williamson , for Daredevil , Marvel Comics
1989 Al Williamson , for Daredevil , Marvel Comics
1990 Al Williamson , for Daredevil , Marvel Comics
1991 Al Williamson , for Fafhrd and the Grey Mouser , Marvel Comics imprint Epic Comics
1993 Al Williamson , for Spider @-@ Man 2099 , Marvel Comics
1994 Al Williamson , for Spider @-@ Man 2099 , Marvel Comics
1995 Al Williamson , for Spider @-@ Man 2099 , Marvel Comics
Eisner Award
1989 Nominee , Best Art Team , for Daredevil , Marvel Comics , with penciler John Romita , Jr .
1991 Winner , Best Inker , for Atomic Age , Marvel Comics imprint Epic Comics
1996 Nominee , Best Penciller / Inker for Flash Gordon Marvel Comics imprint Marvel Select
1997 Winner , Best Inker , for The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and Untold Tales of Spider @-@ Man # 17 – 18 , Marvel Comics
1998 Nominee , Hall of Fame
1999 Nominee , Hall of Fame
2000 Inductee , Hall of Fame ( Voter 's choice )
Jack Kirby Hall of Fame
Formally named finalist for induction in 1990 , 1991 , and 1992 .
= Battle of Ticonderoga ( 1759 ) =
The 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga was a minor confrontation at Fort Carillon ( later renamed Fort Ticonderoga ) on July 26 and 27 , 1759 , during the French and Indian War . A British military force of more than 11 @,@ 000 men under the command of General Sir Jeffery Amherst moved artillery to high ground overlooking the fort , which was defended by a garrison of 400 Frenchmen under the command of Brigadier General François @-@ Charles de Bourlamaque .
Rather than defend the fort , de Bourlamaque , operating under instructions from General Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm and New France 's governor , the Marquis de Vaudreuil , withdrew his forces , and attempted to blow up the fort . The fort 's powder magazine was destroyed , but its walls were not severely damaged . The British then occupied the fort , which was afterwards known by the name Fort Ticonderoga . They embarked on a series of improvements to the area and began construction of a fleet to conduct military operations on Lake Champlain .
The French tactics were sufficient to prevent Amherst 's army from joining James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . However , they also tied up 3 @,@ 000 of their own troops that were not able to assist in Quebec 's defense . The capture of the fort , which had previously repulsed a large British army a year earlier , contributed to the Annus Mirabilis of 1759 .
= = Background = =
The French and Indian War , which started in 1754 over territorial disputes in what are now western Pennsylvania and upstate New York , had finally turned in the favor of the British in 1758 following a string of defeats in 1756 and 1757 . The British were successful in capturing Louisbourg and Fort Frontenac in 1758 . The only significant French victory in 1758 came when a large British army commanded by James Abercrombie was defeated by a smaller French force in the Battle of Carillon . During the following winter , French commanders withdrew most of the garrison from Fort Carillon ( called Ticonderoga by the British ) to defend Quebec City , Montreal and French @-@ controlled forts on the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River .
Carillon , located near the southern end of Lake Champlain , occupied a place that was strategic in importance even before Samuel de Champlain discovered it in 1609 , controlling access to a key portage trail between Champlain and Lake George along the main travel route between the Hudson River valley and the Saint Lawrence River . When the war began , the area was part of the frontier between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada , and the British had stopped French advances further south in the 1755 Battle of Lake George .
= = = British planning = = =
For the 1759 campaign , British secretary of state , William Pitt , ordered General Jeffery Amherst , the victor at Louisbourg , to lead an army into Canada by sailing north on Lake Champlain , while a second force under James Wolfe , who distinguished himself while serving under Amherst at Louisbourg , was targeted at the city of Quebec via the Saint Lawrence . Instructions were sent to the governors of the Thirteen Colonies to raise up 20 @,@ 000 provincial militia for these campaigns . About 8 @,@ 000 provincial men were raised and sent to Albany by provinces as far south as Pennsylvania and New Jersey . New York sent 3 @,@ 000 men and New Jersey sent 1 @,@ 000 . Massachusetts mustered 6 @,@ 500 men ; about 3 @,@ 500 went to Albany , while the remainder were dispatched for service with Wolfe at Quebec or other service in Nova Scotia . The balance of the provincial men came from the other New England provinces and Pennsylvania . When Quaker Pennsylvania balked at sending any men , Amherst convinced them to raise men by threatening to withdraw troops from forts in the Ohio River Valley on the province 's western frontier , which were regularly subjected to threats from Indians and the French .
When Amherst learned through Sir William Johnson that the Iroquois League was prepared to support British efforts to drive the French out of their frontier forts , he decided to send an expedition to capture Fort Niagara . He sent 2 @,@ 000 of the provincials west from Albany along with 3 @,@ 000 regular troops under Brigadier General John Prideaux in May . He led the remainder of the provincials , consisting primarily of Massachusetts , New Jersey , and Connecticut men , north to Fort Edward , where they joined 6 @,@ 000 regular troops ( about 2 @,@ 000 Royal Highlanders , as well as the 17th , 27th , and 53rd regiments of foot , the 1st Battalion of the 60th Foot , about 100 Royal Artillery , 700 of Rogers ' Rangers , and 500 light infantry under Thomas Gage ) .
= = = French planning = = =
In the 1759 campaign , French war planners directed most of their war resources into the European theater of the Seven Years ' War . In February , France 's war minister , Marshal Belle @-@ Isle , notified General Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm , who was responsible for the defense of Canada , that he would not receive any significant support from France , due in large part to English naval domination of the Atlantic and the risks associated with sending a large military force under those circumstances . Belle @-@ Isle impressed on Montcalm the importance of maintaining at least a foothold in North America , as the territory would be virtually impossible to retake otherwise . Montcalm responded , " Unless we have unexpected luck , or stage a diversion elsewhere within North America , Canada will fall during the coming campaign season . The English have 60 @,@ 000 men , we have 11 @,@ 000 . "
Montcalm decided to focus French manpower on defending the core territory of Canada : Montreal , the city of Quebec , and the Saint Lawrence River Valley . He placed 3 @,@ 000 troops from the la Reine and Berry regiments under Brigadier General François @-@ Charles de Bourlamaque for the defense south of Montreal , of which around 2 @,@ 300 were assigned to Fort Carillon . He knew ( after his own experience in the previous year 's battle there ) that this force was too small to hold Carillon against a determined British attack by competent leaders . Instructions from Montcalm and New France 's governor , the Marquis de Vaudre
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thus ending stocking there — caused some criticism by anglers who believed that this would impact the quality of fishing in heavily fished streams such as Monocacy Creek and Little Lehigh Creek . However , the criticism was not universal , with proponents pointing out that a redesignation would provide extra protection for the streams . The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission eventually decided to classify them as Class A Wild Trout Waters , but continue stocking them in the spring to satisfy angler demand .
According to Pennsylvania Outdoor News Person of the Year Bill Anderson , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission has become hesitant to classify streams as Class A Wild Trout Waters due to " ' social ' concerns " .
= = Description and distribution = =
The official definition of Class A Wild Trout Waters is " streams that support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery " .
Class A Wild Trout Waters are the " best of the best " streams for trout fishing in Pennsylvania . They are distributed widely across the state . However , most are found in north @-@ central and northeastern Pennsylvania , while very few are in the western third of the state . Some Class A Wild Trout Waters are located in The Poconos or the Lehigh Valley . As of 2009 , 49 of the state 's 67 counties contain at least one Class A Wild Trout stream . However , in that year , only nine counties contained at least 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Class A Wild Trout Waters .
Class A Wild Trout Waters are virtually never stocked with trout since they are managed solely for the propagation of wild trout . However , most current Class A Wild Trout streams were historically stocked with trout prior to the introduction of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission 's classification system . They may also be tributaries of streams that are stocked with trout .
In 2014 , there were 274 Class A Wild Trout Waters for brook trout , comprising 743 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @,@ 196 @.@ 7 km ) of streams . There were 163 such stream segments for brown trout , making up a total of 507 @.@ 3 miles ( 816 @.@ 4 km ) of streams , and 62 Class A Wild Trout Waters for both brook trout and brown trout , totaling 211 @.@ 0 miles ( 339 @.@ 6 km ) . There were only 11 Class A Wild Trout Waters for rainbow trout , making up 28 @.@ 7 miles ( 46 @.@ 2 km ) of streams .
= = Criteria = =
In order to be listed as Class A Wild Trout Waters , a stream must be surveyed by Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission biologists with " approved protocols " to determine that it meets the relevant standards . The official designation is carried out by the Board of Commissioners .
The criteria for Class A Wild Trout Waters vary by species . For brook trout , a biomass of 30 kilograms per hectare ( 27 lb / acre ) , including at least 0 @.@ 1 kilograms per hectare ( 0 @.@ 089 lb / acre ) of brook trout less than 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long . Additionally , brook trout may not make up less than 75 percent of the total wild trout biomass . The requirements are the same for brown trout except that the minimum brown trout biomass is 40 kilograms per hectare ( 36 lb / acre ) .
For a stream to be Class A Wild Trout Waters for both brook trout and brown trout , the combined biomass of both species must be at least 40 kilograms per hectare ( 36 lb / acre ) and the biomass of each species must include at least 0 @.@ 1 kilograms per hectare ( 0 @.@ 089 lb / acre ) of trout less than 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long . Neither species may make up more than 75 percent of the total wild trout biomass .
The criteria for rainbow trout are considerably simpler : the only requirement is that the biomass of wild rainbow trout less than 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long must be at least 2 kilograms per hectare ( 1 @.@ 8 lb / acre ) . There is only one stream in Pennsylvania that is Class A Wild Trout Waters for brook trout and rainbow trout : Roaring Run .
There are several rankings with lower biomass requirements in the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission 's classification system : Class B Wild Trout Waters , Class C Wild Trout Waters , Class D Wild Trout Waters , and Class E Wild Trout Waters .
= = Legal significance = =
The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection designates Class A Wild Trout Waters as High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fisheries , provided that there has been an adequate period of public comment and participation . This provides such streams with extra legal protections under the federal Clean Water Act . Thus , any activity involving discharges into a Class A Wild Trout Stream is required to comply with more restrictive standards than for other streams . Some streams receive Exceptional Value status due to their classification as Class A Wild Trout Waters .
Under Section 57.8a of the Pennsylvania Code , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission is to manage trout populations in Class A Wild Trout Waters as renewable natural resources , and to conserve the populations for anglers .
The Susquehanna River Basin Commission bases its water withdrawal policy in part on the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission 's biomass classifications system . The habitat loss criteria for Class A Wild Trout Waters is 5 percent , except in cases of social or economic justification , in which case it is 7 @.@ 5 percent .
Class A Wild Trout Waters are subject to several angling regulations . The vast majority ( 92 percent ) of such steams are managed with the statewide minimum length of 7 inches ( 18 cm ) and the maximum creel limit of five fish . Of the 40 + Class A Wild Trout Waters under special regulations , about half are managed with a Catch and Release regulation . Trophy Trout and Wild Brook Trout Enhancement regulations apply to the remainder . A total of 31 Class A Wild Trout Waters have been designated as Wilderness Trout Streams .
Fishing in Class A Wild Trout Waters is permitted year @-@ round , although the killing of fish is forbidden from Labor Day to the beginning of the following year 's trout season .
= = Gallery = =
= Christianisation of Scotland =
The Christianisation of Scotland was the process by which Christianity spread in what is now Scotland , which took place principally between the fifth and tenth centuries .
Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia . After the collapse of Roman authority in the fifth century , Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced .
Traditional narratives depict Scotland as largely converted by Irish missions associated with figures such as St. Columba , from the fifth to the seventh centuries , but many of these figures were later constructs or founded monasteries and collegiate churches in areas to which Christianity had already spread . Scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity , in which abbots were more significant than bishops , attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed , and there were significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity , particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter , although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid @-@ seventh century .
After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland in the tenth century , Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom . The process of Christianisation was also significant in the development of Scottish national identity , the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission to Continental Europe , the development of Insular art , and the introduction of Latin and formal education .
= = Background = =
= = = Pre @-@ Christian religion = = =
Very little is known about religion in Scotland before the arrival of Christianity . The lack of native written sources among the Picts means that it can only be judged from parallels elsewhere , occasional surviving archaeological evidence and hostile accounts of later Christian writers . It is generally presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism . The names of more than two hundred Celtic deities have been noted , some of which , like Lugh , The Dagda and The Morrigan , come from later Irish mythology , whilst others , like Teutatis , Taranis and Cernunnos , come from evidence from Gaul . The Celtic pagans constructed temples and shrines to venerate these gods , something they did so through votive offerings and performing sacrifices , possibly including human sacrifice . According to Greek and Roman accounts , in Gaul , Britain and Ireland , there was a priestly caste of " magico @-@ religious specialists " known as the druids , although very little is definitely known about them . Irish legends about the origin of the Picts and stories from the life of St. Ninian , associate the Picts with druids . The Picts are also associated in Christian writing with " demon " worship , which may be a Christian interpretation of their deities , and one story concerning St. Columba has him exorcising a demon from a well in Pictland , suggesting that the worship of well spirits was a feature of Pictish paganism . Roman mentions of the worship of the Goddess Minerva at wells , and a Pictish stone associated with a well near Dunvegan Castle on Skye , have been taken to support this case .
= = = Roman influence = = =
The roots of Christianity in Scotland were probably among the soldiers and ordinary Roman citizens who lived in the vicinity of Hadrian 's Wall . The archaeology of the Roman period indicates that the northern parts of the Roman province of Britannia were among the most Christianised in the island . Chi @-@ Rho inscriptions and Christian grave @-@ slabs have been found on the wall from the fourth century , and from the same period the Mithraic shrines ( known as Mithraea ) that existed along Hadrian 's Wall were attacked and destroyed , presumably by Christians .
= = = Post @-@ Roman kingdoms = = =
After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century , four major circles of influence emerged in Northern Britain . In the east , the kingdoms of the Picts eventually stretched from the River Forth to Shetland . In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata , who had close links with Ireland , from where they brought with them the name Scots . In the south were the British ( Brythonic @-@ speaking ) descendants of the peoples of the Roman @-@ influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " , the most powerful and longest surviving of which was Alt Clut . Finally , the Anglo @-@ Saxons had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia ( later the northern part of Northumbria ) , which reached into what are now the Borders of Scotland in the south @-@ east .
While the Picts and Scots would have remained pagan , most scholars presume that Christianity would have survived after the departure of the Romans among the Brythonic enclaves and retreated as the Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced north . Their gods included Tiw , Woden , Thor and Frig , all of whom gave their names to days of the week , and Eostre , whose name was appropriated for the spring festival of Easter . While British Christians continued to practice inhumation without grave goods , the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons are visible in the archaeological record from their practice of cremation and burial in urns , accompanied by extensive grave goods , perhaps designed to accompany the dead to the afterlife . However , despite growing evidence of Anglian settlement in southern Scotland , only one such grave has been found , at Dalmeny in East Lothian .
= = Early spread and missions = =
The traditional view of the Christianisation of Scotland has seen it as carried out by Irish @-@ Scots missionaries and to a lesser extent those from Rome and England . Historian Richard Fletcher argued that motivations for these missions may have included the example of St. Patrick , the idea of Peregrinatio and a growing interest in evangelism . Missionaries from Ireland were operating on the British mainland from at least the sixth century . This movement is traditionally associated with the figures of St. Ninian , St. Kentigern and St. Columba . However , historian Gilbert Markus highlights the fact that most of these figures were not church @-@ founders , but were usually were active in areas where Christianity had already become established , probably through gradual diffusion that is almost invisible in the historical record . This would have included trade , conquest and intermarriage .
= = = Britons = = =
Most scholars agree that the place @-@ name element eccles- , from the Brythonic word for church , represents evidence of the British church of the Roman and immediate post @-@ Roman period . In Scotland most of these are located in the south of the country in the area of the British successor states that would be known as the Hen Ogledd , or the Old North . From the fifth and sixth centuries , inscribed stones indicate Christianity through their dedications and are spread across southern Scotland . The earliest is the so @-@ called Latinus stone of Whithorn , dating to around 450 . A slightly later stone at Kirkmadrine commemorates sacerdotes , which may be bishops . Among the key indicators of Christianisation are cemeteries containing long cists , which are generally east @-@ west in orientation , like Christian graves . These cemeteries are suspected , or known to be Christian , because of their proximity to a church , or because they have Christian inscriptions . They are found from between the end of the Roman era in the early fifth century and the twelfth century . They are concentrated strongly in eastern Scotland south of the River Tay , in the modern East and Borders of Scotland . Writing in the sixth century , St. Patrick also mentioned Coroticus , who probably ruled from the fort at Dumbarton rock and who had already accepted Christianity . The poem Y Gododdin , set in the early sixth century and probably written in what is now Scotland , indicates that the warriors of Gododdin , probably a kingdom based the site of modern Edinburgh , were Christian , receiving communion and confessing their sins before battle .
The figure of St. Ninian , traditionally credited with introducing Christianity to the region of south @-@ west Scotland , is now widely regarded as a later construct and may have been the result of scribal confusion with the Irish saint Finnian . The church known as Candida Casa was dedicated to him at Whithorn in the sixth century and from there St Kentigern seems to have created a new centre of worship at Govan or Inchinnan , which would extend an influence across the Strathclyde region . However , it is clear that Christianity had already gained a foothold across what is now southern Scotland before the sixth century .
= = = Gaels = = =
The conversion of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata in the west of modern Scotland is traditionally attributed to the work of St. Columba . However , given the close cultural and linguistic ties , and the short distance across the seas , between the region and Ireland , which had begun to be Christianised from at least the fifth century , it is likely that Christianity had already reached this part of modern Scotland before his arrival in the mid @-@ sixth century . In this view , the role of clergy owing their loyalty to Iona and elsewhere was to consolidate the position of Christianity in the region and beyond and to provide pastoral care for the people there .
St Columba was probably a disciple of Finnian . He left Ireland after being exiled , and founded the monastery at Iona off the west coast of Scotland in 563 , probably on land granted from a Christian king . From there missions were carried out to western Argyll and the islands around Mull . Later the influence of Iona would extend to the Hebrides . Iona emerged as the most important religious centre in the north of Britain , partly as a result of the work of Adomnan , who was abbot there from 679 to 704 . Although it is unclear whether the historic Columba did conduct missions outside of a small part of Dál Riata , Adoman 's Life of St. Columba elevated him to become the apostle of North Britain in general .
= = = Picts = = =
The means and speed by which the Picts converted to Christianity is uncertain . Bede gives the credit for the conversion to Ninian , probably because in the eighth century , when Bede was writing , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Northumbria was in control of the south @-@ west of Scotland and an English bishop was in possession of the see that theoretically had been Ninians . Bede may have been reminding the Pictish church of its allegiance . Adomnan stresses the role of Columba in Pictland , and although the saint may have visited the region , since Adomnan does not make any claims for conversion , it is unlikely that the saint had any major impact . A separate mission , that may have been an attempt to evangalise the north @-@ east , was undertaken by Columba 's younger contemporary , another Irish priest , Donnán of Eigg , who had a large number of churches dedicated in his name in the region .
The process of conversion may have begun earlier than traditional mission @-@ based narratives . It is likely that knowledge of Christianity reached the region from Dál Riata , with which it had close contacts , including war , trade and intermarriage . Traditions place the fifth @-@ century saint Palladius in Pictland after he left Ireland , and link Abernethy with his contemporary , Saint Brigid of Kildare . Evidence for an early date for Christianisation include the fact that St. Patrick , active in the fifth century , referred in a letter to " apostate Picts " , indicating that they had previously been Christian , but had abandoned the faith . In addition the poem Y Gododdin , does not remark on the Picts as pagans . Recent archaeological work at Portmahomack places the foundation of the monastery there , an area once assumed to be among the last converted , in the late sixth century . In the east and north , Class II Pictish stones began to show Christian symbolism from the early eighth century . Conversion of the Pictish élite is assessed to have taken place over a considerable period , beginning in the fifth century and not complete until the seventh . Conversion of the general population may have stretched into the eighth century . The evidence of place names suggests a wide area of Ionan influence in Pictland , where there are large numbers of dedications of churches to Iona abbots of the seventh century .
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxons = = =
In the seventh century , St. Aidan ( died 651 ) went from Iona to found a church at Lindisfarne off the east coast of Northumbria . The influence of Lindisfarne would spread through the kingdom of Northumbria into what is now south @-@ east Scotland . However , in the second half of the century , the Northumbrian church was increasingly influenced by the Roman form of Christianity . The careers of St. Wilfred ( active from the 660s until his death in 709 ) , abbot of the monastery at Ripon and Bishop of Northumbria , and Benedict Biscop ( c . 628 – 690 ) , founder of the monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth , intensified ties with Rome . A bishopric established at Abercorn in the region of West Lothian , is presumed to have adopted Roman forms of Christianity after the Synod of Whitby in 664 , at which King Oswiu of Northumbria accepted the arguments for Roman authority and practices . However , the Pictish victory at the Battle of Dunnichen in 685 ended the Northumbrian dominance of the region and the bishop and his followers were ejected .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Celtic Christianity = = =
The result of different missions and forms of conversion was a series of overlapping and informally organised churches . In the past historians used the term Celtic Church to describe a specific form of Christianity with its origins in the conversion of Ireland , traditionally associated with St. Patrick and which later spread to northern Britain through Iona . It is also used as a general description for the Christian establishment of northern Britain prior to the twelfth century , when new religious institutions and ideologies of primarily French origin began to take root in Scotland . The Celtic form of Christianity has been contrasted with that derived from missions from Rome , which reached southern England in 587 under the leadership of St. Augustine of Canterbury . Subsequent missions from Canterbury then helped convert the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , reaching Northumbria in the early eighth century , where Iona had already begun to have a presence . As a result , Christianity in Northumbria became a mix of Celtic and Roman influences .
While Roman and Celtic Christianity were very similar in doctrine and both accepted ultimate papal authority , there were differences in practice . The most contentious were the method of calculating Easter , and the form of head shaving for priests known as tonsure . Other differences were in the rites of ordination and baptism , and in the form of service of the liturgy . In addition scholars have identified significant characteristics of the organisation of Irish and Scottish Christianity as relaxed ideas of clerical celibacy , intense secularisation of ecclesiastical institutions , and the lack of a diocesan structure . This made abbots ( or coarbs ) , rather than bishops , the most important element the church hierarchy .
= = = Growth of Roman influence = = =
Wilfred was the major spokesman for the Roman case at the Synod of Whitby in 664 , which was called by King Oswiu of Northumbria to decide which form of observance would be used in his kingdom , and where he decided in favour of the Roman form of tonsure and of calculating Easter . Although this only affected Anglo @-@ Saxon Northumbria , from this point the distinctiveness of Celtic Christianity declined . Nechtan mac Der @-@ Ilei , king of the Picts from 706 , seems to have attempted to establish links with the church in Northumbria . Before 714 he wrote to Ceolfrith , abbot of Wearmouth , asking for a formal refutation of the Irish position over the calculation of the date of Easter and for help in building a stone church " in the manner of the Romans " . Historian A. A. M. Duncan has suggested that there was a " Romanising group " among Nechtan 's clergy , perhaps led by Bishop Curitan , who took the name Latin name Boniface . This is also suggested by the presence of a church at Rosemarkie in Ross and Cromarty , dedicated to St. Peter , seen as the first Bishop of Rome , by the early eighth century , and subsequent similar dedications in Pictish territory . By the mid @-@ eighth century , Iona and Ireland had accepted Roman practices .
= = = Decline of Iona = = =
Iona 's place as the centre of Scottish Christianity was disrupted by the arrival of the Vikings , first as raiders , then as conquerors . Iona was sacked by them in 795 and 802 . In 806 , 68 monks were killed and the next year the abbot withdrew to Kells in Ireland , taking the relics of St. Columba with him . There were periodic returns of abbots and relics , often ending in more massacres . Or
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kney , Shetland , Western Isles and the Hebrides eventually fell to the pagan Norsemen , curtailing the influence of the church in the Highlands and Islands . The threat posed by the Vikings may have forced a union between the kingdoms of Dál Riata and the Picts under Kenneth mac Alpin , traditionally dated to 843 . In 849 , according to the Annals of Ulster , the abbot of Iona once again took Columba 's relics to Ireland , but the earliest version of the Chronicles of the Kings of Scots says that in the same year they were removed by Kenneth mac Alpin , to a church he had built , probably at Dunkeld , perhaps indicating that the relics were divided . The abbot of the new monastery at Dunkeld emerged as the Bishop of the new combined Kingdom of Alba , which would subsequently come to be known as the Kingdom of Scotland .
= = Conversion of Scandinavian Scotland = =
While the official conversion of Scandinavian Scotland took place at the end of the tenth century , there is evidence that Christianity had already made inroads into the Viking controlled Highland and Islands . There are a large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles , which may indicate a " hermit 's " or " priest 's isle " from this period . Changes in patterns of grave goods and Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion . According to the Orkneyinga Saga , not written down until around 1230 , the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson , king of Norway , in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the local jarl Sigurd the Stout and said " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel " . The story may be apocryphal , but the islands became officially Christian , receiving their own bishop in the early eleventh century . The bishopric appears to have been under the authority of the Archbishops of York and of Hamburg @-@ Bremen at different points before the twelfth century and from then until 1472 it was subordinate to the Archbishop of Nidaros ( today 's Trondheim ) . Elsewhere in Scandinavian Scotland the record is less clear . There was a Bishop of Iona until the late tenth century , followed by a gap of more than a century , possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney , before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079 . One of the major effects of the conversion of the Vikings was to bring an end to plundering raids on Christian sites , which may have allowed them to recover some of their status as cultural and intellectual centres . It also probably curbed the excesses of Viking violence and led to a more settled society in northern Scotland .
= = Significance = =
The Christianisation of Scotland brought the country into the cultural mainstream of Europe . When the Kingdom of Alba emerged in the ninth century it would be an overtly Christian kingdom and , despite its cultural diversity , religion would be a major source of Scottish identity . The Canmore dynasty that would rule Scotland from the eleventh century to the end of the thirteenth identified itself with Christianity and a strong relationship emerged between the crown and church . The acceptance of papal authority meant that in subsequent centuries the Scottish church faced claims for superior jurisdiction from the archbishoprics of both Canterbury and York and the independent status of Scotland in ecclesiastic matters would only be established by the papal bull of Cum universi in 1192 .
Scottish monasticism also played a major part in the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , by which Scottish and Irish clergy undertook missions to the expanding Frankish Empire . They founded monasteries , often called Schottenklöster ( meaning Gaelic monasteries in German ) , most of which became Benedictine establishments in what is now Germany . Scottish monks , such as St. Cathróe of Metz , became local saints in the region . After the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles a common artistic style emerged in Britain and Ireland known as Insular art . Surviving examples are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts with highly decorated with intricate patterning , like the Book of Kells , which may have been wholly or partly created in Iona . Insular art became highly influential in continental Europe , contributing to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools and providing a small educated elite , who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society .
= Jim Corbett National Park =
Jim Corbett National Park is the oldest national park in India and was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park to protect the endangered Bengal tiger . It is located in Nainital district of Uttarakhand and was named after Jim Corbett who played a key role in its establishment . The park was the first to come under the Project Tiger initiative .
The park has sub @-@ Himalayan belt geographical and ecological characteristics . An ecotourism destination , it contains 488 different species of plants and a diverse variety of fauna . The increase in tourist activities , among other problems , continues to present a serious challenge to the park 's ecological balance .
Corbett has been a haunt for tourists and wildlife lovers for a long time . Tourism activity is only allowed in selected areas of Corbett Tiger Reserve so that people get an opportunity to see its splendid landscape and the diverse wildlife . In recent years the number of people coming here has increased dramatically . Presently , every season more than 70 @,@ 000 visitors come to the park .
Corbett National Park comprises 520 @.@ 8 km2 ( 201 @.@ 1 sq mi ) area of hills , riverine belts , marshy depressions , grasslands and a large lake . The elevation ranges from 1 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 400 to 1 @,@ 220 m ) . Winter nights are cold but the days are bright and sunny . It rains from July to September .
Dense moist deciduous forest mainly consists of sal , haldu , peepal , rohini and mango trees . Forest covers almost 73 % of the park , 10 % of the area consists of grasslands . It houses around 110 tree species , 50 species of mammals , 580 bird species and 25 reptile species .
= = History = =
Some areas of the park were formerly part of the princely state of Tehri Garhwal . The forests were cleared to make the area less vulnerable to Rohilla invaders . The Raja of Tehri formally ceded a part of his princely state to the East India Company in return for their assistance in ousting the Gurkhas from his domain . The Boksas — a tribe from the Terai — settled on the land and began growing crops , but in the early 1860s they were evicted with the advent of British rule .
Efforts to save the forests of the region began in the 19th century under Major Ramsay , the British Officer who was in @-@ charge of the area during those times . The first step in the protection of the area began in 1868 when the British forest department established control over the land and prohibited cultivation and the operation of cattle stations . In 1879 these forests were constituted into a reserve forest where restricted felling was permitted .
In the early 1900s , several Britishers , including E. R. Stevans and E. A. Smythies , suggested the setting up of a national park on this soil . The British administration considered the possibility of creating a game reserve there in 1907 . It was only in the 1930s that the process of demarcation for such an area got underway , assisted by Jim Corbett , who knew the area well . A reserve area known as Hailey National Park covering 323 @.@ 75 km2 ( 125 @.@ 00 sq mi ) was created in 1936 , when Sir Malcolm Hailey was the Governor of United Provinces ; and Asia 's first national park came into existence . Hunting was not allowed in the reserve , only timber cutting for domestic purposes . Soon after the establishment of the reserve , rules prohibiting killing and capturing of mammals , reptiles and birds within its boundaries were passed .
The reserve was renamed in 1954 – 55 as Ramganga National Park and was again renamed in 1955 – 56 as Corbett National Park . The new name honors the well @-@ known author and wildlife conservationist , Jim Corbett , who played a key role in creating the reserve by using his influence to persuade the provincial government to establish it .
The park fared well during the 1930s under an elected administration . But , during the Second World War , it suffered from excessive poaching and timber cutting . Over time , the area in the reserve was increased — 797 @.@ 72 km2 ( 308 @.@ 00 sq mi ) were added in 1991 as a buffer zone to the Corbett Tiger Reserve . The 1991 addition included the entire Kalagarh forest division , assimilating the 301 @.@ 18 km2 ( 116 @.@ 29 sq mi ) area of Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary as a part of the Kalagarh division . It was chosen in 1974 as the location for launching Project Tiger , an ambitious and well known wildlife conservation project . The reserve is administered from its headquarters in the district of Nainital .
Corbett National Park is one of the thirteen protected areas covered by the World Wide Fund For Nature under their Terai Arc Landscape Program . The program aims to protect three of the five terrestrial flagship species , the tiger , the Asian elephant and the great one @-@ horned rhinoceros , by restoring corridors of forest to link 13 protected areas of Nepal and India , to enable wildlife migration .
= = Geography = =
The park is located between 29 ° 25 ' and 29 ° 39'N latitude and between 78 ° 44 ' and 79 ° 07'E longitude . The altitude of the region ranges between 360 m ( 1 @,@ 181 ft ) and 1 @,@ 040 m ( 3 @,@ 412 ft ) . It has numerous ravines , ridges , minor streams and small plateaus with varying aspects and degrees of slope . The park encompasses the Patli Dun valley formed by the Ramganga river . It protects parts of the Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests and Himalayan subtropical pine forests ecoregions . It has a humid subtropical and highland climate .
The present area of the reserve is 1 @,@ 318 @.@ 54 square kilometres ( 509 @.@ 09 sq mi ) including 520 square kilometres ( 200 sq mi ) of core area and 797 @.@ 72 square kilometres ( 308 @.@ 00 sq mi ) of buffer area . The core area forms the Jim Corbett National Park while the buffer contains reserve forests ( 496 @.@ 54 square kilometres ( 191 @.@ 72 sq mi ) ) as well as the Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary ( 301 @.@ 18 square kilometres ( 116 @.@ 29 sq mi ) ) .
The reserve , located partly along a valley between the Lesser Himalaya in the north and the Shivaliks in the south , has a sub @-@ Himalayan belt structure . The upper tertiary rocks are exposed towards the base of the Shiwalik range and hard sandstone units form broad ridges . Characteristic longitudinal valleys , geographically termed Doons , or Duns can be seen formed along the narrow tectonic zones between lineaments .
= = Climate = =
The weather in the park is temperate compared to most other protected areas of India . The temperature may vary from 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) during the winter and some mornings are foggy . Summer temperatures normally do not rise above 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . Rainfall ranges from light during the dry season to heavy during the monsoons .
= = Flora = =
A total of 488 different species of plants have been recorded in the park . Tree density inside the reserve is higher in the areas of Sal forests and lowest in the Anogeissus @-@ Acacia catechu forests . Total tree basal cover is greater in Sal dominated areas of woody vegetation . Healthy regeneration in sapling and seedling layers is occurring in the Mallotus philippensis , Jamun and Diospyros tomentosa communities , but in the Sal forests the regeneration of sapling and seedling is poor .
= = Fauna = =
More than 586 species of resident and migratory birds have been categorised , including the crested serpent eagle , blossom @-@ headed parakeet and the red junglefowl — ancestor of all domestic fowl . 33 species of reptiles , seven species of amphibians , seven species of fish and 36 species of dragonflies have also been recorded .
Bengal tigers , although plentiful , are not easily spotted due to the abundance of foliage - camouflage - in the reserve . Thick jungle , the Ramganga river and plentiful prey make this reserve an ideal habitat for tigers who are opportunistic feeders and prey upon a range of animals . The tigers in the park have been known to kill much larger animals such as buffalo and even elephant for food . The tigers prey upon the larger animals in rare cases of food shortage . There have been incidents of tigers attacking domestic animals in times of shortage of prey .
Leopards are found in hilly areas but may also venture into the low land jungles . Small cats in the park include the jungle cat , fishing cat and leopard cat . Other mammals include barking deer , sambar deer , hog deer and chital , sloth and Himalayan black bears , Indian grey mongoose , otters , yellow @-@ throated martens , Himalayan goral , Indian pangolins , and langur and rhesus macaques . Owls and nightjars can be heard during the night .
In the summer , Indian elephants can be seen in herds of several hundred . The Indian python found in the reserve is a dangerous species , capable of killing a chital deer . Local crocodiles and gharials were saved from extinction by captive breeding programs that subsequently released crocodiles into the Ramganga river .
= = Ecotourism = =
Though the main focus is protection of wildlife , the reserve management has also encouraged ecotourism . In 1993 , a training course covering natural history , visitor management and park interpretation was introduced to train nature guides . A second course followed in 1995 which recruited more guides for the same purpose . This allowed the staff of the reserve , previously preoccupied with guiding the visitors , to carry out management activities uninterrupted . Additionally , the Indian government has organised workshops on ecotourism in Corbett National Park and Garhwal region to ensure that the local citizens profit from tourism while the park remains protected .
patil & Joshi ( 1997 ) consider summer ( April – June ) to be the best season for Indian tourists to visit the park while recommending the winter months ( November – January ) for foreign tourists . According to Riley & Riley ( 2005 ) : " Best chances of seeing a tiger to come late in the dry season- April to mid @-@ June @-@ and go out with mahouts and elephants for several days . "
As early as 1991 , the Corbett National Park played host to 3237 tourist vehicles carrying 45 @,@ 215 visitors during the main tourist seasons between 15 November and 15 June . This heavy influx of tourists has led to visible stress signs on the natural ecosystem . Excessive trampling of soil due to tourist pressure has led to reduction in plant species and has also resulted in reduced soil moisture . The tourists have increasingly used fuel wood for cooking . This is a cause of concern as this fuel wood is obtained from the nearby forests , resulting in greater pressure on the forest ecosystem of the park . Additionally , tourists have also caused problems by making noise , littering and causing disturbances in general .
In 2007 , young naturalist and photographer – Kahini Ghosh Mehta – took up the challenge of promoting healthy tourism in Corbett National Park and made the first comprehensive travel guide on Corbett . The film titled – Wild Saga of Corbett – showcases how tourists can contribute in their own small way in conservation efforts .
= = Other attractions = =
Dhikala is a well @-@ known destination in the park and situated at the fringes of Patli Dun valley . There is a rest house , which was built hundred of years ago . Kanda ridge forms the backdrop , and from Dhikala , one can enjoy the spectacular natural beauty of the valley .
Jeep Safari is the most convenient way to travel within the national park ; jeeps can be rented for park trips from Ramnagar .
Treks : tourists are not allowed to walk inside the park , but only to go trekking around the park in the company of a guide . The winter season is cold , so tourists should make proper arrangements for their clothing , if they are traveling in the winter season .
Walking Safaris are possible in the buffer zone areas - and very rewarding with Corbett having a very healthy and lush , rich buffer zone around ; look for lodges around with trained staff for the same .
Kalagarh Dam is dam located in the south @-@ west of the wildlife sanctuary . This is one of the best places for a bird watching tour . Lots of migratory waterfowl comes here in the winters .
Corbett Falls is a 20 m ( 66 ft ) water fall situated 25 km ( 16 mi ) from Ramnagar , and 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Kaladhungi , on the Kaladhungi – Ramnagar highway . The water falls is surrounded by dense forests and pin drop silence .
Garjiya Devi Temple is sacred to Garjiya Devi and is mostly visited by the traveller during the Kartik Poornima ( November – December ) . It is a prominent temple located on the bank of river Kosi , amidst the hilly terrains of Uttarakhand , nearby Garjiya village , at a distance of 14 km. from Ramnagar , Uttarakhand , India .
= = Location = =
Corbett National Park is situated in Ramanagar in the district of Nainital , Uttarakhand .
Area : 521 km2
Route : The town of Ramnagar is the headquarters of Corbett Tiger Reserve . There are overnight trains available from Delhi to Ramnagar . Also , there are trains from Varanasi via Lucknow and Allahabad via Kanpur to Ramnagar . Reaching Ramnagar , one can hire a taxi to reach the park and Dhikala .
Ramnagar is also well connected by road with Kanpur , Lucknow , Bareilly , Nainital , Ranikhet , Haridwar , Dehradun and New Delhi . One can also drive from Delhi ( 295 km ) via Gajraula , Moradabad , Kashipur to reach Ramnagar . A direct train to Ramnagar runs from New Delhi . Alternatively , one can come up to Haldwani / Kashipur / Kathgodam and come to Ramnagar by road .
Best Time to Visit : Mid @-@ November to Mid @-@ June .
= = Challenges = =
= = = Past = = =
A major incident in the history of the reserve followed the construction of a dam at the Kalagarh river and the submerging of 80 km2 ( 31 sq mi ) of prime low lying riverine area . The consequences ranged from local extinction of swamp deer to a massive reduction in hog deer population . The reservoir formed due to the submerging of land has also led to an increase in aquatic fauna and has additionally served as a habitat for winter migrants .
Two villages situated on the southern boundary were shifted to the Firozpur – Manpur area situated on Ramnagar – Kashipur highway during 1990 – 93 ; the vacated areas were designated as buffer zones . The families in these villages were mostly dependent on forest products . With the passage of time , these areas began to show signs of ecological recovery . Vines , herbs , grasses and small trees began to appear , followed by herbaceous flora , eventually leading to natural forest type . It was observed that grass began to grow on the vacated agricultural fields and the adjoining forest areas started recuperating . By 1999 – 2002 several plant species emerged in these buffer zones . The newly arisen lush green fields attracted grass eating animals , mainly deer and elephants , who slowly migrated towards these areas and even preferred to stay there throughout the monsoon .
There were 109 cases of poaching recorded in 1988 – 89 . This figure dropped to 12 reported cases in 1997 – 98 .
In 1985 David Hunt , a British ornithologist and birdwatching tour guide , was killed by a tiger in the park .
= = = Present = = =
The habitat of the reserve faces threats from invasive species such as the exotic weeds Lantana , Parthenium and Cassia . Natural resources like trees and grasses are exploited by the local population while encroachment of at least of 13 @.@ 62 ha ( 0 @.@ 05 sq mi ) by 74 families has been recorded .
The villages surrounding the park are at least 15 – 20 years old and no new villages have come up in the recent past . The increasing population growth rate and the density of population within 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to 2 km ( 1 @.@ 24 mi ) from the park present a challenge to the management of the reserve . Incidents of killing cattle by tigers and leopards have led to acts of retaliation by the local population in some cases . The Indian government has approved the construction of a 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) stone masonry wall on the southern boundary of the reserve where it comes in direct contact with agricultural fields .
In April 2008 , the National Conservation Tiger Authority ( NCTA ) expressed serious concern that protection systems have weakened , and poachers have infiltrated into this park . Monitoring of wild animals in the prescribed format has not been followed despite advisories and observations made during field visits . Also the monthly monitoring report of field evidence relating to tigers has not been received since 2006 . NCTA said that in the " absence of ongoing monitoring protocol in a standardised manner , it would be impossible to forecast and keep track of untoward happenings in the area targeted by poachers . " A cement road has been built through the park against a Supreme Court order . The road has become a thoroughfare between Kalagarh and Ramnagar . Constantly increasing vehicle traffic on this road is affecting the wildlife of crucial ranges like Jhirna , Kotirau and Dhara . Additionally , the Kalagarh irrigation colony that takes up about 5 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) of the park is yet to be vacated despite a 2007 Supreme Court order .
As of 10 February 2014 , nine local villagers are reported to have been killed by tigers originating from Jim Corbett National Park wildlife sanctuary opened a new zone for tourists stretched across 521 km2
= Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 =
The Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 ( also known as the Philadelphia Mutiny ) was an anti @-@ government protest by nearly 400 soldiers of the Continental Army in June 1783 . The mutiny , and the refusal of the Executive Council of Pennsylvania to stop it , ultimately resulted in Congress vacating Philadelphia and the creation of a federal district to serve as the national capital .
= = Background = =
From March 1781 , the Congress of the Confederation and the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania were situated at the Pennsylvania State House ( now known as Independence Hall ) in Philadelphia . Under the authority of the Articles of Confederation , the national government did not have direct control over the military , except in times of war , and was largely reliant on the use of state militias to enforce laws and keep order .
On June 17 , 1783 , Congress received a message from soldiers of the Continental Army stationed in Philadelphia , which demanded payment for their service during the American Revolutionary War . The soldiers threatened to take action that day if their complaints were not addressed . Congress ignored their message , but the soldiers did not act on their threat . Two days later , however , the Congress received word that a group of about 80 soldiers had left their post at Lancaster , Pennsylvania , approximately 60 miles ( 97 km ) west of Philadelphia , and had joined with the soldiers stationed at the city barracks . The group of approximately 500 men had effective control over the weapons stores and munition depot .
= = = Protests = = =
The next morning on June 20 , the State House was mobbed by as many as 400 soldiers demanding payment . The soldiers blocked the door and initially refused to allow the delegates to leave . Alexander Hamilton , then a delegate from New York , persuaded the soldiers to allow Congress to meet later to address their concerns . The soldiers did allow the members of Congress to peacefully adjourn that afternoon . That evening , a small Congressional committee , headed by Hamilton , met in secret to draft a message to the Pennsylvania Council , asking them to protect Congress from the mutineers . The letter threatened that Congress would be forced to move elsewhere if the Council did not act .
On June 21 , the Congressional committee met again at the State House with members of the Pennsylvania Executive Council , including its president , John Dickinson . The members of Congress asked the council to do more to protect the federal government . Dickinson and the council agreed to consult with the militia commanders and reply to Congress the next day . The following morning , the Pennsylvania Council again refused Congress ' request . Lacking sufficient assurances that the state would be willing to protect Congress , the members left Philadelphia that day for Princeton , New Jersey .
= = Effect = =
There are three reasons put forth as to why Dickinson and the Pennsylvania Council did not act . The Council 's official reasoning was that they were unsure that the local militiamen would actually protect Congress from their fellow soldiers . Further , the council may have thought that the conflict was not as serious as Congress believed and that the mutiny could be resolved peacefully . The second theory put forth is that Dickinson , having been an officer in the militia , was sympathetic to the soldiers ' grievances . The third theory is that the Council refused to allow Pennsylvania , a sovereign state , to be subjugated by the demands of a few members of Congress .
After Congress completed its business at Princeton in early November 1783 , the capital was moved later that month to Annapolis , Maryland , then to Trenton , New Jersey in November 1784 , and finally to New York City in January 1785 . It was not until the Constitutional Convention in 1787 that delegates decided to meet again in Philadelphia . Pennsylvania 's failure to protect the institutions of the national government , however , was a primary reason why the framers of the Constitution decided to create a federal district , distinct from the states , where Congress could provide for its own security . The delegates therefore agreed in Article One , Section 8 , of the United States Constitution to give the Congress the power " to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever , over such District ( not exceeding ten miles square ) as may , by cession of particular states , and the acceptance of Congress , become the seat of the government of the United States " .
Following the ratification of the United States Constitution by the state of New York in 1788 , the delegates agreed to keep New York City as the temporary federal capital . In 1790 , Congress passed the Residence Act , which created the District of Columbia , located on the banks of the Potomac River from land belonging until that time to the states of Maryland and Virginia , to serve as the new federal capital . Robert Morris , a representative from Pennsylvania , convinced Congress to return to Philadelphia while the new permanent capital was being built . As a result , the Residence Act also declared Philadelphia to be the temporary capital for a period of 10 years . In a final attempt to convince Congress to keep the capital in Philadelphia , the city began construction on a new Presidential palace and an expansion to Congress Hall . However , their efforts failed , and the national government relocated from Philadelphia for the final time on May 14 , 1800 .
= Shreya Ghoshal =
Shreya Ghoshal ( born 12 March 1984 ) is an Indian playback singer . She has received four National Film Awards , six Filmfare Awards and nine Filmfare Awards South ( one for Telugu , two for Kannada , two for Tamil and four for Malayalam ) to date . She has recorded songs for film music in various Indian languages , and has established herself as a leading playback singer of Indian cinema .
Ghoshal aspired to become a playback singer from a young age . At the age of four , she started learning music . At the age of six , she started with her formal training in classical music . At the age of sixteen , she was noticed by film @-@ maker Sanjay Leela Bhansali when she entered and won the television singing reality show Sa Re Ga Ma Pa . Following that , she made her Bollywood playback singing debut with Bhansali 's romantic drama Devdas ( 2002 ) for which she received a National Film Award , a Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer and Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent .
Apart from playback singing , Ghoshal has appeared as a judge on several television reality shows . She has been honored by the U.S. state of Ohio , where governor Ted Strickland declared 26 June 2010 " Shreya Ghoshal Day " . She was awarded with the highest honour in London by the selected members of House of Commons of the United Kingdom . She has also featured four times in Forbes , list of the top 100 celebrities of India . In February 2015 , Ghoshal married her childhood friend Shiladitya Mukhopadhyaya .
= = Early life = =
Ghoshal was born on 12 March 1984 to a Bengali Hindu family in Baharampur , Murshidabad district , West Bengal . She grew up in Rawatbhata , a small town near Kota in Rajasthan . Her father , Bishwajit Ghoshal is an electrical engineer and works for the Nuclear Power Corporation of India , and her mother , Sarmistha Ghoshal , is a literature post @-@ graduate . She has a younger brother , Soumyadeep Ghoshal . At the age of four , she started learning music .
Ghoshal completed her schooling up to eighth grade at the Atomic Energy Central School in Rawatbhata . In 1995 , she won the All India Light Vocal Music Competition , New Delhi , organised by Sangam Kala Group , in Light Vocal group in sub @-@ junior level . In 1997 , when her father was transferred to the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre , she was relocated to Mumbai , with her family and studied at the Atomic Energy Central School in Anushakti Nagar . She joined the Atomic Energy Junior College to study science . She withdrew from the junior college and enrolled at the SIES College of Arts , Science , and Commerce in Mumbai , where she took up arts with English as her major .
Her mother used to help her in her rehearsals and she accompanied her on the harmonium and started practicing mostly Bengali songs . At the age of six , Ghoshal started with her formal training in classical music . She acquired training from Padmashree Late Kalyanji Bhai and Late Mukta Bhideji . Her first stage performance was made at a club 's annual function . When she turned six , she started her lessons in Hindustani classical music . In 2000 , at the age of sixteen , she participated and won the television music reality show Sa Re Ga Ma ( now Sa Re Ga Ma Pa ) on the channel Zee TV .
= = Music career = =
Her first studio album was Bendhechhi Beena , which was released on 1 January 1998 , with 14 tracks . Some of her earlier albums include O Tota Pakhi Re , Ekti Katha ( 1999 ) , and Mukhor Porag ( 2000 ) . Ghoshal recorded Bengali studio album Rupasi Raate ( 2002 ) . Ghoshal recorded devotional songs in albums like Banomali Re ( 2002 ) , and later , Krishna Bina Ache Ke ( 2007 ) .
= = = Bollywood debut ( 2002 – 04 ) = = =
Ghoshal caught the attention of director Sanjay Leela Bhansali when she participated in the 75th children 's special episode of Sa Re Ga Ma . Bhansali 's mother was watching the show and during Ghoshal 's performance , she called him to watch her performance , after which he decided to give her a chance in his next film . According to Bhansali , Ghoshal 's voice had the innocence needed for the character of Paro in Devdas ( 2002 ) .
In 2000 , Bhansali and music director Ismail Darbar offered her the opportunity to be the voice of Paro , the lead female character of Devdas , who was portrayed by Aishwarya Rai . Ghoshal sang five songs in the film , namely , " Silsila Ye Chaahat Ka " , " Bairi Piya " , " Chalak Chalak " , " Morey Piya " , and " Dola Re Dola " , with established singers such as Udit Narayan , Vinod Rathod , Kavita Krishnamurthy , KK , and Jaspinder Narula . She was sixteen when she recorded the first song for the film , " Bairi Piya " with Udit Narayan . Her Higher Secondary Examinations were nearing that time and she would take her books and notebooks to the studio in order to study during downtime . " Bairi Piya " was an instant success and topped the charts . The film garnered her first Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer for " Dola Re " ( shared with Kavita Krishnamurthy ) and a National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for " Bairi Piya " . Her performance also won her the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent .
She was an immediate success and was called by various regional film industries for recording songs in her voice . Ghoshal was next heard in Darbar @-@ composed Desh Devi , where she performed three tracks for the film .
After rendering traditional semi @-@ classical songs for her previous ventures , Ghoshal performed two seductive numbers for M. M. Kreem '
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the album at number 22 on their list of the 50 most anticipated albums of 2013 .
= = Production = =
Juicy J worked with various recording artists on the album including , Wiz Khalifa , The Weeknd , Lil Wayne , 2 Chainz , Nicki Minaj , Yelawolf , Chris Brown , Project Pat , Trey Songz , Maejor Ali , Young Jeezy and Big Sean . In addition to handling production himself , Juicy J also worked with producers Lex Luger , Sonny Digital , Mike WiLL Made It , Dr. Luke , Hit @-@ Boy , Illangelo and Crazy Mike . In early April 2013 , Juicy J told Billboard that there would be a " secret special feature " on the album he has yet to reveal .
Wiz Khalifa told Power 105 on April 18 , 2013 that legendary rapper Pimp C would be featured on the album , and later on April 23 during an interview with DJ Whoo Kid he said that singer Justin Timberlake would make a guest appearance . Then on July 6 , 2013 , Juicy J confirmed production on the album would come from himself , Mike WiLL Made It , Dr. Luke , Lex Luger , Young Chop , Crazy Mike , Baby E , Timbaland , I.D. Labs and Danny Boy Styles , among others . In a press release on July 15 , 2013 , he confirmed the album would feature guest appearances from Wiz Khalifa , Justin Timberlake , Chris Brown , Lil Wayne , 2 Chainz , The Weeknd , ASAP Rocky , Wale , Trey Songz , Young Jeezy , Big Sean , Pimp C , Trina , Yelawolf and Project Pat .
= = Release and promotion = =
Prior to the album 's release Juicy J released several mixtapes such as Rubba Band Business 1 & 2 and 2011 's Blue Dream & Lean . Juicy J would go out with his street team to cities such as Atlanta , and passed out these mixtapes . On June 10 , 2013 , Juicy J announced he would be releasing a four track mixtape prior to the album titled , Wax . All the songs on the mixtape were reported to also have music videos , however that mixtape would not come to fruition , and " Wax " would end up being a track on Stay Trippy .
He worked as a supporting act along with the rest of Taylor Gang on Wiz Khalifa 's 2050 Tour during late 2012 and early 2013 . On March 13 , Juicy J released the first of many Trippy Tour vlog episodes . Prior to the album 's release Juicy J went on the Stay Trippy Tour from April 21 till June 8 , 2013 , with his opening act ASAP Ferg . He is also planning a possible college tour to take place after the album release .
In early February 2013 in an interview Juicy J reported the album would release near the end of March 2013 . He would however push it back and on March 11 , 2013 say the album would be released in June or July 2013 . On April 29 , he would announce a release date of July 2 , 2013 . However he would push it back again , till August , and on July 15 in a press release Juicy J announced a final release date for the album of August 27 , 2013 in the United States . On July 21 , 2013 the track listing and album cover was revealed . Its first release was on August 23 , 2013 in other countries such as Australia .
In August 2013 , Naima Cochrane ( Juicy J 's product manager at Columbia Records ) told Billboard that " The Woods " featuring Justin Timberlake , could very possibly be a future single . She also said that there would be as many as three more singles after " Bounce It " from the album . On October 3 , 2013 , the music video was released for " All I Blow Is Loud " . On October 31 , 2013 , the music video was released for " Stop It " . On December 11 , 2013 , the music video was released for " No Heart No Love " featuring Project Pat . On July 18 , 2014 , the music video was released for " Scholarship " featuring ASAP Rocky . On August 26 , 2014 , the music video was released for " Smoke a Nigga " featuring Wiz Khalifa .
= = Singles = =
The first single from the album is " Bandz a Make Her Dance " , which was released on September 11 , 2012 . The single version features 2 Chainz and Lil Wayne . It was created in a hotel room in Washington , D.C .. The song has peaked at number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video premiered on MTV Jams on September 23 , 2012 . Several publications including The Washington Post and Complex Magazine included the song among the top ten songs of 2012 . The song was certified platinum by the RIAA for sales of over one million copies .
The second official single from the album was " Show Out " which features Big Sean and Young Jeezy . After its premiere on November 30 , 2012 , the song was released as a digital download on January 25 , 2013 . As with his previous single the song is produced by Mike WiLL Made It . The music video for " Show Out " was filmed on January 25 , 2013 , and was directed by Juicy J himself . On March 7 , 2013 , the music video for " Show Out " featuring Young Jeezy and Big Sean premiered on 106 & Park . The song has since peaked at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 . On April 24 , 2013 , the remix was released featuring verses from T.I. and the late Pimp C.
On February 16 , 2013 , it was announced that the third single was set to be " One Of Those Nights " featuring R & B singer The Weeknd . The song was produced by Canadian @-@ producer Illangelo . It was premiered on February 20 , 2013 via SoundCloud , and made available to purchase on March 11 , 2013 as a promotional single . On June 20 , 2013 , the music video was released for " One Of Those Nights " featuring The Weeknd . However , the single failed to chart and ended up as an in store deluxe exclusive track .
On June 25 , 2013 , the third official single " Bounce It " featuring Trey Songz and Wale was released to iTunes . The music video was filmed on July 2 , 2013 . On July 18 , 2013 , the music video for " Bounce It " featuring Wale and Trey Songz premiered on 106 & Park . Since release the song has reached number 75 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Juicy J announced that " Talkin ' Bout " featuring Chris Brown and Wiz Khalifa would be the album 's fourth single on January 26 , 2014 . Then the following day the song was serviced to mainstream urban radio in the United States . On March 13 , 2014 the music video was released for " Talkin ' Bout " featuring Chris Brown and Wiz Khalifa .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 64 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In its second week of sale , the album dropped eleven spots on the US Billboard 200 , and sold 22 @,@ 000 more copies . In its third week the album sold 13 @,@ 000 more copies . Then the following week it sold 8 @,@ 000 more copies . As of November 6 , 2013 , the album has sold 138 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . Outside of the United States , the album also enjoyed some chart success . In Canada it debuted at number 11 on the Billboard Canadian Albums Chart and spent one week on the chart . It also debuted at number 174 on the Official Charts Company 's UK Albums Chart , and at number 17 on the UK R & B Chart .
= = Critical response = =
Stay Trippy was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 66 , based on 11 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Al Shipley of the Baltimore City Paper gave the album a positive review , saying " Stay Trippy winds up as something of a triumph , one of the year 's most thoroughly enjoyable major label albums . " David Jeffries of AllMusic said , " Fans will need four or five hands to count all the other laugh @-@ out @-@ loud punch lines , and even if this album is redundant and overstuffed with hedonism and recklessness , that 's just Juicy being Juicy . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect stated , " Stay Trippy is as wild as modern hip @-@ hop gets . It 's a slick , seductive , and stone romp through a hazy synth boom , strip club @-@ ready beats , and some of Juicy J 's tightest rapping to date . " Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of Vibe gave the album a positive review , saying " Despite the wild assortment of flows and flavors , Juicy J manages to avoid being eclipsed on his own project . Their presence only amplifies the quality of his offering , a hypothesis that is reinforced by three of the album 's standout pieces . " B.J. Steiner of XXL said , " Stay Trippy is a record that knows to stay within the lane that it 's carved for itself . Big @-@ budget stripper rap has rarely sounded so fresh . " Nick Henderson of Tiny Mix Tapes gave the album three out of five stars , saying " On Stay Trippy , Juicy J sounds as energized , self @-@ assured , and dangerous as ever . " Patrick Taylor of RapReviews stated , " Even if Juicy J 's brand of explicit hip @-@ hop isn 't your cup of syrup , you have to admire the man for staying relevant and good as he nears his third decade in the game . "
Chris Kelly of Fact said , " By embracing the codeine @-@ weed @-@ molly trifecta , hashtag @-@ friendly hooks , and — perhaps most significantly — ascendant producers , the 38 @-@ year @-@ old rapper has maintained rap relevance , even as that has become more difficult than ever . " Peter Marrack of Exclaim ! stated , " For all its vulgarity , predictability , repetitiveness and reckless musings on drugs , Juicy J 's trippy music succeeds because of its spirit . " Julia LeConte of Now said , " The whole thing isn 't about disrespecting women , though . Some songs merely weave the misogyny around simple @-@ pleasure narratives : popping molly , making money . On his third solo record , the Three 6 Mafia rapper signed to Wiz Khalifa 's Taylor Gang is ' getting high like he 's 18 . ' At 38 , though , it 's not super @-@ amusing , like J is the hip @-@ hop Peter Pan refusing to grow up among a crew of younger emcees . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today stated , " Stay Trippy can be musically compelling . Granted , the words are hard to miss . " Stay motivated , stay high , stay hustling , ( forget ) everything else , " he intones on " So Much Money " , a title that sums up the highest virtue in J 's world . " David " Rek " Lee of HipHopDX said , " Some Rap is tailor made for headphone listening and careful analysis of every word . Then there are songs that are meant to be played loud in public settings , and the lyrics don 't matter so much . If you haven 't already figured it out , Stay Trippy is the latter . And for as much flack as it receives , there is entertainment value there and it serves its purpose as a soundtrack to the ' trippy ' lifestyle . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Stay Trippy was ranked number 20 on Spin 's list of the 40 best hip hop albums of 2013 . They commented saying , " this is basically what the Juiceman 's been doing for 20 years — self @-@ producing albums of bellowing bass , eerie synths , and shouted slogans . It helps that his sound helped spawn wildly popular things like Atlanta trap and Chicago drill ; it helps that Wiz Khalifa helped him acquire the budget to get an absolutely monstrous low end ; and it helps that we 're not sick of " Bandz a Make Her Dance . " It was also positioned at number 27 on Complex 's list of the 50 best albums of 2013 . They said , " armed with an endless barrage of rattling beats , and a host of just @-@ so @-@ over @-@ the @-@ top @-@ ridiculous @-@ you @-@ have @-@ to @-@ laugh punchlines , and enough believable gangsta talk to separate himself from the good kids of today 's rap scene , Stay Trippy is the perfect explanation for why Juicy has been rich since the ' 90s . " XXL ranked it at number 13 on their list of the best albums of 2014 .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Stay Trippy .
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
Sample credits
" Smokin ' Rollin ' " samples " High For This " performed by The Weeknd .
" Wax " samples " I Get High ( On Your Memory ) " performed by Freda Payne .
" One Thousand " samples " Just Like That " performed by Toots and the Maytals .
" Having Sex " samples " If You Believe In Sex " performed by 2 Live Crew .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
= River Avon ( Bristol ) =
The River Avon / ˈeɪvən / is an English river in the south west of the country . To distinguish it from a number of other rivers of the same name , this river is often also known as the Bristol Avon . The name " Avon " is a cognate of the Welsh word afon , " river " .
The Avon rises just north of the village of Acton Turville in South Gloucestershire , before flowing through Wiltshire . In its lower reaches from Bath to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth near Bristol the river is navigable and known as the Avon Navigation .
The Avon is the 19th longest river in the UK at 75 miles ( 121 km ) although there are just 19 miles ( 31 km ) as the crow flies between the source and its mouth in the Severn Estuary . The catchment area is 2 @,@ 220 square kilometres ( 860 sq mi ) .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Avon " is a cognate of the Welsh word afon [ ˈavɔn ] " river " , both being derived from the Common Brittonic abona , " river " . " River Avon " , therefore , literally means " River River " ; several other English and Scottish rivers share the name . The County of Avon that existed from 1974 to 1996 was named after the river , and covered Bristol , Bath , and the lower Avon valley .
= = Course = =
The Avon rises east of the town of Chipping Sodbury in South Gloucestershire , just north of the village of Acton Turville . Running a somewhat circular path , the river drains east and then south through Wiltshire . Its first main settlement is the village of Luckington , two miles ( 3 km ) inside the Wiltshire border , and then on to Sherston . At Malm
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esbury it joins up with its first major tributary , the Tetbury Avon , which rises just north of Tetbury in Gloucestershire . This tributary is known locally as the Ingleburn , which in Old English means ' English river ' . Here , the two rivers almost meet but their path is blocked by a rocky outcrop of the Cotswolds , almost creating an island for the ancient hilltop town of Malmesbury to sit on . Upstream of this confluence the river is sometimes referred to as the ' River Avon ( Sherston Branch ) ' to distinguish it from the Tetbury Branch .
After the two rivers merge , the Avon then turns south east away from the Cotswolds and then quickly south into the clay Dauntsey Vale , where it is joined by the River Marden , until it reaches the biggest town so far , Chippenham . The wide vale is now known as the Avon Vale , and the river flows on via Lacock to Melksham , then turns north @-@ west through Bradford on Avon , where the centre of the town grew up around the ford across the river Avon , hence the origin of the town 's name ( " Broad @-@ Ford " ) . This was supplemented in Norman times by the stone bridge that still stands today . The Norman side is upstream , and has pointed arches ; the newer side has curved arches . The Town Bridge and Chapel is a grade I listed building . It was originally a Packhorse bridge , but widened in the 17th century by rebuilding the western side . On the bridge stands a small building which was originally a chapel but later used as a town lock @-@ up .
The Avon Valley between Bradford on Avon and Bath is a classic geographical example of a valley where four forms of ground transport are found : road , rail , river , canal . The river passes under the Avoncliff and Dundas Aqueducts and at Freshford is joined by the Somerset River Frome . Avoncliff Aqueduct was built by John Rennie and chief engineer John Thomas , between 1797 and 1801 . The aqueduct consists of three arches and is 110 yards ( 100 m ) long with a central elliptical arch of 60 ft ( 18 m ) span with two side arches each semicircular and 34 ft ( 10 m ) across , all with V @-@ jointed arch stones . The spandrel and wing walls are built in alternate courses of ashlar masonry , and rock @-@ faced blocks . The central span sagged soon after it was built and has been repaired many times . The Dundas Aqueduct was built by the same team between 1797 and 1801 and completed in 1805 . James McIlquham was appointed contractor . The aqueduct is 150 yards ( 137 @.@ 2 m ) long with three arches built of Bath Stone , with Doric pilasters , and balustrades at each end . The central semicircular arch spans 64 feet ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) ; the two oval side arches span 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . It is a grade I listed building , and was the first canal structure to be designated as an Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1951 . The stretch of river below and above the aqueduct , where it is joined by Midford Brook , is used by the Bluefriars of the Monkton Combe School Boat Club up to six days a week since at least the 1960s .
It then flows past Claverton Pumping Station , which pumped water from the River Avon into the canal , using power from the flow of the river . The pumping station is located in a pump house built of Bath Stone , located at river level . Water is diverted from the river by Warleigh Weir , about 200 yd ( 180 m ) upstream . The water flows down a leat to the pumping station , where it powers a water wheel , 24 ft ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide and 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in diameter , with 48 wooden slats . At full power the wheel uses 2 tons ( 2 tonnes ) of water per second and rotates five times a minute . The water wheel drives gearing which increases the speed to 16 rpm . From here , cranks drive vertical connecting rods which transfer the energy to two 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long cast iron rocking beams . Each rocking beam in turn drives an 18 in ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) diameter lift pump , which also take their supply from the mill leat . Each pump stroke raises 50 imperial gallons ( 230 l ; 60 US gal ) of water to the canal . In 1981 , British Waterways installed two 75 horsepower ( 56 kW ) electric pumps just upstream from the station .
The Avon then flows through Bathford , where it is joined by the Bybrook River , and Bathampton where it passes under the Bathampton Toll Bridge , joined by the Lam Brook at Lambridge in Bath and then it passes under Cleveland and Pulteney Bridges and over the weir . Cleveland Bridge was built in 1826 by William Hazledine , owner of the Coalbrookdale Ironworks , with Henry Goodridge as the architect , on the site of a Roman ferry crossing . Named after the 3rd Duke of Cleveland , it spans the River Avon at Bathwick , and enabled further development of Georgian Bath to take place on the south side of the river . It was designed by architect Henry Goodridge to take the traffic of his day , horse @-@ drawn vehicles and pedestrians , and was constructed using Bath Stone and a cast iron arched span . Pulteney Bridge was completed in 1773 and is designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building . The bridge was designed by Robert Adam , whose working drawings are preserved in the Sir John Soane 's Museum , and is one of only four bridges in the world with shops across the full span on both sides . It is named after Frances Pulteney , heiress in 1767 of the Bathwick estate across the river from Bath . Pulteney approached the brothers Robert and James Adam with his new town in mind , but Robert Adam then became involved in the design of the bridge . In his hands the simple construction envisaged by Pulteney became an elegant structure lined with shops . Adam had visited both Florence and Venice , where he would have seen the Ponte Vecchio and the Ponte di Rialto . But Adam 's design more closely followed Andrea Palladio 's rejected design for the Rialto . Pulteney Bridge stood for less than 20 years in the form that Adam created . In 1792 alterations to enlarge the shops marred the elegance of the façades . Floods in 1799 and 1800 wrecked the north side of the bridge , which had been constructed with inadequate support . It was rebuilt by John Pinch the elder , surveyor to the Pulteney estate , in a less ambitious version of Adam 's design . 19th century shopkeepers altered windows , or cantilevered out over the river as the fancy took them . The western end pavilion on the south side was demolished in 1903 for road widening and its replacement was not an exact match . In 1936 the bridge became scheduled as a national monument , with plans being made for the restoration of the original façade . The restoration was completed in time for the Festival of Britain in 1951 , with further work being carried out in 1975 . Bath and North East Somerset council have discussed plans to ban vehicles from the bridge and turn it into a pedestrianised zone , however it remains open to buses and taxis .
The river is then joined by the Kennet and Avon Canal which connects with the Avon just below the weir at Bath Locks . Together with the Kennet Navigation which joins the River Thames at Reading so providing a through route for canal boats from Bristol to London . From this point downstream it is known as the Avon Navigation .
= = = Navigation = = =
The Avon above Bath remains navigable as far as Bathampton where there is the remains of a " Flash Lock " . However the lock past the weir by Pulteney Bridge was demolished when the weir was reconstructed so passage between the sections is only possible for dinghies and canoes using the roller slipway on the side of the weir .
Beyond its junction with the Kennet and Avon Canal , the Avon flows through Keynsham towards Bristol . For much of its course after leaving Wiltshire , it marks the traditional boundary between Somerset and Gloucestershire . For most of this distance the navigation makes use of the natural river bed , with six locks overcoming a rise of 30 feet ( 9 m ) . From Bath to Netham Lock where it divides into the New Cut and the Floating Harbour is 12 miles ( 19 km ) . The stretch is made navigable by the use of locks and weirs .
In the city centre of Bath it passes under various bridges including the Midland Bridge which was originally built by the Midland Railway Company to allow the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway access to and from its Green Park Terminus Station . In November 2011 the navigation between Bath and Bristol was closed because of safety concerns about Victoria Bridge . Weston Lock on the outskirts of Bath is in what now forms the Newbridge . Weston Cut is a man made channel , opened in 1727 , for boats to approach and pass through Weston Lock , which created an island between the cut and the river weir , which became known as Dutch Island after the owner of the brass mill established on the riverside in the early 18th century .
Kelston Lock and weir have permanent moorings above and below them . The Riverside Inn and Saltford Marina are also close by . Saltford Lock and weir are overlooked by the remains of the Kelston Brass Mill , which was working until 1925 . It is a grade II listed building . Alongside the lock is a pub , whose garden extends over the lock to the small island between the lock and weir . The lock was opened in 1727 and destroyed in 1738 by rival coal dealers to stop the use of the river for transportation . In its heyday , between 1709 and 1859 Swineford had an active brass and copper industry around the Swineford Lock which were served by the river which also provided water power for the cloth industry , as did the River Boyd , a tributary which flows into the Avon near Bitton . Keynsham Lock opened in 1727 . Just above the lock are some visitor moorings and a pub , on an island between the lock and the weir . The weir side of the island is also the mouth of the River Chew . Hanham is the last tidal lock , after which the river is joined by Brislington Brook .
Netham Lock is the point at Netham in Bristol at which boats from the River Avon , gain access to Bristol 's Floating Harbour . Construction started in 1804 to build the tidal New Cut , where it is joined by the River Malago , and divert the Avon along the Feeder Canal to the harbour ; a system designed and built by William Jessop and later improved by Isambard Kingdom Brunel . A weir carries the river into the New Cut and boats use the adjacent lock . Access to the harbour is only possible during the day when the lock keeper will open the gates unless the water level in the river between Netham and Hanham is above or below the level of the harbour . Netham Lock and the weir form part of Bristol 's flood defence mechanisms and it was announced in December 2008 that they would be upgraded as part of the £ 11 million City Docks Capital Project .
In central Bristol , where the river is tidal , it is diverted from its original course into the New Cut , a channel dug between 1804 and 1809 at a cost of £ 600 @,@ 000 . The original course is held at a constant level by lock gates ( designed by Jessop ) and is known as the Floating Harbour . The Floating Harbour is protected by an 1870s replacement for Jessop 's locks . This unusual dock has a tentacled plan resulting from its origins as the natural river course of the Avon and its tributaries , the River Frome and Siston Brook , and is intimately entwined with Bristol 's city centre as few docks are . As a result of this , the Floating Harbour is one of the more successful pieces of dockland regeneration , with much of the dockside now occupied by residential , office and cultural premises , and the water area heavily used by leisure craft . The Floating Harbour gave the port an advantage by enabling shipping to stay afloat rather than grounding when the tide went down . Downstream of central Bristol the river passes through the deep Avon Gorge , spanned by Brunel 's Clifton Suspension Bridge , the river is tidal and is navigable by seagoing vessels at high tide but drying to a steep sided muddy channel at low tide . It was largely the challenge of navigating this section that sealed the fate of the Floating Harbour as commercial docks and saw them replaced by docks at Avonmouth where the Avon joins the Severn Estuary .
Before reaching its mouth it is joined by the River Trym at Sea Mills which was the site of Portus Abonae a Roman port . Shortly after it passes the village of Pill on the south bank where the Pill Hobblers were based in order to tow ships up the river to Bristol and where yachts and other boats still have moorings in Chapel Pill and Crockern Pill . It then passes under the Avonmouth Bridge which carries the M5 motorway . The main span is 538 ft ( 164 m ) long , and the bridge is 4 @,@ 554 ft ( 1 @,@ 388 m ) long , with an air draught above mean high water level of 98 @.@ 4 ft ( 30 m ) . The river then serves two major dock areas . The Royal Portbury Dock is located on the southern side of the mouth of the river . The deepwater dock was constructed between 1972 and 1977 , and is now a major port for the import of motor vehicles . The Royal Portbury Dock has the largest entrance lock into any UK port , accommodating vessels up to 41 m ( 135 ft ) beam , 290 m ( 951 ft ) length and 14 @.@ 5 m ( 48 ft ) draft . The Avonmouth Docks are on the north side of the river and are one of the UK 's major ports for chilled foods , especially fruit and vegetables . The first dock at Avonmouth , Avonmouth Old Dock , was opened in 1877 and acquired by Bristol Corporation in 1884 . In 1908 , a much larger dock , the Royal Edward Dock , was opened . The docks form part of the Port of Bristol and were operated by the Port of Bristol Authority , part of Bristol City Council , until 1991 when the council granted a 150 @-@ year lease to the Bristol Port Company .
= = Hydrology and water quality = =
At Great Somerford the Avon has a mean flow rate of 3 @.@ 355 cubic metres per second ( 118 @.@ 5 cu ft / s ) , and a typical river level range between 0 @.@ 16 metres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) and 0 @.@ 16 metres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) with a highest level of 2 @.@ 43 metres ( 8 ft 0 in ) . At Melksham the Avon has a mean flow rate of 6 @.@ 703 cubic metres per second ( 236 @.@ 7 cu ft / s ) . December 2013 was the highest level recorded at Bradford on Avon when the level reached 3 @.@ 42 metres ( 11 @.@ 2 ft ) with a normal range at the monitoring station being 1 @.@ 01 metres ( 3 ft 4 in ) to 1 @.@ 40 metres ( 4 ft 7 in ) . At Bathford the highest river level was also in December 2013 when it reached 4 @.@ 41 metres ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) while the normal range is 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 ft 6 in ) and 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 5 ft 3 in ) , with a flow rate of 18 @.@ 274 cubic metres per second ( 645 @.@ 3 cu ft / s ) .
In Bath at St James , which is 180 metres ( 590 ft ) upstream of Pultney Weir the mean flow is 20 @.@ 466 cubic metres per second ( 722 @.@ 7 cu ft / s ) , with a similar flow ( 20 @.@ 984 cubic metres per second ( 741 @.@ 0 cu ft / s ) ) downstream of the weir . At the Destructor Bridge in Bath the typical height range is 0 @.@ 40 metres ( 1 ft 4 in ) to 0 @.@ 81 metres ( 2 ft 8 in ) with a high of 1 @.@ 64 metres ( 5 ft 5 in ) also in December 2013 .
At Saltford the range is 0 @.@ 46 metres ( 1 ft 6 in ) to 1 @.@ 41 metres ( 4 ft 8 in ) with a highest recording of 2 @.@ 31 metres ( 7 ft 7 in ) on 24 December 2013 . At Keynsham the typical range is between 0 @.@ 23 metres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) and 2 @.@ 09 metres ( 6 ft 10 in ) . The highest was on 25 December 2013 when it reached 5 @.@ 36 metres ( 17 @.@ 6 ft ) . At Netham Weir where the new cut carries the flow away from Bristol Harbour the typical range for the depth of the river is 0 @.@ 15 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) to 0 @.@ 84 metres ( 2 ft 9 in ) with the highest ever recorded being 3 @.@ 22 metres ( 10 @.@ 6 ft ) .
For the purpose of water quality monitoring and improvement the river is divided into several catchment management areas ; South of Malmesbury , Bristol Avon Rural and Bristol Avon Urban . In the rural area 22 water bodies are classified as good , 46 as moderated and 8 as poor . The main reasons for not achieving good scores are pollution from waste water , agriculture and rural land management . In the urban area one water body is rated good , while 12 are rated moderate and one is poor . The pollution from upstream is added to by the effects of industry , manufacturing and other businesses and is significantly affected by physical modifications to the water course . Within the catchment area there are 137 river water bodies and 6 lakes ; of these 22 percent of rivers are rated as good ecological status , 40 percent good for chemical status and 31 percent good for biological status .
= = Conservation areas = =
The river is important for its dragonfly communities , with a strong population of Scarce Chaser ( found in only six other areas in England ) , together with a strong population of White @-@ legged Damselfly . Red @-@ eyed Damselfly is also found . The river is also important for aquatic plants , including Loddon Pondweed .
The Kellaways – West Tytherton Site of Special Scientific Interest , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north east of Chippenham , is of geological interest as the river bank exposes Callovian highly @-@ fossiliferous sandstone which contains well @-@ preserved bivalves , gastropods , brachiopods , belemnites and ammonites . Further downstream at Newton St Loe the Newton St Loe SSSI is another Geological Conservation Review SSSI . It represents the only remaining known exposure of fossiliferous Pleistocene gravels along the River Avon . In conjunction with other sites within the wider area , it has aided the development of a scientific understanding of the history of early glaciation within South West England . The bodies of mammoths ( Mammuthus ) and horses ( Equus ) have been found at the site .
The Avon Gorge has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest because it supports some rare fauna and flora , including species unique to the gorge . There are a total of 24 rare plant species and two unique trees : the Bristol and Wilmotts '
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akouzenos ( r . 1347 – 1354 ) , he became , together with Patriarch John XIV Kalekas , one of the leaders of the faction supporting Emperor John V in the civil war of 1341 – 1347 against his one @-@ time benefactor . Apokaukos died when he was lynched by political prisoners during an inspection of a new prison .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Alexios was of humble origin , and was born in the late 13th century somewhere in Bithynia . He nevertheless studied under the scholar Theodore Hyrtakenos , and became a tax official . By 1320 he was director of the salt pans , from which he later advanced to the position of domestikos of the themes of the West . He rose in the bureaucratic hierarchy until , in 1321 , he was appointed the imperial parakoimōmenos ( chamberlain ) . His position made him useful to John Kantakouzenos , who included him in a conspiracy , together with Syrgiannes Palaiologos and the prōtostratōr Theodore Synadenos , which aimed to depose the aging Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos in favour of his grandson Andronikos III . Under the threat of war , the Emperor surrendered Thrace and some districts in Macedonia to the rule of his grandson . When Andronikos III became sole emperor in 1328 , his close friend Kantakouzenos became his chief minister , and Alexios was awarded with the positions that Kantakouzenos himself had formerly held : head of the imperial secretariat ( mesazōn ) and in charge of the state 's finances . These positions allowed him to amass a considerable personal fortune , which he used to construct a personal refuge , a fortified tower @-@ house at the site of Epibatai near Selymbria , at the coast of the Sea of Marmara . In early 1341 , shortly before Andronikos 's death , he was rewarded with the high office of megas doux , giving him the high command over the Byzantine navy . He re @-@ equipped the fleet , paying from his own pocket 100 @,@ 000 hyperpyra .
= = = Civil war = = =
Upon Andronikos 's death , two factions emerged at court : the supporters of Kantakouzenos , chiefly provincial magnates from Macedonia and Thrace , and those opposed to him , led mainly by the Patriarch John XIV Kalekas , who obtained the support of Andronikos 's widow , Anna of Savoy . Kantakouzenos did not claim the throne for himself , but demanded the regency , based on his close association with the deceased emperor , and with the support of the capital 's troops secured it . His position , however , was weakened by the adherence of Apokaukos to the Patriarch 's camp ; Kantakouzenos , in his own account , relates that Apokaukos had urged him to seize the throne in hopes of his own advancement , and when he refused , the powerful chancellor switched over to his opponents ' camp . As soon as Kantakouzenos left Constantinople in July 1341 to campaign against the Empire 's enemies who were assaulting it , Apokaukos made his first moves . Although as commander of the fleet it was his duty to guard the Dardanelles against any attempt by Turks to cross into Europe , he deliberately allowed this to happen in order to cause disruption in Thrace . Apokaukos also tried to kidnap the young John V , but failed and was forced to flee to his house at Epibatai . However , when Kantakouzenos returned victorious to the capital , instead of depriving Apokaukos of his offices , and against the counsel of his friends , he pardoned his protégé . Apokaukos put on an exaggerated display of deference to Kantakouzenos , who allowed him to resume his offices and return to Constantinople , while Kantakouzenos left on yet another campaign .
Once back in the city , however , the Patriarch and Apokaukos seized power . Kantakouzenos 's family and friends were imprisoned ( Kantakouzenos 's mother Theodora would eventually die in prison ) , the Patriarch was declared regent , while Anna named Apokaukos as urban prefect ( eparchos ) of Constantinople .
Kantakouzenos responded by having himself declared emperor at Didymoteicho in October 1341 , while his opponents followed with the coronation of John V in November . The two coronations finalized the split , and ushered in a civil war that would embroil the Byzantine Empire and all of its neighbours until 1347 with Kantakouzenos 's victory . In its course , it would devastate the remaining imperial possessions , and create a deep rift in Byzantine society : the aristocracy and the propertied classes generally supported Kantakouzenos , while the lower and middle classes , primarily urban , as well as the merchants and sailors , supported Apokaukos and the regency . This gave the dynastic dispute and civil war strong social overtones : during the war , the excessive wealth and perceived indifference of Kantakouzenos and the aristocracy towards the common people became a standard fixture of Apokaukos 's propaganda . In addition , the conflict acquired religious significance as well : the Hesychast controversy divided the pious Byzantines , and , despite some important exceptions , the supporters of Hesychasm also supported Kantakouzenos .
A few days after Kantakouzenos 's coronation , the inhabitants of Adrianople rebelled against the aristocracy and declared themselves for the regency , with Apokaukos sending his younger son Manuel to become the city 's governor . In a similar development in 1342 , Thessalonica , the Empire 's second @-@ largest city , was seized by a group known as the " Zealots " . Their anti @-@ aristocratic beliefs made them enemies of " Kantakouzenism " , and earned them the support of the regency . Apokaukos himself arrived with a fleet of 70 ships to aid them , and appointed his elder son John Apokaukos as the city 's governor , although the latter 's authority would remain only nominal .
In the first years of the war , the tide was in favour of the regency , until , in the summer of 1342 , Kantakouzenos was forced to flee to the court of Stefan Dušan of Serbia . However , from 1343 onwards , with the aid of his friend , Umur Beg of Aydin , Kantakouzenos began to reverse the situation . With the initial support of Stefan Dušan , Kantakouzenos regained much of Macedonia , and despite his failure to take Thessalonica , his Turkish allies enabled him to return to his old stronghold of Didymoteicho in Thrace . Gradually , Apokaukos 's supporters abandoned him , including his son Manuel , who deserted his post at Adrianople and went over to the Kantakouzenos camp .
In early 1345 , Apokaukos and Kalekas rejected offers of reconciliation conveyed by two Franciscan monks . Trying to bolster his waning power , Apokaukos began a series of proscriptions in the capital , and even ordered a new prison constructed for political prisoners . On 11 June 1345 , Apokaukos suddenly decided to inspect the new prison , without being escorted by his bodyguard . The prisoners immediately rose up and lynched him , and his head was severed and stuck on a pole . The prisoners believed that by getting rid of the hated Apokaukos , they would be rewarded by the Empress Anna . She , however , was so shocked and dismayed at the loss of her principal minister , that she gave Apokaukos 's supporters , who were joined by the Gasmouloi , the fleet 's marines , free rein to avenge their leader 's death . As a result , all prisoners , some 200 in total , were massacred , even though some attempted to seek refuge in a nearby monastery . Although the death of Apokaukos did not bring about the immediate collapse of the regency , it removed the main instigator of the civil war and one of its chief protagonists , and resulted in dissension and defections in the regency 's camp . As such , it marked the beginning of the war 's end , which would come with Kantakouzenos 's entry into Constantinople on 3 February 1347 .
= = = Family = = =
Alexios Apokaukos had two brothers , John and Nikephoros , of whom very little is known . Alexios himself married twice . His first wife was the daughter of a priest of the Hagia Sophia called Dishypatos , and the second , whom he married sometime around 1341 , the cousin of the megas stratopedarchēs Georgios Choumnos . His first marriage produced three children and his second two :
John Apokaukos , megas primikerios and governor of Thessalonica , killed there in 1345 .
Manuel Apokaukos , governor of Adrianople , defected to Kantakouzenos in 1344 .
Unnamed daughter , who married first the prōtostratōr Andronikos Palaiologos . After he drowned in 1344 , she remarried the sebastokratōr John Asan .
Unnamed daughter , married ( in 1341 ) the son of Patriarch John Kalekas .
Unnamed daughter , married ( in 1341 ) the son of one of Empress Anna 's Latin maids .
One of his sons married a daughter of John Vatatzes .
= = = Assessment = = =
As a self @-@ made " new man " , Apokaukos was mistrusted by the scions of the aristocratic families who dominated the imperial government . The only accounts of the period of the civil war , Kantakouzenos 's memoirs and the history of Nikephoros Gregoras , with their pro @-@ aristocracy bias , paint a very negative picture of the man , which has been adopted virtually unaltered by most modern historians as well . In a dissenting view , the historian Eva de Vries @-@ Van der Velden believes that the image of Apokaukos as the ungrateful protégé of Kantakouzenos and an inveterate schemer who was responsible for the outbreak of the civil war is inaccurate , and largely the result of distorting propaganda by Kantakouzenos and Gregoras . However , she acknowledges Apokaukos as Kantakouzenos 's " most redoubtable adversary " during the war , and the dictatorial nature of his regime after 1343 . According to the historian Angeliki Laiou , Apokaukos can also be seen as the exponent of a radical change in the nature and direction of the Byzantine state : in place of the old , agricultural empire , run by a land @-@ based aristocracy , he seems to have favoured a commercial , maritime and likely westward @-@ looking state , in emulation of the Italian maritime republics .
= Unbreakable ( film ) =
Unbreakable is a 2000 American superhero thriller film written , produced and directed by M. Night Shyamalan , and stars Bruce Willis and Samuel L. Jackson . The film tells the story of Philadelphia security guard David Dunn , who slowly discovers that he possesses superhuman powers .
Shyamalan organized the narrative of Unbreakable to parallel a comic book 's traditional three @-@ part story structure . After settling on the origin story , Shyamalan wrote the screenplay as a speculative script with Willis already set to star in the film and Jackson in mind to portray Elijah Price . Filming for Unbreakable began in April 2000 and was completed by July .
Unbreakable received generally positive reviews , praising its aesthetics , the acting performances and particularly the musical score by James Newton Howard . The film has subsequently gained a strong cult following . Many regard it as one of Shyamalan 's best films , and Time listed the film as one of the top ten superhero movies of all time .
= = Plot = =
In Philadelphia in 1961 , Elijah Price ( Samuel L. Jackson ) is born with Type I osteogenesis imperfecta , a rare disease that renders sufferers ' bones extremely fragile and prone to fracture . As revealed later in flashbacks , Elijah — who grows up to become a comic @-@ book art dealer — develops a theory , based on the comics he has read during his many hospital stays , that if he represents extreme human frailty , there must be someone " unbreakable " at the opposite extreme .
Years later , another Philadelphia man , security guard David Dunn ( Bruce Willis ) , is also searching for meaning in his life . He had given up a promising football career during his collegiate days to marry Audrey ( Robin Wright ) after they were involved in an auto accident . Now , however , their marriage is dissolving , to the distress of their young son Joseph ( Spencer Treat Clark ) .
As he returns home from a job interview in New York City , David 's train crashes , killing the other 131 passengers , while he is the only survivor , sustaining no injuries . At the memorial for the crash 's victims , he finds a card on his car 's windshield , inviting him to Elijah 's store . Elijah proposes to David that he is the kind of person after whom comic @-@ book superheroes are modeled , and repeatedly pursues the issue with David and Audrey , trying to learn if David had ever been ill or injured during childhood . Although Elijah unsettles him , David begins to test himself . While lifting weights with Joseph , he bench presses 350 pounds , well above what he had thought he could do . Joseph begins to idolize his father and believes he is a superhero , although David still maintains he is " an ordinary man . "
David challenges Elijah with an incident from his childhood when he almost drowned . Elijah suggests that the incident highlights the common comic trope whereby superheroes often have one weakness ; he contends David 's might be water . While surveying the stored wreckage of the train crash that he survived , David recalls the car accident that ended his athletics career , remembering that he was unharmed and ripped a door off the car in order to save Audrey . David used the accident as an excuse to quit football , because Audrey did not like the violence of the sport .
Under Elijah 's influence , David develops what he thought was an unusual insight into human behavior into an extrasensory perception that enables him to glimpse criminal acts committed by the people who make contact with him . At Elijah 's suggestion , David stands in the middle of a crowd in Philadelphia 's 30th Street Station . As various people bump into him , he senses the crimes they perpetrated , such as theft and rape , and finds one he can act on : a sadistic janitor who invaded a family home , killed the parents , and is holding the children captive .
David follows the janitor to the victims ' house and frees the children , but the janitor ambushes him and pushes him off a balcony into a swimming pool . David nearly drowns ( since he cannot swim ) , but the children rescue him . He then attacks the janitor from behind and strangles him to death while once more remaining uninjured . That night , he and Audrey reconcile . The following morning , he secretly shows a newspaper article on the anonymous heroic act , featuring a sketch of David in his rain poncho , to his son , who recognizes the hero as his father .
David attends an exhibition at Elijah 's comic book art gallery and meets Elijah 's mother ( Charlayne Woodard ) , who explains the difference between villains who fight heroes with physical strength versus those who use their intelligence . Elijah brings David to the back room of his studio , extends his hand , and asks David to shake it . Upon doing so , David sees visions of Elijah orchestrating several terrorist disasters , including David 's recent train accident , causing hundreds of deaths . David is horrified
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, but Elijah insists the deaths were justified as a means to find him . Calling himself " Mr. Glass " ( a nickname his peers had used to taunt him with when he was growing up ) , he explains that his own purpose in life is to be the villain to David 's hero .
Screen captions reveal that David reported Elijah 's actions to the police , and that Elijah was convicted of murder and terrorism and committed to an institution for the criminally insane .
= = Cast = =
Bruce Willis as David Dunn / Security
Davis Duffield as David Dunn ( age 20 )
Samuel L. Jackson as Elijah Price / Mr. Glass
Robin Wright as Audrey Dunn
Laura Regan as Audrey Inverso ( age 20 )
Spencer Treat Clark as Joseph Dunn
Charlayne Woodard as Mrs. Price
Eamonn Walker as Dr. Mathison
M. Night Shyamalan as Stadium drug dealer
Richard E. Council as Noel
Michael Kelly as Dr. Dubin
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
When M. Night Shyamalan conceived the idea for Unbreakable , the outline had a comic book 's traditional three @-@ part structure ( the superhero 's " birth " , his struggles against general evil @-@ doers , and the hero 's ultimate battle against the " archenemy " ) . Finding the birth section most interesting , he decided to write Unbreakable as an origin story . During the filming of The Sixth Sense , Shyamalan had already approached Bruce Willis for the lead role of David Dunn . With Willis and Samuel L. Jackson specifically in mind for the two leading characters , Shyamalan began to write Unbreakable as a spec script during post @-@ production on The Sixth Sense .
With the financial and critical success of The Sixth Sense in August 1999 , Shyamalan gave Walt Disney Studios a first look deal for Unbreakable . In return , Disney purchased Shyamalan 's screenplay at a " spec script record " for $ 5 million . He was also given another $ 5 million to direct . Disney decided to release Unbreakable under their Touchstone banner , and also helped Shyamalan establish his own production company , Blinding Edge Pictures . Julianne Moore dropped out of portraying Audrey , David 's wife , in favor of her role as Clarice Starling in Hannibal . Robin Wright Penn was cast in her place . Principal photography began on April 25 , 2000 and ended that July . The majority of filming took place in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the film 's setting .
Shyamalan and cinematographer Eduardo Serra chose several camera angles to simulate the look of a comic book panel . Various visual narrative motifs were also applied . Several scenes relating to the Mr. Glass character involve glass . As a newborn , he is primarily seen reflected in mirrors , and as a young child , he is seen reflected in a blank TV screen . When he leaves his calling card on the windshield of David Dunn 's car , he is reflected in a glass frame in his art gallery . Jackson requested his walking stick be made of glass to make his character more menacing . Using purple as Mr. Glass ' color to David Dunn 's green was also Jackson 's idea . Mr. Glass ' wig was modeled after Afro @-@ American statesman Frederick Douglass . As he does in his other films , Shyamalan makes a cameo appearance . He plays a man David suspects of dealing drugs inside the stadium . More than 15 minutes of footage was deleted during post @-@ production of Unbreakable . These scenes are available on the DVD release .
Willis and Jackson had previously worked together on Die Hard with a Vengeance , Pulp Fiction and Loaded Weapon 1 .
= = = Music = = =
Film score composer James Newton Howard was approached by Shyamalan to work on Unbreakable immediately after scoring The Sixth Sense . " He sat there and storyboarded the whole movie for me " , Howard said . " I 've never had a director do that for me . " Shyamalan wanted a " singularity " tone for the music . " He wanted something that was very different , very distinctive , that immediately evoked the movie when people heard it , " Howard explained . Howard and Shyamalan chose to simplify the score , and minimized the number of instruments ( strings , trumpets and piano ) , with limited orchestrations . Some compositions were recorded in a converted church in London . " You could have recorded the same music in a studio in Los Angeles , and it would have been great , but there is something about the sound of that church studio , " Howard remarked . " It 's definitely more misterioso . "
= = Comic book references = =
Filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith felt Unbreakable was briefly similar to a comic book titled Mage : The Hero Discovered . Written and illustrated by Matt Wagner , Mage follows a wizard who convinces an Average Joe to try to find out if he is a superhero . Both Unbreakable and Mage are set in Philadelphia . Elvis Mitchell from The New York Times mentioned the visual similarities between David Dunn on patrol in his poncho and the DC Comics character known as The Spectre .
As in comic books , the main characters have their identified color schemes and aliases . David 's are green and " Security " or " Hero " , while Elijah 's are purple and " Mr. Glass " . The colors show up in their clothes , the wallpaper and bed sheets in their houses , Elijah 's note to David , and various personal items . The people whose bad deeds are sensed by David are identified by an article of clothing in a single bright color ( red , orange ) , to contrast them with the dark and dreary color scheme typical of the rest of the movie ( but not of most comic books ) . Several scenes also depict characters through reflections or doorways , as if framing them in a picture similar to comic books .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Unbreakable was released in the United States on November 22 , 2000 in 2 @,@ 708 theaters and grossed $ 30 @,@ 330 @,@ 771 in its opening weekend ranking # 2 at the box office . The film ended up earning $ 95 @,@ 011 @,@ 339 domestically and $ 153 @,@ 106 @,@ 782 internationally for a total of $ 248 @,@ 118 @,@ 121 , above its 75 million production budget .
= = = Critical response = = =
Unbreakable received mostly positive reviews from critics and has a rating of 68 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 161 reviews with an average score of 6 @.@ 2 out of 10 . The consensus states " With a weaker ending , Unbreakable is not as a good as The Sixth Sense . However , it is a quietly suspenseful film that intrigues and engages , taking the audience through unpredictable twists and turns along the way . " The film also has a score of 62 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 31 critics indicating Generally favorable reviews .
Roger Ebert largely enjoyed the film , but was disappointed with the ending . Ebert believed that Willis ' " subtle acting " was positively different from the actor 's usual work in " brainless action movies " . Richard Corliss of Time magazine reviewed that Unbreakable continued Shyamalan 's writing / direction of " balancing sophistication and horror in all of his movies " . Desson Thomson from The Washington Post wrote that " just as he did in The Sixth Sense , writer @-@ director M. Night Shyamalan leads you into a fascinating labyrinth , an alternative universe that lurks right under our noses . In this case , it 's the mythological world and , in these modern times , the secret design to that labyrinth , the key to the path , is contained in comic books . "
Kenneth Turan , writing in the Los Angeles Times , gave a negative review , arguing that Unbreakable had no originality . " Whether it means to or not , the shadow of The Sixth Sense hangs over Unbreakable , " Turan reasoned . " If The Sixth Sense hadn 't been as big a success as it was , this story might have been assigned to oblivion , or at least to rewrite . " Todd McCarthy of Variety mostly criticized Shyamalan 's writing and the performances given by the actors . He did praise Dylan Tichenor 's editing and James Newton Howard 's music composition .
Shyamalan admitted he was disappointed by the reaction Unbreakable received from the public and critics . Shyamalan also disliked Touchstone Pictures ' marketing campaign . He wanted to promote Unbreakable as a comic book movie , but Touchstone insisted on portraying it as a psychological thriller , similar to The Sixth Sense .
In 2009 , Oscar @-@ winning filmmaker Quentin Tarantino praised Unbreakable , and included it on his list of the top 20 films released since 1992 , the year he became a director . Tarantino praised the film as a " brilliant retelling of the Superman mythology " , and said it contains what he considers to be Bruce Willis ' best performance . He also criticized the way the film was marketed upon release , stating he felt that it would have been far more effective if the film 's advertising simply posed the question of " what if Superman was here on earth , and didn 't know he was Superman ? " In 2011 , Time ranked the film at # 4 in its list of top ten superhero movies of all time , describing it as one of the best superhero origin stories and as a " relatively quiet , subtle and realistic look at the pressures that come with being a superhero . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Cancelled sequel = =
After the film 's release , rumors of possible sequels began circulating in different interviews and in film fansites . In 2000 , Bruce Willis was quoted as hoping for an Unbreakable trilogy . In December 2000 , Shyamalan denied rumors he wrote Unbreakable as the first installment of a trilogy , saying he was not even thinking about it . In August 2001 , Shyamalan stated that , because of successful DVD sales , he had approached Touchstone Pictures about an Unbreakable sequel , an idea Shyamalan said the studio originally turned down because of the film 's poor box office performance . In a September 2008 article , Shyamalan and Samuel L. Jackson said there was some discussion of a sequel when the film was being made , but that it mostly died with the poor box office . Jackson said he was still interested in a sequel but Shyamalan was non @-@ committal . In February 2010 , Willis said that Shyamalan was " still thinking about doing the fight movie between me and Sam that we were going to do " , and stated that as long as Jackson was able to participate he would be " up for it " . In September 2010 , Shyamalan revealed that the second planned villain from the first film was moved to the planned sequel , but that character has now been used for an upcoming film that he will write and produce .
= Footprints in the Sand ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" Footprints in the Sand " is a song recorded by British singer Leona Lewis for her debut studio album Spirit ( 2007 ) . It was written by Simon Cowell , David Kreuger , Per Magnusson , Richard Page , and produced by Steve Mac . The song was digitally released as Lewis 's third single on 9 March 2008 in the United Kingdom . Sony BMG and Syco Music launched it as a double A @-@ side with " Better in Time " , and " You Bring Me Down " as the B @-@ side .
It is a R & B and pop song composed with a tempo of sixty beats per minute . It was written in a period of one day at Page 's home in Malibu , California , with Cowell giving the idea to base it on the Christian poem " Footprints " . The single 's music video was filmed by British director Sophie Muller in Johannesburg , South Africa . The video describes social problems within the city , but ends with a message of hope . " Footprints in the Sand " became the official theme of the 2008 version of biennial charity programme Sport Relief , by BBC .
The song received positive reviews from music critics , some of them noting its gospel sounds and Lewis 's vocals being compared to American R & B singer Mariah Carey . " Footprints in the Sand " charted as a separate single in Ireland , the United Kingdom and the European Hot 100 Singles , whilst the double A @-@ side appeared in Germany and Switzerland , and was certified silver in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , in 2008 . In the same year , Lewis performed the song for the first time in the UK live on the television programme Dancing on Ice . In 2009 , the song was covered by Lucie Jones , a contestant of The X Factor , and by Julia Star from Swiss programme Die grössten Schweizer Talente .
= = Production and composition = =
" Footprints in the Sand " was written by Simon Cowell , David Kreuger , Per Magnusson and Richard Page , whilst the production was helmed by Steve Mac . It was recorded in 2007 at Rokstone Studios in London , England . Cowell originally came up with the idea to base a song around the Christian poem " Footprints " , and asked Kreuger and Magnusson whether they could write something dealing with this subject . They accepted the idea for co @-@ writing and had scheduled session in Page 's home in Malibu , California , succeeding to finish the full song for one day . Cowell secured a songwriting credit for coming up with the idea . In an interview with HitQuarters , Magnusson said they had thought the song would be a good idea for Irish boy band Westlife , but it was offered to British singer Leona Lewis instead . When Cowell mentioned the song concept to Lewis , she agreed that it could be " really quite interesting " . Regarding the song , Lewis commented : " Originally it was a poem ; it 's very inspirational so we put it into a song . I think it is very moving , with a very emotional lyric and I really love to sing this song " ; and added that the poem " [ is ] about standing by someone and being there for people who need your help . "
" Footprints in the Sand " was included on Lewis 's debut studio album Spirit , which was released in 2007 by Syco and J Records . The song has a duration of 4 : 09 and was composed using common time in the key of A ♭ major with a larghetto tempo of sixty beats per minute ; Lewis 's vocals spanned from the low note of E ♭ 3 to the high note of G ♯ 5 . The song follows the sequence of A ♭ 5 – A ♭ 5 / B ♭ – Fm7 – E ♭ in the verses and A ♭ – B ♭ – B ♭ m – Fm – G ♭ – D ♭ in the chorus as its chord progression . It incorporates four instruments : keyboard instruments ( a piano , an organ and synthesizers ) , guitar , bass and drums , and includes a choir performance made by The Tuff Session Singers . It incorporates elements of
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of up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) at Cape Race , Newfoundland . The storm also generated strong swells and surf along the southern portion of the Avalon Peninsula , reaching heights of 9 – 13 feet ( 3 – 4 m ) . The combination of moisture from Kate and a stalled frontal system produced moderate amounts of rainfall , with some regions in southeastern Newfoundland receiving more than 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . St. John 's reported 1 @.@ 8 inches ( 45 mm ) on October 6 , a record for the date . Due to dry conditions in the preceding weeks , the ground easily absorbed the water , resulting in a lack of flooding . The extratropical remnant of Hurricane Kate produced winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in northern Scotland . Overall , there were no reports of damage or deaths associated with Kate .
= Ely and Littleport riots of 1816 =
The Ely and Littleport riots of 1816 , also known as the Ely riots or Littleport riots , occurred between 22 and 24 May 1816 in Littleport , Cambridgeshire . The riots were caused by high unemployment and rising grain costs , much like the general unrest which spread throughout England following the Napoleonic Wars .
The Littleport riot broke out when a group of residents met at The Globe Inn . Fuelled by alcohol , they left the inn and began intimidating wealthier Littleport residents , demanding money and destroying property . The riot spread to Ely where magistrates attempted to calm the protests by ordering poor relief and fixing a minimum wage ; see printed bill ( reproduced at right ) . The following day , encouraged by Lord Liverpool 's government , a militia of the citizens of Ely , led by Sir Henry Bate Dudley and backed by the 1st The Royal Dragoons , rounded up the rioters . In the ensuing altercation at The George and Dragon in Littleport , a trooper was injured , one rioter was killed , and at least one went on the run .
Edward Christian , brother of Fletcher Christian , had been appointed Chief Justice of the Isle of Ely in 1800 by the Bishop of Ely . As the Chief Justice , Christian was entitled to try the rioters alone . The government , in this case via the Home Secretary , Lord Sidmouth , nevertheless appointed a Special Commission , consisting of Justice Abbott and Justice Burrough . The rioters were tried in the assizes at Ely during the week commencing June 1816 . 23 men and one woman were condemned , of which five were subsequently hanged . General unrest and riots such as that at Littleport may have been a factor in the government passing the Vagrancy Act of 1824 and subsequently the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 .
= = Background = =
In 1815 , the government increased taxation on imported wheat and grain to help pay for the costs of the Napoleonic Wars ( 1803 – 1815 ) . Poor laws , such as the Speenhamland system , were designed to help alleviate financial distress of the poorer communities , but such systems helped to keep wages artificially low as the farmers knew labourers ' wages would be supplemented by the system . Basic commodities , like cereals and bread , became heavily over @-@ priced , creating widespread social unrest . The worst hit were the families of the men returning from the Battle of Waterloo ( 1815 ) who arrived home at a time when unemployment was already high . One reply to a questionnaire circulated by the Board of Agriculture in February , March , and April 1816 reported that " the state of the labouring poor is very deplorable , and arises entirely from the want of employment , which they are willing to seek , but the farmer cannot afford to furnish . "
In early 1816 , a quarter ( 28 pounds ) of wheat cost 52 shillings ( £ 179 ) , rising through 76 shillings ( £ 262 ) in May to 103 shillings ( £ 356 ) in December . Average wages for the period remained static at 8 – 9 shillings ( £ 28 – £ 31 ) , per week . In 1815 , a pound of bread was quoted at over 4 shillings ( £ 14 ) and predicted to rise to over 5 shillings ( £ 17 ) .
= = Rioting = =
= = = Preceding events in the region = = =
There was rioting in the first months of 1816 in West Suffolk , Norfolk and Cambridgeshire . On 16 May riots broke out in Bury St Edmunds ( known locally as Bury ) and Brandon in West Suffolk and also in Hockwold , Feltwell and Norwich in Norfolk .
On the morning of 20 May , a meeting was held in Southery , Norfolk . The group , including a Thomas Sindall , marched through Denver to Downham Market to meet with the magistrates at their weekly meeting at The Crown public house . Sindall was the only person known to have been at both the riots at Downham Market and Littleport . He was killed by troopers at Littleport — see below . The mob of 1 @,@ 500 , mainly men but some women , besieged The Crown until the magistrates agreed to allow a deputation of eight rioters inside to make their pleas : to have work and two @-@ shillings ( £ 7 ) per day . The magistrates acceded to these demands , but they had already called the yeoman cavalry from Upwell , who arrived at 5 pm . Backed by the troops , the Riot Act was then read in the market place by Reverend Dering , causing further tussles , which subsided after arrests started to be made .
At the Norfolk and Norwich Assizes in August , nine men and six women were sentenced to death . Thirteen of those sentences were commuted , and two of the Downham rioters , Daniel Harwood and Thomas Thody , were hanged on the afternoon of 31 August 1816 .
= = = Littleport = = =
Littleport is a large village in Cambridgeshire with a population in 1811 of 1 @,@ 847 . It is just under 11 miles ( 18 km ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Downham Market and just over 4 miles ( 6 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Ely .
On 22 May 1816 , a group of 56 residents met at The Globe Inn in Littleport to discuss the lack of work and rising grain costs . Fuelled by alcohol , the residents directed their anger at local farmer Henry Martin . He had been overseer of the poor in 1814 and was not well liked by the parishioners . One man went to get a horn from Burgess , the lighterman , and started blowing it outside The Globe Inn , gathering hundreds of villagers to join the first group , and the riot commenced .
The rioters began at Mingey 's shop , where stones were thrown through the windows , and then they invaded Mr Clarke 's property and threw his belongings into the street . Next , at Josiah Dewey 's place , the Reverend John Vachell and his wife arrived to try to calm the rioters . Vachell had been vicar of St George 's since 1795 and was also a magistrate ; he was an unpopular man , as he dealt harshly with even minor offences . He read or tried to read the Riot Act without effect , as the crowd " told him to go home . "
The rioters next visited the premises of disabled 90 @-@ year @-@ old Mr Sindall , throwing his furniture into the street ; his housekeeper , Mrs Hutt , was intimidated by a rioter wielding a butcher 's cleaver . After stopping at the place of Mr Little , " a nice old gentleman , " who gave the mob £ 2 ( £ 138 ) , they continued to Robert Speechly 's and demolished his furniture . Next they broke into the house of Rebecca Waddelow looking for Harry Martin , her grandson . He had seen them coming and escaped out the back . Rebecca Cutlack was visiting at the time , and they robbed her and removed property worth between £ 100 and £ 200 ( £ 6 @,@ 903 – £ 13 @,@ 807 ) .
At about 11 pm , the rioters arrived at the house of the Reverend John Vachell , who , after threatening to shoot anyone who entered his house , was disarmed when three men rushed him . He fled on foot with his wife and two daughters towards Ely . After Vachell had left , the rioters destroyed his goods and chattels and stole some of his silverware . Vachell was later to sue the Hundred of Ely for the damages under the Riot Act . He received over £ 708 ( £ 48 @,@ 875 ) , an award which was challenged in the press , as many people complained about the size of the resulting district levies used to pay for it . The rioters then stopped a post @-@ chaise returning with Hugh Robert Evans senior and Henry Martin from a Turnpike Trust meeting in Downham . They robbed Evans of 14 shillings ( £ 48 ) before allowing them both to proceed . On reaching Ely , Evans alerted the magistrates who sent a carriage for Reverend Vachell , which collected him and his family walking towards Ely .
= = = Ely = = =
Ely , Cambridgeshire , is a city with an 1811 population of 4 @,@ 249 people . The city is nearly 15 miles ( 24 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Cambridge and 67 miles ( 108 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of London . When Vachell arrived in Ely , he alerted fellow clergymen and magistrates Reverend William Metcalfe and Reverend Henry Law who dispatched Thomas Archer , as a messenger , to Bury , 26 miles ( 42 km ) to the east .
The rioters in Littleton had in the interim stolen a wagon and horses from Henry Tansley and equipped it with fowling guns front and back . Most of the Littleton mob , armed with guns and pitch @-@ forks , then began the march to Ely , arriving three @
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Bros before Hos " , which is received after graphically face @-@ stomping a female villain . In response to the criticisms of misogyny , Santa Monica released a patch changing the name of the trophy to " Bros before Foes " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Unlike previous installments , God of War : Ascension won no awards , however , it received nominations in several Best of E3 2012 categories from various media outlets . These nominations included " Best Action / Adventure " and " Best Multiplayer " from Game Rant , " Best PS3 Game " and " Best Action / Adventure Game " from G4 , " Best PlayStation 3 Game " from Destructoid , and " Best PS3 Game " and " Best Action Game " from IGN . The game was a nominee for " Best Visual Design " at the 2013 Golden Joystick Awards . At the 2014 Writers Guild of America Videogame Awards , it was a nominee for " Outstanding Achievement in Videogame Writing " and during the 2014 D.I.C.E. Summit , it was a nominee for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences award for " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " .
= William Cragh =
William Cragh ( born ca . 1262 , died some time after 1307 ) , or William the Scabby ( cragh means " scabby " in Welsh ) , or William ap Rhys , was a medieval Welsh warrior and supporter of Rhys ap Maredudd , lord of the lands of Ystrad Tywi , in his rebellion against King Edward I of England . Captured in 1290 by the son of William de Briouze , the Cambro @-@ Norman Lord of Gower , he was tried and found guilty of having killed thirteen men . Cragh was executed just outside Swansea within sight of de Briouze 's Swansea Castle , twice , as the gallows collapsed during his first hanging . Lady Mary de Briouze decided for reasons unknown to intercede on Cragh 's behalf , and prayed to the deceased Bishop of Hereford , Thomas de Cantilupe , requesting him to ask God to bring Cragh back from the dead . Cragh began to show signs of life the day after his execution , and over the subsequent few weeks made a full recovery , living for at least another eighteen years .
The main primary source for Cragh 's story is the record of the investigation into the canonisation of Thomas de Cantilupe , which is held in the Vatican Library . Cragh 's resurrection was one of thirty @-@ eight miracles presented to the papal commissioners who in 1307 were charged with examining the evidence for Cantilupe 's saintliness . The hanged man himself gave evidence to the commission , after which nothing more is known of him . Cantilupe was formally canonised by Pope John XXII on 17 April 1320 .
= = Background = =
William Cragh was born in about 1262 in the Welsh parish of Llanrhidian , Gower , to Rhys ap Gwilym and his wife Swanith . Between 1282 and 1283 King Edward I of England waged a military campaign in Wales that concluded with his annexation of that country . One of Edward 's allies , Rhys ap Maredudd , found the post @-@ war settlement unsatisfactory and launched a rebellion against the king in 1287 . Edward 's vastly superior forces soon crushed the uprising , but Rhys ap Maredudd remained at liberty until his capture and execution in 1292 . Cragh probably took part in the rebellion on the Welsh side . He was apprehended in 1290 by the son of William de Briouze , the Lord of Gower , who was defending his father 's lands against incursions by the rebels still at large . Cragh was one of 14 prisoners captured by de Briouze , 12 of whom were subsequently released . He was taken to Swansea Castle , where he was held in the dungeons awaiting trial , accused of killing 13 men .
The law in Wales at that time permitted condemned men to atone for their crimes by making a payment to their victims . Cragh 's friends and family rallied round to offer 100 cows to de Briouze for his release , but the offer was refused . The substantial scale of the proposed compensation indicates that Cragh was an important man , although some witnesses described him as a thief rather than a rebel . Historian Jussi Hanska has suggested that de Briouze 's refusal to accept the offer strengthens the case for Cragh being a rebel , as there is no other convincing reason to explain why he should have opted to " decline good income just to hang a thief " .
Cragh pleaded innocence of the charges against him , but he was nevertheless found guilty and sentenced to be hanged .
= = Execution = =
Cragh was hanged on a hill about a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) outside Swansea , in sight of de Briouze 's Swansea Castle , on Monday 27 November 1290 . He was executed along with another " malefactor " , Trahaern ap Hywel . Although the latter was dealt with by the town executioner , Cragh was hanged by one of his own relatives , Ythel Fachan , who was forced into that service by de Briouze . Trahaern ap Hywel was a large and powerful man who struggled a great deal as he was hauled up from the ground by his neck , causing the crossbeam of the gallows to break . Although the executioner , John of Baggeham , considered both men to be already dead when they fell to the ground they were nevertheless hanged again , " as an insult to their kin " , and because it was the usual custom that hanged men could not be removed from the gallows without the lord 's permission . The execution took place early in the morning , and the two men were left swinging from the gallows . John of Baggeham reported that he cut down Cragh 's body at about 4 : 00 pm and sent it into the town at the request of William de Briouze 's wife , Lady Mary . It is unclear what became of Trahaern ap Hywel , but his body may have been buried by the gallows .
The younger William de Briouze visited the house in Swansea to which Cragh 's corpse had been taken that evening , and what he saw convinced him that Cragh was dead . Describing the scene some years later he recalled that :
His [ Cragh 's ] face was black and in parts bloody or stained with blood . His eyes had come out of their sockets and hung outside the eyelids and the sockets were filled with blood . His mouth , neck , and throat and the parts around them , and also his nostrils , were filled with blood , so that it was impossible in the natural course of things for him to breathe ... his tongue hung out of his mouth , the length of a man 's finger , and it was completely black and swollen and as thick with the blood sticking to it that it seemed the size of a man 's two fists together .
Witnesses reported that Cragh had voided his bowels and bladder while hanging from the gallows , which was considered at that time to be a sign of death .
= = Resurrection = =
Historian Robert Bartlett has commented that " one of the largest uncertainties in the whole story of the death and resurrection of William Cragh is why Lady Mary [ de Briouze ] interceded for him " , but intercede she did . John of Baggeham , when questioned about her motivation 18 years after the event , could only reply that " Lady Mary had sought the body of this William , he did not know why " . Before the execution she had asked her husband to spare the two condemned men , but he had refused . Then on hearing that Trahaern ap Hywel was dead , and believing that Cragh was still alive , she once again asked that he be handed over to her , but de Briouze delayed until he was convinced that Cragh was also dead . Then " he granted him [ Cragh ] to the said lady , such as he was , and ordered him to be taken down from the gallows " . Lady Mary had " a special devotion " to Thomas de Cantilupe , the deceased Bishop of Hereford , and in her own words , upon hearing of Cragh 's death , " on bended knee , she asked Saint Thomas de Cantilupe to ask God to restore life to William Cragh " .
Cantilupe had died in Italy on 25 August 1282 ; his flesh was buried in that country after having been boiled from his bones , which were taken back to England . Cantilupe 's tomb at Hereford Cathedral soon became the centre of a " pilgrim cult " , and miracles began to be attributed to him . Lady Mary sent one of her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting to measure Cragh 's body with a length of thread , which implied a promise to offer to the saint a candle the length of the person on whose behalf the saint was being asked to intercede should the intercession be successful , a common practice during the medieval period .
Cragh 's recovery began the day after his hanging , but it was some time – one witness said 15 days – before he was able to stand unaided . That he did not recover more quickly cast doubt on the validity of the miracle , as miracles were supposed to be immediate , but " partial miracles " could be explained by the " lukewarm faith of those who had made the vow " . Once sufficiently recovered , Cragh was summoned to appear at Swansea Castle , before Lord and Lady Briouze . The chaplain , William of Codineston , was also present . Cragh explained , " with great fear and apprehension " according to the chaplain , that as he was being taken to the gallows he prayed to Thomas de Cantilupe to save him . His fear resulted from his concern that he might be executed again , and he had good reason to be worried . Although those who survived were usually pardoned , it was not unknown for them to be hanged again . Between the time of his hanging and his appearance at the castle Cragh may have convinced himself that he had been saved by Cantilupe , or he may simply have decided that it would be prudent for him to go along with the story for his own safety . Cragh went on to claim that as he was hanging from the gallows a bishop dressed all in white appeared , and saved him either by supporting his feet or by replacing his tongue in his mouth .
Once he was sufficiently recovered Cragh undertook a pilgrimage to Hereford , accompanied by Lord and Lady Briouze , to thank Cantilupe for restoring his life . He walked barefoot on the three @-@ day trip , wearing the rope he had been hanged with around his neck . The rope was left at Cantilupe 's shrine , after which Cragh said that he would make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land , although there is some doubt as to whether he subsequently even left Wales . Jussi Hanska has suggested that Cragh may have invented the pilgrimage story to escape from his companions .
= = Papal investigation = =
Richard Swinefield , Cantilupe 's successor as Bishop of Hereford , wrote to Pope Nicholas IV in a letter dated 19 April 1290 proposing the bishop for canonisation , but it was not until 1307 that an investigation into Cantilupe 's saintliness was initiated by Pope Clement V. For the canonisation process to succeed , convincing evidence of miracles that Cantilupe had performed since his death had to be presented , one of which was that William Cragh had been brought back from the dead by the bishop 's intercession . Three papal commissioners were appointed to conduct the inquiry : William de Testa , a papal tax collector in England , Ralph Baldock , Bishop of London , and William Durand the Younger , Bishop of Mende .
The investigation opened in London on 14 July 1307 . The first three of the nine witnesses to Cragh 's hanging to be heard were Lady Mary de Briouze , William Codineston , and the younger William de Briouze ; his father had died in 1291 . The commissioners were naturally curious about the details of the execution , because if Cragh had not actually been killed then there could clearly have been no miracle . William de Briouze was in no doubt that the hanging had been properly conducted , and pointed out it was customary that " if any subterfuge or trickery were discovered ... then the executioner himself would be hanged in turn " . He added that any deception could be ruled out because of the hatred that he and his father had for Cragh , whom he described as " the worst of male
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in a strong position going into the two tough final group games in Czechoslovakia and Portugal . Though only drawing with Wales and Northern Ireland , a 5 – 1 victory over Scotland secured England the 1974 – 75 British Home Championship title and left England in confident mood for the crucial qualifying games . However , despite Channon opening the scoring they fell to a 2 – 1 defeat to the Czechoslovakians in Bratislava after playing with what was for Revie uncharacteristic attacking tactics . A 1 – 1 draw in Lisbon then allowed Czechoslovakia to clinch the group with a win over Cyprus . Czechoslovakia then went on to win the whole tournament . Revie was criticised for his constant changing of players during the qualifying group , particularly his decision to drop captains Emlyn Hughes and Alan Ball from his squad entirely , his mistrust of flair players like Charlie George and Alan Hudson , and his willingness to play players out of position also drew criticism .
With England unseeded , Revie was handed another difficult task in qualifying for the 1978 World Cup , their opponents being Italy , Finland and Luxembourg , with only the winner progressing to the finals . Just before the campaign began England suffered a dejecting defeat in Scotland to finish second in the 1975 – 76 British Home Championship . England made heavy work of both Finland and Luxembourg , winning 4 – 1 away and 2 – 1 at home against the Finns and 5 – 0 at home and 2 – 0 away against the Luxembourgers . The failure to inflict heavier defeats on these sides was ultimately the reason why Italy qualified for the finals on goal difference alone . England fell to a 2 – 0 defeat in Rome where Revie was criticised for his previously untested back four selection of Emlyn Hughes , Dave Clement , Roy McFarland , and Mick Mills ; he also played Trevor Brooking out of position and surprised many by selecting Stan Bowles ahead of Stuart Pearson . Sensing that he was disliked by FA chairman Sir Harold Thompson , and with further criticism coming his way after England could only finish third in the 1976 – 77 British Home Championship , Revie began to look for a way out . He missed a friendly with Brazil in Rio de Janeiro for what he claimed was a scouting assignment on the Italians , when in fact he had travelled to Dubai for contract negotiations with the United Arab Emirates . Revie asked for his contract with England to be cancelled , which the FA refused to do and the FA offered Revie their full support despite having already approached Bobby Robson to replace Revie . The game with Brazil ended in a 0 – 0 draw , and their tour of South America concluded with draws with Argentina and Uruguay . On 12 July 1977 , Revie revealed in an exclusive to the Daily Mail that he was quitting the England job to become manager of the UAE . The FA suspended Revie from football for ten years on a charge of bringing the game into disrepute ; Revie contested his suspension in a lawsuit against the FA , and the court overturned the suspension after ruling that the FA had overreached its powers .
" I sat down with my wife , Elsie , one night and we agreed that the England job no longer worth the aggravation . It was bringing too much heartache to those nearest to us . Nearly everyone in the country wants me out . So , I am giving them what they want . I know people will accuse me of running away , and it does sicken me that I cannot finish the job by taking England to the World Cup finals in Argentina next year , but the situation has become impossible . "
= = = Middle East = = =
His contract at the United Arab Emirates ensured him a £ 340 @,@ 000 four @-@ year contract , though caused irreparable damage to his reputation in England . Selling the story to the Daily Mail also earned him £ 20 @,@ 000 , but only furthered the criticism that he was a " mercenary " . UAE finished sixth in the seven team 1979 Gulf Cup of Nations in Iraq , but it was his work in helping to improve the footballing facilities in the country in the long @-@ term that were more important , which helped the UAE qualify for the 1990 FIFA World Cup . He left the UAE coaching role in May 1980 as the UAE searched for an Arabic speaking manager . He returned to club management with Al @-@ Nasr of the UAE Arabian Gulf League , but was sacked in 1983 with the club sitting third in the league . The next year he had a brief stint with Egyptian Premier League club Al @-@ Ahly of Cairo , but did not settle in Egypt and returned home to England . He was approached to replace Alan Mullery as Queens Park Rangers manager by chairman Jim Gregory , but the deal was not completed and Revie never worked in football again .
= = Personal life = =
Revie married Elsie , the niece of Leicester City manager Johnny Duncan , on 17 October 1949 and they had a son Duncan and daughter Kim . Elsie died of cancer on 28 March 2005 at the age of 77 .
He published an autobiography , Soccer 's Happy Wanderer , in 1955 . He was awarded with an OBE for his services to football . Just before departing from Leeds for the England job , Revie was a special guest on the TV guest show This Is Your Life .
= = = Illness and death = = =
In the spring of 1986 Revie moved to Kinross , Scotland where he intended to retire , but he was diagnosed with motor neurone disease in May 1987 . Revie publicly announced his illness in August of that year , and made his final public appearance on 11 May 1988 at Elland Road in a wheelchair , at a charity football match held to raise money into research into Motor Neurone Disease . He died in Murrayfield Hospital in Edinburgh on 26 May 1989 , aged 61 , and was cremated four days later at Warriston Crematorium in Edinburgh . Though his funeral was well attended by representatives of Leeds United , The Football Association did not send any officials to the funeral .
= = Legacy = =
The family atmosphere Revie instilled at Elland Road ensured that many Leeds United players remained firm friends and fiercely loyal to Revie long after their playing days had ended ; his players also generally avoided financial , addiction or family problems , enjoying largely stable lives even after retirement . In May 2012 , a statue of Revie was unveiled outside Elland Road . The North Stand of Elland Road is formally known as the Revie Stand .
= = = Criticism = = =
= = = = " Dirty Leeds " = = = =
The combative nature of his teams earned United the moniker of " dirty Leeds " , as key player Eddie Gray admitted that " it was brutal stuff and , definitely win @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs " . Alan Peacock said that one of the attractions for joining Leeds was that he would not have to play against them and " then they won 't be kicking me " . In 1963 Leeds were labelled by the Football Association 's own FA News as " the dirtiest [ team ] in the Football League . On more than one occasion referees had to order Leeds players off the pitch for a break mid @-@ match to break up mass brawls . His teams were also notorious for dour play and playing to defend 1 – 0 leads , though he did allow a more attacking style later in his career . Nevertheless the unpopularity and poor reputation stuck with Leeds throughout Revie 's time as manager and even was in evidence after his death .
One of Revie 's most notable critics was Brian Clough , who initially gave some degree of praise to Leeds following the 1969 – 70 season , commenting that ’ they have made the season ’ . However Clough ’ s attitude soon changed as the competition between their clubs intensified and over the course of subsequent seasons he would use his newspaper columns to attack Revie and Leeds , particularly in August 1973 in which he branded the Leeds players " cheats " and called for the club to be relegated to the Second Division on disciplinary grounds , though Clough would surprisingly succeed Revie as Leeds manager in an ill @-@ fated tenure that lasted only 44 days . In 2009 , Revie was portrayed by Colm Meaney in the film The Damned United , which focused on Clough 's ill @-@ fated 44 @-@ day reign as manager of Leeds United in 1974 following Revie 's departure for the England job .
" When people talk about Leeds being dirty , they forget that was the culture back then . You had to look after yourself . There were so many players around who would now be suspended all season long . We just made sure nobody ever managed to bully us . "
= = = = Allegations of financial misconduct = = = =
Revie 's reputation suffered in the late 1970s after his highly controversial England resignation . Both the Daily Mirror and Sunday People claimed that Revie had attempted to bribe Wolverhampton Wanderers players to lose a crucial match in May 1972 . The papers quoted Wolves midfielder Danny Hegan and former Leeds United goalkeeper Gary Sprake 's claims that Revie 's captain Billy Bremner had tried to arrange a bribe . Bremner sued for libel and won £ 100 @,@ 000 libel damages , along with legal costs , after both Hegan and Sprake refused to repeat their allegations under oath in court . Wolves player Derek Dougan , who had scored against Leeds in the match in question , testified that he had heard no mention of the alleged bribes .
Additionally Bob Stokoe would later claim that while managing Bury in 1962 , Revie had offered him a bribe of £ 500 to " go easy " on his Leeds side who were at the time struggling against relegation to the Third Division and that he had become enraged when Revie responded to his refusal to accept the bribe by asking " in that case , may I speak to your players ? " . Alan Ball also alleged that Revie made an illegal approach for him , and despite pocketing the £ 300 bribe he instead signed for Everton instead of Leeds ; both men were charged with bringing the game into disrepute . The allegations of corruption earned him the nickname of " Don Readies " . Though Mr Justice Cantley lifted the FA 's ten @-@ year ban on Revie , during his conclusion of the case the judge said that Revie " lacked candour " , was " greedy " and " prickly " , focused on " imagined wrongs " and his resignation as England manager showed a " sensational , outrageous example of disloyalty , breach of trust , discourtesy and selfishness " .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Playing statistics = = =
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
Notes
Statistics for United Arab Emirates , Al @-@ Nasr , and Al @-@ Ahly are not known .
= = Honours = =
Individual
FWA Footballer of the Year : 1954 – 55
Officer of the Order of the British Empire : 1969
with England
British Home Championship winner : 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 ( shared ) , 1956 – 57
with Manchester City
FA Cup runner @-@ up : 1955
FA Cup winner : 1956
as Leeds United manager
Football League Second Division champion : 1963 – 64
Football League First Division champion : 1968 – 69 , 1973 – 74
Football League First Division runner @-@ up : 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1969 – 70 , 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72
FA Cup runner @-@ up : 1965 , 1970 , 1973
FA Cup winner : 1972
Football League Cup winner : 1968
FA Charity Shield winner : 1969
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup runner @-@ up : 1967
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup winner : 1968 , 1971
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup play @-@ off runner @-@ up : 1971
European Cup Winners ' Cup runner @-@ up : 1973
as England manager
British Home Championship winner : 1974 – 75
British Home Championship runner @-@ up : 1975 – 76
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
= Scotty Davidson =
Allan McLean " Scotty " Davidson ( March 6 , 1892 – June 16 , 1915 ) was a Canadian ice hockey player and soldier . He was considered one of the top wingers of the game 's early years . He led his Kingston junior team to two Ontario Hockey Association championships in 1910 and 1911 , when he moved to Calgary for the 1911 – 12 season and led the Calgary Athletics senior team to the Alberta provincial championship . Davidson turned professional with the Toronto Blueshirts in 1912 and was among the National Hockey Association 's leading scorers the following two seasons . He captained Toronto to the Stanley Cup championship in 1914 .
Upon the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , Davidson volunteered with the Canadian Expeditionary Force ; he was the first professional hockey player to do so . He was killed in action while fighting in Belgium in 1915 . Hailed as a hero by his peers , Davidson was said to have been killed after refusing to retreat during a battle . He is commemorated on the Canadian National Vimy Memorial . Davidson was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1950 .
= = Playing career = =
Davidson was born and raised in Kingston , Ontario , and learned the game through his coach , James T. Sutherland . He first played in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) senior division in 1908 – 09 where , as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old , he led the league with eight goals in four games . He joined the Kingston Frontenacs of the OHA junior division in 1909 where he emerged as a top player in the league . He was known for his shooting ability and considered a strong backchecker . Davidson served as team captain , and led the Frontenacs to OHA junior titles in 1910 and 1911 . He was a standout in the 1911 championship , leading his team back from a 3 – 0 deficit to win the game .
After leaving the junior game , Davidson moved to Alberta where he played senior hockey for the Calgary Athletics . He scored three goals in four regular season games and added another three goals in three playoff games . The Athletics won the provincial championship , but were defeated by the Winnipeg Victorias for the Allan Cup . He returned to Ontario for the 1912 – 13 season when he was signed by the Toronto Blueshirts of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . Davidson made his professional debut with Toronto in their season @-@ opening loss to the Montreal Canadiens , and finished his rookie season with 19 goals in 20 games .
The Blueshirts named him team captain for the 1913 – 14 season , and he responded by finishing in the top ten in NHA goals with 23 and second in assists with 13 . Tied atop the standings with the Montreal Canadiens after the regular season , the Blueshirts faced the Canadiens in a two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series for both the O 'Brien Cup , the NHA championship , and control of the Stanley Cup , the Canadian championship . Following a 2 – 0 loss at Montreal , Davidson played a key role in Toronto 's 6 – 0 victory in the return match . He scored two goals , including Toronto 's third which clinched the championship . The title represented the first time a team from Toronto won the Stanley Cup .
The Blueshirts then immediately faced the Victoria Aristocrats of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association held in March 1914 . It was considered an unofficial challenge for the Stanley Cup as the Aristocrats failed to arrange the series with the Cup 's trustees . Toronto emerged with three consecutive victories to win the series that was on occasion violent – Davidson was involved in a fight late in the third game that touched off a melee involving most players for both teams .
= = Military career = =
When World War I broke out in 1914 , Davidson was the first professional hockey player to volunteer with the Canadian Expeditionary Force . He served with the Eastern Ontario Regiment of the Canadian Infantry , and attained the rank of lance @-@ corporal . Davidson earned the respect of his fellow soldiers who wrote of his bravery and fearlessness . He once rescued a wounded officer while fighting in France , and one account of his death asserts that he was shot in the back and killed while attempting to carry an injured soldier to safety . Another held that he died while on a bombing raid after refusing to retreat until he had spent his ammunition . He was said to have used his final grenade to kill a German officer before being killed himself .
= = Legacy = =
By the time he left hockey to fight in the war , Davidson was considered one of the top all @-@ around players in the NHA . Noted for his skating ability , it was said that he could skate faster backwards than most players could forwards . In 1925 , Maclean 's named him the top right wing when it determined its all @-@ star team of the game 's greatest players , an opinion shared by his former junior coach , who stated that he was " as good as any player to ever patrol a wing position " .
Davidson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1950 , and is honoured by the International Hockey Hall of Fame . The Kingston Frontenacs erected a monument to his memory shortly after his death . He was 23 years old when he was killed , and his name is commemorated on the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France .
= = Career statistics = =
= Russian gay propaganda law =
The Russian federal law " for the Purpose of Protecting Children from Information Advocating for a Denial of Traditional Family Values " , also known in English @-@ language media as the gay propaganda law and the anti @-@ gay law , is a bill that was unanimously approved by the State Duma on 11 June 2013 ( with just one MP abstaining — Ilya Ponomarev ) , and was signed into law by President Vladimir Putin on 30 June 2013 .
The Russian government 's stated purpose for the law is to protect children from being exposed to content recognizing homosexuality as being a norm in society , under the argument that it contradicts traditional family values . The statute amended the country 's child protection law and the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses , to make the distribution of " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " among minors , an offense punishable by fines . This definition includes materials that " raises interest in " such relationships , cause minors to " form non @-@ traditional sexual predispositions " , or " [ present ] distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non @-@ traditional sexual relationships . " Businesses and organizations can also be forced to temporarily cease operations if convicted under the law , and foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported , or fined up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles and deported .
Supported by a number of far right @-@ wing groups and a majority of Russians surveyed , the passing of the law was met with criticism , primarily from the democratic world , the international community and global media . The statute was criticized for its broad and ambiguous wording ( including the aforementioned " raises interest in " and " among minors " ) , which many critics characterized as being an effective ban on publicly promoting the rights and culture of the LGBT community . The law was also criticized for leading to an increase and justification of homophobic violence , while the implications of the laws in relation to the then @-@ upcoming Winter Olympics being hosted by Sochi were also cause for concern , as the Olympic Charter contains language explicitly barring various forms of discrimination .
However , some felt that critics had overreacted to the law , noting that unlike some countries with stricter anti @-@ LGBT legislation , it did not criminalize same @-@ sex relationships , sexual activity , or being associated with pro @-@ LGBT organizations .
= = Background = =
Despite the fact that the cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg have been well known for their thriving LGBT communities , there has been growing opposition towards gay rights among politicians since 2006 . The city of Moscow has actively refused to authorize gay pride parades , and former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov supported the city 's refusal to authorize the first two Moscow Pride events , describing them as " satanic " and blaming western groups for spreading " this kind of enlightenment " in the country . Fair Russia member of parliament Alexander Chuev was also opposed to gay rights and attempted to introduce a similar " propaganda " law in 2007 . In response , prominent LGBT rights activist and Moscow Pride founder Nikolay Alexeyev disclosed on the television talk show К барьеру ! that Chuev had been publicly involved in same @-@ sex relationships prior to his time in office .
In 2010 , Russia was fined by the European Court of Human Rights under allegations by Alexeyev that cities were discriminating against gays by refusing to approve pride parades . Although claiming a risk of violence , the court interpreted the decisions as being in support of groups which oppose such demonstrations . In March 2012 , a Russian judge blocked the establishment of a Pride House in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Olympics , ruling that it would " undermine the security of Russian society " , and that it contradicted with public morality and policies " in the area of family motherhood and childhood protection . " In August 2012 , Moscow upheld a ruling blocking Nikolay Alexeyev 's requests for 100 years ' worth of permission to hold Moscow Pride annually , citing the possibility of public disorder .
The bill " On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development " introduced laws which prohibited the distribution of " harmful " material among minors . This includes content which " may elicit fear , horror , or panic in children " among minors , pornography , along with materials which glorify violence , unlawful activities , substance abuse , or self @-@ harm . An amendment to the law passed in 2012 instituted a mandatory content rating system for material distributed through an " information and telecommunication network " ( covering television and the internet ) , and established a blacklist for censoring websites which contain child pornography or content glorifying drug abuse and suicide .
The 2013 amendment , which added " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as a class of harmful content under the law was
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, Kittitas County .
= Vijender Singh =
Vijender Singh Beniwal ( born 29 October 1985 ) , better known as Vijender Singh is an Indian professional boxer and the current WBO Asia Pacific Super Middleweight Champion from Kaluwas , Bhiwani district in Haryana . He was educated in his village , after which he received a bachelor 's degree from a local college in Bhiwani . He practised boxing at the Bhiwani Boxing Club where coach Jagdish Singh recognised his talent and encouraged him to take up boxing . He was coached by the Indian Boxing Coach Gurbaksh Singh Sandhu .
Having won medals in different competitions at the national level , Vijender was picked to train and compete at several international level competitions such as the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games . At the 2006 Asian Games in Doha , he won the bronze medal after losing the semifinal bout against Kazakhstan 's Bakhtiyar Artayev . At the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics , he defeated Carlos Góngora of Ecuador 9 – 4 in the quarterfinals which guarand him a bronze medal — the first ever Olympic medal for an Indian boxer .
After this win , Vijender was given a number of awards , including the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award — India 's highest sporting honour and Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian honour . In 2009 , he participated at the World Amateur Boxing Championships where he won the bronze medal . In the same year , the International Boxing Association ( AIBA ) announced Vijender as the top @-@ ranked boxer in its annual middleweight category list with 2800 points . Vijender represented India at the London 2012 Olympic Games .
On 29 June 2015 , Vijender Singh bid adieu to his amateur career by turning professional as he signed a multi @-@ year agreement with Queensberry Promotions through IOS Sports and Entertainment . This ruled him out of 2016 Olympics as he no longer remains eligible as an amateur .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1985 – 2003 : Early life and foray into boxing = = =
Vijender Singh was born in a Jat family on 29 October 1985 in Kaluwas village , 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from Bhiwani , Haryana . His father , Mahipal Singh Beniwal , is a bus driver with the Haryana Roadways , while his mother is a homemaker . His father drove extra buses for overtime pay so as to pay for Vijender and his elder brother Manoj 's education . Vijender did his primary schooling in Kalwas , secondary schooling in Bhiwani middle from happy sr sec. school bhiwani and finally received a bachelor 's degree from Vaish College . In 1990 , boxer Raj Kumar Sangwan got the Arjuna Award ; so the craze for boxing in India increased . The sport became one of the main job avenues in India . In order to ensure a better life for their poor family , Vijender and his elder brother Manoj decided to learn boxing . Vijender was inspired by his elder brother Manoj , a former boxer himself , to join the sport of boxing . After Manoj succeeded in entering the Indian Army in 1998 with his boxing credentials , he decided to support Vijender financially so he could continue his boxing training . Vijender 's parents decided to not pressurise him to continue his studies , as they felt that he had a talent and passion for boxing . For Vijender , boxing quickly grew from an interest and passion to a career choice .
He practiced at the Bhiwani Boxing Club , where former national @-@ level boxer and Jagdish Singh recognised his talent . Working part @-@ time , he even tried his hand at modelling to financially support his coaching . The first recognition for Vijender came when he won a bout in the state level competition . Vijender won a silver medal in his first sub @-@ junior nationals in 1997 and went on to bag his first gold medal at the 2000 Nationals . In 2003 , he became the all @-@ India youth boxing champion . The turning point , however , came in the 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games . Despite being a junior boxer , Vijender took part in the selection trials and was picked for the meet where he fought valiantly to win a silver medal .
His boxing style , hooks and uppercut are compared by the media with the style of actor Sylvester Stallone as the character Rocky Balboa in the Rocky film series . Vijender cites him as one his primary influences , along with boxers Mike Tyson and Muhammad Ali , and boxing promoter Don King .
Vijender Singh is married to Archana Singh . The couple have one child Arbir Singh .
= = = 2004 – 07 : Athens Olympics and Commonwealth Games = = =
Vijender competed at the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics , in the welterweight division , but lost to Mustafa Karagollu of Turkey by a score of 20 – 25 . At the 2006 Commonwealth Games , he defeated England 's Neil Perkins in the semifinal but lost to South Africa 's Bongani Mwelase in the final , thus leaving with a bronze medal . He decided to move up in weight and Vijender took part in the middleweight ( 75 kg ) division at the 2006 Asian Games in Doha , where he won the bronze medal in a lost semifinal bout against Kazakhstan 's Bakhtiyar Artayev with the final score of 24 – 29 . Initially Vijender was not supposed to compete because of a back injury , but he recovered in time to win the tournament and qualify for the 2008 Beijing Olympics .
Among his preparations for the 2008 Beijing Olympics was a period spent early in that year when he trained with German boxers in their own country . This training incorporated a tournament involving boxers from around Europe , in one event of which Singh won gold having beaten a German in the process . At The President 's Cup boxing tournament , which is touted as a dress rehearsal for the Olympic games , Vijender defeated Artayev in a quarterfinal bout . Speaking after this , Vijender sounded confident of his physical shape . Talking about his preparation for the Beijing Olympics , Vijender said :
" I did not do well the last time because then I was young and did not have the experience . I have just made it to the senior level and qualified for the Olympics . Now I have the experience . I have won medals at major tournaments like the Asian Games and Commonwealth Games . Recently , I also beat the 2004 Olympic Games gold medallist [ Bakhtiyar ] Artayev [ in the AIBA President 's Cup ] , so I have done quite well at the international level . So , definitely , everyone can expect a good showing from me in Beijing . "
" Now I have quite a lot of experience after competing at the international level regularly . I just want to say that Indian boxers are no longer a weak lot ; all are doing well at the international level . Our boxing graph is going up all the time and the rest of the world is now scared to face Indian boxers . "
= = = 2008 – 09 : The Beijing Olympics and AIBA top rank = = =
After the wins in Germany , Vijender 's training for the Olympics continued in Patiala where Indian boxers going to the Olympics held a camp . Vijender was accompanied by boxers Dinesh Kumar , Akhil Kumar , Jitender Kumar and Antharish Lakra . The Indian Amateur Boxing Federation ( IABF ) sent a videographer to shoot extensively the bouts involving the likely opponents of the five Indian boxers . A team of coaches went through the video footage shot by videographer Sambhu of the National Institute of Sports , Patiala , and studied the technique of the boxers from various countries in detail , so as to prepare Vijender and the others regarding the opponent 's manoeuvres and fighting techniques .
At the 2008 Summer Olympics , he defeated Badou Jack of Gambia 13 – 2 in the round of 32 . In the round of 16 , he defeated Angkhan Chomphuphuang of Thailand 13 – 3 to reach the Middleweight Boxing Quarterfinals . He beat southpaw Carlos Góngora of Ecuador 9 – 4 in the quarterfinals on 20 August 2008 which guaranteed him a medal , the first ever Olympic medal for an Indian boxer . He lost 5 – 8 to Cuba 's Emilio Correa in the semi @-@ finals on 22 August 2008 and shared a bronze medal . Vijender , and Indian wrestler Sushil Kumar — who won a bronze at the men 's wrestling competitions — were welcomed grandly to India after their victory .
In July 2009 , Vijender accompanied by Sushil and boxer Mary Kom were garlanded with the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award — India 's highest sporting honour . It was the first time that three sportspeople were picked for the award ; the award selection committee decided to grant the award to all of them , taking into consideration their performance for the cycle of 2008 – 09 . Kom and Vijender were the first boxers to get the award which carried prize money of Rs 750 @,@ 000 and a citation . Both Sushil and Vijender were recommended to the Padma Shri awards committee , by the Indian Sports and Home Ministries ; however , they were denied the awards after recommendations were not fruitful by the Padma Awards Committee for 2009 winners . The denial of Padma Shri for them created a furore among masses with allegations of promoting only a few sports . Vijender later took up a job with the Haryana Police department which paid him Rs 14 @,@ 000 per month .
Vijender participated at the 2009 World Amateur Boxing Championships . He was beaten by Abbos Atoev of Uzbekistan in the semi @-@ final of the 75 kg Middleweight category , by 7 points to 3 and was thus awarded the bronze medal . Vijender won the first round of the bout 1 – 0 , only for Atoev to run rampant in the second , landing five unanswered blows . The third round was evenly contested with both fighters scoring on a couple of occasions , but Vijender had already lost the match . In September 2009 , the International Boxing Association ( AIBA ) announced Vijender as the top @-@ ranked boxer in its annual middle @-@ weight ( 75 kg ) category list . He topped the list with 2800 points .
= = = 2010 – 14 : Padma Shri , Commonwealth Games and Asian Games = = =
In January 2010 , Vijender was awarded the Padma Shri for outstanding contribution to Indian sports . Later , he participated in the invitational Champions of Champions boxing tournament in China , and won a silver medal , losing 0 – 6 to Zhang Jin Ting in the 75 kg middleweight final . At the 2010 Commonwealth Boxing Championship held in New Delhi 18 March 2010 , he along with five other fellow Indians won gold medal . Vijender defeated England 's Frank Buglioni 13 – 3 .
At the 2010 Commonwealth Games , Vijender Singh was beaten by England 's Anthony Ogogo in the semi @-@ finals . Leading 3 – 0 on points going into the final round , Singh was twice given a two @-@ point penalty by Canadian referee Michael Summers , the second for coming just 20 seconds before the end of the bout , leading Ogogo to win by 4 points to 3 . The Indian Boxing Federation ( IBF ) launched an unsuccessful appeal , leaving Singh with a bronze medal . IBF Secretary General P K Muralidharan Raja said , " The jury reviewed the bout and came to the conclusion that Vijender was holding his opponent and the referee was right in warning him . When the Indian team pointed out that even Ogogo was holding Vijender , the jury felt it was not the case . " Singh lashed out saying that the penalties were " harsh and unfair . The warnings were unfair and harsh . If the referee thought I was holding Ogogo then he should have penalised this guy as well . He was also holding me . It 's a joke that somebody has won by scoring points just out of warnings . " One month later , in November , he won the 2010 Asian Games shutting out Uzbek two time world champion Abbos Atoev 7 : 0 in the final .
Although previously denied by him , Hindustan Times reported that the boxer took up a role in the part real part fictional Bollywood thriller tentatively titled One , to be directed by South Indian director Anand . The film was later reveated to be named Patiala Express , which is produced by Percept Limited . Shooting for the film was supposed to begin in early 2011 . However , on 17 May 2011 , Vijender got married to Archana Singh , a software engineer with an MBA degree , from Delhi . The wedding was solemnised in Delhi in a simple ceremony , and reception was organised at his native place Bhiwani . However , the wedding prompted the filmmakers to drop him from the project , as they felt that Vijender would not enjoy the same popularity among female fans . The film ’ s launch was widely reported in March 2011 , and actor Govinda had confirmed Vijender ’ s debut with his daughter . Vijender refused to confirm if he has indeed been dropped from the film , saying that " I have to concentrate on my boxing . Wait before you see me in films . "
At the 2012 Summer Olympics , he beat Danabek Suzhanov of Kazakhstan 14 – 10 in the first round of men 's middle @-@ weight 75 kg category Boxing event , to advance to the round of 16 of the games . He then edged out American Terrell Gausha 16 – 15 to win the pre @-@ quarter finals bout . He lost to Abbos Atoev of Uzbekistan in quarter final with a score of 13 – 17 .
In the 2014 Commonwealth Games , Singh claimed the silver medal after being defeated by England 's Antony Fowler by unanimous decision .
= = = Drug controversy = = =
On 6 March 2012 , during a raid conducted on an NRI residence near Chandigarh , Punjab Police seized 26 kilograms of heroin and other drugs , valued at ₹ 1 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 19 million ) . They also recovered a car registered in the name of Vijender 's wife from outside the home of alleged drug dealer Anoop Singh Kahlon . Later in March , a Punjab Police statement said , " As per investigation conducted so far , Vijender Singh consumed the drug about 12 times and Ram Singh ( his sparring partner ) about five times . " Singh denied the allegations and refused to give his hair and blood samples for testing . NADA ( National Anti @-@ Doping Agency ) refused to test Vijender claiming protocol did not allow it to test an athlete for that drug when he was out of competition . However , on 3 April the Sports Ministry of India directed NADA to conduct a test on the boxer since these reports were " disturbing and may have a debilitating influence on other sportspersons in the country " .
By mid @-@ May 2013 , the Olympic bronze @-@ medalist was given an “ all @-@ clean ” certificate by the National Anti @-@ Doping Agency .
= = In media = =
After his 2008 Olympic win , Vijender emerged into mainstream media prominence in India and became the latest pin @-@ up boy . Apart from boxing , Vijender took part in ramp shows also . However he commented that with partaking modelling , he wished to " bring the game [ boxing ] in the limelight , make it as popular as possible and catapult it to its deserving place at the top . " He has regularly spoken against the bias that Indian media has promoted only cricket as the sole game in India . In an interview with The Kolkata Telegraph , he commented :
Thanks to the media , people have started taking boxing seriously over the past two years . Everyone knows my name now because my achievements have been highlighted . Lekin boxing ka toh kuch promotion hi nahin
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protein . Penicillin and aspirin are common drugs that act in this manner .
= = = Functions of inhibitors = = =
In many organisms , inhibitors may act as part of a feedback mechanism . If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism , that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it , causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount . This is a form of negative feedback . Major metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle make use of this mechanism .
Since inhibitors modulate the function of enzymes they are often used as drugs . Many such drugs are reversible competitive inhibitors that resemble the enzyme 's native substrate , similar to methotrexate above ; other well @-@ known examples include statins used to treat high cholesterol , and protease inhibitors used to treat retroviral infections such as HIV . A common example of an irreversible inhibitor that is used as a drug is aspirin , which inhibits the COX @-@ 1 and COX @-@ 2 enzymes that produce the inflammation messenger prostaglandin . Other enzyme inhibitors are poisons . For example , the poison cyanide is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor that combines with the copper and iron in the active site of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase and blocks cellular respiration .
= = Biological function = =
Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms . They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation , often via kinases and phosphatases . They also generate movement , with myosin hydrolyzing ATP to generate muscle contraction , and also transport cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton . Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport . Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions , such as luciferase generating light in fireflies . Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells , such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase , or for viral release from cells , like the influenza virus neuraminidase .
An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals . Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules ( starch or proteins , respectively ) into smaller ones , so they can be absorbed by the intestines . Starch molecules , for example , are too large to be absorbed from the intestine , but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose , which can then be absorbed . Different enzymes digest different food substances . In ruminants , which have herbivorous diets , microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme , cellulase , to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber .
= = = Metabolism = = =
Several enzymes can work together in a specific order , creating metabolic pathways . In a metabolic pathway , one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate . After the catalytic reaction , the product is then passed on to another enzyme . Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel ; this can allow more complex regulation : with , for example , a low constant activity provided by one enzyme but an inducible high activity from a second enzyme .
Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways . Without enzymes , metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell . Most central metabolic pathways are regulated at a few key steps , typically through enzymes whose activity involves the hydrolysis of ATP . Because this reaction releases so much energy , other reactions that are thermodynamically unfavorable can be coupled to ATP hydrolysis , driving the overall series of linked metabolic reactions .
= = = Control of activity = = =
There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell .
Regulation
Enzymes can be either activated or inhibited by other molecules . For example , the end product ( s ) of a metabolic pathway are often inhibitors for one of the first enzymes of the pathway ( usually the first irreversible step , called committed step ) , thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways . Such a regulatory mechanism is called a negative feedback mechanism , because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration . Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells . This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy , and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products . Like other homeostatic devices , the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms .
Post @-@ translational modification
Examples of post @-@ translational modification include phosphorylation , myristoylation and glycosylation . For example , in the response to insulin , the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes , including glycogen synthase , helps control the synthesis or degradation of glycogen and allows the cell to respond to changes in blood sugar . Another example of post @-@ translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain . Chymotrypsin , a digestive protease , is produced in inactive form as chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated . This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut . This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen or proenzyme .
Quantity
Enzyme production ( transcription and translation of enzyme genes ) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell 's environment . This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction . For example , bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin because enzymes called beta @-@ lactamases are induced that hydrolyse the crucial beta @-@ lactam ring within the penicillin molecule . Another example comes from enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases , which are important in drug metabolism . Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions . Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme degradation .
Subcellular distribution
Enzymes can be compartmentalized , with different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments . For example , fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol , endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondrion , through β @-@ oxidation . In addition , trafficking of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of protonation ( cytoplasm neutral and lysosome acidic ) or oxidative state [ e.g. , oxidized ( periplasm ) or reduced ( cytoplasm ) ] which in turn affects enzyme activity .
Organ specialization
In multicellular eukaryotes , cells in different organs and tissues have different patterns of gene expression and therefore have different sets of enzymes ( known as isozymes ) available for metabolic reactions . This provides a mechanism for regulating the overall metabolism of the organism . For example , hexokinase , the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway , has a specialized form called glucokinase expressed in the liver and pancreas that has a lower affinity for glucose yet is more sensitive to glucose concentration . This enzyme is involved in sensing blood sugar and regulating insulin production .
= = = Involvement in disease = = =
Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis , any malfunction ( mutation , overproduction , underproduction or deletion ) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease . The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal . An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is Tay @-@ Sachs disease , in which patients lack the enzyme hexosaminidase .
One example of enzyme deficiency is the most common type of phenylketonuria . Many different single amino acid mutations in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase , which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of phenylalanine , result in build @-@ up of phenylalanine and related products . Some mutations are in the active site , directly disrupting binding and catalysis , but many are far from the active site and reduce activity by destabilising the protein structure , or affecting correct oligomerisation . This can lead to intellectual disability if the disease is untreated . Another example is pseudocholinesterase deficiency , in which the body 's ability to break down choline ester drugs is impaired . Oral administration of enzymes can be used to treat some functional enzyme deficiencies , such as pancreatic insufficiency and lactose intolerance .
Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes . Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their genomes . This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of cancers . An example of such a hereditary cancer syndrome is xeroderma pigmentosum , which causes the development of skin cancers in response to even minimal exposure to ultraviolet light .
= = Naming conventions = =
An enzyme 's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes , with the word ending in -ase . Examples are lactase , alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase . Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called isozymes .
The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology have developed a nomenclature for enzymes , the EC numbers ; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers preceded by " EC " . The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism .
The top @-@ level classification is :
EC 1 , Oxidoreductases : catalyze oxidation / reduction reactions
EC 2 , Transferases : transfer a functional group ( e.g. a methyl or phosphate group )
EC 3 , Hydrolases : catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
EC 4 , Lyases : cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
EC 5 , Isomerases : catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6 , Ligases : join two molecules with covalent bonds .
These sections are subdivided by other features such as the substrate , products , and chemical mechanism . An enzyme is fully specified by four numerical designations . For example , hexokinase ( EC 2 @.@ 7 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 ) is a transferase ( EC 2 ) that adds a phosphate group ( EC 2 @.@ 7 ) to a hexose sugar , a molecule containing an alcohol group ( EC 2 @.@ 7 @.@ 1 ) .
= = Industrial applications = =
Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required . Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures . As a consequence , protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties , either through rational design or in vitro evolution . These efforts have begun to be successful , and a few enzymes have now been designed " from scratch " to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature .
= Wally Pipp =
Walter Clement Pipp ( February 17 , 1893 – January 11 , 1965 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Pipp played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Detroit Tigers , New York Yankees , and Cincinnati Reds between 1913 and 1928 .
After appearing in 12 games for the Tigers in 1913 and playing in the minor leagues in 1914 , he was purchased by the Yankees before the 1915 season . They made him their starting first baseman . He and Home Run Baker led an improved Yankee lineup that led the league in home runs . He led the American League in home runs in 1916 and 1917 . With Babe Ruth , Bob Meusel , Joe Dugan , and Waite Hoyt , the Yankees won three consecutive American League pennants from 1921 through 1923 , and won the 1923 World Series . In 1925 , he lost his starting role to Lou Gehrig , after which he finished his major league career with Cincinnati .
Pipp is considered to be one of the best power hitters of the dead ball era . Pipp is now best remembered as the man who lost his starting role to Lou Gehrig at the beginning of Gehrig 's streak of 2 @,@ 130 consecutive games . According to a popular legend , Pipp asked to sit due to a headache .
= = Early life = =
Walter Clement Pipp was born on February 17 , 1893 , in Chicago , Illinois , to Pauline ( née Stroeber ) and William H. Pipp . He was raised as a Roman Catholic , and different sources describe him as being of Irish or German ancestry . He was raised in Grand Rapids , Michigan . As a child , Pipp said that he was hit in the head with a hockey puck , which resulted in headaches throughout his life .
Pipp enrolled at the Catholic University of America in Washington , D.C. , where he studied architecture and played baseball for the Catholic University Cardinals . Pipp graduated in 1913 .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1912 , Pipp made his debut in professional baseball with the Kalamazoo Celery Champs of the Class D Southern Michigan League . In 68 games played , he had a .270 batting average . The Detroit Tigers of the American League purchased his contract late in the 1912 season . Pipp attempted to hold out from the Tigers , demanding a portion of the purchase price , and threatened to return to college .
After graduating from college , Pipp ended his holdout without receiving a share of the purchase price . Pipp made his major league debut with the Tigers on June 29 , 1913 . After playing 12 games for Detroit , batting .161 , the Tigers reassigned Pipp to the Providence Grays of the Class AA International League . He committed seven errors in 14 games for Providence , and was demoted to the Scranton Miners of the Class B New York State League , where he only batted .220 .
In 1914 , Pipp played for the Rochester Hustlers of the International League . Pipp had a .314 batting average and 27 triples . He led all batters in the league with 15 home runs , a .526 slugging percentage , and 290 total bases .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
In January 1915 , Jacob Ruppert and Tillinghast L 'Hommedieu Huston agreed to purchase the New York Yankees of the American League . As part of the agreement , the other team owners in the American League agreed to help the Yankees restock their system with prospects . One of the deals Ruppert and Huston negotiated was their purchase of Pipp . After the purchase was completed , all owners , with the exception of Frank Navin , the owner of the Tigers , broke their word . On February 4 , 1915 , the Tigers sold Pipp and outfielder Hugh High to the Yankees , receiving $ 5 @,@ 000 for each player ( $ 116 @,@ 957 in current dollar terms ) .
The Yankees had struggled prior to Ruppert and Huston 's purchase , having only one winning record in their previous eight seasons . They made Pipp their starting first baseman in time for Opening Day of the 1915 season . The Yankees added Home Run Baker in 1916 , and they formed the center of the Yankees ' batting order . Pipp led the American League in home runs with 12 in 1916 ; Baker finished second with 10 . Pipp hit nine home runs in 1917 , again leading the league .
In 1918 , Pipp hit only two home runs , but batted .304 . He missed playing time under the nation 's " work or fight " rule during World War I ; he worked as a naval aviation cadet at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He batted .275 with seven home runs in 1919 , as Babe Ruth surpassed him as the best power hitter in the American League . The Yankees moved to strengthen their team after the 1919 season , adding Ruth and fellow outfielder Bob Meusel and third baseman Joe Dugan . Between 1920 and 1924 , Pipp had a .301 average , with season averages of 29 doubles , 94 runs scored , and 97 runs batted in ( RBI ) per season . Led by their strong lineup and additions to the pitching staff , such as Waite Hoyt , the Yankees finished in second place in 1920 . Pipp became the cleanup hitter , behind Ruth in the batting order . Pipp hit .296 in 1921 , and the Yankees won the American League pennant . However , they lost the 1921 World Series to the crosstown rival New York Giants of the National League .
On July 26 , 1922 , Pipp bobbled a ball during the fifth inning of a game against the St. Louis Browns . When the Yankees returned to the dugout , Ruth criticized Pipp 's fielding . Pipp attacked Ruth , and the two were separated by teammates . Though Ruth insisted they 'd " settle this after the game " , Ruth and Pipp led the Yankees to a victory with their hitting , and when Pipp approached Ruth after the game , ready to fight , Ruth opted against it . Pipp said this resulted in reduced tension among the Yankees , which he attributed to their improved play from that point forward . Pipp batted .329 in 1922 and the Yankees again won the American League pennant . In a rematch , the Giants again defeated the Yankees in the 1922 World Series . Meanwhile , Pipp scouted Lou Gehrig , who was playing college baseball for Columbia University , and suggested to Miller Huggins , the Yankees ' manager , that he should sign Gehrig . Pipp personally helped develop Gehrig after he signed . Pipp had a strong 1923 season , but he injured his right ankle while stepping off of a train in Boston late in the year . The Yankees used Gehrig , whom they promoted from the minor leagues , to play the Yankees ' final four games . Though Huggins initially thought Pipp would not be able to play in the 1923 World Series , Pipp recovered sufficiently in time to play . The Yankees won the series in six games over the Giants . The Yankees finished in second place in the American League in 1924 , and Pipp led the American league with 114 RBIs and 19 triples .
= = = = 1925 : Removal from the Yankees ' starting lineup = = = =
The Yankees began the 1925 season struggling , and Huggins began to replace players in his lineup in response . Huggins benched starting shortstop Everett Scott on May 6 , replacing him with Pee Wee Wanninger . At the time , Scott had the longest streak of consecutive games played , with 1 @,@ 307 . The Yankees continued to struggle . The Yankees entered play on June 2 on a five @-@ game losing streak . Their 15 – 26 win @-@ loss record had them in seventh place out of the eight teams in the American League , half a game better than the last place team , and 13 1 ⁄ 2 games out of first place in the standings . Before their game against the Washington Senators , Huggins replaced Pipp in the Yankees ' lineup with Gehrig , and benched second baseman Aaron Ward and catcher Wally Schang as well . Pipp was batting .244 with only three home runs and 23 RBIs , and had a .181 batting average over the previous three weeks . This was the first game of Gehrig 's then @-@ record 2 @,@ 130 consecutive games played , which lasted for 14 seasons .
According to the most popular version of the story , Pipp showed up at Yankee Stadium that day with a severe headache , and asked the team 's trainer for two aspirin . Miller Huggins , the Yankees ' manager , noticed this , and said " Wally , take the day off . We 'll try that kid Gehrig at first today and get you back in there tomorrow . " Gehrig played well and became the Yankees ' new starting first baseman . This story first appeared in a 1939 New York World @-@ Telegram on Gehrig 's career , in which Pipp was interviewed . Pipp was later quoted to have said , " I took the two most expensive aspirin in history . "
According to The Pride of the Yankees , the 1942 film about Gehrig 's life , Pipp asked out of the game because he was experiencing double vision from being hit in the head two days prior . By 1953 , Pipp reported to The New York Times that he was taken out of the lineup due to being hit in the head by a pitch thrown by Charlie Caldwell during batting practice . However , while Pipp was hit in the head by a pitch from Caldwell and was hospitalized , this event occurred on July 2 , a month after Pipp 's benching .
The New York Sun reported that the benching was due to Pipp 's struggles against left @-@ handed pitchers , as southpaw George Mogridge was the scheduled starting pitcher for the Senators on June 2 . Other sources suggest Yankee manager Miller Huggins may have actually benched Pipp and other veterans in order to " shake up " the slumping lineup . According to another story , supported by Gehrig 's wife , Pipp was not at the game on June 2 because he was gambling on horse racing at a race track . His son Tom denied this rumor , stating that his father never bet on horses . When interviewed by Sports Illustrated , Pipp 's own children disagreed on the reason for their father 's benching , believing it was either due to Pipp being beaned , or struggling . One of his sons believes that Pipp told Huggins to play Gehrig in his place , as he knew that Gehrig had a future with the Yankees , while he likely did not .
= = = Later career = = =
Ruth had returned to the Yankees ' lineup on June 1 , the day before Pipp , Ward , and Schang were benched . Despite Ruth 's return and the strong play of Gehrig , who batted .295 with 20 home runs and 68 RBIs , the Yankees finished in seventh place . Pipp was hospitalized for a week after being hit in the head by Caldwell on July 2 , and he played sparingly during the remainder of the season . He ended the year with a .230 average , three home runs , and 24 RBIs .
Due to the team 's struggles , Huggins made personnel changes during the offseason . The Yankees attempted to trade Pipp to another American League team , but could not agree on the terms with any team . They put Pipp on waivers , and he was acquired by the Cincinnati Reds of the National League , who reportedly paid the Yankees a greater sum than the $ 7 @,@ 500 waiver price . The Reds , who had not had a strong starting first baseman since Jake Daubert died in 1924 , had attempted to acquire Bill Terry from the Giants , but refused to part with Edd Roush in the transaction , and so acquired Pipp instead . Pipp again attempted to acquire a portion of the purchase price , but was rebuffed .
Pipp played 372 games for the Reds over the next three seasons . In 1926 , he had a .291 batting average , and his 99 RBIs and 15 triples were both fourth @-@ best in the National League . He batted .260 with 41 RBIs in 1927 , and .283 in 1928 .
With first baseman George Kelly also on their roster , the Reds released Pipp before the 1929 season . Pipp signed with the Newark Bears of the International League for the season . He earned $ 40 @,@ 000 that year , more than he made during his major league career . He batted .312 for Newark , and retired after the season .
Pipp played 1 @,@ 872 games . He had three seasons with a .300 + batting average , and two seasons with 100 or more RBI . Pipp had a .281 career batting average . He led both the American and National leagues in fielding percentage . His 226 sacrifices as a Yankee remain a team record . Pipp was the first Yankee to lead the American League in home runs . Due to his famous replacement by Gehrig , players began to say they were " Wally Pipped " when replaced in a lineup , especially if it is due to a minor
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5 , with only two and a half weeks being spent on the acoustic record . Forty tracks were recorded - fifteen of them acoustic - with half of them ending on the final track list . Studio 606 was not finished as the band moved in , and the bandmembers even helped with the final stages of construction , " hammering , stuffing insulation — doing whatever to speed the process . " Eight of the rock songs were last @-@ minute compositions done after the acoustic record was finished , as " Dave started feeling that it was better than the rock record . " The songs were recorded on analog tape — which was reused over and over due to a tape shortage and a desire to save money — before being transferred to Pro Tools for overdubs , editing and mixing . Raskulinecz mixed the rock songs , while Elliot Scheiner mixed the stereo and 5 @.@ 1 versions of the acoustic sides .
The band entered the studio with most of the songs finished and rehearsed ; producer Nick Raskulinecz , who also worked on One by One , stated that while " One By One was very loose , " In Your Honor was more planned out . Dave was more meticulous on that one " . The electric album was done in segments by instrument , starting with the drums and guitars , then vocals , and finally bass . Mendel would write a bass line on Pro Tools at home before showing it to Grohl and Raskulinecz . The bass was recorded after the vocals , which Raskulinecz said was done because " By doing bass last , you can really tailor it for tuning , parts and sound . If you do the drums and then the guitars , you can fill the hole that 's left with bass . And sometimes that hole wants a certain frequency that isn 't traditional for bass , but you have to go with it , which is even more fun . " During the last three weeks of work in the rock songs , the band was in the studio " from noon to eight in the morning , making the rock record the most devastating thing we 've ever done " . After two months working with the rock songs , the band was approaching their established deadline and had a meeting where they decided that to finish the album " Everyone has to be here all day , we need to do one song a day and no one 's leaving until that song is done . " Grohl would listen to a click track , and " we 'd find a tempo and I 'd just roll an arrangement off the top of my head . " As the bandmembers recorded their parts , Grohl would write the lyrics . The rushed approach prevented Mendel from writing bass lines , so he ended up " concentrating on just finding the notes and getting the rhythm right . "
Grohl declared that " making this record revitalized this band " , particularly the acoustic songs , as they " showed ourselves what we 're capable of doing " and " [ made ] things scary again . You do something that you 've never done , and it makes you feel like a bigger band . " The frontman also stated the mellower acoustic disc was an opportunity to use " the acoustic tracks we wrote in the past eight or nine years , but never put on albums because they never seemed to fit " , particularly because Grohl felt that " it 's hard to put an acoustic song in the middle of a rock record , because sometimes it mucks up the sequence . " The tracks include Grohl 's first composition " Friend of a Friend " - done in 1990 , and previously recorded under the pseudonym ' Late ! ' on the cassette Pocketwatch ; " Razor " , which Grohl wrote for a benefit concert at the Wiltern Theater ; and drummer Taylor Hawkins ' composition " Cold Day in the Sun " , which after an attempt to do an electric version became an unplugged track , featuring Hawkins on vocals and tambourine and Grohl in the drums .
While preparing the acoustic album , Grohl decided that he would improve it with guest appearances , and made a list of musicians that he would like to work with , such as Warren Haynes and Grant Hart . The guests that appeared on the record included Norah Jones , John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin fame , and Josh Homme of Queens of the Stone Age . John Paul Jones agreed to appear as he was in Los Angeles for the Grammy Awards , and Grohl described his appearance as the " second @-@ greatest thing to happen to me in my life " behind his marriage . Norah Jones was brought for the bossa nova " Virginia Moon " after Grohl heard her record and considered that his song was " her vibe " and Jones ' voice " was so smooth and warm that I figured it would work out great with mine . " The song features Grohl 's guitar technician Joe Beebe on lead guitar as he was the only one in the crew with jazz experience . The Wallflowers ' keyboard player Rami Jaffee and that dog . ' s violinist Petra Haden also contributed to the album , and were later drafted for the Foo Fighters ' touring band . After the album was finished , Grohl stated that he hoped that the Foo Fighters were most remembered for this record , describing it as " just the most fucking kick @-@ ass thing we 've ever done " , and saying that " If someone asked me which Led Zeppelin album to buy , I would tell them Physical Graffiti , because it has such a wide dynamic and it shows the range that band had . And that 's what we wanted to do with this album . "
= = Composition = =
The double album has a disc of rock songs and another with acoustic ones , which Grohl said demonstrated his artistic freedom - " It 's not one specific genre of music , it 's not one specific style . I 'm just a musician . I can play all these different instruments , I can write a bossa nova , I can write a thrash tune . " He also stated that he tried to fit the Foo Fighters sound even with stylistic differences : " It 's still the same four guys playing it so it just is a Foo Fighters song , whether it sounds like Carcass or fucking Ry Cooder . "
The band tried to do the albums without a " middle ground " sound , with " the acoustic record far more delicate and beautiful and atmospheric " , and " the rock CD far more brutal and aggressive " than their previous work . The arrangements were aiming for complexity : " This record is much more elaborate than just an acoustic guitar and a vocal . And the songs were written to hold more orchestration . We 've never had accordions and pump organs and cellos and stand up bass . " The acoustic guitar sound has influences of Rush guitarist Alex Lifeson , with open notes in conjunction with fretted notes .
The lyrics on the rock album tried to focus on " general themes that everyone can get their hands on " , while the acoustic had introspective lyrics that are " vulnerable and revealing " , with things Grohl " wouldn 't say out loud , wouldn 't even admit to myself . " Grohl declared that " when you 're writing songs that have a sort of anthemic quality , you can 't really go lighthearted and sing about bullshit . You have to dig into a deeper place to find the words " , and that " I don 't know what it is about , this album , that makes it sound more heartfelt or deeper or more emotional , but when I listen to it , it really is . " These include " Friend of a Friend " , a song which Grohl wrote in the 1990s about himself and his former Nirvana bandmate Kurt Cobain during the time they shared an apartment together in 1990 , and " Still " , talking about a suicide Grohl saw when he was ten in Virginia , by a boy who jumped on the train tracks . Much of the album 's theme and content , including the title , came after Grohl spent time on the campaign trail with John Kerry during the 2004 presidential election . " We 'd pull in to small towns , and thousands of people would come to be rescued by this man , " said Grohl . " It 's not a political record , but what I saw inspired me . "
= = Release and promotion = =
The price of the album was just one dollar above what is paid for a regular single @-@ disc CD , as Grohl thought the albums " complemented each other in one package , and I don 't need any more money " . The first 25 @,@ 000 US copies were in a special edition DualDisc set containing a " making of " documentary in the first disc , and the second disc in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound . RCA also issued limited 5 @,@ 000 copies of a quadruple vinyl LP record . Distributor Sony BMG issued the album with the copy protection software MediaMax CD @-@ 3 , which later lead to a scandal as its rootkit @-@ like nature made computers vulnerable to malware .
The promotional campaign included the MTV special 24 Hours of Foo . Lead single " Best of You " was released on May 30 , 2005 , and became the band 's highest @-@ charting single at the main American , British , and Australian charts . Follow @-@ up " DOA " was released in August 22 , after an early debut as a ringtone for Cingular cell phones . Like " Best of You " it proceeded to top Billboard 's Modern Rock Songs chart . " Resolve " and a double A @-@ side of " No Way Back " and " Cold Day in the Sun " were also issued as singles . " No Way Back " was included in the video game Madden NFL 06 .
The release was promoted with the In Your Honor Tour . The tour began in the summer of 2005 , and ran through to June 2006 . It featured two shows per city , an electric one in arenas and an acoustic in smaller venues . The late 2005 concerts included the Foozer tour co @-@ headlined with Weezer . Among the additional band for the acoustic shows was guitarist Pat Smear , who had been in the Foo Fighters from 1995 to 1997 , and followed the In Your Honor Tour with another five years as a touring musician before rejoining as a full @-@ time member for the recording of Wasting Light . The acoustic shows from August 29 , 30 and 31 , 2006 at the Pantages Theater in Los Angeles were turned into the live album Skin and Bones .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album entered the Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart at number two behind Coldplay 's X & Y ( the worldwide best selling album of 2005 ) with the strongest initial sales of their entire career this far — 310 @,@ 500 copies in the United States and 159 @,@ 179 in the UK . In Your Honor also topped the charts in Australia , Finland , New Zealand and Ireland , and reached the top five in Canada , Austria and Denmark .
As of December 2011 , In Your Honor has sold 1 @,@ 442 @,@ 000 units in North America , being their third most successful album behind Foo Fighters and The Colour and the Shape . It was also certified Platinum by the RIAA . The album reached multi @-@ platinum status in Canada , Australia and the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
In Your Honor was generally met with positive reviews . At Metacritic , a website that assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 70 , based on 26 reviews .
Writing for The New York Times , Jon Pareles considered the album " an unexpected magnum opus " , and while Pareles felt that " the rock CD overpowers the acoustic one " , he considered that " among the quieter songs , there are enough supple melodies and hypnotic guitar patterns to suggest fine prospects for a follow @-@ through album " . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly described the discs of In Your Honor as " the outdoors and indoors sides " , with the rockers " pack [ ing ] an intoxicating wallop : 90 @-@ proof rock for 90 @-@ degree weather , they 'll sound terrific blasting from convertibles , open windows , boom boxes , and at barbecues and beach parties " and the acoustic songs " all very pretty — sometimes scarily so " , ultimately concluding that " you 'll probably revisit the rockin ' half more often " . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered that the record " showcases a reinvigorated band that is eager to stretch out and experiment " , with the rock record having a " fluid musicality and a new found sense of drama that gives it a nearly cinematic sense of scope " , and the acoustic album being " quieter , but it also has a similar flow and easy grace that makes it a fitting complement to the harder first record . " Reviewer Joe Gross of Spin described the hard rock disc as " the most consistent rockers of Grohl 's career " and considered that the album as a whole " chronicle [ s ] the physical and mental graffiti of figuring out how to emerge from some very large shadows , including his own , with nerve and power " . While Mike Schiller of PopMatters considered that " In Your Honor has some great tunes , but it is by no means perfect " , he praised the rock songs for " indications of just how loud this band can get " , and regarding the acoustic tracks , wrote that " despite the down @-@ tempo feel , the songs are infectious " .
Some reviewers found In Your Honor overlong and inconsistent . Writing for Rolling Stone , Barry Walters praised the acoustic songs , while considering that In Your Honor " could have been easily pruned down to one disc " , claiming the rock songs besides " Resolve " " strain so hard that the melody gets lost " and went in a " cartoonish headbanging fashion " that " accentuates the band 's self @-@ inflicted one @-@ dimensionality " , and that the " sameness and vagueness of [ Grohl 's ] love lyrics blunt their impact " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club criticized the acoustic disc as " gooey , undercooked , and embarrassingly unpalatable " and " reveal [ ing ] Dave Grohl 's songwriting shortcomings " , but praised the rock songs which are " as loud and assaultive as just about anything Grohl has ever recorded " , and considered that the " first 10 @-@ song set sounds especially tight and ferocious ; it 's not all that diminished by the unfortunate revelations of disc two " . BBC Music reviewer Tanya Byrne found the track list lacking , with " several songs on this double disk that stand head and shoulders above the rest and truly represent how the Foo Fighters have developed " while others " let the album down " and the record ultimately " doesn 't live up to the hype . " Bram Teitelman of Billboard felt that " by isolating the electric and acoustic sides , the concept comes off as repetitious " and ultimately concluding that " by scaling back their ambitions , the Foos could have made one great album instead of two average ones . " Pitchfork Media 's Amanda Petrusich described the record as " sterile and controlled " , the double disc conceit as " heavy handed , the segregation too deliberate " and the rock songs as repetitive . Edna Gundersen of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and said , " Though its most smartly crafted tunes and liveliest performances don 't measure up to the band 's finest , Honor is an honorable effort , full of the brawn and vigor that keeps the Foos in fighting shape . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The album was up to five Grammy Awards at the 48th Grammy Awards : Best Rock Album , Best Surround Sound Album , both Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for " Best of You " , and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for " Virginia Moon " . It ultimately lost all awards , the band 's first album since The Colour and the Shape to not receive a Grammy . Kerrang ! ranked In Your Honor as the 9th best album of 2005 , while Rolling Stone put it as 30th best .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Grohl , Taylor Hawkins , Nate Mendel and Chris Shiflett except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= = = Singles charts = = =
A ^ Charted only on the Belgian combined sales and airplay chart ( Ultratip )
= Cú Chulainn =
Cú Chulainn , also spelt Cú Chulaind or Cúchulainn ( [ kuːˈxʊlˠɪnʲ ] ; Irish for " Culann 's Hound " ) and sometimes known in English as Cuhullin / kəˈhʊlᵻn / , is an Irish mythological hero who appears in the stories of the Ulster Cycle , as well as in Scottish and Manx folklore . He is believed to be an incarnation of the god Lugh , who is also his father . His mother is the mortal Deichtine , sister of Conchobar mac Nessa .
Born Sétanta , he gained his better @-@ known name as a child , after killing Culann 's fierce guard @-@ dog in self @-@ defence and offered to take its place until a replacement could be reared . At the age of seventeen he defended Ulster single @-@ handedly against the armies of queen Medb of Connacht in the famous Táin Bó Cúailnge ( " Cattle Raid of Cooley " ) . It was prophesied that his great deeds would give him everlasting fame , but his life would be a short one . He is known for his terrifying battle frenzy , or ríastrad ( translated by Thomas Kinsella as " warp spasm " and by Ciaran Carson as " torque " ) , in which he becomes an unrecognisable monster who knows neither friend nor foe . He fights from his chariot , driven by his loyal charioteer Láeg and drawn by his horses , Liath Macha and Dub Sainglend . In more modern times , Cú Chulainn is often referred to as the " Hound of Ulster " .
Cú Chulainn shows striking similarities to the legendary Persian hero Rostam , as well as to the Germanic Lay of Hildebrand and the labours of the Greek epic hero Heracles , suggesting a common Indo @-@ European origin , but lacking in linguistic , anthropological and archaeological material .
= = Legends = =
= = = Birth = = =
There are a number of versions of the story of Cú Chulainn 's miraculous birth . In the earliest version of Compert C ( h ) on Culainn ( " The Conception of Cú Chulainn " ) , his mother Deichtine is the daughter and charioteer of Conchobar mac Nessa , king of Ulster , and accompanies him as he and the nobles of Ulster hunt a flock of magical birds . As snow begins to fall , Ulstermen seek shelter in a nearby house . As the host 's wife goes into labour , Deichtine assists in the birth of a baby boy . While a mare gives birth to twin colts . The next morning , the Ulstermen find themselves at the Brug na Bóinde ( the Neolithic mound at Newgrange ) — the house and its occupants have disappeared , but the child and the colts remain . Deichtine takes the boy home and begins raising him as her own , but the boy falls ill and dies . The god Lug appears to her and tells her he was their host that night , and that he has put his child in her womb , who is to be called Sétanta . Her pregnancy turns into a scandal as she is betrothed to Sualtam mac Róich , and the Ulstermen suspect Conchobar of being the father , so she aborts the child and goes to her husband 's bed " virgin @-@ whole " . She then conceives a son whom she names Sétanta .
In the later and better @-@ known version of Compert Con Culainn , Deichtine is Conchobar 's sister , and disappears from Emain Macha , the Ulster capital . As in the previous version , the Ulstermen go hunting a flock of magical birds , are overtaken by a snowstorm and seek shelter in a nearby house . Their host is Lug , but this time his wife , who gives birth to a son that night , is Deichtine herself . The child is named Sétanta .
The nobles of Ulster argue over which of them is to be his foster @-@ father , until the wise Morann decides he should be fostered by several of them : Conchobar himself ; Sencha mac Ailella , who will teach him judgement and eloquent speech ; the wealthy Blaí Briugu , who will protect and provide for him ; the noble warrior Fergus mac Róich , who will care for him and teach him to protect the weak ; the poet Amergin , who will educate him , and his wife Findchóem , who will nurse him . He is brought up in the house of Amergin and Findchóem on Muirthemne Plain in modern County Louth ( at the time part of Ulster ) , alongside their son Conall Cernach .
The County Louth town of Dundalk has the motto Mé do rug Cú Chulainn cróga ( Irish ) " I gave birth to brave Cú Chulainn " .
= = = Childhood = = =
The stories of Cú Chulainn 's childhood are told in a flashback sequence in Táin Bó Cúailnge . As a small child , living in his parents ' house on Muirthemne Plain , he begs to be allowed to join the boy @-@ troop at Emain Macha . However , he sets off on his own , and when he arrives at Emain he runs onto the playing field without first asking for the boys ' protection , being unaware of the custom . The boys take this as a challenge and attack him , but he has a ríastrad and beats them single @-@ handed . Conchobar puts a stop to the fight and clears up the misunderstanding , but no sooner has Sétanta put himself under the boys ' protection than he chases after them , demanding they put themselves under his protection .
Culann the smith invites Conchobar to a feast at his house . Before going , Conchobar goes to the playing field to watch the boys play hurling . He is so impressed by Sétanta 's performance that he asks him to join him at the feast . Sétanta has a game to finish , but promises to follow the king later . But Conchobar forgets , and Culann lets loose his ferocious hound to protect his house . When Sétanta arrives , the enormous hound attacks him , but he kills it in self @-@ defence , in one version by smashing it against a standing stone , and in another by driving a sliotar ( hurling ball ) down its throat with his hurley . Culann is devastated by the loss of his hound , so Sétanta promises he will rear him a replacement , and until it is old enough to do the job , he himself will guard Culann 's house . The druid Cathbad announces that his name henceforth will be Cú Chulainn — " Culann 's Hound " .
One day at Emain Macha , Cú Chulainn overhears Cathbad teaching his pupils . One asks him what that day is auspicious for , and Cathbad replies that any warrior who takes arms that day will have everlasting fame . Cú Chulainn , though only seven years old , goes to Conchobar and asks for arms . None of the weapons given to him withstand his strength , until Conchobar gives him his own weapons . But when Cathbad sees this he grieves , because he had not finished his prophecy — the warrior who took arms that day would be famous , but his life would be short . Soon afterwards , in response to a similar prophecy by Cathbad , Cú Chulainn demands a chariot from Conchobar , and only the king 's own chariot withstands him . He sets off on a foray and kills the three sons of Nechtan Scéne , who had boasted they had killed more Ulstermen than there were Ulstermen still living . He returns to Emain Macha in his battle frenzy , and the Ulstermen are afraid he will slaughter them all . Conchobar 's wife Mugain leads out the women of Emain , and they bare their breasts to him . He averts his eyes , and the Ulstermen wrestle him into a barrel of cold water , which explodes from the heat of his body . They put him in a second barrel , which boils , and a third , which warms to a pleasant temperature .
= = = Emer and Cú Chulainn 's training = = =
In Cú Chulainn 's youth he is so beautiful the Ulstermen worry that , without a wife of his own , he will steal their wives and ruin their daughters . They search all over Ireland for a suitable wife for him , but he will have none but Emer , daughter of Forgall Monach . However , Forgall is opposed to the match . He suggests that Cú Chulainn should train in arms with the renowned warrior @-@ woman Scáthach in the land of Alba ( Scotland ) , hoping the ordeal will be too much for him and he will be killed . Cú Chulainn takes up the challenge , travelling to her residence Dún Scáith ( Fortress of Shadows ) on the Isle of Skye . In the meantime , Forgall offers Emer to Lugaid mac Nóis , a king of Munster , but when he hears that Emer loves Cú Chulainn , Lugaid refuses her hand .
Scáthach teaches Cú Chulainn all the arts of war , including the use of the Gáe Bulg , a terrible barbed spear , thrown with the foot , that has to be cut out of its victim . His fellow trainees include Ferdiad , who becomes Cú Chulainn 's best friend and foster @-@ brother . During his time there , Scáthach faces a battle against Aífe , her rival and in some versions her twin sister . Scáthach , knowing Aífe 's prowess , fears for Cú Chulainn 's life and gives him a powerful sleeping potion to keep him from the battle . However , because of Cú Chulainn 's great strength , it only puts him to sleep for an hour , and he soon joins the fray . He fights Aífe in single combat , and the two are evenly matched , but Cú Chulainn distracts her by calling out that Aífe 's horses and chariot , the things she values most in the world , have fallen off a cliff , and seizes her . With his sword at her throat , he agrees to spare her life on the condition that she call off her enmity with Scáthach , and bear him a son .
Leaving Aífe pregnant , Cú Chulainn returns from Scotland fully trained , but Forgall still refuses to let him marry Emer . Cú Chulainn storms Forgall 's fortress , killing twenty @-@ four of Forgall 's men , abducts Emer and steals Forgall 's treasure . Forgall himself falls from the ramparts to his death . Conchobar has the " right of the first night " over all marriages of his subjects . He is afraid of Cú Chulainn 's reaction if he exercises it in this case , but is equally afraid of losing his authority if he does not . Cathbad suggests a solution : Conchobar sleeps with Emer on the night of the wedding , but Cathbad sleeps between them .
= = = Cú Chulainn kills his son = = =
Eight years later , Connla , Cú Chulainn 's son by Aífe , comes to Ireland in search of his father , but Cú Chulainn takes him as an intruder and kills him when he refuses to identify himself . Connla 's last words to his father as he dies are that they would have " carried the flag of Ulster to the gates of Rome and beyond " , leaving Cú Chulainn grief @-@ stricken . The story of Cú Chulainn and Connla shows a striking similarity to the legend of Persian hero Rostam who also kills his son Sohrab . Rostam and Cú Chulainn share several other characteristics , including killing a ferocious beast at a very young age , their near invincibility in battle , and the manner of their deaths . Another similar myth is found in the Hildebrandslied , in which Hildebrand kills his son , Hadubrand .
= = = Lugaid and Derbforgaill = = =
During his time abroad , Cú Chulainn had rescued Derbforgaill , a Scandinavian princess , from being sacrificed to the Fomorians . She falls in love with him , and she and her handmaid come to Ireland in search of him in the form of a pair of swans . Cú Chulainn , not realising who she is , shoots her down with his sling , and then saves her life by sucking the stone from her side . Having tasted her blood , he cannot marry her , and gives her to his foster @-@ son Lugaid Riab nDerg . Lugaid goes on to become High King of Ireland , but the Lia Fáil ( stone of destiny ) , fails to cry out when he stands on it , so Cú Chulainn splits it in two with his sword . When Derbforgaill is mutilated by the women of Ulster out of jealousy for her sexual desirability and dies of her wounds , Lugaid dies of grief , and Cú Chulainn avenges them by demolishing the house the women are inside
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Kansas City , Missouri , and then continued west to Denver , Salt Lake City , and Garden City . On September 10 , the Breeders started a short Pacific Coast stretch , performing in Seattle , Portland , and San Francisco . These shows were followed by the inland cities Las Vegas and Phoenix , then San Diego , California , leading up to their concert on September 18 at the Hollywood Bowl with Neutral Milk Hotel and Daniel Johnston . Following the Hollywood concert , the Breeders finished their tour at the Goose Island 312 Urban Block Dance Party event in Chicago on September 20 , with groups such as Unknown Mortal Orchestra and Thao & The Get Down Stay Down .
In addition to the four new compositions " Simone " , " Skinhead Number 2 " , " All Nerve " , and " Launched " , the Breeders performed many songs from their albums Pod and Last Splash . These included " Saints " , " Hag " , " SOS " , " New Year " , " Cannonball " , " No Aloha " , and " Divine Hammer " from Last Splash , as well as " Doe " , " Limehouse " , " Hellbound " , and " Iris " from Pod . They also played " Off You " from Title TK and the title track from the Safari EP . Another composition they performed was " Walking with a Killer " , which had originally been released — with the B @-@ side " Dirty Hessians " — as the first in a series of solo 7 " singles by Kim Deal , and which the Breeders had also played in 2013 on their LSXX Tour .
The Breeders ' performances on their 2014 tour were generally well received by critics . Regarding their September 3 performance in Kansas City , Danny Phillips of Blurt magazine wrote that the Breeders " like wine , seem to improve with age " , commenting that " everything [ was ] perfect " about the show ; The Kansas City Star 's Timothy Finn likewise summed the night up as " an evening that exceeded its promise " . Tim Hinely , also of Blurt , wrote that in Denver two nights later , the Breeders did " not [ play ] a classic set by any stretch , but it was fun and hardly any of the set slipped into boring noodling " . In Portland on September 11 , 94 / 7 's Yume Delegato heard the group 's performance as " delightfully raw and [ having ] a great deal of heart " but felt that some of the new songs " fell flat " . Critic Lissa Townsend Rodgers of Vegas Seven magazine praised the band 's " knockout punch " performance of the songs " New Year " and the " irresistibly throbbing ... ' Cannonball ' " at their Las Vegas concert on September 16 ; Leslie Ventura of Las Vegas Weekly also liked the show , and described their overall performance as " decisive " . Critic Alex Packard of Listensd.com , who attended the September 17 concert in San Diego , opined that the Breeders " deliver [ ed ] the classics like they wrote them yesterday and new material in no less of a moving way " . For their September 18 show at Hollywood Bowl , reviewer Keith Plocek of LA Weekly felt that the group played a set of " solid tunes " , while Consequence of Sound 's Philip Cosores rated a few of the songs as " pretty @-@ perfect @-@ sounding renditions " , and commented that Kim Deal 's " rock and roll soul is still as strong as ever " .
= = Dates = =
= Émile Lemoine =
Émile Michel Hyacinthe Lemoine ( French : [ emil ləmwan ] ; 1840 – 1912 ) was a French civil engineer and a mathematician , a geometer in particular . He was educated at a variety of institutions , including the Prytanée National Militaire and , most notably , the École Polytechnique . Lemoine taught as a private tutor for a short period after his graduation from the latter school .
Lemoine is best known for his proof of the existence of the Lemoine point ( or the symmedian point ) of a triangle . Other mathematical work includes a system he called Géométrographie and a method which related algebraic expressions to geometric objects . He has been called a co @-@ founder of modern triangle geometry , as many of its characteristics are present in his work .
For most of his life , Lemoine was a professor of mathematics at the École Polytechnique . In later years , he worked as a civil engineer in Paris , and he also took an amateur 's interest in music . During his tenure at the École Polytechnique and as a civil engineer , Lemoine published several papers on mathematics , most of which are included in a fourteen @-@ page section in Nathan Altshiller Court 's College Geometry . Additionally , he founded a mathematical journal titled , L 'Intermédiaire des Mathématiciens .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years ( 1840 – 1869 ) = = =
Lemoine was born in Quimper , Finistère , on 22 November 1840 , the son of a retired military captain who had participated in the campaigns of the First French Empire occurring after 1807 . As a child , he attended the military Prytanée of La Flèche on a scholarship granted because his father had helped found the school . During this early period , he published a journal article in Nouvelles annales de mathématiques , discussing properties of the triangle .
Lemoine was accepted into the École Polytechnique in Paris at the age of twenty , the same year as his father 's death . As a student there , Lemoine , a presumed trumpet player , helped to found an amateur musical group called La Trompette , for which Camille Saint @-@ Saëns composed several pieces . After graduation in 1866 , he considered a career in law , but was discouraged by the fact that his advocacy for republican ideology and liberal religious views clashed with the ideals of the incumbent government , the Second French Empire . Instead , he studied and taught at various institutions during this period , studying under J. Kiœs at the École d 'Architecture and the École des Mines , teaching Uwe Jannsen at the same schools , and studying under Charles @-@ Adolphe Wurtz at the École des Beaux Arts and the École de Médecine . Lemoine also lectured at various scientific institutions in Paris and taught as a private tutor for a period before accepting an appointment as a professor at the École Polytechnique .
= = = Middle years ( 1870 – 1887 ) = = =
In 1870 , a laryngeal disease forced him to discontinue his teaching . He took a brief vacation in Grenoble and , when he returned to Paris , he published some of his remaining mathematical research . He also participated and founded several scientific societies and journals , such as the Société Mathématique de France , the Journal de Physique , and the Société de Physique , all in 1871 .
As a founding member of the Association Française pour l 'Avancement des Sciences , Lemoine presented what became his best @-@ known paper , Note sur les propriétés du centre des médianes antiparallèles dans un triangle at the Association 's 1874 meeting in Lille . The central focus of this paper concerned the point which bears his name today . Most of the other results discussed in the paper pertained to various concyclic points that could be constructed from the Lemoine point .
Lemoine served in the French military for a time in the years following the publishing of his best @-@ known papers . Discharged during the Commune , he afterwards became a civil engineer in Paris . In this career , he rose to the rank of chief inspector , a position he held until 1896 . As the chief inspector , he was responsible for the gas supply of the city .
= = = Later years ( 1888 – 1912 ) = = =
During his tenure as a civil engineer , Lemoine wrote a treatise concerning compass and straightedge constructions entitled , La Géométrographie ou l 'art des constructions géométriques , which he considered his greatest work , despite the fact that it was not well @-@ received critically . The original title was De la mesure de la simplicité dans les sciences mathématiques , and the original idea for the text would have discussed the concepts Lemoine devised as concerning the entirety of mathematics . Time constraints , however , limited the scope of the paper . Instead of the original idea , Lemoine proposed a simplification of the construction process to a number of basic operations with the compass and straightedge . He presented this paper at a meeting of the Association Française in Oran , Algeria in 1888 . The paper , however , did not garner much enthusiasm or interest among the mathematicians gathered there . Lemoine published several other papers on his construction system that same year , including Sur la mesure de la simplicité dans les constructions géométriques in the Comptes rendus of the Académie française . He published additional papers on the subject in Mathesis ( 1888 ) , Journal des mathématiques élémentaires ( 1889 ) , Nouvelles annales de mathématiques ( 1892 ) , and the self @-@ published La Géométrographie ou l 'art des constructions géométriques , which was presented at the meeting of the Association Française in Pau ( 1892 ) , and again at Besançon ( 1893 ) and Caen ( 1894 ) .
After this , Lemoine published another series of papers , including a series on what he called transformation continue ( continuous transformation ) , which related mathematical equations to geometrical objects . This meaning stood separately from the modern definition of transformation . His papers on this subject included , Sur les transformations systématiques des formules relatives au triangle ( 1891 ) , Étude sur une nouvelle transformation continue ( 1891 ) , Une règle d 'analogies dans le triangle et la spécification de certaines analogies à une transformation dite transformation continue ( 1893 ) , and Applications au tétraèdre de la transformation continue ( 1894 ) .
In 1894 , Lemoine co @-@ founded another mathematical journal entitled , L 'intermédiaire des mathématiciens along with Charles Laisant , a friend whom he met at the École Polytechnique . Lemoine had been planning such a journal since early 1893 , but thought that he would be too busy to create it . At a dinner with Laisant in March 1893 , he suggested the idea of the journal . Laisant cajoled him to create the journal , and so they approached the publisher Gauthier @-@ Villars , which published the first issue in January 1894 . Lemoine served as the journal 's first editor , and held the position for several years . The year after the journal 's initial publication , he retired from mathematical research , but continued to support the subject . Lemoine died on 21 February 1912 in his home city of Paris .
= = Contributions = =
Lemoine 's work has been said to contribute towards laying the foundation of modern triangle geometry . The American Mathematical Monthly , in which much of Lemoine 's work is published , declared that " To none of these [ geometers ] more than Émile @-@ Michel @-@ Hyacinthe Lemoine is due the honor of starting this movement [ of modern triangle geometry ] ... " At the annual meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1902 , Lemoine received the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ franc Francœur prize , which he held for several years .
= = = Lemoine point and circle = = =
In his 1874 paper , entitled Note sur les propriétés du centre des médianes antiparallèles dans un triangle , Lemoine proved the concurrency of the symmedians of a triangle ; the reflections of the medians of the triangle over the angle bisectors . Other results in the paper included the idea that the symmedian from a vertex of the triangle divides the opposite side into segments whose ratio is equal to the ratio of the squares of the other two sides .
Lemoine also proved that if lines are drawn through the Lemoine point parallel to the sides of the triangle , then the six points of intersection of the lines and the sides of the triangle are concyclic , or that they lie on a circle . This circle is now known as the first Lemoine circle , or simply the Lemoine circle .
= = = Construction system = = =
Lemoine 's system of constructions , the Géométrographie , attempted to create a methodological system by which constructions could be judged . This system enabled a more direct process for simplifying existing constructions . In his description , he listed five main operations : placing a compass 's end on a given point , placing it on a given line , drawing a circle with the compass placed upon the aforementioned point or line , placing a straightedge on a given line , and extending the line with the straightedge .
The " simplicity " of a construction could be measured by the number of its operations . In his paper , he discussed as an example the Apollonius problem originally posed by Apollonius of Perga during the Hellenistic period ; the method of constructing a circle tangent to three given circles . The problem had already been solved by Joseph Diaz Gergonne in 1816 with a construction of simplicity 400 , but Lemoine 's presented solution had simplicity 154 . Simpler solutions such as those by Frederick Soddy in 1936 and by David Eppstein in 2001 are now known to exist .
= = = Lemoine 's conjecture and extensions = = =
In 1894 , Lemoine stated what is now known as Lemoine 's conjecture : Every odd number which is greater than three can be expressed in the form 2p + q where p and q are prime . In 1985 , John Kiltinen and Peter Young conjectured an extension of the conjecture which they called the " refined Lemoine conjecture " . They published the conjecture in a journal of the Mathematical Association of America : " For any odd number m which is at least 9 , there are odd prime numbers p , q , r and s and positive integers j and k such that m
= 2p + q , 2 + pq =
2j + r and 2q + p = 2k + s . [ ... ] the study has directed our attention to more subtle aspects of
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skiing as " Impairment in one entire lower limb ( leg ) involving pelvis and structures distal " in 2012 .
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing Technical Committee . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this sport class , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = Equipment = =
In para @-@ Alpine , skiers in this classification compete with one skis and two ski poles . The para @-@ Alpine ski configuration is sometimes called a 3 track . FIS rules for para @-@ Alpine ski boots and binding heights are modified for this class from rules applied to able bodied competitor 's equipment . In para @-@ Nordic , skiers compete with two skis and two poles . Skiers use skis that would be slightly longer than if they were able bodied . Skiers in this classification may use outriggers . Outriggers are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base , and are fitted for the skier based the height of the skier 's hip joint when the skier is standing . In the biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
One of the para @-@ Alpine skiing techniques used by this class is called the three track method , and was developed as part of the American Training System . One of the first skills learned using this technique is how to walk with the ski so the skier can learn how to flex the ankle , knee and hip . This allows the skier to determine their centre of gravity . The skier is then taught how hop turn in order to understand arm and leg coordination while on skis . This technique is only used while stationary and is not a competition skill . The skier next learns how to fall down and get back up again . The next skill learned is climbing gentle terrain , followed by learning to go down a straight run and learning to stop . After this , the skier learns how to get on and off a ski lift . This is followed by learning how to traverse the fall line , which teaches the skier how to maintain the ski edge . Other skills are then taught including the Uphill Christie , beginning turns , parallel turns , short swings and moguls .
When falling , skiers in this class with above the knee amputations are taught to try to prevent the stump of their leg from hitting the snow as it can cause more damage to that leg than the one that is not partially missing . When working on side stepping , the skier is supported to keep the stump of their leg on the uphill side . Elite skiers are taught to avoid using outriggers as crutches . Skiers are taught to turn using their leg instead of their ski poles . Skiers in this class can use the outrigger to assist in maintaining their balance as they turn on the hill . A skier with an above the knee amputation may have a better ability to complete turns on the opposite of their amputation . In getting on ski lifts , skiers with above the knee amputations in this classification should lift their outriggers off the ground and point them forward .
When using the outrigger , skiers do not rotate their arms as this changes the location of the ski on the snow . Outriggers are used to stop using a technique that involves bringing the skiers elbows from their raised position down to their hips while pushing the outriggers down .
In the biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 91 % and percentage for free was 86 @-@ 91 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 91 @-@ 93 % for classic and 86 @-@ 91 % for the free technique . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 91 @-@ 93 % for classic and 86 @-@ 91 % for free . For para @-@ Alpine skiers , during the 2005 / 2006 season , the giant slalom had a factor of 0 @.@ 9184362 and men 's slalom had a factor of 1 @.@ 000 . The factoring for LW2 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 1 for slalom , 0 @.@ 9211 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 9243 for super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9426 for downhill .
In disability skiing events , sometimes this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , super @-@ G and super combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last .
For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . During competition , the para @-@ Alpine skier cannot use a limb not in a ski for competitive advantage to gain speed or keep balance by putting it in the snow . If they do so , they rules state they will be disqualified from the event .
Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 to 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had four skiers in LW2 who had an injury while skiing . One injury occurred in 1996 and was an " injury of the Plexus brachialis . " In 1998 at the Winter Paralympics , LW2 skier , Alexander Spitz , broke his leg in the downhill event . In 2000 , a skier had a " distorsion of the plexus brachialis and anterior luxation of the shoulder " . In 2001 , a skier had a " fracture shoulder tuberculum majus and anterior luxation " . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .
= = Events = =
This classification has been included in a number of medal events at major competitions since the 1980s . It was sometimes later grouped with other classes for medal events . At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and giant slalom , where it was not grouped with others for medal events for men and women . At the 1988 World Winter Games for the Disabled , disciplines represented included slalom , and the classification was not grouped with others for medal events for women . At the 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships , LW2 skiers were in their own medal events . At the 1992 Winter Paralympics , this classification was eligible for the slalom and super @-@ G events . At the 1994 Winter Paralympics , events for this classification included the giant slalom , downhill , super @-@ G and slalom .
At the 2002 Winter Paralympics , disciplines for this classification were eligible for included the downhill , giant slalom , slalom and super @-@ G. At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's giant slalom , giant slalom , super @-@ G , and downhill events , and women 's slalom , super @-@ G , and downhill events . Two years later , at the 2004 World Championships , LW2 women had their own medal events in para @-@ Alpine for events including the downhill . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2006 Winter Paralympics , events for this classification included the downhill and super @-@ G. At the 2009 World Championships , this classification was grouped with other standing classes , with 3 of the 10 female skiers in the standing downhill event were from this class and the highest placed female finishing fifth . In the men 's standing downhill , there were nine skiers from this class .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include Australians Michael Milton , Toby Kane and Cameron Rahles Rahbula , American Allison Jones , and 1990 World Championships New Zealand competitor Lorraine Te Punga .
= Val Logsdon Fitch =
Val Logsdon Fitch ( March 10 , 1923 – February 5 , 2015 ) was an American nuclear physicist who , with co @-@ researcher James Cronin , was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics for a 1964 experiment using the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory that proved that certain subatomic reactions do not adhere to fundamental symmetry principles . Specifically , they proved , by examining the decay of K @-@ mesons , that a reaction run in reverse does not retrace the path of the original reaction , which showed that the reactions of subatomic particles are not indifferent to time . Thus the phenomenon of CP violation was discovered . This demolished the faith that physicists had that natural laws were governed by symmetry .
Born on a cattle ranch near Merriman , Nebraska , Fitch was drafted into the U.S. Army during World War II , and worked on the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico . He later graduated from McGill University , and completed his Ph.D. in physics in 1954 at Columbia University . He was a member of the faculty at Princeton University from 1954 until his retirement in 2005 .
= = Early life = =
Val Logsdon Fitch was born on a cattle ranch near Merriman , Nebraska , on March 10 , 1923 , the youngest of three children of Fred Fitch , a cattle rancher , and his wife Frances née Logsdon , a school teacher . He had an older brother and sister . The family farm was about 4 square miles ( 10 km2 ) in size , and was about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the site of the Wounded Knee Massacre . The ranch was a small one ; his father specialized in raising breeding stock . Soon after his birth , his father was badly injured in a horse riding accident and could no longer work on his ranch , so the family moved to the nearby town of Gordon , Nebraska , where his father entered the insurance business . It was here that he attended school , graduating from Gordon High School in 1940 as valedictorian .
= = Manhattan Project = =
Fitch attended Chadron State College for three years , then transferred to Northwestern University ; but this was during World War II , and his studies were interrupted by being drafted into the U.S. Army in 1943 . After he had completed basic training , the Army sent him to Carnegie Institute of Technology for training under the Army Specialized Training Program . Under this program , some 200 @,@ 000 soldiers attended colleges for intensive courses . Fitch was in the program for less than a year before the manpower requirements of the war became too great , and the Army terminated the program . Most of the soldiers in the ASTP were posted to combat units , but Fitch was one of a hundred or so ASTP soldiers who joined the Special Engineer Detachment ( SED ) , which provided much @-@ needed technicians to the Manhattan Project .
The Army sent Fitch to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico . By mid @-@ 1944 , about a third of the technicians at Los Alamos were from the SED . While there , he met many of the greats of physics including Niels Bohr , James Chadwick , Enrico Fermi , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Bruno Rossi , Emilio Segrè , Edward Teller and Richard C. Tolman , in some cases attending courses on physics taught by them . He worked in the group headed by Ernest Titterton , a member of the British Mission , and became well @-@ acquainted with the techniques of experimental physics . He participated in the drop testing of mock atomic bombs that was conducted at Wendover Army Air Field and the Salton Sea Naval Auxiliary Air Station , and worked at the Trinity site , where he witnessed the Trinity nuclear test on July 16 , 1945 . He was discharged from the Army in 1946 , but continued to work at Los Alamos as a civilian for another year in order to earn some money . He would briefly return to Los Alamos in 1948 .
= = Academic career = =
His wartime experiences led Fitch to decide to become a physicist . Robert Bacher , the head of the physics division at Los Alamos , offered him a graduate assistantship at Cornell University , but first he needed to complete his undergraduate degree . Rather than return to Northwestern or Carnegie Mellon , he elected to enter McGill University , which Titterton had recommended . Fitch graduated from McGill with a bachelor 's degree in electrical engineering in 1948 . On the advice of Jerry Kellogg , who had been a student of Rabi 's at Columbia University , and was a division head at the Los Alamos , Fitch decided to pursue his doctoral studies at Columbia . Kellogg wrote him a letter of introduction to Rabi . James Rainwater became his academic supervisor . Rainwater gave him a paper by John Wheeler concerning mu @-@ mesic atoms , atoms in which an electron is replaced by a muon . These had never been observed ; they were completely theoretical and there was no evidence that they existed , but it made a good thesis topic .
Fitch designed and built an experiment to measure the gamma rays emitted from mu @-@ mesic atoms . As it turned out , this was a good time to search for them . Columbia had recently commissioned a cyclotron at the Nevis Laboratories that could produce muons ; Robert Hofstadter had developed the thallium @-@ activated sodium iodide gamma ray detector ; and wartime advances in electronics yielded advances in components such as new phototubes needed to bring it all together . Initially nothing was found , but Rainwater suggested expanding the search beyond the energy range predicted by Wheeler on the basis of the then @-@ accepted size of the radius of the atomic nucleus as around 1 @.@ 4 × 10 − 15 m . When this was done , they found what they had been looking for , discovering in the process that the nucleus was closer to 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 15 m . He completed his Ph.D. in 1954 , writing his thesis on " Studies of X @-@ rays from mu @-@ mesonic atoms " . The thesis was published in the Physical Review in November 1953 .
In 1949 , Fitch married Elise Cunningham , a secretary who worked in the laboratory at Columbia . They had two sons . Elise died in 1972 , and in 1976 he married Daisy Harper Sharp , thereby acquiring two stepdaughters and a stepson . After obtaining his doctorate , Fitch 's interest shifted to strange particles and K mesons . He took a position at Princeton University , where he spent the rest of his career . He became a professor in 1960 , Fogg Brackett Professor in 1976 , and McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Physics in 1987 , retaining this position until his retirement in 2005 . He was chair of the Physics Department from 1976 to 1981 .
Fitch conducted much of his research at the Brookhaven National Laboratory , where he became acquainted with James Cronin . The two of them played bridge at nights while they waited for the Cosmotron to become available . Cronin had built a new kind of detector , a spark chamber spectrometer , and Fitch realized that it would be perfect for experiments with K mesons ( now known as kaons ) , which Yale University physicist Robert Adair had suggested had interesting properties worth investigating . They could decay into either matter or antimatter . Along with two colleagues , James Christenson and René Turlay , they set up their experiment on the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven . They discovered an unexpected result . The decay of neutral K mesons did not respect CP symmetry . K mesons that decayed into positrons did so faster than those that decayed into electrons . The importance of this result was not immediately appreciated ; but as evidence of the Big Bang accumulated , Andrei Sakharov realized in 1967 that it explained why the universe is largely made of matter and not antimatter . Put simply , they had found " the answer to the physicist ’ s ' Why do we exist ? ' " For this discovery , Fitch and Cronin received the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics .
In addition to the Nobel Prize , Fitch received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award in 1968 , the John Price Wetherill Medal in 1976 and the National Medal of Science in 1993 . He was a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and the JASON defense advisory group . He was president of the American Physical Society from 1988 to 1989 , and he served on a number of governmental science and science policy committees , including the President 's Science Advisory Committee from 1970 to 1973 . He died at his home in Princeton , New Jersey , at the age of 91 on February 5 , 2015 .
= = Publications = =
Fitch , V. " Some Notes on Wideband Feedback Amplifiers " , Los Alamos National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( March 16 , 1949 ) .
Fitch , V. " A High Resolution Scale @-@ of @-@ four " , Columbia University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 25 , 1949 ) .
Fitch , V. L. " CP Violation , Neutral Currents , and Weak Equivalence " , Princeton University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( March 23 , 1972 ) .
Cester , R. ; Fitch , V. L. ; Montag , A. ; Sherman , S. ; Webb , R. C. & M. S. Witherell . " Results on the Performance of a Broad Band Focussing Cherenkov Counter " , Princeton University , United States Department of Energy , ( 1980 ) .
= Nico Ditch =
Nico Ditch ( occasionally Mickle Ditch or Nikker ) is a linear earthwork , six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) long , running between Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Stretford in Greater Manchester , England . It may have been dug as a defensive fortification , or possibly a boundary marker . It was constructed some time between the 5th and 11th centuries AD .
The ditch is still visible in short sections , such as a 330 @-@ yard stretch in Denton Golf Course . In the parts which survive , the ditch is 4 – 5 yards wide and up to 5 feet deep . Part of the earthwork is protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = Course = =
Nico Ditch stretches six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Ashton Moss ( grid reference SJ909980 ) in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne to Hough Moss ( grid reference SJ82819491 ) , just east of Stretford . It passes through Denton , Reddish , Gorton , Levenshulme , Burnage , Rusholme , Platt Fields Park in Fallowfield , Withington and Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy , crossing four metropolitan boroughs of present @-@ day Greater Manchester . The ditch coincides with the boundaries between the boroughs of Stockport and Manchester , and between Tameside and Manchester as far as Denton golf course . A section is now beneath the Audenshaw Reservoirs , which were built towards the end of the 19th century . The ditch may have extended west beyond Stretford , to Urmston ( grid reference SJ78299504 ) .
= = History = =
Nico Ditch was constructed some time between the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century and the Norman conquest in 1066 . Its original purpose is unclear , but it may have been used as a defensive fortification or as an administrative boundary . It possibly marked a 7th @-@ century boundary for the expansionist Anglo @-@ Saxons , or it may have been a late 8th or early 9th century boundary marker between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria . In the early medieval period , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia and Wessex struggled for control over North West England , along with the Britons and the Danes . Whatever its earlier use , the ditch has been used as a boundary since at least the Middle Ages .
Legend has it that Nico Ditch was completed in a single night by the inhabitants of Manchester , as a protection against Viking invaders in 869 – 870 ; Manchester may have been sacked by the Danes in 870 . It was said that each man had an allocated area to construct , and was required to dig his section of the ditch and build a bank equal to his own height . According to 19th century folklore , the ditch was the site of a battle between Saxons and Danes ; the battle was supposed to have given the nearby towns of Gorton and Reddish their names , from " Gore Town " and " Red @-@ Ditch " , but the idea has been dismissed by historians as a " popular fancy " . The names derive from " dirty farmstead " and " reedy ditch " respectively .
Antiquarians and historians have been interested in the ditch since the 19th century , but much of its course has been built over . Between 1990 and 1997 , the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit excavated sections of the ditch in Denton , Reddish , Levenshulme and Platt Fields , in an attempt to determine its age and purpose . Although no date was established for the ditch 's construction , the investigations revealed that the bank to the north of the ditch is of 20th century origin . Together with the ditch 's profile , which is U @-@ shaped rather than the V @-@ shape typically used in military ditches and defences , this suggests that the purpose of the earthwork was to mark a territorial boundary . The conclusion of the project was that the ditch was probably a boundary marker .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest documented reference to the ditch is in a charter detailing the granting of land in Audenshaw to the monks of the Kersal Cell . In the document , dating from 1190 to 1212 , the ditch is referred to as " Mykelldiche " , and a magnum fossatum , Latin for " large ditch " .
The name Nico ( sometimes Nikker ) for the ditch became established in the 19th and 20th centuries . It may have been derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Hnickar , a water spirit who seized and drowned unwary travellers , but the modern name is most likely a corruption of the name Mykelldiche and its variations , as the Anglo @-@ Saxon word micel meant " big " or " great " , harking back to the early 13th century description of the ditch as magnum fossatum . An alternative derivation is that Nico comes from nǽcan , an Anglo @-@ Saxon verb meaning " kill " .
= = Current status = =
Despite heavy weathering , the ditch is still visible in short sections , which can be 4 – 5 yards wide and up to 5 feet deep . A 330 @-@ yard stretch through Denton Golf Course , and a section running through Platt Fields Park , are considered the best preserved remains . In 1997 , a segment of the ditch 150 @-@ yard long in Platt Fields was protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument . The rest of the ditch remains unprotected .
= Nickel =
Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28 . It is a silvery @-@ white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge . Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile . Pure nickel , powdered to maximize the reactive surface area , shows a significant chemical activity , but larger pieces are slow to react with air under standard conditions because an oxide layer forms on the surface and prevents further corrosion ( passivation ) . Even so , pure native nickel is found in Earth 's crust only in tiny amounts , usually in ultramafic rocks. and
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in the Senate , Davis appeared before the United States Supreme Court in 1837 , representing the defendants in Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge . The plaintiffs were proprietors of the Charles River Bridge , a toll bridge constructed between Boston and Charlestown in 1786 , and the defendants were proprietors of a competing bridge to which the state had issued a charter in 1828 . The plaintiffs argued that the defendant 's charter infringed on their charter , in which they claimed the state granted them an exclusive right to control the crossing . Davis and cocounsel Simon Greenleaf argued that the rights granted to the Charles River proprietors had to be interpreted narrowly , and that the state had not granted them an exclusive right . The court found for the defendants , with Chief Justice Roger B. Taney 's decision echoing the defendant 's reasoning . The Charles River Bridge charter would be acquired by the state in 1841 , during Davis ' next term as governor .
During the early years of his political career Davis was on good terms with Daniel Webster , who was highly influential in party politics both at the state and national levels , and to whom he looked up . However , in the late 1830s Davis and other Massachusetts Whigs ( notably Abbott Lawrence ) came to believe that Webster lacked broad @-@ based national support to successfully contend with Henry Clay and William Henry Harrison after his weak showing in the 1836 Whig convention . This introduced a rift between Webster and Davis that deepened in 1838 when the two split on western land policies . The split between Davis and Webster became permanent after Webster harshly criticized Lawrence in an 1842 speech celebrating his successful negotiation of the Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty with Great Britain , which resolved ( among other matters ) the northeast boundary .
= = Governor and Senator , again = =
Not long after Marcus Morton won the 1839 gubernatorial election , Whig leadership prevailed on Davis to run again for governor . In the 1840 election Davis rode the coattails of Harrison 's landslide presidential victory into office . Harrison 's death in April 1841 reenergized the Democrats , who attacked Davis in that year 's election . They charged that protectionist tariffs he supported taxed the poor , and that his opposition to western land policies was hypocritical because he also speculated in those lands . Davis won a narrow majority over Morton , and was reelected in 1841 . This period in office , like his first term as governor , also did not contain any new programs or initiatives , but was overshadowed by the ongoing negotiations between Daniel Webster ( now Secretary of State ) and Lord Ashburton over the boundary issue . Davis and Webster had contentious disagreements over the negotiations , although Webster was finally able to convince Davis to accept the final agreement . The matter deepened the division between the two men , who stopped speaking to each other .
In 1842 the anti @-@ slavery Liberty Party had risen to sufficient prominence in the state that neither Morton nor Davis was able to secure a majority . The state senate , which had a Democratic majority , elected Morton . Davis ' showing in the election was undoubtedly harmed by his ongoing feud with Webster , who refused to campaign on his behalf .
Davis was considered as a potential vice presidential nominee in the 1844 Whig Party convention . He was nominated by the state Whig convention over Webster 's opposition , but Webster worked to ensure he was not chosen at the national convention . Webster forces successfully got Webster elected to the Senate in early 1845 , despite opposition from the Lawrence @-@ Davis faction . Davis was himself elected to the Senate again later in 1845 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Isaac C. Bates , and was elected to a full term in 1847 . He opposed the annexation of Texas on the grounds that it would expand slaveholding territory , but was not willing to split the party over the issue of slavery . Davis was one of only two senators who voted against the Mexican @-@ American War .
Davis was opposed to slavery and its extension into the territories , but he voted for most of the provisions of the Compromise of 1850 , including the bill on Texas borders , shocking some anti @-@ compromise Whigs . He regularly voted in favor of the Wilmot Proviso , a measure to ban slavery from territories won in the Mexican war which was frequently attached to legislation in the late 1840s but was never adopted . In one notable debate , Davis used procedural measures to delay vote on an amendment to remove it from a military appropriations bill , hoping to force a vote without time to conference on differences between the House and Senate versions before Congress adjourned . However , due to a difference in the clocks in the respective chambers , the House adjourned before he finished speaking , scuttling the bill . Salmon P. Chase wrote of the episode , " Ten political lives of ten John Davises , spent in the best direction , could not compensate for this half @-@ hour 's mischief " , and Polk noted that if the loss of the bill delayed the end of the Mexican war , Davis would " deserve the execrations of the country . " Scholarship is divided on whether Davis ' claimed strategy would really have worked .
Davis ' weak stance on slavery began to cause a decrease in his popularity as abolitionist sentiment in the state gained ground during the 1840s . He also refused to support Webster in his 1852 presidential bid , campaigning on behalf of Winfield Scott . He declined renomination for election in 1852 , and retired from public life .
In his later years Davis was associated with the American Antiquarian Society , where he served as president for many years . He died in Worcester on April 19 , 1854 , and was interred in the Worcester Rural Cemetery . He was known as " Honest John " Davis , because of an impeccable reputation for personal integrity .
= = Personal life and business = =
In 1844 , Davis and his nephew Isaac were among the founders of the State Mutual Life Assurance Company of Worcester , one of only five life insurance companies in the country . Davis served as its president until his death , after which his nephew took over .
Davis married Eliza Bancroft in 1822 . She was the daughter of Worcester minister Aaron Bancroft and sister to historian and statesman George Bancroft . They had five children , including diplomat John Chandler Bancroft Davis , general Hasbrouck Davis , and Congressman Horace Davis ; their descendants include Assemblyman Gherardi Davis ( 1858 – 1941 ) , Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . John Davis Long , the grandson of a cousin , and who was named in his honor , also served as Governor of Massachusetts .
= Earthquake ( Modern Family ) =
" Earthquake " is the third episode of the second season of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) American sitcom , Modern Family and the 27th episode overall . The episode originally aired October 6 , 2010 . It was written by Paul Corrigan & Brad Walsh and directed by Michael Spiller . It guest starred Nathan Lane as Pepper Saltzman and Vic Polizos as a plumber .
In the episode , an earthquake causes Claire to be stuck in the bathroom with the plumber . Gloria interprets the natural disaster as a sign that God wants Jay to go to church while Mitchell and Cameron use it as an excuse to not attend Peppers party .
" Earthquake " received positive reviews from critics . The episode also received a nomination for Episode Comedy at the 2010 Writers Guild of America Awards , but ultimately lost .
According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode received a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 receiving the same rating from the previous episode and also tied for being the highest rated scripted program with Glee .
= = Plot = =
Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) and Claire ( Julie Bowen ) are arguing about Haley 's wanting to go to a party instead of staying home and prepare for her SATs when a plumber ( Vic Polizos ) arrives . After an earthquake , Claire ends up locked in the bathroom with the plumber and a bookcase is knocked down . Phil ( Ty Burrell ) realizes that if he can keep Claire in the bathroom long enough he can get the bookcase strapped to the wall like he told Claire he had already done while Haley realizes she can go to the party . Claire though hears her telling Alex ( Ariel Winter ) about the plan while Alex was blackmailing Haley into driving her to the Museum of Tolerance in exchange for the lie .
Phil convinces Luke ( Nolan Gould ) that the bookshelf " did not fall " . After Phil " tries " to get Claire out , the plumber tells Claire that the reason she is being so controlling to Haley is because Haley is much like her when she was her age , just as his son drove him crazy exactly for the same reason . Claire and the plumber finally get out of the bathroom on their own and Claire questions what took Phil so long . Alex lies for him and says he was helping everybody and checking that there were no gas leaks . Claire believes her and Phil takes Alex to the Museum of Tolerance .
Meanwhile , Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) and Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) get ready for Cameron 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Pepper Saltzman 's ( Nathan Lane ) , new theme party , Oscar Wilde and Crazy Brunch . Unknowing to Pepper , Cameron and Mitchell have grown to dislike his parties because they take a lot of work and one has to assume a character and dress up in costume . While this is happening Mitchell realizes he can use the earthquake as an excuse to get out of the party . Mitchell has Cameron tell Pepper because he is the one who always cancels , but Cameron panics while telling about the extent of the earthquake 's damage . Since Pepper is on his way to their house , Mitchell starts breaking items to match Cameron 's description of the damage .
At the end , Cameron tells Pepper they did not want to go to the party and Pepper , while having a breakdown , reveals that no one came to the party . To stop it , Mitchell lies by telling Pepper that Cameron still has feelings for him and then goes on a fake rampage of anger breaking items of Cameron that he hates . Pepper announces they will not have to come to his upcoming parties .
At the Pritchett house , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) gets angry at Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) for going golfing instead of going to church with her and Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) . As Jay tells them he is done with church , the earthquake occurs . Jay still goes golfing despite Gloria telling him the earthquake was a sign from God . Manny decides to go with Jay for golf instead with Gloria at the church , something that makes her mad .
At the golf course Manny asks questions about Jay 's idea of hell and heaven . Jay 's ideas soon worry Manny and at the end come to the conclusion that Manny is missing church because Jay is acting upon a hunch . When Gloria tells Manny of her vision of heaven he becomes even more fearful since she says that there are butterflies ( which he is afraid of ) in heaven .
= = Production = =
" Earthquake " was written by Paul Corrigan and Brad Walsh making it their fifth writing credit for the series . The episode was directed by Michael Spiller , marking his second directing credit for the season after the season premiere , " The Old Wagon " , and fifth credit overall for the series . " Earthquake " originally aired in the United States on September 30 , 2010 on ABC as the third episode of the second season . This episode of Modern Family was filmed on August 3 , and August 16 , 2010 .
Part of the plot line was revealed at a Writers Guild of America event at Paley Center in Los Angeles . On August 1 , 2010 , Joyce Eng of TV Guide reported that Nathan Lane would appear on Modern Family as Pepper Saltzman . He filmed his part on August 16 , 2010 . Lane had approached creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan if he could guest star on the series . Levitan stated in an interview with USA Today he was " the perfect fit for the part " of Pepper . Levitan also said in the same interview they would stop stunt casting actors like Nathan Lane . Lane later reprised his role in the episode , " Boys ' Night " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Earthquake " was viewed by an estimated 11 @.@ 36 million households according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the third most viewed show of the night . It received 6 @.@ 8 rating / 11 % share among viewers and a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 12 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . It received the same rating as the previous episode , " The Kiss " , but the viewership figure decreased from 11 @.@ 877 million to 11 @.@ 36 million . The episode also became the highest rated scripted show of the original week it aired tying with Glee 's " Grilled Cheesus " .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received overwhelmingly positive reviews .
Joel Keller from TV Squad wrote " that it was a great job all the way around . I 'm hoping the show can keep avoiding a sophomore slump for as long as they possibly can . "
Donna Bowman from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B calling it a " merely solid half @-@ hour " .
Lesley Savage of Entertainment Weekly praised the use of the characters and cast members saying " Every character had hilarious moments tonight " . She also called Manny the best character saying he " stole the show "
James Poniewozik of Time called it " solid and grounded " and also commented " " Earthquake " , especially in its main storyline with the Dunphys , worked because it took this basic principle and quickly , simply showed how this family reacts to sudden disorder .
Alan Sepinwall stated in his review " every now and then the show will give us a wholly satisfying , very funny episode with the three groups in isolation . " Earthquake " was one of those episodes " he also called the show " simple , effective , very funny outing . "
Kara Klenc of TV Guide said " I thought there were a ton of hilarious moments in this episode "
Donald Deane of TV Squad named the episode one of the " Five Funniest TV Clips of the Week " between October 3 and 9 , 2010 .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Paul Corrigan and Brad Walsh received a nomination for an Episodic Comedy at the 2010 Writers Guild of America Awards facing six other programs including the Modern Family episode , " Starry Night " . The episode eventually lost to 30 Rock of Robert Carlock for his work on " When It Rains , It Pours " . Also , Nathan Lane was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards .
= Convoy GP55 =
Convoy GP55 was a convoy of Allied ships that travelled from Sydney to Brisbane in June 1943 during World War II . It comprised ten cargo ships , three landing ships , tank ( LSTs ) and an escort of five corvettes . The Japanese submarine I @-@ 174 attacked the convoy on 16 June , sinking the United States Army transport ship Portmar and damaging USS LST @-@ 469 . Two of the corvettes subsequently counter @-@ attacked I @-@ 174 , but only lightly damaged her .
The Australian military conducted an intensive search for I @-@ 174 in the days after the attack in the mistaken belief that she had been significantly damaged . This search was not successful and highlighted the unsatisfactory communications between the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . However , another Japanese submarine passing through the area may have been sunk by RAAF aircraft . Because of Japan 's deteriorating strategic situation , I @-@ 174 was the last Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) submarine to operate off the Australian east coast .
= = Background = =
During 1942 and 1943 , Japanese submarines periodically operated in the waters surrounding Australia . A force of midget submarines raided Sydney Harbour on the night of 31 May – 1 June 1942 and attacks on merchant shipping travelling off the east coast began several days later . These attacks continued until August 1942 , when the Japanese submarine force was redeployed . The Kaidai @-@ class submarine I @-@ 174 made a 24 @-@ day patrol off Australia in July and August 1942 , but did not attack any ships . In response to the Japanese attacks , the Australian naval authorities ordered that all ships with a displacement of more than 1 @,@ 200 tons and a maximum speed of less than 12 knots travel in escorted convoys from 8 June . These convoys were successful in minimising losses , and no escorted ships were sunk off Australia during 1942 .
Japanese submarines resumed operations in Australian waters in January 1943 . I @-@ 21 made a highly successful patrol in January and February , during which she sank five ships , and two other submarines operated off Sydney and Brisbane in March . A force of five boats from the IJN 's 3rd Submarine Squadron subsequently attacked shipping along the full length of the Australian east coast during April and May in an attempt to disrupt the Allied supply line to New Guinea . This marked the peak of the Japanese submarine offensive against Australia and nine ships were sunk off the east coast within a month . In contrast with 1942 , several successful attacks were made against ships travelling in convoys .
The large number of Japanese attacks in 1943 put great strain on the Allied forces responsible for protecting shipping off eastern Australia . The Australian naval authorities were forced in April to reduce the number of convoys that sailed so their escort could be increased to at least four warships . The RAAF also greatly increased the number of aircraft allocated to escort convoys and ships sailing independently . Further ships and aircraft fitted for anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) became available in May , but were still not adequate to counter the Japanese attacks .
The sinking of the hospital ship AHS Centaur on 14 May 1943 with heavy loss of life led the Advisory War Council to seek information from the RAN and RAAF on the actions being taken to protect shipping . While the RAN acknowledged that the Bathurst @-@ class corvettes that made up most of its escort force were too slow , it argued that the losses suffered by escorted convoys were no worse than those in other parts of the world . Despite the Navy 's assurances , Australia 's anti @-@ submarine forces were constrained by a shortage of training opportunities and poor coordination between the RAN , RAAF and the United States Navy . The Australian military had also not kept pace with improvements to British and United States ASW doctrine by fully implementing the tactics that had proven most successful in other theatres of the war .
= = Attack = =
I @-@ 174 departed from the major Japanese naval base at Truk on 16 May 1943 under the command of Lieutenant Nobukiyo Nanbu and arrived off Sandy Cape , Queensland on 27 May . She was the only Japanese boat operating off Australia at the time , as all other available submarines were deployed to counter Allied advances in the Solomon Islands . She made an unsuccessful torpedo attack on the American ship Point San Pedro on 1 June , exchanged gunfire with U.S. Army transport Edward Chambers three days later , and on 5 June was driven off by convoy PG 53 's escorts . On 7 June , I @-@ 174 fired four torpedoes at the American Liberty ship John Bartram , all of which missed . She sighted another convoy on 13 June , too far away to attack . During this period , she was repeatedly attacked by Allied aircraft and warships , but did not sustain any damage .
Convoy GP55 was assembled in mid @-@ June 1943 as one of at least 69 convoys that sailed from Sydney to Brisbane during 1943 . It comprised ten cargo ships and three U.S. Navy Landing Ships , Tank ( LST ) , and was escorted by the Bathurst @-@ class corvettes Warrnambool ( which embarked the convoy 's senior officer ) , Bundaberg , Cootamundra , Deloraine and Kalgoorlie . After departing Sydney at 8 @.@ 45 am on 15 June the convoy maneuvered into five columns , with three ships in each of the centre columns and two in those at the edges . The escorts surrounded the convoy , with four sailing ahead of it and Deloraine to the stern . RAAF Anson and Beaufort aircraft also patrolled over the convoy at all times . U.S. Army transport Portmar , which had been badly damaged in the Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 , had difficulty maintaining her position in the convoy and at times straggled behind the other ships .
I @-@ 174 sighted Convoy GP55 about 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ) east of Smoky Cape at 4 @.@ 37 pm on 16 June . The submarine immediately began preparations to attack the Allied ships and easily penetrated the escort screen . At this time Portmar was trying to return to her station and was passing to the port of USS LST @-@ 469 . This made the ships an ideal target for Nanbu as they overlapped from the viewpoint of his periscope . Accordingly , he fired two torpedoes at them at 5 @.@ 20 pm . A single torpedo struck the LST near her stern two minutes later , resulting in severe damage and the loss of 26 lives and 17 wounded . Portmar spotted the second torpedo and attempted to evade it but was also struck on her starboard side . The transport 's cargo of petrol and ammunition quickly caught fire and she sank within ten minutes . One of her crew and a passenger were killed , and 71 survivors , including four who were injured , were rescued by Deloraine . Despite losing steerage LST @-@ 469 remained afloat and was taken under tow by the corvette . I @-@ 174 's attack on Convoy GP55 was probably the most successful made by a Japanese submarine off Australia .
While Deloraine attended to the torpedoed ships , the other four escorts attempted to locate the Japanese submarine . I @-@ 174 had not been detected approaching the convoy , and after the attack the Australian corvettes reversed their courses to conduct a sonar sweep of the area from where she was presumed to have attacked . This was in accordance with tactics that had recently been adopted by the RAN after they proved successful in the Battle of the Atlantic . Warrnambool detected the submarine 23 minutes after the attack , and she and Kalgoorlie subjected I @-@ 174 to four depth charge attacks over two hours until contact was lost . An Anson from No. 71 Squadron was escorting the convoy at the time the two ships were torpedoed but was low on fuel and returned to base shortly after the attack . While the corvettes believed that they had sunk I @-@ 174 , she was only lightly damaged and withdrew to the east . The Australian failure to sink the submarine was due to a lack of practice and too few ships being available to create an adequate search scheme .
After breaking off their attack Warrnambool rejoined the convoy while Kalgoorlie assisted Deloraine in protecting the damaged LST . Deteriorating weather broke the tow @-@ line between Deloraine and LST @-@ 469 , and instead the corvette proceeded to the nearby town of Coffs Harbour with Portmar 's survivors and the LST 's wounded personnel . The tugboat HMAS Reserve was dispatched from Brisbane on 16 June to recover the LST and towed her to Sydney , where they arrived on 20 June . LST @-@ 469 had been carrying troops and supplies for Operation Chronicle , an amphibious landing at Woodlark and Kiriwina islands on 30 June , and this operation was hindered by her unavailability .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the attack , the Australian Chief of Naval Staff , Admiral Sir Guy Royle , judged that the submarine had been damaged and ordered that " special measures " be taken to search for it . The RAAF commenced air searches of an 80 @-@ square @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 270 km2 ) box south @-@ east of Coffs Harbour on the night of 16 / 17 June , while Deloraine , Kalgoorlie and the recently arrived destroyer HMAS Vendetta patrolled the area . On 17 June , Anson aircraft were assigned to patrol the submarine 's most likely escape routes in the hope that this would force her to remain submerged during the day and surface at night . Radar @-@ equipped Beauforts relieved the Ansons after dusk and continued the search .
In the early morning of 18 June , two No. 32 Squadron Beauforts attacked with bombs and gunfire what they took to be a submarine . Deloraine was less than 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the area of the RAAF attack , but did not acknowledge repeated attempts by the aircraft to communicate with her . The Beauforts reported that they had damaged the submarine and intensive efforts were made on 19 June to locate and sink her , with twelve Ansons continuously sweeping the area while six Vengeance dive bombers were held in readiness nearby . No further sightings were made and it was assumed that the submarine had been damaged by a No. 32 Squadron aircraft but escaped . Naval historian David Stevens has written that the sighting made on 18 June was probably mistaken , as I @-@ 174 was at least 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the east of where the RAAF attack took place and the incident was not recorded in her war diary . However , other historians believe that the Beauforts may have sunk I @-@ 178 , which was patrolling off the east coast of Australia at the time ; this submarine disappeared some time after 17 June 1943 , and the cause of her loss has never been confirmed . I @-@ 174 was ordered to depart from Australian waters on 20 June , and returned to Truk on 1 July . She did not make contact with any Allied ships or aircraft after attacking GP55 .
The seeming failure of the RAAF and RAN to cooperate to finish off a damaged submarine led Royle to order an inquiry into the attack . This found that a breakdown in communication between the two services was the main cause of the failure , with both the aircraft and the naval signal room in Sydney making procedural errors . Rear Admiral Gerard Muirhead @-@ Gould , the naval officer in command of the Sydney region , also noted that communications between the RAN and RAAF were unsatisfactory at higher levels , and that the communication procedures to be used in anti @-@ submarine operations were not well known or understood . In response , he suggested that the RAN establish the position of Commander Escort Vessels Group to organise and command escorts and coordinate their tactics .
The attack on Convoy GP55 was the last attack made by a Japanese submarine on the east coast of Australia . Two submarines were dispatched to operate off Australia in July 1943 , but were diverted to the Solomon Islands shortly before reaching the east coast . Following this , the Japanese submarines were fully occupied responding to Allied offensives and transporting supplies to isolated garrisons . As the threat to shipping declined , the RAN ceased running convoys in waters south of Newcastle on 7 December 1943 and Sydney – Brisbane convoys ended on 10 February 1944 .
= Brachiopod =
Brachiopods , phylum Brachiopoda , are marine animals that have hard " valves " ( shells ) on the upper and lower surfaces , unlike the left and right arrangement in bivalve molluscs . Brachiopod valves are hinged at the rear end , while the front can be opened for feeding or closed for protection . Two major groups are recognized , articulate and inarticulate . Articulate brachiopods have toothed hinges and simple opening and closing muscles , while inarticulate brachiopods have untoothed hinges and a more complex system of muscles used to keep the two halves aligned . In a typical brachiopod a stalk @-@ like pedicle projects from an opening in one of the valves near the hinges , known as the pedicle valve , keeping the animal anchored to the seabed but clear of silt that would obstruct the opening .
The word " brachiopod " is formed from the Ancient Greek words βραχίων ( " arm " ) and πούς ( " foot " ) . They are often known as " lamp shells " , since the curved shells of the class Terebratulida look rather like pottery oil @-@ lamps .
Lifespans range from three to over thirty years . Ripe gametes ( ova or sperm ) float from the gonads into the main coelom and then exit into the mantle cavity . The larvae of inarticulate brachiopods are miniature adults , with lophophores that enable the larvae to feed and swim for months until the animals become heavy enough to settle to the seabed . The planktonic larvae of articulate species do not resemble the adults , but rather look like blobs with yolk sacs , and remain among the plankton for only a few days before leaving the water column upon metamorphosing .
In addition to the traditional classification of brachiopods into inarticulate and articulate , two approaches appeared in the 1990s : one approach groups the inarticulate Craniida with articulate brachiopods , since both use the same material in the mineral layers of their shell ; the other approach makes the Craniida a third group , as their outer organic layer is different from that in either of the other two . However , some taxonomists believe it is premature to suggest higher levels of classification such as order and recommend a bottom @-@ up approach that identifies genera and then groups these into intermediate groups . Traditionally , brachiopods have been regarded as members of , or as a sister group to , the deuterostomes , a superphylum that includes chordates and echinoderms . One type of analysis of the evolutionary relationships of brachiopods has always placed brachiopods as protostomes while another type has split between placing brachiopods among the protostomes or the deuterostomes .
It was suggested in 2003 that brachiopods had evolved from an ancestor similar to Halkieria , a slug @-@ like Cambrian animal with " chain mail " on its back and a shell at the front and rear end ; it was thought that the ancestral brachiopod converted its shells into a pair of valves by folding the rear part of its body under its front . However , new fossils found in 2007 and 2008 showed that the " chain mail " of tommotiids formed the tube of a sessile animal ; one tommotiid resembled phoronids , which are close relatives or a subgroup of brachiopods , while the other tommotiid bore two symmetrical plates that might be an early form of brachiopod valves . Lineages of brachiopods that have both fossil and extant taxa appeared in the early Cambrian , Ordovician , and Carboniferous periods , respectively . Other lineages have arisen and then become extinct , sometimes during severe mass extinctions . At their peak in the Paleozoic era , the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter @-@ feeders and reef @-@ builders , and occupied other ecological niches , including swimming in the jet @-@ propulsion style of scallops . Brachiopod fossils have been useful indicators of climate changes during the Paleozoic . However , after the Permian – Triassic extinction event , brachiopods recovered only a third of their former diversity . A study in 2007 concluded the brachiopods were especially vulnerable to the Permian – Triassic extinction , as they built calcareous hard parts ( made of calcium carbonate ) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems . It was often thought that brachiopods went into decline after the Permian – Triassic extinction , and were out @-@ competed by bivalves , but a study in 1980 found both brachiopod and bivalve species increased from the Paleozoic to modern times , with bivalves increasing faster ; after the Permian – Triassic extinction , brachiopods became for the first time less diverse than bivalves .
Brachiopods live only in the sea , and most species avoid locations with strong currents or waves . The larvae of articulate species settle in quickly and form dense populations in well @-@ defined areas while the larvae of inarticulate species swim for up to a month and have wide ranges . Brachiopods now live mainly in cold water and low light . Fish and crustaceans seem to find brachiopod flesh distasteful and seldom attack them . Among brachiopods , only the lingulids ( Lingula sp . ) have been fished commercially , on a very small scale . One brachiopod species ( Coptothyrus adamsi ) may be a measure of environmental conditions around an oil terminal being built in Russia on the shore of the Sea of Japan .
= = Description = =
= = = Shells and their mechanisms = = =
Modern brachiopods range from 1 to 100 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 039 to 3 @.@ 937 in ) long , and most species are about 10 to 30 millimetres ( 0
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over one meter tall . The 4th and 5th century ceramic specimens from the late phase of this culture include pitchers , clay pails , beakers and bowls .
Characteristic of the Roman times iron industry were huge centers of metallurgy . One such concentration of ironworks , in Świętokrzyskie Mountains , which already produced iron on an industrial scale in the 1st century AD , in the 2nd and 3rd centuries became Barbaricum 's largest . It may have been responsible for the majority of the iron supplied for barbarian weapon production during the Marcomannic Wars . The iron product was obtained in rather small , single @-@ use smelting furnaces . One furnace 's iron output was from a few to 20 kg , which required 10 to 200 kg of ore and the same amount of charcoal . The satisfaction of so much need for charcoal caused significant deforestation of the areas surrounding the iron centers . Not only turf , but also hematite ores were utilized , which involved building mines and shafts to provide access . The furnaces in Świętokrzyskie Mountains were grouped into large complexes , located in forested areas , away from human settlements . There could have had been as many as 700 @,@ 000 smelting furnaces built in that area ; one big concentration of the Przeworsk culture 's spent furnaces ( 2nd @-@ 3rd centuries ) was located in Nowa Słupia , Kielce County . The second largest iron production center functioned at that time in Masovia , west of Warsaw , with the total number of furnaces there , in which only turf ores were used , estimated at up to 200 @,@ 000 . They were operated as very large complexes , with several thousand furnaces at a time located near populated areas , where intermediate products were processed further . Those two great concentrations of metallurgical industry produced iron largely for long distance trade ; to fulfill local requirements and on smaller scale iron was obtained at a number of other locations .
Graves of warrior @-@ smiths buried with weapons and sets of tools were found , which suggests that they belonged to the societal upper ranks and were held in high esteem .
= = = Weapons and tools = = =
A set of iron carpenter 's tools from the 3rd @-@ 4th century , including a compass for marking circles , was found in Przywóz , Wieluń County , where there was a Przeworsk culture settlement and a 2nd / 3rd century dynastic burial complex . The graves of Przeworsk men typically include substantial collections of arms , so that their warrior 's battle equipment and its evolution are well known . Less wealthy warriors fought typically on foot , with spears ( for close range combat ) and javelins ( for throwing ) , both with iron heads . The better off fighters used swords , first of the long Celtic kind , and then in the 1st and 2nd century AD of the short and broad , gladius Roman infantry type . Swords were kept in sheaths , some of which , depending on status , were very ornate . The long and narrow swords , better suited for horseback combat , became popular again in the 3rd century , but only the more wealthy warriors had horses , nor to mention iron helmets or ring armor . Round wooden shields had iron umbos in the middle , usually with a thorn for piercing the enemy . There were no saddles , but the richest of horsemen used silver spurs and bronze bridles with chain reins . Numerous Przeworsk culture objects including spurs and a unique silver belt buckle were recovered at the Aleksandrowice , Kraków County settlement area ; some relics there are dated possibly as late as the first half of the 6th century .
= = = Migrations of Wielbark and Przeworsk cultures people = = =
In the 2nd century AD the Proto @-@ Gothic people of the Wielbark culture began their own great migration , moving east , south and south @-@ east . In the first half of the 3rd century they left most of Pomerania except for the lower Vistula region , where a small Wielbark population remained ; Pomerania west of there became mostly settled by the Dębczyn group . Also evacuated at that time northern Greater Poland was retaken by the Przeworsk culture people . The Wielbark people successively took over eastern Masovia , Lesser Poland , Podlasie , Polesie and Volhynia . They settled in Ukraine , where they encountered other peoples , which resulted in the early 3rd century AD in the rise of the Chernyakhov culture . This last culture , which in the 4th century encompassed large areas of southeastern Europe , was of a mixed ethnic composition ; in the more western part it was made @-@ up of the Wielbark culture people , as well as other Germanic people and the Dacians . It was within the Chernyakhov culture that the Gothic tribes assumed their mature form .
The Przeworsk culture populations were for the most part also moving ( to a lesser extent ) south and east , which by the 4th century caused a lessening of the population density in northern and central Poland with a simultaneous settlement concentration increases in Lesser Poland and Silesia . The Przeworsk people there at this point in time are often identified with the Vandals Germanic tribe . The 4th and 5th century Przeworsk societies had to cope with a deterioration of their traditional tribal social structure , caused by the accumulation of wealth and influence in the hands of the rich , the warriors , the tribal elders and rulers , who controlled the trade , imposed contributions and plundered . During these two centuries the number of the Przeworsk culture settlements and cemeteries generally decreases . There are also clear signs of the environment being overly exploited , which provided another motivation for the population to gradually leave . Most burials were getting more poorly equipped , in comparison with the previous periods . Late Przeworsk culture ceramic materials from Greater Poland show impoverishment and lack of differentiation of form , but on the other hand metal 5th century clasps , found at a variety of locations from eastern Lesser Poland , through eastern Greater Poland to Kujawy , demonstrate the usual for mature Germanic societies highest quality of workmanship .
= = = Hun advance , barbarian migrations in Europe = = =
On top of the Przeworsk culture 's internal crisis situation came external pressures , namely the massive migration of peoples . At around 370 AD the Huns crossed the Volga River , defeating the Alans and then the Ostrogoths , causing in 375 the fall of their state located in the Black Sea shores region . This unleashed a domino effect , as various Germanic peoples moved west and south to avoid the danger . The Visigoths and others retreated , forcing further migrations , while the weakness of the Roman Empire encouraged encroachments of its territory , the whole scenario resulting in the fall of its western part . The paths of this Great Migration of Peoples led in part through the Polish lands , and the Germanic tribes living here joined the movement themselves , with the result of an almost complete , in the course of the 5th century , depopulation of Poland .
In the upper Vistula basin , where the Przeworsk culture settlements were still relatively dense in the first half of the 5th century , they are markedly absent during the second half of it . This is also the case in Silesia - the depopulation pattern began there earlier and the latest finds are dated around 400 AD . All of it agrees well with the information given by Procopius of Caesarea , according to whom the Heruli returning to Scandinavia from the Carpathian Basin in 512 , heading towards the Varni tribe area in Germany , crossed a large region devoid of human settlements - presumably Silesia and Lusatia . Likewise there are no settlements found in Masovia and Podlasie beyond the early part of the 5th century . On the other hand , in central Poland and Greater Poland isolated remnants from the Roman era cultures continue to be located through the end of 5th and even into the earlier parts of the 6th century . Still further north , in Pomerania , such findings are actually quite numerous , including many cult coin deposit sites ( Roman and then Byzantine golden solidi ) . That 's where the Germanic groups lasted the longest ( and kept up trade and other contacts with their brethren elsewhere ) .
The territory of the powerful confederation of the Hun tribes included about 400 AD the lands of southern Poland , where burial and treasure sites have been investigated . A woman 's grave in Jędrzychowice , Strzelin County contained fancy feminine ornaments and a nicely preserved bronze kettle , which gave a name ( " Jędrzychowice " ) to one of the two basic Hun kettle types , while a burial of a young warrior @-@ aristocrat including his horse and precious harness , attire and weaponry elements ( gold sheet covered ritual bow and sword sheath ) was found in Jakuszowice , Kazimierza Wielka County . Still further east , in Świlcza near Rzeszów a hidden Hun treasure was located ; this last find dates from the mid @-@ 5th century , when the Hun empire was about to crumble .
= = Baltic peoples = =
= = = Early Balts in light of ancient sources and linguistic research = = =
The Balts or Baltic peoples , or their Indo @-@ European protoplasts , have settled ( at different times different parts of ) the territory of today 's northeast Poland as well as the lands located further north and east , generally east of the lower Vistula River , the Baltic seashore north of there including and past the Sambian peninsula , and the inland area east of the above regions ( some of their ancestors came from as far east as the upper Oka River ) , from the early Iron Age . The analysis of the Baltic historic range has been aided by the studies of their characteristic toponyms and hydronyms , in addition to the examination of the archeological record and the few ancient written sources .
Herodotus wrote of the Neuri tribe , who lived beyond the Scythians and to the north of whom the land was uninhabited as far as he knew .
Of the Baltic tribes may have written Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy when they spoke of the Veneti , Venedi or Venedai people . Pliny in Natural History locates them in the mouth of the Vistula region , while Ptolemy in Geographia just east of the lower Vistula along the Bay of Gdańsk . The Western Baltic Veneti 's territory may have reached east all the way to Sambia . Tacitus in Germania , describing ( possibly the same ) inhabitants of the south @-@ eastern Baltic shores , mentioned the Aesti people , involved in collecting amber not for their own use but for long distance trade in a raw state . Jordanes in Getica speaks of the " Aesti , who dwell on the farthest shore of the German Ocean " ( beyond the Germanic @-@ named Vidivarii people , who occupied the mouth of the Vistula area ) . This " Ocean " he defines as where the floods of the Vistula empty , the Baltic Sea . Various versions of the Aesti name were used later for various purposes ; in particular that 's what in the 9th century the Baltic Old Prussian people were called and their country was then referred to as Aestland .
Ptolemy in Geographia gives the names of two Baltic tribes : " Galindai " and " Soudinoi " , which he localized east of the lower Vistula , some distance from the sea , just about where the Baltic Galindians ( in Masuria ) , and the Sudovians or Yotvingians east of the Galindians lived a thousand years later .
According to linguistic sources , the Baltic tribes precursors appeared first inland , in the forest zone regions far from the sea , and only later settled the near Baltic Sea areas , extending from the northeastern part of the Vistula basin to the Daugava River basin . This westbound expansion resulted in the establishment of the two main Baltic branches : The Western Balts , represented by the extinct Old Prussians and Yotvingians , and the Eastern Balts including the modern nations of Lithuanians and Latvians .
= = = Western Balt culture = = =
The Western Baltic Kurgans culture , which resulted from the interaction between groups arriving from the east and the people living in the Masuria @-@ Sambia region ( middle first millennium BC ) is discussed in the Bronze and Iron Age Poland article , within its time frame . The process of separation and differentiation of the eastern and western Baltic tribes deepened during the period of Roman influence , when the economy , culture and customs of the Western Balts became increasingly influenced by the more highly developed Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures people . From the beginning of the Common Era we can speak of the Western Balt culture , which included several distinct groups of the Western Baltic cultural circle and which definitely can be connected with the Baltic peoples .
Beginning in the 1st century AD the Western Balts experienced their " golden " period - the times of economic expansion and increased affluence of their societies , all of which was based on the amber trade , but resulted in active and long term contacts with the lands of the Roman Empire . As late as in the early 6th century an Aesti mission arrived in Italy at the court of King Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths with gifts of amber . As elsewhere , with wealth came imported and locally manufactured luxurious objects , social stratification and an emergence of the " princely " class , together with the appearance of their burials .
= = = Balt settlements , economy , crafts and burials = = =
Despite the advent of iron reinforced plows and other improved methods of crop cultivation , the regional environmental conditions placed limits on the practicality and extend of land tillage , but various grains , beans and peas were grown . The dense forest coverage on the other hand facilitated gathering and was more amenable to the raising of farm animals , which involved all of the major species , including in particular the small , forest type horses . The horses constituted an important element of the Baltic tribes ' culture – men of the upper socioeconomic status were often buried with their horses and even together with their fancy horsemanship gear .
The settlements were small , forming family based communities , but some of them were more sizable and functioned over many generations . They lacked artificial fortifications , but natural factors facilitating self @-@ defense were often utilized . Such settlements could form small clusters separated by uninhabited areas . One rather large dwelling place , which functioned from the 2nd to the 4th century , was discovered and investigated in Osowo near Suwałki . The living quarters consisted of pillar supported houses , while the farming infrastructure area included eighty grain storage caves . Small fortified refuge areas were built to a limited extend beginning at the end of the 4th century , but on a larger scale fortified settlements were constructed by the Western Balts only during the Middle Ages .
The dominant burial customs involved cremation of bodies , with the ashes placed in urns that were either ceramic , or made from organic materials , such as fabric or leather . The flat graves , in seashore areas covered by stone pavement , formed large cemeteries . Skeletal burials from 1st and 2nd centuries are found in Sambia , and later ones ( 3rd – 4th centuries ) in Sudovia . In this case the usually single graves had stone structure and kurgans . From about 400 AD on cremation became the only form of burial and the " familiar " kurgans emerged – each grave contains the remains of several persons .
Samples of ancient Baltic mature craftsmanship ( 2nd – 4th century ) have been found in Żywa Woda and Szwajcaria , both in Suwałki County and in Augustów County among other places . The princely graves as usual also contain many imports from southern and western Europe . Baltic fine bronze ornamental items , such as thin , openworked plates for the attachment of necklaces , were typically coated with colored , often red enamel . Foreign influence can also be seen in the design of clay urns , such as the 3rd or 4th century Greek kernos type vessel with additional miniature urns attached , or the 5th century " window " container with a square opening from Olsztyn County , similar to the urns found in Denmark and northwestern Germany .
= = = Olsztyn group = = =
The last mentioned specimen comes from the Olsztyn group burial ground in Tumiany . The Olsztyn group represents the late phase of the Western Baltic cultural circle , with the beginnings in the second half of the 5th century and the developed stages in 6th and 7th centuries . It was located in Masuria , partially in areas vacated by the Wielbark culture people . The group is believed to have been established by branches of the Galindians tribe , including a part of it that migrated to southern Europe and then returned to the Baltic area . The Olsztyn group cemeteries contain horse burials and many sophisticated style plate clasps , buckles , connectors and other objects made of bronze , silver and gold , studded with semi @-@ precious stones and decorated with engravings , which demonstrate its people 's extensive interregional and far reaching trade and other relationships and contacts , that included Scandinavia , western , southern and southeastern Europe .
= = = Migrations and their effects on Baltic people = = =
The Baltic settlement patterns were being altered beginning in the 5th century by the Migration Period population shifts and the pressure from the westbound movement of the Slavic peoples . The Western Balts took over the lands left by the Wielbark culture people and reached the eastern part of the mouth of the Vistula . A major trade route connecting the southeastern Baltic areas with the Black Sea shores went now through the regions controlled by the Balts . Expansion of the Old Prussian tribes , for example the previously mentioned Galindians and Yotvingians , encompassed today 's northeast Poland and the adjacent territories further north . Galindia ( today 's western Masuria ) , including the Olsztyn group , became in 6th and 7th centuries the most affluent of the Baltic people settled lands , with highly developed local craftsmanship supplementing the wealth of items brought from distant countries .
This westbound expansion was accompanied by the regress at the southeastern bounds of the Baltic range caused by the advancing Slavs , the Balts ' closest relatives . A majority of the Baltic peoples , whose population at the end of first millennium AD is estimated at about 480 thousand , became extinct during the later Middle Ages because of attempts of forced Christianisation , conquest and extermination , or assimilation , the Old Prussians being the primary example . Lithuanians and Latvians are the surviving Baltic peoples .
= Mount Thielsen =
Mount Thielsen , or Big Cowhorn ( Klamath : hisc ’ akwaleeʔas
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the University as a whole .... " The Senate consists of administrators , faculty , students and staff .
= = Academics = =
For the Class of 2012 , there were approximately 25 @,@ 000 applicants for 3 @,@ 350 seats in the Freshman class . The libraries have collectively over 3 @.@ 16 million volumes . In fall 2006 , the university had over 12 @,@ 000 full @-@ time undergraduate students and over 1 @,@ 000 part @-@ time undergraduate students , as well as almost 4 @,@ 000 full @-@ time graduate and law students and 2 @,@ 000 part @-@ time graduate and law students . In 2005 – 06 , the university granted over 2 @,@ 600 bachelor 's degrees ; nearly 2 @,@ 000 master 's degrees ; over 300 law degrees ; and more than 160 doctoral degrees . U.S. News & World Report ranked SU 53rd among national universities in the United States for 2009 , 58th for 2013 and 61st in 2016 . Syracuse participates in the National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities and University and College Accountability Network ( U @-@ CAN ) .
= = = Degrees = = =
SU offers undergraduate degrees in over 200 majors in the 9 undergraduate schools and colleges . Bachelor 's degrees are offered through the Syracuse University School of Architecture , the College of Arts and Sciences , the School of Education , the David B. Falk College of Sport and Human Dynamics , the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the School of Information Studies , Martin J. Whitman School of Management , S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications , and the College of Visual and Performing Arts . Also offered are Master 's and doctoral degrees from the Graduate School and from specialized programs in the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs , College of Law , among others . Additionally , SU offers 24 Certificates of Advanced Study Programs for specialized programs for education , counseling , and other academic areas .
The university has offered multiple international study programs since 1911 . SU Abroad , formerly known as the Division of International Programs Abroad ( DIPA ) , currently offers joint programs with universities in over 40 countries . The university operates eight international centers , called SU Abroad Centers , that offer structured programs in a variety of academic disciplines . The centers are located Beijing , Istanbul , Florence , Hong Kong , London , Madrid , Strasbourg , and Santiago .
= = = National recognition and ranking = = =
In its 2016 ranking of U.S. colleges , U.S. News & World Report ranked Syracuse 61st among undergraduate national universities .
In 2015 , Syracuse University was ranked 24th in New York State by average professor salaries .
Many of SU 's programs have been nationally recognized for excellence . A 2008 survey in the Academic Ranking of World Universities places Syracuse University in the top 100 world universities in social sciences . In the 2015 ' Design Intelligence ' national rankings , the Environmental and Interior Design program is ranked 9th . The School of Architecture 's Bachelor of Architecture program was ranked second nationally in 2010 by the journal DesignIntelligence in its annual edition of " America 's Best Architecture & Design Schools . "
The S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications is one of the top ranked in the country and has produced alumni in many fields of broadcasting . The School of Information Studies offers information management and technology courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels at Syracuse University . Within the School of Information Studies , U.S. News & World Report has ranked the graduate program as the third best Library and Information Studies graduate school in the United States . It also has the top @-@ ranked graduate Information Systems program , the second ranked graduate program in Digital Librarianship , and the fourth ranked graduate program in School Library Media . The College of Business Administration was renamed the Martin J. Whitman School of Management in 2003 , in honor of SU alumnus and benefactor Martin J. Whitman . The school is home to about 2 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate students .
The undergraduate program was ranked No. 43 among business schools nationwide by U.S. News & World Report in 2014 while the graduate school was ranked No. 79 . The entrepreneurship program was ranked No. 9 by the U.S. News & World Report in 2014 , and No. 13 by both Entrepreneur Magazine and The Princeton Review in 2007 . The supply chain management program was ranked No. 10 in the nation by Supply Chain Management Review . Also , the Joseph I. Lubin School of Accounting was named No. 10 in the nation by The Chronicle of Higher Education .
The College of Law is ranked 86th nationally , and is ranked in the top 10 by U.S. News & World Report for its trial and appellate advocacy program . It is an emerging leader in the relatively novel field of National Security Law . In 2007 the Law School started the Cold Case Justice Initiative , investigating cold cases from the civil rights era in the South . Its professors and students have identified 196 cases , of which more than 100 are in Georgia , and will give information to the US Department of Justice in order to have cases prosecuted . The FBI has identified 122 cold cases that it is trying to resolve .
The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs combines social sciences with public administration and international relations . It is ranked as the top graduate school for public affairs in the US .
The graduate program of the College of Visual and Performing Art is considered one of the top 50 programs in the US . VPA ranked No. 14 in multimedia / visual communications , a specialty that includes disciplines found in the college 's Department of Transmedia , which offers M.F.A. programs in art photography , art video , computer art and film . VPA also ranked No. 16 in ceramics , No. 19 in printmaking and No. 20 in sculpture , which are M.F.A. programs based in the Department of Art . Project Advance ( or SUPA ) is a nationally recognized concurrent enrollment program honored by the American Association for Higher Education , the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching , the National Commission on Excellence in Education , and the National Institute of Education .
Syracuse was ranked 5th in The Princeton Review 's 2014 and 1st in the 2015 list of top party schools .
= = = Faculty = = =
Syracuse University has 1013 full @-@ time instructional faculty , 96 part @-@ time faculty , and 454 adjunct faculty . Approximately 86 % of the full @-@ time faculty have earned Ph.D.s or professional degrees . The current faculty includes scholars such as United States National Academy of Sciences member Jozef J. Zwislocki , Professor of Psychology , who developed mathematical models on the mechanics of the inner and middle ear , MacArthur Fellow Don Mitchell , Professor of Geography , who has developed studies in cultural geography , Bruce Kingma , Associate Provost and Kauffman Professor of Entrepreneurship , a pioneer in the field of information economics and online learning , Catherine Bertini , Professor of Practice in Public Administration , who has worked on the role of women in food distribution , Frederick C. Beiser , Professor of Philosophy , one of leading scholars of German idealism , Mary Karr , the Jesse Truesdell Peck Professor of Literature , who has received a Guggenheim Fellowship in poetry , John Caputo , the Thomas J. Watson Professor of Humanities , who founded weak theology , and Gustav Niebuhr Associate Professor of Religion and Media who is the former New York Times National Religion Correspondent .
= = = Syracuse University Press = = =
Founded on August 2 , 1943 by Chancellor William Pearson Tolley and benefactor Thomas Watson , Sr. The areas of focus for the Press include Middle East Studies , Native American Studies , Peace and Conflict Resolution , Irish Studies and Jewish Studies , among others . The Press has an international reputation in Irish Studies and Middle East Studies . It is a member of the Association of American University Presses .
= = = University lectures = = =
Every year as a tradition , the university invites notable and influential speakers from around the world . These speakers have included leading thinkers and practitioners in sustainability , advertising , redevelopment , human rights , journalism , and the environment . The lecturers are selected for their academic and public service excellence . The University lectures are supported by the University Trustees , alumni , and friends . Previous University lecturers included Ishmael Beah , author of " A Long Way Gone : Memoirs of a Boy Soldier " , 45th Vice President of the United States , Al Gore , Economist and Nobel Prize winner , Muhammad Yunus , author and columnist , William Safire , environmental justice advocate Majora Carter , and environmental law attorney , Robert Kennedy Jr .
= = = Libraries = = =
Syracuse University 's main library is the Ernest S. Bird Library , which opened in 1972 . Its seven levels contain 2 @.@ 3 million books , 11 @,@ 500 periodicals , 45 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) of manuscripts and rare books , 3 @.@ 6 million microforms , and a café . There are also several departmental libraries on campus . Many of the landmarks in the history of recorded communication between people are in the university 's Special Collections Research Center , from cuneiform tablets and papyri to several codices dating from the 11th century , to the invention of printing . The collection also includes works by Galileo , Luther , John Calvin , Voltaire , Sir Isaac Newton , Descartes , Sir Francis Bacon , Samuel Johnson , Thomas Hobbes , Goethe , and others . In addition , the collection includes the personal library of Leopold Von Ranke .
Making sensational headlines at the time , the university outbid the Prussian government for all 19 tons of Von Ranke 's prized personal library . Other collections of note include Rudyard Kipling first editions and an original second leaf of the Gutenberg Bible .
Bird Library is also home to the largest collection of national archives of Kenya and Tanzania . In July 2008 , Syracuse University became the owner of the second largest collection of 78 rpm records in the United States after the Library of Congress after a donation of more than 200 @,@ 000 records . The donation is valued at $ 1 million and more than doubles the University 's collection of 78 rpm records to about 400 @,@ 000 . It also has a special The Harriet Tubman Research Collection , and Environmental Justice and Gender collection housed in the Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Library . The MLK library holds over 15 @,@ 000 acquisitions in African , African @-@ American , Afro @-@ Lationo , and Caribbean studies .
The university is also home to the Belfer Audio Laboratory and Archive , whose holdings total approximately 540 @,@ 000 recordings in all formats , primarily cylinders , discs , and magnetic tapes . Some of the voices to be found include Thomas Edison , Amelia Earhart , Albert Einstein , and Oscar Wilde .
= = Research = =
According to the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education , Syracuse University is a research university with " highest level of research activity . " Through the university 's Office of Research , which promotes research , technology transfer , and scholarship , and its Office of Sponsored Programs , which assists faculty in seeking and obtaining external research support , SU supports research in the fields of management and business , sciences , engineering , education , information studies , energy , environment , communications , computer science , public and international affairs , and other specialized areas . Syracuse became a member of the Association of American Universities ( AAU ) in 1966 , an organization of leading research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of research and education . In 2011 , however , the university 's board of trustees voted to pull out of the research consortium .
SU has established 29 research centers and institutes that focuses research , often across disciplines , in a variety of areas . The Burton Blatt Institute advances research in economic and social issues for individuals with disabilities , and it has international projects in the field . The Martin J Whitman School of Management supports the largest number of research centers , including The Ballentine Investment Institute , the George E. Bennett Center for Accounting and Tax Research , the Robert H. Brethren Operations Management Institute , Michael J. Falcone Center for Entrepreneurship , The H. H. Franklin Center for Supply Chain Management , Olivia and Walter Kiebach Center for International Business Studies , and the Earl V. Snyder Innovation Management Program .
Other research programs include The Syracuse Biomaterials Institute , the Alan K. Campbell Public Affairs Institute through the Maxwell School , and the Center for the Study of Popular Television through the Newhouse School of Public Communications .
Syracuse University also has collaborations with CERN and Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory , among other institutes .
= = Student life = =
Syracuse University has a diverse student population , representing all 50 US states and over 115 countries . Approximately 10 percent of students are from outside of the US , and are supported by an international services department within the University 's Division of Student Affairs . Approximately 37 % of students in the fall 2010 undergraduate full @-@ time class are from New York State . Approximately 56 % of that class are women . In 2014 , 8 @.@ 8 % of the students were black or African @-@ American . In 2015 , black students made up 14 @.@ 7 % of all US college students .
= = = Media = = =
CitrusTV ( formerly UUTV , HillTV and Synapse ) is the university 's entirely student @-@ run television studio , and one of the largest student @-@ run TV studios in the country with over 300 active members .
There are also multiple student @-@ run magazines and other print publications , including : The Onondagan Yearbook , Student Voice , Jerk Magazine , What the Health , 360 , Baked Magazine , The Out Crowd , and Equal Time .
= = = Student government = = =
Founded in 1957 , the Student Association ( SA ) represents the undergraduate students of both SU and ESF . SA , elects a President and Vice President ( on a unified ticket ) each academic year . They also each year elect a Comptroller , who , with the assembly , oversees the allocation and designation of the Student Activity Fee that was first collected in the 1968 – 69 school year . The goals of SA are to participate through a unified student voice in the formulation of Syracuse University rules and regulations . The SA @-@ SGA Alumni Organization maintains the history and an organizational timeline on its website .
The graduate students at Syracuse University are represented by the Graduate Student Organization ( GSO ) while the law students at Syracuse University are represented by the Law Student Senate . Each of the three organizations elects students to serve in the Syracuse University Senate , which also includes faculty , staff , and administrators .
= = = Fraternities and sororities = = =
The Syracuse University fraternity and sorority system offers organizations that are members of the Panhellenic Council ( NPC ) , the Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) , the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations , the National Multicultural Greek Council , and the National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) . In addition to SU students , ESF students are permitted to join the university 's fraternity and sorority system .
The oldest fraternity at SU is Delta Kappa Epsilon , which established a chapter in 1871 soon after the founding of the university , followed by Psi Upsilon in 1875 and Phi Kappa Psi in 1884 . Sororities were also a part of the early history of SU . Alpha Phi was founded at SU in 1872 , followed by Gamma Phi Beta in 1874 and Alpha Gamma Delta in 1904 . Alpha Phi Alpha established a chapter at SU in 1910 , and was reorganized in 1949 and 1973 . The first NPHC fraternity , Omega Psi Phi , was established at SU in 1922 , and the first NPHC sorority , Delta Sigma Theta in 1973 . Alpha Phi Delta , the only historically Italian @-@ American heritage fraternity , was founded at SU in 1914 . University policy prohibits fraternities and sororities from discriminating " on the basis of race , creed , color , gender , national origin , religion , marital status , age , disability , sexual orientation , or status as a disabled veteran or a veteran of the Vietnam era . "
= = = Syracuse University Ambulance = = =
Syracuse University Ambulance , commonly referred to as SUA , is a SU Health Services @-@ based student organization that responds to over 1 @,@ 500 medical emergencies each year . Providing intermediate life support ( ILS ) , rapid cardiac defibrillation , emergency and nonemergency transportation , and special event standby services , SUA operates two full @-@ time transporting ambulances , a supervisor 's fly car , and a MCI trailer for mass @-@ casualty incidents . Additionally , SUA operates four transport vans for non @-@ emergency transports . Advanced life support ( ALS ) mutual aid is provided by the City of Syracuse 's private EMS provider , Rural / Metro Medical Services . SUA was formed in 1973 by a group of students out of a need for emergency medical services on campus . Starting with only a few members and meager equipment , the Syracuse University Medical Crisis Unit was formed . The organization has evolved greatly over time but , with 70 + volunteer students , remains a student @-@ run organization to this day . SUA provides emergency and non @-@ emergency services 24 hours a day , 7 days a week during the academic school year and is funded by a portion of the student health fee .
= = = Religious life = = =
Hendricks Chapel is an interfaith chapel located on the Quad , and services as the spiritual center of Syracuse University . The Chapel , headed by Dean Tiffany Steinwert , is home to ten chaplaincies , including Baptist , Buddhist , Evangelical Christian , Historically Black Churches , Islamic , Jewish , Lutheran , Pagan , Methodist , and Roman Catholic . In addition , there are a number of student religious groups , including groups associated with the chaplaincies as well as Adventist , Christian Science , Hindu , Mormon , Muslim , Orthodox Christian , Pentecostal , and more .
Additional buildings located on campus support specific religious groups , including the Alibrandi Catholic Center and the Winnick Hillel Center for Jewish Life . Off campus , the Chabad House and Islamic Center of CNY also support student religious life .
= = Athletics = =
Syracuse University 's sports teams have " the Orange " nickname since 2004 , although the former names of Orangemen and Orangewomen are still used . The school 's mascot is Otto the Orange . SU fields intercollegiate teams in eight men 's sports and 12 women 's sports .
Most of Syracuse University 's intercollegiate teams participate in NCAA Division I in the Atlantic Coast Conference . The Syracuse Orange women 's ice hockey team participates in College Hockey America . Crew participates in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges . The men 's and women 's basketball teams , the football team , and both the men 's and women 's lacrosse teams play in the Carrier Dome . Other sports are located at the nearby Manley Field House , except ice hockey which takes place in the Tennity Ice Skating Pavilion .
SU has reached 28 team national championships , including 14 men 's lacrosse , six men 's crew , two cross country running , and one each in boxing , football , and women 's lacrosse . Under long @-@ time head coach Jim Boeheim , men 's basketball team won seven Big East regular season championships , five Big East Tournament championships , and 25 NCAA Tournament appearances , including the 2003 NCAA championship . The men 's basketball team holds the largest on campus attendance record of 35 @,@ 446 attendees . The record was set in the Carrier Dome playing Duke on Saturday February 1 , 2014 .
In 1959 , Syracuse earned its first National Championship following an undefeated football season and a Cotton Bowl victory over Texas . The team featured sophomore running back Ernie Davis who , in 1961 , became the first African @-@ American to win the Heisman Trophy . Davis was slated to play for the Cleveland Browns in the same backfield as Jim Brown , but died of leukemia before being able to play professionally .
Syracuse played its first intercollegiate lacrosse game in 1916 , and captured its first USILA championship in 1920 . It won USILA championships in 1922 , 1924 , and 1925 . In the modern NCAA era , Syracuse is the first school to capture 11 National Championships , the most of any team in college lacrosse history . Most recently , Syracuse reached the men 's Division I championship game in 2013 after winning two championships in 2008 & 2009 seasons and reaching the quarterfinals in 2011 . However , the Orange lost 16 @-@ 10 to Duke University after leading 5 @-@ 0 early in the game . The women 's lacrosse team reached the NCAA Division I National Championship game for the first time in school history in 2012 , which they lost to Northwestern .
Toward the end of the 1970s , Syracuse University was under pressure to improve its football facilities in order to remain a NCAA Division I football school . Its small concrete stadium , Archbold Stadium , was seventy years old and not up to the standards of other schools . The stadium could not be expanded ; it had been reduced from 40 @,@ 000 seats to 26 @,@ 000 due to the fire codes . Syracuse University decided to build a new stadium . In 1978 , Archbold Stadium was demolished to make way for the Carrier Dome , which was to have a domed Teflon @-@ coated , fiberglass inflatable roof . It would also serve as the home for the men 's basketball team , as a replacement for Manley Field House . The Carrier Dome was constructed between April 1979 and September 1980 . The total construction cost was $ 26 @.@ 85 million , including a $ 2 @.@ 75 million naming gift from the Carrier Corporation .
= = Alumni = =
Among the individuals who have attended or graduated from Syracuse University include writers Stephen Crane , Joyce Carol Oates , John D. MacDonald , Shirley Jackson , and Alice Sebold ; William Safire , Pulitzer Prize winning commentator ; Cambridge University historian Sir Moses I. Finley ; Sir John Stanley , British Member of Parliament ; Arthur Rock , legendary venture capitalist and cofounder of Intel ; Vishal Sikka , CEO and MD of Infosys ; Donna Shalala , CEO of the Clinton Foundation ; Joe Biden , Vice President of the United States ; Robert Jarvik , inventor of the first artificial heart implanted into human beings ; Eileen Collins , first female commander of a Space Shuttle ; Prince Sultan bin Salman , first Arab , first Muslim and the youngest person to travel to space ; Robert Menschel , legendary partner / director at Goldman Sachs ; Samuel Irving Newhouse , Jr . , owner of Conde Nast publications ; Lowell Paxson , founder of Home Shopping Network ; musician Lou Reed ; David P. Weber , lawyer and certified fraud examiner , who reported misconduct in the Bernard L. Madoff and R. Allen Stanford frauds ; and Prince Al @-@ Waleed bin Talal , a prominent investor and member of the Saudi royal family . Emily C. Gorman , former director of the United States Women 's Army Corps , completed her graduate studies at Syracuse .
Alumni in journalism and broadcasting include Ted Koppel , Megyn Kelly , Michael Barkann , Bob Costas , Marv Albert , Len Berman , Marty Glickman , Beth Mowins , Dave Pasch , Sean McDonough , Ian Eagle , Dave O 'Brien , Dick Stockton , Arun Shourie , Mike Tirico , Brian Higgins , Adam Zucker , Larry Hryb ( an employee at Microsoft , former radio broadcaster for Clear Channel Communications ) , Steve Kroft of 60 Minutes , and Adam Schein of Mad Dog Sports Radio . "
Notable SU alumni in the performing arts include Dick Clark , Taye Diggs , Peter Falk , Frank Langella , Aaron Sorkin , Jessie Mueller , Rob Edwards , Jerry Stiller , Peter Weller , Lexington Steele , Vanessa L. Williams and Bill Viola .
Prominent athletes include Jim Brown , actor and NFL Hall of Famer with the Cleveland Browns , arguably the greatest running back of all time ; Ernie Davis , the first African @-@ American Heisman Trophy winner immortalized in the motion picture The Express ; Donovan McNabb , former NFL quarterback ; former Indianapolis Colts wide receiver Marvin Harrison ; Dwight Freeney , defensive end for the San Diego Chargers ; Carmelo Anthony , forward for the New York Knicks ; 7 @-@ time NBA All Star , pro basketball Hall of Famer and former Mayor of Detroit Dave Bing ; Tim Green , former Atlanta Falcons player , author , lawyer , and National Public Radio commentator ; Darryl Johnston , three @-@ time Super Bowl winner with the Dallas Cowboys in the 1990s ; Mikey Powell , who formerly played lacrosse for the Boston Cannons ; Floyd Little , who played for the Denver Broncos ; Kyle Johnson , who played the majority of his NFL career with the Denver Broncos ; John Mackey a member of the NFL Hall of Fame played for the legendary Baltimore Colts ( 1963 – 71 ) ; and Tom Coughlin , former New York Giants head coach .
= = Affiliations = =
= = = Affiliated institutions = = =
= = = = State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry = = = =
The College of Environmental Science and Forestry ( ESF ) has a long affiliation with Syracuse University , shares many campus resources , and operates its main academic campus immediately adjacent to Syracuse University . ESF was founded in 1911 as the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University , under the leadership of Syracuse University Trustee Louis Marshall , with the active support of Syracuse University Chancellor Day . Its founding followed the Governor 's veto of annual appropriations to a separate New York State College of Forestry at Cornell .
ESF is an autonomous institution , administratively separate from SU , while resources , facilities , and some infrastructure are shared . The two schools share a common Schedule of Classes ; students at both institutions may take courses at the other , and degrees from ESF bear the Syracuse University seal along with the State University of New York . A number of concurrent degree programs and certificates are offered between the schools , as well . The college receives an annual appropriation as part of the SUNY budget and the state builds and maintains all of the college 's educational facilities . The state has similar relationships with five statutory colleges that are at Alfred University and Cornell University .
ESF faculty , students , and students ' families join those from SU to take part in a joint convocation ceremony at the beginning of the academic year in August , and joint commencement exercises in May . ESF and SU students share access to libraries , recreational facilities , student clubs , and other activities at both institutions , except for the schools ' intercollegiate sports teams , affiliated with the NCAA and NAIA , respectively . First @-@ year ESF students live in the newly constructed Centennial Hall located on ESF 's main campus .
= = = = State University of New York Upstate Medical University = = = =
The medical school was formerly a college within SU , known as the Syracuse University Medical School . In 1950 , SU sold the medical school to the State University of New York system . Beginning in the fall of 2009 , a Master of Public Health degree program is now being offered by the two institutions . The program is the first of its kind in Central New York , and the first jointly offered by the two universities .
= = = Formerly affiliated institutions = = =
= = = = State University of New York at Binghamton = = = =
Binghamton University was established in 1946 as Triple Cities College , to serve the needs of local veterans of the Binghamton , New York area , who were returning from World War II . Established in Endicott , New York , the college was a branch of Syracuse University . Triple Cities College offered local students the first two years of their education , while the following two were spent at Syracuse University . In 1946 , students could earn their degrees entirely at the Binghamton campus . In 1950 , it was absorbed by the State University of New York and renamed Harpur College .
= = = = Utica College = = = =
Utica College , an independent private university located in Utica , New York , was founded by Syracuse University in 1946 . Utica College became independent from SU in 1995 , but still offers its students the option to receive a specialized bachelor 's degree from Syracuse University through a mutual relationship between the two schools .
= All in the Family ( Body of Proof ) =
" All in the Family " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on 3 May 2011 . The episode was directed by John Polson and written by Sam Humphrey .
In this episode , Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) investigate when a stay at home father is found by his wife Jen ( Molly Price ) , stabbed to death at their house . With the help of Detectives Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) they investigate , with all the evidence pointing towards the victims son , Mike ( Jake O 'Connor ) . Whilst the case is on @-@ going , Megan receives flashbacks to her childhood . Meanwhile , Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) is asked by Megan 's lawyer ex @-@ husband Todd Fleming ( Jeffrey Nordling ) to help him with a case .
The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 10 @.@ 20 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Critics called the episode both " dishearting " and " engaging " saying that " these characters and this episode was a winner for Body of Proof " . They also praised the partnership between Kate and Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) , calling the scenes " hysterical " and " funny " .
= = Plot = =
Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) arrive at the scene of Ed Russell ( David Shumbris ) , a stay at home father , who is found by his wife Jen ( Molly Price ) stabbed to death at their house , whilst their baby daughter Sophie is at home . When Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) goes to tell Ed 's son Mike ( Jake O 'Connor ) about his father ’ s death , Megan stops him , telling Bud to let his mother tell him . Megan has a flashback to when she was younger , focussing on when a young Megan ( Madeline Milne ) receives the news of her father ’ s death from a policeman , as the police did not know where her mother , Joan ( Joanna Cassidy ) , was at the time . Jen admits that she cleaned up some footprints ; she thought they were Mike 's . The attack on Ed was personal and after Detective Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) concludes that the attack on Ed was personal after she finds evidence to suggest Mike did indeed kill his father , such as negative emails . Mike protests his innocence , and Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) finds evidence which makes Mike innocent . Throughout the day , Megan tries to rebuild her relationship with Lacey ( Mary Mouser ) , carpooling Lacey and her friends
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, Sarah ( Teresa Celentano ) and Betsy ( Anna Friedman ) .
Megan 's lawyer ex @-@ husband Todd ( Jeffrey Nordling ) arrives at Megan 's work , needing forensic testing for evidence that his client Manny Santos ( Carlos Apostle ) , is a juvenile . Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) greets him , and she asks Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) to help examine him . Curtis finds evidence which suggests Manny has received recent trauma to ribs and other body parts , suggesting that he ’ s being abused . Curtis explains to Todd that Manny is a juvenile , but he will not be able to be released back to his former home , as he is being abused there . Meanwhile , the evidence for the murderer fits a partial match to Mike , so Megan concludes that Ed is not Mike 's father . She goes to visit Jen ; however she slams the door in her face . Megan walks into her house and finds Mike 's real father Tim ( Timothy Devlin ) , holding Ed 's and Jen 's baby daughter hostage . Tim takes Jen into the garden when the police arrive , so Bud shoots him in the leg and arrests him and Jen is reunited with Sophie and Mike .
= = Production = =
" All in the Family " was written by Sam Humphrey and directed by John Polson , most known for founding Tropfest , the world 's largest short film festival , which first took place in Australia . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actress Molly Price – best known for her role in Third Watch as Faith Yokas – guest starred in the episode as Jen Russell . Although Joanna Cassidy , who plays Megan 's mother Joan Hunt , does not appear , she is mentioned in flashback scenes . These flashback scenes show a young Megan , played by child actress Madeline Milne . Recurring cast members Jeffrey Nordling and Mary Mouser returned in this episode , with this being Mouser 's first appearance since season one 's fourth episode " Talking Heads " and Nordling 's first appearance since seasons one 's first episode , " Pilot " .
" All in the Family " , along with the eight episode 's from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on 3 May 2011 , " All in the Family " was seen by 10 @.@ 20 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share . This means that it was seen by 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a much lower amount of viewers than the previous episode , " Society Hill " , but a higher amount than subsequent episode " Buried Secrets " . Body of Proof came fifth in the ratings on Tuesday night , it was outperformed by two episodes of CBS 's NCIS and an episode of The Good Wife and NBC 's The Voice . " All in the Family " was watched by 1 @.@ 73 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
This episode received positive reviews . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic said she found the episode both " dishearting " and " engaging " , as well as later adding that it was " sad " and " frightening " when Jake O 'Connor was accused of murdering his father . Writing about the final scene which shows Megan enter the Russell ’ s house , she said that she wanted to " smack " Megan for doing so , saying " What was she thinking ? She knew Scanlon had committed the murder and that Jen was acting strangely when she wouldn 't let her in . Yet , she went back to find the door open and walked right in . Megan 's intelligent enough to know that something wasn 't right but she 's unarmed and untrained to handle the situation . For some reason she seemed incapable of making the smart decision to wait for the real police " . Orlando said of the flashback scenes that she hopes in future episodes they " delve deeper " into Megan 's father 's death , saying that it was " certainly a turning point for the character and I 'd love to know more " . She said it was " nice " to see scenes between Peter and Megan and said of the carpooling storyline , " Snacks for carpool didn 't seem like a bad idea but they could have used a couple of healthier options to go with the chocolate " . Of Curtis and Kate 's examining Manny Santos , she said that their expressions were " hysterical " and " funny " when they decided whether Manny was a juvenile , adding that it gave " a much needed moment of comic relief in an otherwise heavy episode " . She finished in saying that the episode " grabbed her attention " , finishing , " These engaging characters and this episode was a winner for Body of Proof " . In the carpooling storyline it featured Tastykake 's products , a line of snack foods based in Philadelphia . Such products which were mentioned were Krimpets and KandyKakes , with the ABC saying they were the " best " .
= Vincent van Gogh =
Vincent Willem van Gogh ( Dutch : [ ˈvɪnsɛnt ˈʋɪləm vɑn ˈɣɔx ] ; 30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890 ) was a Dutch Post @-@ Impressionist painter whose work had a far @-@ reaching influence on 20th @-@ century art . In just over a decade he produced over 2100 artworks , including around 860 oil paintings , the majority created in the last two years of his life . They include portraits , self @-@ portraits , landscapes , still lifes , olive trees , cypresses , wheat fields and sunflowers , and are characterised by symbolic colourisation and dramatic , impulsive and highly expressive paintwork . He sold only one painting during his lifetime and was largely unnoticed by critics until his suicide , aged 37 , which followed years of restless anxiety , poverty and mental illness .
Born into an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family , Van Gogh drew as a child , was thoughtful and intellectual but evidenced signs of mental instability . He worked as an art dealer as a young man , but became depressed after he was transferred to London . He turned to religion , spending time as a preacher in southern Belgium , and later drifting in ill health and solitude . He was keenly aware of modernist trends in art , music and literature , and after moving back home with his parents , took up painting in 1881 ; supported financially by his younger brother Theo with whom he had a long correspondence of letters . His early works are mostly depictions of common and peasant labourers , and contain few signs of the vivid colourisation that distinguished his mature period . In 1886 he moved to Paris and discovered the French Impressionists . From then his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in 1888 . There he lived in the so @-@ called " Yellow house " , and with Paul Gauguin developed a concept of colour that would symbolise inner emotion .
Van Gogh suffered from continued psychotic episodes and delusions . His friendship with Gauguin came to an end after a violent encounter during which he threatened the Frenchman with a razor , and in a rage , cut off most of his own right ear . He committed himself to a psychiatric hospital in Saint @-@ Remy , where his condition stabilised , leading to one of the more productive periods of his life . After he moved to Auberge Ravoux ( now a French historic landmark ) in the village of Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise under the care of the homeopathic doctor and artist , Dr. Gachet . While he was there , Theo wrote that he could no longer support him financially ; a few weeks later , on 27 July 1890 , Van Gogh walked into a wheat field and shot himself in the chest with a revolver . He died two days later .
Considered a madman and failure in his lifetime , Van Gogh 's emotionally charged paintings , spontaneous vivid colours , broad oil brushstrokes and early death have led to his current position in the public imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius . His widespread critical , commercial and popular success began after his adoption by the early 20th @-@ century German Expressionists and Fauves . His reputation grew steadily during the 20th century ; today he is remembered as an important but tragic painter , whose troubled personality typifies the romantic ideal of the tortured artist . Art historians typically view him as an exceptionally talented , major influential artist whose mental instability inhibited and frustrated his artistic progression .
= = Letters = =
The most comprehensive primary source for understanding Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother , the art dealer Theo van Gogh , who saved all of his brother 's letters . Theo provided his brother with financial and emotional support , and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene . The brothers ' lifelong friendship and most of what is known of Vincent 's thoughts and theories of art is recorded in the hundreds of letters they exchanged between 1872 and 1890 . There are more than 600 from Vincent to Theo , and 40 from Theo to Vincent . Many are undated , but art historians have been able to mostly place them in chronological order . Problems remain , mainly with those from Arles . While there , Vincent wrote around 200 letters , in Dutch , French and English . The period when he lived in Paris is the most difficult to analyse because the brothers lived together and had no need to correspond . Along with those to and from Theo there are other surviving letters , including to Van Rappard , Émile Bernard , Van Gogh 's sister Wil and her friend Line Kruysse .
The letters were annotated by Theo 's widow , Johanna van Gogh @-@ Bonger , who later said that she was reluctant to publish because she wanted to avoid details of the artist 's life overshadowing his work . She had the letters published in 1913 . Art historian and editor of the letters Arnold Pomerans writes : " For the serious reader and the art historian , the publication of these letters added a fresh dimension to the understanding of Van Gogh 's artistic achievement , an understanding granted us by virtually no other painter . "
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on 30 March 1853 in Groot @-@ Zundert , in the predominantly Catholic province of North Brabant in the southern Netherlands . He was the oldest surviving child of Theodorus van Gogh , a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church , and Anna Cornelia Carbentus . Vincent was given the name of his grandfather , and of a brother stillborn exactly a year before his birth . His father , Theodorus , was a clergyman , his mother came from a petite bourgeoisie family in The Hague . The two met when Anna 's younger sister , Cornelia , married Theodorus 's older brother Vincent ( Cent ) . Vincent 's parents married in May 1851 and moved to Zundert . Anna was a rigid and religious woman who raised her family in accordance with Victorian respectability . She emphasised the importance of family to the point of claustrophobia for those around her . Vincent was a common name in the family : his grandfather , Vincent ( 1789 – 1874 ) , received a degree in theology at the University of Leiden in 1811 , and had six sons , three of whom became art dealers . His brother Theo was born on 1 May 1857 . There was another brother , Cor , and three sisters : Elisabeth , Anna , and Willemina ( known as " Wil " ) . In later life Vincent remained in touch only with Willemina and Theo .
The family took walks together , and gardened in Anna 's large flower garden . Meals were important , family history was recited and they read aloud each night . In Zundert they represented the top of the social hierarchy . Although Theodorus ' salary was modest , the Church supplied the family with a house , a maid , two cooks , a gardener , a carriage and horse , and Anna instilled in the children a duty to uphold the family 's social position .
Vincent took after his fretful mother . He resembled her , moved quickly like her , learned to draw from her , and as a child his attachment was strong , but as he grew older he perceived her coldness toward him as rejection . Naifeh and Smith describe him as a difficult child to raise . The frequent and severe punishment he endured at the hand of his parents alienated him from the home and he turned to nature . He enjoyed exploring the countryside alone , taking long walks , often at night in the rain . He was devoted to his brother Theo , four years younger , but the attachment was strained during these years .
A serious and thoughtful child , Vincent was taught at home by Anna and a governess , and in 1860 was sent to the village school . In 1864 he was placed in a boarding school at Zevenbergen , where he felt abandoned , and campaigned to come home . In 1866 he moved to the middle school in Tilburg , where he was deeply unhappy . Vincent 's interest in art began at a young age ; his early drawings are expressive , but do not approach the intensity developed in his later work . Constantijn C. Huysmans , a successful artist in Paris , taught the students at Tilburg . His philosophy was to reject technique in favour of capturing the impressions of things , particular nature or common objects . Vincent 's profound unhappiness seems to have overshadowed the lessons and had little effect . In March 1868 , Van Gogh abruptly returned home . Later he wrote that his youth was " gloomy and cold and sterile . "
In July 1869 , Vincent 's uncle Cent obtained a position for him at the art dealers Goupil & Cie in The Hague . Just after Christmas in 1871 his parents moved from Zundert to Helvoirt . After completing his training in 1873 , Vincent was transferred to Goupil 's London branch , at 17 Southampton Street , and took lodgings at 87 Hackford Road , Stockwell . This was a happy time for Vincent ; he was successful at work , and at 20 was earning more than his father . Theo 's wife later remarked that this was the best year of his life .
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He became infatuated with his landlady 's daughter , Eugénie Loyer , but was rejected after confessing his feelings ; she was secretly engaged to a former lodger . Vincent grew more isolated , and religiously fervent . His father and uncle arranged a transfer to Paris , where he became difficult and resentful at issues such as the commodification of art , and was eventually dismissed by Goupil .
Vincent returned to England , taking unpaid work as a supply teacher in a small boarding school in Ramsgate . When the proprietor relocated to Isleworth , Middlesex , Van Gogh moved with him . The arrangement did not work out and he left to become a Methodist minister 's assistant . His parents had meanwhile moved to Etten ; in 1876 he returned home at Christmas for six months and took work at a bookshop in Dordrecht . He was unhappy in the position and spent his time either doodling or translating passages from the Bible into English , French and German . He immersed himself in religion , became increasingly pious and monastic . According to his room @-@ mate of the time , ( Paulus van Görlitz ) , Van Gogh ate frugally , avoiding meat .
To support Vincent 's religious convictions and his desire to become a pastor , in 1877 the family sent him to stay with an uncle in Amsterdam to begin studies in theology . Vincent prepared for the entrance examination with his uncle Johannes Stricker , a respected theologian . He failed the exam , and left his uncle Jan 's house in July 1878 . He undertook , but also failed , a three @-@ month course at the Vlaamsche Opleidingsschool , a Protestant missionary school in Laeken , near Brussels .
In January 1879 , Vincent took a post as a missionary at Petit Wasmes in the coal @-@ mining district of Borinage in Belgium . As a show of support for his impoverished congregation , he gave up his comfortable lodgings at a bakery to a homeless person , and moved to a small hut where he slept on straw . His squalid living conditions did not endear him to church authorities , who dismissed him for " undermining the dignity of the priesthood " . He then walked the 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) to Brussels , returned briefly to Cuesmes in the Borinage , but gave in to pressure from his parents to return home to Etten . He stayed there until around March 1880 , which caused concern and frustration for his parents . There was particular conflict between Vincent and his father , who considered committing him to the lunatic asylum at Geel .
Vincent returned to Cuesmes , where he lodged with a miner until October . He was interested in the people and scenes around him , and recorded his time there in his drawings after Theo 's suggestion that he take up art in earnest . He travelled to Brussels later in the year , to follow Theo 's recommendation that he study with the Dutch artist Willem Roelofs , who persuaded him – in spite of his aversion to formal schools of art – to attend the Académie Royale des Beaux @-@ Arts . He registered at the Académie in November 1880 , where he studied anatomy and the standard rules of modeling and perspective .
= = = Etten , Drenthe and The Hague = = =
Van Gogh returned to Etten in April 1881 for an extended stay with his parents . He continued to draw , often using his neighbours as subjects . In August 1881 , he went on long walks with his recently widowed cousin , Kee Vos @-@ Stricker , daughter of his mother 's older sister Willamina and Johannes Stricker . Kee was seven years older and had an eight @-@ year @-@ old son . Vincent surprised everyone by declaring to her his love and proposing marriage . She refused with the words " No , nay , never " ( " nooit , neen , nimmer " ) . After Kee went back to Amsterdam , Van Gogh went to The Hague to sell paintings and to meet with his cousin , Anton Mauve . Van Gogh wanted to apprentice himself to Mauve who was successful , had a nice studio , was , according to Naifeh and Smith , " the artist Vincent wanted to be " . Mauve invited Van Gogh to return in a few months and suggested he spend the time working in charcoal and pastels ; Van Gogh went back to Etten and followed that advice .
Late that November , Van Gogh wrote a strongly worded letter to Johannes Stricker , and left for Amsterdam . Kee would not meet him , her parents wrote that his " persistence is disgusting . " In desperation , he held his left hand in the flame of a lamp , with the words : " Let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame . " He did not recall the event well , but later assumed that his uncle blew out the flame . Kee 's father made it clear that her refusal should be heeded and that the two would not marry , largely because of Van Gogh 's inability to support himself .
From Amsterdam , Van Gogh returned to The Hague and asked Mauve to take him on as a student . Mauve introduced him to watercolours , which Van Gogh spent the next month working on , before his father came to take him home for Christmas . That Christmas he refused to attend church , quarreling with his father as a result , and left the same day for The Hague . He relocated to The Hague in January 1882 . Mauve introduced him to painting in oil and lent him money to set up a studio . Within the month , they fell out , possibly over the viability of drawing from plaster casts . Van Gogh could only afford to hire people from the street as models , which Mauve seems to have disapproved of . In June he suffered a bout of gonorrhoea and spent three weeks in hospital . Soon after , he first began to paint in oil , using money borrowed from Theo . He liked the medium , and spread the oils liberally , scraping from the canvas and working back with the brush . He wrote that he was surprised at how good the results were .
Mauve seems to have suddenly gone cold towards Van Gogh and stopped replying to his letters . Van Gogh supposed that Mauve had learned of his new domestic arrangement with an alcoholic prostitute , Clasina Maria " Sien " Hoornik ( 1850 – 1904 ) , and her young daughter . He had met Sien towards the end of January 1883 , when she had a five @-@ year @-@ old daughter and was pregnant . She had previously borne two children who died , but Van Gogh was unaware of this ; on 2 July , she gave birth to a baby boy , Willem . When Van Gogh 's father discovered the details of their relationship , he put pressure on his son to abandon Sien and her two children . Vincent at first defied him , and considered moving the family out of the city , but in late 1883 he left Sien and the children . Perhaps lack of money pushed Sien back into prostitution ; the home became less happy and Van Gogh may have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development . Sien gave her daughter to her mother , and baby Willem to her brother .
Willem remembered a visit with his mother in Rotterdam around aged 12 , when his uncle tried to persuade Sien to marry in order to legitimise the child . Willem recalled his mother saying , " But I know who the father is . He was an artist I lived with nearly 20 years ago in The Hague . His name was Van Gogh . " She then turned to Willem and said " You are called after him . " He believed Van Gogh was his father , but the timing of his birth makes this unlikely . In 1904 , Sien drowned herself in the River Scheldt . Van Gogh moved to the Dutch province of Drenthe , in the northern Netherlands . That December , driven by loneliness , he went to stay with his parents , who had been posted to Nuenen , North Brabant .
= = = Emerging artist = = =
= = = = Nuenen and Antwerp ( 1883 – 86 ) = = = =
In Nuenen , Van Gogh focused on painting and drawing . He completed several sketches and paintings of weavers and their cottages . In late 1884 , Margot Begemann , a neighbour 's daughter and ten years his senior , often joined him on his painting forays . She fell in love , and he reciprocated – though less enthusiastically . They decided to marry , but the idea was opposed by both families . As a result , Margot took an overdose of strychnine . She was saved when Van Gogh rushed her to a nearby hospital . On 26 March 1885 , his father died of a heart attack .
There was interest from collectors in Paris . In May he completed his first major work , The Potato Eaters , and the series of " peasant character studies " ; the culmination of several years of work . In August his work was first exhibited in the windows of the paint dealer Leurs in The Hague . After one of his young peasant sitters became pregnant that September , Van Gogh was accused of forcing himself upon her and the village priest forbade parishioners to model for him .
Van Gogh painted several groups of still lifes in 1885 . During his two @-@ year stay in Nuenen , he completed numerous drawings and watercolours and nearly 200 oil paintings . His palette consisted mainly of sombre earth tones , particularly dark brown , and showed no sign of the vivid colouration that distinguishes his later work . When he complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris , his brother responded that the paintings were too dark and not in line with the current style of bright Impressionist paintings . Van Gogh moved to Antwerp in November 1885 , where he rented a small room above a paint dealer 's shop in the Rue des Images ( Lange Beeldekensstraat ) . He lived in poverty and ate poorly , preferring to spend the money Theo sent on painting materials and models . Bread , coffee and tobacco were his staple intake . In February 1886 , he wrote to Theo saying that he could only remember eating six hot meals since May 1885 . His teeth became loose and painful . In Antwerp he applied himself to the study of colour theory and spent time in museums — particularly studying the work of Peter Paul Rubens — and broadened his palette to carmine , cobalt blue and emerald green . Van Gogh bought Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodcuts in the docklands , later incorporating elements of their style into the background of some of his paintings .
Van Gogh began again to drink heavily , especially absinthe . He was treated by Amadeus Cavenaile , possibly for syphilis ; the treatment of alum irrigation and sitz baths was jotted down by Van Gogh in one of his notebooks . Despite his rejection of academic teaching , he took the higher @-@ level admission exams at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp , and in January 1886 matriculated in painting and drawing . For most of February , he was ill and run down by overwork , a poor diet and excessive smoking .
= = = = Paris ( 1886 – 88 ) = = = =
Van Gogh relocated to Paris in March 1886 , beginning a series of moves that the art historian Melissa McQuillan believes also reflects later changes " in style , his reorientation of his enterprise [ which ] might be linked " . She believes that " moving on became a way of avoiding conflict , " and a coping mechanism for when the highly idealistic artist was faced with the realities of his then current situation .
In Paris he shared Theo 's Rue Laval apartment in Montmartre , and studied at Fernand Cormon 's studio . In June , they took a larger flat at 54 Rue Lepic . Because they had no need to write letters to communicate with each other , little is known about this stay in Paris . In Paris , he painted portraits of friends and acquaintances , still life paintings , views of Le Moulin de la Galette , scenes in Montmartre , Asnières , and along the Seine . During his stay , he collected more Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints ; he became interested in Japonaiserie when , in 1885 in Antwerp , he used them to decorate the walls of his studio . He collected hundreds of prints . In The Courtesan or Oiran ( after Kesai Eisen ) ( 1887 ) , Van Gogh traced the figure from a reproduction on the cover of the magazine Paris Illustre , which he then graphically enlarged in the painting .
After seeing the portrait of Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli at the Galerie Delareybarette , Van Gogh adopted a brighter palette and a bolder attack , particularly in paintings such as his Seascape at Saintes @-@ Maries ( 1888 ) . Two years later , Vincent and Theo paid for the publication of a book on Monticelli paintings , and Vincent bought some of his works to add to his collection .
For months , Van Gogh worked at Cormon 's studio , where he frequented the circle of the Australian artist John Peter Russell , and met fellow students Émile Bernard , Louis Anquetin and Henri de Toulouse @-@ Lautrec – who painted a portrait of Van Gogh with pastel . The group congregated at Julien " Père " Tanguy 's paint store ( which was , at that time , the only place where Paul Cézanne 's paintings were displayed ) . He had easy access to Impressionist works in Paris . In 1886 , two large exhibitions were staged , in which Neo @-@ Impressionism was first exhibited , bringing attention to Georges Seurat and Paul Signac . Though Theo kept a stock of Impressionist paintings in his gallery on Boulevard Montmartre , Van Gogh seemingly had problems acknowledging the new developments in art .
Conflicts arose between the brothers . At the end of 1886 , Theo found that living with Vincent was " almost unbearable " . By early 1887 , they were again at peace , and Vincent had moved to Asnières , a northwestern suburb of Paris , where he became acquainted with Signac . He adopted elements of Pointillism , a technique in which a multitude of small coloured dots are applied to the canvas such that – when seen from a distance – they create an optical blend of hues . The style stresses the value of complementary colours – including blue and orange – to form vibrant contrasts that are enhanced when juxtaposed .
While in Asnières , Van Gogh painted parks and restaurants and the Seine , including Bridges across the Seine at Asnières . In November 1887 , Theo and Vincent befriended Paul Gauguin who had just arrived in Paris . Towards the end of the year , Vincent arranged an exhibition alongside Bernard , Anquetin , and probably Toulouse @-@ Lautrec , at the Grand @-@ Bouillon Restaurant du Chalet , 43 Avenue de Clichy , Montmartre . In a contemporary account , Bernard wrote that the exhibition was ahead of anything else in Paris . There Bernard and Anquetin sold their first paintings , and Van Gogh exchanged work with Gauguin . Discussions on art , artists , and their social situations started during this exhibition , and continued and expanded to include visitors to the show , like Pissarro and his son Lucien , Signac and Seurat . In February 1888 , feeling worn out from life in Paris , he left , having painted over 200 paintings during his two years there . Only hours before his departure , accompanied by Theo , he paid his first and only visit to Seurat in his studio .
= = = Artistic breakthrough , final years = = =
= = = = Arles ( 1888 – 89 ) = = = =
Ill from drink and suffering from smoker 's cough , Van Gogh sought refuge in Arles . He seems to have moved with thoughts of founding a utopian art colony ; The Danish artist Christian Mourier @-@ Petersen became his companion for two months , and at first Arles appeared exotic . In a letter , he described it as a foreign country : " The Zouaves , the brothels , the adorable little Arlésienne going to their First Communion , the priest in his surplice , who looks like a dangerous rhinoceros , the people drinking absinthe , all seem to me creatures from another world . "
Van Gogh was enchanted by the local landscape and light and his works from this period are richly draped in yellow , ultramarine and mauve . He made several excursions into nature during his time there . His paintings include harvests , wheat fields and general rural landmarks from the area , including The Old Mill ( 1888 ) , a picturesque structure bordering the wheat fields . This was one of seven canvases sent to Pont @-@ Aven on 4 October 1888 in an exchange for works with Paul Gauguin , Émile Bernard , Charles Laval and others . Van Gogh 's portrayals of the Arles landscape are informed by his Dutch upbringing ; the patchwork of fields and avenues appear flat and lacking perspective , but excel in their colourisation . His newfound appreciation is seen in the range and scope of his work . That March he painted landscapes using a gridded " perspective frame " ; three of which were shown at the annual exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants . In April , he was visited by the American artist Dodge MacKnight , who was living nearby at Fontvieille . On 1 May , he signed a lease for 15 francs per month in the eastern wing of the Yellow House at No. 2 Place Lamartine . The rooms were unfurnished and uninhabited for some time .
He moved from the Hôtel Carrel to the Café de la Gare on 7 May , having befriended the proprietors , Joseph and Marie Ginoux . The Yellow House had to be furnished before he could fully move in , but Van Gogh was able to use it as a studio . He wanted a gallery to display his work , a series of paintings including Van Gogh 's Chair ( 1888 ) , Bedroom in Arles ( 1888 ) , The Night Café ( 1888 ) , Cafe Terrace at Night ( September 1888 ) , Starry Night Over the Rhone ( 1888 ) , and Still Life : Vase with Twelve Sunflowers ( 1888 ) , all intended for the décoration for the Yellow House . Van Gogh wrote that with The Night Café he tried " to express the idea that the café is a place where one can ruin oneself , go mad , or commit a crime . " In his letters he said that he sought to express the " terrible passions of humanity " by means of red and green . When he visited Saintes @-@ Maries @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Mer that June , he gave lessons to a Zouave second lieutenant – Paul @-@ Eugène Milliet – and painted boats on the sea and the village . MacKnight introduced Van Gogh to Eugène Boch , a Belgian painter who stayed at times in Fontvieille , and the two exchanged visits in July .
= = = = Gauguin 's visit = = = =
When Gauguin agreed to visit Arles , Van Gogh hoped for friendship , and the realisation of his utopian idea of an artists ' collective . While waiting that August he painted sunflowers . When Boch visited again , Van Gogh painted a portrait of him , as well as the study The Poet Against a Starry Sky . Boch 's sister Anna ( 1848 – 1936 ) , also an artist , purchased The Red Vineyard in 1890 .
In preparation for Gauguin 's visit , Van Gogh bought two beds on advice from his friend , the station 's postal supervisor Joseph Roulin , whose portrait he painted . On 17 September he spent the first night in the still sparsely furnished Yellow House . When Gauguin consented to work and live in Arles with him , Van Gogh started to work on
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an overexcited VP of Product Development " .
= = = Technology = = =
Unlike Looking Glass ' previous first @-@ person games — Ultima Underworld , Ultima Underworld II and System Shock — Terra Nova takes place in outdoor environments . The game 's engine supports weather conditions , day and night environments , real @-@ time water reflections and moving clouds , among other effects . Most of the work on the outdoor renderer was done by programmer Eric Twietmeyer ; however , contemporary computers were not powerful enough to display fully three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) outdoor environments . The problem was solved by programmer James Fleming : the game 's engine renders and applies textures to foreground objects in full 3D graphics , but — according to PC Gamer US — it displays a " bitmapped background in the distance " to provide the " illusion of detail " . As with Flight Unlimited and the CD @-@ ROM release of System Shock , Terra Nova was designed to support head @-@ mounted displays . The game features QSound technology . Describing QSound 's effect before the game 's release , Suzanne Kantra Kirschner of Popular Science wrote that " you 'll hear the rustle of leaves from the right speaker a split second before you hear it in the left [ , ] signaling you that the enemy is approaching from the right " .
The game 's characters are procedurally animated via simulated physics models and inverse kinematics ( IK ) — a system designed by programmer Seamus Blackley . Basic physics are used to move character models through the environment , and the models are animated by the IK system in accordance with this movement . Designer Richard Wyckoff later compared the character physics to those of a marble , and Schmidt described the technique as akin to putting each character in a hamster ball . The system 's imperfect nature can result in animation glitches . A more realistic simulation of bipedal movement was originally planned , but it was simplified before release because of coding difficulties . Schmidt later said that the original method " almost always worked " , but that " every thirty minutes someone would put their foot down slightly wrong ... and then go flying off across the map " . A physics model is also used to simulate weapon recoil , the arc of projectiles and the gravity of each planet ; for example , projectiles travel farther in low gravity environments .
= = Reception = =
Although Terra Nova sold more than 100 @,@ 000 units , it was a commercial failure because it did not recoup its development costs . Designer Tim Stellmach later characterized its performance as " a disaster " . Despite this , the game was acclaimed by critics , and several publications drew comparisons to the 1995 video game MechWarrior 2 : 31st Century Combat .
John Payne of The Washington Post wrote , " Depending on your point of view , Terra Nova is either a stripped @-@ down Mechwarrior or a souped @-@ up Doom . " However , he stated that it was enjoyable regardless of which perspective was taken . While he described the game 's animation as " fluid " , he found its graphics in general to be " fairly blocky , even at a distance " . He finished his review by stating that the game " requires more practice than action fans are used to " but provides " a nice payoff " . Next Generation Magazine wrote , " Looking Glass has always been known for breaking the barriers of conventional gameplay , and it has done it again with Terra Nova " . The magazine considered the game to be " an all around stunning effort " .
The Sunday Star @-@ Times ' Peter Eley found the game to be extremely complex , and he noted the originality of its " real @-@ time , full motion and 3D combat simulation " . He called its sound and music " stunning " but found that its graphics " aren 't as crisp as some other games " , and he described performance issues . Lee Perkins of The Age also found the game 's performance and graphics lacking , but he said , " In spite of its visual shortcomings , Terra Nova has the same level of inherent player appeal as System Shock " . He concluded that the game 's " tactical demands ... are probably its strongest point " , and that it " isn 't quite up in the Mechwarrior 2 league , [ but ] it 's making some very loud noises with avid mech @-@ combat fans " . Computer Games Strategy Plus ' Tim Royal offered similar praise for its strategic elements ; however , like the other two , he noted the game 's performance issues , and he called its graphics " above average , but not mind @-@ boggling " . He finished , " I ... won 't say it beats System Shock . It doesn 't . ... But Terra Nova offers a wonderful variety of terrain , mission types , and scenarios " .
William Wong of Computer Shopper called it " a great game that is backed by good graphics and sound , and will keep you going for hours " ; he also praised its cutscenes . He concluded , " If the [ upcoming ] multiplayer pack is as good as the standalone version , Terra Nova could be a strike force to be reckoned with . " PC Gamer UK 's James Flynn praised the game 's graphics , sense of realism , and free @-@ form missions ; about the latter , he wrote , " There 's no right or wrong way to complete any of the missions in Terra Nova , and this is one of its strongest assets . " He noted that it was " virtually impossible to recommend " the game to those with lower @-@ end computers , but he believed that it was also " impossible to condemn Looking Glass for programming the game this way , because it feels so real , and its authenticity is what makes it so much fun " . Daniel Jevons of Maximum approved of the graphics but disliked the focus on long @-@ range combat and the use of the mouse to move a crosshair rather than the entire viewpoint . However , he concluded that the game " has a degree of depth that most robot combat games lack , the plot is strangely involving and despite the initial control difficulties , with perseverance most competent gamers will soon be stomping around the battlefields " . Michael E. Ryan of PC Magazine praised the game 's artificial intelligence and called its graphical quality " spectacular " , but found its movement controls to be " awkward " . He concluded , " Terra Nova is an exceptional game that combines frenetic , fast @-@ paced action with real @-@ time squad @-@ level tactics . It doesn 't get much better than this " .
= = = Legacy = = =
The New York Times has cited Terra Nova as one of the first 3D games with squad @-@ oriented gameplay . GameSpy 's Bill Hiles said that the game " preceded the ' tactical squad @-@ based , first @-@ person shooter ' action genre by a full two years " , and that " In 1996 , ... Terra Nova didn 't feel like any other game out there " . Hiles called Tribes 2 " a spiritual descendent of Terra Nova if there ever was one " . Project leader Dan Schmidt later said that he had " a bit of a negative experience overall because the thing dragged on forever " , but he noted that " there are people who regard it highly so it can 't have been that terrible " . The 1998 video game Jurassic Park : Trespasser features a procedural animation system very similar to the one used in Terra Nova .
While Schmidt said before the game 's release that the team wanted to develop " a whole series of games that take place in the Terra Nova world " , the game 's poor sales made the creation of a sequel " impractical " , according to Paul Neurath . As the game 's publisher , Looking Glass took on the full burden of its commercial underperformance , which contributed to the company 's bankruptcy and closure in May 2000 . Neurath later said , " If we could do Terra Nova over , I would have dumped the cinematics and done online team play instead . Who knows , maybe then the Tribes II and Halo teams would be talking about the influence of Terra Nova on their games " .
= Weather ship =
A weather ship , or Ocean Station Vessel , was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather forecasting . They were primarily located in the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans , reporting via radio . In addition to their weather reporting function , these vessels aided in search and rescue operations , supported transatlantic flights , acted as research platforms for oceanographers , monitored marine pollution , and aided weather forecasting both by weather forecasters and within computerized atmospheric models . Research vessels remain heavily used in oceanography , including physical oceanography and the integration of meteorological and climatological data in Earth system science .
The idea of a stationary weather ship was proposed as early as 1921 by Météo @-@ France to help support shipping and the coming of transatlantic aviation . They were used during World War II but had no means of defense , which led to the loss of several ships and many lives . On the whole , the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II for Europe and North America that the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) established a global network of weather ships in 1948 , with 13 to be supplied by Canada , the United States , and Europe . This number was eventually negotiated down to nine . The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1985 .
Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies , as commercial shipping tended to avoid weather systems for safety reasons , whereas the weather ships did not . They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea , such as tropical cyclones . Beginning in the 1970s , their role was largely superseded by weather buoys because of the ships ' significant cost . The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987 . The last weather ship was Polarfront , known as weather station M ( " Mike " ) , which was removed from operation on January 1 , 2010 . Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation .
= = Function = =
The primary purpose of an ocean weather vessel was to take surface and upper air weather measurements , and report them via radio at the synoptic hours of 0000 , 0600 , 1200 , and 1800 Universal Coordinated Time ( UTC ) . Weather ships also reported observations from merchant vessels , which were reported by radio back to their country of origin using a code based on the 16 @-@ kilometer ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) square in the ocean within which the ship was located . The vessels were involved in search and rescue operations involving aircraft and other ships . The vessels themselves had search radar and could activate a homing beacon to guide lost aircraft towards the ships ' known locations . Each ship 's homing beacon used a distinctly different frequency . In addition , the ships provided a platform where scientific and oceanographic research could be conducted . The role of aircraft support gradually changed after 1975 , as jet aircraft began using polar routes . By 1982 , the ocean weather vessel role had changed too , and the ships were used to support short range weather forecasting , in numerical weather prediction computer programs which forecast weather conditions several days ahead , for climatological studies , marine forecasting , and oceanography , as well as monitoring pollution out at sea . At the same time , the transmission of the weather data using Morse code was replaced by a system using telex @-@ over @-@ radio .
= = Origin = =
The director of France 's meteorological service , Météo @-@ France , proposed the idea of a stationary weather ship in 1921 in order to aid shipping and the coming of transatlantic flights . Another early proposal for weather ships occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927 , when the aircraft designer Grover Loening stated that " weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range , would result in regular ocean flights within ten years . " During 1936 and 1937 , the British Meteorological Office ( Met Office ) installed a meteorologist aboard a North Atlantic cargo steamer to take special surface weather observations and release pilot balloons to measure the winds aloft at the synoptic hours of 0000 , 0600 , 1200 , and 1800 UTC . In 1938 and 1939 , France established a merchant ship as the first stationary weather ship , which took surface observations and launched radiosondes to measure weather conditions aloft .
Starting in 1939 , United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce , as a response to the crash of Pan American World Airways Hawaii Clipper during a transpacific flight in 1938 . The Atlantic Weather Observation Service was authorized by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on January 25 , 1940 . The Germans began to use weather ships in the summer of 1940 . However , three of their four ships had been sunk by November 23 , which led to the use of fishing vessels for the German weather ship fleet . Their weather ships were out to sea for three to five weeks at a time and German weather observations were enciphered using Enigma machines . By February 1941 , five 327 @-@ foot ( 100 m ) United States Coast Guard cutters were used in weather patrol , usually deployed for three weeks at a time , then sent back to port for ten days . As World War II continued , the cutters were needed for the war effort and by August 1942 , six cargo vessels had replaced them . The ships were defenseless , which led to the loss of the USCGC Muskeget ( WAG @-@ 48 ) with 121 aboard on September 9 , 1942 . In 1943 , the United States Weather Bureau recognized their observations as " indispensable " during the war effort .
The flying of fighter planes between North America , Greenland , and Iceland led to the deployment of two more weather ships in 1943 and 1944 . Great Britain established one of their own 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) off their west coast . By May 1945 , frigates were used across the Pacific for similar operations . Weather Bureau personnel stationed on weather ships were asked voluntarily to accept the assignment . In addition to surface weather observations , the weather ships would launch radiosondes and release pilot balloons , or PIBALs , to determine weather conditions aloft . However , after the war ended , the ships were withdrawn from service , which led to a loss of upper air weather observations over the oceans . Due to its value , operations resumed after World War II as a result of an international agreement made in September 1946 , which stated that no fewer than 13 ocean weather stations would be maintained by the Coast Guard , with five others maintained by Great Britain and two by Brazil .
= = History of the fleet = =
= = = Late 1940s = = =
The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) had established a global network of 13 weather ships by 1948 , with seven operated by the United States , one operated jointly by the United States and Canada , two supplied by the United Kingdom , one maintained by France , one a joint venture by the Netherlands and Belgium , and one shared by the United Kingdom , Norway , and Sweden . The United Kingdom used Royal Navy corvettes to operate their two stations , and staffed crews of 53 Met Office personnel . The ships were out at sea for 27 days , and in port for 15 days . Their first ship was deployed on July 31 , 1947 .
During 1949 , the Weather Bureau planned to increase the number of United States Coast Guard weather ships in the Atlantic from five at the beginning of the year to eight by its end . Weather Bureau employees aboard the vessels worked 40 to 63 hours per week . Weather ship G ( " George " ) was dropped from the network on July 1 , 1949 , and Navy weather ship " Bird Dog " ceased operations on August 1 , 1949 . In the Atlantic , weather vessel F ( " Fox " ) was discontinued on September 3 , 1949 , and there was a change in location for ships D ( " Dog " ) and E ( " Easy " ) at the same time . Navy weather ship J ( " Jig " ) in the north @-@ central Pacific ocean was placed out of service on October 1 , 1949 . The original international agreement for a 13 ship minimum was later amended downward . In 1949 , the minimum number of weather ships operated by the United States was decreased to ten , and in 1954 the figure was lowered again to nine , both changes being made for economic reasons . Weather vessel O ( " Oboe " ) entered the Pacific portion of the network on December 19 , 1949 . Also in the Pacific , weather ship A ( " Able " ) was renamed ship P ( " Peter " ) and moved 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the east @-@ northeast in December 1949 , while weather vessel F ( " Fox " ) was renamed N ( " Nan " ) .
= = = 1950s = = =
Weather ship B ( " Baker " ) , which had been jointly operated by Canada and the United States , became solely a United States venture on July 1 , 1950 . The Netherlands and the United States began to jointly operate weather ship A ( " Able " ) in the Atlantic on July 22 , 1950 . The Korean War led to the discontinuing of weather vessel O ( " Oboe " ) on July 31 , 1950 in the Pacific , and ship S ( " Sugar " ) was established on September 10 , 1950 . Weather ship P 's ( " Peter " ) operations were taken over by Canada on December 1 , 1950 , which allowed the Coast Guard to begin operating station U ( " Uncle " ) 2 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) west of northern Baja California on December 12 , 1950 . As a result of these changes , ship N ( " Nan " ) was moved 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) to the southeast on December 10 , 1950 .
Responsibility for weather ship V ( " Victor " ) transferred from the United States Navy to the United States Coast Guard and Weather Bureau on September 30 , 1951 . On March 20 , 1952 , Vessels N ( " November " ) and U ( " Uncle " ) were moved 32 to 48 kilometres ( 20 to 30 mi ) to the south to lie under airplane paths between the western United States coast and Honolulu
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, Hawaii . Weather vessel Q ( " Quebec " ) began operation in the north @-@ central Pacific on April 6 , 1952 , while in the western Atlantic , the British corvettes used as weather ships were replaced by newer Castle @-@ class frigates between 1958 and 1961 .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1963 , the entire fleet won the Flight Safety Foundation award for their distinguished service to aviation . In 1965 , there were a total of 21 vessels in the weather ship network . Nine were from the United States , four from the United Kingdom , three from France , two from the Netherlands , two from Norway , and one from Canada . In addition to the routine hourly weather observations and upper air flights four times a day , two Russian ships in the northern and central Pacific ocean sent meteorological rockets up to a height of 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) . For a time , there was a Dutch weather ship stationed in the Indian Ocean . The network left the Southern Hemisphere mainly uncovered . South Africa maintained a weather ship near latitude 40 ° South , longitude 10 ° East between September 1969 and March 1974 .
= = Fading use = =
When compared to the cost of unmanned weather buoys , weather ships became expensive , and weather buoys began to replace United States weather ships in the 1970s . Across the northern Atlantic , the number of weather ships dwindled over the years . The original nine ships in the region had fallen to eight after ocean vessel C ( " Charlie " ) was discontinued by the United States in December 1973 . In 1974 , the Coast Guard announced plans to terminate all United States stations , and the last United States weather ship was replaced by a newly developed weather buoy in 1977 .
A new international agreement for ocean weather vessels was reached through the World Meteorological Organization in 1975 , which eliminated Ships I ( India ) and J ( Juliett ) , and left ships M ( " Mike " ) , R ( " Romeo " ) , C ( " Charlie " ) , and L ( " Lima " ) across the northern Atlantic , with the four remaining ships in operation through 1983 . Two of the British frigates were refurbished , as there was no funding available for new weather ships . Their other two ships were retired , as one of the British run stations was eliminated in the international agreement . In July 1975 , the Soviet Union began to maintain weather ship C ( " Charlie " ) , which it would operate through the remainder of the 1970s and 1980s . The last two British frigates were retired from ocean weather service by January 11 , 1982 , but the international agreement for weather ships was continued through 1985 .
Because of high operating costs and budget issues , weather ship R ( " Romeo " ) was recalled from the Bay of Biscay before the deployment of a weather buoy for the region . This recall was blamed for the minimal warning given in advance of the Great Storm of 1987 , when wind speeds of up to 149 km / h ( 93 mph ) caused extensive damage to areas of southern England and northern France . The last weather ship was Polarfront , known as weather station M ( " Mike " ) at 66 ° N , 02 ° E , run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute . Polarfront was withdrawn from operation on January 1 , 2010 . Despite the loss of designated weather ships , weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation , whose number has decreased since 1985 .
= = Use in research = =
Beginning in 1951 , British ocean weather vessels began oceanographic research , such as monitoring plankton , casting of drift bottles , and sampling seawater . In July 1952 , as part of a research project on birds by Cambridge University , twenty shearwaters were taken more than 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) offshore in British weather ships , before being released to see how quickly they would return to their nests , which were more than 720 kilometres ( 450 mi ) away on Skokholm Island . 18 of the twenty returned , the first in just 36 hours . During 1954 , British weather ocean vessels began to measure sea surface temperature gradients and monitored ocean waves . In 1960 , weather ships proved to be helpful in ship design through a series of recordings made on paper tape which evaluated wave height , pitch , and roll . They were also useful in wind and wave studies , as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource .
In 1962 , British weather vessels measured sea temperature and salinity values from the surface down to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) as part of their duties . Upper air soundings launched from weather ship E ( " Echo " ) were of great utility in determining the cyclone phase of Hurricane Dorothy in 1966 . During 1971 , British weather ships sampled the upper 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of the ocean to investigate plankton distribution by depth . In 1972 , the Joint Air @-@ Sea Interaction Experiment ( JASIN ) utilized special observations from weather ships for their research . More recently , in support of climate research , 20 years of data from the ocean vessel P ( " Papa " ) was compared to nearby voluntary weather observations from mobile ships within the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set to check for biases in mobile ship observations over that time frame .
= Zelda Fitzgerald =
Zelda Fitzgerald ( née Sayre ; July 24 , 1900 – March 10 , 1948 ) was an American socialite and novelist , and the wife of American author F. Scott Fitzgerald , whose work she strongly influenced .
Born in Montgomery , Alabama , she was noted for her beauty and high spirits , and was dubbed by her husband as " the first American Flapper " . She and Scott became the emblem of the Jazz Age , for which they are still celebrated . The immediate success of Scott 's first novel This Side of Paradise ( 1920 ) brought them into contact with high society , but their marriage was plagued by wild drinking , infidelity and bitter recriminations . Ernest Hemingway , whom Zelda disliked , blamed her for Scott 's declining literary output , though she has also been portrayed as the victim of an overbearing husband . After being diagnosed with schizophrenia , she was increasingly confined to specialist clinics , and the couple were living apart when Scott died suddenly in 1940 . Zelda died later in a fire at her hospital in Asheville , North Carolina .
Recent writers and scholars have portrayed Zelda as a creative talent ignored by the patriarchal society of the day . A 1970 biography by Nancy Milford was on the short list of contenders for the Pulitzer Prize . In 1992 , Zelda was inducted into the Alabama Women 's Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and family background = =
Born in Montgomery , Alabama , Zelda Sayre was the youngest of six children . Her mother , Minerva Buckner " Minnie " Machen ( November 23 , 1860 – January 13 , 1958 ) , named her after characters in two little @-@ known stories : Jane Howard 's " Zelda : A Tale of the Massachusetts Colony " ( 1866 ) and Robert Edward Francillon 's " Zelda 's Fortune " ( 1874 ) . A spoiled child , Zelda was doted upon by her mother , but her father , Anthony Dickinson Sayre ( 1858 – 1931 ) — a justice of the Supreme Court of Alabama and one of Alabama 's leading jurists — was a strict and remote man .
The family was descended from early settlers of Long Island , who had moved to Alabama before the Civil War . By the time of Zelda 's birth , the Sayres were a prominent Southern family . Her great @-@ uncle , John Tyler Morgan , served six terms in the United States Senate ; her paternal grandfather edited a newspaper in Montgomery ; and her maternal grandfather was Willis Benson Machen , who served a partial term as a U.S. senator from Kentucky . Her siblings were Anthony Dickinson Sayre , Jr . ( 1894 – 1933 ) , Marjorie Sayre ( Mrs. Minor Williamson Brinson ) ( 1886 – 1960 ) , Rosalind Sayre ( Mrs. Newman Smith ) ( 1889 – 1979 ) and Clothilde Sayre ( Mrs. John Palmer ) ( 1891 – 1986 ) .
As a child Zelda Sayre was extremely active . She danced , took ballet lessons and enjoyed the outdoors . In 1914 , Sayre began attending Sidney Lanier High School . She was bright , but uninterested in her lessons . Her work in ballet continued into high school , where she had an active social life . She drank , smoked and spent much of her time with boys , and she remained a leader in the local youth social scene . A newspaper article about one of her dance performances quoted her as saying that she cared only about " boys and swimming . " She developed an appetite for attention , actively seeking to flout convention — whether by dancing the Charleston , or by wearing a tight , flesh @-@ colored bathing suit to fuel rumors that she swam nude . Her father 's reputation was something of a safety net , preventing her social ruin , but Southern women of the time were expected to be delicate , docile and accommodating . Consequently , Sayre 's antics were shocking to many of those around her , and she became — along with her childhood friend and future Hollywood starlet Tallulah Bankhead — a mainstay of Montgomery gossip . Her ethos was encapsulated beneath her high @-@ school graduation photo :
Why should all life be work , when we all can borrow .
Let 's think only of today , and not worry about tomorrow .
= = F. Scott Fitzgerald = =
Zelda first met the future novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald in July 1918 , when he had volunteered for the army , and was stationed at Camp Sheridan , outside Montgomery . Scott began to call her daily , and came into Montgomery on his free days . He talked of his plans to be famous , and sent her a chapter of a book he was writing . He was so taken by Zelda that he redrafted the character of Rosalind Connage in This Side of Paradise to resemble her . He wrote , " all criticism of Rosalind ends in her beauty , " and told Zelda that " the heroine does resemble you in more ways than four . " Zelda was more than a mere muse , however — after showing Scott her personal diary , he used verbatim excerpts from it in his novel . At the conclusion of This Side of Paradise , the soliloquy of the protagonist Amory Blaine in the cemetery , for example , is taken directly from her journal .
According to Nancy Milford , Scott and Zelda 's first encounter was at a country club dance in Montgomery , which Scott later portrayed fictionally by writing it into his novel , The Great Gatsby , when he describes Jay Gatsby 's first encounter with Daisy Buchanan , although he transposed the location in the novel to a train station . Scott was not the only man courting Zelda , and the competition only drove Scott to want her more . In the ledger that he meticulously maintained throughout his life , Scott noted in 1918 , on September 7 , that he had fallen in love . Ultimately , she would do the same . Her biographer Nancy Milford wrote , " Scott had appealed to something in Zelda which no one before him had perceived : a romantic sense of self @-@ importance which was kindred to his own . "
Their courtship was briefly interrupted in October when he was summoned north . He expected to be sent to France , but was instead assigned to Camp Mills , Long Island . While he was there , the Armistice with Germany was signed . He then returned to the base near Montgomery , and by December they were passionately inseparable . Scott would later describe their behavior as " sexual recklessness . " On February 14 , 1919 , he was discharged from the military and went north to establish himself in New York City .
They wrote frequently , and by March 1920 , Scott sent Zelda his mother 's ring , and the two became engaged . Many of Zelda 's friends and members of her family were wary of the relationship , however , as they did not approve of Scott 's excessive drinking , and Zelda 's Episcopalian family did not like the fact that he was a Catholic .
= = Marriage = =
By September , Scott had completed his first novel , This Side of Paradise , and the manuscript was quickly accepted for publication . When he heard the novel had been accepted , Scott wrote to his editor Maxwell Perkins , urging an accelerated release : " I have so many things dependent on its success — including of course a girl . " In November , he returned to Montgomery , triumphant with the news of his novel . Zelda agreed to marry him once the book was published ; he , in turn , promised to bring her to New York with " all the iridescence of the beginning of the world . " This Side of Paradise was published on March 26 , Zelda arrived in New York on March 30 , and on April 3 , 1920 , before a small wedding party in St. Patrick 's Cathedral , they married . According to Canterbery and Birch ( and Fitzgerald himself ) , this first novel was Fitzgerald 's " ace in the hole " , a poker term . Scott saw the novel 's publication as the way to Zelda 's heart .
Scott and Zelda quickly became celebrities of New York , as much for their wild behavior , as for the success of This Side of Paradise . They were ordered to leave both the Biltmore Hotel and the Commodore Hotel for their drunkenness . Zelda once jumped into the fountain at Union Square . Another example of their behavior was when Dorothy Parker first met them , as Zelda and Scott were sitting atop a taxi . Parker said , " They did both look as though they had just stepped out of the sun ; their youth was striking . Everyone wanted to meet him . " Their social life was fueled with alcohol . Publicly , this meant little more than napping when they arrived at parties , but privately it increasingly led to bitter fights . To their delight , in the pages of the New York newspapers Zelda and Scott had become icons of youth and success — enfants terribles of the Jazz Age .
On Valentine 's Day in 1921 , while Scott was working to finish his second novel , The Beautiful and Damned , Zelda discovered she was pregnant . They decided to go to Scott 's home in St. Paul , Minnesota to have the baby . On October 26 , 1921 , she gave birth to Frances " Scottie " Fitzgerald . As she emerged from the anesthesia , Scott recorded Zelda saying , " Oh , God , goofo I 'm drunk . Mark Twain . Isn 't she smart — she has the hiccups . I hope it 's beautiful and a fool — a beautiful little fool . " Many of her words found their way into Scott 's novels : in The Great Gatsby , the character Daisy Buchanan expresses a similar hope for her daughter .
Zelda never became particularly domestic , nor showed any interest in housekeeping . By 1922 , the Fitzgeralds had employed a nurse for their daughter , a couple to clean their house , and a laundress . When Harper & Brothers asked her to contribute to Favorite Recipes of Famous Women she wrote , " See if there is any bacon , and if there is , ask the cook which pan to fry it in . Then ask if there are any eggs , and if so try and persuade the cook to poach two of them . It is better not to attempt toast , as it burns very easily . Also , in the case of bacon , do not turn the fire too high , or you will have to get out of the house for a week . Serve preferably on china plates , though gold or wood will do if handy . "
In early 1922 , Zelda again became pregnant . Although some writers have said that Scott 's diaries include an entry stating " Zelda and her abortionist " , there is , in fact , no such entry . Zelda 's thoughts on the second pregnancy are unknown , but in the first draft of The Beautiful and Damned , the novel Scott was completing , he wrote a scene in which the main female character Gloria believes she is pregnant and Anthony suggests she " talk to some woman and find out what 's best to be done . Most of them fix it some way . " Anthony 's suggestion was removed from the final version , a change which shifted focus from the abortion choice to Gloria 's concern that a baby would ruin her figure .
As The Beautiful and Damned neared publication , Burton Rascoe , the freshly appointed literary editor of the New York Tribune , approached Zelda for an opportunity to entice readers with a cheeky review of Scott 's latest work . In her review , she made joking reference to the use of her diaries in Scott 's work , but the lifted material became a genuine source of resentment :
To begin with , every one must buy this book for the following aesthetic reasons : First , because I know where there is the cutest cloth of gold dress for only $ 300 in a store on Forty @-@ second Street , and , also , if enough people buy it where there is a platinum ring with a complete circlet , and , also , if loads of people buy it my husband needs a new winter overcoat , although the one he has has done well enough for the last three years ... It seems to me that on one page I recognized a portion of an old diary of mine which mysteriously disappeared shortly after my marriage , and , also , scraps of letters which , though considerably edited , sound to me vaguely familiar . In fact , Mr. Fitzgerald — I believe that is how he spells his name — seems to believe that plagiarism begins at home .
The piece led to Zelda receiving offers from other magazines . In June , a piece by Zelda Fitzgerald , " Eulogy on the Flapper , " was published in Metropolitan Magazine . Though ostensibly a piece about the decline of the flapper lifestyle , Zelda 's biographer Nancy Milford wrote that the essay was " a defense of her own code of existence . " Zelda described the flapper :
The Flapper awoke from her lethargy of sub @-@ deb @-@ ism , bobbed her hair , put on her choicest pair of earrings and a great deal of audacity and rouge and went into the battle . She flirted because it was fun to flirt and wore a one @-@ piece bathing suit because she had a good figure ... she was conscious that the things she did were the things she had always wanted to do . Mothers disapproved of their sons taking the Flapper to dances , to teas , to swim and most of all to heart .
Zelda continued writing , selling several short stories and articles . She helped Scott write the play The Vegetable , but when it flopped the Fitzgeralds found themselves in debt . Scott wrote short stories furiously to pay the bills , but became burned out and depressed . In April 1924 , they left for Paris .
= = Expatriation = =
After arriving in Paris , they soon relocated to Antibes on the French Riviera . While Scott was absorbed writing The Great Gatsby , Zelda became infatuated with a dashing young French pilot , Edouard Jozan . She spent afternoons swimming at the beach and evenings dancing at the casinos with Jozan . After six weeks , Zelda asked for a divorce . Scott at first demanded to confront Jozan , but instead dealt with Zelda 's demand by locking her in their house , until she abandoned her request for divorce . Jozan did not know she 'd asked for a divorce . He left the Riviera later that year , and the Fitzgeralds never saw him again . Later in life he told Zelda 's biographer Milford that any infidelity was imaginary : " They both had a need of drama , they made it up and perhaps they were the victims of their own unsettled and a little unhealthy imagination . " From Fitzgerald 's , " A Life in Letters , " Fitzgerald referred to the Jozan affair in his August letter to Ludlow Fowler , of lost illusions in The Great Gatsby as his lost certainty in Zelda 's fidelity , the book reflected the dramatized pivotal aspects of his and Zelda 's love , of courtship , break , restoration with financial success , and the Jozan betrayal : " I feel old too , this summer ... the whole burden of this novel — the loss of those illusions that give such color to the world that you don 't care whether things are true or false as long as they partake of the magical glory . " The Great Gatsby was in draft form during the July 1924 Jozan crisis , with the typescript sent to Scribners at the end of October . Fitzgerald wrote in his notebooks , " That September 1924 , I knew something had happened that could never be repaired . "
After the fight , the Fitzgeralds kept up appearances with their friends , seemingly happy . In September , Zelda overdosed on sleeping pills . The couple never spoke of the incident , and refused to discuss whether it was a suicide attempt or not . Scott returned to writing , finishing The Great Gatsby in October . They attempted to celebrate with travel to Rome and Capri , but both were unhappy and unhealthy . When he received the proofs from his novel he fretted over the title : Trimalchio in West Egg , just Trimalchio or Gatsby , Gold @-@ hatted Gatsby , or The High @-@ bouncing Lover . It was Zelda who preferred The Great Gatsby . It was also on this trip , while ill with colitis , that Zelda
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3 , Daniel meets Leibniz in England and acts as his escort , leading him to meetings with important members of British society . Soon , Daniel gains the patronage of Roger Comstock as his architect . While under Roger 's patronage , the actress Tess becomes Daniel 's mistress both at court and in bed . Finally the book returns to 1713 , where Daniel 's ship fends off several of Teach 's pirate ships . Soon they find out that Teach is after Daniel alone ; however , with the application of trigonometry , the ship is able to escape the bay and the pirate band .
= = = The King of the Vagabonds = = =
The King of Vagabonds focuses on the travels of " Half @-@ Cocked " Jack Shaftoe . It begins by recounting Jack 's childhood in the slums outside London where he pursued many disreputable jobs , including hanging from the legs of hanged men to speed their demise . The book then jumps to 1683 , when Jack travels to the Battle of Vienna to participate in the European expulsion of the Turks . While attacking the camp , Jack encounters Eliza , a European slave in the sultan 's harem , about to be killed by janissaries . He kills the janissaries and loots the area , taking ostrich feathers and acquiring a Turkish warhorse which he calls Turk . The two depart from the camp of the victorious European army and travel through Bohemia into the Palatinate . To sell the ostrich feathers at a high price , they decide to wait until the spring fair in Leipzig . Jack and Eliza spend the winter near a cave warmed by a hot water spring . In the springtime , they travel to the fair dressed as a noblewoman and her bodyguard where they meet Doctor Leibniz . They quickly sell their goods with the help of Leibniz , and agree to accompany him to his silver mine in the Harz Mountains .
Once they arrive at the mine , Jack wanders into the local town where he has a brief encounter with Enoch Root in an apothecary 's shop . Jack leaves town but gets lost in the woods , encountering pagan worshippers and witch hunters . He successfully escapes them by finding safe passage through a mine connecting to Leibniz 's . Eliza and Jack move on to Amsterdam , where Eliza quickly becomes embroiled in the trade of commodities . Jack goes to Paris to sell the ostrich feathers and Turk , leaving Eliza behind . When he arrives in Paris , he meets and befriends St. George , a professional rat @-@ killer and tamer , who helps him find lodging . While there , he becomes a messenger for bankers between Paris and Marseilles . However , during an attempt to sell Turk Jack is captured by nobles . Luckily , the presence of Jack 's former employer , John Churchill , ensures that he is not immediately killed . With Churchill 's help , Jack escapes from the barn where he has been held prisoner . During the escape , he rides Turk into a masquerade at the Hotel d 'Arcachon in a costume similar to that of King Louis . With the aid of St. George 's rats he escapes without injury but destroys the ballroom and removes the hand of Etienne d 'Arcachon .
Meanwhile , Eliza becomes heavily involved in the politics of Amsterdam , helping Knott Bolstrood and the Duke of Monmouth manipulate the trade of VOC stock . This causes a panic from which they profit . Afterwards , the French Ambassador in Amsterdam persuades Eliza to go to Versailles and supply him information about the French court . Eliza agrees after a brief encounter and falling @-@ out with Jack . William of Orange learns of Eliza 's mission and intercepts her , forcing her to become a double agent for his benefit and to give him oral sex . Meanwhile , Jack , with an injury caused by his encounter with Eliza , departs on the slaving trip , the ship filled with cowry shells which he and his accomplices , a Russian fur trader and an English pub owner . The ship is captured by Barbary pirates , and the end of the book has Jack as a captured galley @-@ slave .
= = = Odalisque = = =
This book returns to Daniel Waterhouse , who in 1685 , has become a courtier to Charles II because of his role as Secretary of the Royal Society . He warns James II , still Duke of York , of his brother Charles ' impending death , following which , Daniel quickly becomes an advisor to James II . He continues to be deeply involved with the English court , ensuring the passage of several bills which reduce restrictions on non @-@ conformists despite his detraction from the Francophile court . Meanwhile , Eliza becomes the governess of a widowers ' two children in Versailles . She catches the eye of the king and becomes the broker of the French nobility . With her help , the French court , supported by King Louis , creates several market trends from which they profit extensively . Her active involvement in the French court gains her a title of nobility : Countess of Zeur .
Daniel and Eliza finally meet during a visit to the Netherlands where Daniel acts as an intermediary between William of Orange and the detracting English nobility . Daniel realizes Eliza 's importance during a meeting at the house of Christiaan Huygens . Eliza woos Daniel and uses this connection to gain entrance into the English court and the Royal Society . Daniel also meets Nicholas Fatio while in Amsterdam . Soon after this meeting , Fatio and Eliza prevent the attempted kidnapping of William of Orange by an ambitious French courtier . Upon his return , Daniel is arrested by the notorious judge George Jeffreys , and later imprisoned in the Tower of London . Daniel escapes with the help of Jack Shaftoe 's brother Bob , whose infantry unit is stationed there .
After a brief return to Versailles , Eliza joins Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate at her estate before the invasion of the Palatinate in her name . Eliza informs William of Orange of the troop movements caused by the French invasion which frees his forces along the border of the Spanish Netherlands , a region of stalemate between France and the Dutch Republic . During her flight from the Electorate of the Palatinate , Eliza becomes pregnant by Louis 's cryptographer , though popular knowledge suggested it was the French nobleman Etienne D 'Arcachon 's child . Meanwhile , William takes the free troops from the border on the Spanish Netherlands to England , precipitating the Glorious Revolution , including the expulsion of James II . James flees London and Daniel Waterhouse soon encounters him in a bar . Convinced that the Stuart monarchy has collapsed , Daniel returns to London and takes revenge on Jeffreys by inciting a crowd to capture him for trial and later execution . Though he plans to depart for Massachusetts , Daniel 's case of bladder stones increasingly worsens during this period . The Royal Society and other family friends are very aware of this and force Daniel to get the stone removed by Robert Hooke at Bedlam .
= = Major themes = =
A 2003 interview in Newsweek quotes Stephenson 's belief that " science fiction ... is fiction in which ideas play an important part . " Central to Quicksilver is the importance of the Enlightenment . By placing the reader among a world of ideas that change the course of science , Stephenson explores the development of the scientific method . One theme Stephenson explores in Quicksilver is the advancement of mathematical sciences which in turn led to important applications : Leibniz 's theory of binary mathematics became the foundation upon which to develop computers . As he did in Cryptonomicon , Stephenson highlights the importance of networks and codes , which in Quicksilver occur against a " backdrop of staggering diversity and detail " , writes Mark Sanderson in his review of the book for the Daily Telegraph . Also , returning to his cyberpunk roots , Stephenson emphasizes the manner in which information and ideas are dispersed in complex societies . Quicksilver uses the " interactions of philosophy , court intrigue , economics , wars , plagues and natural disasters " of the late 17th and early 18th century to create a historical backdrop . From one perspective , the characters are most useful in their roles as " carriers of information " . Although the characters use various techniques to disseminate information , the most prominent is cryptography . Elizabeth Weisse writes in USA Today that the use of cryptography is " Stephenson 's literary calling card " , as she compares Quicksilver to Cryptonomicon .
In Quicksilver Stephenson presents the importance of freedom of thought , the diversity required for new ideas to develop , and the manner in which new ideas are expressed . To explore or accept an idea such as the theory of gravity often resulted in dire consequences or even " grotesque punishment " in the early 17th century . Stephenson also points out that research , particularly as conducted at the Royal Society , resulted in a changing of views in some cases :
If you read the records of the Royal Society and what they were doing in the 1660s , it 's clear that at a certain point , some of these people – and I think Hooke was one of them – became a little bit disgusted with themselves and began excusing themselves when one of these vivisections was going to happen . I certainly don 't think they turned into hardcore animal rights campaigners , or anything close to that , but I think after a while , they got a little bit sick of it and started to feel conflicted about what they were doing . So I 've tried to show that ambivalence and complication in the book .
How to exist during a " time of dualities " is another important theme in Quicksilver , especially in their effects on Daniel Waterhouse , who is torn between " reason versus faith , freedom versus destiny , matter versus math . "
Frequent mention of alchemy indicates the shift from an earlier age to a newer transformative age . Newton was an alchemist , and one character compares finance to alchemy : " all goods — silk , coins , shares in mines — lose their hard dull gross forms and liquefy , and give up their true nature , as ores in an alchemist 's furnace sweat mercury " . The book focuses on a period of social and scientific transmutations , expanding upon the symbolism of the book 's title , Quicksilver , because it is a period in which the " principles governing transformation " are investigated and established . A commerce of different goods rapidly changing from one into another is a recurrent theme throughout the book . Also , the title Quicksilver connects the book to the method alchemists used to distill quicksilver , " the pure living essence of God 's power and presence in the world " , from , as one character put it , " the base , dark , cold , essentially fecal matter of which the world was made . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
In order of appearance :
Enoch Root – an elusive and mysterious alchemist who first appears at the beginning of the book and recurs throughout often in the company of Alchemists such as Newton and Locke .
Daniel Waterhouse – son of prominent Puritan Drake Waterhouse , roommate of Isaac Newton , friend of Gottfried Leibniz , and prominent member of the Royal Society . Waterhouse is both a savant and a strict Puritan . As Quicksilver progresses he becomes more and more involved in the inner workings of British politics .
" Half @-@ Cocked " Jack Shaftoe – an English vagabond , known as " The King of the Vagabonds " , who rescues Eliza and becomes the enemy of the Duke d 'Arcachon .
Eliza – a former harem slave who becomes a French countess , investor , and spy for William of Orange and Gottfried Leibniz . She originally became a slave when she and her mother were kidnapped from their homeland of Qwghlm by a European pirate with breath that smelled of rotten fish .
= = = Historical characters = = =
Robert Boyle , Irish natural philosopher
Caroline of Ansbach , an inquisitive child who loses her mother to smallpox
John Churchill , former employer of Jack and a prominent British politician
William Curtius , German Fellow of the Royal Society , and diplomat for the House of Stuart .
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
Judge Jeffreys , Lord Chancellor of England
Robert Hooke , English natural philosopher and biologist
Christiaan Huygens , continental natural philosopher
Gottfried Leibniz
Louis XIV , King of France
Isaac Newton
Henry Oldenburg , founding member and secretary of the Royal Society
Bonaventure Rossignol , a French cryptologist
James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth
James Stuart , as the Duke of York and as James II , King of England
Edward Teach , aka Blackbeard
John Wilkins , Bishop of Chester , founding member of the Royal Society , and advocate of religious tolerance in Britain
William III of England , as William , Prince of Orange
= = Critical reception = =
The reception to Quicksilver was generally positive . Some reviewers found the length cumbersome ; however , others found the length impressive in its quality and entertainment value . Paul Boutin at Slate Magazine comments that Quicksilver offers an insight into how advanced and complicated science was during the age of " alchemists and microscope @-@ makers " ; and that the scientists of the period were " the forerunners of the biotech and nanotech researchers who are today 's IT Geeks " . Entertainment Weekly rates Quicksilver an A- , stating that the book " makes you ponder concepts and theories you initially thought you 'll never understand " . The critic finds a parallel between Stephenson 's approach and a passage from the book describing an effort to put " all human knowledge ... in a vast Encyclopedia that will be a sort of machine , not only for finding old knowledge but for making new " .
The Independent places emphasis on the comparisons between the story that evolves in Quicksilver and Stephenson 's earlier novel Cryptonomicon , with the former " shaping up to be a far more impressive literary endeavour than most so @-@ called ' serious ' fiction . And it ends on a hell of a cliffhanger . No scholarly , and intellectually provocative , historical novel has been this much fun since The Name of the Rose " . Patrick Ness considers Quicksilver to be " entertaining over an impossible distance . This isn 't a book ; it 's a place to move into and raise a family . " His review focuses on the scope of the material and humour inherent in Quicksilver . Mark Sanderson calls the novel an " astonishing achievement " , and compares Quicksilver to " Thomas Pynchon 's Mason & Dixon and Lawrence Norfolk 's Lempriere 's Dictionary . " Although full of historical description and incredibly lengthy , Quicksilver is noticeably full of what Sanderson called " more sex and violence ... than any Tarantino movie " . Stephenson balances his desire to respect the period with a need to develop a novel which entertains modern readers . In The Guardian , Steven Poole commented that ' Quicksilver was : " A great fantastical boiling pot of theories about science , money , war and much else , by turns broadly picaresque and microscopically technical , sometimes over @-@ dense and sometimes too sketchy , flawed but unarguably magnificent , Quicksilver is something like a Restoration @-@ era Gravity 's Rainbow . "
Polly Shulman of The New York Times finds Quicksilver hard to follow and amazingly complex but a good read . However she notes that the complicated and clunky dialogue between the characters is a distraction . She thinks a full appreciation of the work is only possible within the context of the remaining novels of The Baroque Cycle , and compares the novel to works by Dorothy Dunnett , William Gibson and Bruce Sterling , calling it " history @-@ of @-@ science fiction " . In the post @-@ publication review for The New York Times , Edward Rothstein remarks that the scope of the novel is at times detrimental : " Unfortunately , in this novelistic cauldron it can sometimes seem as if mercury 's vapors had overtaken the author himself , as if every detail he had learned had to be anxiously crammed into his text , while still leaving the boundaries between fact and invention ambiguous " . He considers the novel to be an " experiment in progress " , although the historical background is compelling .
Deborah Friedell disliked Quicksilver . She mentions Stephenson 's poor writing and his lack of knowledge of the literary tradition , which she considers to be because " the greatest influences upon Stephenson 's work have been comic books and cartoons " . She dislikes his use of anachronism , his failure to be literary and his general approach to historical fiction . She writes of Stephenson and the reviewers who reviewed the work in a positive manner :
Stephenson is decidedly not a prodigy ; but his babe @-@ in @-@ the @-@ woods routine has proved irresistible for some , who are hailing his seemingly innate ability to meld the products of exhaustive historical research with what they see as a brilliant , idiosyncratic sense of humor and adventure . Time 's critic has declared that Stephenson has a " once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ generation gift " , and that Quicksilver " will defy any category , genre , precedent or label — except for genius " . This is promotional copy disguised as literary criticism . There is nothing category @-@ defying about this ridiculous book .
From the foreign press , the review in the Frankfurter Allgemeine points out the historical period of Quicksilver is one of the birth of science which corresponds with a period of language shift as English became the language of science . Moreover , the review focuses on Leibniz 's principles of mathematics which Stephenson claims established the framework for modern computing .
= = Publication history = =
Based on the success of Cryptonomicon , a New York Times bestseller with sales of about 300 @,@ 000 copies , the initial print @-@ run for Quicksilver was 250 @,@ 000 copies . Five months before the release date , a web campaign was initiated to advertise the work . The novel was originally published in a single volume ; in 2006 HarperCollins republished the books in three separate paperback volumes .
= = = Editions = = =
September 23 , 2003 , US , William Morrow ( ISBN 0 @-@ 380 @-@ 97742 @-@ 7 ) , hardback ( first edition ) , 944 pages
October 2 , 2003 , UK , Willian Heinemann ( ISBN 0 @-@ 434 @-@ 00817 @-@ 6 ) , hardback
2003 , UK , Willian Heinemann ( ISBN 0 @-@ 434 @-@ 00893 @-@ 1 ) , paperback
June 2004 , US , William Morrow ( ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 059933 @-@ 2 ) , hardback ( Special Edition ) , 968 pages
September 21 , 2004 , US , HarperCollins Perennial ( ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 059308 @-@ 3 ) , trade edition , 927 pages
October 2004 , US HarperColllins ( ISBN 9780060721619 ) , CD , abridged audiobook , 22 hours 1 minute , narrated by Simon Prebble and Stina Nielson
November 2004 , US , HarperCollins ( ISBN 9780060818043 ) , MP3 release of the abridged audio CD
Split into 3 volumes in 2006
Quicksilver , January 2006 , US , HarperCollins ( ISBN 9780060833169 ) , mass market , 480 pages
The King of the Vagabonds , February 2006 , US , HarperCollins ( ISBN 9780060833176 ) , mass market paperback , 400 pages
Odalisque , March 2006 , US , HarperCollins ( ISBN 9780060833183 ) , mass market paperback , 464 pages
= Montana Highway 87 =
Montana Highway 87 ( MT 87 ) is a primary state highway located in the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Montana . The highway travels through mainly rural areas in Raynolds Pass , from the Montana – Idaho state line to an intersection with U.S. Route 287 ( US 287 ) . The route travels through a portion of Gallatin National Forest . In 1922 , a road in the location of MT 87 was added to the highway system , and a few years later the road was designated as portions of two early auto trails . In 1959 , the route was rapidly improved due to the collapse of US 287 nearby . During 1967 , much of the highway was reconstructed along its current location .
= = Route description = =
MT 87 begins at the Montana – Idaho state line , traveling through Raynolds Pass . The highway proceeds northward , intersecting a small road before entering rural areas within Gallatin National Forest . The route continues northeast , intersecting several forest roads before bending northwestward . The route intersects several small roads while it runs parallel to a small creek . It crosses over the Madison River after passing several small buildings . The highway continues northwestward to its northern terminus , an at @-@ grade intersection with US 287 . The highway is maintained by the Montana Department of Transportation ( MDT ) . Part of the job of the MDT is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . In 2011 , the highway had an AADT count of 583 vehicles . No portion of the highway is listed as part
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