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particulate matter . GMAW produces smoke containing particles of various types of oxides , and the size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes , with smaller particles presenting a greater danger . Additionally , carbon dioxide and ozone gases can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate . Furthermore , because the use of compressed gases in GMAW pose an explosion and fire risk , some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace .
= = Metal transfer modes = =
The three transfer modes in GMAW are globular , short @-@ circuiting , and spray . There are a few recognized variations of these three transfer modes including modified short @-@ circuiting and pulsed @-@ spray .
= = = Globular = = =
GMAW with globular metal transfer is considered the least desirable of the three major GMAW variations , because of its tendency to produce high heat , a poor weld surface , and spatter . The method was originally developed as a cost efficient way to weld steel using GMAW , because this variation uses carbon dioxide , a less expensive shielding gas than argon . Adding to its economic advantage was its high deposition rate , allowing welding speeds of up to 110 mm / s ( 250 in / min ) . As the weld is made , a ball of molten metal from the electrode tends to build up on the end of the electrode , often in irregular shapes with a larger diameter than the electrode itself . When the droplet finally detaches either by gravity or short circuiting , it falls to the workpiece , leaving an uneven surface and often causing spatter . As a result of the large molten droplet , the process is generally limited to flat and horizontal welding positions , requires thicker workpieces , and results in a larger weld pool .
= = = Short @-@ circuiting = = =
Further developments in welding steel with GMAW led to a variation known as short @-@ circuit transfer ( SCT ) or short @-@ arc GMAW , in which the current is lower than for the globular method . As a result of the lower current , the heat input for the short @-@ arc variation is considerably reduced , making it possible to weld thinner materials while decreasing the amount of distortion and residual stress in the weld area . As in globular welding , molten droplets form on the tip of the electrode , but instead of dropping to the weld pool , they bridge the gap between the electrode and the weld pool as a result of the lower wire feed rate . This causes a short circuit and extinguishes the arc , but it is quickly reignited after the surface tension of the weld pool pulls the molten metal bead off the electrode tip . This process is repeated about 100 times per second , making the arc appear constant to the human eye . This type of metal transfer provides better weld quality and less spatter than the globular variation , and allows for welding in all positions , albeit with slower deposition of weld material . Setting the weld process parameters ( volts , amps and wire feed rate ) within a relatively narrow band is critical to maintaining a stable arc : generally between 100 and 200 amperes at 17 to 22 volts for most applications . Also , using short @-@ arc transfer can result in lack of fusion and insufficient penetration when welding thicker materials , due to the lower arc energy and rapidly freezing weld pool . Like the globular variation , it can only be used on ferrous metals .
= = = Spray = = =
Spray transfer GMAW was the first metal transfer method used in GMAW , and well @-@ suited to welding aluminium and stainless steel while employing an inert shielding gas . In this GMAW process , the weld electrode metal is rapidly passed along the stable electric arc from the electrode to the workpiece , essentially eliminating spatter and resulting in a high @-@ quality weld finish . As the current and voltage increases beyond the range of short circuit transfer the weld electrode metal transfer transitions from larger globules through small droplets to a vaporized stream at the highest energies . Since this vaporized spray transfer variation of the GMAW weld process requires higher voltage and current than short circuit transfer , and as a result of the higher heat input and larger weld pool area ( for a given weld electrode diameter ) , it is generally used only on workpieces of thicknesses above about 6 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 25 in ) .
Also , because of the large weld pool , it is often limited to flat and horizontal welding positions and sometimes also used for vertical @-@ down welds . It is generally not practical for root pass welds . When a smaller electrode is used in conjunction with lower heat input , its versatility increases . The maximum deposition rate for spray arc GMAW is relatively high — about 60 mm / s ( 150 in / min ) .
= = = Pulsed @-@ spray = = =
A variation of the spray transfer mode , pulse @-@ spray is based on the principles of spray transfer but uses a pulsing current to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten droplet to fall with each pulse . The pulses allow the average current to be lower , decreasing the overall heat input and thereby decreasing the size of the weld pool and heat @-@ affected zone while making it possible to weld thin workpieces . The pulse provides a stable arc and no spatter , since no short @-@ circuiting takes place . This also makes the process suitable for nearly all metals , and thicker electrode wire can be used as well . The smaller weld pool gives the variation greater versatility , making it possible to weld in all positions . In comparison with short arc GMAW , this method has a somewhat slower maximum speed ( 85 mm / s or 200 in / min ) and the process also requires that the shielding gas be primarily argon with a low carbon dioxide concentration . Additionally , it requires a special power source capable of providing current pulses with a frequency between 30 and 400 pulses per second . However , the method has gained popularity , since it requires lower heat input and can be used to weld thin workpieces , as well as nonferrous materials .
= Binaural ( album ) =
Binaural is the sixth studio album by the American alternative rock band Pearl Jam , released on May 16 , 2000 through Epic Records . Following a full @-@ scale tour in support of its previous album , Yield ( 1998 ) , Pearl Jam took a short break before reconvening toward the end of 1999 to begin work on a new album . During the production of the album , the band encountered hindrances such as singer Eddie Vedder 's writer 's block , and guitarist Mike McCready 's entrance into rehabilitation due to an addiction to prescription drugs .
The music on the record featured an experimental sound , evident on songs that used binaural recording techniques . The atmospheric tracks , mostly featuring somber lyrics dealing with social criticism , led the band to convey these themes with images of nebulas in the album artwork . Binaural received positive reviews , and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 . Although the record was certified gold by the RIAA , it became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status in the United States . The album 's 2000 tour spawned a large collection of official bootleg releases .
= = Recording = =
Similar to the process for Yield , the band members worked on material individually before starting the recording sessions together . Lead vocalist Eddie Vedder called the making of the album " a construction job . " Binaural was the first album since the band 's debut that was not produced by Brendan O 'Brien . Gossard stated that the band " felt like it was time to try something new , " and that they " were ready for a change . " Instead the band hired producer Tchad Blake , known for his use of binaural recording . Binaural recording techniques , which employ two microphones to create a 3 @-@ D stereophonic sound , were utilized on several tracks , such as the acoustic " Of the Girl . " Regarding Blake , Gossard said , " He was just there for us the whole time , wanting us to create different moods . " This was the first Pearl Jam studio album following the departure of drummer Jack Irons , and features drummer Matt Cameron of Soundgarden , who had previously drummed on Pearl Jam 's U.S. Yield Tour .
Binaural was recorded in late 1999 and early 2000 in Seattle , Washington at Studio Litho , which is owned by guitarist Stone Gossard . The album was initially mixed at Sunset Sound Factory in Los Angeles , California with Blake ; however , the band proved to be dissatisfied with how the mixes turned out . According to McCready , Blake 's work complemented the slower tracks such as " Nothing as It Seems " well , but faced trouble with others , which the band wanted to sound heavier . For the heavier songs , the group brought in former producer O 'Brien , who remixed the tracks at his mixing facility at Southern Tracks in Atlanta , Georgia . It was with O 'Brien that the band determined the final sequencing of the album .
During the writing and recording of the album , the band encountered several obstacles . Vedder has admitted that while working on the album he suffered from writer 's block , which made it difficult for him to come up with lyrics . This inspired the hidden track " Writer 's Block " - which consists of the sounds of a typewriter - that appears at the end of the album , starting at 6 minutes and 50 seconds on the track " Parting Ways " . Vedder had written music for several songs , including " Insignificance " and " Grievance " , but was having trouble coming up with lyrics for the songs . He decided to not write any more music , and to focus only on lyrics , even banning himself from playing guitar . Unable to write more lyrics , Vedder said he saw a ukulele and thought " that 's not a guitar , " and wrote the song " Soon Forget " using the ukulele . Guitarist Mike McCready went into rehabilitation to receive treatment for an addiction to prescription drugs . Gossard recalled that " everyone wasn 't on the same page " due to McCready 's absence and the familiarization with Cameron .
Three instrumentals featured on the Touring Band 2000 DVD ( " Thunderclap " , " Foldback " , and " Harmony " ) come from the early Binaural sessions . Several songs were rejected from the album that eventually found their way on to the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities . These include " Sad " , " Hitchhiker " , " In the Moonlight " , " Education " , " Fatal " , and " Sweet Lew " . " Sad " , originally called " Letter to the Dead " , was called " a great pop song " by Ament , but he said the song did not fit the album because the band does not " really [ write ] very many pop records . " " Sweet Lew " , about Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , was cut from Binaural because it did not fit the album according to Ament . " Fatal " was producer Tchad Blake 's favorite song to come out of the recording sessions . " Strangest Tribe " and " Drifting " were also recorded around the time of the album 's recording sessions , and both songs were released on the band 's 1999 fan club Christmas single as well as Lost Dogs .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Binaural opens with three up @-@ tempo songs before growing more diverse . Vedder explained , " We 'd rather challenge our fans and make them listen to our songs than give them something that 's easy to digest . There is a lot of music out there that is very easy to digest but we never wanted to be part of it . " As described by critic Jon Pareles on his review for Rolling Stone , Pearl Jam distances itself from the grunge that made them famous and " delve [ s ] elsewhere : jumpy post @-@ punk and somber meditations , tightly wound folk rock and turbulent , neopsychedelic rockers that sound like they boiled out of jam sessions . "
A few songs on the album show classic rock influences . The intro to the opening track " Breakerfall " uses a guitar riff similar to The Who song " I Can See for Miles " ( from the 1967 album , The Who Sell Out ) . Additionally , " Soon Forget " , which features Vedder playing a ukulele , is heavily influenced by The Who song " Blue , Red and Grey " ( from the 1975 album , The Who by Numbers ) , with Vedder describing it as " 30 seconds of plagiarising " and thanking Pete Townshend on the lyric sheet . The song " Nothing as It Seems " has been compared to the style of Pink Floyd .
Bassist Jeff Ament wrote the lyrics for two songs on the album ( " Gods ' Dice " and " Nothing as It Seems " ) , and Gossard for three ( " Thin Air , " " Of the Girl " and " Rival " ) . The album is lyrically darker than the band 's previous album Yield , with Gossard describing the lyrics as " pretty somber . " Vedder addressed the social criticism contained in the album 's lyrics by stating , " I think what everyone 's looking for , y 'know , is freedom ... That 's part of being comfortable in your own skin . I know I had a problem with being told what to do , and had a problem with being mentally and physically constricted . All of humanity is searching for freedom and I think it 's important to know when you have it , too . " Ament stated that " Gods ' Dice " is about " judging anybody who has any sort of belief system whether they believe in God or not " , and that " Nothing as It Seems " is about his childhood growing up in a rural area of Northern Montana . Vedder called " Evacuation " a " song about change " , and stated in an interview that the moral of " Insignificance " is " the ineffectiveness of political struggle . " Vedder took inspiration from the 1999 World Trade Organization protests in Seattle when writing " Grievance " , and said the song is about the dangers of technology . Gossard has said that the song " Rival " is his reflection upon the 1999 Columbine High School massacre .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art is a modified Hubble Space Telescope photo of the Hourglass Nebula . Hubble Space Telescope photos of the Helix Nebula and Eagle Nebula are also featured in the inside cover and liner notes for this album , respectively . The photos were used with the permission of NASA . Regarding the artwork , Ament said , " The reason that we went with Tchad [ Blake ] is because he provides an amazing atmosphere to songs .... So , I think we wanted the artwork to represent that .... One of the themes that we 've been exploring ... is just realizing that in the big scheme of things , even the music that we make when we come together , no matter how powerful it is , it 's still pretty minuscule . I think for me the whole space theme has a lot to do with scale . You know , you look at some of those pictures , and there are thirteen light years in four inches in that picture . " Some claim the cover idea was inspired by Mother God Moviestar 's self @-@ titled record , which was released on Interscope Records in May 1998 .
The album 's title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks . Binaural literally means " having or relating to two ears . " Regarding the choice of the title , Gossard said , " When we looked up the word ' binaural , ' it meant to listen with both ears . So it seemed like a fitting title for the album . "
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Binaural sold 226 @,@ 000 copies during its first week of release and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 album chart . It was held off the top spot by the Britney Spears album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again . Binaural became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status . Binaural has been certified gold by the RIAA , and , as of 2013 , has sold 850 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album topped the charts in New Zealand , where it was certified gold , and Australia , where it went platinum and ended as the 36th best @-@ selling record of the year .
Two singles were released from Binaural . The lead single " Nothing as It Seems " was issued on April 11 , entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 49 , and reached number three on the Mainstream Rock charts . The album 's other commercially released single , " Light Years " , did not chart on the Hot 100 , but it did place on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts .
= = = Critical response = = =
Binaural received generally favorable reviews from music critics according to Metacritic , where it holds a 69 after 16 reviews . NME gave Binaural a nine out of 10 . In the review , Binaural is called " a seething , furious album ; a declamatory statement against cynicism and passivity and the simple injustices of everyday life " and that " even when the band slow the pace , the songs are coloured by a heartfelt intensity . " AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars , saying , " The songs are sharper , the production is layered , and the performances are as compassionate as ever , resulting in their finest album since Vitalogy . " Time reviewer Christopher John Farley noted that the album is " less impatient and rage filled than much of Pearl Jam 's earlier work . " Farley added that " Pearl Jam , rather quietly , is building a long @-@ term career to rival the rock legends of the past . " Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B + , considering that the " weighty subjects [ give ] Pearl Jam 's introspective lyrics and stone @-@ faced rock a refreshing edge " and adding that " if PJ long ago lost the zeitgeist , at least they 've kept a hold on their hearts . " Critic Robert Christgau described the album as " Rock as inner struggle , eternally externalized . "
Spin gave the album seven out of 10 stars , writing that " Everything you want is still there — goofy experimentalism , guitar frenzy , Eddie 's self @-@ abusive wail . It 's just more solid , more clear . " Q gave the album three out of five stars , commenting that " Grunge may have died , but Pearl Jam it seems will never be slayed . " Rolling Stone staff writer Jon Pareles gave the album three out of five stars , feeling that the album " comes across as part of an extended conversation among the five band members ... and fans loyal enough to check in for Pearl Jam 's latest musings on love , death and social responsibility . " The Guardian also gave the album three out of five stars , stating that Pearl Jam " are dignified , musicianly , sincere ... and a teensy bit dull " and observing that " Vedder 's affecting vocal angst drowns in a sea of pessimistic riffola . " The review called Binaural " a warts @-@ and @-@ all album ; it has grabbers , songs that sink in slowly and a few absolute duds . " At the 2001 Grammy Awards , " Grievance " received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance . Regarding Binaural , Ament stated that " we look back and think we didn 't put some of the best songs on it " , adding that " I think there are some beautiful things that came out of it , but we 're never going to remember that record as one of the greats . "
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Europe and North America . The tour started along with the album release on May 23 , with a show in Lisbon , Portugal . The European tour had 26 dates . The final concert of the European tour ended in tragedy , where an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark on June 30 lead nine fans to be crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front . This led two additional concerts through July to be cancelled . A month after the European tour concluded , the band embarked on a two @-@ leg North American tour , starting on Virginia Beach , Virginia on August 3 . The first leg of the tour focused on the East Coast of the United States , and then the band moved to the Midwest and the West Coast for the tour 's second leg . The band considered disbanding after the Roskilde tragedy , but Vedder stated that " playing , facing crowds , being together " in the North American tour " enabled us to start processing it . "
On October 22 , 2000 , the band played the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , Nevada , celebrating the 10th
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film not to be labeled as an exploitation film . Critical response was mixed . Kevin Thomas in the Los Angeles Times described the film as " a series of stark , earthy vignettes , Van Peebles evokes the vitality , humor , pain , despair and omnipresent fear that is life for so many African @-@ Americans " . Stephen Holden in The New York Times called it " an innovative , yet politically inflammatory film . " The film website Rotten Tomatoes , which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the film a score of 73 % " Fresh " .
Huey P. Newton , devoting an entire issue of The Black Panther to the film 's revolutionary implications , celebrated and welcomed the film as " the first truly revolutionary Black film made [ ... ] presented to us by a Black man . " Newton wrote that Sweetback " presents the need for unity among all members and institutions within the community of victims , " contending that this is evidenced by the opening credits which state the film stars " The Black Community , " a collective protagonist engaged in various acts of community solidarity that aid Sweetback in escaping . Newton further argued that " the film demonstrates the importance of unity and love between Black men and women , " as demonstrated " in the scene where the woman makes love to the young boy but in fact baptizes him into his true manhood . " The film became required viewing for members of Black Panther Party .
A few months after the publication of Newton 's article , Lerone Bennett responded with an essay on the film in Ebony , titled " The Emancipation Orgasm : Sweetback in Wonderland , " in which he discussed the film 's " black aesthetic " . Bennett argued that the film romanticized the poverty and misery of the ghetto and that " some men foolishly identify the black aesthetic with empty bellies and big bottomed prostitutes . " Bennett concluded that the film is " neither revolutionary nor black because it presents the spectator with sterile daydreams and a superhero who is ahistorical , selfishly individualist with no revolutionary program , who acts out of panic and desperation . " Bennett described Sweetback 's sexual initiation at ten years old as the " rape of a child by a 40 @-@ year @-@ old prostitute . " Bennett described instances when Sweetback saved himself through the use of his sexual prowess as " emancipation orgasms " and stated that " it is necessary to say frankly that nobody ever fucked his way to freedom . And it is mischievous and reactionary finally for anyone to suggest to black people in 1971 that they are going to be able to screw their way across the Red Sea . Fucking will not set you free . If fucking freed , black people would have celebrated the millennium 400 years ago . "
Black nationalist poet and author Haki R. Madhubuti ( Don L. Lee ) agreed with Bennett 's assessment of the film , stating that it was " a limited , money @-@ making , auto @-@ biographical fantasy of the odyssey of one Melvin Van Peebles through what he considered to be the Black community . " The New York Times critic Clayton Riley viewed the film more favorably , commenting on its aesthetic innovation , but stated of the character of Sweetback that he " is the ultimate sexualist in whose seemingly vacant eyes and unrevealing mouth are written the protocols of American domestic colonialism . " In another review , Riley explained that " Sweetback , the profane sexual athlete and fugitive , is based on a reality that is Black . We may not want him to exist but he does . " Critic Donald Bogle states in a New York Times interview that the film in some ways met the black audience 's compensatory needs after years of asexual , Sidney Poitier @-@ type characters and that they wanted a " viable , sexual , assertive , arrogant black male hero . "
= = Legacy = =
Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song is considered to be an important film in the history of African American cinema . Hollywood studios were led to attempt to replicate the film 's success by producing black @-@ oriented films such as Shaft and Super Fly . Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song was credited by Variety as leading to the creation of the blaxploitation genre , largely consisting of exploitation films made by white directors . As Spike Lee states , " Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song gave us all the answers we needed . This was an example of how to make a film ( a real movie ) , distribute it yourself , and most important , get paid . Without Sweetback who knows if there could have been a [ ... ] She 's Gotta Have It , Hollywood Shuffle , or House Party ? " In 2004 , Mario Van Peebles directed and starred as his father in Baadasssss ! , a biopic about the making of Sweet Sweetback . The film was a critical but not commercial success .
= Hurricane Bob ( 1979 ) =
Hurricane Bob was the first Atlantic tropical cyclone to be officially designated using a masculine name after the discontinuation of Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet names . Bob brought moderate damage to portions of the United States Gulf Coast and areas farther inland in July 1979 . The storm was the first hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico to form in the month of July since 1959 , and was the fifth tropical cyclone to form during the annual hurricane season . Though the origin of Bob can be traced back to a tropical wave near the western coast of Africa in late June , Bob formed from a tropical depression in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on July 9 . Tracking in a general northward direction , favorable conditions allowed for quick strengthening . Less than a day after formation , the system reached tropical storm intensity , followed by hurricane intensity on July 11 . Shortly after strengthening into a hurricane , Bob reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) . At the same intensity , Bob made landfall west of Grand Isle , Louisiana , and rapidly weakened after moving inland . However , the resulting tropical depression persisted for several days as it paralleled the Mississippi and Ohio rivers . On July 16 , the system emerged into the western Atlantic , where it was subsequently absorbed by a nearby low @-@ pressure area .
Widespread offshore and coastal evacuations took place along the United States Gulf Coast in preparation for Hurricane Bob . Effects from the hurricane on the United States were mostly marginal and typical of a minimal hurricane . The cyclone produced a moderate storm surge , damaging some coastal installments and causing coastal inundation . Strong winds were also associated with Bob 's landfall , though no stations observed winds of hurricane force . The winds downed trees and blew out windows , in addition to causing widespread power outages . Heavy rainfall was also reported in some locations , peaking at 7 @.@ 16 in ( 182 mm ) in Louisiana . Further inland , the torrential rains led to flooding in Indiana , resulting in more considerable damage as opposed to the coast . Bob also spawned eight tornadoes , with two causing significant damage . Overall , Bob was responsible for one death and $ 20 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Hurricane Bob can be traced to a tropical wave that was first located near Cape Verde towards the end of June . The disturbance tracked westward with minimal signs of development , and reached the northwestern Caribbean Sea on July 6 . The following day , the tropical system tracked across the Yucatán Peninsula the following day , and upon emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , the cluster of storms began to develop a weak circulation center . This enabled for more rapid tropical cyclogenesis , and at 1200 UTC on July 9 , the disturbance was analyzed to have organized into a tropical depression – the third of such in the Atlantic that year . The depression strengthened rather quickly , and on the morning of July 10 a United States Air Force reconnaissance flight indicated that the tropical cyclone had strengthened to tropical storm intensity while situated 740 mi ( 1 @,@ 190 km ) south of Louisiana . Due to the storm 's intensity , the system was consequentially named Bob , making it the first Atlantic tropical cyclone to receive a masculine name since 1952 . At the time the flight measured a minimum barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) .
Upon reaching tropical storm intensity , Bob began to curve further northward as opposed to its prior , northeasterly track , due to the presence of a strengthening , upper @-@ level trough to the storm 's west . The trough greatly enhanced atmospheric conditions around Bob , allowing for the tropical cyclone to intensify rapidly . At 0000 UTC on July 11 , Bob was estimated to have strengthened to hurricane intensity based on additional reconnaissance flight data . This made Bob the first July hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico since Hurricane Debra in 1959 . Though the hurricane 's maximum sustained winds would hold steady at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) for approximately the ensuing twelve hours , the storm 's barometric pressure would fluctuate before reaching a minimum of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 98 inHg ) at 1200 UTC that day ; this would be Bob 's lowest documented barometric pressure . At around the same time , the hurricane made landfall west of Grand Isle , Louisiana . After moving inland , Bob quickly weakened due to land interaction , and was a mere tropical depression by July 12 . However , the resulting depression would maintain its intensity for the next several days . On July 13 , the low @-@ pressure area drifted into southern Ohio and afterwards curved eastward . On July 16 , Bob 's remnants moved into the western Atlantic , where they were subsequently absorbed by another low @-@ pressure area .
= = Preparations = =
As Bob moved towards the U.S. Gulf Coast , the National Weather Service issued gale warnings for coastal regions extending from Vermilion Bay , Louisiana to Biloxi , Mississippi at 1600 UTC on July 10 . These warnings were upgraded to hurricane warnings upon Bob 's strengthening to such an intensity . During the storm 's existence , forecasts and predictions from the National Hurricane Center were of greater accuracy than on average . In addition to tropical cyclone warnings and watches , the agency also advised small craft from Port Arthur , Texas to Pensacola , Florida to remain in port .
In preparation for the storm , 8 @,@ 000 offshore oil workers were evacuated . Despite typical evacuation procedure , Chevron Corporation immediately evacuated their offshore oil staff rather than executing a three phase evacuation plan . On land , 2 @,@ 500 residents and tourists on Grand Isle were also evacuated . In total , as many as 80 @,@ 000 people evacuated from coastal areas leading up to Bob 's eventual landfall . In New Orleans , 4 @,@ 000 people checked in to the city 's 19 evacuation centers . The Mississippi River was temporarily closed to shipping by the United States Coast Guard for eight hours before reopening after the storm .
= = Impact = =
Effects in the United States as a result of Bob were typical of a minimal hurricane , and were not of considerable nature . At the coast , Bob caused moderate storm surge , resulting in coastal waters rising to as high as 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal . The rough seas sunk several boats and caused significant damage to piers . A levee on Grand Isle was breached by the surge , resulting in some coastal inundation . Minor beach erosion occurred on the coast of Mississippi . In Mobile County , Alabama , the wave action damaged cars near the shore and disrupted seafood operations in the Bayou La Batre area .
Strong winds were reported in association with the storm , but no station documented sustained winds within hurricane force . The highest wind observation was taken on an oil rig off the coast of Louisiana , which clocked sustained winds at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . However , the strongest wind gust in association with the hurricane was measured in Bay St. Louis , Mississippi , at 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) . In New Orleans , these strong winds damaged trees and power lines , and also broke several windows in the city 's central business district . In addition , widespread power outages impacted 53 @,@ 000 electricity customers in the city 's area . Similar incidents took place in Houma , Louisiana . In Lafitte , Louisiana , two men were blown off of the roof of a marina , and one of them was killed ; this would be the only death associated with the hurricane . Further east , in Florida , trees and power lines were downed in Niceville .
Hurricane Bob also produced a widespread area of rain that was heavy in localized areas . Rainfall associated with the hurricane peaked at 7 @.@ 16 in ( 182 mm ) in Louisiana , where the storm made landfall . Statewide rainfall totals peaked at 6 @.@ 64 and 4 @.@ 81 in ( 169 and 122 mm ) in Pascagoula , Mississippi and Robertsdale , Alabama , respectively . Further inland , the remnants of Bob dropped heavy rainfall in the Midwestern United States , peaking at 5 @.@ 72 in ( 145 mm ) at a station in Indiana University Bloomington . In addition to the strong winds and heavy rain , Bob produced eight tornadoes across the southern United States . One of these tornadoes caused $ 27 @,@ 500 in damage after striking areas of Biloxi , Mississippi . Another tornado impacted areas near Red Level , Alabama destroying or damaging several buildings and uprooting trees . Overall , Hurricane Bob caused approximately $ 20 million in damage . However , $ 15 million in damage resulted from flooding in Indiana , with the rest of the storm 's monetary impacts arising from coastal regions .
= Wulfhelm =
Wulfhelm ( died 941 ) was Bishop of Wells before being promoted to the Archbishopric of Canterbury about 926 . Nothing is known about his time at Wells , but as archbishop he helped codify royal law codes and gave lands to monasteries . He went to Rome soon after his selection as archbishop . Two religious books that he gave to his cathedral are still extant .
= = Biography = =
Wulfhelm was elected and consecrated Bishop of Wells between 923 and September 925 . Nothing else is known about his time at Wells .
Wulfhelm was translated from the Bishopric of Wells to be Archbishop of Canterbury in about 926 . While he was archbishop , he was a frequent attendee of the royal court , and King Æthelstan of England says in his law code that Wulfhelm was consulted on the drafting of the laws . Wulfhelm also advised the king on the Ordinance on Charities issued by Æthelstan . One of the surviving manuscripts of Æthelstan 's laws has an epilogue that stated that the law was declared and decided at a synod held at Grately where Wulfhelm was present . From other parts of the laws issued by the king , it appears that Wulfhelm also presided at a council held at Thunderfield , at which the reeves of London pledged to keep the king 's peace . The implication of the various accounts of the laws of Æthelstan is that Wulfhelm was highly involved in royal efforts to improve the law code .
Wulfhelm also went to Rome to receive his pallium in person from Pope John X. Why he chose to go to Rome in person for his pallium rather than having it sent to him like most of his predecessors is unknown . One suggestion has been that because he had been translated from another see , Wulfhelm felt the need to have papal approval of his translation made explicit . Given the low status of the papacy at the time , it is unlikely that the impetus for the change in tradition came from the pope .
Wulfhelm died while archbishop on 12 February 941 . During his time as archbishop , he received as gifts two gospels that are still extant , as Wulfhelm donated them to Christ Church . One of the gospels was produced in Ireland , the other either in Lotharingia or Germany . The second gospel may originally have been a gift to Æthelstan during the negotiations over the marriage of Æthelstan 's sister Edith to the future Emperor Otto I. These diplomatic events probably explain the appearance of Wulfhelm 's name in the confraternity books of some German monasteries . He may also have given land to the church , although the record is a bit unclear as to exactly what was given . Another grant of land was of land at Deverel , Wiltshire to Glastonbury Abbey while he was archbishop .
Wulfhelm was buried at Canterbury . He was buried at first the church of St John the Baptist near the Saxon @-@ era Canterbury Cathedral . When a new cathedral was constructed under Archbishop Lanfranc after the Norman Conquest of England , the earlier archbishops of Canterbury were moved to the north transept of the new cathedral . Later , Wulfhelm and his predecessor as bishop and archbishop Athelm were moved to a chapel dedicated to St Benedict , which later was incorporated into the Lady Chapel constructed by Prior Thomas Goldstone ( d . 1468 ) .
= Super Smash Bros. ( video game ) =
Super Smash Bros. , originally released in Japan as Nintendo All Star ! Dairantō Smash Brothers ( Japanese : ニンテンドウオールスター ！ 大乱闘 ( だいらんとう ) スマッシュブラザーズ , Hepburn : Nintendō Ōru Sutā ! Dairantō Sumasshu Burazāzu , lit . " Nintendo All Star ! Great Melee Smash Brothers " ) , is a fighting game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 home video game console . It was released in Japan on January 21 , 1999 ; in North America on April 26 , 1999 ; and in Europe on November 19 , 1999 . Super Smash Bros. is the first game in the Super Smash Bros. series ; its successor , Super Smash Bros. Melee , was released for the GameCube in 2001 .
The game is a crossover between many different Nintendo franchises , including Mario , Donkey Kong , The Legend of Zelda , Metroid , Mother , F @-@ Zero , Yoshi , Kirby , Star Fox and Pokémon . It received mostly positive reviews from the media and was commercially successful , selling over 5 million copies worldwide by 2001 , with 2 @.@ 93 million sold in the United States and 1 @.@ 97 million copies sold in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
The Super Smash Bros. series is a departure from many fighting games ; instead of winning by depleting an opponent 's life bar , Smash Bros. players seek to knock opposing characters off a stage . Each player has a damage total , represented by a percentage , which rises as damage is taken and can exceed 100 % , with a maximum damage of 999 % . As this percentage rises , the character can be knocked progressively farther by an opponent 's attacks . To KO an opponent , the player must send that character flying off the edge of the stage , which is not an enclosed arena but rather an area with open boundaries , many suspended in an otherwise empty space . When knocked off the stage , a character may use jumping moves in an attempt to return ; some characters have longer @-@ ranged jumps and may have an easier time " recovering " than others . Additionally , characters have different weights , making it harder for heavier opponents to be knocked off the edge , but reciprocally harder for them to recover once sent flying .
While games such as Street Fighter and Tekken require players to memorize relatively lengthy and complicated button @-@ input combinations often specific to only a particular character , Super Smash Bros. uses the same control combinations to access all moves for all characters . Characters are additionally not limited to only facing opponents , instead being allowed to run around freely on the stage . The game focuses more on aerial and platforming skills than other fighting games , with relatively larger , more @-@ dynamic stages rather than a simple flat platform . Smash Bros. also implements blocking and dodging mechanics . Grabbing and throwing other characters is also possible .
Various weapons and power @-@ ups can be used in battle to inflict damage , recover health , or dispense additional items . They fall randomly onto the stage in the form of items from Nintendo franchises , such as Koopa shells , hammers , and Poké Balls . The nine multiplayer stages are locations taken from or in the style of Nintendo franchises , such as Planet Zebes from Metroid and Sector Z from Star Fox . Although stages are rendered in three dimensions , players can only move within a two @-@ dimensional plane . Stages are dynamic , ranging from simple moving platforms to dramatic alterations of the entire stage . Each stage offers unique gameplay and strategic motives , making the chosen stage an additional factor in the fight .
In the game 's single @-@ player mode , the player chooses a character with which to battle a series of computer @-@ controlled opponents in a specific order , attempting to defeat them with a limited number of lives in a limited amount of time per challenger . While the player can determine the difficulty level and number of lives , the same series of opponents are always fought . If the player loses all of their lives or runs out of time , they have the option to continue at the cost of a considerable sum of their overall points . This mode is referred to as Classic Mode in sequels . The single @-@ player mode also include two minigames , " Break the Targets " and " Board the Platforms " , in which the objective is to break each target or board multiple special platforms , respectively . The goal must be achieved without falling off each character @-@ specific stage . A " Training Mode " is also available in which players can manipulate the environment and experiment against computer opponents without the restrictions of a standard match .
Up to four people can play in multiplayer mode , which has specific rules predetermined by the players . Stock and timed matches are two of the multiplayer modes of play . This gives each player a certain amount of lives or a selected time limit , before beginning the match . Free for all or team battles are also a choice during matches using stock or time . A winner is declared once time runs out , or if all players except one or a team has lost all of their lives . A multiplayer game may also end in a tie if two or more players have the same score when time expires , which causes the round to end in sudden death .
= = Characters = =
The game includes twelve playable characters originating from popular Nintendo franchises . Characters have a symbol appearing behind their damage meter corresponding to the series to which they belong , such as a Triforce behind Link 's and a Poké Ball emblem behind Pikachu 's . Furthermore , characters have recognizable moves derived from their original series , such as Samus 's charged blasters and Link 's arsenal of weapons . Eight characters are playable from the beginning of the game and the remaining four characters can then be unlocked by completing different tasks within the game .
The character art featured on the game 's box art and instruction manual is in the style of a comic book , and the characters are portrayed as toy dolls that come to life to fight . This presentational style has since been omitted in the sequels , which feature trophies instead of dolls and in @-@ game models rather than hand @-@ drawn art .
= = Development = =
Super Smash Bros. was developed by HAL Laboratory , a Nintendo second @-@ party developer , during 1998 . Masahiro Sakurai was interested in making a fighting game for four players . As he did not yet have any original ideas , his first designs were of simple base characters . He made a presentation of what was then called Kakuto @-@ Geemu Ryuoh ( Dragon King : The Fighting Game ) to co @-@ worker Satoru Iwata , who helped him continue . Sakurai understood that many fighting games did not sell well and that he had to think of a way to make his game original . His first idea was to include famous Nintendo characters and put them in a fight . Knowing he would not get permission , Sakurai made a prototype of the game without sanction from Nintendo and did not inform them until he was sure the game was well @-@ balanced . The prototype he presented featured Mario , Donkey Kong , Samus and Fox as playable characters . The idea was later approved .
Super Smash Bros. features music from some of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises . While many are newly arranged for the game , some pieces are taken directly from their sources . The music for Super Smash Bros. was composed by Hirokazu Ando , who later returned as sound and music director for Super Smash Bros. Melee . A complete soundtrack was released on CD in Japan through Teichiku Records in 2000 .
= = Critical reception = =
Super Smash Bros. received mostly positive reviews , with criticism mostly directed towards the game 's single @-@ player mode . GameSpot 's former editorial director , Jeff Gerstmann , noted the single @-@ player game " won 't exactly last a long time " . Instead , he praised the multi @-@ player portion of the game , saying that it is " extremely simple to learn " . He called the game 's music " amazing " . IGN 's Peer Schneider agreed , calling the multiplayer mode " the game 's main selling point " , while GameCritics.com 's Dale Weir described Super Smash Bros. as " the most original fighting game on the market and possibly the best multiplayer game on any system " . Brad Penniment of Allgame said the game was designed for multiplayer battles , praising the simplicity of the controls and the fun element of the game . There were criticisms , however , such as the game 's scoring being difficult to follow . In addition , the single @-@ player mode
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into the woods . The Phantom escapes by jumping past a moving train , but is shot in the leg . While waiting for the train to pass , the Phantom escapes . They continue their search but never find him . Years later , the film " The Town That Dreaded Sundown " premieres in Texarkana and the shoes of the Phantom are seen standing in line .
= = Cast = =
Ben Johnson as Captain J.D. Morales , based on the lead investigator , Captain of Company B Texas Rangers , M. T. " Lone Wolf " Gonzaullas .
Andrew Prine as Deputy Norman Ramsey , a fictional character slightly based on Bowie County Sheriff Bill Presley .
Dawn Wells as Helen Reed , based on the real @-@ life victim Katie Starks .
Jimmy Clem as Sgt. Mal Griffin
Jim Citty as Police Chief R.J. Sullivan
Charles B. Pierce as Patrolman A.C. Benson ( " Sparkplug " ) , a comic relief fictional character .
Robert Aquino as Sheriff Otis Barker
Bud Davis as The Phantom
Mike Hackworth as Sammy Fuller , based on the first victim Jimmy Hollis
Christine Ellsworth as Linda Mae Jenkins , based on victim Mary Jeanne Larey
Steve Lyons as Roy Allen , based on victim Paul Martin
Cindy Butler as Peggy Loomis , based on victim Betty Jo Booker
Joe Catalanatto as Eddie LaDoux
C. Alexander Dawson as hotel doorman
= = Production = =
Principal photography began on Monday , June 21 , in the very hot summer of 1976 for about four weeks . Locations included Scott , Arkansas , Shreveport , Louisiana , Garland City , Arkansas and Texarkana , Texas . The last scene filmed was the first attack , which was shot in front of Pierce 's home in Shreveport . About 19 Texarkana locals starred in the film along with several extras .
Pierce called Dawn Wells on July 8 , 1976 , to star in his film . She arrived by plane in Texarkana before noon the next day . She stayed in Texarkana for six days but completed her scenes in the first two . While filming the cornfield scene , Wells was almost attacked by a bulldog , but the crew scared it away by shooting at it . Wells wanted to talk to the real @-@ life survivor of her role , Katie Starks , but Katie refused . The Town That Dreaded Sundown was Wells ' fourth film and her second time working with Pierce . During her stay , she did not read the script ; she relied on the director instead . She said that was the way she wanted it . Wells explained , " Acting @-@ wise , it 's an extremely emotional role . I didn 't want to pattern my interpretation after anything . I wanted to go on my own feelings . " Being shot was a new experience for the actress . " They planted a charge in the receiver , so I was standing there holding the phone , shaking , expecting the receiver to blow up in my face . "
Andrew Prine , who played Norman Ramsey , wrote the last fifth of the film because it had no ending . Both he and Ben Johnson were hungover while filming the train scene after partying the night before . During the rain scene with Ramsey , a snake made its way on the set . Crew members were yelling at Andrew that there was a moccasin , but Prine wanted to finish his scene without re @-@ shooting , so the crew killed the snake afterwards . The last shot of the film where the killer is seen standing in line at the movie theater was Pierce 's wife 's idea .
= = = Production notes = = =
The film is one of several so @-@ called " drive @-@ in " films that were presented as true stories ( à la 1972 's The Legend of Boggy Creek ; 1973 's Walking Tall ; 1974 's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ; 1975 's Macon County Line and 1976 's Jackson County Jail ) when most , if not all , of what was portrayed on screen was outright fiction .
= = Promotion and release = =
The film 's poster art was painted with acrylic by a graphic illustrator named Ralph McQuarrie , then an unknown . McQuarrie had painted the poster for Peirce 's The Legend of Boggy Creek , then later for his films Bootleggers ( 1974 ) , Winterhawk ( 1975 ) , and Winds of Autumn ( 1976 ) . McQuarrie became recognized for his talent and went on to paint posters for Creature from Black Lake ( 1976 ) , Battlestar Galactica ( 1978 ) , Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) , Back to the Future ( 1985 ) and the original Star Wars trilogy . His concept art was used to help convince 20th Century Fox to fund Star Wars . The advertising department placed the controversial phrase , " In 1946 this man killed five people ... today he still lurks the streets of Texarkana , Ark . " on the poster . After Texarkana city officials threatened to sue , Pierce tried having the statement removed . The last part of the phrase was censored or removed in advertisements , but it remained on several posters .
The film was released theatrically in the United States by American International Pictures on December 24 , 1976 , and internationally in Sweden ( 1977 ) , West Germany ( 1978 ) , and the Philippines ( 1979 ) . It was played at drive @-@ ins until the end of 1977 and made its television debut by June 1978 . It was released on VHS in 1983 by Warner Home Video who then re @-@ released it in 1988 . Good Times Video also released it on VHS on May 15 , 2001 . The Turner Classic Movies ( TCM ) cable channel occasionally airs widescreen versions of this film , with the most recent showing scheduled for March 14th 2015 . The film finally had a digital release on May 21 , 2013 when Shout ! Factory released it on a Blu @-@ ray / DVD Combo Pack including Pierce 's 1979 film The Evictors .
= = = Reception = = =
= = = = Contemporaneous = = = =
Larry Fisher , a film critic for the Delta Democrat @-@ Times , gave the film a three star rating out of five . He said Ben Johnson gave a superb performance as Captain J.D. Morales , and that " Although the picture lacks a strong ending , Pierce does one of the most credible jobs of engineering the tense , horrifying murder scenes . " Mark Melson , Shreveport Times Amusement editor , claimed that it " may prove interesting to some viewers for one reason or another " but was " ultimately unsatisfying . "
William Whitaker of the Abilene Reporter @-@ News gave the film a negative review , stating , " where I was expecting a dramatic retelling of the mysterious case concerning the phantom killer and his bizarre murders , I was greeted with an extremely uneven picture , collapsing into the most sickening , blood @-@ weltering scenes one minute and then lapsing into some incredibly bad comedy relief the next . " He continued , " Such vivid contrasts in the film 's approach to its subject lead to its downfall . Any effect the disgustingly boring and extremely brutal murder scenes have go to waste seconds later when director Charles B. Pierce leads the picture into some of the type of poor comedy relief that one is used to seeing in budget pictures of the ' 60s . As a result , the film is unable to conjure up any mood or suspense . " He concludes with , " All in all , the picture is an unpleasant little film and Pierce , after going overboard on the blood and gore scenes , never seems to be able to decide as to how serious the picture should be , " and that " both mature and immature minds should avoid the film . " A reporter in El Paso , Texas gave it a mixed review , writing that " this mixture of humor with fact saved ' The Town ... ' as it wakes the audience when things begin to lag . " He goes on to write , " All things considered , the movie is entertaining and would appeal to those who savor unsolved murder mysteries . "
= = = = Modern = = = =
Scott Weinberg from FEARnet gave it a positive review by claiming that it is , " Arguably the most accomplished feature from the late Charles B. Pierce , " and " while the movie offers a slightly stodgy ' voice @-@ over ' narration and some moments that seem plucked straight out of ' 1970s police procedural 101 ' , including a few painful moments of cop @-@ related comic relief , it also delivers some legitimately effective atmosphere , several cool character actors doing fine work , and a handful of sincerely creepy moments . "
Bloody Disgusting gave the film five " skulls " in a review by Patrick Cooper , who wrote that it is " a hugely entertaining atmospheric thriller , " and that " the only parts that fumble a bit are the regrettable comedic moments ... these well @-@ intentioned bits sharply interrupt the serious ambiance of the film , but at least they 're few and spaced far enough apart that they don 't ruin the whole thing . " Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 50 % , based on 8 reviews , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 3 / 10 .
= = Historical accuracy = =
At the beginning of the film , it states that the first attack occurred on Sunday , March 3rd . In real life , the attack happened on Friday , February 22nd . Jimmy Hollis ( portrayed as " Sammy Fuller " ) was not pulled out of the window . The girl , Mary Jeanne Larey ( portrayed as " Linda Mae Jenkins " ) was told to run . She was then chased down and sexually assaulted with the attacker 's gun . She soon escaped and received help at a house . In the film , the doctor claimed that she was bitten and chewed , but Mary Larey only had a cut on her head from being beaten .
The next attack in the film claims that it happened on Saturday , March 24th ; in 1946 , March 24th was on a Sunday . In the film , " Howard Turner " and his girlfriend , " Emma Lou Cook " , were found dead outside of the vehicle . Emma Cook was shown tied to a tree with bite marks . In real life , both victims were found inside of the vehicle shot to death . The character " Deputy Ramsey " was patrolling the area and found the bodies . Afterwards , he sees the Phantom getting into a car and leaving . On the real morning of March 24th , a passing motorist spotted a car and found the bodies of Richard Griffin and Polly Ann Moore inside before calling the authorities . By the time the officers were on the scene , the killer was long gone .
The film states that locals soon started buying guns and locks , but this did not happen until two months later in May . The characters in the film then brought in Captain J.D. Morales of the Texas Rangers . Truthfully , " Lone Wolf " did not come to Texarkana until after the second double @-@ murder near Spring Lake Park . The film has Morales naming the killer a phantom , but the naming of the killer did not come until after the murders in April , and by the executive editor of the Texarkana Gazette .
The film then shows a high school prom with the character " Peggy Loomis " playing a trombone . The officers were setting up decoys in an attempt to capture the Phantom . Betty Jo Booker , who played saxophone ( not a trombone ) was playing at a Veterans of Foreign Wars ( VFW ) social event ( not a prom ) , and officers did not set up decoys until after her and her friend Paul Martin 's murder . In the film , " Peggy " and " Roy " are a couple , but Booker and Martin were only friends in real life . She and Martin were shot to death , and her saxophone was missing for six months . In the film , " Deputy Ramsey " collects the victim 's instrument as evidence .
In the film , " Helen Reed " sees the attacker before being shot . However , Katie Starks was shot through the same window as her husband and did not see her attacker until he tried crawling through the kitchen window . Mrs. Starks ran out of the house but was not chased . At the end of the film , the officers chase The Phantom and shoot him in the leg , but the real Phantom was never chased or shot at all .
= = Controversies = =
In February 1977 , Texarkana city officials voted to file a lawsuit against the ad campaign . When city officials visited Washington , D.C. , they were kidded about the film 's tagline which states : " In 1946 this man killed five people ... today he still lurks the streets of Texarkana , Ark . " Mayor Harvey Nelson explained : " The ad is too much ; that 's just not true . There 's objection that this whole thing will be spreading fear in the community . There are relatives of the victims still living here , and this is very unpleasant to them . " Pierce worked with American International Pictures to remove the " still lurking " statement , but it remained on the posters .
In 1978 , Mark Melton Moore , the brother of real @-@ life victim Polly Ann Moore , took Pierce to court for $ 1 @.@ 3 million for invading his privacy . He claimed his sister , who was portrayed as " Emma Lou Cook " in the film , was depicted " as a high school dropout and a woman with loose and low morals ; when in fact none of such was true . " In real life , Polly Ann Moore graduated high school at the age of 16 . The court denied his claim in 1979 . Mr. Moore filed again in 1980 to the Texas Supreme Court . The Sixth Court of Civil Appeals in Texarkana agreed again that the film 's producers did not invade his privacy and that he was not entitled to any money .
On March 15 , 1978 , Gerald Gedrimas , a teenager , shot and killed his high school friend James Grunstra . In court , Gedrimas stated that he thought of his plan to be an " outlaw " like Jesse James ( the infamous legendary outlaw of the Wild West ) while watching The Town That Dreaded Sundown .
= = Tradition = =
In Texarkana ( where the story is based ) , this film is shown to the public at Spring Lake Park near Halloween . It is the last film shown for " Movies in the Park " , which plays a film on each Thursday during May and October . The showing of the film , which has been a tradition since 2003 , is a free event sponsored by The Texarkana , Texas Department of Parks & Recreation .
= = In popular culture = =
Jason Voorhees , the masked assailant from the Friday the 13th franchise , wears a gunny sack over his head in Friday the 13th Part 2 ( 1981 ) , much similar to the Phantom 's with the exception of Jason only having one eye @-@ hole on the sack , whereas the Phantom has two eye @-@ holes . The Town That Dreaded Sundown is mentioned by a character in the 1996 film Scream . In Seven Psychopaths ( 2012 ) , a short scene shows a couple that kills the " Texarkana Moonlight Murderer " like the one in this film .
= = Sequel = =
A follow @-@ up meta @-@ sequel by Ryan Murphy and Jason Blum was released on October 16 , 2014 , in select theaters and then on Video on Demand the following day . The director , Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , directed a script by Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa . Addison Timlin plays the lead role and is supported by Gary Cole , Ed Lauter and Veronica Cartwright .
= 1968 Liberty Bowl =
The 1968 Liberty Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Ole Miss Rebels from the University of Mississippi at Memphis Memorial Stadium in Memphis , Tennessee on December 14 , 1968 . The game was the final contest of the 1968 college football season for both teams , and ended in a 34 @-@ 17 victory for Mississippi .
Two years after a previous trip to the Liberty Bowl , Virginia Tech was again asked to travel to Memphis to play in a post @-@ season bowl game . This time , the opponent was Mississippi , which had amassed a 6 – 3 – 1 record during the regular season . The Hokies came into the game with a 7 – 3 record that included a loss to Tech 's previous Liberty Bowl opponent , Miami .
The 1968 Liberty Bowl kicked off on December 14 , 1968 . As in the Hokies ' previous appearance in the Liberty Bowl , Virginia Tech got off to a fast start . On the game 's second play , Tech ran 58 yards for a touchdown , courtesy of a trick play . After Mississippi fumbled , Tech recovered and scored another quick touchdown . At the end of the first quarter , Tech added a field goal to the two touchdowns it had already earned , making the score 17 – 0 at the end of one quarter . From that point onward , however , almost nothing would go in Virginia Tech 's favor . Tech attempted an onside kick following the field goal , but were unable to successfully recover the ball . With good field position following the kick , Mississippi quarterback Archie Manning orchestrated a 49 @-@ yard drive for the Rebels ' first points of the game .
Mississippi scored another touchdown before halftime , and the Hokies clung to a 17 – 14 lead at the beginning of the second half . That three @-@ point lead quickly evaporated , however , as 21 seconds into the third quarter , Mississippi 's Steve Hindman ran for 79 yards and a touchdown to give Mississippi a 21 – 17 lead . Ole Miss added 13 more points before the game ended and earned the victory , 34 – 17 .
= = Pregame buildup = =
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies , led by head coach Jerry Claibourne , amassed a 7 – 3 record during the regular season prior to the Liberty Bowl . The Hokies came into the 1968 season with high expectations . From 1963 to 1967 , Virginia Tech was the 12th winningest major college football program , recording 36 wins , 13 losses , and one tie — putting the Hokies just behind Notre Dame in winning percentage . During the regular season , linebacker Mike Widger emerged as a major threat on defense for Tech . In the Hokies ' win over No. 18 Florida State in 1968 , Widger intercepted two passes . Shortly after Liberty Bowl committee chairman Bud Dudley selected the Hokies to play in the Liberty Bowl , Widger was named a first @-@ team Associated Press All @-@ American , marking him as one of the best players at his position in the country .
= = = Mississippi = = =
The Ole Miss Rebels , led by head coach John Vaught , earned a regular @-@ season record of 6 – 3 – 1 prior to the Liberty Bowl . Vaught remains the all @-@ time leader in wins at Ole Miss , and at the time of Mississippi 's selection for the 1968 Liberty Bowl , he had already led the Rebels to three national championships and six Southeastern Conference championships , the most recent of each coming in 1962 . On the field , Ole Miss featured star quarterback Archie Manning , who despite being just a sophomore , was already making a name for himself and would later go on to set records for passing yardage and passing touchdowns for Ole Miss , en route to becoming one of the greatest quarterbacks in Mississippi history .
= = Game summary = =
The 1968 Liberty bowl kicked off on a cold and blustery day in front of 46 @,@ 206 fans at Memphis Memorial Stadium in Memphis , Tennessee on December 14 , 1968 . The record crowd ( it was the largest in the 10 @-@ year history of the bowl to that point ) consumed 20 @,@ 000 hot dogs — so many that the stadium ran out by the third quarter .
In the first quarter of the game , it appeared that Virginia Tech would run away with an overwhelming victory . Tech received the ball to begin the game , and on the game 's second play , Virginia Tech 's Ken Edwards ran 58 yards on a trick play for the game 's first touchdown . Mississippi fumbled the ball on its first offensive play and Virginia Tech recovered the turnover . Three plays later , Tech scored another touchdown on a seven @-@ yard run by Terry Smoot . After stopping the Rebels with their defense , Tech appeared to have another chance to score when the Hokies ' Ron Davidson returned an Ole Miss punt to the Rebels ' 42 @-@ yard line . Despite the excellent field position , Tech was unable to score after Hokie quarterback Al Kinkaid was sacked for a 19 @-@ yard loss
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51 , set in 2004 – 05 with the Binghamton Senators . McGrattan overcame an alcohol abuse problem that plagued him early in his career and has become a partner with the NHL 's substance abuse program and mentor to fellow players .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
A native of Hamilton , Ontario , McGrattan played minor hockey in the city where he was one of his teams ' best scorers before moving to Toronto to play bantam and junior hockey . He played five seasons in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) between 1997 and 2002 . He appeared in 25 games with the Guelph Storm in 1997 – 98 , and although he did not appear in any playoff games , he was a member of the Storm 's J. Ross Robertson Cup winning team as OHL champions . After only six games with Guelph the following season , McGrattan was sent to the Sudbury Wolves where he recorded 153 penalties in minutes ( PIM ) in 53 games to go along with 17 points . He followed that season up by scoring 32 points and recording 245 PIM in 1999 – 2000 in a season split between Sudbury and the Mississauga IceDogs .
Playing the entire 2000 – 01 season with Mississauga , McGrattan led the IceDogs with 20 goals despite playing only 31 games . He missed the majority of the season after suffering a knee injury in a January 1 , 2001 , game against the Kingston Frontenacs . He began the 2001 – 02 OHL season as Mississauga 's captain , but was traded to the Owen Sound Attack in October 2001 , then to the Oshawa Generals a few days later . He was traded again , to the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in January 2002 . Split between the four teams , McGrattan appeared in 60 games , scored 20 goals and 35 points , and had 159 PIM .
= = = Ottawa Senators = = =
McGrattan was selected by the Los Angeles Kings in the fourth round , 104th overall , of the 1999 NHL Entry Draft , but the Kings opted not to sign him to a contract following his knee injury . He attended the Detroit Red Wings ' development camp prior to the 2001 – 02 season , before signing a contract with the Ottawa Senators on June 2 , 2002 . He spent three seasons in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) with Ottawa 's affiliate , the Binghamton Senators . McGrattan scored his first professional point on October 11 , 2002 , against the Bridgeport Sound Tigers ; an assist on a Jeff Ulmer goal that also stood as the first goal in Binghamton 's history .
Due to his size , McGrattan believed his best chance of making it to the NHL was as an enforcer . Dennis Bonvie , the all @-@ time penalty leader in professional hockey , taught him to be a better fighter while the two were teammates in Binghamton . After posting 173 PIM in 2002 – 03 , McGrattan finished second in the AHL with 327 in 2003 – 04 . He then set an AHL single @-@ season record for penalties with 551 in 2004 – 05 .
Having established himself as an enforcer , and with the Senators seeking to add physical toughness to their lineup , McGrattan earned a spot on Ottawa 's roster for the 2005 – 06 season . He appeared in 60 games with Ottawa where he recorded five points and 141 PIM . McGrattan scored his first NHL goal on November 19 , 2005 , against goaltender Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils , and led the league with 19 fights . His most famous battle came against Tie Domi of the Toronto Maple Leafs . McGrattan knocked his opponent down with one punch , which the Toronto Star called Domi 's " most decisive loss in 10 years " .
His role with the team diminished over the following two seasons , as McGrattan appeared in only 45 games in 2006 – 07 and 38 in 2007 – 08 . He had only five points and 146 PIM combined between the two seasons . McGrattan made headlines midway through the 2007 – 08 campaign when he fought teammate and goaltender Ray Emery – himself a noted fighter – in practice . McGrattan 's on @-@ ice performance had suffered over time in Ottawa as a result of a worsening drinking problem he had developed beginning early in his career with Binghamton .
= = = Phoenix , Calgary and Nashville = = =
The Senators struggled late in the 2007 – 08 season , leading general manager Bryan Murray to make changes to the team . Both Emery and McGrattan were sent from Ottawa in separate transactions . McGrattan , a pending free agent , was traded to the Phoenix Coyotes on June 25 , 2008 , in exchange for a fifth round draft pick in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . The Coyotes subsequently signed him to a one @-@ year contract for the 2008 – 09 season . However , he played only three games with Phoenix before he voluntarily entered the league 's substance abuse program . McGrattan 's struggles with alcohol abuse reached its lowest point and he spent over two months at an Arizona rehab centre as he worked toward changing his life . He returned to the Coyotes late in the season but played only two additional games before he suffered a shoulder injury that required surgery to repair .
McGrattan was six months sober when he signed with the Calgary Flames for the 2009 – 10 season . He recorded his first career " Gordie Howe hat trick " – a goal , assist and fight – on October 16 , 2009 , in a 5 – 3 victory over the Vancouver Canucks . The goal was his first NHL marker in three years . He added only two assists to finish with four points in 34 games . McGrattan also fought 14 times and was allowed to go to free agency following the season .
McGrattan attended the Boston Bruins camp on a try @-@ out basis , and earned a one @-@ year contract with the team . He was assigned to the Providence Bruins to begin the 2010 – 11 season and spent the entire campaign in the AHL . The Bruins traded him to the Anaheim Ducks , along with Sean Zimmerman , in exchange for David Laliberte and Stefan Chaput on February 27 , 2011 . He was assigned to the Syracuse Crunch , where he set a franchise record for shots in one game with 13 in a March 12 game against the Rochester Americans . McGrattan scored 10 goals combined between Providence and Syracuse , the highest single @-@ season total of his AHL career .
After beginning the 2011 – 12 NHL season in the Ducks ' organization , McGrattan was claimed off waivers by the Nashville Predators on October 11 , 2011 . The transaction resurrected his NHL career and earned praise from his former teammates who praised him as being a " great guy " and a hard worker . McGrattan appeared in 30 games for Nashville , including his 200th career game on December 8 against the Columbus Blue Jackets . After two games with the Predators in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season , McGrattan was assigned to the AHL 's Milwaukee Admirals .
After only six games in Milwaukee , McGrattan was traded back to the Flames , in exchange for Joe Piskula , on February 28 , 2013 . McGrattan 's positive influence in the locker room as a player always prepared to play was cited as a reason why Calgary re @-@ acquired him . The Flames also expected he would add a physical presence to the team , which he did in his re @-@ debut with the Flames , a 4 – 2 victory over Vancouver that included several hits and a fight with Tom Sestito – his first NHL fight in over a year . He gave the crowd a salute following the fight , sending the fans into a frenzy and earning a ten @-@ minute misconduct . He finished the season with three goals and 49 PIM in 19 games with the Flames , and earned a two @-@ year contract extension from the team .
McGrattan was a regular in the Flames lineup throughout 2013 – 14 . He set career highs in games played ( 76 ) , goals ( 4 ) and points ( 8 ) in a season . He appeared in his 300th NHL game late in the campaign . Though best known for his fighting skills , McGrattan played a prominent role as a peacekeeper during a January 18 , 2014 , incident between the Flames and Canucks . Vancouver coach John Tortorella , upset over a line brawl between the two teams at the start of the game , attempted to accost Calgary 's coach Bob Hartley in the hallway between the two team 's locker rooms during the first intermission . McGrattan stepped between Tortorella and members of the Flames to ensure that the dispute did not develop into a violent altercation .
A league @-@ wide change in philosophy prior to the 2014 – 15 NHL season favouring speed over strength for a team 's role players resulted in the near elimination of the enforcer role . As a consequence , McGrattan appeared in only 8 of Calgary 's first 42 games . The team ultimately placed him on waivers , and upon clearing , demoted him to the AHL 's Adirondack Flames in mid @-@ January . With Adirondack , McGrattan abandoned fighting and tried to play an all @-@ round game in the hopes of returning to the NHL .
Leaving the Flames organization , McGrattan signed a one year contract with the Anaheim Ducks , and was subsequently assigned to the AHL 's San Diego Gulls for the 2015 – 16 season . During a January 19 , 2016 , game against the San Antonio Rampage , McGrattan was knocked unconscious in a fight with Daniel Maggio . The incident , in which he fell face @-@ first to the ice and had to be stretchered off the ice , renewed the debate over the place of fighting in hockey .
= = Personal life = =
McGrattan married his wife Michelle in 2012 . His nickname is " Big Ern " , after the Bill Murray character " Big Ern McCracken " in the movie Kingpin .
Sober for four years by the time he began his second tenure with the Flames in 2013 , McGrattan had also become a mentor and friend to former Nashville teammate Jordin Tootoo in his own efforts to overcome similar addictions . McGrattan 's experiences led to a desire to help others ; he partnered with the NHL substance abuse program to act as a mentor for others who wanted the advice of a fellow player , and plans to spend his off @-@ seasons earning a university degree in addiction counseling . McGrattan is also an advocate for anti @-@ bullying charities and volunteers with Be The Game , a camp that supports underprivileged kids .
= = Career statistics = =
= Michael Shishman of Bulgaria =
Michael Asen III ( Bulgarian : Михаил Асен III , Mihail Asen III , commonly called Michael Shishman ( Михаил Шишман , Mihail Šišman ) ) , ruled as emperor ( tsar ) of Bulgaria from 1323 to 1330 . The exact year of his birth is unknown but it was between 1280 and 1292 . He was the founder of the last ruling dynasty of the Second Bulgarian Empire , the Shishman dynasty . After he was crowned , however , Michael used the name Asen to emphasize his connection with the
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Asen dynasty , the first one to rule over the Second Empire .
An energetic and ambitious ruler , Michael Shishman led an aggressive but opportunistic and inconsistent foreign policy against the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Serbia , which ended in the disastrous battle of Velbazhd which claimed his own life . He was the last medieval Bulgarian ruler who aimed at military and political hegemony of the Bulgarian Empire over the Balkans and the last one who attempted to seize Constantinople . He was succeeded by his son Ivan Stephen and later by his nephew Ivan Alexander , who reversed his policy by forming an alliance with Serbia .
= = Rise to the throne = =
Born between 1280 and 1292 Michael Shishman was the son of the despot Shishman of Vidin by an unnamed daughter of the sebastokrator Peter and Anna ( Theodora ) , herself daughter of Ivan Asen II ( r . 1218 @-@ 1241 ) and Irene Komnene of Epirus . He was also a distant cousin of his predecessors on the Bulgarian throne , Theodore Svetoslav ( r . 1300 @-@ 1321 ) and George Terter II ( r . 1321 @-@ 1322 ) . After the peace between his father and Stefan Milutin in 1292 , Michael Shishman was engaged to Milutin 's daughter Anna Neda and they married in 1298 or 1299 .
Since the middle of the 13th century , the area of Vidin had been autonomous under ineffective Bulgarian overlordship , and was ruled successively by Yakov Svetoslav ( died 1276 ) , Shishman ( died between 1308 and 1313 ) , and then Michael Shishman . Shishman and his son received the high courtly title of despotēs from their cousin Theodore Svetoslav and the latter was referred to in a contemporary Venetian source as a Despot of Bulgaria and Lord of Vidin . With the death of the Serbian king Stefan Milutin , Michael Shishman was able to follow a more active policy in the Bulgarian capital Tarnovo . He soon became a leading noble in the internal affairs of the country and , on the childless death of young George Terter II in 1323 , Michael Shishman was elected emperor of Bulgaria by the nobility . According to some historians he was chosen because he was a descendant of the Asen dynasty and interpret his ascenсion to the throne not as the beginning of a new dynasty but rather as a continuation of the House of Asen . His half @-@ brother , Belaur , succeeded him as despot of Vidin .
= = Relations with the Byzantine Empire = =
= = = War against Byzantium = = =
The sudden death of George Terter II had been followed by a brief period of confusion and uncertainty , which was exploited by the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos . The Byzantines overran northeastern Thrace and captured a number of important cities including Yambol , Lardea , Ktenia , Rusokastro , Anchialus , Sozopol and Agatopol . At the same time , a Byzantine @-@ sponsored pretender , Voysil , brother of the former Bulgarian emperor Smilets ( r . 1292 @-@ 1298 ) , ensconced himself in Krăn , controlling the valleys between the Balkan mountains and Sredna Gora from Sliven to Kopsis . At this point the newly elected Michael Shishman marched south against Andronikos III , while another Byzantine army led by Andronikos III himself was besieging Philippopolis ( Plovdiv ) . Defended by a Bulgarian garrison led by Ivan the Russian , the siege was a failure despite the Byzantines use of a 100 @-@ soldier , five @-@ story siege tower . While the Byzantine army was engaged at Philipopolis , Michael Shishman led his troops to north @-@ eastern Thrace and quickly retook the lost cities thus forcing the Byzantines to pull back .
Although Michael Shishman forced Andronikos III to retreat , the Byzantines managed to take the Philippopolis while the Bulgarians were changing garrisons . Despite the loss , Michael Shishman was able to expel Voysil and fully recover Bulgarian control over northern and northeastern Thrace in 1324 which had been taken by the Byzantines in the previous year during the interregnum . Again in 1324 , the Bulgarian emperor invaded Byzantium advancing as far as Trajanopolis and Vira in the lower course of the Maritsa river . Andronikos III was unable to engage the Bulgarian army because his troops were outnumbered . He offered Michael Shishman a duel to solve the conflict . The Bulgarian emperor answered with the words cited by John Kantakouzenos :
The Byzantine emperor was said to have been infuriated with the answer and the fact that he was outsmarted . However , Michael III who was informed of the conflict between Andronikos III and Andronikos II hinted him that he could help Andronikos III against his grandfather in case of war and returned to Bulgaria promising that soon he would begin negotiations .
= = = Peace agreement and involvement in Byzantine civil war = = =
On a council held in Constantinople on the relations with Bulgaria it was decided that the two countries should begin negotiations despite the calls for punishing the Bulgarians for the invasion . Michael Shishman divorced his wife Anna Neda and married Theodora Palaiologina , the 35 @-@ year @-@ old widow of emperor Theodore Svetoslav . The exact reasons for that act are unclear . Many historians suggest that the deterioration of the Bulgarian @-@ Serbian relations was rooted in the Serbian penetration in Macedonia . The marriage cemented the peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire but the need for an ally against the Serbs made Michael Shishman prone to make concessions . It was decided that the border should follow the Philippopolis @-@ Chernomen @-@ Sozopol line . The agreement was finally signed in the autumn of 1324 and Michael Shishman spent the next several years at peace with his neighbors .
In 1327 Michael Shishman became involved in the renewed civil war in the Byzantine Empire , taking the side of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Andronikos III , while his grandfather and rival Andronikos II obtained the support of the Serbian king . Andronikos III and Michael Shishman met at Chernomen ( according to Nicephorus Gregoras at Dimotika ) and concluded an aggressive alliance against Serbia . The Byzantine emperor promised to Bulgaria territory with several towns and large amount of money if he would become a sole emperor . Based on that alliance , Andronikos III gained control of Macedonia but his success made Michael Shishman , who aimed at a prolonged conflict within the Byzantine Empire , enter into negotiations with Andronikos II , offering military support in exchange for money and the cession of some border lands . The Bulgarian ruler sent a detachment of 3 @,@ 000 cavalry , commanded by Ivan the Russian , from Yambol to guard the Imperial Palace in Constantinople and Andronikos II but his intentions were to capture the old emperor and the city . Forewarned by his grandson , Andronikos II prudently kept the Bulgarians away from the capital and his person . When Michael Shishman understood that his plans were revealed he sent Ivan a letter to retreat with a singe feather which meant that the orders had to be promptly executed .
Following the victory of Andronikos III over his grandfather , Michael Shishman attempted to gain some lands by force . He invaded Thrace in June 1328 and pillaged the vicinities of Viza but retreated before the advance of Andronikos III . Another showdown in front of Adrianople 60 days later ended without battle and with the renewal of the peace treaty in October 1328 , after which Michael Shishman returned to his country , but not before securing a large payoff . In return , the Bulgarians gave back the fortress of Bukelon which they had taken during the initial stages of the campaign . In the beginning of the next year the Bulgarian emperor requested a personal meeting with his Byzantine counterpart to negotiate a definitive treaty and joint military operations against the growing power of Serbia . In the locality known as Krimni between Sozopol and Anchialus the two signed " lasting peace and eternal alliance " .
= = Relations with Serbia = =
The divorce with Anna Neda in 1324 worsened the relations between Bulgaria and Serbia which had been cordial since the beginning of the 14th century . Anna Neda had to leave the capital Tarnovo with her sons and sought refuge from her brother Stephen Dečanski , the king of Serbia . Dečanski , who was engaged in war against his cousin Stephen Vladislav II , was in no position to oppose Michael Shishman . The Bulgarian emperor even acknowledged his rival as King of Serbia but his help to Vladislav was insufficient . In the spring of 1324 Dečanski sent the future Serbian archbishop Danilo II to negotiate with the Bulgarian emperor in Tarnovo but his mission was inconclusive . The two countries were again on the opposite sides in the Byzantine civil war when the Bulgarians allied with Andronikos III while the Serbs supported his grandfather .
After the agreement with Andronikos III in 1329 , Michael Shishman started preparations to attack while the Serbs were pillaging the areas around Ohrid . According to the Serbian chroniclers , he arrogantly demanded the submission of the Serbian king and threatened to " set up his throne in the middle of the Serbian land " . In 1330 , expecting to join the army of Andronikos III advancing from the south , Michael Shishman marched on Serbia with a large force of 15 @,@ 000 troops , including reinforcements from his vassals and allies from Wallachia and Moldavia . At first he headed to Vidin , where historians believe he wanted to join forces with the soldiers of his brother Belaur , and then marched to the south . Due to poor coordination with the Byzantines , the Bulgarian army met the Serbs , whose army numbered 15 @,@ 000 men as well , alone near Velbazhd ( Kyustendil ) . On a personal meeting , the two rulers agreed to a one @-@ day truce as both were expecting reinforcements . Backed on the agreement , Michael Shishman allowed his army to disperse in search for provisions . However , in the morning of 28 July , the main Serbian reinforcements , 1 @,@ 000 heavily armed Catalan horsemen under the command of the King 's son Stephen Dušan arrived , and the Serbs broke their word and attacked the Bulgarians . Despite the unexpected assault , Michael Shishman tried to bring his army to order but it was too late and the Serbs were victorious . The outcome of the battle shaped the balance of power in the Balkans for the next decades to come and although Bulgaria did not lose territory , the Serbs could occupy much of Macedonia .
= = Death and legacy = =
The circumstances around the death of Michael Shishman are unclear . According to the Byzantine emperor and historian John Kantakouzenos the emperor was mortally wounded in the battle and soon died while another Byzantine historian suggests that Michael Shishman lived for three more days not able to gain consciousness and died on the fourth day . The Serbian chronicles state that his horse fell during the battle and crashed his body . When his body was taken to Dečanski , he mourned him but pointed out that he preferred war to peace . The early 15th @-@ century Bulgarian scholar and cleric Gregory Tsamblak says that Michael Shishman was captured and killed by the son of the Serbian king , Stephen Dušan . He was buried in the Church of St George in Staro Nagoričane .
Michael Shishman is considered a vain , aggressive , and opportunistic ruler , whose Protean foreign policy perhaps contributed to the battle that put an end to his life . At the same time he was clearly forceful and energetic , overcoming and reversing Bulgaria 's losses during the uncertainty that preceded his accession , and managing to maintain internal peace and security within Bulgaria during his short reign . Andreev calls him the most remarkable 14th @-@ century Bulgarian monarch . According to Kantacouzenos he desired to expand the country from Byzantium to the Istros , i. e. from Constantinople to the Danube which makes him the last medieval Bulgarian ruler who effectively attempted to capture the Byzantine capital . He was also the first Bulgarian ruler for decades who tried to lead a more active policy in Macedonia . Michael Shishman 's seal is depicted on the reverse of the Bulgarian 2 levs banknote , issued in 1999 and 2005 .
= = Family = =
Michael Shishman was married first to Anna Neda of Serbia , a daughter of Stefan Uroš II Milutin of Serbia . By this marriage he had several children , including Ivan Stefan , who succeeded as emperor of Bulgaria ( r . 1330 @-@ 1331 ) , Michael who ruled shortly as despot of Vidin and Shishman . By his second marriage to Theodora Palaiologina , a daughter of Michael IX Palaiologos of Byzantium , Michael Shishman had several children whose names are unknown .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Timeline = =
1291 — Michael Shishman is engaged to Anna Neda of Serbia
1298 or 1299 — Marries Anna Neda
By 1308 — Becomes Despot of Vidin
1323 — Elected Emperor of Bulgaria by the nobility , uses the name Michael Asen
1324 — Successful war with the Byzantine Empire ; divorces his first wife to marry Theodora Palaiologina
1327 — Involvement into the Byzantine civil war ; Treaty of Chernomen
1329 — Definitive peace treaty with the Byzantines ; anti @-@ Serbian agreement
28 July 1330 — Battle
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to replicate that feeling anywhere else " . On 15 October 2012 , Liverpool City Council announced plans to regenerate the Anfield area after securing a £ 25m grant , with a housing association also set to invest .
On 23 August 2013 Anfield was listed as an Asset of Community Value by Liverpool City Council . On 11 September , current owner , John W. Henry announced that they had the funds to afford the expansion but they are waiting for the City Council to finalize the purchase of houses in the area before they commit to plans to expand the Main Stand and the Anfield Road end of the ground . In April 2014 Liverpool F.C. signed a legal agreement with Liverpool City Council and Your Housing Group to redevelop the surrounding Anfield area . This was seen as a significant step towards the renovation of the stadium . The redevelopment was worth around £ 260 million . On 23 April 2014 Liverpool F.C. revealed plans for an expansion of the Main Stand , increasing its capacity by 8 @,@ 250 and taking the capacity of the stadium to 54 @,@ 000 In a second phase the Anfield Road stand 's seating is to be increased by 4 @,@ 825 , which would give Anfield a total capacity of 58 @,@ 000 .
On 4 December 2014 , the club said they would begin work on 8 December to increase the stadium 's capacity from about 45 @,@ 500 to 59 @,@ 000 . The first phase would begin on the Main Stand , which would feature a new third tier , adding 8 @,@ 500 seats , which would bring total capacity to 54 @,@ 000 . The Anfield Road Stand would then be expanded to add a further 4 @,@ 800 seats . The work is expected to be completed in time for the 2016 – 17 season , and would significantly enhance the club 's ability to earn matchday revenue , while still protecting the special historic Anfield atmosphere .
= = Other uses = =
Anfield has hosted numerous international matches , and was one of the venues used during UEFA Euro 1996 ; the ground hosted three group games and a quarter @-@ final . The first international match hosted at Anfield was between England and Ireland , in 1889 . England won the match 6 – 1 . Anfield was also the home venue for several of England 's international football matches in the early 1900s and for the Welsh team in the later part of that century . Anfield has also played host to five FA Cup semi @-@ finals , the last of which was in 1929 . The most recent international to be hosted at Anfield was England 's 2 – 1 victory over Uruguay on 1 March 2006 . England has played two testimonial matches against Liverpool at Anfield . The first was in 1983 , when England faced Liverpool for Phil Thompson 's testimonial . Then , in 1988 , England visited again for Alan Hansen 's testimonial .
Liverpool F.C. ' s rivals Manchester United F.C. played their first home game of the 1971 – 72 season at Anfield as they were banned from playing their first two home league matches at Old Trafford after United hooligans threw knives into the away section at a match at the end of the previous season . United beat Arsenal F.C. 3 @-@ 1 .
Anfield has been the venue for many other events . During the mid @-@ twenties , Anfield was the finishing line for the city marathon . Liverpool held an annual race which started from St George 's plateau in the city centre and finished with a lap of Anfield . Boxing matches were regularly held at Anfield during the inter @-@ war years , including a number of British boxing championships ; on 12 June 1934 Nel Tarleton beat Freddie Miller for the World Featherweight title . Professional tennis was played at Anfield on boards on the pitch . US Open champion , Bill Tilden , and Wimbledon champion , Fred Perry , entertained the crowds in an exhibition match . In 1958 , an exhibition basketball match featuring the Harlem Globetrotters was held at the ground .
The stadium has hosted three rugby league matches . The first was the 1989 Charity Shield played between Widnes Vikings and Wigan Warriors . The 1991 World Club Challenge between the Wigan , the winners of the RFL Championship , and Penrith Panthers , winners of the Australian NSWRL Premiership , was held at the ground with an attendance of 20 @,@ 152 people . In 1997 , St Helens used the ground for their Super League II home game against Castleford Tigers ; the attendance was 12 @,@ 329 . The stadium will host the 2016 Rugby League Four Nations final .
Aside from sporting uses , Anfield has been a venue for musicians of different genres as well as evangelical preachers . One week in July 1984 , the American evangelist Billy Graham preached at Anfield , attracting crowds of over 30 @,@ 000 each night . Anfield was featured in Liverpool 's 2008 European Capital of Culture celebrations : 36 @,@ 000 people attended a concert on 1 June 2008 , featuring The Zutons , Kaiser Chiefs , and Paul McCartney .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Anfield is 61 @,@ 905 , for Liverpool 's match against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the FA Cup fifth round , on 2 February 1952 . The lowest attendance recorded at Anfield was 1 @,@ 000 for a match against Loughborough on 7 December 1895 . The highest average attendance of 48 @,@ 127 was set in 1978 .
Liverpool did not lose a match at Anfield during the 1893 – 94 , 1970 – 71 , 1976 – 77 , 1978 – 79 , 1979 – 80 , 1987 – 88 , and 2008 – 09 seasons . They won all their home games during the 1893 – 94 season . Liverpool 's longest winning streak at home extended from January 1978 to January 1981 , a period encompassing 85 games , in which Liverpool scored 212 goals and conceded 35 . Liverpool 's worst losing streak at Anfield is three games . This has occurred three times in the club 's history to date ( 1899 – 1900 , 1906 – 07 and 1908 – 09 seasons ) .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is about 2 miles ( 3 km ) from Lime Street Station , which lies on a branch of the West Coast Main Line from London Euston . Kirkdale Station , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the stadium , is the nearest station to Anfield . Fans travelling by train for matches may book direct to Anfield or Goodison Park , changing to the Merseytravel Soccerbus service at Sandhills Station on the Merseyrail Northern Line . The stadium has no parking facilities for supporters , and the streets around the ground allow parking only for residents with permits , although there are a small number of passes that can be allocated to over @-@ 65s . There are proposals under consideration for reinstating passenger traffic on the Bootle Branch , which would cut the distance from the nearest railway station to about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 1 km ) .
= Frigate action of 29 May 1794 =
The frigate action of 29 May 1794 — not to be confused with the much larger fleet action of 29 May 1794 that took place in the same waters at the same time — was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars between a Royal Navy frigate and a French Navy frigate . The action formed a minor part of the Atlantic campaign of May 1794 , a campaign which culminated in the battle of the Glorious First of June , and was unusual in that the French ship Castor had only been in French hands for a few days at the time of the engagement . Castor had previously been a British ship , seized on 19 May by a French battle squadron in the Bay of Biscay and converted to French service while still at sea . While the main fleets manoeuvered around one another , Castor was detached in pursuit of a Dutch merchant ship and on 29 May encountered the smaller independently cruising British frigate HMS Carysfort .
Captain Francis Laforey on Carysfort immediately attacked the larger ship and in an engagement lasting an hour and fifteen minutes successfully forced its captain to surrender , discovering a number of British prisoners of war below decks . Castor was subsequently taken back to Britain and an extended legal case ensued between the Admiralty and Captain Laforey over the amount of prize money that should be awarded for the victory . Ultimately Laforey was successful , in part due to testimony from the defeated French captain , proving his case and claiming the prize money . The lawsuit did not harm Laforey 's career and he later served at the Battle of Trafalgar and became a prominent admiral .
= = Background = =
During the spring of 1794 , the newly declared French Republic faced famine . In an effort to secure the required food supplies , large quantities were ordered from the French American colonies and from the United States , which gathered in a large convoy of merchant vessels off Hampton Roads in Virginia . On 2 April the convoy sailed for Europe under Contre @-@ Admiral Pierre Vanstabel , expecting to meet a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly on route while the main French Atlantic Fleet under Contre @-@ Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse held off the British Channel Fleet under Lord Howe . On 6 May , Nielly 's ships sailed from Rochefort and soon passed out of the Bay of Biscay and into the Central Atlantic , where they encountered a British convoy sailing from Newfoundland . The convoy was unprepared for the encounter , and escorted only by the frigate HMS Castor under Captain Thomas Troubridge . Nielly , whose squadron included five ships of the line and several smaller warships , ordered an attack on the convoy and after a brief chase ten merchant ships were captured and Castor was run down by the ship of the line Patriote , the British vessel offering no resistance in the face of such overwhelming odds .
Troubridge and most of his crew were removed from their ship and taken aboard Nielly 's flagship Sans Pareil , where they remained for the rest of the campaign . They were replaced by 200 French sailors taken from Nielly 's squadron , as Castor was hastily refitted at sea for service with the French Navy . Command was given to Captain L 'Huillier , who operated as a scout for Nielly 's squadron until 24 May , when he became detached while chasing the Dutch merchant ship Maria Gertruda , which had been separated from a Dutch convoy that had been attacked by Villaret 's fleet on 19 May . Separated from Nielly 's ships , L 'Huillier turned back towards Europe with the Dutch ship in tow . While the French fleets and squadrons searched the Eastern Atlantic for the convoy , the Royal Navy was equally active with a number of squadrons and independently sailing warships complementing the main fleet under Lord Howe . One such ship was the small 28 @-@ gun frigate HMS Carysfort under Captain Francis Laforey . Laforey was cruising the Eastern Atlantic for signs of the French convoy when on 29 May his lookouts sighted two sails ahead .
= = Battle = =
Laforey immediately advanced on the strange sails , which were soon revealed to be Castor and the Dutch merchant ship . With Carysfort bearing down on him L 'Huillier cast off the tow and prepared for battle , meeting the approaching British frigate with a broadside . The engagement was fought at close range and with little manoeuvering by either side , the ships exchanging broadsides for an hour and fifteen minutes before L 'Huillier surrendered . His ship was heavily battered in the exchange , with the main topgallantmast knocked down and the mainmast and hull severely damaged . Carysfort suffered just one man killed and four wounded from the understrength crew of 180 , while casualties were much heavier among the approximately 200 men aboard Castor , the French losing 16 men killed and nine wounded . The Dutch ship initially escaped , but was later captured and its value was eventually included in the prize money paid for Castor .
Laforey 's success was considered impressive by historian William James , as his ship carried only 28 nine @-@ pounder cannon in contrast with L 'Huillier 's 32 twelve @-@ pounder guns and four 24 @-@ pounder carronades . Castor was also a larger ship with a slightly larger crew , and although L 'Huillier and his men had only been aboard for ten days , the crew of Carysfort had only come together immediately before the cruise and had not had much longer to become acquainted with their vessel than the French crew .
= = Aftermath = =
Laforey placed a boarding party aboard Castor , who discovered an officer and 18 British sailors held as prisoners below decks , part of the original crew of the ship . These men were freed and joined the prize crew in bringing the ship back to Britain . The rest of the crew , including Captain Troubridge , remained on Nielly 's flagship throughout the subsequent campaign and witnessed the battle of the Glorious First of June , at which Sans Pareil was captured by Lord Howe 's fleet . The French fleet was defeated , losing seven ships , but the convoy had passed safely to the north during the battle and eventually reached France without interception by the cruising British squadrons .
When Castor returned to Britain , the frigate was classed by the Admiralty and the Navy Board as " salvage " rather than as a prize . The laws regarding salvage meant that the proportion of prize money due to be paid to Laforey and his crew was significantly reduced by the declaration . The grounds for this judgement were that after its capture by the French , Castor was not taken into a French harbour and properly condemned by a French prize court and commissioned into the French Navy , the normal legal requirement for what was termed a " complete prize " . On behalf of his men Laforey brought a legal challenge against the ruling to the High Court of Admiralty to determine the status of Castor . The judge , Sir James Marriott , heard evidence from a number of parties , including a deposition by Captain L 'Huillier that described Admiral Nielly 's standing orders to fit out any captured warships at sea for continued service in the campaign . After considering the evidence Marriott ruled that Castor was a legitimate prize " setting forth as a ship of war " , and that the normal prize rules should apply to Laforey 's case . The prize money for the purchase of the frigate was therefore authorised to be paid at Plymouth on 20 July 1795 .
The result of the case did not damage Laforey 's career : his junior officers were promoted after the action and he was given command of the larger frigate HMS Aimable . He went on to serve at the Battle of Trafalgar and become a full admiral before his death in 1835 . However , historian Tom Wareham has speculated that the legal case was probably the reason that Laforey was denied the knighthood that customarily accompanied a successful frigate action at this stage of the war . More than five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants from Carysfort still living in 1847 .
= Cailleach =
In Gaelic mythology ( Irish , Scottish and Manx ) the Cailleach ( Irish pronunciation : [ ˈkalʲəx ] , Scottish Gaelic pronunciation : [ ˈkaʎəx ] ) is a divine hag , a creator deity and weather deity , and an ancestor deity . She is also commonly known as the Cailleach Bhéara ( ch ) or Bheur ( ach ) . The word cailleach means " hag " in modern Scottish Gaelic , and has been applied to numerous mythological figures in Ireland , Scotland and the Isle of Man .
= = Name = =
Cailleach ( " old woman " or " hag " in modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic ) comes from the Old Gaelic Caillech ( " veiled one " ) , an adjectival form of caille ( " veil " ) , an early loan from Latin pallium ( displaying the expected / p / > / c / change of early loans ) .
The Cailleach is often referred to as the Cailleach Bhéara ( ch ) , Cailleach Bheur ( ach ) , or variations thereof . It is suggested that this refers to the Beara Peninsula in southwestern Ireland , with which the Cailleach is strongly associated . However , Professor Gearóid Ó Crualaoich believes that it comes from a word meaning " sharp , shrill , inimical " – bior ( ach ) or beur ( ach ) – and refers to the Cailleach 's association with winter and wilderness .
The 8th / 9th @-@ century Irish poem The Lament of the Old Woman says that the Cailleach 's name is Digdi or Digde . In The Hunt of Slieve Cuilinn she is called Milucra , sister of Áine . In the tale of the Glas Gaibhnenn she is called Biróg . Elsewhere , she is called Buí or Bua ( ch ) . In Manx Gaelic she is known as the Caillagh .
The plural of cailleach is cailleacha ( [ ˈkalʲəxə ] ) in Irish and cailleachan ( [ ˈkaʎəxən ] ) in Scottish Gaelic . The word is found as a component in terms like the Gaelic cailleach @-@ dhubh ( " nun " ) and cailleach @-@ oidhche ( " owl " ) , as well as the Irish cailleach feasa ( " wise woman , fortune @-@ teller " ) and cailleach phiseogach ( " sorceress , charm @-@ worker " ) . Related words include the Gaelic caileag and the Irish cailín ( " young woman , girl , colleen " ) and the Lowland Scots carline / carlin ( " old woman , witch " ) . A more obscure word that is sometimes interpreted as " hag " is the Irish síle , which has led some to speculate on a connection between the Cailleach and the stonecarvings of Sheela na Gigs .
= = Legends = =
In Scotland , where she is also known as Beira , Queen of Winter , she is credited with making numerous mountains and large hills , which are said to have been formed when she was striding across the land and accidentally dropped rocks from her creel or wicker basket . In other cases she is said to have built the mountains intentionally , to serve as her stepping stones . She carries a hammer for shaping the hills and valleys , and is said to be the mother of all the goddesses and gods .
The Cailleach displays several traits befitting the personification of winter : she herds deer , she fights spring , and her staff freezes the ground .
In partnership with the goddess Brìghde , the Cailleach is seen as a seasonal deity or spirit , ruling the winter months between Samhainn ( 1 November or first day of winter ) and Bealltainn ( 1 May or first day of summer ) , while Brìghde rules the summer months between Bealltainn and Samhainn . Some interpretations have the Cailleach and Brìghde as two faces of the same goddess , while others describe the Cailleach as turning to stone on Bealltainn and reverting to humanoid form on Samhainn in time to rule over the winter months . Depending on local climate , the transfer of power between the winter goddess and the summer goddess is celebrated any time between Là Fhèill Brìghde ( 1 February ) at the earliest , Latha na Cailliche ( 25 March ) , or Bealltainn ( 1 May ) at the latest , and the local festivals marking the arrival of the first signs of spring may be named after either the Cailleach or Brìghde .
Là Fhèill Brìghde is also the day the Cailleach gathers her firewood for the rest of the winter . Legend has it that if she intends to make the winter last a good while longer , she will make sure the weather on 1 February is bright and sunny , so she can gather plenty of firewood to keep herself warm in the coming months . As a result , people are generally relieved if Là Fhèill Brìghde is a day of foul weather , as it means the Cailleach is asleep , will soon run out of firewood , and therefore winter is almost over . On the Isle of Man , where She is known as Caillagh ny Groamagh , the Cailleach is said to have been seen on St. Bride 's day in the form of a gigantic bird , carrying sticks in her beak .
In Scotland , the Cailleachan ( lit . ' old women ' ) are also known as The Storm Hags , and seen as personifications of the elemental powers of nature , especially in a destructive aspect . They are said to be particularly active in raising the windstorms of spring , during the period known as A ' Chailleach .
On the west coast of Scotland , the Cailleach ushers in winter by washing her great plaid ( Gaelic : féileadh mòr ) in the Gulf of Corryvreckan ( Gaelic : Coire Bhreacain - ' cauldron of the plaid ' ) . This process is said to take three days , during which the roar of the coming tempest is heard as far away as twenty miles ( 32 km ) inland . When she is finished , her plaid is pure white and snow covers the land .
In Scotland and Ireland , the first farmer to finish the grain harvest made a corn dolly , representing the Cailleach ( also called " the Carlin or Carline " ) , from the last sheaf of the crop . The figure would then be tossed into the field of a neighbor who had not yet finished bringing in their grain . The last farmer to finish had the responsibility to take in and care for the corn dolly for the next year , with the implication they 'd have to feed and house the hag all winter . Competition was fierce to avoid having to take in the Old Woman .
Some scholars believe the Old Irish poem , ' The Lament of the Old Woman of Beare ' is about the Cailleach ; Kuno Meyer states , " she had fifty foster @-@ children in Beare . She had seven periods of youth one after another , so that every man who had lived with her came to die of old age , and her grandsons and great @-@ grandsons were tribes and races . "
= = Locations associated with the Cailleach = =
= = = Ireland = = =
In Ireland she is also associated with craggy , prominent mountains and outcroppings , such as Hag 's Head ( Irish : Ceann Caillí , meaning " hag 's head " ) the southernmost tip of the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare . The megalithic tombs at Loughcrew in County Meath are situated atop Slieve na Calliagh ( Irish : Sliabh na Caillí , meaning " the hag 's mountain " ) and include a kerbstone known as " the hag 's chair " . Cairn T on Slieve na Calliagh is a classic passage tomb , in which the rays of the equinox sunrise shine down the passageway and illuminate an inner chamber filled with megalithic stonecarvings . Aillenacally ( Aill na Caillí , " Hag Cliff " ) is a cliff in County Galway .
= = = Scotland = = =
The Cailleach is prominent in the landscape of Argyll and Bute , Scotland . In later tales she is known as the Cailleach nan Cruachan ( " the witch of Ben Cruachan " ) . Ben Cruachan is the tallest mountain in the region . Tea @-@ towels and postcards of her are sold in the visitor shop for the Hollow Mountain , which also features a mural depicting her accidental creation of Loch Awe .
Legend has it that the Cailleach was tired from a long day herding deer . Atop Ben Cruachan she fell asleep on her watch and a well she was tending overflowed , running down from the highlands and flooding the valleys below , forming first a river and then the loch . The overflowing well is a common motif in local Gaelic creation tales - as seen in the goddess Boann 's similar creation of the River Boyne in Ireland . Other connections to the region include her above @-@ mentioned strong ties with the fierce whirlpool in the Gulf of Corryvreckan .
Beinn na Caillich on the Isle of Skye is one of her haunts , as are other mountains prominent in the landscape , and from which fierce storms of sleet and rain descend , wreaking havoc and destruction upon the lands below .
There is a Glen Cailleach which joins to Glen Lyon in Perthshire . The glen has a stream named Alt nan Cailleach . This area is famous for a pagan ritual which according to legend is associated to the Cailleach . There is a small Shieling in the Glen , known as either Tigh nan Cailleach or Tigh nam Bodach , which houses a series of apparently carved stones . According to local legend they represent the Cailleach , her husband the Bodach , and their children .
The local legend suggests that the Cailleach and her family were given shelter in the glen by the locals and while they stayed there the glen was always fertile and prosperous . When they left they gave the stones to the locals with the promise that as long as the stones were put out to look over the glen at Bealltainn and put back into the shelter and made secure for the winter at Samhainn then the glen would continue to be fertile .
This ritual is still carried out to this day .
= Advance Wars : Days of Ruin =
Advance Wars : Days of Ruin ( titled Advance Wars : Dark Conflict in Europe and Australia ) is a turn @-@ based strategy video game for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the fourth installment in the Advance Wars series ( preceded by Advance Wars : Dual Strike ) and was released in North America on January 21 , 2008 ; in Europe on January 25 , 2008 ; and in Australia on February 21 , 2008 . A Japanese release was announced under the title of Famicom Wars DS : Ushinawareta Hikari ( ファミコンウォーズDS 失われた光 ) , but was canceled after several delays . However , on October 30 , 2013 , it became available in Japan through Club Nintendo as a downloadable platinum status reward for the Nintendo 3DS system .
Advance Wars : Days of Ruin was intended to have a darker atmosphere and more serious tone in contrast to the previous installments in the series , and features a new storyline independent of the previous games . Set amidst a post @-@ apocalyptic world , the story focuses on the Rubinelle 12th Battalion , one of the surviving remnants of the military of the country of Rubinelle , which had been locked in a century @-@ long war with its rival , Lazuria , prior to a devastating global meteor shower . In the aftermath , the Battalion devotes itself to saving any other survivors of the disaster , despite the shattered nations renewing their war against each other and an uncurable disease ravaging both sides . Meanwhile , a mysterious faction with unknown motives takes advantage of the destruction and pushes both sides deeper into conflict from behind the scenes .
= = Gameplay = =
The objective in Days of Ruin is for the player to use their military force to defeat the enemy 's force . Except for certain single player missions with special objectives , there are two ways to defeat an opponent : destroy all of the enemy
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" taken careful notice " of Owens acting abilities and requested that he return to the series in some capacity . Heeding Duchovny 's advice , Carter created the role of Jeffrey Spender just for him . In addition , the episode was the first to introduce the recurring character of Cassandra Spender , played by Veronica Cartwright . Rick Millikan , the series ' casting director , was very pleased with Cartwright 's performance , noting , " She 's got a voice that adds a little creepiness and a little mystery that I thought played really well . She was just the perfect X @-@ Files person . " " Patient X " was the first episode in which Nicholas Lea was credited under the Also Starring tag , alongside Mitch Pileggi and William B. Davis .
The Russian characters from the start of the episode came from a " great " Russian acting community in Vancouver , British Columbia who had defected from the Soviet Union . Both Lea and Laurie Holden were required to learn Russian for the first scene following the opening credits . Alex Shostak Jr . , who portrayed Dmitri , worked 12 – 14 hours a day ; make @-@ up was applied to give the appearance that his eyes and mouth had been sewed up , and a small straw was pushed between his lips to give him water . During the filming of the episode , he was " literally " blind and guided by the crew members throughout the filming of his scenes . Shostak provided the translation for his own lines from English to Russian . Holden and Lea worked diligently together to perfect their lines in Russian . Holden explained , " we 'd come up with these fun ways to test ourselves to know if we had really nailed it . Show tunes come to mind , but I also remember this one time my dialect coach had me call a Russian friend of his on his cell phone to see if he could understand me . I passed the test . "
= = = Filming and visual effects = = =
Filming the scene with the burning camp was " tricky " , according to Kim Manners . When they were filming the scene , they had huge " safety precautions " ready for the cast and crew . The fires seen in the episode , were in reality propane fires . Manners wanted the shots to be as close to the fire as possible , so they used fireproof cameras . According to Manners , " they used a half a million dollar camera on a crane wrapped in asbestos " and ran it through the flames . For the following scene , the production crew set a man on fire , while using a fire suit . This stunt is known as a " full burn . " Scenes like this are " very dangerous " as one can 't breathe . In total , he was on fire between 25 – 30 seconds , which is seen as a lot by filming standards . Special effects supervisor Tony Lindala supervised the creation of the faceless alien rebels , Dmitri 's mutilation , and the incinerated victims of the rebels . Lindala also designed the rig used to infect Dmitri with the black oil .
The set for the Russian gulag was built at North Shore Studios . Graeme Murray was the production designer at the time . The following scene with Dmitri in the gulag was " difficult . " The ship scenes were filmed at a warehouse in Vancouver . When filming the Syndicate meeting , Manners wanted Marita Covarrubias to look as strong as possible since this marked the first appearance of a woman in the Syndicate meeting room . Since there was very little movement among the actors when filming the scene , they were forced to film in different angles and wide shots .
= = Reception = =
" Patient X " premiered in the United States on the Fox network on March 1 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 6 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 20 @.@ 21 million viewers . Veronica Cartwright was nominated in the category " Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series " in the 1998 Emmy Awards for her performance in this episode and its follow @-@ up , " The Red and the Black " . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . Television Without Pity ranked " Patient X " the eighth most nightmare @-@ inducing episode of the show , citing , in particular the abuse of Dmitri . The article noted that " If The X @-@ Files has taught us anything , it ’ s that if a G @-@ Man asks us if we know anything about anything and we foolishly say yes , our mouths and eyelids will be sewn shut and we will be brainwashed to kill on demand . " The A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff gave " Patient X " a B + , and wrote that the episode " feels epic , in a way the mythology episodes do at their best " . However , VanDerWerff noted that " The problem with breaking the status quo on a TV series is that your audience is always going to know in the back of its head that the status quo isn ’ t really broken . " He reasoned that the audience never fully believed that " Mulder could lose his belief in the all @-@ consuming alien conspiracy " or accept the idea that " Scully could find herself dabbling with belief in [ aliens ] . " Despite these set @-@ backs , however , he noted that " Patient X " was the episode where the series ' mythology " gets moving again , after chasing its own tail throughout much of season four and reaching a sort of climax in the opening episodes of season five . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two described the tone of " Patient X " as " truly visceral " , citing the faceless men incinerating people as well as the mutilation of the innocent Dmitri , who was " at the wrong place at the wrong time " . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson praised the episode for " shift [ ing ] the goalposts " and allowing Mulder and Scully to switch roles as the believer and skeptic . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's premise and writing . " ' Patient X ' is a rare episode in that it actually advances The X @-@ Files mythology , with the news of a vaccine to combat the black oil " . However , she was critical of the episode 's reliance on shock value , noting that the " camera seems to take a perverse delight in death , pain , and mutilation , with the distressing effect of numbing the viewer to the horror . "
= Comet =
A comet is an icy small Solar System body that , when passing close to the Sun , heats up and begins to outgas , displaying a visible atmosphere or coma , and sometimes also a tail . These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet . Comet nuclei range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of loose collections of ice , dust , and small rocky particles . The coma and tail are much larger and , if sufficiently bright , may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope . Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures .
Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits , and they have a wide range of orbital periods , ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years . Short @-@ period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc , which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune . Long @-@ period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud , a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the next nearest star . Long @-@ period comets are directed towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by gravitational perturbations caused by passing stars and the galactic tide . Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung out to interstellar space .
Comets are distinguished from asteroids by the presence of an extended , gravitationally unbound atmosphere surrounding their central nucleus . This atmosphere has parts termed the coma ( the central part immediately surrounding the nucleus ) and the tail ( a typically linear section consisting of dust or gas blown out from the coma by the Sun 's light pressure or outstreaming solar wind plasma ) . However , extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids . Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets , having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System . The discovery of main @-@ belt comets and active centaurs has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets .
As of November 2014 there are 5 @,@ 253 known comets , a number that is steadily increasing . However , this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population , as the reservoir of comet @-@ like bodies in the outer Solar System ( in the Oort cloud ) is estimated to be one trillion . Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye , though many of these are faint and unspectacular . Particularly bright examples are called " Great Comets " . Comets have been visited by unmanned probes such as the European Space Agency 's Rosetta , which became the first ever to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet , and NASA 's Deep Impact , which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior .
= = Etymology = =
The word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin comēta or comētēs . That , in turn , is a latinisation of the Greek κομήτης ( " wearing long hair " ) , and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term ( ἀστὴρ ) κομήτης already meant " long @-@ haired star , comet " in Greek . Κομήτης was derived from κομᾶν ( " to wear the hair long " ) , which was itself derived from κόμη ( " the hair of the head " ) and was used to mean " the tail of a comet " .
The astronomical symbol for comets is ☄ , consisting of a small disc with three hairlike extensions .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Nucleus = = =
The solid , core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus . Cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock , dust , water ice , and frozen gases such as carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , methane , and ammonia . As such , they are popularly described as " dirty snowballs " after Fred Whipple 's model . However , some comets may have a higher dust content , leading them to be called " icy dirtballs " . Research conducted in 2014 suggests that comets are like " deep fried ice cream " , in that their surfaces are formed of dense crystalline ice mixed with organic compounds , while the interior ice is colder and less dense .
The surface of the nucleus is generally dry , dusty or rocky , suggesting that the ices are hidden beneath a surface crust several metres thick . In addition to the gases already mentioned , the nuclei contain a variety of organic compounds , which may include methanol , hydrogen cyanide , formaldehyde , ethanol , and ethane and perhaps more complex molecules such as long @-@ chain hydrocarbons and amino acids . In 2009 , it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA 's Stardust mission . In August 2011 , a report , based on NASA studies of meteorites found on Earth , was published suggesting DNA and RNA components ( adenine , guanine , and related organic molecules ) may have been formed on asteroids and comets .
The outer surfaces of cometary nuclei have a very low albedo , making them among the least reflective objects found in the Solar System . The Giotto space probe found that the nucleus of Halley 's Comet reflects about four percent of the light that falls on it , and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly 's surface reflects less than 3 @.@ 0 % of the light that falls on it ; by comparison , asphalt reflects seven percent of the light that falls on it . The dark surface material of the nucleus may consist of complex organic compounds . Solar heating drives off lighter volatile compounds , leaving behind larger organic compounds that tend to be very dark , like tar or crude oil . The low reflectivity of cometary surfaces enables them to absorb the heat necessary to drive their outgassing processes .
Comet nuclei with radii of up to 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) have been observed , but ascertaining their exact size is difficult . The nucleus of 322P / SOHO is probably only 100 – 200 metres ( 330 – 660 ft ) in diameter . A lack of smaller comets being detected despite the increased sensitivity of instruments has led some to suggest that there is a real lack of comets smaller than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) across . Known comets have been estimated to have an average density of 0 @.@ 6 g / cm3 ( 0 @.@ 35 oz / cu in ) . Because of their low mass , comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes .
Roughly six percent of the near @-@ Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing , including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote .
Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P / Churyumov – Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . Instruments on the Philae lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet 's surface , four of which ( acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) have been detected for the first time on a comet .
= = = Coma = = =
The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the " coma " , and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous " tail " to form pointing away from the Sun .
The coma is generally made of H2O and dust , with water making up to 90 % of the volatiles that outflow from the nucleus when the comet is within 3 to 4 astronomical units ( 450 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ; 280 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 370 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) of the Sun . The H2O parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization , with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry . Larger dust particles are left along the comet 's orbital path whereas smaller particles are pushed away from the Sun into the comet 's tail by light pressure .
Although the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) across , the coma may be thousands or millions of kilometres across , sometimes becoming larger than the Sun . For example , about a month after an outburst in October 2007 , comet 17P / Holmes briefly had a tenuous dust atmosphere larger than the Sun . The Great Comet of 1811 also had a coma roughly the diameter of the Sun . Even though the coma can become quite large , its size can decrease about the time it crosses the orbit of Mars around 1 @.@ 5 astronomical units ( 220 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ; 140 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) from the Sun . At this distance the solar wind becomes strong enough to blow the gas and dust away from the coma , enlarging the tail . Ion tails have been observed to extend one astronomical unit ( 150 million km ) or more .
Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible when a comet passes through the inner Solar System , the dust reflecting Sunlight directly and the gases glowing from ionisation . Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope , but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye . Occasionally a comet may experience a huge and sudden outburst of gas and dust , during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time . This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes .
In 1996 , comets were found to emit X @-@ rays . This greatly surprised astronomers because X @-@ ray emission is usually associated with very high @-@ temperature bodies . The X @-@ rays are generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind : when highly charged solar wind ions fly through a cometary atmosphere , they collide with cometary atoms and molecules , " stealing " one or more electrons from the atom in a process called " charge exchange " . This exchange or transfer of an electron to the solar wind ion is followed by its de @-@ excitation into the ground state of the ion , leading to the emission of X @-@ rays and far ultraviolet photons .
= = = Tails = = =
In the outer Solar System , comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size . Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned . As a comet approaches the inner Solar System , solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus , carrying dust away with them .
The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail , pointing in slightly different directions . The tail of dust is left behind in the comet 's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail . At the same time , the ion or type I tail , made of gases , always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust , following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory . On occasions - such as when the Earth passes through a comet 's orbital plane , and we see the track of the comet edge @-@ on , a tail pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails may be seen – the antitail .
The observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind . The ion tail is formed as a result of the ionisation by solar ultra @-@ violet radiation of particles in the coma . Once the particles have been ionized , they attain a net positive electrical charge , which in turn gives rise to an " induced magnetosphere " around the comet . The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles . Because the relative orbital speed of the comet and the solar wind is supersonic , a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet in the flow direction of the solar wind . In this bow shock , large concentrations of cometary ions ( called " pick @-@ up ions " ) congregate and act to " load " the solar magnetic field with plasma , such that the field lines " drape " around the comet forming the ion tail .
If the ion tail loading is sufficient , then the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where , at some distance along the ion tail , magnetic reconnection occurs . This leads to a " tail disconnection event " . This has been observed on a number of occasions , one notable event being recorded on 20 April 2007 , when the ion tail of Encke 's Comet was completely severed while the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection . This event was observed by the STEREO space probe .
In 2013 ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . "
= = = Jets = = =
Uneven heating can cause newly generated gases to break out of a weak spot on the surface of comet 's nucleus , like a geyser . These streams of gas and dust can cause the nucleus to spin , and even split apart . In 2010 it was revealed dry ice ( frozen carbon dioxide ) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus . This is known because a spacecraft got so close that it could see where the jets were coming out , and then measure the infrared spectrum at that point which shows what some of the materials are .
= = Orbital characteristics = =
Most comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder . Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods : The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse .
= = = Short period = = =
Periodic comets or short @-@ period comets are generally defined as having orbital periods of less than 200 years . They usually orbit more @-@ or @-@ less in the ecliptic plane in the same direction as the planets . Their orbits typically take them out to the region of the outer planets ( Jupiter and beyond ) at aphelion ; for example , the aphelion of Halley 's Comet is a little beyond the orbit of Neptune . Comets whose aphelia are near a major planet 's orbit are called its " family " . Such families are thought to arise from the planet capturing formerly long @-@ period comets into shorter orbits .
At the shorter extreme , Encke 's Comet has an orbit that does not reach the orbit of Jupiter , and is known as an Encke @-@ type comet . Short @-@ period comets with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and low inclinations ( up to 30 degrees ) are called Jupiter @-@ family comets ( JFCs ) . Those like Halley , with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees , are called Halley @-@ type comets ( HTCs ) . As of 2015 , only 75 HTCs have been observed , compared with 511 identified JFCs .
Recently discovered main @-@ belt comets form a distinct class , orbiting in more circular orbits within the asteroid belt .
Because their elliptical orbits frequently take them close to the giant planets , comets are subject to further gravitational perturbations . Short @-@ period comets have a tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet 's semi @-@ major axis , with the JFCs being the largest group . It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter . Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations , being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined . These perturbations can deflect long @-@ period comets into shorter orbital periods .
Based on their orbital characteristics , short @-@ period comets are thought to originate from the centaurs and the Kuiper belt / scattered disc — a disk of objects in the trans @-@ Neptunian region — whereas the source of long @-@ period comets is thought to be the far more distant spherical Oort cloud ( after the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesised its existence ) . Vast swarms of comet @-@ like bodies are thought to orbit the Sun in these distant regions in roughly circular orbits . Occasionally the gravitational influence of the outer planets ( in the case of Kuiper belt objects ) or nearby stars ( in the case of Oort cloud objects ) may throw one of these bodies into an elliptical orbit that takes it inwards toward the Sun to form a visible comet . Unlike the return of periodic comets , whose orbits have been established by previous observations , the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable .
= = = Long period = = =
Long @-@ period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands of years . An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System . For example , Comet McNaught had a heliocentric osculating eccentricity of 1 @.@ 000019 near its perihelion passage epoch in January 2007 but is bound to the Sun with roughly a 92 @,@ 600 @-@ year orbit because the eccentricity drops below 1 as it moves further from the Sun . The future orbit of a long @-@ period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System . By definition long @-@ period comets remain gravitationally bound to the Sun ; those comets that are ejected from the Solar System due to close passes by major planets are no longer properly considered as having " periods " . The orbits of long @-@ period comets take them far beyond the outer planets at aphelia , and the plane of their orbits need not lie near the ecliptic . Long @-@ period comets such as Comet West and C / 1999 F1 can have aphelion distances of nearly 70 @,@ 000 AU with orbital periods estimated around 6 million years .
Single @-@ apparition or non @-@ periodic comets are similar to long @-@ period comets because they also have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System . However , gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change . Single @-@ apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun . The Sun 's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230 @,@ 000 AU ( 1 @.@ 1 parsecs ( 3 @.@ 6 light @-@ years ) ) . Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit ( e > 1 ) when near perihelion that using a heliocentric unperturbed two @-@ body best @-@ fit suggests they may escape the Solar System .
No comets with an eccentricity significantly greater than one have been observed , so there are no confirmed observations of comets that are likely to have originated outside the Solar System . Comet C / 1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7 @.@ 1 million years before the 1982 perihelion passage , but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity ( 1 @.@ 057 ) of any known hyperbolic comet . Comets not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C / 1980 E1 , C / 2000 U5 , C / 2001 Q4 ( NEAT ) , C / 2009 R1 , C / 1956 R1 , and C / 2007 F1 ( LONEOS ) .
Some authorities use the term " periodic comet " to refer to any comet with a periodic orbit ( that is , all short @-@ period comets plus all long @-@ period comets ) , whereas others use it to mean exclusively short @-@ period comets . Similarly , although the literal meaning of " non @-@ periodic comet " is the same as " single @-@ apparition comet " , some use it to mean all comets that are not " periodic " in the second sense ( that is , to also include all comets with a period greater than 200 years ) .
Early observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic ( i.e. non @-@ periodic ) trajectories , but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter . If comets pervaded interstellar space , they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun ( a few tens of km per second ) . If such objects entered the Solar System , they would have positive specific orbital energy and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic trajectories . A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter 's orbit , give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude .
= = = Oort cloud and Hills cloud = = =
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space from somewhere between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 03 and 0 @.@ 08 ly ) to as far as 50 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 79 ly ) from the Sun . Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 AU ( 1 @.@ 58 and 3 @.@ 16 ly ) . The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 32 – 0 @.@ 79 ly ) , and a doughnut @-@ shaped inner Oort cloud of 2 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 03 – 0 @.@ 32 ly ) . The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long @-@ period ( and possibly Halley @-@ type ) comets to inside the orbit of Neptune . The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud , named after J. G. Hills , who proposed its existence in 1981 . Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo ; it is seen as a possible source of new comets to resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter 's numbers are gradually depleted . The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years .
= = = Exocomets = = =
Exocomets beyond the Solar System have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way . The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris , a very young A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star , in 1987 . A total of 10 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013 , using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star .
= = Effects of comets = =
= = = Connection to meteor showers = = =
As a result of outgassing , comets leave in their wake a trail of solid debris too large to be swept away by radiation pressure and the solar wind . If the comet 's path crosses the path the Earth follows in orbit around the Sun , then at that point there are likely to be meteor showers as Earth passes through the trail of debris . The Perseid meteor shower , for example , occurs every year between 9 and 13 August , when Earth passes through the orbit of Comet Swift – Tuttle . Halley 's Comet is the source of the Orionid shower in October .
= = = Comets and impact on life = = =
Many comets and asteroids collided into Earth in its early stages . Many scientists think that comets bombarding the young Earth about 4 billion years ago brought the vast quantities
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@,@ 000 were also reported .
A thorough government survey in 1987 gave a clearer picture : an estimated 33 @,@ 000 people resided within the Walled City . Based on this survey , the Walled City had a population density of approximately 1 @,@ 255 @,@ 000 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 / sq mi ) in 1987 .
= = Culture = =
Contrary to what many outsiders believed , most residents of the Walled City behaved similarly to other Hong Kong natives . In response to difficult living conditions , the residents formed a tightly knit community , helping one another endure various hardships . Within families , wives often did housekeeping , while grandmothers cared for their grandchildren and other children from surrounding households . The City 's rooftops were an important gathering place , especially for residents who lived on upper floors . Parents used them to relax , and children would play or do homework there after school .
The yamen in the heart of the City was also a major social centre , a place for residents to talk , have tea or watch television , and to take classes such as calligraphy . The Old People 's Centre also held religious meetings for Christians and others . Other religious institutions included the Fuk Tak and Tin Hau temples , which were used for a combination of Buddhist , Taoist , and animist practices .
= = Cultural depictions = =
A few people who spent time in Kowloon Walled City have written accounts of their experiences . Evangelist Jackie Pullinger wrote a 1989 memoir , Crack in the Wall , about her involvement in treating drug addicts within the Walled City . In his 2004 autobiography Gweilo , Martin Booth describes his exploration of the Walled City as a child in the 1950s .
In addition to such accounts , many authors , game designers , and filmmakers have used the Walled City to convey a sense of oppressive urbanisation or unfettered criminality . In literature , Robert Ludlum 's novel The Bourne Supremacy uses the Walled City as one of its settings . The City appears as a virtual reality environment ( described by Steven Poole as an " oasis of political and creative freedom " ) in William Gibson 's Bridge trilogy , and as a contrast with Singapore in his Wired article " Disneyland with the Death Penalty " . In the manga Crying Freeman , the titular character 's wife travels to the Walled City to master her swordsmanship and control a cursed sword . The manga Blood + : Kowloon Nights uses the Walled City as the setting for a series of murders . The Walled City plays a heavy role in the roleplaying video game Shadowrun : Hong Kong , in which the Walled City has been rebuilt in the future .
The 1982 Shaw Brothers film Brothers from the Walled City is set in Kowloon Walled City . The 1984 gangster film Long Arm of the Law features the Walled City as a refuge for gang members before they are gunned down by police . In the 1988 film Bloodsport , starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , the Walled City is the setting for a martial arts tournament . The 1992 non @-@ narrative film Baraka features several highly detailed shots of the Walled City shortly before its demolition . The 1993 film Crime Story starring Jackie Chan was partly filmed in the deserted Walled City , and includes real scenes of building explosions . A walled neighbourhood called the Narrows in the 2005 film Batman Begins was inspired by the Walled City . The 2006 Hong Kong horror film Re @-@ cycle features a decrepit , nightmarish version of the Walled City , complete with tortured souls from which the protagonist must flee .
Kowloon Walled City is depicted in several games , including Kowloon 's Gate , Shenmue II and Call of Duty : Black Ops . The game Stranglehold , a sequel to the film Hard Boiled , features a version of the Walled City filled with hundreds of Triad members . In the games Fear Effect and Fear Effect 2 , photographs of the Walled City were used as inspiration " for moods , camera angles and lighting . " Concept art for the MMORPG Guild Wars : Factions depicts massive , densely packed structures inspired by the Walled City . The pen @-@ and @-@ paper RPG Shadowrun includes a crime @-@ ridden , rebuilt version of the Walled City set in 2056 .
A partial recreation of the Kowloon Walled City exists in the Kawasaki Warehouse , an amusement arcade that opened in 2009 in the Japanese suburb of Kawasaki , Kanagawa . The designer 's desire to accurately replicate the atmosphere of the Walled City is reflected in the arcade 's narrow corridors , electrical wires , pipes , postboxes , sign boards , neon lights , frayed posters , and various other small touches that provide an air of authenticity .
= Horses in World War I =
The use of horses in World War I marked a transitional period in the evolution of armed conflict . Cavalry units were initially considered essential offensive elements of a military force , but over the course of the war , the vulnerability of horses to modern machine gun and artillery fire reduced their utility on the battlefield . This paralleled the development of tanks , which would ultimately replace cavalry in shock tactics . While the perceived value of the horse in war changed dramatically , horses still played a significant role throughout the war .
All of the major combatants in World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) began the conflict with cavalry forces . Germany stopped using them on the Western Front soon after the war began . They continued to be deployed in a limited fashion on the Eastern Front well into the war . The Ottoman Empire used cavalry extensively during the war . On the Allied side , the United Kingdom used mounted infantry and cavalry charges throughout the war , but the United States used cavalry for only a short time . Although not particularly successful on the Western Front , Allied cavalry did have some success in the Middle Eastern theatre , possibly because they faced a weaker and less technologically advanced enemy . Russia used cavalry forces on the Eastern Front , but with limited success .
The military mainly used horses for logistical support during the war ; they were better than mechanized vehicles at traveling through deep mud and over rough terrain . Horses were used for reconnaissance and for carrying messengers , as well as pulling artillery , ambulances , and supply wagons . The presence of horses often increased morale among the soldiers at the front , but the animals contributed to disease and poor sanitation in camps , caused by their manure and carcasses . The value of horses , and the increasing difficulty of replacing them , was such that by 1917 some troops were told that the loss of a horse was of greater tactical concern than the loss of a human soldier . Ultimately , the Allied blockade prevented the Central Powers from importing horses to replace those lost , which contributed to Germany 's defeat . By the end of the war , even the well @-@ supplied U.S. Army was short of horses .
Conditions were severe for horses at the front ; they were killed by artillery fire , suffered from skin disorders , and were injured by poison gas . Hundreds of thousands of horses died , and many more were treated at veterinary hospitals and sent back to the front . Procuring equine food was a major issue , and Germany lost many horses to starvation through lack of fodder . Several memorials have been erected to commemorate the horses that died . Artists , including Alfred Munnings , extensively documented the work of horses in the war , and horses were featured in war poetry . Novels , plays and documentaries have also featured the horses of World War I.
= = Cavalry = =
Many British tacticians outside of the cavalry units realized before the war that advances in technology meant that the era of mounted warfare was coming to an end . However , many senior cavalry officers disagreed , and despite limited usefulness , maintained cavalry regiments at the ready throughout the war . Scarce wartime resources were used to train and maintain cavalry regiments that were rarely used . The continued use of the cavalry charge as a tactical maneuver resulted in the loss of many troops and horses in fruitless attacks against enemy machine guns .
Early in the war , cavalry skirmishes occurred on several fronts , and horse @-@ mounted troops were widely used for reconnaissance . Britain 's cavalry were trained to fight both on foot and mounted , but most other European cavalry still relied on the shock tactic of mounted charges . There were isolated instances of successful shock combat on the Western Front , where cavalry divisions also provided important mobile firepower . Beginning in 1917 , cavalry was deployed alongside tanks and aircraft , notably at the Battle of Cambrai , where cavalry was expected to exploit breakthroughs in the lines that the slower tanks could not . But , this plan never came to fruition due to missed opportunities and the use of machine guns by German forces . At Cambrai , troops from Great Britain , Canada , India and Germany participated in mounted actions . Cavalry was still deployed late in the war , with Allied cavalry troops harassing retreating German forces in 1918 during the Hundred Days Offensive , when horses and tanks continued to be used in the same battles . In comparison to their limited usefulness on the Western Front , " cavalry was literally indispensable " on the Eastern front and in the Middle East .
Great changes in the tactical use of cavalry were a marked feature of World War I , as improved weaponry rendered frontal charges ineffective . Although cavalry was used with good effect in Palestine , at the Third Battle of Gaza and Battle of Megiddo , generally the mode of warfare changed . Tanks were beginning to take over the role of shock combat . The use of
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@,@ 002 received major damage . In addition , 569 small businesses were impacted .
In Mississippi 's neighboring states of Alabama and Louisiana , 1 @,@ 781 homes were destroyed and 6 @,@ 000 others were inflicted losses . About 676 trailers were demolished and 296 were severely impacted . Additionally , 124 small businesses were either destroyed or incurred major damage . Camille rapidly weakened after landfall on August 18 and was only a tropical depression about 24 hours later . However , the storm maintained intensity as it recurved to the east over the Ohio River Valley . It dropped heavy rainfall while approaching the Atlantic Ocean , especially in Virginia . Up to 27 in ( 690 mm ) fell in west central Nelson County . In Nelson County alone , 133 bridges washed out , while in some places entire communities were under water . Rivers crested at record heights , causing severe flooding . In the state of Virginia and West Virginia combined , an estimated 349 homes were destroyed and 2 @,@ 587 received damage to some degree . Eighty @-@ three trailers were demolished and 71 others received major losses . Reportedly , 730 farm buildings were destroyed and 535 were inflicted minor damage . Ninety @-@ six small businesses were also severely damage or destroyed . Along its path , rainfall was recorded in several other states , including Arkansas , Delaware , Florida , Georgia , Illinois , Indiana , Maryland , New Jersey , North Carolina , Ohio , Pennsylvania , South Carolina , and Tennessee . After reaching the Atlantic , Camille re @-@ strengthened into a 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) tropical storm , but was absorbed by a cold front south of Newfoundland on August 22 . With losses estimated at $ 1 @.@ 4 billion , Camille was considered the costliest hurricane in United States history at the time . Additionally , there were 256 deaths in the United States .
= = = Hurricane Debbie = = =
On August 14 , a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while located about midway between the Lesser Antilles and the coast of Africa . The following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Debbie . By late on August 16 , Debbie became a Category 1 hurricane . Moving northwestward , it intensified further to a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 18 . However , the storm then began oscillating between a Category 1 and a Category 3 hurricane for the next few days , possibly due to being seeded by silver iodide as part of Project Stormfury . On August 20 , Debbie attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 951 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) .
The storm curved northeastward as Hurricane Camille moved offshore the East Coast of the United States and briefly weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on August 21 , before re @-@ strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane hours later . Debbie accelerated and fell to Category 2 intensity by midday on August 23 . The storm curved northward and weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on the following day , shortly before passing just offshore Newfoundland . Debbie turned northeastward and deteriorated to a tropical storm on August 25 . Several hours later , the hurricane dissipated about 225 mi ( 360 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cape Farewell , Greenland . In Newfoundland , wind gusts up to 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) were observed in St. John 's , while rainfall up to 0 @.@ 98 in ( 25 mm ) was recorded along the Avalon and Bonavista peninsulas .
= = = Tropical Storm Eve = = =
In the wake of Hurricane Camille , a quasi @-@ stationary front moved across the Southern United States and became situated over North Florida . A cut @-@ off low pressure area developed along the system and acquired a low @-@ level circulation . By 0000 UTC on August 25 , the system was classified as a tropical depression while located about 100 mi ( 160 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . Due to cold air in the region , the depression strengthened slowly while tracking nearly due east . Late on August 25 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Eve .
On August 26 , the National Hurricane Center noted although conditions would prevent rapid deepening , further intensification was possible . The storm threatened the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and Bermuda , but remained offshore and caused no impacts in either region . Eve strengthened slightly on August 26 , reaching maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Although the storm weakened later that day , Eve reached its minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Early on August 2 , Eve was downgraded to a tropical depression . It began to succumb to the effects of cold air , which entrained the circulation of the storm . At 0000 UTC on August 28 , Eve degenerated into a trough of low pressure while located about 70 mi ( 110 km ) west @-@ northwest of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Francelia = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near the Windward Islands on August 29 . Initially , the depression slowly strengthened while moving west @-@ northwestward and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Francelia until more than 24 hours later . While located north of Honduras , it curved west @-@ southwestward and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 1 . The storm briefly became a Category 3 hurricane on September 2 , peaking with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Late on September 3 , Francelia made landfall near Punta Gorda , Belize with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . The storm quickly weakened inland , and less than 24 hours later , it dissipated over northern Guatemala . However , the remnants of Francelia later contributed to the development of Hurricane Glenda in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
During its early stages , Francelia brought gusty winds and light rainfall to several islands in the Caribbean Sea . While remaining nearly stationary offshore Central America , heavy precipitation fell in some countries , especially Guatemala where severe flooding killed 269 people and caused $ 15 million in damage . Throughout the country , approximately 10 @,@ 200 people were left homeless . In neighboring Honduras , the hurricane caused damage in the northern portions of the country , with the offshore Bay Islands Department being particularly hard hit . There , the storm damaged or destroyed the majority of two towns . In El Salvador , flooding isolated towns for several days and caused crop damage . Coastal areas of Belize lost electricity and telephone service , and high winds resulted in extensive damage to banana crops . A number of rivers in the region flooded , including the Belize River , which reached 36 ft ( 11 m ) above normal . Francelia ranked as the deadliest tropical cyclone in Guatemala , until Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . Overall damage was estimated at $ 35 @.@ 6 million , and there were 271 deaths .
= = = Hurricane Gerda = = =
A tropical wave located over the central Bahamas developed into a tropical depression on September 6 . The depression moved northwestward and initially remained disorganized . By early on September 7 , the depression made landfall near West Palm Beach , Florida . Impact in the state was minimal , limited mostly to light rainfall . Later on September 7 , the depression reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean just south of Cape Canaveral . It began to strengthen on the following day and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gerda at 0600 UTC . By late on September 8 , Gerda intensified into a hurricane . The storm deepened significantly further , peaking with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on September 9 . Early on September 10 , Gerda weakened slightly while approaching New England and Atlantic Canada .
It made landfall near Eastport , Maine on September 10 and was one of the strongest tropical cyclones to strike the state . Despite landfall as a Category 2 hurricane , the strongest sustained wind speed recorded was 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) in Washington County , Maine . Twenty @-@ four @-@ hour rainfall amounts exceeding 4 in ( 100 mm ) were observed in some areas of New England , with a precipitation peak of 5 @.@ 67 in ( 144 mm ) in Wellfleet , Massachusetts . Due to the winds and rainfall , portions of Maine , Massachusetts , and New Hampshire reported power outages and localized flooding . By 0600 UTC on September 10 , Gerda became extratropical over southeastern Quebec . In Atlantic Canada , winds left many without electricity in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia , and left about $ 3 @.@ 5 million in losses to apple crops .
= = = Hurricane Holly = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 8 . Moving westward to west @-@ northwestward , it developed into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on September 14 , while located about 1 @,@ 250 mi ( 2 @,@ 315 km ) southeast of Puerto Rico , based on Hurricane Hunter observations of an organized circulation . It quickly organized and was soon upgraded to Tropical Storm Holly . Continuing northwestward , it steadily intensified , and the Hurricane Hunters reported that Holly attained hurricane status on September 16 , with peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 984 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) .
On September 16 , Holly weakened slightly while turning westward toward the Lesser Antilles . Due to the lack of good upper @-@ level outflow , as well as unfavorable water , Holly quickly weakened to tropical storm status on September 18 , as confirmed by the Hurricane Hunters . By the next day , it weakened to tropical depression status and later moved through the Lesser Antilles . Holly dissipated on September 21 in the Caribbean Sea , while situated between the Los Roques archipelago of Venezuela and Puerto Rico .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Nine = = =
Ship reports on September 19 indicated the presence of low pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico , centered about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Key West , Florida . It is estimated that a tropical depression developed at 1200 UTC on that day . The depression headed north @-@ northwestward and did not strengthen . By early on September 21 , the depression made landfall between Panama City and Port St. Joe , Florida . It degenerated into a remnant low pressure area only a few hours later . A high @-@ pressure ridge blocked the system 's movement , moving it to the east . By September 23 , the system became a low pressure trough . Upper @-@ level wind shear moved the circulation to the east @-@ northeast and moved into the Atlantic Ocean the next day .
Rainfall in peaked at 23 @.@ 4 in ( 590 mm ) in Havana , with and exceeding 15 in ( 380 mm ) in most of the central Panhandle . Many bridges and roads were washed out or inundated by water , including portions of U.S. Route 98 and State Road 20 between Tallahassee and Panama City . In addition , a tornado spawned by the depression destroyed a trailer , damaged 30 homes , and toppled ballpark bleachers , fences , lights , and electrical poles . Damage in Florida reached almost $ 3 @.@ 78 million , including $ 1 @.@ 65 million to crops and $ 2 @.@ 135 million to property . In southwest Georgia , precipitation totals exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) were common , while rainfall peaked at 14 in ( 360 mm ) in southern Decatur County . Severe local flooding ensued , causing damage to property and crops , mostly to peanuts that were not threshed . Up to 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rainfall fell in Alabama , while precipitation totals reached 3 in ( 76 mm ) in Tennessee , South Carolina , North Carolina , and Virginia .
= = = Hurricane Inga = = =
A tropical disturbance developed into a tropical depression on September 20 . By the following day , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Inga while centered about 930 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) east @-@ southeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico . At the time , the storm was moving westward at 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) . However , by September 23 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression . The depression continued west @-@ northwestward , passing north of the Leeward Islands , before drifting northwestward . Inga became a tropical storm again on September 29 . It continued to intensify , and achieved hurricane status on September 30 , while curving northeastward . The storm then turned towards the south , and ultimately completed a cyclonic loop as it bent back westward . Late on October 3 , Inga turned to the northwest .
Early on October 5 , the hurricane produced wind gusts up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on Bermuda , though minimal impact occurred other than power outages . Thereafter , Inga curved northeastward and continued deepen . Later on October 5 , it peaked as a Category 3 with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 964 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . While moving into an environment of colder sea surface temperatures , the storm began to weaken . As cold air became entrained into its circulation , the storm began to lose tropical characteristics . Inga briefly re @-@ strengthened while beginning to drift generally eastward . However , storm turned southward and began to weaken , deteriorating to a tropical storm on October 10 . Heading westward , Inga was downgraded to a tropical depression , before dissipating fully on October 15 , while located about 290 mi ( 470 km ) from where it initially attained hurricane status .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
An upper @-@ level low pressure area in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico spawned a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC on September 29 . Operationally , it was classified as Tropical Depression Thirty @-@ Two . Six hours later , the strengthened into a subtropical storm . Early on the following day , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . It maintained that intensity for about 24 hours , before cool air and wind shear began weakening the storm early on October 1 . Shortly thereafter , the storm weakened back to a subtropical depression , a few hours prior to landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida . The subtropical depression rapidly dissipated inland .
Rainfall was relatively light and the heaviest amounts were displaced far east of the track , with precipitation peaking at 6 @.@ 74 inches ( 171 mm ) in Saint Augustine , Florida . Closer to the location of landfall , rainfall reached nearly 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Pensacola . Several waterspouts were reported in the Panama City area , while a tornado in Carabelle and unroofed a home in the St. James community . United States Coast Guard planes searched for three people in a light aircraft that went missing as it traveled from DeFuniak Springs to Sebring . The storm brought rainfall to several others states , reaching as far north as Maine .
= = = Tropical Storm Jenny = = =
On October 1 , a tropical depression developed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea from the same cut @-@ off low pressure that spawned the previous subtropical storm on September 29 . The depression moved quickly north @-@ northeastward and struck Cuba early on October 2 . While approaching the southwest coast of Florida later that day , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Jenny . Simultaneously , Jenny attained its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Around 0000 UTC on October 2 , the storm made landfall between Fort Myers and Naples , Florida , with winds of 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) . Jenny emerged into the western Atlantic as a tropical depression , but increased ridging forced the storm to track west @-@ southwestward back over Florida . The cyclone was unable to re @-@ strengthen and dissipated on October 6 south of Louisiana .
The storm crossed Cuba as a tropical depression . Minimal impact was reported . The storm produced moderate to heavy rainfall over parts of the Florida Peninsula , peaking at 6 @.@ 61 in ( 168 mm ) near Deland . Minor road washouts were reported in Lee County . Rainfall along the lower Kissimmee River and the Lake Okeechobee basin caused some pastures and flood plain areas to be inundated by water . Lake Kissimmee rose 1 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) in height due to precipitation . Jenny 's remnants later contributed to the development of heavy rains in southern Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Kara = = =
A cold core trough of low pressure over the western Atlantic Ocean warmed on the eastern end , becoming a tropical depression on October 7 about 135 mi ( 215 km ) north of Punta Cana , Dominican Republic . The depression passed south of Turks and Caicos Islands and later to the west of Mayaguana . Early on October 9 , the system turned northward and intensified into Tropical Storm Kara after several hours . Southwesterly flow associated with an upper @-@ level trough then caused the storm to curve northeastward . On October 10 , an upper @-@ level low pressure formed offshore North Carolina . Initially , Kara moved rapidly north @-@ northwest around the low . However , by October 11 , Kara and the low merged , resulting in the former moving erratically . While tracking southwestward into warmer ocean temperatures , the storm continued to strengthen .
After executing a small cyclonic loop , Kara developed an eye feature on October 14 , before strengthening into a hurricane on October 15 . While moving offshore North Carolina , the storm brought tides of 1 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal between October 10 and October 15 , causing coastal flooding in very low @-@ lying areas . By October 15 , an upper @-@ level westerlies forced the storm to move northeastward and accelerate . Kara then became to strengthen further and became a Category 2 hurricane at 1800 UTC on October 17 . Six hours later , the storm peaked with sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Kara began losing tropical characteristics and weakening after encountering a cold trough over the northeast Atlantic , falling to tropical storm intensity late on October 18 . The storm soon became extratropical about 435 mi ( 700 km ) north @-@ northeast of Corvo Island in the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Laurie = = =
A low pressure area developed into a tropical depression while located about 75 mi ( 120 km ) northeast of Guanaja in the Bay Islands Department of Honduras . Although conditions were favorable for rapid deepening , the depression failed to do so because it was not vertically stacked and struck the Yucatan Peninsula late on October 18 . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on the following day , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Laurie . Later on October 19 , Laurie curved northward and continued intensifying . At 12 : 00 UTC on October 20 , the storm became a hurricane . It then curved eastward over the central Gulf of Mexico and continued to deepen , peaking as a Category 2 hurricane with sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , drier air began weakening Laurie on October 22 . Laurie curved southeastward and then southward , allowing it to remain well offshore the Gulf Coast of the United States .
Early on October 23 , the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm while curving west @-@ southwestward . Late the following day , Laurie deteriorated into a tropical depression . After moving southwestward and then southward , the storm made landfall near Paraíso , Tabasco , Mexico , early on October 27 . Laurie promptly dissipated . Offshore , oil rig personnel were evacuated as the storm approached . A hurricane watch was issued from Galveston , Texas , to Pensacola , Florida ; the watch was extended eastward to Apalachicola , Florida , on October 21 . Voluntary evacuations occurred in southern Louisiana out of fear of a storm similar to Hurricane Betsy in 1965 or Camille early that year . Impact on land was primarily limited to minor beach erosion . It caused minor damage in the Yucatan Peninsula , and in Tabasco .
= = = Hurricane Martha = = =
Tropical Storm Martha developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 21 . Initially , the storm developed with sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , skipping tropical depression status . It remained stationary and quickly intensified into a hurricane . Martha attained maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on November 22 . Subsequently , Martha weakened and drifted southward . On November 24 , Martha made landfall in Veraguas Province , Panama , as a strong tropical storm . Martha was the only tropical cyclone on record to make landfall in Panama . The system weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over land on November 25 .
Because the storm weakened prior to landfall , strong winds were not expected or reported in the impacted countries . In Panama , more than 13 inches ( 330 mm ) of precipitation may have fallen in some areas . Agricultural land was flooded in Almirante , Bocas del Toro and streets became inundated in low @-@ lying areas of Puerto Armuelles , Chiriquí . The storm also brought significant rains to Costa Rica . Flooding and mudslides isolated most of the capital city of San José . Numerous streets were inundated in Golfito . Damage in Costa Rica reached $ 30 million and 5 deaths were reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the 20 other tropical cyclones of the season , there were three minor tropical depressions . The first tropical depression ( numbered five ) , developed on May 29 about 85 mi ( 135 km ) southeast of Cutler Bay , Florida . The depression tracked northeastward , and passed through the Bahamas on the Abaco Islands later that day . After crossing the Bahamas , the depression continued northeastward , and eventually dissipated 430 mi ( 690 km ) southwest of Bermuda on May 30 . No impact was reported in the Bahamas . Also on May 29 , Tropical Depression Six developed while centered 40 mi ( 60 km ) south @-@ southwest of San Andrés Island , Colombia . The depression headed west @-@ northwestward toward the coast of Nicaragua , however , it quickly veered away to the northeast . For the rest of its duration , the depression mainly headed north or north @-@ northeastward across the Caribbean Sea . On June 1 , the day that the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season officially began , Tropical Depression Six made landfall on the Zapata Peninsula in Cuba . The depression dissipated early on June 2 . No impact was reported in Cuba or Nicaragua .
Between June 7 and June 9 , the notable Tropical Depression Seven existed . At 0000 UTC on June 12 , Tropical Depression Eight formed about 55 mi ( 90 km ) east of Cozumel , Quintana Roo . It moved west @-@ northwestward without strengthening and made landfall between Playa del Carmen and Puerto Morelos , Quitana Roo , later that day with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The depression moved slowly across the Yucatán Peninsula until emerging into the Gulf of Mexico along the north coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on June 14 . No intensification occurred in the Gulf of Mexico occurred , and by 0000 UTC on June 15 , the depression dissipated while located about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north @-@ northeast of Progreso , Yucatán . A tropical wave situated about 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of Trinidad developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on July 25 . The depression moved northwestward toward the Lesser Antilles and later that day crossed Barbados with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . It continued to the northwest and may have struck Martinique on June 26 . At 0000 UTC on the following day , the depression dissipated about 30 mi ( 50 km ) west @-@ southwest of Basseterre , Guadeloupe .
In addition to the tropical depressions , four additional unnamed storms existed during the season . A subtropical depression formed offshore North Carolina on September 21 . It reached subtropical storm strength that day . A few days later , it reached hurricane strength while moving to the northeast . The storm dissipated on September 26 while located about 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Newfoundland . Another storm developed from a subtropical depression southwest of the Azores on September 24 . After drifting west @-@ southwest , it moved westward and strengthened into a subtropical storm on September 25 , and later a tropical storm . The cyclone reached its 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) peak on September 27 while moving northward . On September 29 , it dissipated east of Newfoundland . A subtropical depression formed west @-@ southwest of the Azores on October 28 . Moving northwestward , it reached tropical storm status on October 29 and soon peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The storm became extratropical to the west of the Azores on October 31 . A large extratropical storm over the North Atlantic formed a subtropical storm on October 31 south of Newfoundland . It moved southeast , gaining tropical characteristics and strength on the way . It reached hurricane strength on November 4 , peaking as a minimal Category 1 storm while approaching the Azores , but weakened prior to passing through the islands . The system dissipated on November 7 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the Atlantic basin in 1969 . Storms were named Blanche , Camille , Eve , Francelia , Holly , Kara , Laurie and Martha for the first time in 1969 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . At some point after the season began , the name Carol ( originally the C name on this year 's list ) was replaced with Camille . After the season , the name Camille was retired .
= Middle Ages =
In the history of Europe , the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century . It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history : classical antiquity , the medieval period , and the modern period . The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early , High , and Late Middle Ages .
Population decline , counterurbanisation , invasion , and movement of peoples , which had begun in Late Antiquity , continued in the Early Middle Ages . The large @-@ scale movements of the Migration Period , including various Germanic peoples , formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire . In the seventh century , North Africa and the Middle East — once part of the Byzantine Empire — came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate , an Islamic empire , after conquest by Muhammad 's successors . Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures , the break with classical antiquity was not complete . The still @-@ sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power . The empire 's law code , the Corpus Juris Civilis or " Code of Justinian " , was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages . In the West , most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions . Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued . The Franks , under the Carolingian dynasty , briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century . It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions — Vikings from the north , Hungarians from the east , and Saracens from the south .
During the High Middle Ages , which began after 1000 , the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase . Manorialism , the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles , and feudalism , the political structure whereby knights and lower @-@ status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors , were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages . The Crusades , first preached in 1095 , were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . Kings became the heads of centralised nation states , reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant . Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism , a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason , and by the founding of universities . The theology of Thomas Aquinas , the paintings of Giotto , the poetry of Dante and Chaucer , the travels of Marco Polo , and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages .
The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine , plague , and war , which significantly diminished the population of Europe ; between 1347 and 1350 , the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans . Controversy , heresy , and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict , civil strife , and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms . Cultural and technological developments transformed European society , concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period .
= = Etymology and periodisation = =
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history : classical civilisation , or Antiquity ; the Middle Ages ; and the Modern Period .
Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the " Six Ages " or the " Four Empires " , and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world . When referring to their own times , they spoke of them as being " modern " . In the 1330s , the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre @-@ Christian times as antiqua ( or " ancient " ) and to the Christian period as nova ( or " new " ) . Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People ( 1442 ) . Bruni and later historians argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarch 's time , and therefore added a third period to Petrarch 's two . The " Middle Ages " first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or " middle season " . In early usage , there were many variants , including medium aevum , or " middle age " , first recorded in 1604 , and media saecula , or " middle ages " , first recorded in 1625 . The alternative term " medieval " ( or occasionally " mediaeval " or " mediæval " ) derives from medium aevum . Tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th @-@ century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods : Ancient , Medieval , and Modern .
The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476 , first used by Bruni . For Europe as a whole , 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages , but there is no universally agreed upon end date . Depending on the context , events such as Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to the Americas in 1492 , the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 , or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used . English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period . For Spain , dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516 , the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504 , or the conquest of Granada in 1492 . Historians from Romance @-@ speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts : an earlier " High " and later " Low " period . English @-@ speaking historians , following their German counterparts , generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals : " Early " , " High " , and " Late " . In the 19th century , the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the " Dark Ages " , but with the adoption of these subdivisions , use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages , at least among historians .
= = Later Roman Empire = =
The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the second century AD ; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories . Economic issues , including inflation , and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century , with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers . Military expenses increased steadily during the third century , mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire , which revived in the middle of the third century
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over episcopal appointments , a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture , clerical marriage , and simony . The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands , but the papacy insisted on the Church 's independence from secular lords . These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms . The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities . It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors .
The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements . Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms , people sought to participate in new forms of religious life . New monastic orders were founded , including the Carthusians and the Cistercians . The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux ( d . 1153 ) . These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen , who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity , or to live an Apostolic life . Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged . Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome , Jerusalem , and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors , and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence .
In the 13th century mendicant orders — the Franciscans and the Dominicans — who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging , were approved by the papacy . Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries , but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy . Others joined the Cathars , another heretical movement condemned by the papacy . In 1209 , a crusade was preached against the Cathars , the Albigensian Crusade , which in combination with the medieval Inquisition , eliminated them .
= = Late Middle Ages = =
= = = War , famine , and plague = = =
The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines , culminating in the Great Famine of 1315 – 17 . The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age , which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures . The years 1313 – 14 and 1317 – 21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe , resulting in widespread crop failures . The climate change — which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century — was accompanied by an economic downturn .
These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death , a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years . The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe , about one @-@ third of the population . Towns were especially hard @-@ hit because of their crowded conditions . Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited , and in some places fields were left unworked . Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields . Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food , both of which cut into agricultural income . Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings , and popular uprisings broke out across Europe . Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France , the Peasants ' Revolt in England , and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders . The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe , manifested by the foundation of new charities , the self @-@ mortification of the flagellants , and the scapegoating of Jews . Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century ; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages .
= = = Society and economy = = =
Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death . Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned , as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas . Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe , as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free . Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents . The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 per cent by the end of the period . Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders , and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments . Partly at the urging of landlords , governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death . Non @-@ clergy became increasingly literate , and urban populations began to imitate the nobility 's interest in chivalry .
Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306 . Although some were allowed back into France , most were not , and many Jews emigrated eastwards , settling in Poland and Hungary . The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 , and dispersed to Turkey , France , Italy , and Holland . The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century , fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms . Many banking firms loaned money to royalty , at great risk , as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans .
= = = State resurgence = = =
Strong , royalty @-@ based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages , particularly in England , France , and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula : Aragon , Castile , and Portugal . The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry . Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled . Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient , and the rate of taxation often increased . The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority .
Throughout the 14th century , French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility . They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France , leading to the Hundred Years ' War , waged from 1337 to 1453 . Early in the war the English under Edward III ( r . 1327 – 77 ) and his son Edward , the Black Prince ( d . 1376 ) , won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers , captured the city of Calais , and won control of much of France . The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war . In the early 15th century , France again came close to dissolving , but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc ( d . 1431 ) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453 . The price was high , as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict . Conversely , the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity , doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal . The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture , which had previously been the dominant influence . The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years ' War , and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346 .
In modern @-@ day Germany , the Holy Roman Empire continued to rule , but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form . Further east , the kingdoms of Poland , Hungary , and Bohemia grew powerful . In Iberia , the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula ; Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century , while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns . After losing the Hundred Years ' War , England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the Wars of the Roses , which lasted into the 1490s and only ended when Henry Tudor ( r . 1485 – 1509 as Henry VII ) became king and consolidated power with his victory over Richard III ( r . 1483 – 85 ) at Bosworth in 1485 . In Scandinavia , Margaret I of Denmark ( r. in Denmark 1387 – 1412 ) consolidated Norway , Denmark , and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar , which continued until 1523 . The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League , a commercial confederation of city states that traded from Western Europe to Russia . Scotland emerged from English domination under Robert the Bruce ( r . 1306 – 29 ) , who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328 .
= = = Collapse of Byzantium = = =
Although the Palaeologi emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261 , they were never able to regain control of much of the former imperial lands . They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople , the city itself , and some coastal lands on the Black Sea and around the Aegean Sea . The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new Kingdom of Serbia , the Second Bulgarian Empire and the city @-@ state of Venice . The power of the Byzantine emperors was threatened by a new Turkish tribe , the Ottomans , who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and steadily expanded throughout the 14th century . The Ottomans expanded into Europe , reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 . Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396 ; a great army was sent to the Balkans , where it was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis . Constantinople was finally captured by the Ottomans in 1453 .
= = = Controversy within the Church = = =
During the tumultuous 14th century , disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1305 – 78 , also called the " Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy " ( a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews ) , and then to the Great Schism , lasting from 1378 to 1418 , when there were two and later three rival popes , each supported by several states . Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414 , and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes , leaving only two claimants . Further depositions followed , and in November 1417 the council elected Martin V ( pope 1417 – 31 ) as pope .
Besides the schism , the western church was riven by theological controversies , some of which turned into heresies . John Wycliffe ( d . 1384 ) , an English theologian , was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the Eucharist that were contrary to church doctrine . Wycliffe 's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages : Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia . The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of Jan Hus , who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance . The Hussite church , although the target of a crusade , survived beyond the Middle Ages . Other heresies were manufactured , such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312 and the division of their great wealth between the French King Philip IV ( r . 1285 – 1314 ) and the Hospitallers .
The papacy further refined the practice in the Mass in the Late Middle Ages , holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist . This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy . The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages , veneration of relics , and belief in the power of the Devil . Mystics such as Meister Eckhart ( d . 1327 ) and Thomas à Kempis ( d . 1471 ) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life , which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation . Besides mysticism , belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread , and by the late 15th century the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the Malleus Maleficarum , the most popular handbook for witch @-@ hunters .
= = = Scholars , intellectuals , and exploration = = =
During the Later Middle Ages , theologians such as John Duns Scotus ( d . 1308 ) and William of Ockham ( d. c . 1348 ) , led a reaction against scholasticism , objecting to the application of reason to faith . Their efforts undermined the prevailing Platonic idea of " universals " . Ockham 's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy . Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by customary law . The lone exception to this trend was in England , where the common law remained pre @-@ eminent . Other countries codified their laws ; legal codes were promulgated in Castile , Poland , and Lithuania .
Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy . The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest , but the secondary subjects of the trivium — grammar , rhetoric , logic — were studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities . Commercial secondary schools spread , and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise . Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries . Lay literacy rates rose , but were still low ; one estimate gave a literacy rate of ten per cent of males and one per cent of females in 1500 .
The publication of vernacular literature increased , with Dante ( d . 1321 ) , Petrarch ( d . 1374 ) and Giovanni Boccaccio ( d . 1375 ) in 14th @-@ century Italy , Geoffrey Chaucer ( d . 1400 ) and William Langland ( d. c . 1386 ) in England , and François Villon ( d . 1464 ) and Christine de Pizan ( d. c . 1430 ) in France . Much literature remained religious in character , and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin , a new demand developed for saints ' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages . This was fed by the growth of the Devotio Moderna movement , most prominently in the formation of the Brethren of the Common Life , but also in the works of German mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Johannes Tauler ( d . 1361 ) . Theatre also developed in the guise of miracle plays put on by the Church . At the end of the period , the development of the printing press in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500 .
In the early 15th century , the countries of the Iberian peninsula began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe . Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal ( d . 1460 ) sent expeditions that discovered the Canary Islands , the Azores , and Cape Verde during his lifetime . After his death , exploration continued ; Bartolomeu Dias ( d . 1500 ) went around the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 and Vasco da Gama ( d . 1524 ) sailed around Africa to India in 1498 . The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by Christopher Columbus ( d . 1506 ) in 1492 that discovered the Americas . The English crown under Henry VII sponsored the voyage of John Cabot ( d . 1498 ) in 1497 , which landed on Cape Breton Island .
= = = Technological and military developments = = =
One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry . The English also employed longbowmen , but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success . Armour continued to advance , spurred by the increasing power of crossbows , and plate armour was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand @-@ held guns that were developed . Pole arms reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears .
In agriculture , the increased usage of sheep with long @-@ fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun . In addition , the spinning wheel replaced the traditional distaff for spinning wool , tripling production . A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments , which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer . Windmills were refined with the creation of the tower mill , allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing . The blast furnace appeared around 1350 in Sweden , increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality . The first patent law in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions .
= = = Late medieval art and architecture = = =
The Late Middle Ages in Europe as a whole correspond to the Trecento and Early Renaissance cultural periods in Italy . Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles , which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century , until almost the end of the period . International Gothic was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400 , producing masterpieces such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry . All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality , and in the 15th century the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons , commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery , ivory caskets , cassone chests , and maiolica pottery . These objects also included the Hispano @-@ Moresque ware produced by mostly Mudéjar potters in Spain . Although royalty owned huge collections of plate , little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup . Italian silk manufacture developed , so that western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world . In France and Flanders tapestry weaving of sets like The Lady and the Unicorn became a major luxury industry .
The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building , as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved , as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant 'Andrea . Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common , especially as churches created many side @-@ chapels . Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck ( d . 1441 ) and Rogier van der Weyden ( d . 1464 ) rivalled that of Italy , as did northern illuminated manuscripts , which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites , who also commissioned secular books , especially histories . From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular , though still expensive . There were around 30 @,@ 000 different editions of incunabula , or works printed before 1500 , by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others . Very small woodcuts , nearly all religious , were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century . More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images .
= = Modern perceptions = =
The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a " time of ignorance and superstition " that placed " the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity . " This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment , when scholars contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period , to the detriment of the Middle Ages . Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world ; Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith , and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition .
Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages . Science historian Edward Grant writes , " If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [ in the 18th century ] , they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities " . Also , contrary to common belief , David Lindberg writes , " the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free ( particularly in the natural sciences ) to follow reason and observation wherever they led " .
The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions . One misconception , first propagated in the 19th century and still very common , is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat . This is untrue , as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere . Lindberg and Ronald Numbers , another scholar of the period , state that there " was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [ Earth 's ] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference " . Other misconceptions such as " the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages " , " the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science " , or " the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy " , are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth , although they are not supported by current historical research .
= AMiBA =
The Yuan @-@ Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background
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Anisotropy , also known as the Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy ( AMiBA ) , is a radio telescope designed to observe the cosmic microwave background and the Sunyaev @-@ Zel 'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies . It is located on Mauna Loa in Hawaii , at 3 @,@ 396 metres ( 11 @,@ 142 ft ) above sea level .
AMiBA was originally configured as a 7 @-@ element interferometer atop a hexapod mount . Observations at a wavelength of 3 mm ( 86 – 102 GHz ) started in October 2006 , and the detections of six clusters by the Sunyaev @-@ Zel 'dovich effect were announced in 2008 . In 2009 the telescope was upgraded to 13 elements , and it is capable of further expansion to 19 elements . AMiBA is the result of a collaboration between the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics , the National Taiwan University and the Australia Telescope National Facility , and also involves researchers from other universities .
= = Design = =
AMiBA was initially configured as a 7 @-@ element interferometer , using 0 @.@ 576 m Cassegrain dishes mounted on a 6 m carbon fibre hexapod mount . It is located on Mauna Loa , Hawaii , and observes at 3 mm ( 86 – 102 GHz ) to minimize foreground emission from other , non @-@ thermal sources . The telescope has a retractable shelter , made from seven steel trusses and PVC fabric .
The receivers are based on Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit ( MMIC ) technology , with low noise amplifiers cooled to 15 K , which have 20 GHz bandwidths and provide 46 dB of amplification . The signals are mixed with a local oscillator to reduce their frequency , prior to correlation with an analog correlator . The system temperatures are between 55 and 75 K.
AMiBA started in 2000 , with funding for 4 years from the Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics Project of the Taiwan Ministry of Education . A 2 @-@ element prototype was set up on Mauna Loa in 2002 . Further funding for a second 4 years was provided by the National Science Council . The mount arrived on site in 2004 , and the platform was installed in 2005 . The first 7 elements were then installed ( " AMiBA7 " ) , and the telescope 's first light was in September 2006 , observing Jupiter . The telescope was dedicated in October 2006 to Yuan @-@ Tseh Lee . The array was upgraded to have thirteen 1 @.@ 2 m dishes in 2009 ( " AMiBA13 " ) . After extensive testing and calibration , scientific observations resumed in 2011 . It is further expandable up to 19 elements .
= = Observations = =
The primary goal of AMiBA is to observe both the temperature and polarization anisotropies in the Cosmic Microwave Background at multipoles between 800 and 8 @,@ 000 ( corresponding to between 2 and 20 arcminutes on the sky ) , as well as observing the thermal Sunyaev @-@ Zel 'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies , which has a maximum decrement around 100 GHz . In its initial configuration , it measures up to multipoles of 3 @,@ 000 with a resolution of around 6 arcminutes . The telescope only observes at night during good weather , using planets for calibration .
Six clusters were imaged in 2007 : the Abell clusters 1689 , 1995 , 2142 , 2163 , 2261 and 2390 , which have redshifts between 0 @.@ 091 and 0 @.@ 322 . For the largest and brightest four of these — Abell 1689 , 2261 , 2142 and 2390 — comparisons were made with X @-@ ray and Subaru weak lensing data to study the cluster layout and radial properties , specifically of the mass profiles and baryon content . It is predicted that AMiBA with either 13 or 19 elements will be able to detect around 80 clusters per year via the SZ effect .
= = Collaboration = =
AMiBA is the result of a collaboration between the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics , the National Taiwan University and the Australia Telescope National Facility . It also involves researchers from the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , the National Radio Astronomy Observatory , the University of Hawaii , the University of Bristol , Nottingham Trent University , the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics and the Carnegie @-@ Mellon University .
= White Mountain art =
White Mountain art is the body of work created during the 19th century by over four hundred artists who painted landscape scenes of the White Mountains of New Hampshire in order to promote the region and , consequently , sell their works of art .
In the early part of the 19th century , artists ventured to the White Mountains of New Hampshire to sketch and paint . Many of the first artists were attracted to the region because of the 1826 tragedy of the Willey family , in which nine people lost their lives in a mudslide . These early works portrayed a dramatic and untamed mountain wilderness . Dr. Robert McGrath describes a Thomas Cole ( 1801 – 1848 ) painting titled Distant View of the Slide that Destroyed the Willey Family thus : " ... an array of broken stumps and errant rocks , together with a gathering storm , suggest the wildness of the site while evoking an appropriate ambient of darkness and desolation " . The images stirred the imagination of Americans , primarily from the large cites of the northeast , who traveled to the White Mountains to view the scenes for themselves . Others soon followed : innkeepers , writers , scientists , and more artists . The White Mountains became a major attraction for tourists from the New England states and beyond . The circulation of paintings and prints depicting the area enabled those who could not visit , because of lack of means , distance , or other circumstance , to appreciate its beauty .
Transportation improved to the region ; inns and later grand resort hotels , complete with artists in residence , were built . Benjamin Champney ( 1817 – 1907 ) , one of the early artists , popularized the Conway Valley . Other artists preferred the Franconia area , and yet still others ventured to Gorham , Shelburne and the communities of the north . Although these artists all painted similar scenes within the White Mountains , each artist had an individual style that characterized his work . These landscape paintings in the Hudson River tradition , however , eventually fell out of favor with the public , and , by the turn of the century , the era for White Mountain art had ended .
= = The Willey tragedy = =
On August 28 , 1826 , torrential rains in the White Mountains caused a mudslide on Mount Willey . The Willey couple , with their five children , lived in a small house in the notch between Mounts Willey and Webster . They evacuated their home with the help of two hired men to escape the landslide , but all seven Willeys and the two hired men died in the avalanche . The Willey home was left standing . Rescuers later found an open Bible on a table in the home , indicating that the family retreated in haste .
The news of the Willey tragedy quickly spread across the nation . During the ensuing years , it would become the subject of literature , drawings , local histories , scientific journals , and paintings . One such example is the painting by Thomas Hill ( 1829 – 1908 ) titled Crawford Notch , the site of the Willey tragedy before the slide . The Willey disaster started a new awareness of the American landscape and the raw wilderness of the White Mountains . This allure — tragedy and untamed nature — was a powerful draw for the early artists who painted in the White Mountains of New Hampshire . Thomas Cole ( 1801 – 1848 ) in his diary entry of October 6 , 1828 , wrote , " The site of the Willey House , with its little patch of green in the gloomy desolation , very naturally recalled to mind the horrors of the night when the whole family perished beneath an avalanche of rocks and earth . "
The incident provided the basis for an 1835 story by Nathaniel Hawthorne titled " The Ambitious Guest " .
= = Early artists = =
In 1827 , one of the first artists to sketch in the White Mountains was Thomas Cole , founder of the style of painting that would later be called the Hudson River School . Cole ’ s 1839 work , A View of the Pass Called the Notch of the White Mountains , is perhaps the best and finest examples of early 19th @-@ century White Mountain art . Catherine Campbell , in her reference New Hampshire Scenery , stated , " The Notch of the White Mountains [ is a ] magistral work , one of the undisputed masterpieces of White Mountain painting . " Two other early White Mountain painters were the Massachusetts artists Alvan Fisher ( 1792 – 1863 ) and Thomas Doughty ( 1793 – 1856 ) . The works of these early artists depicted dramatic landscapes and man ’ s relative insignificance compared to nature . " Fisher 's turbulent view [ of The Notch ] also emphasizes the power of the mountains and the fragility of human enterprise . " These paintings helped to promote the region at a time when the White Mountains were an unknown wilderness .
Beginning in the 1830s , the landscape painters of the Hudson River School " sought to define America and what it was to be an American . Artists of that time saw themselves as scientists making documents that expressed Christian truths and democratic ideals . "
In 1851 , John Frederick Kensett ( 1816 – 1872 ) produced a large canvas , 40 x 60 inches , of Mount Washington that has become one of the best and finest later examples of White Mountain art . Barbara J. MacAdam , the Jonathan L. Cohen Curator of America Art at the Hood Museum of Dartmouth College , has written : " John Frederick Kensett first made the scene famous through his monumental landscape , Mount Washington from the Valley of Conway ... Kensett 's image became the single most effective mid @-@ nineteenth @-@ century advertisement for the scenic charms of the White Mountains and of North Conway in particular . Mount Washington from the Valley of Conway , purchased by the American Art Union , was made into a print by the engraver James Smillie ( 1833 – 1909 ) and distributed to over 13 @,@ 000 Art Union subscribers throughout the country . Many artists painted copies of this same scene from the print , and Currier and Ives published a lithograph of this view in 1860 . Kensett ’ s painting is another example of a work of art that helped to popularize the region . Catherine Campbell described the painting as " canonical among White Mountain paintings " and " the best known landscape view of the era . "
Because of the proximity of Boston to the White Mountains , artists from that city became the predominate visitors and artists to capture White Mountain views . Beginning with Benjamin Champney in 1838 , and continuing through the 19th century , his friends and fellow artists traveled to the mountains . In 1854 these artists , including Francis Seth Frost ( 1825 – 1902 ) , Alfred T. Ordway ( 1821 – 1897 ) , Samuel Lancaster Gerry ( 1813 – 1891 ) , and Samuel W. Griggs ( 1827 – 1898 ) , were the founding members of the Boston Art Club , which for many years became a venue to view White Mountain paintings .
= = Travel to the region = =
Early coach travel to the White Mountains was time @-@ consuming . Before the advent of rail travel , a stagecoach ride from Portland , Maine to Conway , New Hampshire , a distance of fifty miles , took a day . When the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad completed its route from Portland to Gorham in 1851 , tourists and artists could travel in relative comfort to the White Mountains , and were within eight miles of Mount Washington and the Glen House .
Although rail lines to North Conway were not complete until the early 1870s , an innkeeper in the area , Samuel Thompson , established coach service from Conway to North Conway and , subsequently , to Pinkham Notch . Thompson is also credited with enticing artists to North Conway in order to promote the region . In the early 1850s , Thompson convinced a young artist , Benjamin Champney , to visit North Conway .
= = Benjamin Champney and the allure of North Conway = =
Benjamin Champney , a New Hampshire native , made his first trip to the White Mountains in 1838 on a summer excursion . As an emerging artist in the second half of the 19th century , Champney ’ s style was influenced by the Hudson River School , yet he developed a unique style of his own . Dr. Donald D. Keyes has stated , " Champney witnessed major artistic changes ; yet his art remained solidly in the camp of the Romantic artists of his youth . " In 1853 , Champney bought a home in North Conway and spent the rest of his life painting in the greater Conway area . He attracted other artists to the region and opened his studio to them as well as to tourists . Champney , in his autobiography of 1900 , wrote : " My studio has been the resort of many highly cultivated people from all parts of our country and even from foreign lands , and I have enjoyed much and learned much from the interchange of ideas with refined and intelligent minds . " He also described the popularity of North Conway , " Thus every year brought fresh visitors to North Conway as the news of its attractions spread , until in 1853 and 1854 the meadows and the banks of the Saco were dotted all about with white umbrellas in great numbers . "
Largely because of Champney ’ s promotion of the area , these artists traveled to North Conway in the summer to paint . The area was filled with artists painting en plein air . By 1855 , North Conway had become " … the pet valley of our landscape painters . There are always a dozen or more here during the sketching season , and you can hardly glance over the meadows , in any direction , without seeing one of their white umbrellas shining in the sun , " thus echoing Champney 's own words . By the 1850s , North Conway had arguably become the first artist colony in the United States . Winslow Homer ( 1836 – 1910 ) depicted these artists in his 1868 painting titled Artists Sketching in the White Mountains .
= = Later artists = =
In all , over four hundred artists are known to have painted White Mountain views during the 19th century . They came from the Boston area , Maine , Pennsylvania , and New York . Most of the Hudson River School painters worked in the White Mountains while maintaining studios in New York City , including such well @-@ known artists as Sanford Robinson Gifford ( 1823 – 1880 ) and Jasper Francis Cropsey ( 1823 – 1900 ) .
Most artists came to the White Mountains in the summer , but returned to their urban studios , or sometimes to warmer climates like Florida , in the winter . Therefore , paintings of winter scenes are not common . A few artists , like Champney , Edward Hill ( 1843 – 1923 ) , and Edward 's brother , Thomas Hill , would sometimes paint these rarer winter scenes . Two examples of winter paintings , both illustrated in this article , are Thomas Hill 's Mount Lafayette in Winter and Benjamin Champney 's Moat Mountain from North Conway . Frank Henry Shapleigh ( 1842 – 1906 ) had a home in Jackson and was a prolific painter of New Hampshire scenes , both in summer and winter .
By mid @-@ century , the later painters changed their style from the idealized views of the earlier painters to more literal views of the mountains . Dr. Donald D. Keyes has written , " ... the aesthetics of the time [ 1840s and 1850s ] were also changing , with less emphasis placed on the Sublime and more on fact — ' realism ' . " These more literal views were sought after by tourists as mementos of their travels in an era before photography . As an example of how literal these depictions were , see the composite image where a painting by George Albert Frost ( 1843 – 1907 ) of Franconia Notch painted in 1883 is compared to a photograph of the scene in 2004 .
= = Grand resort hotels = =
It was during the 1860s that many of the region 's resort hotels were built and became popular as major summer destinations for affluent city dwellers from Boston , New York , and Philadelphia . By 1865 , White Mountain tourism was " so immense that it tasks to the utmost the capacity of all the hotels and boarding houses " . During the latter half of the 19th century , many of the artists took up residence at one of these grand hotels and became known as artists @-@ in @-@ residence . This arrangement had advantages for both the artist and the hotel . Once established , the artists invited guests to their studios to view their works . The guests purchased original works to bring home as a remembrance of the White Mountains . The hotel benefited by having another attraction to keep guests for an extended stay .
Two well @-@ known artists @-@ in @-@ residence were Edward Hill and Frank Henry Shapleigh . Hill worked at the Profile House in Franconia Notch for fifteen years , from 1877 to 1892 , and spent shorter stays at the Waumbek Hotel and the Glen House . Frank Shapleigh was the artist @-@ in @-@ residence at the Crawford House in Crawford Notch for sixteen years , from 1877 to 1893 .
= = Working in North Conway , Franconia , and points north = =
North Conway , by virtue of its unique location in the southern Mount Washington Valley , was a gathering place for many of the artists . The artist Asher B. Durand ( 1796 – 1886 ) , in a letter to The Crayon in 1855 , described the appeal of North Conway :
" Mount Washington , the leading feature of the scene , ... rises in all his majesty , and with his contemporary patriots , Adams , Jefferson , Munroe [ sic ] , bounds the view at the North . On either hand , subordinate mountains and ledges slope , or abruptly descend to the fertile plain that borders the Saco , stretching many miles southward , rich in varying tints of green fields and meadows , and beautifully interspersed with groves and scattered trees of graceful form and deepest verdure ... where every possible shade of green is harmoniously mingled . "
A favorite spot in North Conway for viewing and painting Mount Washington was Sunset Hill . Typical for this view , in 1858 Champney painted Mount Washington from Sunset Hill that looks down on his own house and backyard , and out across North Conway ’ s Intervale . North Conway afforded vantage points for other frequently painted views — Moat Mountain , Kearsarge North , and Mount Chocorua . North Conway was also a short distance from two of the three notches of the White Mountains : Pinkham Notch , and Crawford Notch .
Many artists also traveled to the third notch , Franconia Notch , to paint . A rivalry developed between the Franconia artists and the North Conway artists . Each faction believed that their location had the most beautiful view of the mountains . Those who preferred Franconia felt that North Conway , as early as 1857 , had been overrun by tourists . Barbara J. MacAdam , in her essay " A Proper Distance from the Hills , " stated : " To meet this growing demand [ for tourists ] , railroad lines were extended and new hotels constructed on a grand scale . In the process , those qualities that had drawn artists to North Conway in the first place became endangered . " Daniel Huntington ( 1816 – 1906 ) , writing from West Campton in 1855 , described the appeal of the Franconia region to the landscape painter .
" I find it indeed a very agreeable and desirable place for landscape study ... The Pemigewasset river which winds through the valley , is somewhat like the Saco in the vicinity of Conway . Its banks are mostly of sand , occasionally varied by broken masses of rock ... The valley is narrower than that of the Saco , and is quite different in the character of its half @-@ wooded hill @-@ sides . "
In the Franconia region , artists painted Mount Lafayette , Franconia Notch , Eagle Cliff , and New Hampshire 's well @-@ known icon , the Old Man of the Mountain . Edward Hill , George McConnell , and Samuel Lancaster Gerry all painted the subject of the Old Man . Fewer artists worked in the area north of the Presidential Range . Those who did painted less well @-@ known scenes from Shelburne , Gorham , and Jefferson . These locations were strategically located along train or coach routes from Gorham and Franconia . The Northern Presidentials , pictured above , is one such example of a painting of the Presidential Range from the north .
= = Characteristics of the artists = =
Each White Mountain artist had certain characteristics that would distinguish his work from that of other artists . These characteristics may be more suggestive of an artist than even his signature , since signatures are sometimes forged .
Benjamin Champney was a master at painting water and is known for warm autumn colors . William F. Paskell ( 1866 – 1951 ) , in his later style , used broad brushstrokes and bright colors to create an impressionistic feeling . George McConnell ( 1852 – 1929 ) was known for the velvety pastel look of his paintings . Edward Hill often created a canopy @-@ like depiction of trees to frame and accentuate the focus of a painting , a technique that gave many of his works a feeling of intimacy and solitude . Many of the works of Samuel Lancaster Gerry ( 1813 – 1891 ) included dogs , people on horseback , and women and men in red clothing . Francis Seth Frost ( 1825 – 1902 ) was known to use small figures , wispy clouds , and an oval format . Alfred Thompson Bricher ( 1837 – 1908 ) was known for his quiet , calm water . Sylvester Phelps Hodgdon ( 1830 – 1906 ) painted at the extremes of the day – sunrise and sunset scenes – and often in Franconia Notch . John White Allen Scott ( 1815 – 1907 ) frequently painted passing storm clouds in his skies . Frank Henry Shapleigh had his own primitive style and used the same " props " over and over again in his paintings . He is known for painting landscapes as seen from the inside of a house or barn looking out through an open door or window . Inside the room would be such props as a ladder back chair , a cat , a basket , a straw hat , a broom , and / or a tall clock .
Characteristics are illustrated for these representative artists in the image gallery below .
= = End of an era = =
The scenes these artists painted became American icons , certainly to the people of New England . As tourists took these White Mountain paintings home , they were widely dispensed throughout the country . Today , these paintings are discovered as far away as California .
By the latter part of the 19th century , landscape images , such as Mount Washington , had lost their appeal with the public . Newer images , such as those of the Rocky Mountains , were outweighing interest in the White Mountains . Also , landscapes in the Hudson River style were " usurped both by new artistic ideas and by the social and technological changes that were rapidly occurring in the region and throughout the country . " By the end of the 19th century , these factors , and the advent of photography , led to the gradual decline of White Mountain landscape painting . Many of these paintings , however , are preserved in both private collections and public institutions . Some of these paintings can be seen in New Hampshire at the New Hampshire Historical Society in Concord , the Currier Museum of Art in Manchester , and at the Hood Museum of Art in Hanover .
= = Gallery : Characteristics of the artists = =
= = Notable White Mountain artists = =
= Michael Dawson ( Lost ) =
Michael Dawson is a fictional character played by Harold Perrineau on the ABC television series Lost . Michael served as the secondary antagonist of the second season . After losing a custody battle with Susan Lloyd ( Tamara Taylor ) , Michael does not see his son Walt ( Malcolm David Kelley ) for almost ten years . They reunite when she dies , but on their journey home , their plane crashes on a mysterious island in the South Pacific . Here Walt is kidnapped by the Island 's previous inhabitants , the Others , and Michael spends his time trying to retrieve him . He is eventually successful , and they leave the Island together , but the guilt over the murders he had to commit to achieve this leads him to an estrangement with his son and a suicide attempt . He returns to the Island on a freighter , but is killed when a bomb on it explodes . Michael reappears as a ghost , and apologizes to Hurley for killing Libby ( Cynthia Watros ) .
Although initially skeptical about the role , Perrineau took it after Lost creator J. J. Abrams told him more about it . Much of the first season arc for Michael was rewritten ; he was originally going to be part of a love triangle with Korean couple Sun ( Yunjin Kim ) and Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , but positive fan reaction to the couple meant this storyline was dropped . After Michael leaves the Island in season two , Perrineau knew he would return to Lost at some point ; he felt there was more to tell of Michael 's story . Reception for the character was mixed . However , Perrineau 's acting was praised .
= = Arc = =
Much of Michael 's life before the plane crash is shown in flashbacks during " Special " . Susan Lloyd leaves Michael after their son Walt is born , and travels to Amsterdam with Walt . Two years later , Susan tells him that she intends to get married . Michael becomes enraged , and is hit by a car , leaving him hospitalized for months . Susan tracks him down at the hospital and tries to convince him to give up his parental rights , so that her new husband can adopt Walt . Michael refuses , but in the resulting custody battle Susan convinces him that it is the best decision for Walt . Several years later , Susan dies , and her husband asks Michael to take custody of Walt , who is now living in Australia . Michael agrees , but just before the return flight , calls his mother and asks if she can take Walt instead .
Their plane crashes on an island in the South Pacific ; Michael , Walt and Walt 's dog Vincent are among the survivors . After Vincent runs into the jungle , Michael searches for him , but to no avail ; it is later that Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) returns Vincent to Michael . Despite this gesture , Michael is skeptical about Locke , and does not want Walt spending time with him . After Michael is attacked by a Korean survivor , Jin , over a gold watch Michael has started wearing , Jin 's wife Sun approaches him to explain that it is her father 's watch , and in doing so reveals that she speaks English . Michael begins constructing a raft , in hope that he and Walt can escape the Island . After witnessing his completed raft burned down , Michael blames Jin , but later Walt confesses that it was him . Although Walt did not want to leave the Island , he has now changed his mind . Michael and Jin bond after Sun reveals her ability to speak English , and the two men begin work on a second raft . They offer the final space on board to Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) . In the season finale " Exodus " , Michael sets sail with Jin , Sawyer and Walt , and not far from the Island , they encounter a small fishing boat . The occupants of the fishing boat are the Others , who have long inhabited the Island . They kidnap Walt and destroy the raft .
At the beginning of season two , Michael and Sawyer are stranded in the middle of the ocean , with Jin missing . They wash ashore and discover Jin , then are knocked unconscious by one of the survivors from the tail section of the plane . After convincing the tail section survivors that they were on the same plane , they all return to the beach camp of the fuselage survivors . Later , Michael offers to take a shift in the hatch that the survivors have found . Here , he begins receiving computer messages from someone who he thinks is Walt , who gives him directions to where he is being held . Michael ventures off in search for him , but moments after leaving the camp , two of the Others kidnap him and hold him hostage . Michael is told to retrieve their leader , who is held prisoner in the hatch , then bring Sawyer , Kate ( Evangeline Lilly ) , Jack ( Matthew Fox ) and Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) to them , and they will return Walt and let them leave the Island . In order to free their leader , Ben ( Michael Emerson ) , Michael convinces Ana Lucia ( Michelle Rodriguez ) , who is guarding Ben , that he will kill Ben on her behalf , but instead kills her when she hands over the gun and the combination to the armory . When Libby ( Cynthia Watros ) walks in on them , Michael , startled , shoots her twice . He succeeds in bringing the four requested survivors to the Others , so Ben reunites him with Walt . Michael and Walt are given a boat and coordinates to freedom , and they sail away from the Island .
A flashback during "
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youth and inexperience when evaluating custody .
= = Oral argument = =
Chief Justice William Rehnquist noted early in the oral argument that the case presented two questions . First , whether the Ninth Circuit 's ruling was consistent with Supreme Court precedent . Second , whether the state courts ' ruling was objectively unreasonable according to AEDPA . California Deputy Attorney General Deborah Chuang argued that the Ninth Circuit 's ruling was not consistent with precedent because the Supreme Court had never addressed using age as a factor in custody analysis . Associate Justice Stephen Breyer remarked that he thought a Supreme Court precedent was not necessary because he thought it obvious that age affects whether a reasonable person would feel free to leave . John P. Elwood , at the time assistant to the Solicitor General , argued that age doesn 't make a legal difference for Miranda purposes because it is a rule uniformly applied to all people and that police officers should not be required to get inside the head of each suspect .
Tara K. Allen , arguing for Alvarado , claimed that the state court 's decision was objectively unreasonable because they did not consider the totality of the circumstances surrounding the investigation as required by Thompson v. Keohane . Specifically , the considered circumstances of custody were not total because Alvarado 's age was not considered . Associate Justice Antonin Scalia responded by saying that , according to Thompson v. Keohane , custody is an objective test and subjective factors like characteristics of the individual do not matter .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote the majority opinion for the Court , which declined to overturn the state court 's decision because fair @-@ minded jurists could disagree over whether Alvarado was in custody . Kennedy noted that there were facts for and against the claim that Alvarado was in custody . Facts pointing towards custody included that the interview took place at a police station , the interview lasted for two hours , Alvarado was not told he was free to leave , and Alvarado 's parents were not allowed to be present during the interview . Facts weighing against custody included that Alvarado was not transported to the police station by police , Alvarado was not threatened or told he would be placed under arrest , and the interview focused on the crimes of Alvarado 's friend , not Alvarado 's crimes . The Court was not tasked with conducting a separate inquiry into the issue of custody , rather , the Court was tasked with granting relief only if the lower court 's decision is objectively unreasonable . Kennedy wrote that , given this standard , the state court 's decision was reasonable because it was not clearly unreasonable .
Central to the reversal of the Ninth Circuit was the fact that the state court did not take into account Alvarado 's age and experience with law enforcement in the custody analysis . The Court made several findings on this issue . The Court held that the use of age in custody analysis had not been explicitly required by previous rulings . Inexperience with law enforcement was rejected as well ; the Court noted that previous opinions had rejected reliance on such factors .
= = = O 'Connor 's concurrence = = =
Associate Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor wrote a concurrence that agreed with the finding that the state court 's decision was reasonable . However , O 'Connor held that there could be cases in which age would be relevant to custody analysis . This would be affirmed by the Court in 2011 in J.D.B. v. North Carolina .
= = = Dissent = = =
Associate Justice Stephen Breyer wrote a dissenting opinion , with whom Justice Stevens , Justice Souter , and Justice Ginsburg joined . Breyer disagreed with the majority 's holding that fair @-@ minded jurists could disagree on whether Alvarado was in custody , holding that the facts compelled the single conclusion that Alvarado was in custody . Breyer held that the actions the police did not do , such as arrest Alvarado or threaten him , were not as important as what the police did do . Specifically , the police had Alvarado 's parents bring him to the police station , brought Alvarado to an interrogation room , kept his parents out , and questioned him for two hours .
In the matter of Alvarado 's age , Breyer found that it was relevant to the custody analysis . Further , Breyer held that nothing in the law prevents a judge from including age in the custody analysis . Breyer called the discussion of experience with law enforcement misleading ; while experience with law enforcement can be difficult to determine , Breyer noted that Alvarado 's age was a known objective fact .
= = Reception = =
The case received both positive and negative reception in scholarly publications .
= = = Support = = =
A note published in The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology supported the decision on procedural grounds , noting that using age in the custody analysis was not a precedent established by the Supreme Court . The note argued that establishing such broad legal precedent was outside the bounds of the authority of the Ninth Circuit and the Supreme Court was right to reverse . Instead , the note supported the state court who had applied the law as the Supreme Court had in the past .
= = = Criticism = = =
Berry Feld , professor at University of Minnesota Law School , wrote : " the Court 's decision ... treated juveniles as the functional equals of adults during interrogation . Over the past quarter @-@ century , developmental psychological research consistently has emphasized adolescents ' inability to understand or exercise Miranda rights " . Paul Holland , professor at Seattle University School of Law , wrote that " the assumptions Justice Kennedy made in Alvarado are inapplicable to the schoolhouse context ... considering the age of a student @-@ suspect questioned at school , would not present a significant risk of compromising the clarity the Court has sought to provide law enforcement . Officers questioning students at school are well aware of the students ' status as minors " .
= = Role in subsequent decisions = =
= = = Leeway granted to state courts = = =
Yarborough v. Alvarado has been cited in subsequent Supreme Court decisions as precedent for providing state courts leeway in reaching case by case determinations for general rules .
= = = J.D.B. v. North Carolina = = =
Though the Court rejected the argument that its previous holdings supported using age in the custody analysis , the Court did not rule against the use of age . In 2011 the Court clarified in J.D.B. v. North Carolina , ruling that a child 's age is relevant to custody analysis . J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student who was interrogated at school by an investigator , a uniformed police officer , and school officials regarding a series of robberies . J.D.B. confessed to committing the robberies . He was not given a Miranda warning during the interrogation . Motions to suppress J.D.B. ' s statements at trial were denied on the ground that J.D.B. was not in custody . Age was not used as a factor in the custody determination . The Supreme Court found that J.D.B. ' s age should have been considered in the custody analysis and instructed the lower court to make a new finding on custody while taking age into account .
= Ro Laren =
Ro Laren is a fictional character who appears on a recurring basis in the fifth , sixth and seventh series of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Michelle Forbes , she is a member of the Bajoran race who joins the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D at the invitation of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The character was intended to both be at odds with the series regulars , as well as to replace Wesley Crusher at the conn officer post on the bridge . Forbes was cast to portray Ro , after previously appearing in the series as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " .
The character first appears in the fifth season episode " Ensign Ro " , which reveals elements of Ro 's backstory . She continued to appear throughout that season , and made a further appearance in each of the sixth and seventh seasons . Starfleet sought her aid to help the Cardassians apprehend a Bajoran terrorist . After joining the Enterprise crew , she wants to abandon the engineering section of the vessel following a series of power failures in " Disaster " . Alongside Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , she is affected by a Romulan experiment in " The Next Phase " and must help prevent the aliens from destroying the Enterprise . In " Rascals " , she is one of the crew who are transformed into children and helps prevent a Ferengi plot . When making her final appearance in " Preemptive Strike " , she is tasked by Starfleet to infiltrate the Maquis , eventually defecting and joining them permanently .
Ro was also planned to be a main character in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . However , Forbes turned down the role , so Kira Nerys was created to replace her . In the non @-@ canonical novels , Ro eventually joins the Bajoran militia and is posted onto Deep Space Nine . She re @-@ joins Starfleet when Bajor joins the Federation , and eventually becomes captain of the station . Reviewers discussed the religious views of Ro , comparing her views to those of Kira . Ro has been received positively by both critics and fans alike . Critics have praised the performances of Forbes , and the interaction of Ro with the existing characters . She has been placed in several polls listing the most popular characters , with Jordan Hoffman calling her the second strongest female character in the franchise .
= = Concept and development = =
During the course of planning out the fifth season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , the producers were looking to add a recurring character who could conflict with the regular cast at times as well as a new conn officer to replace Wesley Crusher . With that in mind , the episode " Ensign Ro " was written by Michael Piller , from a story idea created in conjunction with Rick Berman , to specifically introduce the character of Ensign Ro Laren . The episode was designed to show a backstory for the character , who would be at odds with series creator Gene Roddenberry 's ideal that Starfleet officers should all work together seamlessly . One of her major character traits was that she would be a member of an oppressed people , whose homeworld had been conquered by another . Supervising producer Jeri Taylor explained that they had sought to add some " fresh life " using a darker character .
Michelle Forbes was asked to return to the series , after impressing the producers with her performance as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " . The character was the daughter of Timicin , played by David Ogden Stiers , and supported the tradition that her father should commit ritual suicide upon reaching a certain age . The Bajoran make @-@ up was created on her , with Michael Westmore seeking to make her look different from the rest of the crew but in a way that would not detract from her appearance . Westmore created an appliance over Forbes ' nose , before adding a row of ridges while it was on her face . It was designed to be as thin and weightless as possible , as he wanted the piece to move with Forbes ' facial expressions . Her version of the make @-@ up had seven ridges , while other actors in " Ensign Ro " had different numbers , between five and nine , with the male actors wearing larger pieces .
Piller described the addition of Ro to the cast as one of that season 's biggest accomplishments , and was pleased that it was well received . He added that in " Ensign Ro " , they made a deliberate decision to have Ro embraced by Guinan in order to ensure that the fans warmed to the new addition . Piller felt that when Guinan took Ro to meet Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard in that episode , the character was effectively presenting Ro to the fans of the series and endorsing her . During the writing process , he felt that once he came across the friendship between Guinan and Ro that he believed " we had really done something magnificent " . Forbes , meanwhile , praised the writing and the cast of the series , saying that she had " become very attached to Star Trek " .
Piller was disappointed with the following Ro episode , " Disaster " , as it put her in the position of disbelieving Councillor Deanna Troi without having had the weight of " victories " in the past to convince the viewer of the power of her convictions . But he enjoyed her sudden relationship with Commander William Riker in " Conundrum " . Forbes shared the view of that episode , later saying " When you have amnesia , you wonder if that brings out a side of you that 's always wanted to come out . Would you really be comfortable with that ? It 's an interesting thing . I had a really good time with that episode . " Later in the season , " The Next Phase " was written with the idea of being a vehicle for Geordi La Forge and Troi , but it was decided to include Ro instead as one of the lead characters . Ro had been included as one of three lead characters in Morgan Gendel 's original pitch for the episode " The Inner Light " . This would have seen her in a love triangle with Picard and Riker . Instead , the concept was redeveloped to focus solely on Picard .
Forbes made a single appearance in the sixth season , in the episode " Rascals " . In the plot of the episode , a transporter accidentally turns Ro , among others , in a child . There was some consideration after the episode about whether or not to keep Ro as a child , as her return to adulthood was never shown on screen . Taylor said that the change would have been " too drastic for us " , and the idea was abandoned . Her final appearance , in the penultimate episode of the series , " Preemptive Strike " , had been considered a long shot by the producers . After the failure to agree her appearances on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Forbes ' agent had warned them to stay away from her . A week prior to filming , there was no story created for the episode other than the idea it would follow on from the Deep Space Nine episode " The Maquis " , and no agreement had been reached with Forbes to appear . Her agent indicated that Forbes wanted to talk directly to the producers , so she made the phone call , making up a story for the episode as the conversation went on . Forbes agreed , making her final appearance in the franchise . The character was promoted to Lieutenant , and Forbes wore updated Bajoran makeup developed by Westmore for Deep Space Nine .
= = = Star Trek : Deep Space Nine = = =
" Ensign Ro " proved influential on the creation of Deep Space Nine , with the Bajorans and Cardassians taken directly from the episode . The character was included in the original series description , stationed on the Bajor @-@ based Starfleet station and the producers had planned for her to be promoted to Lieutenant in an episode of The Next Generation prior to the start of Deep Space Nine . Taylor had expected Ro to be written out of The Next Generation , and so had taken some steps to see that the character was replaced . She said that " We all just love Michelle Forbes " , but the plans to replace Ro would not seek to add someone with the type of fire shown by the character in such episodes as " The Next Phase " . She also said that if Ro to remain on The Next Generation , then the character would have naturally evolved away from that conflicted position anyway .
The intention was that Ro would be one of a handful of The Next Generation characters moving over to the new series , alongside Miles and Keiko O 'Brien . At this stage , the other characters were only described as a wheelchair @-@ bound science officer , a brash doctor , a civilian law enforcer , a bar owner and the station commander and his son . Ro 's position on the station would have been to act as the liaison between the station and the Bajoran government . As described in the series bible , the producers had planned for Ro to be a point of conflict with " by @-@ the @-@ book Starfleet officers " . Regarding the other main characters , she was planned to have a friendship with Odo and be mentored by Jadzia Dax .
Both Berman and Piller sought to have Forbes sign on to portray Ro as a main character in the series , but she turned them down . She liked making occasional appearances on The Next Generation , but did not want to tie herself down to a five to six year main cast contract at that point in her career . She was also apprehensive about the types of demands fan appearances made on the stars of that series , and did not want to undertake the level of appearances that would be expected of a main cast member in Deep Space Nine . The producers of Deep Space Nine decided create a new character to fit a similar mould , which resulted in the creation of Kira Nerys , who was played by Nana Visitor . This was designed to require as minimal a change as possible in the premise of the pilot at that time , which was already under production . During the course of the series , Forbes told interviewers that she was interested in making one @-@ off appearances in the series if she liked the story and role .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
In accordance with Bajoran tradition , her family name precedes her personal name . When she first joins the crew of the Enterprise @-@ D during the course of " Ensign Ro " , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) addresses her as " Ensign Laren " . She corrects him , saying that Laren is her given name and Ro is her family name . She is then referred to as " Ensign Ro " . Over the course of her several appearances in The Next Generation , information is revealed about her backstory . Bajor had been under the occupation of the Cardassians during her early life , and at the age of seven she watched as one of the occupiers tortured her father to death . This led to a life @-@ long hatred of Cardassians .
Ro joined Starfleet , and after being posted to the USS Wellington , she formed part of an away team . During that mission , she disobeyed orders , resulting in the death of eight crewmen . She was subsequently court @-@ martialled , and was imprisoned on Jaros II . Admiral Kennelly ( Cliff Potts ) later gave her a pardon and allowed her to return to Starfleet service , in return for convincing the Bajoran terrorist Orta ( Jeffrey Hayenga ) to call off his attacks after a raid on a Federation colony . He brings her to the USS Enterprise for the purpose of completing this mission .
= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation = = =
As shown in " Ensign Ro " , during an away team mission to capture Orta , Ro manages to get the team taken hostage . As a result , Picard confines her to her quarters . But Picard discovers that the Bajorans were not responsible for the attack on the Federation colony , and Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) convinces Ro to tell Picard of Kennelly 's plan . Ro was under orders to offer arms to Orta , to trick him to revealing his presence so the Cardassians can destroy his vessel . At that point , Kennelly would intervene and order Picard not to intervene to keep the peace treaty with the Cardassians . Picard allows the plan to proceed , but the Cardassians destroy an empty ship before revealing that the Cardassians had staged the attack in order to enlist aid against the Bajorans . At the conclusion of the episode , Picard offers Ro a position on the crew of the Enterprise , which she accepts .
In " Disaster " , Ro is one of the crew trapped on the bridge of the Enterprise when it undergoes a series of power failures . The ship is placed at risk of destruction because of the potential failure of the containment fields on the antimatter pods . Ro argues that they need to separate the saucer section to save those on @-@ board it as they have no way knowing if anyone is still alive on the engineering part of the vessel . When the crew undergo group amnesia in " Conundrum " , Ro and Riker act on a mutual attraction until their memories are restored . In " The Next Phase " , Ro and La Forge apparently die after a transporter accident after returning from a Romulan Warbird . But they have suffered the side effects of a Romulan cloaking experiment . Ro initial questions whether or not she has died and is now in the afterlife . But together with La Forge they discover a Romulan plot and defeating a similarly cloaked Romulan operative , Ro and La Forge alert the crew and return to normal , warning Picard and averting disaster .
In the episode " Rascals " , Ro , Picard , Guinan and Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) are transformed into adolescent versions of themselves while retaining their adult intelligence . As children , they foil a Ferengi plot to steal the Enterprise and sell the crew as slave labor . In her final episode , " Preemptive Strike " , Ro returns to the Enterprise as a Lieutenant after spending a year at Starfleet Advanced Tactical Training . During the course of the training , her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Chakotay , resigned from Starfleet to join the Marquis when his father is killed by the Cardassians . She is asked by Starfleet to infiltrate the rebel Maquis , who are undermining the Federation treaty with Cardassia . During the mission , she finds her loyalties in conflict with her duties as she becomes increasingly sympathetic to the plight of the Maquis . Despite Picard 's effort to force her to do her duty , she joins the rebel group . Riker says she seemed pretty sure she was doing the right thing , though she regretted disappointing Picard .
= = = Non @-@ canonical appearances = = =
Ro makes a series of appearances in the non @-@ canonical novel series based on The Next Generation . These include an expansion on her background and early life in the book Night of the Wolves by S. D. Perry and Britta Dennison . The events of the away mission while she was serving on the USS Wellington were shown in the second special issue of DC Comics ' The Next Generation series . Ro 's career with the Maquis is also chronicled in the novels . In Rogue Saucer , she is responsible for planning out the attack on the Enterprise in which the Maquis steal a prototype saucer section . Ro appears in the novel Tunnel Through the Stars , set during the events of the Dominion War , Ro and the remaining Maquis join forces with Picard and the USS Enterprise @-@ E to defeat the Dominion forces that are attempting to build an artificial wormhole to bypass the one near Deep Space Nine .
She began to appear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels beginning with the two @-@ part Avatar by Perry . The relaunch novels show the events that occur after the final episode of the television series . In Avatar , Ro enlists in the Bajoran Militia with the rank of Lieutenant , and is assigned to Deep Space Nine as the new Security Chief under the command of Colonel Kira . This move for Ro is also chronicled in the background to the massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game Star Trek Online .
In Twilight by David R. George III , the first part of the Mission : Gamma mini @-@ series , Quark and Ro start to develop romantic feelings for each other . In Perry 's Unity , Ro re @-@ joins Starfleet after Bajor joins the Federation and it 's military forces are merged . She is initially apprehensive about the prospect , but is convinced to accept a pardon for her time with the Maquis by Picard . Over time , Ro was promoted to Captain and as of the Star Trek : The Fall series of books , is in command of the new Deep Space Nine following the destruction of the original at the hands of a rogue element of the Typhon Pact . Ro was also one of the characters included at launch in the strategy video game Star Trek Timelines by Disruptor Beam .
= = Themes = =
The Bajorans have been described as analogues for a variety of displaced peoples , with Star Trek novelist Keith DeCandido comparing them to " Palestinians , Jews , Kurds , Haitians ; the sad reality is that you can pretty much pick and choose . History is full of people who have had their homes taken from them , forced to become refugees . " The Cardassian occupation of Bajor ( the Bajoran homeworld ) has been compared to the Holocaust , with Ro singled out as a Holocaust survivor . In his chapter " Speakers for the Dead : Star Trek , the Holocaust , and the Representation of Atrocity " within the book Star Trek as Myth , writer Matthew Wilheim Kapell compared the experiences and reactions of Ro Laren and Kira Nerys following the Cardassian occupation of Bajor . He said that the impact on Ro represented the " non @-@ american view of the holocaust " in that she does not fully recover from the trauma and continues to affect in , for example preventing her from connecting with her religious beliefs in " The Next Phase " . He explains that Kira is a far more " Americanize [ d ] " character , acting as a " resister and even liberator " during the occupation . As a result , unlike Ro , Kira retains her religious beliefs and does not typically show any ongoing emotional trauma . Further commentary of Ro 's relationship to religion have been made . In The Literary Galaxy of Star Trek , James F. Broderick compared the situation in which Ro and La Forge are trapped out of phase in " The Next Phase " to that of the purgatory dweller in Dante Alighieri 's Inferno .
= = Reception = =
When reviewing " Ensign Ro " for Tor.com , DeCandido described Michelle Forbes as " stellar " and called Ro " one of TNG 's best recurring characters " . He also added the the character was " a bit of piss and vinegar to add to the syrupy mix of homogeneity that the TNG cast tends to be " . In his review of " Preemptive Strike " , he said that the Ro character arc " comes full circle : once again making a decision that puts her on the outs with Starfleet . " He praised Forbes again , saying that she " inhabits the character so completely , from her awkwardness at the reception in her honor to her playing the role of rebel , to her pain at thinking about her father ... to her decision to betray Starfleet and the Enterprise . " He did criticise the episode for not wrapping up the Riker @-@ Ro relationship in the same way that closure had been given to her friendship with Picard . Zack Handlen reviewed " Ensign Ro " for The A.V. Club , and described Ro as " terrific " and said that the role represented " one of the rare times that TNG has managed to have a frustrated character who doesn 't immediately seem overly hateful or falsely confrontational " . But he criticized the manner in which her opinion changed to be more favourable of Picard and the Enterprise , as he felt that Guinan 's intervention was detrimental to the plot .
Ro Laren has placed in several polls featuring the characters of the franchise over the course of several years . In a list of the strongest female characters on the official Star Trek website by Jordan Hoffman in 2012 , Ro Laren was placed second behind Edith Keeler from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . He said that Ro was one of the " richest figures in Trek " , and wished to be able to see an alternative timeline where Forbes had accepted the main cast position on Deep Space Nine . A poll at the Creation Entertainment official Star Trek convention in 2013 , conducted by Hoffman , placed Ro Laren as the fifth most popular recurring character among fans , behind Elim Garak , Q , Gul Dukat and General Martok . Hoffman expressed a view that he had expected her to place higher in the rankings , due to the number of her vocal supporters , however she also had many booing her . On a poll run on the official Star Trek website in 2014 regarding the fans ' favourite supporting character , Ro came eighth out of ten . In 2015 , she was included in a list of the 21 " most interesting " supporting characters in the franchise by Lisa Granshaw at Blastr . Granshaw called Ro " a complicated , strong character " , and said her " different layers and motivations made her a great character to watch interact with the loyal crew of the Enterprise . "
= = Annotations = =
= Frederick H. Dyer =
Frederick Henry Dyer ( July 2 , 1849 – September 21 , 1917 ) served as a drummer boy in the Union Army during the American Civil War . After the war , he wrote A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion – a complete record of every regiment formed under the Union Army , their histories , and the battles they fought in – taking forty years to compile .
= = Background = =
Born in 1849 , Dyer lost both his parents in childhood . In July 1863 , at the age of 14 , already two years into the civil war , Dyer and a friend ran away from school with the intention of joining the army . Although his friend 's aunt provided guardian consent for him to enlist as a minor , Dyer 's friend decided not to sign up . Dyer carefully assumed his friend 's surname , Metzger , to avoid being traced and returned to school . On July 25 , having passed the routine physical examination , he became a drummer boy in Company " H " of the 7th Connecticut Infantry Regiment .
= = Army life = =
Dyer continued to serve with Company " H " during the remaining two years of the war . It is unknown whether he actively participated in any fighting , and most likely would have helped the wounded during engagements . The 7th Connecticut was equipped with Spencer carbines in December 1863 , making it better equipped to fight than those armed with the slower muzzle @-@ loaded Enfield rifle .
The regiment saw action in several battles , during Dyer 's service , including :
Battle of Olustee – February 4 , 1864
Drewry 's Bluff – May 14 – 16 , 1864
Bermuda Hundred – June 14 , 1864
Richmond – Petersburg Campaign – June 16 , 1864 – January 3 , 1865
Battle of Chaffin 's Farm – September 29 – 30 , 1864
Battle of Darbytown Road – October 13 , 1864
Second Battle of Fort Fisher – January 15 , 1865
Battle of Wilmington – February 22 , 1865
On July 20 , 1865 , the regiment was mustered out of service , the war having ended in April .
= = Post @-@ war years = =
Dyer stopped using his false name after the war . He attended Russell Military Institute and Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven , Connecticut , reclaiming the education he left to become a soldier .
From the age of 18 , he became a commercial traveller – an occupation he maintained for about fourteen years – moving between various cities in the states of Pennsylvania and New York . He moved to Philadelphia in 1870 , where he manufactured and sold escutcheons to veterans . In 1875 he was married in Bridgeville , Delaware and moved to Pittsburgh until the fall of 1876 , then moved to Washington , Pennsylvania . Whilst living in Washington he went into business with a H. Frank Ward , forming " Dyer and Ward – Printers , Stationers and Binders " , which ran from 1881 until 1885 .
Dyer moved around on business , residing in several cities between 1885 and 1912 , before settling his family in Cleveland , Ohio . In 1904 he set up a temporary residence in Des Moines , Iowa , and dedicated himself to working in isolation on the Compendium , compiling his collection of around
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Jean de Reszke ( 1924 – 25 ) , with whom he learned the roles of Otello , Parsifal and Tristan ; he then took lessons with Sir George Henschel ( 1925 – 28 ) , and studied 17th- and 18th @-@ century music with Wanda Landowska in Paris .
For a while Wilson sang with the Bristol Opera Company , which toured in London to perform at the Royal Court Theatre in 1927 and 1928 , conducted by Adrian Boult and Malcolm Sargent . Productions mounted included Ralph Vaughan Williams 's The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains , and Charles Villiers Stanford 's The Travelling Companion .
Wilson became a leading interpreter of the Evangelist in JS Bach 's Passions , and of the title part in Edward Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius , which he sang under the baton of the composer and other conductors including Hamilton Harty , Malcolm Sargent , Albert Coates , and Adrian Boult . The Times called him " the best exponent of [ Gerontius ] at the present time " . The tenor Peter Pears said that it was hearing Wilson singing as Evangelist in Bach 's St Matthew Passion that " started me off " .
Mozart remained part of Wilson 's repertoire at the Old Vic ( though Howard Ferguson complained " Steuart Wilson would sing out of tune " ) , and he regularly championed English music , making regular appearances at Rutland Boughton 's festival in Glastonbury and on occasion at Napier Miles 's festivals in Bristol . He was praised by Holst , who credited him with rescuing the British National Opera Company production which had previously " ruined " his opera At the Boar 's Head .
Writing in 1968 , The Gramophone critic Roger Fiske recalled that Wilson " stood out above other tenors both for high intelligence and for clarity of words , though his voice was not by nature of especial beauty ; also he never sang quite as well in performance as at rehearsal , his tone tightening under stress . " Frank Howes made similar observations in an article published in 1951 , though noting that " intelligence " was a recognised euphemism for " indifferent vocal equipment " . A more recent judgement , based on recordings of Schubert Lieder , describes " Wilson 's stentorian and rather stiff delivery — the fast vibrato , his tendency to rush ( slower songs sound better ) and the impression that he is distinctly overparted in the higher register " , all of which " does not make for a satisfactory performance according to today 's standards . "
For many years , Adrian Boult had been a close friend of Wilson and his first wife Ann , née Bowles . When , in the late 1920s , Wilson began to mistreat his wife , Boult took her side . She divorced Wilson on grounds of cruelty in 1931 , and married Boult two years later . The enmity provoked in Wilson was to have lasting repercussions . The stigma attached to divorce in Britain in the 1930s affected Wilson 's career : he was barred from performing in English cathedrals at the Three Choirs Festival for 25 years until 1957 , when he narrated Honegger 's King David in Worcester , by which time his singing career had ended .
= = = BBC libel case = = =
Wilson achieved a wider fame for his successful libel action against the BBC in what became known as " the case of the intrusive H " . In 1933 , the BBC had printed in the 14 April edition of its magazine The Radio Times a letter from a retired schoolmaster who , having heard a broadcast of the St Matthew Passion , accused Wilson of the technical fault of aspirating his runs in decorated music : " I am amazed that the BBC could engage anyone quite so incompetent in his breath control . … ' Pilate 's wife ' became ' Pigh @-@ highlet 's wigh @-@ highf ' ; ' High Priest ' was turned into ' High @-@ high Pree @-@ heest ' ; ' Purple robe ' into ' Purple ro @-@ hobe ' ; ' to ' into ' too @-@ hoo ' , and so on throughout the entire performance . It was simply ghastly . " When Wilson complained , the BBC initially offered to publish an apology in The Radio Times , but then took exception when Wilson demanded £ 5 @,@ 000 in damages .
Wilson sued the BBC . The corporation vigorously defended its action on the grounds that the letter was justified criticism of a performer . Wilson questioned the letter writer 's competence to pass judgement on his performance : while Wilson conceded that he used the " intrusive H " , as a legitimate ornament which his teacher , Jean de Reszke , inserted into several works , and admitted that he had used it at two points in his broadcast performance , neither of these occurrences had been pointed out in the letter . Furthermore , two of the letter 's cited examples , " Pilate 's Wife " and " purple robe " , did not appear in his part of the work at all . During the three @-@ day court case several expert witnesses were called , including Clive Carey who brought as evidence a score annotated by de Reszke . The judge , Lord Hewart , urged the jury to be " extremely liberal " : after 45 minutes deliberation , the jury decided against the BBC and the letter writer , and awarded Wilson £ 2 @,@ 000 damages . The BBC chose not to appeal and shouldered the entire cost : in an internal memo the BBC Director General , John Reith , observed that in such cases a British jury would tend to favour the individual , rather than a corporation , and that to appeal might appear an unjustified use of the BBC 's monetary power .
Wilson used the money he won in the libel case to support a London production of Boughton 's opera The Lily Maid , which he himself conducted at the Winter Garden Theatre in January 1937 . He was praised for his assured beat and experienced direction .
= = = USA = = =
In 1937 Wilson settled for a time in the United States with his second wife , Mary ( who was a cellist ) , and joined the faculty at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia ; there he taught singing , English diction , vocal repertoire , and vocal ensemble . He continued to give recitals into the early 1940s . In 1941 he resigned from the Curtis Institute in protest against the dismissal of the director Randall Thompson , and the following year the Wilsons returned to England . This was the end of Wilson 's career as a singer , he himself observing , " The whole place [ America ] is jammed full of singers from every country in the world , all rampaging around for jobs . "
= = = Musical administrator = = =
Wilson joined the BBC in 1942 " in a minor capacity with hopes of preferment " . The following year he was appointed music director for the BBC Overseas Service . After the war he was appointed music director of the Arts Council of Great Britain , newly formed from the wartime Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ( CEMA ) , and he helped reorganise the music department for peacetime work . In that post , he gave support to Benjamin Britten 's English Opera Group in the first year of its existence , recommending to the Council that the group should " be awarded a grant of not less than £ 3000 and closer to £ 5000 " . He subsequently accepted an invitation to give a lecture at the first Aldeburgh Festival , speaking on 10 June 1948 on " The Future of Music in England " .
In April 1948 , the year in which he was knighted for his services as director of the Arts Council , he became the BBC 's director of music following the sudden death of Victor Hely @-@ Hutchinson . The Times described this appointment as " not a success " , and it is chiefly remembered for the controversy Wilson provoked by engineering the forced retirement of Boult as chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra . In the 1930s Boult had been promised informally by the Corporation 's then director @-@ general , John Reith , that he would be exempt from the BBC 's rule that staff retire at age 60 . However , Reith left the BBC in 1938 and his promise carried no weight with his successors . Wilson , on being appointed director of music , made clear to the BBC 's director @-@ general , William Haley , that he intended to have Boult replaced as chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra , and used his authority to insist on Boult 's enforced retirement . Haley was unaware of Wilson 's personal animus against Boult and later acknowledged , in a broadcast tribute to Boult , that he " had listened to ill @-@ judged advice in retiring him . "
In 1949 Wilson , aged 60 , moved to Covent Garden to take the post of deputy general administrator of the Royal Opera House . While in that position he gave support to the Polish composer Andrzej Panufnik , who had recently defected from communist Poland , by introducing him to the concert agent Harold Holt . Wilson was responsible for securing the premiere of Vaughan Williams 's The Pilgrim 's Progress at the Royal Opera House in 1951 . Wilson resented being subordinate to the general administrator , David Webster , and he resigned from his Royal Opera House post in June 1955 . The following month it was announced that he was launching " a campaign against homosexuality in British music " and was quoted as saying : " The influence of perverts in the world of music has grown beyond all measure . If it is not curbed soon , Covent Garden and other precious musical heritages could suffer irreparable harm . "
Wilson 's last major appointment was as principal of the Birmingham School of Music , 1957 – 1960 , but this is described by Grove as " an unhappy episode " . The Gramophone critic Roger Fiske commented that Wilson " ' administered ' with an aggressive sensitivity and wit that veered between the inspired and the impossible " .
He was an enthusiastic member of the Tolhurst Society which existed in Oxford in the 1960s and 70s . At performances of the oratorio " Ruth " he would sing ( an octave down ) the Alto aria " I went out full , and the Lord hath sent me home again empty " . His characterization of the word " empty " is remembered by all who heard him .
Wilson died in 1966 in Petersfield , Hampshire , aged 77 .
= = Recordings = =
On a recording made in 1927 during a performance at the Royal Albert Hall , London , Wilson sings in extracts from The Dream of Gerontius conducted by the composer . He also recorded Vaughan Williams 's On Wenlock Edge , and songs by Denis Browne .
= Malcolm Sargent =
Sir Harold Malcolm Watts Sargent ( 29 April 1895 – 3 October 1967 ) was an English conductor , organist and composer widely regarded as Britain 's leading conductor of choral works . The musical ensembles with which he was associated included the Ballets Russes , the Huddersfield Choral Society , the Royal Choral Society , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , and the London Philharmonic , Hallé , Liverpool Philharmonic , BBC Symphony and Royal Philharmonic orchestras . Sargent was held in high esteem by choirs and instrumental soloists , but because of his high standards and a statement that he made in a 1936 interview disputing musicians ' rights to tenure , his relationship with orchestral players was often uneasy . Despite this , he was co @-@ founder of the London Philharmonic , was the first conductor of the Liverpool Philharmonic as a full @-@ time ensemble , and played an important part in saving the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra from disbandment in the 1960s .
As chief conductor of London 's internationally famous summer music festival the Proms from 1948 to 1967 , Sargent was one of the best @-@ known English conductors . When he took over the Proms from their founder , Sir Henry Wood , he and two assistants conducted the two @-@ month season between them . By the time he died , he was assisted by a large international roster of guest conductors .
At the outbreak of the Second World War , Sargent turned down an offer of a major musical directorship in Australia and returned to the UK to bring music to as many people as possible as his contribution to national morale . His fame extended beyond the concert hall : to the British public , he was a familiar broadcaster in BBC radio talk shows , and generations of Gilbert and Sullivan devotees have known his recordings of the most popular Savoy Operas . He toured widely throughout the world and was noted for his skill as a conductor , his championship of British composers , and his debonair appearance , which won him the nickname " Flash Harry . "
= = Life and career = =
Sargent was born in Bath Villas , Ashford , in Kent , England , to a working @-@ class family . His father , Henry Sargent , was a coal merchant , amateur musician and part @-@ time church organist ; his mother , Agnes , née Hall , was the matron of a local school . Sargent was brought up in Stamford , Lincolnshire , where he joined the choir at Peterborough Cathedral , studied the organ and won a scholarship to Stamford School . At the age of 14 , he accompanied rehearsals for amateur productions of The Gondoliers and The Yeomen of the Guard at Stamford . At the age of 16 he earned his diploma as Associate of the Royal College of Organists , and at 18 he was awarded the degree of Bachelor of Music by the University of Durham .
= = = Early career = = =
Sargent worked first as an organist at St. Mary 's Church , Melton Mowbray , Leicestershire , from 1914 to 1924 , except for eight months in 1918 when he served as a private in the Durham Light Infantry during the First World War . He was chosen for the organist post over more than 150 other applicants . At the same time , he worked on many musical projects in Leicester , Melton Mowbray and Stamford , where he not only conducted but also produced the operas of Gilbert and Sullivan and others for amateur societies . The Prince of Wales and his entourage often hunted in Leicestershire and watched the annual Gilbert and Sullivan productions there , together with the Duke of York and other members of the Royal Family . At the age of 24 Sargent became England 's youngest Doctor of Music , with a degree from Durham .
Sargent 's break came when Sir Henry Wood visited De Montfort Hall , Leicester , early in 1921 with the Queen 's Hall orchestra . As it was customary to commission a piece from a local composer , Wood invited Sargent to write a piece entitled Impression on a Windy Day . Sargent completed the work too late for Wood to have enough time to learn it , and so Wood called on Sargent to conduct the first performance himself . Wood recognised not only the worth of the piece but also Sargent 's talent as a conductor and gave him the chance to make his debut conducting the work at Wood 's annual season of promenade concerts , generally known as the Proms , in the Queen 's Hall on 11 October of the same year .
Sargent as composer attracted favourable notice in a Prom season when other composer @-@ conductors included Gustav Holst with his Planets suite , and the next year , Wood included a nocturne and scherzo by Sargent in the Proms programme , also conducted by the composer . Sargent was invited to conduct the Impression again in the 1923 season , but it was as a conductor that he made the greater impact . On the advice of Wood , among others , he soon abandoned composition in favour of conducting . He founded the amateur Leicester Symphony Orchestra in 1922 , which he continued to conduct until 1939 . Under Sargent , the orchestra 's prestige grew until it was able to obtain such top @-@ flight soloists as Alfred Cortot , Artur Schnabel , Solomon , Guilhermina Suggia and Benno Moiseiwitsch . Moiseiwitsch gave Sargent piano lessons without charge , judging him talented enough to make a successful career as a concert pianist , but Sargent chose a conducting career . At the instigation of Wood and Adrian Boult he became a lecturer at the Royal College of Music in London in
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British would next attack New York , General George Washington moved his army there to assist General Putnam in the defensive preparations , a task complicated by the large number of potential landing sites for a British force .
Howe 's troops began an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July , and made another unopposed landing on Long Island , where Washington 's Continental Army had organized significant defenses , on August 22 . On August 27 , Howe successfully flanked Washington 's defenses in the Battle of Long Island , leaving Washington in a precarious position on the narrow Brooklyn Heights , with the British Army in front and the East River behind him . On the night of August 29 – 30 , Washington successfully evacuated his entire army of 9 @,@ 000 troops to York Island ( as Manhattan was then known ) .
Despite showing discipline and unity during the evacuation , the army quickly devolved in despair and anger . Large numbers of militia , many of whose summertime enlistments ending in August , departed for home . Leadership was questioned in the ranks , with soldiers openly wishing for the return of the colorful and charismatic General Charles Lee . Washington sent a missive to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia asking for some direction — specifically , if New York City , which then occupied only the southern tip of Manhattan Island , should be abandoned and burned to the ground . " They would derive great conveniences from it , on the one hand , and much property would be destroyed on the other , " Washington wrote .
= = Geography = =
York Island was occupied principally on the southern tip ( what would now be considered Lower Manhattan ) by New York City , on the western tip by Greenwich village , and in the north by the village of Harlem . The sparsely @-@ populated center of the island featured a few low hills , principally Indianburg and Crown Heights . Ferry services connected the island to the surrounding lands , with the primary ferry to the mainland of Westchester County ( now the Bronx ) crossing the Harlem River at King 's Bridge near the northern tip of the island . The island was bordered by two rivers , on the west by the Hudson River and on the east by the East River , which separated the island from Long Island . Kip 's Bay was a cove on the eastern shore of the island , extending roughly from present @-@ day 32nd to 38th Streets , and as far west as Second Avenue . The bay no longer exists as such , having been filled in , but in 1776 , it provided an excellent place for an amphibious landing : deep water close to the shore , and a large meadow for mustering landed troops . Opposite the bay on Long Island , the wide mouth of Newtown Creek , also surrounded by meadowlands , offered an equally excellent staging area .
= = Planning = =
Washington , uncertain of General Howe 's next step , spread his troops thinly along the shores of York Island and the Westchester shore , and actively sought intelligence that would yield clues to Howe 's plans . He also ordered an attempt to be made on HMS Eagle , the flagship of General Howe 's brother and commander of the Royal Navy at New York , Admiral Richard Howe . On September 7 , in the first documented case of submarine warfare , Sergeant Ezra Lee , volunteered to pilot the submersible Turtle to the Eagle and attach explosives to the ship ; the submersible 's drill struck an iron band it could not penetrate , and Lee was unable to attach the required explosives . Lee was able to escape , although he was forced to release his explosive payload to fend off small boats sent by the British to investigate when he surfaced to orient himself . The payload exploded harmlessly in the East River .
Meanwhile , British troops , led by General Howe , were moving north up the east shore of the East River , towards King 's Bridge . During the night of September 3 the British frigate Rose , took advantage of a north @-@ flowing tide and , towing thirty flatboats , moved up the East River and anchored in the mouth of Newtown Creek . The next day , more transports and flatboats moved up the East River . Three warships — HMS Renown , HMS Repulse and HMS Pearl — along with the schooner HMS Tryal , sailed into the Hudson .
On September 5 , General Nathanael Greene , recently returned to duty from a serious illness , sent Washington a letter urging an immediate withdrawal from New York . Without possession of Long Island , Greene argued , New York City could not be held . With the army scattered in encampments on York Island , the Americans would not be able to stop a British attack . Another decisive defeat , he argued , would be catastrophic with regard to the loss of men and the damage to morale . He also recommended burning the city ; once the British had control , it could never be recovered without a comparable or superior naval force . There was no American benefit to preserving New York City , Greene summarized , and recommended that Washington convene a war council . By the time the council was gathered on September 7 , however , a letter had arrived from John Hancock stating Congress 's resolution that although New York should not be destroyed , Washington was not required to defend it . Congress had also decided to send a three @-@ man delegation to confer with Lord Howe — John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , and Edward Rutledge .
= = Preparations = =
On September 10 , British troops moved from Long Island to occupy Montresor 's Island , a small island at the mouth of the Harlem River . One day later , on September 11 , the Congressional delegation arrived on Staten Island and met with Admiral Lord Howe for several hours . The meeting came to nothing , as Lord Howe was not authorized to grant terms the Congressional delegation insisted on . It did , however , postpone the impending British attack , allowing Washington more time to decide if and where to confront the enemy .
In a September 12 war council , Washington and his generals made the decision to abandon New York City . Four thousand Continentals under General Israel Putnam remained to defend the city and lower Manhattan while the main army moved north to Harlem and King 's Bridge . On the afternoon of September 13 , major British movement started as the warships Roebuck and Phoenix , along with the frigates Orpheus and Carysfort , moved up the East River and anchored in Bushwick Creek , carrying 148 total cannons and accompanied by six troop transport ships . By September 14 the Americans were urgently moving stores of ammunition and other materiel , along with American sick , to Orangetown , New York . Every available horse and wagon was employed in what Joseph Reed described as a " grand military exertion " . Scouts reported movement in the British army camps but Washington was still uncertain where the British would strike . Late that afternoon , most of the American army had moved north to King 's Bridge and Harlem Heights , and Washington followed that night .
General Howe had originally planned a landing for September 13 , recalling the date of James Wolfe 's key landing before the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759 . He and General Clinton disagreed on the point of attack , with Clinton arguing that a landing at King 's Bridge would have cut Washington off once and for all . Howe originally wanted to make two landings , one at Kip 's Bay and another at Horn 's Hook , further north ( near modern 90th Street ) on the eastern shore . He struck the latter option when ship 's pilots warned of the dangerous waters of the Hell Gate , where the Harlem River and waters of Long Island Sound meet the East River . After delays due to unfavorable winds , the landing , targeted for Kip 's Bay , began on the morning of September 15 .
= = Landing = =
Admiral Howe sent a noisy demonstration of Royal Navy ships up the Hudson River early on the morning of September 15 , but Washington and his aides determined that it was a diversion and maintained their forces at the north end of the island . Five hundred Connecticut militia under the command of Colonel William Douglas had erected a crude breastwork on the American line at Kip 's Bay , but many of these farmers and shopkeepers were inexperienced and had no muskets . They carried instead homemade pikes constructed of scythe blades attached to poles . After having been awake all night , and having had little or nothing to eat in the previous twenty @-@ four hours , at dawn they looked over their meager redoubt to see five British warships in the East River near their position . As the militia at Kip 's Bay lay in their ditches , the British ships , anchored 200 yards ( 180 m ) offshore , also lay quiet . The day was oppressively hot . At about 10 am , General Sir Henry Clinton , to whom Howe had given the task of making the landing , ordered the crossing to begin . A first wave of more than eighty flatboats carried 4 @,@ 000 British and Hessian soldiers , standing shoulder to shoulder , left Newtown Cove and entered the waters of the East River , heading towards Kip 's Bay .
Around eleven , the five warships began a salvo of broadside fire that flattened the flimsy American breastworks and panicked the Connecticut militia . " So terrible and so incessant a roar of guns few even in the army and navy had ever heard before , " wrote Ambrose Serle , private secretary to Lord Howe . Nearly eighty guns fired at the shore for a full hour . The Americans were half buried under dirt and sand , and were unable to return fire due to the smoke and dust . After the guns ceased , the British flatboats appeared out of the smoke and headed for shore . By then the Americans were in a panicked retreat , and the British began their amphibious landing .
Although Washington and his aides arrived from the command post at Harlem Heights soon after the landing began , they were unable to rally the retreating militia . About a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) inland from Kip 's Bay , Washington rode his horse among the men , trying to turn them around and impose some order on them , cursing furiously and violently . By some accounts , he lost control of his temper ; he brandished a cocked pistol and drew his sword , threatening to run men through and shouted , " Take the walls ! Take the cornfield ! " When no one obeyed , he threw his hat to the ground , exclaiming in disgust , " Are these the men with which I am to defend America ? " When some fleeing men refused to turn and engage a party of advancing Hessians , Washington reportedly struck some of their officers with his riding crop . The Hessians shot or bayoneted a number of American troops who were trying to surrender . Two thousand Continental Army troops under the command of Generals Samuel Parsons and John Fellows arrived from the north , but at the sight of the chaotic militia retreat , they also turned and fled . Washington , still in a rage , rode within a hundred yards of the enemy before his aides managed to get him off the field . More and more British soldiers came ashore , including light infantry , grenadiers , and Hessian Jägers . They spread out , advancing in several directions . By late afternoon another 9 @,@ 000 British troops had landed at Kip 's Bay , and Howe had sent a brigade toward New York City , officially taking possession . While most of the Americans managed to escape to the north , not all got away . " I saw a Hessian sever a rebel 's head from his body and clap it on a pole in the entrenchments , " recorded a British officer . The southern advance pushed for a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to Watts farm ( near present @-@ day 23rd Street ) before meeting stiff American resistance . The northern advance stopped at the Inclenberg ( now Murray Hill , a rise west of Kip 's Bay ) , just west of the present Lexington Avenue , under orders from General Howe to wait for the rest of the invading force . This was extremely fortunate for the thousands of American troops south of the invasion point . Had Clinton continued west to the Hudson he would have cut off General Putnam 's troops , nearly one third of Washington 's forces , from the main army , trapping them in lower Manhattan .
General Putnam had come north with some of his troops when the landing began . After briefly conferring with Washington about the risk of entrapment to his forces in the city , he rode south to lead their retreat . Abandoning supplies and equipment that would slow them down , his column , under the guidance of his aide Aaron Burr , marched north along the Hudson . The forced march of Putnam 's men was so quick , and the British advance sufficiently slow , that only the last companies in Putnam 's column skirmished with the advancing British . When Putnam and his men marched into the main camp at Harlem after dark , they were greeted by cheers , having been given up for lost . Henry Knox arrived later after a narrow escape made possible by seizing a boat on the Hudson and he too received an excited and enthusiastic greeting , and was even embraced by Washington .
= = Aftermath = =
The British were welcomed by the remaining New York City population , pulling down the Continental Army flag and raising the Union Flag . Howe , who had wanted to capture New York quickly and with minimal bloodshed , considered the invasion a complete success . Not wanting to continue battling with the Americans that day , Howe stopped his troops short of Harlem .
Washington was extremely angry with his troops ' conduct , calling their actions " shameful " and " scandalous " . The Connecticut militia , who already had a poor reputation , were labeled cowards and held to blame for the rout . However , others were more circumspect , such as General William Heath , who said , " The wounds received on Long Island were yet bleeding ; and the officers , if not the men , knew that the city was not to be defended . " If the Connecticut men would have stayed to defend York Island under the withering cannon fire and in the face of overwhelming force , they would have been annihilated .
The next day , September 16 , the two armies fought the Battle of Harlem Heights .
= Charles H. Constable =
Charles H. Constable ( July 17 , 1817 – October 9 , 1865 ) was an American attorney , Illinois State Senator , judge , and real estate entrepreneur . He was raised in Maryland and graduated from the University of Virginia with a degree in Law . After settling in Illinois , he married the oldest daughter of Thomas S. Hinde , a pioneer and real estate developer . Initially , he practiced law in Mount Carmel , Illinois , the town founded by Hinde . He managed the business and real estate affairs of his father @-@ in @-@ law until Hinde died in 1846 .
Later , Constable was active in Illinois politics and for a time was a close friend of Abraham Lincoln . During his life Constable was a one @-@ term Illinois State Senator , a delegate to the Illinois Constitutional Convention , and a one @-@ term Circuit Court Judge . One source described Constable at the time of the Matson slave case to be " the best educated lawyer at the bar . " He is most commonly remembered for his decision to allow four Union deserters to go free during the Civil War . This decision led to Constable 's arrest by Union military leaders and a trial in federal court . Constable argued that legal precedent supported his decision , and all charges were dropped in Federal court .
Following the dismissal of charges and his return to the bench , Constable and his family endured repeated threats , violence , and humiliation at the hands of partisan mobs angry at his release of the Civil War deserters . Not long after his release , Constable developed an addiction to morphine , then available over the counter . He died at the age of 48 from an overdose of the drug . One source stated the morphine overdose was a suicide . His wife , Martha Hinde Constable , died shortly after he did .
= = Early years = =
Charles Constable was born and raised in Maryland . He attended Bel Air High School , which was a scientific and classical school in Harford County , Maryland . Later he enrolled and graduated from the University of Virginia with high honors . In 1838 , he moved to Mount Carmel , Illinois , and shortly thereafter he married Martha Hinde . Martha was the daughter of Thomas S. Hinde , a noted attorney , Methodist minister , real estate entrepreneur , writer , and the founder of Mount Carmel .
Thomas S. Hinde died early in 1846 , followed soon by his wife . Martha and her husband took over the care of her younger orphaned siblings , Edmund , Charles , and Belinda Hinde . In the diaries of his nephew , Constable and his wife were described as good and honest people , and they cared for many relatives and friends in their household through the years . During this time , Constable practiced law in Mount Carmel , and sold town lots in Mount Carmel that had been owned by his father @-@ in @-@ law before his death .
After Hinde 's death , Constable quickly gathered all of his writings , diaries , business documents , and miscellaneous other items and donated them to Lyman Draper in 1864 , who was known for collecting the papers of figures of the Trans @-@ Allegheny frontier . Because of this donation , many scholars and historians have been able to study these papers . The Thomas S. Hinde documents are owned and kept at the Wisconsin Historical Society .
= = Early political career = =
For a short time after the death of Thomas S. Hinde , Constable remained in Mount Carmel with his wife and extended family . He was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1844 and was a delegate for Wabash County , Illinois , to the Illinois constitutional convention . As a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention , he made substantial contributions during the negotiations and drafting of the Illinois Constitution . He was selected as chairman of the committee to prepare the address about the constitution to the citizens of Illinois . During this time , Constable and Lincoln became close friends ; Lincoln is quoted as calling Constable , " my esteemed friend . " In 1850 in Peoria , Illinois , Constable was elected Grand Patriarch of the Odd Fellows .
= = Matson slave case = =
In 1847 , Abraham Lincoln defended Robert Matson , a slave owner who was trying to retrieve his fugitive slaves . Matson had brought the slaves from his Kentucky plantation to work on land he owned in Illinois . The slaves were represented by Orlando Ficklin , Usher Linder , and Charles H. Constable . The slaves ran away while in Illinois and believed that they were free , knowing that the Northwest Ordinance forbade slavery in Illinois . In this case , Lincoln invoked the right of transit , which allowed slave holders to take their slaves temporarily into free territory . Lincoln also stressed that Matson did not intend the slaves to remain permanently in Illinois .
Even with these arguments , the judge in Coles County ruled against Lincoln , and the slaves were set free . This was part of a principle " once free , always free , " which was adopted in Illinois and other free states . One source described Constable at the time of the Matson slave case to be " the best educated lawyer at the bar . "
= = Attempted government appointments = =
According to one source , after Zachary Taylor was elected president in 1848 , Constable wrote to Lincoln and David Davis seeking a political appointment to a Latin American country as a chargé d 'affaires , because of his growing family and declining law practice . Even though both Lincoln and Davis wrote letters in support of Constable , he did not receive any appointments . In January 1851 , Lincoln wrote a letter to Senator James Pearce recommending Constable be nominated for an Oregon federal judgeship . Constable was not gain this appointment .
Around 1848 , he moved with his family to Marshall , Illinois , and ran unsuccessfully for circuit court judge that same year . In 1858 , Constable ran in a special election to fill a vacant seat of the Illinois Supreme Court , but was defeated by Pinckney H. Walker by a vote margin of 229 votes to 95 . Constable ran again in 1861 and was elected as a state circuit court judge of the Illinois 4th circuit .
= = Change of political parties = =
Originally , Constable was a member of the Whig party , likely due to the close friendship of his father @-@ in @-@ law and Henry Clay . Due mainly to frustrations over how the Whig party had treated him , Constable decided to switch parties . He is quoted as saying , " that the party was dominated by old fogies who are indifferent to younger men . " His inclination toward the Democratic Party almost led to a fistfight between himself and Lincoln in a tavern in Paris , Illinois . Lincoln was quoted as saying , " Mr. Constable , I understand you perfectly , and have noticed for some time that you have been slowly and cautiously picking your way over to the Democratic party . " After this heated exchange , the men reconciled , but by 1856 Lincoln claimed that Constable had left the party . In 1858 , Constable was the Illinois elector at @-@ large for the election of President James Buchanan , a Democrat .
In 1861 , Constable was elected judge on the Democratic ticket of the Illinois fourth circuit . This led to a falling out between Lincoln and Constable . On several occasions while Lincoln was President , Constable repudiated him in front of large crowds . During a rally of more than 40 @,@ 000 people in Springfield , Illinois , Constable was elected to a leadership position of an organization set up to oppose Lincoln 's policies .
= = Civil War arrest = =
During the Civil War , Constable ordered that four Union deserters be released from military custody , arguing that the Union soldiers had no right to arrest the deserters in the sovereign state of Illinois . Shortly thereafter , Colonel Henry B. Carrington , commander of the Indiana Military District , was sent to Marshall . He arrested Constable , appearing while court was in session and surrounding the courthouse with over 200 Union soldiers . Carrington believed the Knights of the Golden Circle , a secret society said to be supporting the South , was responsible for the release of the deserters .
Worried about potential violence , he believed that he needed the troops to support his rescue of the Union soldiers who had been ordered by Constable to be arrested for kidnapping the deserters . But , there was little to no resistance , and Constable invited Carrington to have dinner at his home before they left for Indianapolis . Constable 's arrest and ruling resulted in widespread condemnation — even Richard W. Thompson thought Constable 's ruling was " illegal and arbitrary " — and eventually led to his trial . After being heard by Judge Samuel H. Treat of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Illinois on April 7 , 1863 , Constable was released and the charges were dismissed . The case is still noted by legal scholars and historians as an example of the military interfering in civilian courts .
= = Treatment after dismissal of charges = =
After Constable was released from custody and returned to his home in Marshall , he was ostracized by many members of the public , who thought he had acted against the Union . One account states that Constable received death threats , threats to burn his house , and threats to kill his children . The arrest triggered a riot in Charleston , Illinois , commonly referred to as the Charleston Riot . During the riot :
[ Two small boys ] saw Judge Constable , white and trembling , in an angle of the wall in the alley to their right , evidently uncertain what to do or where to go next . How a man of his portly form could have vacated the Judge 's bench , come down from the court room , and got there so soon after the firing began never ceased to be a wonder to those boys .
In January 1864 , Union soldiers forced Constable under threat of violence to make an oath of allegiance to the federal government in Mattoon , Illinois . One source described the Union soldiers as a " mob " and stated that Constable " shed tears . " Another source stated that the soldiers violently dragged Constable off his wagon and humiliated him by making him kneel on the ground and swear his allegiance , and that these actions caused an eruption of violence in Mattoon the following day . After the Republican victories in the Illinois elections of 1864 , the legislature cut Constable 's judicial circuit from six to two counties in early 1865 . In the diaries of his nephew Edmund C. Hinde , Constable is described as an honest man with good character , and his opponents are called " cowards " who did not understand the circumstances of the events . According to historian David Williamson , Hinde 's argument supporting his uncle 's ruling has legal merit . He said that Chief Justice Roger B. Taney made a similar argument in Ex parte Merryman .
= = Death = =
During the Civil War , Constable became addicted to morphine , which was then available for sale over the counter in pharmacies . In Edmund C. Hinde 's diaries , Constable is described as a " slave " to morphine , and in one journal entry he is described as lying on the floor and talking like a child while on the drug . He died at the age of 48 from an overdose of morphine , while in Effingham , Illinois , in 1865 , on circuit duty as a judge . His wife died shortly after he did . One historian called it suicide . Another source described it in the following way :
He departed this life some years ago , and the manner of that departure I shall not dwell upon . It was sad , but not dishonorable ; and I do not believe that he left a single stain , blemish or blot upon his reputation ; and I now bid farewell to his memory .
= Vienen =
" Vienen " is the eighteenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and is the 179th episode overall . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on April 29 , 2001 , on the Fox Network , and in the United Kingdom on June 7 . It was written by staff member Steven Maeda , was directed by Rod Hardy , and forms part of the series ' overarching mythology . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 4 and was viewed by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . " Vienen " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , many of whom appreciated its hearkening @-@ back to the older mythology of The X @-@ Files .
The season centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , and Scully 's former partner Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , who work on X @-@ Files — cases linked to the paranormal . In this episode , Mulder disobeys orders to stay away from the X @-@ Files and finds himself stranded on a quarantined oil platform with Doggett . They soon discover that the crew has been infected with the black oil , an alien virus that Mulder and Scully have encountered many times before . Despite their dislike for each other , Mulder and Doggett team up and escape before the infected crew members are able to capture and kill them .
The episode was a series milestone , and features the last appearance of the alien black oil before the series finale , where it appeared via flashback — a plot device that plays a significant role in the series and in the 1998 X @-@ Files movie . The oil effects were created using chocolate syrup and molasses . Principal filming for " Vienen " was carried out at three locations : an oil platform , an oil refinery , and on a specially @-@ created set . The episode 's title is a Spanish word meaning " they come " or " they are coming " , and has been interpreted as foreshadowing the show 's Super Soldier narrative arc . Elements of the plot have been compared to the ancient Greek religious and mythological figure Orpheus .
= = Plot = =
Simon de la Cruz , a worker on an oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico , fatally stabs fellow crew member Ed Dell , the radio operator . He then starts destroying the platform 's radio equipment but is confronted by Bo Taylor , whose body begins to glow .
At FBI headquarters , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) tells John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) about the murder and explains that ninety percent of de la Cruz 's body was covered with apparent radiation burns . Galpex Petroleum , the platform 's owner , officially attributes the burns to an explosion but Mulder suspects the involvement of black oil . Mulder and Doggett meet Galpex 's vice @-@ president Martin Ortega ( Miguel Sandoval ) , who tells them that the company has discovered a large oil reserve in the Gulf . Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) sends Doggett to the Gulf to investigate , but Mulder is already present when Doggett arrives . The agents meet Taylor , who claims de la Cruz tried to blow up the platform .
Meanwhile , Dana Scully finds black oil in de la Cruz 's skull during an autopsy — the oil is dead and seems to have been irradiated . She concludes that he may have had some immunity to the black oil because he is a Huecha Indian , or an indigenous Mexican national . Doggett and Mulder find proof of black oil on the platform and quarantine it , but de la Cruz 's friend Diego Garza is missing . Ortega threatens to bring back the crew unless the agents can provide proof of an infection . Doggett and Mulder search for Garza who , like de la Cruz , also has Native American heritage . Mulder and Doggett later discover that somebody has set fire to the communications room . As the agents tackle the fire , Garza attacks Doggett and renders him unconscious . When he awakens , Garza , now mentally unstable , cuts his arm to check for the presence of black oil .
Meanwhile , an annoyed Kersh tells Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) that he is lifting the quarantine of the oil platform . Scully opposes the idea but she has no choice other than to obey . Scully then realizes that de la Cruz is immune to the black oil , and because of it , he suffered from radiation burns instead of infection . After talking to Garza , Doggett leaves to find Mulder but is attacked by Taylor . Mulder arrives and overpowers Taylor , and Mulder and Doggett barricade themselves in the communication room , and try to relay a message while the platform 's crew attack the door .
Scully receives Doggett and Mulder 's message , and tells them that Kersh has broken the quarantine . Mulder destroys the platform 's radio so that the black oil @-@ infected crew cannot communicate with the aliens . Suddenly , the platform workers stop their attack and begin to sabotage the rig . Doggett and Mulder leave the radio room , and jump off the rig when they realize that the crew are going to destroy it . They are rescued by the helicopters Kersh has sent to break the quarantine . Later , at the FBI , Mulder tells Doggett that he has been dismissed from the bureau .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Vienen " was written by Steven Maeda as a vehicle for Mulder to pass on the X @-@ Files legacy to Doggett . Patrick compared Mulder to a Greek chorus and said that the episode was a " way to have Mulder give Doggett his blessing and pass him The X @-@ Files baton . " Maeda complimented the show 's producers for deciding to pass the X @-@ Files division over to Doggett , noting that they were " aware of what 's going on in the audience 's head " . The title , " Vienen , " is Spanish ; it is the third @-@ person plural present indicative form of venir , which means " they come " or " they are coming " .
The episode was directed by Rod Hardy , who directed the earlier season eight episodes " Roadrunners " and " Salvage " . Hardy was offered the role after an unknown individual working on The X @-@ Files saw his TBS remake of the film High Noon . Of the three season eight episodes that he helmed , Hardy enjoyed directing this episode most due to its adherence to the series ' mythology ; he later described the episode as " classic X @-@ Files . " The eighth season was filmed out of order ; " Vienen " was the sixteenth episode produced but the eighteenth aired , largely due to Duchovny 's availability . Each episode of The X @-@ Files usually took about eighteen days to film , including seven days for pre @-@ production , nine for main unit shooting , and two for second unit filming . " Vienen " was produced in eleven days because the crew worked thirteen- to fourteen @-@ hour shifts .
" Vienen " was shot in three locations : a studio in Los Angeles , a closed down CENCO oil refinery in Santa Fe Springs , and an offshore oil platform in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Santa Barbara . During the show 's previous seasons , location manager Ilt Jones had been required to scout for locations after scripts were submitted . Starting with the eighth season , however , he was allowed to go on several " scouting roadshow [ s ] " in order to find new and interesting locations that could be written into scripts . Jones , who discovered the oil platform and the refinery during his first scouting trip , later said the oil platform was " his favorite example " of places he was able to find . Because the platform and refinery were scouted in advance , Jones was given six weeks to prepare the shoot — a " far cry " from the usual two . This added time also saved the series a considerable amount of money . Filming on the oil platform occurred between sunrise and sunset in one day . The film crew used Steadicams for filming on the oil platform because the decks were slick with oil and , according to Hardy , the cameras " sort of fit and blend [ ed ] in quite well " on the platform .
The series ' leading actors were required to film in three separate locations . Anderson 's scenes were filmed solely on the show 's sets in Los Angeles . Since her character did not accompany Mulder and Doggett , Anderson had no scenes with Patrick and Duchovny , except for the opening sequence that takes place in Kersh 's office . Most of Patrick and Duchovny 's scenes were filmed on the oil platform and at the refinery , although several key scenes , including the destruction of the oil platform , were filmed on the show 's set in Los Angeles . Patrick and Duchovny were flown between the three locations . Others scenes were filmed in the studio . Production designer Corey Kaplan was tasked with recreating the oil platform 's control room , mess hall , and some operational sections , which required " a brilliant piece of synergy between all [ of the series ' ] departments " in order to come together . The scene in which the oil platform bursts into flame was created in the studio on the mock @-@ rig set . Although the set was made of wood , the art department was tasked with trying to create the illusion of fire burning steel .
= = = Special effects = = =
The scene in which Mulder and Doggett agree to jump from the oil platform , which was shot in a way that recalls a scene in the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid , was filmed by having Patrick and Duchovny jump in front of a green screen . Separate footage of the rig exploding — created by combing actual shots of the rig with CGI — was then filmed , and the two shots were composited on top of one another .
The episode featured the penultimate appearance of the alien black oil ; it would appear for a final time via flashback in the series ' finale . Visual effects for the black oil were created with molasses , chocolate syrup , and computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . A scene showing black oil coming out of a worker 's eyes , ears , and mouth was mostly filmed on a visual effects stage . Nine takes were needed to get the syrupy mixture to spill correctly .
= = Themes = =
Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , noted that the oil platform is named " Galpex @-@ Orpheux " , a reference to the ancient Greek religious and mythological figure Orpheus , who was a legendary musician , poet , and prophet . According to the myth , Orpheus 's wife Eurydice was killed by a serpent . Hades , the god of the underworld — after hearing Orpheus ' moving music — allowed Orpheus to retrieve his wife as long as he does not look back at her until they are safely out of the underworld . Orpheus fails , and his wife 's soul slips back into the underworld . Bush compared Orpheus 's otherworldly singing to the " broadband signal which is the catalyst for the events on the rig " . In the episode , Mulder , Doggett , and the two Huecha Indians " wreck havoc " because of their fear , and the " black oil slips back to the underworld " .
In regards to the episode 's title , Bush argued that while the Spanish word vienen means " they come " , the episode does not explain who " they " are . She wrote that the verb could refer to either " the aliens " who are planning on colonizing the Earth or to " the humans that are disturbing the black oil " . Douglas Kellner , in his book Media Spectacle , wrote that , because the episode features the second major hinting after " This is Not Happening " towards the series ' " Super Soldiers " story arc — a plot thread that would be explored near the end of the eighth season and throughout the ninth — the title refers to the inevitable onslaught of these superior alien warriors .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and release = = =
" Vienen " premiered on American television on April 29 , 2001 . It received a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by an estimated 7 @.@ 4 % of US households and was viewed by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers overall . The episode debuted in Ireland and the United Kingdom on June 7 on Sky 1 , and was the channel 's sixth @-@ most watched program for that week with 0 @.@ 52 million viewers . On November 4 , 2003 , the episode was released as part of the eighth season DVD box set . Vienen
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that possesses the same symmetry and properties , is in the form of a hexagonal prism . The unit cell of vanadinite is composed of two of its molecules and has the dimensions a
= 10 @.@ 331 Å and c =
7 @.@ 343 Å ) , where a is the length of each side of the hexagon and c is the height of the prism . The volume of each unit cell of vanadinite , given by the formula V = a2c sin ( 60 ° ) , is 678 @.@ 72 Å3 .
= = Characteristics = =
Vanadinite is in the apatite group of phosphates , and forms a chemical series with the minerals pyromorphite ( Pb5 ( PO4 ) 3Cl ) and mimetite ( Pb5 ( AsO4 ) 3Cl ) , with both of which it may form solid solutions . Whereas most chemical series involve the substitution of metallic ions , this series substitutes its anion groups ; phosphate ( PO4 ) , arsenate ( AsO4 ) and vanadate ( VO4 ) . Common impurities of vanadinite include phosphorus , arsenic and calcium , where these may act as an isomorphic substitute for vanadium . Vanadinite when containing a high amount of the arsenic impurity is known as endlichite .
Vanadinite is usually bright @-@ red or orange @-@ red in colour , although sometimes brown , red @-@ brown , grey , yellow , or colourless . Its distinctive colour makes it popular among mineral collectors . Its streak can be either pale yellow or brownish @-@ yellow . Vanadinite may be transparent , translucent or opaque , and its lustre can range from resinous to adamantine . Vanadinite is anisotropic , meaning that some of its properties differ when measured along different axes . When measured perpendicular and parallel to its axis of anisotropy , its refractive indices are 2 @.@ 350 and 2 @.@ 416 respectively . This gives it a birefringence of 0 @.@ 066 .
Vanadinite is very brittle , producing small , conchoidal fragments when fractured . Its hardness is 3 – 4 on the Mohs scale , about the same as a copper coin . Vanadinite is particularly heavy for a translucent mineral . It has a molar mass of 1416 @.@ 27 g / mole and its specific gravity can range between 6 @.@ 6 and 7 @.@ 2 because of impurities .
= = Uses = =
Along with carnotite and roscoelite , vanadinite is one of the main industrial ores of the element vanadium , which can be extracted by roasting and smelting . Vanadinite is also occasionally used as a source of lead . A common process for extracting the vanadium begins with the heating of vanadinite with salt ( NaCl ) or sodium carbonate ( Na2CO3 ) at about 850 ° C to produce sodium vanadate ( NaVO3 ) . This is dissolved in water and then treated with ammonium chloride to give an orange @-@ coloured precipitate of ammonium metavanadate . This is then melted to form a crude form of vanadium pentoxide ( V2O5 ) . Reduction of vanadium pentoxide with calcium gives pure vanadium .
= John the bookmaker controversy =
" John " or " John the bookmaker " is the name given to an Indian bookmaker who in 1994 – 95 gave money to Australian cricketers Mark Waugh and Shane Warne , in return for pitch and weather information .
According to the players , they refused to divulge more strategic material , such as team tactics and player selection policies . One of the most publicised of a series of betting controversies in cricket in the 1990s , the matter was initially covered up by the Australian Cricket Board ( ACB ) , which decided that it was sufficient to privately fine the players . The ACB concluded that , since Waugh and Warne had previously accused Pakistani cricket captain Saleem Malik of attempting to bribe them to lose matches , their credibility as witnesses would be damaged if their own involvement with John was publicised . The ACB reported the matter to the International Cricket Council , and there the matter ended .
When the issue was uncovered by the media in late 1998 , the two players were widely condemned by the press and public , as was the ACB for their cover @-@ up . Waugh received a hostile reaction from Australian spectators when he walked out to bat during a Test match immediately after the news broke . On the other hand , the sports community was generally supportive of the players . The ACB appointed Rob O 'Regan QC to conduct an independent inquiry into the matter . O 'Regan concluded that the fines were inadequate and wrote that a suspension for a " significant time " would have been a more appropriate penalty . He strongly condemned the players ' behaviour and their failure as role models for young fans . O 'Regan further added that players needed to be better informed about the dangers of gambling and unauthorised bookmakers .
The controversy prompted Pakistan to ask the two Australian players to appear in front of their own judicial inquiry into corruption ; Australia responded by granting the Pakistanis permission to hold hearings in Australia with full privileges . The players were questioned about their accusations against Malik , and whether their dealings with John detracted from their credibility . Both Waugh and Warne denied any suggestions they played with less determination in the matches in question , stating that they were among the leading players in those games .
= = Involvement with bookmaker = =
During the Singer World Series tournament in Sri Lanka in September 1994 , which involved India , Sri Lanka , Pakistan and Australia , the Australian team stayed at the Oberoi Hotel in the capital Colombo . There was a casino in close proximity to the hotel , which Waugh and Warne visited . Team manager Colin Egar had advised Warne that he had been told that the venue was unsavoury , but he was vague in his comments , and at the time , casinos were not perceived as trouble spots or traps for unwary cricketers .
Waugh was approached at the Oberoi by an Indian man , who was also staying at the hotel . The man called himself " John " and gave no surname . John said he was a man who had won money betting on cricket and asked Waugh to provide pitch and weather information ; he also asked the Australian to reveal inside knowledge about the team , such as tactics and player selections , in exchange for US $ 4 @,@ 000 . Waugh accepted the money and agreed to provide information about the pitch and weather , but he refused to divulge the tactics that the Australians intended to use against their opposition , or information on which players would play and what their role would be . Information on pitch conditions provides an insight into the strategies that the team might adopt and which players might be used , and teams will field different players depending on the pitch , as their skills are suited to different conditions . The arrangement with John remained in place until the end of the 1994 – 95 Australian summer . Waugh later said that at the time , he did not see anything wrong with his actions , reasoning that the agreement was similar to a player speculating about their form and the playing conditions in a pre @-@ match media interview .
Waugh also agreed to introduce John to Warne . The meeting occurred at the casino near the team hotel . The trio chatted as Warne was playing roulette ; he had a bad night and lost US $ 5 @,@ 000 . John introduced himself to Warne as a person who bet on cricket matches . The next day he invited Warne to his hotel room and , describing himself as a big fan , flattered Warne 's leg spinning abilities . Warne accepted a US $ 5 @,@ 000 gift , with " no strings attached " , which covered his gambling losses . Warne reported that he initially rejected the gift , but accepted the offer at the insistence of John , who said that he would be offended if the offer was declined . Warne later lost this money at the casino . Warne wrote in his autobiography that John told him that he was a wealthy man and that the payment was a token of his appreciation — he had made money by betting on Australian victories in the past .
The two players did not tell their teammates or management about the deal , feeling that their interactions with bookmakers would meet with disapproval . They said that they did not feel that their liaisons were harming their team 's chances in any way . They remained silent even after they reported Pakistan captain Saleem Malik for attempting to bribe them during the team 's subsequent tour of Pakistan . Australian coach Bob Simpson later said that he was unaware of these events , asserting that his anti @-@ betting attitude would have deterred any players from discussing their involvement in such matters with him .
Both players kept in contact with John throughout the 1994 – 95 Australian summer , when England toured for five Tests . Warne spoke with John three times during the season , while Waugh continued to deliver pitch and weather conditions . An inquiry conducted by Rob O 'Regan QC in late @-@ 1998 and early @-@ 1999 concluded the following :
Mark Waugh had been warned in 1994 by a senior player rooming with him that providing information over the telephone about conditions , games and teams was unwise as it was likely to come back and haunt him later in his career .
= = Secretly punished = =
In early 1995 , snippets of information about the world of cricket betting and match @-@ fixing began to be reported by the media . Phil Wilkins of The Sydney Morning Herald reported that an unnamed Pakistani player had attempted to bribe Tim May , Warne and Waugh during Australia 's tour of the country in late @-@ 1994 , immediately after the Singer Trophy . The player was later identified as Saleem Malik , and it was revealed that the Australian trio had privately reported him for offering them money to throw matches .
As a result of the media interest , the ACB privately launched an investigation to determine if any Australian players had been involved with bookmakers . Journalists told officials about speculation that an Australian player was having financial dealings with bookmakers , after Mark Ray of the Sunday Age received an anonymous letter alleging that Waugh and Warne were being paid by a bookmaker for information . Following a private investigation opened by team manager Ian McDonald , Waugh and Warne wrote unsigned handwritten statements on 20 February 1995 , acknowledging their involvement . The statements were faxed and sent to Graham Halbish , the CEO of the ACB . Warne and Waugh were called to Sydney for an interview with ACB chairman Alan Crompton at the team hotel , where the Australians had assembled before departing for a tour of the West Indies . The pair admitted their involvement with the bookmaker and were fined A $ 10 @,@ 000 and A $ 8 @,@ 000 respectively ; at the time , these were the highest fines ever imposed on Australian cricketers .
The report compiled by Halbish and Crompton was privately forwarded to the ACB 's remaining directors and the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) . The ICC was not informed directly ; the ACB delivered the news to their chairman Clyde Walcott and chief executive David Richards . Crompton and Halbish did not consult the other board members before making their decision and effectively handed them a fait
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words . For me , the season has been positive " . His word was also shared by Bobic who felt that his team were treated unfairly to the goal , also taking time to defend Löw : " We need to talk about mistakes and learn from them , it does not mean that it is necessary to change the manager " . He added : " It is bitter to lose by such a goal " . However , Verlaat dissented , and criticised Stuttgart 's campaign : " The club has to make up its mind finally . We could have done better this season . We carelessly squandered about eight games " . Yakin agreed and offered his own comments : " You have to talk about many things , you cannot work together in the way it was this year . "
The two teams were drawn against each other again in two legs in the first knockout round of the 2003 – 04 UEFA Champions League knockout stage . The first match was held in Stuttgart on 25 February 2004 at Gottlieb @-@ Daimler @-@ Stadion , which Chelsea also won 1 – 0 after an own goal scored by Fernando Meira , while a scoreless draw played on 9 March 2004 in Stamford Bridge was enough for Chelsea to advance to the quarter @-@ finals with a 1 – 0 aggregate win .
= Ashleigh Southern =
Ashleigh Southern ( born 22 October 1992 in Ingham , Queensland ) is an Australian water polo player . She is currently a student at Brisbane North Institute of TAFE and is studying criminal justice . In water polo , she is a centre forward or outside shooter who has represented Australia on the junior and senior national teams . She won a gold medal at the 2009 Youth Olympic Festival , a silver medal at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup , a bronze medal at the 2011 FINE World League and a bronze medal at the 2011 FINA Junior World Championships . She has been selected for the 2012 Summer Olympics Australia women 's national water polo team . She plays club water polo for the Brisbane Barracudas , where she won a league championship in 2010 .
= = Personal = =
Southern was born on 22 October 1992 in Ingham , Queensland . She is 188 cm ( 6 ft 2 in ) tall , and is right handed . Southern has attended Cardwell State School and Gilroy Santa Maria College . She lives in Cardwell , Queensland and attends the Brisbane North Institute of TAFE , where she is studying for a Diploma of Justice . Southern has a brother who has represented Australia on the junior national team . In late 2011 , she had an elbow injury .
= = Water polo = =
Southern plays in the centre forward or outside shooter position , She has worn number 4 , but prefers to wear the number 10 cap . Southern first represented Queensland on a state level in water polo as a ten @-@ year @-@ old on the state 's U14 team . Southern started playing water polo in Townsville when she was eleven years old . As a young player , she traveled between Cardwell and Townsville in order to play . While competing for a school team , she was selected to participate in a development camp . She won a water polo scholarship from the Queensland Academy of Sport in 2010 , and currently holds a water polo scholarship at the Australian Institute of Sport . In 2008 , Southern competed in the Women 's International Series . Her arm has been described as lethal , and better than most women players by Greg McFadden , the coach of the national team . She is characterised by the Brisbane Courier Mail as being the " Happy Gilmore " of the national team .
= = = Club team = = =
Southern plays club water polo for the Brisbane Barracudas in the National Water Polo League , where she wears cap number 10 . Southern was with the team for the 2010 , 2011 and 2012 seasons . Her 2010 team won the league championship . Prior to that , she played for the New South Wales based Drummoyne Devils in 2009 .
= = = Junior national team = = =
In January 2009 , Southern was a member of the national team that competed at the Australian Youth Olympic Festival held in Sydney , and competed in the preliminary match against China that Australia won 17 – 10 , scoring three goals . She participated in the preliminary round loss to Hungary 19 – 17 , scoring four goals . At the same tournament , Southern scored one goal in the gold medal finals match where her team took silver following a 10 – 9 loss to Hungary . In July 2010 , she was a member of the Born ‘ 91 junior national team that toured New Zealand and the United States . She was a member of the Australian side that finished third at the 2011 FINA Junior World Championships .
= = = National team = = =
Southern has competed for the Australian Stingers , having made her debut in 2010 at the Longmont Tournament , which is also known as the Sydney Anniversary Tournament . At that tournament she scored eight goals in a 10 – 8 finals win over the United States . In two other games in the tournament , Southern scored three goals in each . She was a member of the Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand in 2010 that finished second .
In February 2011 , Southern was a member of the team that competed against Italy in the International Series in Perth , Western Australia . In the second and third matches against Italy , she scored one goal and netted another two goals in the fourth match . Southern was a member of the team that toured Europe in June 2011 . At the Kirishi Cup , in Kirishi , Russia in June 2011 , she scored three goals in the match against Greece , three in the match against Hungary and five in the match against Kazakhstan . She also scored a goal in a friendly against Italy . That year , Southern was a member of the team that finished third at the FINA World League Finals .
Southern competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Stingers , scoring a goal in a Stingers 8 – 7 win over the United States . She also scored one goal in the game against Brazil and two goals in the game against China . Southern was part of the team that competed at the International Series in Melbourne , Victoria , scoring two goals in the second match against Canada . She was a member of the squad that competed in a January 2012 three game test series against the United States women 's national water polo team . The team won two of the three matches , with scores of 12 – 13 in an opening series loss , winning 11 – 6 in the second match and winning the third match 12 – 7 clash at Sutherland Leisure Centre . Southern scored three goals in the first half of the final match in the series .
In late February 2012 , Southern was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the Australian Institute of Sport , the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years . In the first game of the test series on 21 February 2012 , which Australia won 13 – 5 , she scored four goals . Southern did not compete in the second or third games , but in Australia 's fourth game victory of 14 – 8 , she scored two goals .
= = = Olympics = = =
In February 2012 , Southern was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics , and as such , attended a training camp starting on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The squad of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June .
= = Recognition = =
In 2010 , Southern was named the Junior Runner Up at the Business Technology Centre North Queensland Sportstar Awards , which included a A $ 1 @,@ 000 prize that her mother picked up as Southern was unable to attend the award ceremony . In 2011 , she was named the Senior Runner Up at the Business Technology Centre North Queensland Sportstar Awards , which came with a A $ 500 prize , and the won the Cassowary Coast Regional Councils Senior Sports Award .
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Dean =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Dean began in the second week of August 2007 when a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa into the North Atlantic ocean . Although the wave initially experienced strong easterly wind shear , it quickly moved into an environment better suited for tropical development and gained organization . On the morning of August 13 , the National Hurricane Center recognized the system 's organization and designated it Tropical Depression Four while it was still more than 1 @,@ 500 mi ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles .
A deep layered ridge to its north steered the system west as it moved rapidly towards the Caribbean and into warmer waters . On August 14 the depression gained strength and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean . By August 16 , the storm had intensified further and attained hurricane status . Hurricane Dean continued to intensify as it tracked westward through the Lesser Antilles . Once in the Caribbean Sea , the storm rapidly intensified to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Weakening slightly , it brushed the southern coast of Jamaica on August 19 as a Category 4 hurricane and continued towards the Yucatán Peninsula through even warmer waters . The favorable conditions of the western Caribbean Sea allowed the storm to intensify and it regained Category 5 status the next day before making landfall in southern Quintana Roo .
Hurricane Dean was one of two storms in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane and was the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded , tied with Camille and Mitch . After its first landfall , Hurricane Dean crossed the Yucatán Peninsula and emerged , weakened , into the Bay of Campeche . It briefly restrengthened in the warm waters of the bay before making a second landfall in Veracruz . Dean progressed to the northwest , weakening into a remnant low which finally dissipated over the southwestern United States .
= = Formation = =
On August 11 , 2007 , a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa , producing disorganized showers and thunderstorms . It encountered conditions favorable for gradual development , and on August 12 it gained organization and became a low . Strong upper @-@ level easterly winds slowed development , but on August 13 the tropical wave gained enough organization that the National Hurricane Center designated it Tropical Depression Four . At this time it was centered about 520 mi ( 835 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde .
The depression was already exhibiting persistent deep convection in the western portion of its circulation . It moved quickly westward , south of a deep layered ridge , escaping the easterly wind shear that had been slowing its development and moving over warmer waters . At 1500 UTC on August 14 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean while still 1450 mi ( 2300 km ) east of Barbados . Even as its convection waned slightly that afternoon , its intensity grew , and convection flared in the center that night . Dry air and cooler air inflow from the north slowed structural development ; nevertheless , ragged bands began to form on August 15 . By mid @-@ morning , a rough banding eye had formed , and by the next morning a full eye developed . The storm was upgraded to Hurricane Dean at 0900 UTC August 16 , 550 mi ( 890 km ) east of Barbados .
A strong ridge of high pressure continued to push the system west , towards the Caribbean Sea . That afternoon , convective banding and increasing upper @-@ level outflow strengthened the storm to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The eye disappeared briefly overnight , possibly as part of a diurnal fluctuation , but returned by the morning of August 17 .
= = Caribbean Sea and first landfall = =
At 0930 UTC on August 17 , the center of Hurricane Dean passed into the Caribbean Sea through the Saint Lucia Channel between the islands of Martinique and St. Lucia . The northern eyewall passed over Martinique where a weather station in the island 's capital of Fort @-@ de @-@ France reported 13 in ( 33 cm ) of rainfall . By this time the eyewall had closed , forming a distinct eye , and in an environment of low wind shear and increasing ocean temperature the hurricane began to intensify rapidly . Hurricane Dean strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane by the evening of August 17 . Satellite imagery showed that a well defined eye and numerous cyclonically curved convective bands remained over the Lesser Antilles . That evening , another reconnaissance aircraft reached the hurricane and discovered that it had strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane , and by 0600 UTC on August 18 , Dean reached Category 5 intensity for the first time with 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) winds . The storm 's wind radii increased in all quadrants as the storm grew in both intensity and size . At 0800 UTC August 18 , Hurricane Dean passed directly over NOAA sea buoy 42059 which reported a significant wave height ( average size of the largest 33 % of waves ) of 33 ft ( 10 m ) . On August 18 , Hurricane Dean developed a double eyewall , indicating that an eyewall replacement cycle was taking place and causing short term fluctuations in intensity as Dean weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane . That afternoon the hurricane continued to improve its outflow , and its numerous spiral bands gave it a well defined satellite presentation . Hurricane Dean finished the eyewall replacement cycle early on August 19 with some trochiodal wobbles .
On the morning of August 19 , the storm remained slightly weakened from its peak strength . As a Category 4 hurricane with wind speeds between 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , the center of Hurricane Dean passed 90 mi ( 150 km ) south of Haiti , and that evening passed 25 mi ( 40 km ) south of Jamaica . Two weather stations on the island of Jamaica , one at Ingleside and the other at Morant Bay , both reported in excess of 13 in ( 33 cm ) of rainfall . In contrast , the weather station at Les Cayes , Haiti recorded only 1 @.@ 18 in ( 3 cm ) of rainfall .
Hurricane Dean intensified through the night of August 19 and reinforced its completed eyewall replacement cycle by forming a tight single @-@ walled eye . At 0100 UTC August 20 , the storm passed 120 mi ( 190 km ) to the south of Sea Buoy 42056 , which recorded a significant wave height of 36 ft ( 11 m ) . A concentric eyewall was briefly observed again on the morning of August 20 , but it did not last long . In conditions of low wind shear , Hurricane Dean moved westward over waters with increasingly high heat content , and the storm exhibited a classic upper @-@ tropospheric outflow pattern . The high pressure system over the southeastern United States continued to steer the storm west towards the Yucatán Peninsula . The eyewall became even better defined throughout the day . The cloud tops cooled , the minimum central pressure fell , and its winds increased to 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , making Hurricane Dean a Category 5 hurricane once again . This time , it was less than 210 mi ( 335 km ) from its first landfall .
Although many of the convective bands were already located over the Yucatán Peninsula , Hurricane Dean continued to intensify until the eye made landfall . As the eye moved over Mexico near the town of Majahual in the Costa Maya area , the NHC estimated surface level winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) , making Dean the first storm to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Andrew in 1992 . At the same time , a dropsonde reading from the hurricane 's eye estimated a central pressure of 905 mbar , making Dean the third most intense landfalling Atlantic storm in history ( after the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 and Hurricane Gilbert of 1988 ) and tying Dean with Camille and Mitch as the seventh most intense hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin . The landfall itself occurred in a sparsely populated area of the Costa Maya region of the Mexican state of Quintana Roo near 18 @.@ 7 N 87 @.@ 8 W at 0900 UTC August 21 and brought with it a storm surge of 12 – 18 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 m ) . A weather station at Chetumal ( the capital of Quintana Roo , Mexico ) reported 6 @.@ 65 in ( 17 cm ) of rainfall during Hurricane Dean 's landfall . As expected , the landfall caused significant weakening of the storm ; the eye filled and the cold cloud @-@ tops warmed . The land severely disrupted the storm 's organization , and by the time Dean crossed the Yucatán Peninsula it had weakened to a Category 1 hurricane .
= = Gulf of Mexico and demise = =
Hurricane Dean emerged into the Bay of Campeche as a Category 1 hurricane on the afternoon of August 21 . Its inner core was largely disrupted , so although a ragged eye reformed over the warm waters of the bay , the hurricane no longer had the structure to support its previous strength . Nevertheless , the warm waters of the bay proved conducive for some development and the eye contracted overnight , indicating that the hurricane was regaining structure . With better structure came stronger winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , and the storm was re @-@ categorized as a Category 2 hurricane .
The storm 's strengthening pattern continued until Hurricane Dean made its second and final landfall at 1630 UTC August 22 near Tecolutla , Veracruz , just east of Gutiérrez Zamora and about 40 mi ( 65 km ) south @-@ southeast of Tuxpan . A weather station at Requetemu , San Luis Potosí , recorded 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 cm ) of rainfall during the storm 's second landfall . Dean weakened rapidly , losing its low level circulation within hours and its mid @-@ level circulation the next day as it encountered the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range . Its remnants passed over the mountains and into the eastern Pacific Ocean as a broad area of low pressure . Hurricane Dean 's remnant low pressure system then drifted north into southern California , bringing thunderstorms to northern San Diego County , and more than 2 in ( 5 cm ) of rain to Lake Wohlford . In Escondido almost 2 in ( 5 cm ) of rain fell in 90 minutes . The remnant low pressure system weakened over western Arizona and southern California before finally dissipating on August 30 .
= Kentrosaurus =
Kentrosaurus ( / ˌkɛntroʊˈsɔːrəs / KEN @-@ tro @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of stegosaurian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of Tanzania . The type species is K. aethiopicus , named and described by German palaeontologist Edwin Hennig in 1915 . Often thought to be a " primitive " member of the Stegosauria , several recent cladistic analyses find it as more derived than many other stegosaurs , and a close relative of Stegosaurus from the North American Morrison Formation within the Stegosauridae .
Fossils of K. aethiopicus have been found only in the Tendaguru Formation , dated to the late Kimmeridgian and early Tithonian ages , about 152 million years ago . Hundreds of bones were unearthed by German expeditions to German East Africa between 1909 and 1912 . Although no complete skeletons are known , the remains provided a nearly complete picture of the build of the animal .
Kentrosaurus generally measured around 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) in length as an adult , and weighed about one tonne ( 1 @.@ 1 tons ) . It walked on all fours with straight hindlimbs . It had a small , elongated head with a beak used to bite off plant material that would be digested in a large gut . It had a , probably double , row of small plates running down its neck and back . These plates gradually merged into spikes on the hip and tail . The longest spikes were on the tail end and were used to actively defend the animal . There also was a long spine on each shoulder . The thigh bones come in two different types , suggesting that one sex was larger and more stout than the other .
= = Description = =
Kentrosaurus was a small stegosaur . It had the typical dinosaurian body bauplan , characterised by a small head , a long neck , short forelimbs and long hindlimbs , and a long , horizontal and muscular tail . Typical stegosaurid traits included the elongation and flatness of the head , the powerful build of the forelimbs , erect and pillar @-@ like hindlimbs and an array of plates and spikes running along both sides of the top mid @-@ line of the animal . Only a single complete tooth was known when Hennig published his monography in 1925 . Later , a part of a dentary , the tooth @-@ bearing bone of the front lower jaw , was found , which bears a just emerging tooth , and some tooth fragments were recovered from matrix sticking to other bones . The deep dentary is almost identical in shape to that of Stegosaurus , albeit much smaller . Similarly , the tooth is a typical stegosaurian tooth , small with a widened base and vertical grooves creating five ridges .
= = = Size and posture = = =
Kentrosaurus aethiopicus was smaller than Stegosaurus armatus , Hesperosaurus mjosi , Dacentrurus armatus and Tuojiangosaurus multispinus , and about as large as Huayangosaurus taibaii . The total length of a composite skeletal mount in the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin , Germany , from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail is 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) . Slightly more than half of this length is made up by the tail . Larger single elements were found , so that the animal could probably attain a total length of 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . In 2010 , Gregory S. Paul estimated the weight of a 4 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 13 ft ) Kentrosaurus at seven hundred kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) . An estimate for the 4 @.@ 5 m long composite mount in the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin by Mallison , on the basis of a virtual 3D skeleton and 3D model , varied between 1073 L and 1267 L , and a body mass between 1 and 1 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) , depending on the amount of musculature reconstructed for the tail .
The long tail of Kentrosaurus results in a position of the center of mass that is unusually far back for a quadrupedal animal . It rests just in front of the hip , a position usually seen in bipedal dinosaurs . However , the femora are straight in Kentrosaurus , as opposed to typical bipeds , indicating a straight and vertical limb position . Thus , the hindlimbs , though powered by massive thigh muscles attached to a long ilium , did not support the animal alone , and the very robust forelimbs took up 10 to 15 % of the bodyweight .
= = = Distinguishing features = = =
Kentrosaurus can be distinguished from other members of the Stegosauria by a number of osteological characters . Mallison ( 2011 ) provided a revised diagnosis , an updated list of distinguishing traits or autapomorphies . Most notably , the neural spines , the blade @-@ like upper extensions of the vertebrae , in the tail do not run sub @-@ parallel , as in most dinosaurs . In the front third of the tail , they point backwards , the usual direction . In the middle tail , however , they are almost vertical , and further back they are hook @-@ shaped and point obliquely forward . Also typical is that the dorsal ( back ) vertebrae have a neural arch more than twice as high as the centrum , the vertebral body , and almost completely occupied by the extremely spacious neural canal . The preacetabular process , front blade , of the ilium widens laterally , to the front outer side , and does not taper .
Furthermore , there is a unique combination of traits not in themselves unique . The transverse processes , the side extensions , of the tail are present up to the twenty @-@ eighth vertebra of the series . The transverse processes of the front tail vertebrae are rod @-@ shaped with narrow bases and do not touch the plate formed by the fusion of the processes of the sacral vertebrae . The chevrons , bones pointing to below from the bottom side of the tail vertebrae , have the shape of an inverted T. The length of the ilium equals , or is greater than , that of the thighbone .
= = = Armour = = =
Typically for a stegosaur , Kentrosaurus had extensive osteoderm ( bony structures in the skin ) covering , including small plates ( probably located on the neck and anterior trunk ) , and spikes of various shapes . The spikes of Kentrosaurus are very elongated , with one specimen having a bone core length of 731 millimetres . The plates have a thickened section in the middle , as if they were modified spines . The spikes and plates were likely covered by horn . Aside from a few exceptions they were not found in close association with other skeletal remains . Thus , the exact position of most osteoderms is
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used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins , responding primarily to the rider 's legs and weight . The horse became accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it , and learned to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armour . Developing the balance and agility of the horse was crucial . The origins of the discipline of dressage came from the need to train horses to be both obedient and manoeuvrable . The Haute ecole or " High School " movements of classical dressage taught today at the Spanish Riding School have their roots in manoeuvres designed for the battlefield . However , the airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat , as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers .
Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions , but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses , they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions .
= = Technological innovations = =
Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven . However , evidence is scant , mostly simple images of human figures on horse @-@ like animals drawn on rock or clay . The earliest tools used to control horses were bridles of various sorts , which were invented nearly as soon as the horse was domesticated . Evidence of bit wear appears on the teeth of horses excavated at the archaeology sites of the Botai culture in northern Kazakhstan , dated 3500 – 3000 BC .
= = = Harness and vehicles = = =
The invention of the wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare . At first , equines , both horses and onagers , were hitched to wheeled carts by means of a yoke around their necks in a manner similar to that of oxen . However , such a design is incompatible with equine anatomy , limiting both the strength and mobility of the animal . By the time of the Hyksos invasions of Egypt , c . 1600 BC , horses were pulling chariots with an improved harness design that made use of a breastcollar and breeching , which allowed a horse to move faster and pull more weight .
Even after the chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war , there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies ; horses were needed to pull heavy loads of supplies and weapons . The invention of the horse collar in China during the 5th century AD ( Southern and Northern Dynasties ) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle with the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times . The horse collar arrived in Europe during the 9th century , and became widespread by the 12th century .
= = = Riding equipment = = =
Two major innovations that revolutionised the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup . Riders quickly learned to pad their horse 's backs to protect themselves from the horse 's spine and withers , and fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse 's back and a rudimentary bridle . To help distribute the rider 's weight and protect the horse 's back , some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today 's English saddle . Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse 's barrel for increased security and comfort . Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts as early as the 4th century BC .
The saddle with a solid framework , or " tree " , provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider , but was not widespread until the 2nd century AD . However , it made a critical difference , as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree . A solid tree , the predecessor of today 's Western saddle , also allowed a more built @-@ up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle . The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid @-@ treed saddle .
An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup . A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC , and later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid . The first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about 322 AD during the Jin Dynasty . Following the invention of paired stirrups , which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons , as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted , nomadic groups such as the Mongols adopted this technology and developed a decisive military advantage . By the 7th century , due primarily to invaders from Central Asia , stirrup technology spread from Asia to Europe . The Avar invaders are viewed as primarily responsible for spreading the use of the stirrup into central Europe . However , while stirrups were known in Europe in the 8th century , pictorial and literary references to their use date only from the 9th century . Widespread use in Northern Europe , including England , is credited to the Vikings , who spread the stirrup in the 9th and 10th centuries to those areas .
= = Tactics = =
The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates from between 4000 and 3000 BC in the steppes of Eurasia , in what today is Ukraine , Hungary , and Romania . Not long after domestication of the horse , people in these locations began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from the threat of horseback @-@ riding raiders , who could attack and escape faster than people of more sedentary cultures could follow . Horse @-@ mounted nomads of the steppe and current day Eastern Europe spread Indo @-@ European Languages as they conquered other tribes and groups .
The use of horses in organised warfare was also documented early in recorded history . One of the first depictions of equids is the " war panel " of the Standard of Ur , in Sumer , dated c . 2500 BC , showing horses ( or possibly onagers or mules ) pulling a four @-@ wheeled wagon .
= = = Chariot warfare = = =
Among the earliest evidence of chariot use are the burials of horse and chariot remains by the Andronovo ( Sintashta @-@ Petrovka ) culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan , dated to approximately 2000 BC . The oldest documentary evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text , of the 18th century BC , which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara . The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot . Widespread use of the chariot in warfare across most of Eurasia coincides approximately with the development of the composite bow , known from c . 1600 BC . Further improvements in wheels and axles , as well as innovations in weaponry , soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by Bronze Age societies from China to Egypt .
The Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward . The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli , which dates to about 1350 BC , and describes the conditioning of chariot horses .
Chariots existed in the Minoan civilization , as they were inventoried on storage lists from Knossos in Crete , dating to around 1450 BC . Chariots were also used in China as far back as the Shang Dynasty ( c . 1600 – 1050 BC ) , where they appear in burials . The high point of chariot use in China was in the Spring and Autumn Period ( 770 – 476 BC ) , although they continued in use up until the 2nd century BC .
Descriptions of the tactical role of chariots in Ancient Greece and Rome are rare . The Iliad , possibly referring to Mycenaen practices used c . 1250 BC , describes the use of chariots for transporting warriors to and from battle , rather than for actual fighting . Later , Julius Caesar , invading Britain in 55 and 54 BC , noted British charioteers throwing javelins , then leaving their chariots to fight on foot .
= = = Cavalry = = =
Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse @-@ mounted archers or spear @-@ throwers , dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III . However , these riders sat far back on their horses , a precarious position for moving quickly , and the horses were held by a handler on the ground , keeping the archer free to use the bow . Thus , these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry . The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north , such as the Cimmerians , who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II , approximately 721 BC . Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC . By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC , the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry . The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry , although not extensively , possibly due to the cost of keeping horses .
Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians , although others argue for the Sarmatians . By the time of Darius ( 558 – 486 BC ) , Persian military tactics required horses and riders that were completely armoured , and selectively bred a heavier , more muscled horse to carry the additional weight . The cataphract was a type of heavily armored cavalry with distinct tactics , armour , and weaponry used from the time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages .
In Ancient Greece , Phillip of Macedon is credited with developing tactics allowing massed cavalry charges . The most famous Greek heavy cavalry units were the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great . The Chinese of the 4th century BC during the Warring States period ( 403 – 221 BC ) began to use cavalry against rival states . To fight nomadic raiders from the north and west , the Chinese of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) developed effective mounted units . Cavalry was not used extensively by the Romans during the Roman Republic period , but by the time of the Roman Empire , they made use of heavy cavalry . However , the backbone of the Roman army was the infantry .
= = = Horse artillery = = =
Once gunpowder was invented , another major use of horses was as draught animals for heavy artillery , or cannon . In addition to field artillery , where horse @-@ drawn guns were attended by gunners on foot , many armies had artillery batteries where each gunner was provided with a mount . Horse artillery units generally used lighter pieces , pulled by six horses . " 9 @-@ pounders " were pulled by eight horses , and heavier artillery pieces needed a team of twelve . With the individual riding horses required for officers , surgeons and other support staff , as well as those pulling the artillery guns and supply wagons , an artillery battery of six guns could require 160 to 200 horses . Horse artillery usually came under the command of cavalry divisions , but in some battles , such as Waterloo , the horse artillery were used as a rapid response force , repulsing attacks and assisting the infantry . Agility was important ; the ideal artillery horse was 15 to 16 hands high , strongly built , but able to move quickly .
= = Asia = =
= = = Central Asia = = =
Relations between steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were often marked by conflict . The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare , and steppe cavalry became some of the most militarily potent forces in the world , only limited by nomads ' frequent lack of internal unity . Periodically , strong leaders would organise several tribes into one force , creating an almost unstoppable power . These unified groups included the Huns , who invaded Europe , and under Attila , conducted campaigns in both eastern France and northern Italy , over 500 miles apart , within two successive campaign seasons . Other unified nomadic forces included the Wu Hu attacks on China , and the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia .
= = = India = = =
The literature of ancient India describes numerous horse nomads . Some of the earliest references to the use of horses in South Asian warfare are Puranic texts , which refer to an attempted invasion of India by the joint cavalry forces of the Sakas , Kambojas , Yavanas , Pahlavas , and Paradas , called the " five hordes " ( pañca.ganah ) or " Kśatriya " hordes ( Kśatriya ganah ) . About 1600 BC , they captured the throne of Ayodhya by dethroning the Vedic king , Bahu . Later texts , such as the Mahābhārata , c . 950 BC , appear to recognise efforts taken to breed war horses and develop trained mounted warriors , stating that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest quality , and the Kambojas , Gandharas , and Yavanas were expert in fighting from horses .
In technological innovation , the early toe loop stirrup is credited to the cultures of India , and may have been in use as early as 500 BC . Not long after , the cultures of Mesopotamia and Ancient Greece clashed with those of central Asia and India . Herodotus ( 484 – 425 BC ) wrote that Gandarian mercenaries of the Achaemenid Empire were recruited into the army of emperor Xerxes I of Persia ( 486 – 465 BC ) , which he led against the Greeks . A century later , the " Men of the Mountain Land , " from north of Kabul River , served in the army of Darius III of Persia when he fought against Alexander the Great at Arbela in 331 BC . In battle against Alexander at Massaga in 326 BC , the Assakenoi forces included 20 @,@ 000 cavalry . The Mudra @-@ Rakshasa recounted how cavalry of the Shakas , Yavanas , Kambojas , Kiratas , Parasikas , and Bahlikas helped Chandragupta Maurya ( c . 320 – 298 BC ) defeat the ruler of Magadha and take the throne , thus laying the foundations of Mauryan Dynasty in Northern India .
Mughal cavalry used gunpowder weapons , but were slow to replace the traditional composite bow . Under the impact of European military successes in India , some Indian rulers adopted the European system of massed cavalry charges , although others did not . By the 18th century , Indian armies continued to field cavalry , but mainly of the heavy variety .
= = = East Asia = = =
The Chinese used chariots for horse @-@ based warfare until light cavalry forces became common during the Warring States era ( 402 – 221 BC ) . A major proponent of the change to riding horses from chariots was Wu Ling , c . 320 BC . However , conservative forces in China often opposed change , and cavalry never became as dominant as in Europe . Cavalry in China also did not benefit from the additional cachet attached to being the military branch dominated by the nobility .
The Japanese samurai fought as cavalry for many centuries . They were particularly skilled in the art of using archery from horseback . The archery skills of mounted samurai were developed by training such as Yabusame , which originated in 530 AD and reached its peak under Minamoto Yoritomo ( 1147 – 1199 AD ) in the Kamakura Period . They switched from an emphasis on mounted bowmen to mounted spearmen during the Sengoku period ( 1467 – 1615 AD ) .
= = = Middle East = = =
During the period when various Islamic empires controlled much of the Middle East as well as parts of West Africa and the Iberian peninsula , Muslim armies consisted mostly of cavalry , made up of fighters from various local groups , mercenaries and Turkoman tribesmen . The latter were considered particularly skilled as both lancers and mounted archers . In the 9th century the use of Mamluks , slaves raised to be soldiers for various Muslim rulers , became increasingly common . Mobile tactics , advanced breeding of horses , and detailed training manuals made Mamluk cavalry a highly efficient fighting force . The use of armies consisting mostly of cavalry continued among the Turkish people who founded the Ottoman Empire . Their need for large mounted forces lead to an establishment of the sipahi , cavalry soldiers who were granted lands in exchange for providing military service in times of war .
Mounted Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 7th and 8th centuries AD following the Hegira , or Hijra , of Muhammad in 622 AD . By 630 AD , their influence expanded across the Middle East and into western North Africa . By 711 AD , the light cavalry of Muslim warriors had reached Spain , and controlled most of the Iberian peninsula by 720 . Their mounts were of various oriental types , including the North African Barb . A few Arabian horses may have come with the Ummayads who settled in the Guadalquivir valley . Another strain of horse that came with Islamic invaders was the Turkoman horse . Muslim invaders travelled north from nowadays Spain into France , where they were defeated by the Frankish ruler Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD .
= = Europe = =
= = = The Middle Ages = = =
During the European Middle Ages , there were three primary types of war horses : The destrier , the courser , and the rouncey , which differed in size and usage . A generic word used to describe medieval war horses was charger , which appears interchangeable with the other terms . The medieval war horse was of moderate size , rarely exceeding 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) . Heavy horses were logistically difficult to maintain and less adaptable to varied terrains . The destrier of the early Middle Ages was moderately larger than the courser or rouncey , in part to accommodate heavier armoured knights . However , destriers were not as large as draught horses , averaging between 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) and 15 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) . On the European continent , the need to carry more armour against mounted enemies such as the Lombards and Frisians led to the Franks developing heavier , bigger horses . As the amount of armour and equipment increased in the later Middle Ages , the height of the horses increased ; some late medieval horse skeletons were of horses over 15 hands .
Stallions were often used as destriers due to their natural aggression . However , there may have been some use of mares by European warriors , and mares , who were quieter and less likely to call out and betray their position to the enemy , were the preferred war horse of the Moors , who invaded various parts of Southern Europe from 700 AD through the 15th century . Geldings were used in war by the Teutonic Knights , and known as " monk horses " ( German Mönchpferde or Mönchhengste ) . One advantage was if captured by the enemy , they could not be used to improve local bloodstock , thus maintaining the Knights ' superiority in horseflesh .
= = = = Uses = = = =
The heavy cavalry charge , while it could be effective , was not a common occurrence . Battles were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry . While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks , by the end of the 14th century , it was common for knights to dismount to fight , while their horses were sent to the rear , kept ready for pursuit . Pitched battles were avoided if possible , with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges , and in the later Middle Ages as mounted raids called chevauchées , with lightly armed warriors on swift horses .
The war horse was also seen in hastiludes — martial war games such as the joust , which began in the 11th century both as sport and to provide training for battle . Specialised destriers were bred for the purpose , although the expense of keeping , training , and outfitting them kept the majority of the population from owning one . While some historians suggest that the tournament had become a theatrical event by the 15th and 16th centuries , others argue that jousting continued to help cavalry train for battle until the Thirty Years ' War .
= = = = Transition = = = =
The decline of the armoured knight was probably linked to changing structures of armies and various economic factors , and not obsolescence due to new technologies . However , some historians attribute the demise of the knight to the invention of gunpowder , or to the English longbow . Some link the decline to both technologies . Others argue these technologies actually contributed to the development of knights : plate armour was first developed to resist early medieval crossbow bolts , and the full harness worn by the early 15th century developed to resist longbow arrows . From the 14th century on , most plate was made from hardened steel , which resisted early musket ammunition . In addition , stronger designs did not make plate heavier ; a full harness of musket @-@ proof plate from the 17th century weighed 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) , significantly less than 16th century tournament armour .
The move to predominately infantry @-@ based battles from 1300 to 1550 was linked to both improved infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . By the 16th century , the concept of a combined @-@ arms professional army had spread throughout Europe . Professional armies emphasized training , and were paid via contracts , a change from the ransom and pillaging which reimbursed knights in the past . When coupled with the rising costs involved in outfitting and maintaining armour and horses , the traditional knightly classes began to abandon their profession . Light horses , or prickers , were still used for scouting and reconnaissance ; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies . Large teams of draught horses or oxen pulled the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies .
= = = Early modern period = = =
During the early modern period the shift continued from heavy cavalry and the armoured knight to unarmoured light cavalry , including Hussars and Chasseurs à cheval . Light cavalry facilitated better communication , using fast , agile horses to move quickly across battlefields . The ratio of footmen to horsemen also increased over the period as infantry weapons improved and footmen became more mobile and versatile , particularly once the musket bayonet replaced the more cumbersome pike . During the Elizabethan era , mounted units included cuirassiers , heavily armoured and equipped with lances ; light cavalry , who wore mail and bore light lances and pistols ; and " petronels " , who carried an early carbine . As heavy cavalry use declined armour was increasingly abandoned and dragoons , whose horses were rarely used in combat , became more common : mounted infantry provided reconnaissance , escort and security . However , many generals still used the heavy mounted charge , from the late 17th century and early 18th century , where sword @-@ wielding wedge @-@ formation shock troops penetrated enemy lines , to the early 19th century , where armoured heavy cuirassiers were employed .
Light cavalry continued to play a major role , particularly after the Seven Years ' War when Hussars started to play a larger part in battles . Though some leaders preferred tall horses for their mounted troops this was as much for prestige as for increased shock ability and many troops used more typical horses , averaging 15 hands . Cavalry tactics altered with fewer mounted charges , more reliance on drilled manoeuvres at the trot , and use of firearms once within range . Ever @-@ more elaborate movements , such as wheeling and caracole , were developed to facilitate the use of firearms from horseback . These tactics were not greatly successful in battle since pikemen protected by musketeers could deny cavalry room to manoeuvre . However the advanced equestrianism required survives into the modern world as dressage . While restricted , cavalry was not rendered obsolete . As infantry formations developed in tactics and skills , artillery became essential to break formations ; in turn , cavalry was required to both combat enemy artillery , which was susceptible to cavalry while deploying , and to charge enemy infantry formations broken by artillery fire . Thus , successful warfare depended in a balance of the three arms : cavalry , artillery and infantry .
As regimental structures developed many units selected horses of uniform type and some , such as the Royal Scots Greys , even specified colour . Trumpeters often rode distinctive horses so they stood out . Regional armies developed type preferences , such as British hunters , Hanoverians in central Europe , and steppe ponies of the Cossacks , but once in the field , the lack of supplies typical of wartime meant that horses of all types were used . Since horses were such a vital component of most armies in early modern Europe , many instituted state stud farms to breed horses for the military . However , in wartime , supply rarely matched the demand , resulting in some cavalry troops fighting on foot .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the 19th century distinctions between heavy and light cavalry became less significant ; by the end of the Peninsular War , heavy cavalry were performing the scouting and outpost duties previously undertaken by light cavalry , and by the end of the 19th century the roles had effectively merged . Most armies at the time preferred cavalry horses to stand 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) and weigh 990 to 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 450 to 500 kg ) , although cuirassiers frequently had heavier horses . Lighter horses were used for scouting and raiding . Cavalry horses were generally obtained at 5 years of age and were in service from 10 or 12 years , barring loss . However losses of 30 – 40 % were common during a campaign due to conditions of the march as well as enemy action . Mares and geldings were preferred over less @-@ easily managed stallions .
During the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars the cavalry 's main offensive role was as shock troops . In defence cavalry were used to attack and harass the enemy 's infantry flanks as they advanced . Cavalry were frequently used prior to an infantry assault , to force an infantry line to break and reform into formations vulnerable to infantry or artillery . Infantry frequently followed behind in order to secure any ground won or the cavalry could be used to break up enemy lines following a successful infantry action .
Mounted charges were carefully managed . A charge 's maximum speed was 20 km / h ; moving faster resulted in a break in formation and fatigued horses . Charges occurred across clear rising ground , and were effective against infantry both on the march and when deployed in a line or column . A foot battalion formed in line was vulnerable to cavalry , and could be broken or destroyed by a well @-@ formed charge . Traditional cavalry functions altered by the end of the 19th century . Many cavalry units transferred in title and role to " mounted rifles " : troops trained to fight on foot , but retaining mounts for rapid deployment , as well as for patrols , scouting , communications , and defensive screening . These troops differed from mounted infantry , who used horses for transport but did not perform the old cavalry roles of reconnaissance and support .
= = Sub @-@ Saharan Africa = =
Horses were used for warfare in the central Sudan since the 9th century , where they were considered " the most precious commodity following the slave . " The first conclusive evidence of horses playing a major role in the warfare of West Africa dates to the 11th century when the region was controlled by the Almoravids , a Muslim Berber dynasty . During the 13th and 14th centuries , cavalry became an important factor in the area . This coincided with the introduction of larger breeds of horse and the widespread adoption of saddles and stirrups . Increased mobility played a part in the formation of new power centers , such as the Oyo Empire in what today is Nigeria . The authority of many African Islamic states such as the Bornu Empire also rested in large part on their ability to subject neighboring peoples with cavalry . Despite harsh climate conditions , endemic diseases such as trypanosomiasis the African horse sickness and unsuitable terrain that limited the effectiveness of horses in many parts of Africa , horses were continuously imported and were , in some areas , a vital instrument of war . The introduction of horses also intensified existing conflicts , such as those between the Herero and Nama people in Namibia during the 19th century .
The African slave trade was closely tied to the imports of war horses , and as the prevalence of slaving decreased , fewer horses were needed for raiding . This significantly decreased the amount of mounted warfare seen in West Africa . By the time of the Scramble for Africa and the introduction of modern firearms in the 1880s , the use of horses in African warfare had lost most of its effectiveness . Nonetheless , in South Africa during the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) , cavalry and other mounted troops were the major combat force for the British , since the horse @-@ mounted Boers moved too quickly for infantry to engage . The Boers presented a mobile and innovative approach to warfare , drawing on strategies that had first appeared in the American Civil War . The terrain was not well @-@ suited to the British horses , resulting in the loss of over 300 @,@ 000 animals . As the campaign wore on , losses were replaced by more durable African Basuto ponies , and Waler horses from Australia .
= = The Americas = =
The horse had been extinct in the Western Hemisphere for approximately 10 @,@ 000 years prior to the arrival of Spanish Conquistadors in the early 16th century . Consequently , the Indigenous peoples of the Americas had no warfare technologies that could overcome the considerable advantage provided by European horses and gunpowder weapons . In particular this resulted in the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires . The speed and increased impact of cavalry contributed to a number of early victories by European fighters in open terrain , though their success was limited in more mountainous regions . The Incas ' well @-@ maintained roads in the Andes enabled quick mounted raids , such as those undertaken by the Spanish while resisting the siege of Cuzco in 1536 – 7 .
Indigenous populations of South America soon learned to use horses . In Chile , the Mapuche began using cavalry in the Arauco War in 1586 . They drove the Spanish out of Araucanía at the beginning of the 17th century . Later , the Mapuche conducted mounted raids known as Malónes , first on Spanish , then on Chilean and Argentine settlements until well into the 19th century . In North America , Native Americans also quickly learned to use horses . In particular , the people of the Great Plains , such as the Comanche and the Cheyenne , became renowned horseback fighters . By the 19th century , they presented a formidable force against the United States Army .
During the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , the Continental Army made relatively little use of cavalry , primarily relying on infantry and a few dragoon regiments . The United States Congress eventually authorized regiments specifically designated as cavalry in 1855 . The newly formed American cavalry adopted tactics based on experiences fighting over vast distances during the Mexican War ( 1846 – 1848 ) and against indigenous peoples on the western frontier , abandoning some European traditions .
During the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , cavalry held the most important and respected role it would ever hold in the American military . Field artillery in the American Civil War was also highly mobile . Both horses and mules pulled the guns , though only horses were used on the battlefield . At the beginning of the war , most of the experienced cavalry officers were from the South and thus joined the Confederacy , leading to the Confederate Army 's initial battlefield superiority . The tide turned at the 1863 Battle of Brandy Station , part of the Gettysburg campaign , where the Union cavalry , in the largest cavalry battle ever fought on the North American continent , ended the dominance of the South . By 1865 , Union cavalry were decisive in achieving victory . So important were horses to individual soldiers that the surrender terms at Appomattox allowed every Confederate cavalryman to take his horse home with him . This was because , unlike their Union counterparts , Confederate cavalrymen provided their own horses for service instead of drawing them from the government .
= = 20th century = =
Although cavalry was used extensively throughout the world during the 19th century , horses became less important to warfare after the beginning of the 20th century . Light cavalry was still seen on the battlefield at the beginning of the 20th century , but formal mounted cavalry began to be phased out for combat during and immediately after World War I , although units that included horses still had military uses well into World War II .
= = = World War I = = =
World War I saw great changes in the use of cavalry . The mode of warfare changed , and the use of trench warfare , barbed wire and machine guns rendered traditional cavalry almost obsolete . Tanks , introduced in 1917 , began to take over the role of shock combat .
Early in the War , cavalry skirmishes were common , and horse @-@ mounted troops widely used for reconnaissance . On the Western Front cavalry were an effective flanking force during the " Race to the Sea " in 1914 , but were less useful once trench warfare was established . There a few examples of successful shock combat , and cavalry divisions also provided important mobile firepower . Cavalry played a greater role on the Eastern Front , where trench warfare was less common . On the Eastern Front , and also against the Ottomans , the " cavalry was literally indispensable . " British Empire cavalry proved adaptable , since they were trained to fight both on foot and while mounted , while other European cavalry relied primarily on shock action .
On both fronts , the horse was also used as a pack animal . Because railway lines could not withstand artillery bombardments , horses carried ammunition and supplies between the railheads and the rear trenches , though the horses generally were not used in the actual trench zone . This role of horses was critical , and thus horse fodder was the single largest commodity shipped to the front by some countries . Following the war , many cavalry regiments were converted to mechanised , armoured divisions , with light tanks developed to perform many of the cavalry 's original roles .
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0 for the PlayStation game console ( SaGa Frontier 2 , Front Mission 3 , Vagrant Story , Legend of Mana , Threads of Fate , Chrono Cross , Parasite Eve 2 , and Final Fantasy IX ) and a Chocobo Watch . Each second @-@ highest scoring participant received a free copy of Chocobo 's Dungeon 2 and a Chocobo Watch . Each third highest scoring participant received a Chocobo Watch .
= = = Music = = =
Chocobo Racing Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album produced by Square . It was released exclusively in Japan on March 25 , 1999 by DigiCube , and sold roughly 35 @,@ 000 units . The soundtrack bears the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10030 and spans a duration of 57 : 17 . Almost all of the tracks are arrangements of music Nobuo Uematsu composed for Final Fantasy games , arranged by Kenji Ito . The only exception is the song played during the final song , " Treasure Chest In The Heart " , which is a vocal track orchestrated by Shirō Hamaguchi and performed by Hiromi Ohta . In the English version of the game , it is performed by Vicki Bell .
= = Reception = =
Chocobo Racing sold 300 @,@ 000 units in Japan . Doug Perry of IGN said the game was an attempt by Square to " cash in " on the popular kart racer genre created by Nintendo 's successful Mario Kart . Other reviewers agreed , calling it “ a tired rehash ” due to its colorful but unpolished graphics , crude track designs , and poor controls .
1UP.com 's Final Fantasy Retro Roundup stated that it was a “ decent game ” ruined by the necessity of steering with a D @-@ pad , and was rated " Not Worth It " . Many similarities were noted with Mario Kart such as similar course themes and the need to " power slide " . It was also called too easy , with story mode lasting only two hours and there being limited replay value except for the unlocking of secret characters and courses . Other critiques included a lack of a battle mode and limited customization . The music was thought to be average , though the last song of the story mode was “ strikingly beautiful ” .
= = Cancelled sequel = =
At Nintendo 's E3 2010 press conference on June 15 , 2010 , a new Chocobo Racing title , tentatively titled Codename : Chocobo Racing 3D , was announced for the Nintendo 3DS handheld system . However , on October 10 , 2013 , Takashi Tokita , director of the original Chocobo Racing , confirmed that the project had been cancelled , noting that had he been part of its development process , he " would have made sure that it came out . "
= Early life of Samuel Johnson =
Samuel Johnson ( 18 September 1709 [ O.S. 7 September ] – 13 December 1784 ) was an English author born in Lichfield , Staffordshire . He was a sickly infant who early on began to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his later years . From childhood he displayed great intelligence and an eagerness for learning , but his early years were dominated by his family 's financial strain and his efforts to establish himself as a school teacher .
After a year spent studying at Pembroke College , Oxford , Johnson was forced to leave by lack of financial support . He tried to find employment as a teacher , but was unable to secure a long @-@ term position . In 1735 he married Elizabeth " Tetty " Porter , a widow 20 years older than himself , and the responsibilities of this marriage made him determined to succeed as an educator . He established his own school , but the venture was unsuccessful . Thereafter , leaving his wife behind in Lichfield , he moved to London , where he spent the rest of his life . In London he began writing essays for The Gentleman 's Magazine , and also befriended Richard Savage , a notorious rake and aspiring poet who claimed to be the disavowed son of a nobleman . Eventually he wrote the Life of Mr Richard Savage , his first successful literary biography . He also wrote the powerful poem London , an 18th @-@ century version of Juvenal 's Third Satire , as well as the tragic drama Irene , which was not produced until 1749 , and even then was not successful .
Johnson began his literary career as a minor Grub Street hack writer , but he went on to make lasting contributions to English literature as a poet , essayist , moralist , novelist , literary critic , biographer , editor and lexicographer . His early works , especially London and Life of Mr Richard Savage , contain Johnson 's emerging views on biography , morality , and literature in general .
= = Parents = =
Johnson 's parents were Michael Johnson , a bookseller , and his wife , Sarah Ford . Michael was the first bookseller of reputation in the Staffordshire community of Lichfield . He also owned a parchment factory , which allowed him to produce his own books . Little is known of his background , except that he and his brothers were apprenticed as booksellers . Michael 's father , William Johnson , was described as a " yeoman " and a " gentleman " in the Stationers ' Company records , but there is little evidence to suggest that he was from a noble family . William was the first Johnson to move to Lichfield and died shortly thereafter . Michael Johnson , after leaving his apprenticeship at 24 , followed in his father 's footsteps and took up a job selling books on Sadler Street , Lichfield . Three years later Michael Johnson became warden of a charity known as the Conduit Lands Trust , and shortly afterwards was made churchwarden of St Mary 's church .
At the age of 29 , Michael Johnson was engaged to be married to a local woman , Mary Neild , but she cancelled the engagement . Twenty years later , in 1706 , he married Sarah Ford . She came from a middle @-@ class milling and farming family and was twelve years his junior , daughter of Cornelius Ford . Although both families had money , Samuel Johnson often claimed that he grew up in poverty . It is uncertain what happened between the marriage of his parents and Samuel 's birth three years later to provoke a decline in the family 's fortunes , but Michael Johnson quickly became overwhelmed with debt from which he was never able to recover .
= = Childhood = =
Johnson was born in Lichfield at 4 : 00 pm on Wednesday , 18 September 1709 at the family home above his father 's bookshop , near Market Square , across from St Mary 's Church . His mother was 40 when she gave birth , a matter for sufficient concern that George Hector , a " man @-@ midwife " and a surgeon of " great reputation " , was brought in to assist during the birth . The baby was named Samuel , after Sarah 's brother Samuel Ford . He did not cry and , with doubts surrounding the newborn 's health , his aunt claimed " that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street " . As it was feared the baby might die , the vicar of St Mary 's was summoned to perform a baptism . Two godfathers were chosen : Samuel Swynfen , a physician and graduate of Pembroke College , and Richard Wakefield , a lawyer , coroner , and Lichfield town clerk .
Johnson 's health improved and he was placed in the nursing care of Joan Marklew . During this period he contracted what is believed to have been scrofula , known at that time as the " King 's Evil " . Sir John Floyer , a former physician to King Charles II , recommended that the young Johnson should receive the " royal touch " , which he received from Queen Anne on 30 March 1712 at St James 's Palace . Johnson was given a ribbon in memory of the event , which he claimed to have worn for the rest of his life . However , the ritual was ineffective and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scarring across his face and body . Sarah later gave birth to a second boy , Nathaniel . Having two children put financial strain on the family ; Michael was unable to keep on top of the debts he had accumulated over the years , and his family was no longer able to maintain the lifestyle it had previously enjoyed .
Johnson demonstrated signs of great intelligence as a child , and his parents , to his later disgust , took pleasure in showing off his " newly acquired accomplishments " . His education began at the age of three , when his mother had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer . When Johnson turned four , he was sent to a nearby " school " on Dam Street , where " Dame " Anne Oliver , the proprietor , gave lessons to young children in the living @-@ room of a cottage . Johnson especially enjoyed his time with Dame Oliver , later remembering her fondly . At the age of six he was sent to a retired shoemaker to continue his education , and a year later was enrolled at Lichfield Grammar School ; he excelled in Latin under Humphrey Hawkins , his teacher in the lower school .
During this time Johnson began exhibiting the tics that would influence how others viewed him in his later years , and which formed the basis for his posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome ( TS ) . TS develops in childhood ; it follows a fairly reliable course in terms of the age of onset and the history of the severity of symptoms . Tics may appear up to the age of eighteen , but the most typical age of onset is from five to seven . Johnson 's tics and gesticulations manifested after his childhood scrofula ; studies suggest that environmental and infectious factors — while not causing Tourette 's — can affect the severity of the disorder . Pearce describes Johnson 's birth as a " very difficult and dangerous labour " , and adds that Johnson had many illnesses throughout his life : he " suffered from bouts of melancholy , crushing guilt , habitual insomnia , and he endured a morbid fear of loneliness and of dying . " He also was " disturbed by scruples of infidelity " from the age of 10 .
Although TS caused problems in his private and public life , it lent Johnson " great verbal and vocal energy " . He excelled in his education and was promoted to the upper school at the age of nine , to be tutored by Edward Holbrooke . The school was directed by the Reverend John Hunter , a man known for his scholarship and , like Holbrooke , his brutality , which caused Johnson to become dissatisfied with his education . However , during this time he did befriend Edmund Hector , nephew of his " man @-@ midwife " George Hector , and John Taylor , both of whom he remained in contact with throughout his life .
= = = Cornelius Ford = = =
At the age of 16 , Johnson was given the opportunity to stay with his cousins , the Fords , at Pedmore , Worcestershire . There he bonded with Cornelius Ford , the son of his mother 's brother , and Ford employed his knowledge of the classics to tutor Johnson while he was not attending school . Johnson enjoyed his time with Ford , who encouraged Johnson to pursue his studies and to become a man of letters . Johnson remembered one moment of Ford 's teachings : Ford told him to " grasp the leading praecognita of all things ... grasps the trunk hard only , and you will shake all the branches " . Ford was a successful , well @-@ connected academic , familiar with many society figures such as Alexander Pope .
Ford was also a notorious alcoholic whose excesses contributed to his death six years after Johnson 's visit . This event deeply affected Johnson , and he remembered Ford in his Life of Fenton , saying that Ford 's abilities , " instead of furnishing convivial merriments to the voluptuous and dissolute , might have enabled him to excel among the virtuous and the wise " . Having spent six months with his cousins , Johnson returned to Lichfield , but Hunter , " angered by the impertinence of this long absence " , refused to allow him to continue at the grammar school .
Unable to return to Lichfield Grammar School , Johnson was enrolled , with the help of Ford and his half @-@ brother Gregory Hickman , into the King Edward VI grammar school at Stourbridge . The headmaster was John Wentworth , and he took care to work with Johnson on his translation exercises . Because the school was located near Pedmore , Johnson was able to spend more time with the Fords and get to know his other relatives in the area . During this time he began writing poems and produced many verse translations . However , he spent only six months at Stourbridge before returning once again to his parents ' home in 1727 . When Boswell was writing his Life of Samuel Johnson , he was told by Johnson 's school friend Edmund Hector Johnson 's leaving the Stourbridge school was due in part to a fight Johnson and Wentworth had over Latin grammar . For companionship , Johnson spent time with Hector and John Taylor , two of his schoolfriends , and he soon fell in love with Hector 's younger sister , Ann . This first love was not to last , and Johnson later claimed to Boswell , " She was the first woman with whom I was in love . It dropped out of my head imperceptibly , but she and I shall always have a kindness for each other . "
Johnson 's future now began to look uncertain , as his father was deeply in debt . To earn money , Johnson stitched books for his father , although poor eyesight — a result of his childhood illness — meant he eschewed the work involved . It is possible that Johnson spent most of his time in his father 's bookshop reading various works and building his literary knowledge . During this time , Johnson met Gilbert Walmesley , the Registrar of the Ecclesiastical Court and a frequent visitor to the bookshop . Walmesley took a liking to Johnson , and the two discussed various intellectual topics during the two years Johnson spent working in the shop . Their relationship was soon put on hold ; Sarah Johnson 's cousin , Elizabeth Harriotts , died in February 1728 and left her £ 40 ( about £ 4 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) , which was used to send Johnson back to school .
= = = College = = =
On 31 October 1728 , a few weeks after he turned 19 , Johnson entered Pembroke College , Oxford as a fellow @-@ commoner . The inheritance did not cover all of his expenses at Pembroke , but Andrew Corbet , a friend and student at Pembroke , offered to make up the deficit . Corbet left Pembroke soon after Johnson arrived , so this source of aid disappeared . To meet the expenses , Michael Johnson allowed his son to borrow a hundred books from his bookshop , at a great cost to himself , and these books were not fully returned to Michael until many years later .
On the day of Johnson 's entrance interview for Pembroke , his anxious father introduced him to his future tutor , William Jorden , hoping to make an impression . During the interview , his father was " very full of the merits of his son , and told the company he was a good scholar , and a poet , and wrote Latin verses " , which caused Johnson significant embarrassment . Michael 's praise was unnecessary ; Johnson 's interview went so well that one of the interviewers , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old William Adams ( Jorden 's cousin , later Master of Pembroke ) , claimed that Johnson was " the best qualified for the University that he had ever known come there " . Throughout the interview , Johnson sat quietly while listening to his father and the interviewers , until he interrupted and quoted Macrobius . The interviewers were surprised that " a School @-@ boy should know Macrobius " , and he was accepted immediately .
At Pembroke , Johnson made many friends , but neglected many of the mandatory lectures , and ignored calls for poems . He did complete one poem , the first of his tutorial exercises , on which he spent comparable time , and which provoked surprise and applause . He was later asked by his tutor to produce a Latin translation of Alexander Pope 's Messiah as a Christmas exercise . Johnson completed half of the translation in one afternoon and the rest the following morning . Although the poem brought him praise , it did not bring the material benefit he had hoped for . The poem was brought to Pope 's attention ; according to Sir John Hawkins , Pope claimed that he could not tell if it was the original or not . However , Johnson 's friend John Taylor dismissed this " praise " because Johnson 's father had already published the translation before Johnson sent a copy to Pope , and Pope could have been remarking about it being a duplication of the published edition .
Regardless , Pope remarked that the work was very finely done , but that did not prevent Johnson from being violently angry at his father 's actions in preempting his sending Pope a copy of the poem . The poem later appeared in Miscellany of Poems ( 1731 ) , edited by John Husbands , a Pembroke tutor , and is the earliest surviving publication of any of Johnson 's writings . Johnson spent the rest of his time studying , even over the Christmas vacation . He drafted a " plan of study " called " Adversaria " , which was left unfinished , and used his time to learn French while working on his knowledge of Greek .
Although he later praised Jorden , Johnson came to odds with him over what he considered to be Jorden 's " meanness " of abilities . He discouraged his friend Taylor , who came to Pembroke in March , from having Jorden as his tutor , and Taylor was soon encouraged to go to Christ Church to be taught by Edmund Bateman . Johnson appreciated Bateman 's skill as a lecturer , and he would often travel to meet Taylor to discuss the lectures . However , Johnson lacked the funds to even replace his shoes , and so he started to make the journey barefoot . In response , those of Christ Church began to mock Johnson , and he soon kept to his own room for the rest of his time at Pembroke , with Taylor visiting him instead .
After thirteen months , poverty forced Johnson to leave Oxford without taking a degree , and he returned to Lichfield . During his last weeks at Oxford , Jorden left Pembroke , and Johnson was given William Adams as a tutor in his place . He enjoyed Adams as a tutor , but by December , Johnson was already a quarter behind in his student fees , and he was forced to return home . He left behind many of the books that his father had previously lent him , both because he could not afford the expense of transporting all of them and as a symbolic gesture that he hoped to return to the school soon .
= = Early career = =
There is little record of Johnson 's life between the end of 1729 and 1731 ; he most likely lived with his parents when experiencing bouts of mental anguish and physical pains . After these years of illness , his tics and gesticulations associated with TS became more noticeable and were " commented on by many observers " . To further complicate Johnson 's life , his father was deeply in debt by 1731 and had lost much of his standing in Lichfield . An usher 's position became available at Stourbridge Grammar School , but Johnson 's lack of a degree saw him passed over , on 6 September 1731 . Instead , he stayed at the home of Gregory Hickman , Cornelius Ford 's half brother , writing poetry . It was there that he heard the devastating news that Cornelius had died in London , on 22 August 1731 ; later , in his personal " Annales " , he pointed to that moment as one of the most important of his life .
At about the same time , Johnson 's father became ill ; he developed an " inflammatory fever " by the end of the year . He died in December 1731 and was buried at St. Michael 's Church on 7 December 1731 . He left no will , and Johnson received only £ 20 from Michael 's estate of £ 60 ( £ 8 @.@ 9 thousand as of 2016 ) . In an act " almost like religious penance " , Johnson honoured his father 's memory 50 years later by returning to his bookstall in Uttoxeter to make amends for his refusal to work the stall while his father lay dying . Richard Warner kept Johnson 's account of the scene :
... a postchaise to Uttoxeter , and going into the market at the time of high business , uncovered my head , and stood with it bare an hour before the stall which my father had formerly used , exposed to the sneers of the standers @-@ by and the inclemency of the weather .
Johnson eventually found employment as undermaster at a school in Market Bosworth , Leicestershire . He was paid £ 20 a year ( £ 3 thousand as of 2016 ) , enough to support himself . The school was run by Sir Wolstan Dixie , who allowed Johnson to teach even though he did not have a degree . The unconventional Dixie allowed Johnson to live in his own mansion , Bosworth Hall . Although the arrangement may seem congenial , Johnson was treated as " a kind of domestick chaplain , so far , at least , as to say grace at table , but was treated with what he represented as intolerable harshness ; and , after suffering for a few months such complicated misery , he relinquished a situation which all his life afterwards he recollected with the strongest aversion , and even a degree of horrour " . Still , Johnson found pleasure in teaching even though he thought it boring . By June 1732 , he had returned home , and , after a fight with Dixie , quit the school .
Johnson spent the rest of his time at Lichfield looking for a position at the other local schools , and , after being turned down for a position in Ashbourne , Derbyshire , he spent his time with his friend , Hector . Hector lived in the home of Thomas Warren , on High Street , Birmingham , and Johnson was invited to stay there as a guest in the autumn of 1732 . Warren was at that time starting his Birmingham Journal , and he enlisted Johnson 's help , although no copies of the essays he wrote for the paper now survive . His stay with Hector and Warren was not to last , and Johnson moved into the house of a man named Jarvis on 1 June 1733 . During this time , Johnson started to slip into a " state of ' absence ' " and he began to treat his friends with " abuse " .
His connection with Warren continued to grow , and Johnson proposed to translate Jeronimo Lobo 's account of the Abyssinians . Johnson read Abbe Joachim Le Grand 's French translations , and he thought that a shorter version might be " useful and profitable " . He began work on the edition and a finished section was taken to be printed during the winter of 1733 – 1734 . Johnson 's nerves got the best of him , and after a breakdown he was unable to continue working , but felt obligated to meet his contract . To finish the rest , Johnson dictated directly to Hector , who then took the copy to the printer and made any corrections . It amounted to a month 's work , and , a year later , his A Voyage to Abyssinia was finally published .
Johnson returned to Lichfield in February 1734 , where he began an annotated edition of Poliziano 's Latin poems , along with a history of Latin poetry from Petrarch to Poliziano . The work was designed to fill 480 pages and provide a detailed commentary and corresponding notes . By completing such a work as this , Johnson hoped to become known as a scholar @-@ poet similar to Julius Caesar Scaliger , Daniel and Nikolaes Heinsius , Desiderius Erasmus , and Poliziano , all of whom Johnson admired . Johnson began on 15 June 1743 and printed a Proposal for the work on 5 August 1734 . However , the project did not receive enough funds and it was soon brought to an end . Although the project failed , it shows that Johnson identified himself with neo @-@ Latin humanism .
= = = Marriage = = =
Johnson identified himself as a poet and , in November 1734 , applied to Edward Cave to work on the poetry reviews for The Gentleman 's Magazine . In a letter written under the name S. Smith , Johnson said , " As You appear no less sensible than Your Readers of the defects of your Poetical Article , You will not be displeased , if , in order to the improvement of it , I communicate to You the sentiments of a person , who will undertake on reasonable terms sometimes to fill a column " . In particular , Johnson suggested removing the magazine 's " low Jests " and " awkward Buffoonery " and then replacing them with poems , inscriptions , and " short literary Dissertations in Latin or English " written by himself . Cave did not accept Johnson 's proposal to write a column , but he did employ Johnson occasionally to work on minor aspects of the periodical .
Around this time , Johnson became close to a man named Harry Porter , and remained with him during his terminal illness . Porter died on 3 September 1734 , leaving his wife Elizabeth ( née Jervis , and nicknamed " Tetty " ) widowed at the age of 45 , with three children . Months later , Johnson began to court the widow ; Reverend William Shaw claims that " the first advances probably proceeded from her , as her attachment to Johnson was in opposition to the advice and desire of all her relations " . Johnson and Elizabeth became close , and they quickly fell in love . She admired Johnson greatly and claimed that he was " the most sensible man that I ever saw in my life " .
Johnson was inexperienced in relationships , but the well @-@ to @-@ do widow encouraged him and provided for him with her substantial savings . The two were married on 9 July 1735 , at St. Werburgh 's Church in Derby . The Porter family did not approve of the match , partly because Johnson was 25 and Elizabeth was 21 years his elder . His mother 's marriage to Johnson so disgusted her son Jervis that he stopped talking to her . Her other son Joseph later accepted the marriage , and her daughter , Lucy , accepted Johnson from the start .
= = = Edial Hall = = =
During the previous June while working as a tutor for Thomas Whitby 's children , Johnson had applied for the position of headmaster at Solihull School . Walmesley lent his support to Johnson 's application , but Johnson was passed over because the school 's directors thought he was " a very haughty , ill @-@ natured gent . , and that he has such a way of distorting his face ( which though he can 't help ) the gent [ s ] think it may affect some lads " . He was also rejected for a position at a school in Brewood for similar reasons . Johnson did not give up his ambition to teach ; with Walmesley 's encouragement , he decided to set up his own school .
In the autumn of 1735 , Johnson opened a private academy at Edial , near Lichfield . The building , Edial Hall , was a large house with a pyramid @-@ shaped roof and a unique design ; a back room served as the schoolroom while the rest housed Johnson 's family . He had only three pupils , David Garrick , George Garrick and Lawrence Offley ; David Garrick — 18 at the time — went on to become one of the most famous actors of his day . Johnson designed a curriculum that focused on the reading of classical literature , starting with what he considered to be easier works , such as those by Corderius and Er
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it was included in his later Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets series .
= Stichometry =
Stichometry refers to the practice of counting lines in texts : Ancient Greeks and Romans measured the length of their books in lines , just as modern books are measured in pages . This practice was rediscovered by German and French scholars in the 19th century . Stichos is the Greek word for a ' line ' of prose or poetry and the suffix ' -metry ' is derived from the Greek word for measurement .
The length of each line in the Iliad and Odyssey , which may have been among the first long , Greek texts written down , became the standard unit for ancient stichometry . This standard line ( Normalzeile , in German ) was thus as long as an epic hexameter and contained about 15 syllables or 35 Greek letters .
Stichometry existed for several reasons . Scribes were paid by the line and their fee per line was sometimes fixed by legal decree . Authors occasionally cited passages in the works of other authors by giving their approximate line number . Book buyers used total line counts to check that copied texts were complete . Library catalogs listed the total number of lines in each work along with the title and author .
Scholars believe that stichometry became established in Athens sometime during the 5th century BCE when copying prose works became common . Stichometry is mentioned briefly in Plato 's Laws ( c . 347 BCE ) , several times in Isocrates ( early to mid @-@ 4th century ) , and in Theopompus ( late 4th to early 3rd century ) , but these casual references suggest the practice was already routine . The same standard line was used for stichometry among the Greeks and Romans for about a thousand years until stichometry apparently fell out of use among the Byzantine Greeks in the Middle Ages as page numbers became more common .
The standard work on stichometry is Kurt Ohly 's 1928 Stichometrische Untersuchungen which collects together the results of some fifty years of scholarly debate and research . Today , stichometry plays a small but useful role in research in fields as diverse as the history of the ancient book , papyrology , and Christian hermeneutics .
= = Definitions = =
There are two kinds of stichometry . Total stichometry is the practice of reporting the total number of lines in a work . Partial stichometry is the practice of including a series of numerals in the margins of a text , usually to mark every hundredth line .
Stichometry was sometimes confused with colometry , the practice of some Christian authors in late antiquity of writing texts broken into rhetorical phrases to aid delivery . Some modern Jewish and Christian scholars use ‘ stichometry ’ as a synonym for ‘ stichography , ’ which is the occasional practice in ancient scriptures of laying out texts so that each biblical or poetic verse begins on a new line .
= = Evidence for Stichometry = =
The libraries of Europe contain many medieval copies of ancient Greek and Latin texts . Many of these contain short notes or ' subscriptions ' on the final page that , in hundreds of cases , give the total number of lines in the work . In texts of classical authors such as Herodotus and Demosthenes , these totals are expressed in the older , acrophonic numerals that were used in Athens during the classical period but abandoned sometime during the Hellenistic period . Thus these stichometric totals are thought to descend , along with the content of the texts , from very early editions .
Many ancient authors mention stichometry . Galen complains about the verbosity of a rival and says he can offer a description in fewer lines . In the 1st century BCE , a philosopher criticized Zeno of Citium and cited particular passages by giving their line number to the nearest hundredth line . Diogenes Laertius probably draws on the Pinakes , the published catalogue of the Library of Alexandria , when he reports the total number of lines in the oeuvres of various authors . He says , for example , that Speusippus wrote 43 @,@ 475 , Aristotle wrote 445 @,@ 270 , and Theophrastus wrote 232 @,@ 808 lines . The Cheltenham Canon lists line totals for books in the Christian Bible and concludes with an anonymous note apparently written by a book dealer in the 4th century CE when the practice of stichometry was perhaps becoming less familiar :
Since the list of line totals [ of the books in the Bible available ] in the city of Rome is not reliable , and elsewhere because of greed is not complete , I have gone through each individual book , counting 16 syllables to the line ( as used in Virgil ) , and recorded the number for each book in all of them .
Beginning in the 19th century , archaeologists discovered a large number of more or less fragmentary Greek scrolls in Egypt . Ohly describes and analyzes some fifty papryi which provide direct , ancient evidence for total and partial stichometry .
= = The Modern Rediscovery of Stichometry = =
Friedrich Ritschl , a leading German classicist in the mid @-@ 19th century , stimulated interest in the mysterious numerals found at the end of medieval manuscripts by discussing them in several of his essays .
In an 1878 article that Ohly called ‘ epoch @-@ making , ’ Charles Graux proved that the numerals at the end of the medieval manuscripts were proportional to the length of each work and in fact gave the total number of a fixed unit equal to a Homeric line . This discovery established the concept of the standard line .
While studying the Clarke Codex of Plato 's dialogues at Oxford , Martin Schanz noticed that isolated letters in the margins of two dialogues formed an alphabetic series and marked every hundredth standard line ( alpha
= 100 , beta =
200 , etc . ) . He was able to show that other manuscripts had similar marginal markings . His 1881 article named this kind of line @-@ counting ' partial stichometry ' and contrasted it to ' total stichometry ' studied by Graux .
Theodor Birt 's well @-@ known The Nature of the Ancient Book ( 1882 ) substantially widened research on stichometry . Birt saw that Graux 's breakthrough led to a cascade of insights about scribal practices and publishing , citations and intertextuality , and the kinds of formats and editions used in antiquity . Stichometry thus led to a broader study of the spatial organization of ancient books and their social , economic , and intellectual roles . As Hermann Diels said ,
The investigations of the recently deceased Charles Graux , taken all too prematurely from the world of scholarship , have made it henceforth inalterably certain that the standard line ( the stichos ) of the ancients was a unit of spatial length equal to the hexameter . Theodor Birt has rightly erected his shrewd and persuasive The Nature of the Ancient Book upon this foundation .
Birt 's 550 @-@ page work was stimulated by practical questions about the ancient culture of books but grew into a broad reevaluation and reorganization of our knowledge of ancient literature and intellectual life . His introduction argued :
The nature of the literature of antiquity and the form of the ancient book reciprocally conditioned each other . The context of publication enveloped and modified literary creativity . The dividends of these investigations will thereby far exceed the satisfaction of merely antiquarian pleasures .
Many of Birt 's theories and interpretations are dated and have been superseded by later research , but he permanently broadened and deepened the methodologies used in histories of the ancient book and connected stichometry to a broad range of intellectual and literary issues .
In 1893 , James Rendel Harris ' book Stichometry extended these new developments to an analysis of the stichometric data found in many early manuscripts of the Christian Bible and other Christian texts .
In 1909 , Domenico Bassi published a survey of the stichometric notations found on the papyri excavated at Herculaneum .
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries , archaeologists discovered a large number of fragmentary , Greek scrolls in Egyptian tombs , mummies , and city dumps . Some of these contained stichometric notations , and papyrologists became interested in the question of whether this data provided clues that would aid in reassembling the fragments . Kurt Ohly studied the stichometry found in many of the scrolls excavated at Herculaneum in Italy but his 1929 book Stichometrische Untersuchungen contained a complete survey of the treasure trove of newly discovered Greco @-@ Egyptian papyri with stichometric notations . It is regarded as the standard work on stichometry . Ohly discusses the length of the standard line , the evidence for syllable counting , the various number systems used in stichometric reports , and the aims and history of stichometry among the Greeks , Romans , and Byzantines . Ohly 's catalog of ancient papyri with stichometry together with Bassi 's survey and the line reports in medieval manuscripts collected by Graux provide a wide range of evidence for ancient stichometric practices and their evolution through the centuries .
= = Recent Research and Applications = =
Rudolf Blum summarized research on stichometry in the catalog of Callimachus at the Library of Alexandria .
Holger Essler ( University of Würzburg ) discussed stichometry 's role in the ongoing efforts to reconstruct the papyri excavated at Herculaneum .
Dirk Obbink ( Oxford University ) used stichometry in his restoration of Philodemus ' On Piety .
Jay Kennedy ( Manchester University ) claimed in several articles and a book , The Musical Structure of Plato 's Dialogues , that Plato counted the lines in his dialogues in order to insert symbolic passages at regular intervals and thereby formed various musical and Pythagorean patterns .
Rachel Yuen @-@ Collingridge and Malcolm Choat ( Macquarie University ) used stichometry along with other kinds of evidence to make inferences about scribal practice and copying techniques .
Mirko Canevaro ( Durham University ) argued that the stichometric totals in the Demosthenes manuscripts descended from the earliest editions . He used these totals to show that the supposed excerpts of documentary evidence inserted in the speeches were not present in those early editions and were thus late forgeries . His book , The Documents in the Attic Orators , includes an introduction to stichometry .
= Bedtime Story ( Madonna song ) =
" Bedtime Story " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . It was released as the third single from the album on February 13 , 1995 , by Maverick Records , and it also appears on Madonna 's compilation album GHV2 ( 2001 ) . " Bedtime Story " was written by Björk , Nellee Hooper and Marius De Vries ; it was the only time Björk wrote a song for a Madonna album . She re @-@ wrote a demo of the song to the current version , which was then produced by Madonna and Hooper . A mid @-@ tempo electronic and house song with acid , ambient and techno influences , " Bedtime Story " has an underlying skeletal synth melody influenced by minimal trance music . The track was a departure from Madonna 's pop @-@ R & B @-@ based outputs in favor of unconventional and electronic music . Lyrically it talks about the joys of the unconscious world .
" Bedtime Story " received favorable reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's hypnotic and electronic style , and deemed it an underrated song which could have had great potential . The song was a moderate success , reaching the top ten in the record charts of United Kingdom , Italy and Australia , but missed the top 40 in United States , while peaking at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The music video for " Bedtime Story " was directed by Mark Romanek and is listed as one of the most expensive music videos of all time with a cost of $ 5 million ( $ 7 @.@ 76 million in 2016 dollars ) . It features surrealistic and new age imagery , with influences from artists such as Remedios Varo , Frida Kahlo and Leonora Carrington . The video received acclaim from critics and is permanently displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City .
" Bedtime Story " was performed at the 1995 Brit Awards in London with Madonna wearing a white Versace dress and long hair extensions , becoming one of the 30 best moments of the awards show history according to Marie Claire . A remixed version of the track was also used as a video interlude on her Re @-@ Invention World Tour in 2004 . Critics and scholars noted that the song foreshadowed Madonna 's move towards electronic music in her future work .
= = Background and release = =
According to Lucy O 'Brien in her book Madonna : Like an Icon , Madonna wanted to " make an impact " on the soul music scene , and started working with prominent producers from the R & B market . Madonna also wanted to explore British club music scene , where genres such as dub had been growing in popularity . She decided to work with several European producers and composers from the electronic scene , including Nellee Hooper , who pleased Madonna due to his " very European sensibility " . Inviting Hooper over to Los Angeles , writing sessions started taking place in Chappell Studios , Encino , California .
" Bedtime Story " was written by Icelandic singer @-@ songwriter Björk , Marius De Vries and Hooper , and co @-@ produced by Madonna and Hooper . According to author Mark Pytlik in his book Björk : Wow and Flutter , Madonna was inspired at that time by Björk 's second studio album , Debut ( 1993 ) . Through her connections with De Vries and Hooper , Madonna got in touch with Björk and offered her a chance to write a track for Bedtime Stories . Björk did not consider herself a fan of Madonna 's music , but she was intrigued by the offer and she accepted it . She wrote a song initially named " Let 's Get Unconscious " , with the opening lyrics " Today is the last day , That I 'm using words " — the lines being born out of Björk 's own criticism of Madonna 's aesthetic . The singer clarified , " When I was offered to write a song for [ Madonna ] , I couldn 't really picture me doing a song that would suit her ... But on second thought , I decided to do this to write the things I have always wanted to hear her say that she 's never said . "
Once the song demo had been finished , De Vries and Hooper rearranged the track and the final version was called " Bedtime Story " . The song was eventually released as the third single from the parent album , Bedtime Stories , on February 13 , 1995 . Björk later confessed that Madonna had got few of the lyrics wrong , like instead of the original " learning logic and reason " Madonna included it as " leaving logic and reason " . The original demo was later re @-@ worked and released as " Sweet Intuition " , which appeared as a B @-@ side on Björk 's " Army of Me " single and remixed on the " It 's Oh So Quiet " single .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Bedtime Story " is an electronic song , a notable departure from the other tracks on its parent album , which are more R & B and new jack swing @-@ driven . Unlike Madonna 's more up @-@ tempo , melodic work , the song is slower and has less melody but a more complex rhythmic structure . It has an ambient @-@ influenced tone , with a " pulsating " and a " deep , bubbling " house beat . There are stylistic comparisons to acid house music with its " skeletal " synth arrangement , influences of minimal trance , as well as techno . The song 's instrumentation is synthesized , consisting of drum machine loops , organs , strings , gurgles , handclaps , as well as a digitally @-@ altered " homophonic " choir . According to sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , " Bedtime Story " is written in the key of G minor and has a moderate tempo of 108 beats per minute . Madonna 's vocals span from the nodes of A3 to G ♭ 5 and follos a basic sequence of Gm9 – Dm – E – A – G as its chord progression . The song is linked to the ending of the previous album track , " Sanctuary " , and starts with its chords . The ending of the track has a pulsating beat and a mix of the lead synth , with Madonna 's voice whimpering and uttering " Ha @-@ ha @-@ aahs " . It ends abruptly saying " And all that you 've ever learned , try to forget , I 'll never explain again " making the listener believe that it was all the part of a dream .
According to Victor Amaro Vicente in his book The aesthetics of motion in musics for the Mevlana Celal ed @-@ Din Rumi , the song 's music bears many resemblances to new age @-@ era music and different forms of Sufi music . Its slow atmospheric qualities have drawn comparison to " Mevlevi @-@ Sufi Relaxation " and the song 's intricate , " steady and continuous " rhythmic structure has also drawn comparison to the zikr ceremony . Björk , one of the song 's writers , has been credited for giving the song its particular style and according to De Vries , the track 's architecture is " distinctly Björkian " and she " has such a particular and idiosyncratic approach to the construction of lyrics and phrasing " . In a chapter of Music and Technoculture written by Charity Marsh and Melissa West , it is stated that one can hear the influence of Björk in Madonna 's vocals during the song .
Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , noted that the lyrics of " Bedtime Story " are an hymn to the joys of unconsciousness and a rejection of the supposed constraints of reason and language , hence the line " Words are useless , especially sentences , They don 't stand for anything , How could they explain how I feel ? " Lyrically , despite being a song about a trip to the unconscious , scholars have noticed subtexts within the song 's meaning . Vicente noted that postmodernism and new age themes are prevalent within the lyrics , especially with regards to their incapability of articulating the concept of the truth , as well as the song 's theme of meditation and relax . Islamic mystic and sexual themes have also been noted within the song 's lyrics . Vicente further found that the cliché references to " honey " , " longing and yearning " , and the sexual connotations of being " wet on the inside " does not relate to " secular " love , but to " ecstatic " Sufi poetry . The lyrics allude to concepts of movement which are " central " to Sufi philosophy : " It indicates achieving fana through sema ( getting ' lost ' and ' leaving logic and reason to the arms of unconsciousness ' ) " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bedtime Story " has received positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , in a review for the parent album , wrote that " Bedtime Story " was among the " best songs on the album " and that it " slowly works [ its ] melodies into the subconscious as the bass pulses " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the song , claiming that it had unfulfilled potential and that it " could have been the next ' Vogue ' " . In a review for her GHV2 album , he also described the song as a " trippy follow @-@ up to the mainstream hit ' Take a Bow ' " and gave it an " A " rating . Larry Flick from Billboard noted that " It is easily among [ Madonna 's ] boldest and most experimental pop singles to date " with " trippy and cutting @-@ edge trance dance rhythms " . He finished his review praising its " ingratiating " hook and " it is an affecting plea for unconscious bliss and escape , voiced with underplayed angst and resolve " . Peter Galvin from The Advocate found that the song " calls to mind the Ecstasy anthem ' Rescue Me ' " .
O 'Brien wrote that " ' Bedtime Story ' was a vivid track that foreshadowed Madonna 's move towards electronica " . Author Victor Amaro Vicente wrote in his book , The Aesthetics of Motion in Musics for the Mevlana Celal Ed @-@ Din Rumi , that the song 's " complex rhythmic texture " made it a " dance hall favorite in the mid @-@ 1990s " . Rikky Rooksbywrote in The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , that the track was similar to the music of English alternative band Everything but the Girl , and claimed that " in contrast to most other songs of the album , this is one track that could have been longer and more trippy than it is " . Writing for Idolator , Bianca Gracie calle d " Bedtime Story " the highlight of the album , adding that " It sucks you in with its quivering drum patterns taken directly from trance music , which creates an ethereal ambiance " . Gracie commended the influence of UK dance music and Madonna 's provocative vocals , finding the song to be a direct inspiration for singer Britney Spears ' " Breathe on Me " , from her fourth studio album In the Zone ( 2003 ) .
Matthew Rettenmund wrote in his Encyclopedia Madonnica that the song was a " total curveball " because of its inclusion on the album . He also believed that releasing it as a follow @-@ up single to the commercially successful " Take a Bow " diminished its potential . However , Rettenmund praised it as one of Madonna 's most " uncharacteristic " songs , describing as a " hypnotic , almost hallucinogenic , ride through an idealized state of mind . " This was echoed by author Chris Wade , who wrote in the book The Music of Madonna that although written by Björk , Madonna made the song her own by " adding a druggy , sleepiness [ to it ] that makes it one of her most unusual , quirky and challenging tracks . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated April 22 , 1995 . One week later , the song peaked at number 42 , becoming the first Madonna single since " Burning Up
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beauty pageant contest representing Third Ward , Houston , the area in which she grew up . It opens with the sound of a poignant piano and shots of Beyoncé sporting short hair , looking at herself in the mirror . It transitions to a segment of her fellow contestants preparing for the pageant backstage , combing their hair , fitting their dresses and analyzing their bodies ; one scene during the preparations shows Beyoncé arguing with another contestant over a hair dryer . Multiple shots of the singer follow , of which depict her sitting on a floor and leaving a bathroom after vomiting . The clip then sees contestants looking tired and distressed backstage .
Beyoncé is then announced by the contest 's host as " Miss 3rd Ward " , and she then appears on stage , smiling and singing the first verse of the song a capella . An applause follows from the crowd while the contest 's judges write notes about her . The song then begins during a depiction of Beyoncé in the preparations for the show , in which she combs and sprays her hair , depilates her face and whitens her teeth . The scene transitions to a judge , played by the fashion model Shaun Ross , directing the contestants , during which Beyoncé is seen consuming diet pills . He measures her abdomen with tape and hits her thighs as an indication of preferred onstage behaviour . The second verse follows , during which Beyoncé is pictured exercising at her home and measuring her weight to her own dissatisfaction .
As the second verse finishes , the host calls Beyoncé on the stage and praises her for her performance at the competition , asking the crowd to applaud to the " beautiful and poised " in the contest . He then asks , " Miss 3rd Ward , your first question . What is your aspiration in life ? " , to which Beyoncé replies : " Oh , my aspiration in life ? That 's a great question . I wasn 't expecting that question " . During her reply , her voice is echoed repeating the question , and she is then pictured drowning in water and looking unhappy backstage . After the pause , Beyoncé answers , " My aspiration in life would be to be happy " . The chorus then restarts with Beyoncé wrecking a shelf containing her personal trophies . She is also shown backstage , smearing her make @-@ up , and vomiting in the bathroom . Another contestant is pictured eating cotton .
During the bridge of the song , the contestant is then visible at a hospital where a plastic surgeon injects botox into her face . In the scene , Beyoncé is pictured in a white straight jacket . She is then shown in another segment , being spray tanned in a bikini . At the end of the music video , Beyoncé loses the contest to an albino woman after which she happily congratulates her . The last scene depicts the singer looking happy and smiling with little make @-@ up on her face . The final 30 seconds of the clip are intercepted into footage of Beyoncé , as a child , winning an award for Female Pop Vocalist on a television show . She appears onstage saying : " I would like to thank the judges for picking me , my parents who I love . I love you Houston " .
= = = Reception = = =
According to Dan Crane of the New York Times , " Pretty Hurts " was the music video that garnered the most attention following the release of Beyoncé . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani commented that the song sounded more " immersive " accompanied by its music video . Similarly , NME 's Emily Mackay who gave a mixed review for the song , felt that its visual " [ saved ] the day " , and deemed the scene where Beyoncé wrecks her trophy shelf as " powerful " . Jon Blistein of Rolling Stone called the video " intense " and " touching , " wrote that the " shots of her bashing her trophy shelf prove way more cathartic than any pageant victory " . Kitty Empire of The Observer commented that the video contained perspective in the scenes depicting " painful depilating , pill @-@ popping and toilet @-@ hugging details " . Vanity writer Michelle Collins felt that the singer managed to make exercising look difficult and uncomfortable , and praised the scene where Beyoncé responds to the pageant judge questioning her life aspirations . Spin 's Philip Sherburne alluded that the video was emotional and wrote that it offered " a story line that opens up a wealth of readings about race , skin tone , beauty standards , and her [ Beyoncé 's ] own mutable image . " Whitney Phaneuf from the website HitFix praised Beyoncé 's acting in the video and added that the vulnerability in the character she portrayed was " palpable " . Phaneuf went on to opine that the footage of Beyoncé competing in a talent show as a child made the clip look more realistic . Ryan B. Patrick of Exclaim ! wrote that the video allowed Beyoncé to showcase her acting abilities . The editors of Out magazine likened the clip to the films Magic Mike ( 2012 ) and American Hustle ( 2013 ) .
The cohesion of the track 's lyrics with the video was commended by critics , with Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club noting that it allowed Beyoncé to " [ open ] herself up in ways she 's resisted before " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune who lauded the song as a " soaring critique of the beauty industry " , added that it was " enhanced by its troubling video " . Marc Hogan of Spin magazine commented that the visual expanded on the message of the song , and deemed it a " powerful piece of work " . Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote in his review of the song that its " brutal " music video took the critique of perfection and physical beauty further than what the track did . Brandon Sodeber of the magazine Vice called the visual the best on Beyoncé and opined that it was " an incredibly affecting mini @-@ melodrama that underlines to Beyoncé 's painful awareness that being black and female means you 're never enough of something or other for mainstream America " . However , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph felt that the video sent mixed messages . Brent DiCrescenzo from Time Out complimented Keitel 's appearance in the clip , but criticized the visual 's message because he felt that it came from " one of the most beautiful women in the world " .
Questions raised by critics mainly concerned the irony and hypocrisy of the lyrics of the song and its video . Philip Cosores of Paste felt that with the music video , Beyoncé disrespected the message she sent through the song and felt that it was notable enough to stand on its own . Similarly , Shannon Kelley for TakePart said that the song " offers an honest commentary on an important reality " , but highlighted the irony of its music video and felt that it manifested that " [ Beyoncé is ] not immune to the disease " . Randal Roberts of the Los Angeles Times quipped , " She makes a convincing case , were it not for the string of nearly soft @-@ core fashion shoots that follow [ on the album ] ... As a first song on an album , ' Pretty Hurts ' works . But as thematic opener to such a relentless visual seduction , the hypocrisy is hard to ignore . " Although Daisy Buchanan of The Daily Telegraph praised the message of the song and its video , she wrote in her review that the clip was " pure hypocrisy " because she opined that Beyoncé had promoted " heavily sexualised and unattainable standards " with her body throughout her career .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
Michael Cragg of The Guardian ranked the video for " Pretty Hurts " in the ten best of Beyoncé 's career . Cragg deemed the clip " gorgeously shot " and opined that its magazine shoot style " slightly subverted by barely veiled sadness and tight rictus grins " . At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards , the clip was nominated in four categories : Best Editing , Best Direction , Best Cinematography Best Video with a Message , ultimately winning the latter two . Jessica Suarez of Rolling Stone included the clip in her year @-@ end list of the ten best music videos of 2014 .
= = Live performances and other versions = =
" Pretty Hurts " was part of the set list for Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) . For the performances of the song , Beyoncé sports a leather @-@ studded jacket with the word , Texas , capitalized and emblazoned across its back , along with denim short pants . The outfits were designed by Nicola Formichetti who took inspiration from Beyoncé 's music video for " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " , outlaw motorcycle clubs , and included references to her daughter Blue Ivy . Billboard editor Leila Cobo felt that the inclusion of the song in the set list served as a " stab " at feminism for her audience . In a review of one of the tour 's concerts , Houston Chronicle writer Joey Guerra opined the song was oddly placed in the set list , but wrote that it " somehow worked perfectly as a late @-@ set crescendo " . The Times @-@ Picayune editor , Keith Spera , felt that the singer " lofted " the song in its live renditions .
On January 14 , 2014 American singer Sam Tsui released an acoustic cover version of " Pretty Hurts " on the iTunes Store . An early instrumental of " Pretty Hurts " was used for Gucci 's Chime for Change campaign in 2013 , before the song 's official release . At the time , it served as an audio accompaniment for the campaign 's films . On June 3 , Dutch disc jockey R3hab released an uptempo electro house remix of the song during a concert for Gucci 's Chime for Change , in honor of the one @-@ year anniversary of its launching . Idolator 's Mike Wass praised the remix 's " killer drop " and called it " on @-@ point from beginning to end " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Song
Beyoncé – songwriter , vocals , production , vocal production
Sia Furler – songwriter , background vocals
Ammo – songwriter , production
Stuart White – recording , mixing
Ramon Rivas – second engineering
Rob Suchecki – second engineering
Derek Dixie – intro additional synth and SFX
James Krausse – mastering
Video
Credits adapted from Beyoncé 's website .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= River Irwell =
The River Irwell ( / ˈɜːrwɛl / UR @-@ well ) is a 39 @-@ mile ( 63 km ) long river which flows through the Irwell Valley in North West England . Its source is at Irwell Springs on Deerplay Moor , approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Bacup . It forms the boundary between Manchester and Salford and empties into the River Mersey near Irlam .
In the 17th and 18th centuries , the Irwell 's lower reaches were a trading route that became part of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation . In the 19th century , the river 's course downstream of Manchester was permanently altered by the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal which opened in 1896 . The canal turned Manchester and Salford into a major inland seaport and led to the development of Trafford Park which became the largest industrial estate in Europe . Further changes were made in the 20th and 21st centuries to prevent flooding in Manchester and Salford , such as the Anaconda Cut in 1970 and the River Irwell Flood Defence Scheme in 2014 .
The river became severely polluted by industrial waste in the Industrial Revolution , but in the second half of the 20th century a number of initiatives were implemented to improve water quality , restock it with fish and create a diverse environment for wildlife . Stretches of the river flowing through Manchester and Salford have attracted large @-@ scale investment in business and residential developments , such as Salford Quays , and other parts have become important wildlife havens . The Irwell is used for recreational activities , such as pleasure cruising , rowing , racing and fishing .
= = Course = =
From its source to the confluence with the River Mersey the Irwell is about 39 miles ( 63 km ) long . Rising on the moors above Cliviger , it flows south through Bacup , Rawtenstall , Ramsbottom and Bury before merging with the River Roch near Radcliffe . Turning west , it joins the River Croal near Farnworth before turning southeast through Kearsley , Clifton and the Agecroft area of Pendlebury . It then meanders around Lower Kersal and Lower Broughton . It bisects Salford and Manchester , joining the rivers Irk and Medlock , and then turns west toward Irlam , as part of the Manchester Ship Canal . Its course ends just east of Irlam , where it empties into the Mersey .
= = Natural history = =
Until the early 19th century the Irwell was well stocked with fish and other wildlife , with people living near Manchester Cathedral using its water for drinking and other domestic purposes . However , during the Industrial Revolution , increasing levels of pollution caused by waste products discharged into the river by local industries proved fatal to wildlife , with fish stocks disappearing completely by about 1850 . This situation abated somewhat during the 20th century , with a slow improvement in water quality leading to fresh populations of roach , bream and chub , and sightings of brown trout have become increasingly common .
Problems with water quality in some of the former Manchester Docks basins became apparent with the redevelopment of Salford Quays . Years of runoff from sewers and roads had accumulated in the slow running waters of this area and decomposition of organic matter was causing oxygen depletion . In 2001 , a compressed air injection system was introduced . This raised the oxygen levels in the water by up to 300 % , improving the water quality to such an extent that the number of invertebrate species present , like freshwater shrimp , increased by more than 30 . Spawning and growth rates of fish species such as roach and perch have also increased , and are now amongst the highest in England .
Two Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) are located close to the banks of the Irwell , near to its confluence with the River Croal at Moses Gate Country Park near Bolton . The first is at Nob End , a 88 800 m ² site which has been designated because of its biological interest , based on the predominance of flora typical of limestone grassland including some nationally rare herbs and orchids . Nob End is also designated as a Local Nature Reserve ( LNR ) . The second site is Ashclough , which is a site of geological interest . These two SSSIs are among the 21 found in Greater Manchester . In Salford the river flows through Clifton Country Park and Kersal Dale Country Park , both of which have been designated as LNRs .
Herons , cormorants , mute swans , kingfishers and many species of geese and ducks are regularly sighted on the river . The Manchester Ship Canal near Salford Quays is one of the top ten sites in Britain for diving ducks , providing a winter home to approximately 3 @,@ 000 common pochard and 2 @,@ 000 tufted ducks .
= = Geology = =
The Irwell is all that remains of the shallow seas that covered most of south @-@ east Lancashire in the Late Carboniferous period , when deposits of mud and sand were laid down . During the Permian and Triassic periods , red sandstones were deposited under arid , desert conditions and these became compressed into beds of shales , New Red Sandstone and Manchester marls , alternating with layers of gritstone . The glaciers of the Pleistocene period radically re @-@ shaped the landscape and then retreated , leaving behind deposits of sand , pebbles and boulder clay that formed the fluvioglacial ridges of the lower Irwell Valley . Ashclough , a 50 800 m ² site which comprises the steep banks of the river between Prestolee and Little Lever , has been designated an SSSI because of its geological interest , primarily because it is the best site in the area displaying the Ashclough marine band and its associated strata . Ashclough is a site of national importance for interpreting the coal measure palaeogeography of Great Britain .
= = River Irwell catchment area = =
The River Irwell catchment area extends from the moors above Bacup to the Manchester Ship Canal . The climate of the catchment area is wetter than the UK average , with rainfall of 1 @,@ 456 millimetres ( 57 @.@ 3 in ) per annum compared to 1 @,@ 231 millimetres ( 48 @.@ 5 in ) per annum , and the rivers quickly respond to rainfall . The topography varies considerably , with the upper reaches dominated by the Pennine moors at an altitude of between 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) and 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) AOD and the bottom of the catchment consisting of relatively flat land , which lies between 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and 150 metres ( 490 ft ) AOD . The watercourses are characterised by steep narrow valleys , which contributes to high rates of run @-@ off , as does the underlying solid geology . This comprises Lower Coal Measures overlying Millstone Grit , both of which are classified as minor aquifers which will only hold relatively small amounts of water . The Millstone Grit is , in turn , underlain by limestone rocks from the lower Carboniferous period . The surface deposits comprise thick peat in the upper reaches , with glacial boulder clay and glacial sand and gravel in the lower parts . The sand and gravel are also classified as a minor aquifer , whilst the boulder clay is a non @-@ aquifer . The higher , steeper slopes of the upper part of the catchment provide a large source of erodible material and debris which is transported downstream to the lower , flatter parts of the catchment . Where the channel is constricted , this material is then deposited and can contribute to a reduction in channel capacity .
= = History = =
The origins of the name " Irwell " are uncertain but many accept the Anglo @-@ Saxon origin , ere @-@ well , meaning " hoar or white spring " . Flint scrapers , knives and other materials associated with neolithic man were discovered on Kersal Moor in the late 19th century and early 20th century . There have been isolated finds of artefacts characteristic of this period along the Irwell valley , and a possible hunting site was excavated at Prestwich Golf Course in 1982 , which produced a quantity of Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age flints . Neolithic tools have also been found in the River Roch near Bury and in Radcliffe , and Bronze Age burial sites have been found in Bury and Shuttleworth . The first recorded human settlements were those of the Celtic tribe , the Brigantes , who farmed the uplands and lower reaches of the river in the late iron age . In AD 79 the Roman Empire conquered these tribes , building forts at the confluences of the Irwell and the rivers Irk and Medlock and naming the town Mamucium . They also built a ford with rectangular stone blocks at Cornbrook , which is thought to be the first man @-@ made structure to span the river . For four hundred years the Pax Romana brought peace , but their withdrawal in AD 410 left the tribes at the mercy of the Saxons , who renamed the town Manigceastre . The Danes later seized , and all @-@ but destroyed Manigceastre , and absorbed what was left of the tribes . The Danelaw ruled until AD 920 when the Norsemen were expelled by Edward the Elder .
In the Middle Ages the town , which was now known as Manceastre ( later to become Manchester ) , grew and prospered , and trading vessels plied along the river . The hamlet of Kersal , which now forms part of the City of Salford , was gifted to the Cluniac Priory of Lenton , near Nottingham , in 1142 . The most important part of the gift was the fishing rights on the River Irwell , and even in the 18th century , the salmon rights on the rivers of Lancashire were let every year for many hundreds of pounds .
= = = 19th century = = =
During the Industrial Revolution factories , mills and terraced hovels grew up along the river banks . Edward Corbett , the Borough Engineer of Salford , wrote in his 1907 book The River Irwell of his father 's experiences around 1819 , of seeing " large shoals of fish , chiefly gudgeon but also other fish , rising to the flies " from a vantage point on New Bailey bridge , ( now Albert Bridge ) in Manchester . Local industry dumped toxic chemicals into the river , such as gas @-@ tar , gas @-@ lime and ammonia water , and by 1850 fish stocks had all but disappeared . In 1860 the Irwell was described as " almost proverbial for the foulness of its waters ; receiving the refuse of cotton factories , coal mines , print works , bleach works , dye works , chemical works , paper works , almost every kind of industry . " In 1862 the Scottish geologist Hugh Miller wrote about the Irwell , in his book First Impressions : The English People , describing it as :
The hapless river — a pretty enough stream a few miles higher up , with trees overhanging its banks , and fringes of green sedge set thick along its edges — loses caste as it gets among the mills and the printworks . There are myriads of dirty things given it to wash , and whole waggon @-@ loads of poisons from dye @-@ houses and bleachyards thrown into it to carry away ; steam @-@ boilers discharge into it their seething contents , and drains and sewers their fetid impurities ; till at length it rolls on — here between tall dingy walls , there under precipices of red sandstone — considerably less a river than a flood of liquid manure , in which all life dies , whether animal or vegetable , and which resembles nothing in nature , except , perhaps , the stream thrown out in eruption by some mud @-@ volcano .
In the Victorian era passenger boat trips were popular but cut @-@ short by the foul smells from the river . In 1862 the Corporation of Salford promoted an Act of Parliament enabling them to establish a River Conservancy Committee ; they appointed a river inspector , and had to power to take action against anyone polluting the river . The Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876 was designed to solve the problems of river pollution , but it was largely ineffective . It did , however , lay the groundwork for the more draconian legislation which followed , and in 1891 the Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee was formed . Local authorities were ordered to provide sewage treatment facilities , and industrial concerns were told to use the best practical means of preventing pollution . Salford was one of the first authorities in the Irwell watershed to install intercepting sewers and sewage treatment works at Mode Wheel Sewage works .
One of the most famous characters associated with the river during this time was Mark Addy , who was born in a tenement on The Parsonage near Blackfriars Bridge in Manchester in 1838 . Whenever anyone was in difficulty in the river , the cry would go up " Bring Mark Addy ! " and he would race to the rescue . He was awarded a number of medals including the gold and silver medals from the Humane Society for the Hundred of Salford , and the Royal Humane Society 's bronze medal . In 1878 he became the only civilian ever to be awarded the Albert Medal ( first class ) , His final rescue was on Whit Monday in 1889 , when he saved a young boy from a particularly sewage @-@ laden section of the river . After this he became ill , and died of tuberculosis in 1890 aged 51 . He had rescued over 50 people from the river during his lifetime .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1939 , the Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee was superseded by the Lancashire Rivers Board , but wartime conditions brought about further deterioration of the river . In 1951 , the Rivers ( Prevention of Pollution ) Act was passed and this board disappeared to be replaced by the Mersey River Board , which was replaced in turn by the Mersey and Weaver River Authority in 1965 .
In 1946 , there was serious flooding in Salford , caused by a bottleneck at a bend in the river at Strangeways , on the border with Manchester . Flooding had been a problem for hundreds of years , and , in 1946 , the decision was made to straighten and widen the river to increase its capacity . Work started in 1951 but it was not until September 1970 that water first flowed through the Anaconda Cut . The total cost of the project was £ 2m .
In a question to the House of Commons in 1950 the Member of Parliament for Rossendale , Mr. Anthony Greenwood , highlighted the lamentable condition of the Irwell and one of its main tributaries , the River Roch :
Today I am afraid that fish in most of those rivers are virtually extinct . Anybody who stands today in the City of Manchester outside the Exchange Station and looks down at the noisome black water which flows beneath him would find it difficult to believe that any fish , or any other living creature , could ever have lived in what the Manchester Guardian has so rightly called that " melancholy stream " ... I have had my differences with the British Field Sports Society , but I have nothing but admiration for the excellent series of reports on river pollution which have been prepared for that Society ... and ventured to suggest that they should make a similar survey of the Rivers Irwell and Roach . These two rivers were covered by the third report ; and very sorry reading it made . There are two passages in that report which I should like to read . The first says : " The banks are lined with factories , large and small , many of which take their water from the drainage of the hills forming the slopes of the river 's valley , and discharge it as a polluted effluent , either into the small feeders , or the main river itself , so it may be said that no natural water normally enters the river from its cradle in the moors to its grave in the Manchester Ship Canal . " The second quotation is one which I find still more appalling than the first . It is : " There are no fish in these rivers ( apart from a very occasional tributary ) , no insects , no weeds , no life of any kind except sewage fungus , nothing but chemicals and any dirt which cannot be put to profitable use . Sewage effluents ( and , being usually very good , they are the most encouraging feature of the appalling situation ) are hailed with delight as being the purest water which the rivers hold . " The full importance of that statement will be realised when I remind hon . Members of the frequency with which residents in Bacup , Ramsbottom , Manchester and Salford are subjected to flooding from the waters of the Irwell .
In 1951 , it was announced that flood defence works were to be carried out on the stretch of the river passing through Lower Broughton between Cromwell Bridge and Gerald Road Bridge , although local property owners and shopkeepers were outraged at being asked to bear part of the cost . Work on the 8 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) concrete wall did not get underway until June 1952 and was still only nearing completion when , in August 1957 , nearby homes were threatened by flooding during heavy rain .
= = = = 1970s = = = =
A report in the Manchester Evening News in 1971 stated that Bury Angling Society had signed an agreement with Bury Corporation giving them fishing rights along four miles ( 6 km ) of the river between Summerseat and Radcliffe . The secretary of the society was quoted as saying :
Extensive tests have been carried out on fish we put in the river and we are satisfied that the water will support fish life . Roach and perch have already been caught and we have had no reports of any ill @-@ effects . There is no doubt the pollution is clearing . It will be a long job , but we are sure there is a future for angling in the river .
The report went on to state that the society " intends to carry out stocking operations soon " . In 1972 the newspaper reported that " tiddlers " ( small fish ) had been seen swimming in the " notorious inky Irwell " near Peel Park , Salford . The Deputy chief water quality officer for Salford , Mr. Eric Harper , said :
Ten years ago , any fish getting as far down as Salford would have been killed almost immediately by the pollution in the water . Although the river there is now a great deal better than it has been for 100 years , fish will probably not be able to live long . These had probably got into the main river from small streams flowing into the Irwell . But I think it is real progress .
Mr Harper went on to say that the Irwell had been well stocked with fish along its whole length 100 years ago but refused to guess when it would reach the same state again . In 1974 all of the river authorities were merged into the Regional Water Authorities . In the 1974 annual report of the North West Water Authority ( NWWA ) , it was said that the river " once internationally famous , or infamous as the epitome of river pollution , is now in a much better state as compared with its condition at the time of a special survey carried out nine years ago . " This was reported in an article in The Manchester Evening News on 26 October of that year which stated that :
During nine years of pollution control work reviewed by the North West Water Authority , the biggest improvement had been in the Bolton District , where effluent from five dilapidated sewage plants and two paper mills were now being treated at the Ringley Fold Works [ but ] there has been little reduction in pollution from the river Roch . At Bacup the headwater of the Irwell is discoloured by ochre deposits from a disused mine but work is being done to stop the ochre seepage . Fish do exist in the stretch between Rossendale and Bury and fish are to be introduced in stretches between Radcliffe and Manchester . However , it is feared that it will be many years before fish will be able to breed freely in the river .
= = = = 1980s = = = =
In 1980 , a scheme for improving a section of the river between Littleton Road and Adelphi Weir in Salford for boating purposes was included in Greater Manchester Policy Committee 's capital programme for 1981 / 82 . County Councillors at a recent committee meeting had criticised the condition of the river , with the councillor for the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham calling it " quite revolting and horrible " . A spokesperson for the NWWA said that , although the river had a reputation for being polluted , it was getting much better but still had not reached a state where they would be satisfied . She added that tests were being carried out to show the improved cleanliness of the Irwell and that 600 trout had recently been put in the river at Summerseat , near Bury . The proposals were welcomed by both Salford University and Agecroft Rowing Club , with the university stating that they wished to use that section for their boat race . Later that year it was reported that hundreds of trees and shrubs were to be planted along the banks of the Irwell between Broughton and Pomona Dock in a £ 650 @,@ 000 " green finger " scheme to " bring the countryside into the heart of industrial Salford " . The dossier outlining the scheme , prepared by Salford 's Technical Services Officer , emphasised the " bleak character " of the Irwell Valley with " many constructions by the river that are decaying and rotting " and said " the main problems are caused by an excess of ammonia and a high organic content from sewage effluents which discharge into the water upstream . " The report recommended that " even more support should be given to the NWWA in their pollution control of the River Irwell . "
Throughout the 1980s , sightings of fish as far downstream as Manchester city centre were reported in local newspapers . In February 1981 the Manchester Evening News reported that " ten jacksharps [ sticklebacks ] , about two inches long " had been spotted by a site manager working on the Mark Addy public house , which was then being built on the disused New Bailey Landing Stage , below New Bailey Street , on the border of Manchester and Salford . Plans for developing the river for recreational use were also coming to fruition as it was reported in 1982 that , over the May bank holiday , the first pleasure cruise on the river in the 20th century would leave from the Mark Addy as part of a three @-@ day experiment to see whether river cruises could be a success . In 1983 over 100 canal and river boats rode the flooded river for the Greater Manchester Waterways Festival , an event aimed at demonstrating how pleasure boating could " transform the bleak waterway in the heart of Manchester " . By 1984 two local men felt the waters were clean enough for them to brave a ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) charity fund @-@ raising swim from Clifton to Manchester , although they were warned
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while he was creating Tintin in Tibet and how they drove him to create what is now regarded as his most personal adventure .
As the centenary of Hergé 's birth approached in 2007 , Tintin remained popular . Tintin in Tibet was adapted into a theatrical musical , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , which ran from late 2005 to early 2006 at the Barbican Arts Centre in London . The production , directed by Rufus Norris and adapted by Norris and David Greig , featured Russell Tovey as Tintin . The musical was revived at the Playhouse Theatre in London 's West End before touring in 2007 . In 2010 , the television channel Arte filmed an episode of its documentary series Sur les traces de Tintin ( On the Trail of Tintin ) in the Nepalese Himalayas , exploring the inspiration and setting of Tintin in Tibet . From May to September 2012 , the Musée Hergé in Louvain @-@ la @-@ Neuve hosted an exhibition about the book , entitled Into Tibet with Tintin .
= Klondike Gold Rush =
The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100 @,@ 000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north @-@ western Canada between 1896 and 1899 . Gold was discovered there by local miners on August 16 , 1896 and , when news reached Seattle and San Francisco the following year , it triggered a stampede of would @-@ be prospectors . Some became wealthy , but the majority went in vain . The Klondike Gold Rush ended in 1899 after gold was discovered in Nome , Alaska prompting an exodus from the Klondike . It has been immortalized by photographs , books , films , and artifacts .
To reach the gold fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea and Skagway in Southeast Alaska . Here , the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River and sail down to the Klondike . Each of them was required to bring a year 's supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation . In all , their equipment weighed close to a ton , which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves . Together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898 . Once there , they found few opportunities and many left disappointed .
Mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost . As a result , some miners chose to buy and sell claims , building up huge investments and letting others do the work . To accommodate the prospectors , boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike and the Yukon River . From a population of 500 in 1896 , the hastily constructed town came to house around 30 @,@ 000 people by summer 1898 . Built of wood , isolated and unsanitary , Dawson suffered from fires , high prices and epidemics . Despite this , the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons . The Native Hän people , on the other hand , suffered from the rush . Many of them died after being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders .
From 1898 , the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it . When news arrived in the summer of 1899 that gold had been discovered in Nome in west Alaska , many prospectors left the Klondike for the new goldfields , marking the end of the rush . The boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell away . Mining activity of the gold rush lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in . Since then the Klondike has been mined on and off , and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity .
= = Background = =
The indigenous peoples in north @-@ west America had traded in copper nuggets prior to European expansion . Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region but the metal was not valued by them . The Russians and the Hudson 's Bay Company had both explored the Yukon in the first half of the 19th century , but ignored the rumours of gold in favour of fur trading , which offered more immediate profits .
In the second half of the 19th century , American prospectors began to spread into the peninsula . Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes , the early prospectors succeeded in opening up the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass to reach the Yukon valley between 1870 and 1890 . Here , they encountered the Hän people , semi @-@ nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers . The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the gold deposits in the region .
In 1883 , Ed Schieffelin identified gold deposits along the Yukon River , and an expedition up the Fortymile River in 1886 returned having discovered considerable amounts of it and founded Fortymile City . The same year gold had been found on the banks of Klondike River , but in small amounts and no claims were made . By the late 1880s , several hundred miners were working their way along the Yukon valley , living in small mining camps and trading with the Hän . On the Alaskan side of the border Circle City , a log town , was established 1893 at Yukon River . In three years it grew to become " the Paris of Alaska " with 1200 inhabitants , saloons , opera houses , schools , and libraries . In 1896 it was so well known that a foreign correspondent from The Chicago Daily Record came to visit . At the end of the year it was to become a ghost town when news had arrived about rich amounts of gold found upstream at Klondike .
= = Discovery ( 1896 ) = =
On August 16 , 1896 , an American prospector named George Carmack , his Tagish wife Kate Carmack ( Shaaw Tláa ) , her brother Skookum Jim ( Keish ) and their nephew Dawson Charlie ( K ̲ áa Goox ̱ ) were travelling south of the Klondike River . Following a suggestion from Robert Henderson , another prospector , they began looking for gold on Bonanza Creek , then called Rabbit Creek , one of the Klondike 's tributaries . It is not clear who discovered the gold : George Carmack or Skookum Jim , but the group agreed to let George Carmack appear as the official discoverer because they feared that mining authorities would be reluctant to recognize a claim made by an Indian .
In any event , gold was present along the river in huge quantities . Carmack measured out four claims , strips of ground that could later be legally mined by the owner , along the river ; these including two for himself — one as his normal claim , the second as a reward for having discovered the gold — and one each for Jim and Charlie . The claims were registered next day at the police post at the mouth of the Forty mile River and news spread rapidly from there to other mining camps in the Yukon River valley .
By the end of August , all of Bonanza Creek had been claimed by miners . A prospector then advanced up into one of the creeks feeding into Bonanza , later to be named Eldorado Creek . He discovered new sources of gold there , which would prove to be even richer than those on Bonanza . Claims began to be sold between miners and speculators for considerable sums . Just before Christmas , word of the gold reached Circle City . Despite the winter , many prospectors immediately left for the Yukon by dog @-@ sled , eager to reach the region before the best claims were taken . The outside world was still largely unaware of the news and although Canadian officials had managed to send a message to their superiors in Ottawa about the finds and influx of prospectors , the government did not give it much attention . The winter prevented river traffic , and it was not until June 1897 that the first boats left the area , carrying the freshly mined gold and the full story of the discoveries .
= = Beginning of the stampede ( July , 1897 ) = =
The Klondike stampede was an attempt by an estimated 100 @,@ 000 people to reach the Klondike goldfields , of whom only around 30 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 eventually did . It formed the height of the Klondike gold rush from the summer of 1897 until the summer of 1898 . It began on July 15 , 1897 in San Francisco and was spurred further two days later in Seattle , when the first of the early prospectors returned from the Klondike , bringing with them large amounts of gold on the ships Excelsior and Portland . The press reported that a total of $ 1 @,@ 139 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 000 million at 2010 prices ) had been brought in by these ships , although this proved to be an underestimate . The migration of prospectors caught so much attention that it was joined by outfitters , writers and photographers .
Various factors lay behind this sudden mass response . Economically , the news had reached the US at the height of a series of financial recessions and bank failures in the 1890s . The gold standard of the time tied paper money to the production of gold and shortages towards the end of the 19th century meant that gold dollars were rapidly increasing in value ahead of paper currencies and being hoarded . This had contributed to the financial panics of 1893 and 1896 , which caused unemployment and financial uncertainty . There was a huge , unresolved demand for gold across the developed world that the Klondike offered to fulfil and , for individuals , the region promised higher wages or financial security .
Psychologically , the Klondike , as historian Pierre Berton describes , was " just far enough away to be romantic and just close enough to be accessible " . Furthermore , the Pacific ports closest to the gold strikes were desperate to encourage trade and travel to the region . The mass journalism of the period promoted the event and the human interest stories that lay behind it . A worldwide publicity campaign engineered largely by Erastus Brainerd , a Seattle newspaper man , helped establish the city as the premier supply centre and the departure point for the gold fields .
The prospectors came from many nations , although an estimated majority of 60 to 80 percent were Americans or recent immigrants to America . Most had no experience in the mining industry , being clerks or salesmen . Mass resignations of staff to join the gold rush became notorious . In Seattle , this included the mayor , twelve policemen and a significant percentage of the city 's streetcar drivers .
Some stampeders were famous : John McGraw , the former governor of Washington joined together with the prominent lawyer and sportsman A. Balliot . Frederick Burnham , a well @-@ known American scout and explorer arrived from Africa , only to be called back to take part in the Second Boer War . Among those who documented the rush were the Swedish @-@ born photographer Eric Hegg , who took some of the iconic pictures of Chilkoot Pass , and reporter Tappan Adney , who would afterwards write a first @-@ hand history of the stampede . Jack London , later a famous American writer , left to seek for gold but made his money during the rush mostly by working for prospectors .
Seattle and San Francisco competed fiercely for business during the rush , with Seattle winning the larger share of trade . Indeed , one of the first to join the gold rush was William D. Wood , the mayor of Seattle , who resigned and formed a company to transport prospectors to the Klondike . The publicity around the gold rush led to a flurry of branded goods being put onto the market . Clothing , equipment , food and medicines were all sold as " Klondike " goods , allegedly designed for the north @-@ west . Guidebooks were published , giving advice about routes , equipment , mining and capital necessary for the enterprise . The newspapers of the time termed this phenomenon " Klondicitis " .
= = Routes to the Klondike = =
Klondike could only be reached by the Yukon River either upstream from its delta , downstream from its head or from somewhere in the middle through its tributaries . River boats could navigate the Yukon in the summer from the delta until a point called Whitehorse above Klondike . Travel in general was made difficult by both the geography and climate . The region was mountainous , the rivers winding and sometimes impassable ; the short summers could be hot , while from October to June , during the long winters , temperatures could drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) .
Aids for the travellers to carry their supplies varied ; some had brought dogs , horses , mules or oxen , whereas others had to rely on carrying their equipment on their backs or on sleds pulled by hand . Shortly after the stampede began in 1897 , the Canadian authorities had introduced rules requiring anyone entering Yukon Territory to bring with them a year 's supply of food ; typically this weighed around 1 @,@ 150 pounds ( 520 kg ) . By the time camping equipment , tools and other essentials were included , a typical traveller was transporting as much as a ton in weight . Unsurprisingly , the price of draft animals spiralled ; at Dyea , even poor quality horses could sell for as much as $ 700 ( $ 19 @,@ 000 ) , or be rented out for $ 40 ( $ 1 @,@ 100 ) a day .
From Seattle or San Francisco , prospectors could travel by sea up the coast to the ports of Alaska . The route following the coast is now referred to as the Inside Passage . It led to the ports of Dyea and Skagway plus ports of nearby trails . The sudden increase in demand encouraged a range of vessels to be pressed into service including old paddle wheelers , fishing boats , barges and coal ships still full of coal dust — all were overloaded and many sank .
= = = All water route = = =
It was possible to sail all the way to the Klondike , first from Seattle across the northern Pacific to the Alaskan coast . From St. Michael , at the Yukon River delta , a river boat could then take the prospectors the rest of the way up the river to Dawson , often guided by one of the Native Koyukon people who lived near St. Michael . Although this all @-@ water route , also called " the rich man 's route " , was expensive and long , 4 @,@ 700 miles ( 7 @,@ 600 km ) in total , it had the attraction of speed and avoiding overland travel . At the beginning of the stampede a ticket could be bought for $ 150 ( $ 4 @,@ 050 ) while during the winter 1897 – 98 the fare settled at $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 27 @,@ 000 ) .
In 1897 , 1 @,@ 800 travellers attempted this route but the vast majority were caught along the river when the region iced over in October . Only 43 successfully reached the Klondike before winter and of those 35 had to return , having thrown away their equipment en route to reach their destination in time . The remainder mostly found themselves stranded in isolated camps and settlements along the ice @-@ covered river often in desperate circumstances .
= = = Dyea / Skagway routes = = =
Most of the prospectors landed at the South @-@ east Alaskan towns of Dyea and Skagway , both located at the head of the natural Lynn Canal at the end of the Inside Passage . From there , they would need to travel 30 miles ( 48 km ) over the mountain ranges into Canada 's Yukon Territory , and then down the river network to the Klondike . Along the trails , tent camps sprung up at places where prospectors had to stop to eat or sleep or at obstacles such as the icy lakes at the head of the Yukon . At the start of the rush , a ticket from Seattle to the port of Dyea cost $ 40 ( $ 1 @,@ 100 ) for a cabin . Premiums of $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 700 ) , however , were soon paid and the steamship companies hesitated to post their rates in advance since they could increase on a daily basis .
= = = = White Pass trail = = = =
Those who landed at Skagway would make their way over the White Pass before cutting across to Bennett Lake . Although the trail began gently , it progressed over several mountains with paths as narrow as 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) and in wider parts covered with boulders and sharp rocks . Under these conditions horses died in huge numbers , giving the route the informal name of Dead Horse Trail . The volumes of travellers and the wet weather made the trail impassable and , by late 1897 , it was closed until further notice , leaving around 5 @,@ 000 stranded in Skagway .
An alternative toll road suitable for wagons was eventually constructed and this , combined with colder weather that froze the muddy ground , allowed the White Pass to reopen , and prospectors began to make their way into Canada . Moving supplies and equipment over the pass had to be done in stages . Most divided their belongings into 65 pounds ( 29 kg ) packages that could be carried on a man 's back , or heavier loads that could be pulled by hand on a sled . Ferrying packages forwards and walking back for more , a prospector would need about thirty round trips , a distance of at least 2 @,@ 500 miles ( 4 @,@ 000 km ) , before they had moved all of their supplies to the end of the trail . Even using a heavy sled , a strong man would be covering 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) and need around 90 days to reach Lake Bennett .
= = = = Chilkoot trail = = = =
Those who landed at Dyea , Skagway 's neighbour town , travelled the Chilkoot Trail and crossed its Pass to reach Lake Lindeman , which fed into Lake Bennett at the head of the Yukon River . The Chilkoot Pass was higher than the White Pass , but more used it : around 22 @,@ 000 during the gold rush . The trail passed up through camps until it reached a flat ledge , just before the main ascent , which was too steep for animals . This location was known as the Scales , and was where goods were weighed before travellers officially entered Canada . The cold , the steepness and the weight of equipment made the climb extremely arduous and it could take a day to get to the top of the 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) high slope .
As on the White Pass trail , supplies needed to be broken down into smaller packages and carried in relay . Packers , prepared to carry supplies for cash , were available along the route but would charge up to $ 1 ( $ 27 ) per lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) on the later stages ; many of these packers were Natives , members of the Tlingit people or , less commonly , the Tagish . Avalanches were common in the mountains and , on April 3 , 1898 , one claimed the lives of more than 60 people travelling over Chilkoot Pass .
Entrepreneurs began to provide solutions as the winter progressed . Steps were cut into the ice at the Chilkoot Pass which could be used for a daily fee , this 1 @,@ 500 step staircase becoming known as the " Golden Steps " . By December 1897 , a tramway powered by a horse at the bottom , which walked in a circle pulling a wheel @-@ mounted rope , had been built by Archie Burns to ferry packages up the final parts of the Chilkoot Pass . Five more tramways soon followed , one powered by a steam engine , charging between 8 and 30 cents ( $ 2 and $ 8 ) per 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) . An aerial tramway was built in the spring of 1898 , able to move 9 tonnes of goods an hour up to the summit .
= = = = Head of Yukon River = = = =
At Lakes Bennett and Lindeman , the prospectors camped to build rafts or boats that would take them the final 500 miles ( 800 km ) down the Yukon to Dawson City in the spring . 7 @,@ 124 boats of varying size and quality left in May 1898 ; by that time , the forests around the lakes had been largely cut down for timber . The river posed a new problem . Until Whitehorse , it was dangerous , with several rapids along the Miles Canyon through to the White Horse Rapids .
After many boats were wrecked and several hundred people died , the North @-@ West Mounted Police ( NWMP ) introduced safety rules , vetting the boats carefully and forbidding women and children to travel through the rapids . Additional rules stated that any boat carrying passengers required a licensed pilot , typically costing $ 25 ( $ 680 ) , although some prospectors simply unpacked their boats , let them drift unmanned through the rapids with the intent of walking down to collect them on the other side . During the summer , a horse @-@ powered rail @-@ tramway was built by Norman Macaulay , capable of carrying boats and equipment through the canyon at $ 25 ( $ 680 ) a time , removing the need for prospectors to navigate the rapids .
= = = = Parallel trails = = = =
There were a few more trails established during 1898 from South @-@ east Alaska to the Yukon River . One was the Dalton trail : starting from Pyramid Harbour , close to Dyea , it went across the Chilkat Pass some miles west of Chilkoot and turned north to the Yukon River , a distance of about 350 miles ( 560 km ) . This was created by Jack Dalton as a summer route , intended for cattle and horses , and Dalton charged a toll of $ 250 ( $ 6 @,@ 800 ) for its use .
The Takou route started from Juneau and went north @-@ east to Teslin Lake . From here , it followed a river to the Yukon , where it met the Dyea and Skagway route at a point halfway to the Klondike . It meant dragging and poling canoes up @-@ river and through mud together with crossing a 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) mountain along a narrow trail . Finally , there was the Stikine route starting from the port of Wrangell further south @-@ east of Skagway . This route went up the uneasy Stikine River to Glenora , the head of navigation . From Glenora , prospectors would have to carry their supplies 150 miles ( 240 km ) to Teslin Lake where it , like the Takou route , met the Yukon River system .
= = = All @-@ Canadian routes = = =
An alternative to the South @-@ east Alaskan ports were the All @-@ Canadian routes , so @-@ called because they mostly stayed on Canadian soil throughout their journey . These were popular with British and Canadians for patriotic reasons and because they avoided American customs . The first of these , around 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) in length , started from Ashcroft in British Columbia and crossed swamps , river gorges , and mountains until it met with the Stikine River route at Glenora . From Glenora , prospectors would face the same difficulties as those who came from Wrangell . At least 1 @,@ 500 men attempted to travel along the Ashcroft route and 5 @,@ 000 along the Stikine . The mud and the slushy ice of the two routes proved exhausting , killing or incapacitating the pack animals and creating chaos amongst the travellers .
Three more routes started from Edmonton , Alberta ; these were not much better - barely trails at all - despite being advertised as " the inside track " and the " back door to the Klondike " . One , the " overland route " , headed north @-@ west from Edmonton , ultimately meeting the Peace River and then continuing on overland to the Klondike , crossing the Liard River en route . To encourage travel via Edmonton , the government hired T.W. Chalmers to build a trail , which became known as the Klondike Trail or Chalmers Trail . The other two trails , known as the " water routes " , involved more river travel . One went by boat along rivers and overland to the Yukon River system at Pelly River and from there to Dawson . Another went north of Dawson by the Mackenzie River to Fort McPherson , before entering Alaska and meeting the Yukon River at Fort Yukon , downstream to the Klondike . From here , the boat and equipment had to be pulled up the Yukon about 400 miles ( 640 km ) . An estimated 1 @,@ 660 travellers took these three routes , of whom only 685 arrived , some taking up to 18 months to make the journey .
= = = = " All @-@ American " route = = = =
An equivalent to the All @-@ Canadian routes was the " All @-@ American route " , which aimed to reach the Yukon from the port of Valdez , which lay further along the Alaskan coast from Skagway . This , it was hoped , would evade the Canadian customs posts and provide an American @-@ controlled route into the interior . 3 @,@ 500 men and women attempted it from late 1897 onwards ; delayed by the winter snows , fresh efforts were made in the spring .
In practice , the huge Valdez glacier that stood between the port and the Alaskan interior proved almost insurmountable and only 200 managed to climb it ; by 1899 , the cold and scurvy was causing many deaths amongst the rest . Other prospectors attempted an alternative route across the Malaspina Glacier just to the east , suffering even greater hardships . Those who did manage to cross it found themselves having to negotiate miles of wilderness before they could reach Dawson . Their expedition was forced to turn back the same way they had come with only four men surviving .
= = = Border control = = =
The borders in South @-@ east Alaska were disputed between the US , Canada and Britain since the American purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 . The US and Canada both claimed the ports of Dyea and Skagway . This , combined with the numbers of American prospectors , the quantities of gold being mined and the difficulties in exercising government authority in such a remote area , made the control of the borders a sensitive issue .
Early on in the gold rush , the US Army sent a small detachment to Circle City , in case intervention was required in the Klondike , while the Canadian government considered excluding all American prospectors from the Yukon Territory . Neither eventuality took place and instead the US agreed to make Dyea a sub @-@ port of entry for Canadians , allowing British ships to land Canadian passengers and goods freely there , while Canada agreed to permit American miners to operate in the Klondike . Both decisions were unpopular among their domestic publics : American businessmen complained that their right to a monopoly on regional trade was being undermined , while the Canadian public demanded action against the American miners .
The North @-@ West Mounted Police set up control posts at the borders of the Yukon Territory or , where that was disputed , at easily controlled points such as the Chilkoot and White Passes . These units were armed with Maxim guns . Their tasks included enforcing the rules requiring that travellers bring a year 's supply of food with them to be allowed into the Yukon Territory , checking for illegal weapons , preventing the entry of criminals and enforcing customs duties .
This last task was particularly unpopular with American prospectors , who faced paying an average of 25 percent of the value of their goods and supplies . The Mounties had a reputation for running these posts honestly , although accusations were made that they took bribes . Prospectors , on the other hand , tried to smuggle prize items like silk and whiskey across the pass in tins and bales of hay : the former item for the ladies , the latter for the saloons .
= = Mining = =
Of the estimated 30 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 people who reached Dawson City during the gold rush , only around 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 finally became prospectors . Of these , no more than 4 @,@ 000 struck gold and only a few hundred became rich . By the time most of the stampeders arrived in 1898 , the best creeks had all been claimed , either by the long @-@ term miners in the region , or by the first arrivals of the year before . The Bonanza , Eldorado , Hunker and Dominion Creeks were all taken , with almost 10 @,@ 000 claims recorded by the authorities by July 1898 ; a new prospector would have to look further afield to find a claim of his own .
Geologically , the region was permeated with veins of gold , forced to the surface by volcanic action and then worn away by the action of rivers and streams , leaving nuggets and gold dust in deposits known as placer gold . Some ores lay along the creek beds in lines of soil , typically 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) beneath the surface . Others , formed by even older streams , lay along the hilltops ; these deposits were called " bench gold " . Finding the gold was challenging . Initially , miners had assumed that all the gold would be along the existing creeks , and it was not until late in 1897 that the hilltops began to be mined . Gold was also unevenly distributed in the areas where it was found , which made prediction of good mining sites even more uncertain . The only way to be certain that gold was present was to conduct exploratory digging .
= = = Methods = = =
Mining began with clearing the ground of vegetation and debris . Prospect holes were then dug in an attempt to find the ore or " pay streak " . If these holes looked productive , proper digging could commence , aiming down to the bedrock , where the majority of the gold was found . The digging would be carefully monitored in case the operation needed to be shifted to allow for changes in the flow .
In the sub @-@ Arctic climate of the Klondike , a layer of hard permafrost lay only 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the surface . Traditionally , this had meant that mining in the region only occurred during the summer months , but the pressure of the gold rush made such a delay unacceptable . Late 19th century technology existed for dealing with this problem , including hydraulic mining and stripping , and dredging , but the heavy equipment required for this could not be brought into the Klondike during the gold rush .
Instead , the miners relied on wood fires to soften the ground to a depth of about 14 inches ( 360 mm ) and then removing the resulting gravel . The process was repeated until the gold was reached . In theory , no support of the shaft was necessary because of the permafrost although in practice sometimes the fire melted the permafrost and caused collapses . Fires could also produce noxious gases , which had to be removed by bellows or other tools . The resulting " dirt " brought out of the mines froze quickly in winter and could only be processed during the warmer summer months . An alternative , more efficient , approach called steam thawing was devised between 1897 and 1898 ; this used a furnace to pump steam directly into the ground , but since it required additional equipment it was not a widespread technique during the years of the rush .
In the summer , water would be used to sluice and pan the dirt , separating out the heavier gold from gravel . This required miners to construct sluices , which were sequences of wooden boxes 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) long , through which the dirt would be washed ; up to 20 of these might be needed for each mining operation . The sluices in turn required lots of water , usually produced by creating a dam and ditches or crude pipes . " Bench gold " mining on the hill sides could not use sluice lines because water could not be pumped that high up . Instead , these mines used rockers , boxes that moved back and forth like a cradle , to create the motion needed for separation . Finally , the resulting gold dust could be exported out of the Klondike ; exchanged for paper money at the rate of $ 16 ( $ 430 ) per troy ounce ( ozt ) through one of the major banks that opened in Dawson City , or simply used as money when dealing with local traders .
= = = Business = = =
Successful mining took time and capital , particularly once most of the timber around the Klondike had been cut down . A realistic mining operation required $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) for wood to be burned to melt the ground , along with around $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 800 @,@ 000 ) to construct a dam , $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) for ditches and up to $ 600 ( $ 480 @,@ 000 ) for sluice boxes , a total of $ 4 @,@ 600 . The attraction of the Klondike to a prospector , however , was that when gold was found , it was often highly concentrated . Some of the creeks in the Klondike were fifteen times richer in gold than those in California , and richer still than those in South Africa . In just two years , for example , $ 230 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 840 million ) worth of gold was brought up from claim 29 on the Eldorado Creek .
Under Canadian law , miners first had to get a license , either when they arrived at Dawson or en route from Victoria in Canada . They could then prospect for gold and , when they had found a suitable location , lay claim to mining rights over it . To stake a claim , a prospector would drive stakes into the ground a measured distance apart and then return to Dawson to register the claim for $ 15 ( $ 410 ) . This normally had to be done within three days , and by 1897 only one claim per person at a time was allowed in a district , although married couples could exploit a loophole that allowed the wife to register a claim in her own name , doubling their amount of land .
The claim could be mined freely for a year , after which a $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 800 ) fee had to be paid annually . Should the prospector leave the claim for more than three days without good reason , another miner could make a claim on the land . The Canadian government also charged a royalty of between 10 and 20 percent on the value of gold taken from a claim .
The proper size of a claim was a matter of dispute . Traditionally , a mining claim had been granted over a 500 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) long stretch of a creek , including the land from one side of the valley to another ; the Canadian authorities had tried to reduce this length to 150 feet ( 46 m ) , but under pressure from miners had been forced to agree to 250 @-@ foot
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The earthquake occurred as the result of motion on a northeast striking reverse fault or thrust fault on the northwestern margin of the Sichuan Basin . The earthquake ’ s epicenter and focal @-@ mechanism are consistent with it having occurred as the result of movement on the Longmenshan fault or a tectonically related fault . The earthquake reflects tectonic stresses resulting from the convergence of crustal material slowly moving from the high Tibetan Plateau , to the west , against strong crust underlying the Sichuan Basin and southeastern China .
On a continental scale , the seismicity of central and eastern Asia is a result of northward convergence of the Indian Plate against the Eurasian Plate with a velocity of about 50 mm / y . The convergence of the two plates is broadly accommodated by the uplift of the Asian highlands and by the motion of crustal material to the east away from the uplifted Tibetan Plateau . The northwestern margin of the Sichuan Basin has previously experienced destructive earthquakes . The magnitude 7 @.@ 5 earthquake of August 25 , 1933 killed more than 9 @,@ 300 people .
According to the British Geological Survey :
The earthquake occurred 92 km northwest of the city of Chengdu in eastern Sichuan province and over 1500 km from Beijing , where it was also strongly felt . Earthquakes of this size have the potential to cause extensive damage and loss of life .
The epicenter was in the mountains of the Eastern Margin of Qing @-@ Tibet Plateau at the northwest margin of the Sichuan Basin . The earthquake occurred as a result of motion on a northeast striking thrust fault that runs along the margin of the basin .
The seismicity of central and eastern Asia is caused by the northward movement of the India plate at a rate of 5 cm / year and its collision with Eurasia , resulting in the uplift of the Himalaya and Tibetan plateaux and associated earthquake activity . This deformation also results in the extrusion of crustal material from the high Tibetan Plateaux in the west towards the Sichuan Basin and southeastern China . China frequently suffers large and deadly earthquakes . In August 1933 , the magnitude 7 @.@ 5 Diexi earthquake , about 90 km northeast of today 's earthquake , destroyed the town of Diexi and surrounding villages , and caused many landslides , some of which dammed the rivers .
= = Immediate aftermath = =
Office buildings in Shanghai 's financial district , including the Jin Mao Tower and the Hong Kong New World Tower , were evacuated . A receptionist at the Tibet Hotel in Chengdu said things were " calm " after the hotel evacuated its guests . Meanwhile , workers at a Ford plant in Sichuan were evacuated for about 10 minutes . Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport was shut down , and the control tower and regional radar control evacuated . One SilkAir flight was diverted and landed in Kunming as a result . Cathay Pacific delayed both legs of its quadruple daily Hong Kong to London route due to this disruption in air traffic services . Chengdu Shuangliu Airport reopened later on the evening of May 12 , offering limited service as the airport began to be used as a staging area for relief operations .
Reporters in Chengdu said they saw cracks on walls of some residential buildings in the downtown areas , but no buildings collapsed . Many Beijing office towers were evacuated , including the building housing the media offices for the organizers of the 2008 Summer Olympics . None of the Olympic venues were damaged . Meanwhile , a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in Hui County , Gansu , and caught on fire after the rail was distorted .
All of the highways into Wenchuan , and others throughout the province , were damaged , resulting in delayed arrival of the rescue troops . In Beichuan County , 80 % of the buildings collapsed according to Xinhua News . In the city of Shifang , the collapse of two chemical plants led to leakage of some 80 tons of liquid ammonia , with hundreds of people reported buried . In the city of Dujiangyan , south @-@ east of the epicenter , a whole school collapsed with 900 students buried and fewer than 60 survived . The Juyuan Middle School , where many teenagers were buried , was excavated by civilians and cranes . Dujiangyan is home of the Dujiangyan Irrigation System , an ancient water diversion project which is still in use and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The project 's famous Fish Mouth was cracked but not severely damaged otherwise .
Both the Shanghai Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern China . Copper rose over speculations that production in southwestern China may be affected , and oil prices dropped over speculations that demand from China would fall .
Immediately after the earthquake event , mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area , with all internet capabilities cut to the Sichuan area too . Elements of telecommunications were restored by the government piece by piece over the next number of months as the situation in the Sichuan province gradually improved . Eventually , a handful of major news and media websites were made accessible online in the region , albeit with dramatically pared back webpages .
China Mobile had more than 2 @,@ 300 base stations suspended due to power disruption or severe telecommunication traffic congestion . Half of the wireless communications were lost in the Sichuan province . China Unicom 's service in Wenchuan and four nearby counties was cut off , with more than 700 towers suspended .
Initially , officials were unable to contact the Wolong National Nature Reserve , home to around 280 giant pandas . However , the Foreign Ministry later said that a group of 31 British tourists visiting the Wolong Panda Reserve in the quake @-@ hit area returned safe and uninjured to Chengdu . Nonetheless , the well @-@ being of an even greater number of pandas in the neighbouring panda reserves remained unknown . Five security guards at the reserve were killed by the earthquake . Six pandas escaped after their enclosures were damaged . By May 20 , two pandas at the reserve were found to be injured , while the search continued for another two adult pandas that went missing after the quake . By May 28 , 2008 , one panda was still missing . The missing panda was later found dead under the rubble of an enclosure . Nine @-@ year @-@ old Mao Mao , a mother of five at the breeding center , was discovered on Monday , her body crushed by a wall in her enclosure . Panda keepers and other workers placed her remains in a small wooden crate and buried her outside the breeding centre .
The Zipingpu Hydropower Plant ( simplified Chinese : 紫坪铺水库 ; traditional Chinese : 紫坪鋪水庫 ) located 20 km east of the epicenter was damaged . A recent inspection indicated that the damage was less severe than initially feared , and it remains structurally stable and safe . The Tulong reservoir upstream is in danger of collapse . About 2 @,@ 000 troops have been allocated to Zipingpu , trying to release the pressure through spillway . In total , 391 dams , most of them small , were reported damaged by the quake .
= = Casualties = =
According to Chinese state officials , the quake caused 69 @,@ 180 known deaths including 68 @,@ 636 in Sichuan province ; 18 @,@ 498 people are listed as missing , and 374 @,@ 176 injured , but these figures may further increase as more reports come in . This estimate includes 158 earthquake relief workers who were killed in landslides as they tried to repair roads .
One rescue team reported only 2 @,@ 300 survivors from the town of Yingxiu in Wenchuan County , out of a total population of about 9 @,@ 000 . 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 people were killed in Beichuan County , Sichuan alone ; in the same location , 10 @,@ 000 people were injured and 80 % of the buildings were destroyed . The old county seat of Beichuan was abandoned and preserved as part of the Beichuan Earthquake Museum . Eight schools were toppled in Dujiangyan . A 56 @-@ year @-@ old was killed in Dujiangyan during a rescue attempt on the Lingyanshan Ropeway , where due to the earthquake 11 tourists from Taiwan had been trapped inside cable cars since May 13 . A 4 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Zhu Shaowei ( traditional Chinese : 朱紹維 ; simplified Chinese : 朱绍维 ; pinyin : Zhū Shàowéi ) was also killed in Mianzhu City when a house collapsed on him and another was reported missing .
Experts point out that the earthquake hit an area that has been largely neglected and untouched by China 's economic rise . Health care is poor in inland areas such as Sichuan , highlighting the widening gap between prosperous urban dwellers and struggling rural people . Vice Minister of Health Gao Qiang told reporters in Beijing that the " public health care system in China is insufficient . " The Vice Minister of Health also suggested that the government would pick up the costs of care to earthquake victims , many of whom have little or no insurance : " The government should be responsible for providing medical treatment to them , " he said .
In terms of school casualties , thousands of school children died due to shoddy construction . In Mianyang City , seven schools collapsed , burying at least 1 @,@ 700 people . At least 7 @,@ 000 school buildings throughout the province collapsed . Another 700 students were buried in a school in Hanwang . At least 600 students and staff died at Juyuan Elementary School . Up to 1 @,@ 300 children and teachers died at Beichuan Middle School . According to Tan Zuoren , 5 @,@ 600 pupils were dead or missing from the 64 schools Tan investigated in the quake zone . Tan was detained after he published such a casualties number .
Details of school casualties had been under non @-@ governmental investigation since December 2008 by volunteers including artist and architect Ai Weiwei , who had been constantly posting updates on his blog since March 2009 . The official tally of students killed in the earthquake was not released until May 7 , 2009 , almost a year after the earthquake . According to the state @-@ run Xinhua news agency , the earthquake killed 5 @,@ 335 students and left another 546 children disabled . Some parents believe the real figure is twice that officially cited . The executive vice governor of Sichuan Wei Hong said the student death toll is 19 @,@ 065 . Mr. Wei noted the toll was incomplete as the officials were still tallying the final number . In the aftermath of the earthquake , the Chinese government declared that parents who had lost their only children would get free treatment from fertility clinics to reverse vasectomies and tubal ligations conducted by family planning authorities .
= = = Property damage = = =
The earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing , although the number could be as high as 11 million . Millions of livestock and a significant amount of agriculture were also destroyed , including 12 @.@ 5 million animals , mainly birds . In the Sichuan province a million pigs died out of 60 million total . Catastrophe modeling firm AIR Worldwide reported official estimates of insurers ' losses at US $ 1 billion from the earthquake ; estimated total damages exceed US $ 20 billion . It values Chengdu , at the time having an urban population of 4 @.@ 5 million people , at around US $ 115 billion , with only a small portion covered by insurance .
Reginald DesRoches , a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Georgia Tech , pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because China did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 Tangshan earthquake . DesRoches said : " If the buildings were older and built prior to that 1976 earthquake , chances are they weren 't built for adequate earthquake forces . "
In the days following the disaster , an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings . Their findings show a variety of reasons why many constructions failed to withstand the earthquake .
News reports indicate that the poorer , rural villages were hardest hit . Swaminathan Krishnan , assistant professor of civil engineering and geophysics at the California Institute of Technology said : " the earthquake occurred in the rural part of China . Presumably , many of the buildings were just built ; they were not designed , so to speak . " Swaminathan Krishnan further added : " There are very strong building codes in China , which take care of earthquake issues and seismic design issues . But many of these buildings presumably were quite old and probably were not built with any regulations overseeing them . "
Even with the five largest cities in Sichuan suffering only minor damage from the quake , some estimates of the economic loss run higher than US $ 75 billion , making the earthquake one of the costliest natural disasters in Chinese history .
= = = Later casualties = = =
Strong aftershocks continued to strike even months after the main quake . On May 25 , an aftershock of 6 @.@ 0 Mw ( 6 @.@ 4 Ms according to CEA ) hit northeast of the original earthquake 's epicenter , in Qingchuan County , Sichuan , causing eight deaths , 1 @,@ 000 injuries , and destroying thousands of buildings . On May 27 , two aftershocks , one 5 @.@ 2 Mw in Qingchuan County and one 5 @.@ 7 Mw in Ningqiang County , Shaanxi , led to the collapse of more than 420 @,@ 000 homes and injured 63 people . The same area suffered two more aftershocks of 5 @.@ 6 and 6 @.@ 0 Ms ( 5 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 5 Mw , respectively , according to USGS ) on July 23 , resulting in 1 death , 6 serious injuries , the collapse of hundreds of homes and damaging kilometers of highways . Pingwu County and Beichuan County , Sichuan , also northeast of Wenchuan and close to the epicenter of a 7 @.@ 2 Ms earthquake in 1976 , suffered a 6 @.@ 1 Ms aftershock ( 5 @.@ 7 Mw according to USGS ) on August 1 ; it caused 2 deaths , 345 injuries , the collapse of 707 homes , damage to over 1 @,@ 000 homes , and blocked 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) of country roads . As late as August 5 , yet another aftershock of 6 @.@ 1 Ms ( 6 @.@ 2 Mw according to USGS ) hit Qingchuan , Sichuan , causing 1 death , 32 injuries , telecommunication interruptions , and widespread hill slides blocking roads in the area including a national highway .
= = = = Government data = = = =
Executive vice governor Wei Hong confirmed on November 21 , 2008 that more than 90 @,@ 000 people in total were dead or missing in the earthquake . He stated that 200 @,@ 000 homes had been rebuilt , and 685 @,@ 000 were under reconstruction , but 1 @.@ 94 million households were still without permanent shelter . 1 @,@ 300 schools had been reconstructed , with initial relocation of 25 townships , including Beichuan and Wenchuan , two of the most devastated areas . The government spent $ 441 billion on relief and reconstruction efforts .
= = Rescue efforts = =
General Secretary and President Hu Jintao announced that the disaster response would be rapid . Just 90 minutes after the earthquake , Premier Wen Jiabao , who has an academic background in geomechanics , flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work . Soon afterward , the Ministry of Health said that it had sent ten emergency medical teams to Wenchuan County . On the same day , the Chengdu Military Region Command dispatched 50 @,@ 000 troops and armed police to help with disaster relief work in Wenchuan County . However , due to the rough terrain and close proximity of the quake 's epicenter , the soldiers found it very difficult to get help to the rural regions of the province . Primere Wen ordered PLA to get in epicenter and actually started to rescue people by saying “ It is the people who have raised you . It ’ s up to you to see what to do ! Even with two legs , you must walk in there " " ( 是人民养育了你们 , 你们自己看着办 ! 你们就是靠双腿走 , 也要给我走进去 ) . " But PLA commander only listened Jiang Zeming 's order , neither Wen Jiabo 's or Hu Jintao 's . The first 72 critical rescue hours were wasted .
The National Disaster Relief Commission initiated a " Level II emergency contingency plan " , which covers the most serious class of natural disasters . The plan rose to Level I at 22 : 15 CST , May 12 .
An earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people ( consisting of 12 people from the State Seismological Bureau , 150 from the Beijing Military Area Command , and 22 from the Armed Police General Hospital ) left Beijing from Nanyuan Airport late May 12 in two military transport planes to travel to Wenchuan County .
Many rescue teams , including that of the Taipei Fire Department from Taiwan , were reported ready to join the rescue effort in Sichuan as early as Wednesday . However , the Red Cross Society of China said that ( on May 13 ) " it was inconvenient currently due to the traffic problem to the hardest hit areas closest to the epicenter . " The Red Cross Society of China also stated that the disaster areas need tents , medical supplies , drinking water and food ; however it recommended donating cash instead of other items , as it had not been possible to reach roads that were completely damaged or places that were blocked off by landslides . Landslides continuously threatened the progress of a search and rescue group of 80 men , each carrying about 40 kg of relief supplies , from a motorized infantry brigade under commander Yang Wenyao , as they tried to reach the ethnically Tibetan village of Sier at a height of 4000 m above sea level in Pingwu county . The extreme terrain conditions precluded the use of helicopter evacuation , and over 300 of the Tibetan villagers were stranded in their demolished village for five days without food and water before the rescue group finally arrived to help the injured and stranded villagers down the mountain .
Persistent heavy rain and landslides in Wenchuan County and the nearby area badly affected rescue efforts . At the start of rescue operations on May 12 , 20 helicopters were deployed for the delivery of food , water , and emergency aid , and also the evacuation of the injured and reconnaissance of quake @-@ stricken areas . By 17 : 37 CST on May 13 , a total of over 15 @,@ 600 troops and militia reservists from the Chengdu Military Region had joined the rescue force in the heavily affected areas . A commander reported from Yingxiu Town , Wenchuan , that around 3 @,@ 000 survivors were found , while the status of the other inhabitants ( around 9 @,@ 000 ) remained unclear . The 1 @,@ 300 rescuers reached the epicenter , and 300 pioneer troops reached the seat of Wenchuan at about 23 : 30 CST . By 12 : 17 CST , May 14 , 2008 , communication in the seat of Wenchuan was partly revived . On the afternoon of May 14 , 15 Special Operations Troops , along with relief supplies and communications gear , parachuted into inaccessible Mao County , northeast of Wenchuan .
By May 15 , Premier Wen Jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters , of which 60 were to be provided by the PLAAF , and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry , bringing the total of number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force , army , and civil aviation to over 150 , resulting in the largest non @-@ combat airlifting operation in People 's Liberation Army history .
Beijing accepted the aid of the Tzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan late on May 13 . Tzu Chi was the first force from outside the People 's Republic of China to join the rescue effort . China stated it would gratefully accept international help to cope with the quake .
A direct chartered cargo flight was made by China Airlines from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport to Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the Tzu Chi Foundation and the Red Cross Society of Taiwan to the affected areas . Approval from mainland Chinese authorities was sought , and the chartered flight departed Taipei at 17 : 00 CST , May 15 and arrived in Chengdu by 20 : 30 CST . A rescue team from the Red Cross in Taiwan was also scheduled to depart Taipei on a Mandarin Airlines direct chartered flight to Chengdu at 15 : 00 CST on May 16 .
Francis Marcus of the International Federation of the Red Cross praised the Chinese rescue effort as " swift and very efficient " in Beijing on Tuesday . But he added the scale of the disaster was such that " we can 't expect that the government can do everything and handle every aspect of the needs " . The Economist noted that China reacted to the disaster " rapidly and with uncharacteristic openness " , contrasting it with Burma 's secretive response to Cyclone Nargis , which devastated that country 10 days before the earthquake .
On May 16 , rescue groups from South Korea , Japan , Singapore , Russia and Taiwan arrived to join the rescue effort . The United States shared some of its satellite images of the quake @-@ stricken areas with Chinese authorities . During the weekend , the US sent into China two U.S. Air Force C @-@ 17 's carrying supplies , which included tents and generators . Xinhua reported 135 @,@ 000 Chinese troops and medics were involved in the rescue effort across 58 counties and cities .
The Internet was extensively used for passing information to aid rescue and recovery efforts . For example , the official news agency Xinhua set up an online rescue request center in order to find the blind spots of disaster recovery . After knowing that rescue helicopters had trouble landing into the epicenter area in Wenchuan , a student proposed a landing spot online and it was chosen as the first touchdown place for the helicopters . Volunteers also set up several websites to help store contact information for victims and evacuees . On May 31 , a rescue helicopter carrying earthquake survivors and crew members crashed in fog and turbulence in Wenchuan county . No @-@ one survived .
Rescue efforts performed by the Chinese government were praised by western media , especially in comparison with Myanmar 's blockage of foreign aid during Cyclone Nargis , as well as China 's previous performance during the 1976 Tangshan earthquake . China 's openness during the media coverage of the Sichuan earthquake led a professor at the Peking University to say , “ This is the first time [ that ] the Chinese media has lived up to international standards ” . Los Angeles Times praised China 's media coverage of the quake of being " democratic " .
Rescue efforts also came from Jet Li 's One Foundation which saw the martial arts actor Wu Jing assisting in the efforts .
= = = The " quake lakes " = = =
As a result of the magnitude 7 @.@ 9 earthquake and the many strong aftershocks , many rivers became blocked by large landslides , which resulted in the formation of " quake lakes " behind the blockages ; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever @-@ increasing water mass , potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream . As of May 27 , 2008 , 34 lakes had formed due to earthquake debris blocking and damming rivers , and it was estimated that 28 of them were still of potential danger to the local people . Entire villages had to be evacuated because of the resultant flooding .
The most precarious of these quake @-@ lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at Mount Tangjia in Beichuan County , Sichuan , accessible only by foot or air ; an Mi @-@ 26T heavy lift helicopter belonging to the China Flying Dragon Special Aviation Company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location . This operation was coupled with the work done by PLAAF Mi @-@ 17 helicopters bringing in PLA engineering corps , explosive specialists and other personnel to join 1 @,@ 200 soldiers who arrived on site by foot . Five tons of fuel to operate the machinery was airlifted to the site , where a sluice was constructed to allow the safe discharge of the bottlenecked water . Downstream , more than 200 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Mianyang by June 1 in anticipation of the dam bursting .
= = Domestic reactions = =
The State Council declared a three @-@ day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from May 19 , 2008 ; the PRC 's National Flag and Regional Flags of Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions flown at half mast . It was the first time that a national mourning period had been declared for something other than the death of a state leader , and many have called it the biggest display of mourning since the death of Mao Zedong . At 14 : 28 CST on May 19 , 2008 , a week after the earthquake , the Chinese public held a moment of silence . People stood silent for three minutes while air defense , police and fire sirens , and the horns of vehicles , vessels and trains sounded . Cars and trucks on Beijing 's roads also came to a halt . People spontaneously burst into cheering " Zhongguo jiayou ! " ( Let 's go , China ! ) and " Sichuan jiayou " ( Let 's go , Sichuan ! ) afterwards .
The Ningbo Organizing Committee of the Beijing Olympic torch relay announced that the relay , scheduled to take place in Ningbo during national morning , would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period . The route of the torch through the country was scaled down , and there was a minute of silence when the next leg started in city of Ruijin , Jiangxi on the Wednesday after the quake .
Many websites converted their home page to black and white ; Sina.com and Sohu , major internet portals , limited their
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The rack is also a four @-@ beat gait , but with equal intervals between each footfall , making it a smooth gait to ride . In the show ring , the gait is performed with speed and action , appearing unrestrained . Historically , the slow gait could be either a running walk , the stepping pace , or the fox trot , however , the modern five @-@ gaited Saddlebred usually performs the stepping pace .
Lordosis , also known as swayback , low back or soft back , has been found to have a hereditary basis in Saddlebreds and a recessive mode of inheritance . The precise mutation has not yet been located , but researchers believe it to be somewhere on horse chromosome 20 . Researching this condition may help more than just the Saddlebred breed as it may " serve as a model for investigating congenital skeletal deformities in horses and other species . " Due to the head position common in the show ring , Saddlebreds can have impairments to the upper respiratory system , while the shoeing and movement required of the horses can cause leg and hoof injuries and increased lameness . A swayback is penalized as a fault at shows , in addition to other conformation flaws .
= = History = =
The Saddlebred has origins in the Galloway and Hobby horses of the British Isles , animals sometimes called palfreys , which had ambling gaits and were brought to the United States by early settlers . These animals were further refined in America to become a now @-@ extinct breed called the Narragansett Pacer , a riding and driving breed known for its ambling and pacing gaits . When colonists imported Thoroughbreds to America , beginning in 1706 , they were crossed with the Narragansett Pacer , which , combined with massive exports , ultimately led to the extinction of the Narragansett as a purebred breed . To preserve important bloodlines , Canadian Pacers were introduced instead . By the time of the American Revolution , a distinct type of riding horse had developed with the size and quality of the Thoroughbred , but the ambling gaits and stamina of the Pacer breeds . This animal was called the American Horse . Its existence was first documented in a 1776 letter when an American diplomat wrote to the Continental Congress asking for one to be sent to France as a gift for Marie Antoinette .
= = = 19th century = = =
Other breeds which played a role in the development of the Saddlebred in the 19th century include the Morgan , Standardbred and Hackney . The Canadian Pacer had a particularly significant impact . The breed , originally of French origin , was also influential in the development of the Standardbred and Tennessee Walking Horse . The most influential Canadian Pacer on Saddlebred lines was Tom Hall , a blue roan stallion foaled in 1806 . After being imported to the United States from Canada , he was registered as an American Saddlebred and became the foundation stallion of several Saddlebred lines .
The American Horse was further refined in Kentucky , where the addition of more Thoroughbred blood created a taller and better @-@ looking horse that became known as the Kentucky Saddler . There were originally seventeen foundation stallions listed by the breed registry , but by 1908 the registry decided to list only one and the remainder were identified as " Noted Deceased Sires . " Today , two foundation sires of the breed are recognized , both Thoroughbred crosses . The first was Denmark , son of an imported Thoroughbred , who for many years was the only recognized foundation stallion . His son , Gaines ' Denmark , was in the pedigrees of over 60 percent of the horses registered in the first three volumes of the breed 's studbook . A second foundation sire was recognized in 1991 , Harrison Chief . This sire was a descendent of the Thoroughbred Messenger , who is also considered a foundation stallion for the Standardbred breed .
During the American Civil War , American Saddlebreds were commonly used by the military , and known for their bravery and endurance . Many officers used them as mounts , and included in their numbers are General Lee 's Traveller , General Grant 's Cincinnati , General Sherman 's Lexington , and General Jackson 's Little Sorrell . Other generals who used them during the conflict include John Hunt Morgan and Basil W. Duke during his time with Morgan 's Raiders . Kentucky Saddlers were used during brutal marches with the latter group , and the historical record suggests that they held up better than horses of other breeds .
The American Saddlebred Horse Association was formed in 1891 , then called the National Saddle Horse Breeders Association ( NSHBA ) . Private individuals had produced studbooks for other breeds , such as the Morgan , as early as 1857 , but the NSHBA was the first national association for an American @-@ developed breed of horse . A member of Morgan 's Raiders , General John Breckinridge Castleman , was instrumental in forming the NSHBA . In 1899 , the organization name was changed to the American Saddle Horse Breeders Association , clarifying the breed 's name as the " American Saddle Horse , " not simply " Saddle Horse . "
= = = 20th century to present = = =
After World War I , the American Saddlebred began to be exported to South Africa , and it is now the most popular non @-@ racing breed in that country . Saddlebred horse show standards continued to evolve through the 1920s , as the popularity of the breed grew . The Saddlebred industry slowed during World War II , but began to grow again post @-@ war , with Mexico , Missouri earning the title " Saddle Horse Capital of the World " . Exports continued , and though attempts to begin a South African breed registry had started in 1935 , it was not until 1949 that the Saddle Horse Breeders ' Society of South Africa was formed . The 1950s saw continued growth of the Saddlebred breed , and The Lemon Drop Kid , a fine harness horse , became the first , and only , Saddlebred to appear on the cover of Sports Illustrated . In the late 1950s , the Saddle Horse Capital became centered in Shelby County , Kentucky , largely due to the success of breeders Charles and Helen Crabtree , the latter a renowned equitation coach . Although individual Saddlebreds had been exported to Great Britain throughout the breed 's history , the first breeding groups were transported there in 1966 . For the next three decades , enthusiasts worked to establish a breeding and showing platform for the breed in the UK .
In 1980 , the name of the American Saddle Horse Breeder 's Association was changed to the American Saddlebred Horse Association ( ASHA ) , membership was opened to non @-@ breeders , and the group began to focus on breed promotion . In 1985 , the ASHA became the first breed registry to have their headquarters at the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington , Kentucky . A decade later , in 1995 , the United Saddlebred Association – UK was formed to register Saddlebreds in Great Britain , and acts as the British affiliate of the ASHA . Since the founding of the American registry , almost 250 @,@ 000 horses have been accepted , with almost 3 @,@ 000 new foals registered annually . It is the oldest still @-@ functioning breed registry in the US . Most common in the eastern US , the breed is also found throughout North America , Europe , Australia , and in South Africa .
Located at the Kentucky Horse Park is the American Saddlebred Museum , which curates a large collection of Saddlebred @-@ related items and artwork , as well as a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ volume library of breed @-@ related works . There are many magazines which focus on the American Saddlebred : " Show Horse Magazine " , " Bluegrass Horseman " , " The National Horseman " , " Saddle and Bridle " , and " Show Horse International " .
= = = Show ring history = = =
As a show horse , Saddlebreds were exhibited in Kentucky as early as 1816 , and were a prominent part of the first national horse show in the United States , held at the St. Louis Fair in 1856 . The Kentucky State Fair began running a World Championship show in 1917 , offering a $ 10 @,@ 000 prize for the champion five @-@ gaited horse . Also in 1917 , the American Horse Shows Association , now the United States Equestrian Federation , formed and began to standardize show formats and rules . In 1957 , the American Saddlebred Pleasure Horse Association was formed to regulate English pleasure classes . Today , the most prestigious award in the breed industry is the American Saddlebred " Triple Crown " : winning the five @-@ gaited championships at the Lexington Junior League Horse Show , the Kentucky State Fair World 's Championship Horse Show , and American Royal horse show ; a feat that has only been accomplished by six horses .
The breed 's show history also paralleled major historical developments . Heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis , who owned and exhibited Saddlebreds into the 1940s , organized the first " All @-@ Negro " horse show in Utica , Michigan , allowing greater opportunities for African @-@ American people to exhibit horses at a time when there was significant racial segregation in the United States . Gas shortages in the 1970s and 1980s put pressure on the recreational dollar , and saw the growth of single breed shows at the expense of the multi @-@ breed traditional horse show . At the beginning of the 21st century , the number of women showing Saddlebreds increased , with female competitors winning several world championships .
= = Uses = =
Today , the Saddlebred is exhibited in the United States in multiple divisions , including assorted in @-@ hand classes ; ridden in saddle seat classes for three- and five @-@ gaited horses in both Park and pleasure classes , hunter country pleasure , and western pleasure ; plus pleasure driving , fine harness , roadster harness classes . In five @-@ gaited competition , they are shown with a full tail , often augmented with an artificial switch , and a full mane . Three @-@ gaited horses are shown with a shaved off " roached " mane and with the hair at the top of their tails , an area called the dock , trimmed short . While use of a set tail in certain types of competition was common , today , tailsets are generally not allowed on the show grounds , except for horses in the Park Pleasure division , and horses with unset tails are not penalized in any division . Gingering is prohibited .
Outside of breed @-@ specific shows , the Saddlebred is also promoted as suitable for competitive trail riding , endurance riding , dressage , combined driving , eventing , and show jumping . Some Saddlebreds are also suitable for fox hunting , cutting and roping . Because they are so closely affiliated with their traditional show ring competition , they are sometimes mistaken for warmbloods or Thoroughbred crosses when participating in other equine events . They are also suitable family horses used for trail and pleasure riding and ranch work .
= = = Film and celebrity affiliation = = =
Many film and television horses of the Golden Age of Hollywood were also Saddlebreds , including the horses used in lead roles in My Friend Flicka , National Velvet , Fury and one version of Black Beauty . A half @-@ Saddlebred played the lead role in the TV series Mr. Ed , and a Saddlebred was used in a prominent role in Giant . In the 1990s , William Shatner , an actor and Saddlebred breeder , rode one of his own horses , a mare named Great Belles of Fire , in his role as James T. Kirk in Star Trek Generations . Numerous other celebrities have been owners and exhibitors of the breed , including Clark Gable , Will Rogers , Joe Louis , and Carson Kressley .
= BLEU =
BLEU ( bilingual evaluation understudy ) is an algorithm for evaluating the quality of text which has been machine @-@ translated from one natural language to another . Quality is considered to be the correspondence between a machine 's output and that of a human : " the closer a machine translation is to a professional human translation , the better it is " – this is the central idea behind BLEU . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] BLEU was one of the first metrics to achieve a high correlation with human judgements of quality , [ 3 ] [ 4 ] and remains one of the most popular automated and inexpensive metrics .
Scores are calculated for individual translated segments — generally sentences — by comparing them with a set of good quality reference translations . Those scores are then averaged over the whole corpus to reach an estimate of the translation 's overall quality . Intelligibility or grammatical correctness are not taken into account .
BLEU is designed to approximate human judgement at a corpus level , and performs badly if used to evaluate the quality of individual sentences .
BLEU ’ s output is always a number between 0 and 1 . This value indicates how similar the candidate and reference texts are , with values closer to 1 representing more similar texts . However , few human translations will attain a score of 1 . The candidate texts must be identical to a reference translation . For this reason , it is not necessary to attain a score of 1 . Because there are more opportunities to match , adding additional reference translations will increase the BLEU score . [ 5 ]
= = Algorithm = =
BLEU uses a modified form of precision to compare a candidate translation against multiple reference translations . The metric modifies simple precision since machine translation systems have been known to generate more words than are in a reference text . This is illustrated in the following example from Papineni et al . ( 2002 ) ,
Of the seven words in the candidate translation , all of them appear in the reference translations . Thus the candidate text is given a unigram precision of ,
<formula>
where <formula> is number of words from the candidate that are found in the reference , and <formula> is the total number of words in the candidate . This is a perfect score , despite the fact that the candidate translation above retains little of the content of either of the references .
The modification that BLEU makes is fairly straightforward . For each word in the candidate translation , the algorithm takes its maximum total count , <formula> , in any of the reference translations . In the example above , the word " the " appears twice in reference 1 , and once in reference 2 . Thus <formula> .
For the candidate translation , the count <formula> of each word is clipped to a maximum of <formula> for that word . In this case , " the " has <formula> and <formula> , thus <formula> is clipped to 2 . <formula> is then summed over all words in the candidate . This sum is then divided by the total number of words in the candidate translation . In the above example , the modified unigram precision score would be :
<formula>
In practice , however , using individual words as the unit of comparison is not optimal . Instead , BLEU computes the same modified precision metric using n @-@ grams . The length which has the " highest correlation with monolingual human judgements " [ 6 ] was found to be four . The unigram scores are found to account for the adequacy of the translation , how much information is retained . The longer <formula> -gram scores account for the fluency of the translation , or to what extent it reads like " good English " .
Another problem with BLEU scores is that they tend to favor short translations , which can produce very high precision scores , even using modified precision . An example of a candidate translation for the same references as above might be :
the cat
In this example , the modified unigram precision would be ,
<formula>
as the word ' the ' and the word ' cat ' appear once each in the candidate , and the total number of words is two . The modified bigram precision would be <formula> as the bigram , " the cat " appears once in the candidate . It has been pointed out that precision is usually twinned with recall to overcome this problem [ 7 ] , as the unigram recall of this example would be <formula> or <formula> . The problem being that as there are multiple reference translations , a bad translation could easily have an inflated recall , such as a translation which consisted of all the words in each of the references . [ 8 ]
To produce a score for the whole corpus the modified precision scores for the segments are combined using the geometric mean multiplied by a brevity penalty to prevent very short candidates from receiving too high a score . Let <formula> be the total length of the reference corpus , and <formula> the total length of the translation corpus . If <formula> , the brevity penalty applies , defined to be <formula> . ( In the case of multiple reference sentences , <formula> is taken to be the sum of the lengths of the sentences whose lengths are closest to the lengths of the candidate sentences . However , in the version of the metric used by NIST evaluations prior to 2009 , the shortest reference sentence had been used instead . )
iBLEU is an interactive version of BLEU that allows a user to visually examine the BLEU scores obtained by the candidate translations . It also allows comparing two different systems in a visual and interactive manner which is useful for system development . [ 9 ]
= = Performance = =
BLEU has frequently been reported as correlating well with human judgement , [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] and remains a benchmark for the assessment of any new evaluation metric . There are however a number of criticisms that have been voiced . It has been noted that although in principle capable of evaluating translations of any language , BLEU cannot in its present form deal with languages lacking word boundaries . [ 13 ]
It has been argued that although BLEU has significant advantages , there is no guarantee that an increase in BLEU score is an indicator of improved translation quality . [ 14 ] There is an inherent , systemic problem with any metric based on comparing with one or a few reference translations : in real life , sentences can be translated in many different ways , sometimes with no overlap . Therefore , the approach of comparing by how much any given translation result by a computer differs from just a few human translations is flawed . HyTER is another automated MT metric that compares to very many translations in a reference grammar defined by human translators ; the drawback is then that the human effort involved in correctly defining the combinatorially many ways to render the meaning of the translation in practice means HyTER also is only an approximation .
= Gryposaurus =
Gryposaurus ( meaning " hooked @-@ nosed ( Greek grypos ) lizard " ; sometimes incorrectly translated as " griffin ( Latin gryphus ) lizard " ) was a genus of duckbilled dinosaur that lived about 83 to 74 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous ( late Santonian to late Campanian stages ) of North America . Named species of Gryposaurus are known from the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta , Canada , and two formations in the United States : the Lower Two Medicine Formation in Montana and the Kaiparowits Formation of Utah .
Gryposaurus is similar to Kritosaurus , and for many years the two were thought to be synonyms . It is known from numerous skulls , some skeletons , and even some skin impressions that show it to have had pyramidal scales projecting along the midline of the back . It is most easily distinguished from other duckbills by its narrow arching nasal hump , sometimes described as similar to a " Roman nose , " and which may have been used for species or sexual identification , and / or combat with individuals of the same species . A large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore around 9 meters ( 30 feet ) long , it may have preferred river settings .
= = Description = =
Gryposaurus was a hadrosaurid of typical size and shape ; one of the best specimens of this genus , the nearly complete type specimen of Kritosaurus incurvimanus ( now regarded as a synonym of Gryposaurus notabilis ) came from an animal about 8 @.@ 2 meters ( 27 feet ) long . This specimen also has the best example of skin impressions for Gryposaurus , showing this dinosaur to have had several different types of scalation : pyramidal , ridged , limpet @-@ shaped scutes upwards of 3 @.@ 8 centimeters long ( 1 @.@ 5 inches ) on the flank and tail ; uniform polygonal scales on the neck and sides of the body ; and pyramidal structures , flattened side @-@ to @-@ side , with fluted sides , longer than tall and found along the top of the back in a single midline row .
The three named species of Gryposaurus differ in details of the skull and lower jaw . The prominent nasal arch found in this genus is formed from the paired nasal bones . In profile view , they rise into a rounded hump in front of the eyes , reaching a height as tall as the highest point of the back of the skull . The skeleton is known in great detail , making it a useful point of reference for other duckbill skeletons .
= = Classification
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Medium
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by HMS Cubitt and on 13 December was sunk by Beaufighter aircraft of No. 254 Squadron RAF with RP @-@ 3 rockets. in position 51 ° 16 ′ N 13 ° 38 ′ W , south west of Ireland .
= = Summery of raiding history = =
During her service in the Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 255 sank ten commercial ships for 47 @,@ 640 GRT , one warship of 1 @,@ 200 GRT , and sank another commercial ship for a total loss of 7 @,@ 191 GRT .
= Son of Beast =
Son of Beast was a record @-@ breaking wooden roller coaster located at Kings Island in Mason , Ohio . Built and designed by the now defunct Roller Coaster Corporation of America , it opened to the public on May 26 , 2000 , and was themed as a sequel to one of the park 's other signature attractions , The Beast . In addition to breaking the world record for speed , Son of Beast was the first wooden hypercoaster in the world with a 214 @-@ foot ( 65 m ) drop and was the first wooden coaster to feature an inversion .
Son of Beast is also known for two major , non @-@ fatal accidents . In 2006 , damage to the track caused one of the trains to stop abruptly . Another setback occurred in 2009 , when a woman claimed to have suffered a head injury . The ride was closed indefinitely , and all references to the ride were later removed from the park . On July 27 , 2012 , the closure was made permanent , as Kings Island announced that the roller coaster would be dismantled and removed from the park .
= = History = =
The Roller Coaster Corporation of America discussed the idea of a building the world 's first wooden hypercoaster with Kings Island in 1997 . The park announced plans to build Son of Beast on May 11 , 1999 . As part of a marketing campaign for the ride before its debut , a box was placed next to a footpath in the park . Beastly growling and snarling noises came from inside the box as it shook violently . During the announcement , the box was revealed to the audience along with a model of the roller coaster and a list of seven world records that would be broken when it came into operation . The sign at the ride 's entrance featured a large wooden box covered with chains , rope , and metal straps . The front was ripped open with the name " Son of Beast " centered inside the box . Problems plagued the ride from the start and as a result , Paramount Parks , the park 's then @-@ owner , fired RCCA before construction was completed . The park had to make several design corrections during Son of Beast 's initial year .
The ride originally operated with three trains designed by Premier Rides . Each one consisted of six cars for a total capacity of thirty @-@ six . The trains were shortened to five cars before the 2006 season . After the ride 's first major incident , the trains were replaced altogether with lighter models before the ride reopened the following season . The loop was also removed during this time .
After another major incident occurred in 2009 , it was announced that Son of Beast would be closed indefinitely . References to Son of Beast were removed from the park 's website and map in early 2010 . All signage , including the box at the entrance , was also removed .
On March 15 , 2010 , the General Manager of Kings Island , Greg Scheid , stated that the park had spent nearly $ 30 million on the ride to date , and that it would not reopen for the 2010 season . Another Kings Island spokesperson , Don Helbig , announced in 2011 that the ride would again be closed for the 2011 season , and that the ride 's future had not yet been decided . " No decision has been made concerning the ride 's future , " spokesman Don Helbig said . " It would be inappropriate to speculate on when a decision might be made . There 's nothing else to talk about . " Kings Island announced on April 24 , 2012 , that there are no plans to operate Son of Beast in 2012 , and they 're still evaluating options .
On July 27 , 2012 , following a thorough evaluation of the roller coaster , Kings Island announced that Son of Beast will be removed from the park to make room for future expansion . Demolition began in mid @-@ September 2012 . On November 20 , one of the last remaining parts of the structure , the lift hill , was demolished . A new roller coaster called Banshee was completed in April 2014 and is now in the same location previously occupied by Son of Beast .
= = Layout = =
After loading the train , riders left the station making a 51 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) left @-@ hand drop into a series of short hops before turning into the 218 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 66 m ) lift hill . At the crest of the lift hill , the track made a left @-@ hand turn over to the first drop , where it dropped 214 feet ( 65 m ) to the ground followed by a 70 @-@ degree banked turn to the right . Riders then descended 168 feet ( 51 m ) down a second drop into a left @-@ hand double helix . Coming out of the helix , the train passed through a mid @-@ course brake run dropping into a straight section of track ( where the vertical loop was prior to 2006 ) , before entering another helix , riding a series of short hills. and ending at the final brake run . One cycle of the ride lasted about 2 minutes and 20 seconds .
= = = Materials used = = =
Main Structure : Southern Yellow Pine
Track Piles : Douglas Fir
Loop Structure : Steel ( removed December 2006 )
Loop Track : Wood
Timber used : 2 @.@ 5 million board feet
Acres of land used : 12
Footers : 2 @,@ 414 footers , 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) into the ground
Bolts : 225 @,@ 000 21 " steel bolts
Nails : Over 22 short tons ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) of nails
= = World records = =
At the time of its introduction in 2000 , Son of Beast was the only wooden roller coaster nationally ranked in the top 10 for track height , track length , drop height , and speed . It set several world records becoming the tallest and fastest wooden roller coaster in the world , as well as becoming the second longest following its predecessor , The Beast . Son of Beast was also the only wooden roller coaster to feature a vertical loop , though the loop was later removed after an accident in 2006 . Prior to its removal , the vertical loop also made Son of Beast the longest roller coaster in the world to contain one . Following its removal , California Screamin ' at Disney California Adventure acquired the title .
The seven world records held at its introduction were :
Tallest wooden roller coaster
Longest wooden roller coaster drop
Fastest wooden roller coaster
Only looping wooden roller coaster ( 2000 – 2006 )
Longest looping roller coaster ( 2000 – 2006 )
Most wooden coaster track at one park ( 22 @,@ 612 feet or 6 @,@ 892 metres )
First and only wooden hypercoaster in the world ( over 200 feet or 61 metres high )
= = Incidents = =
= = = 2006 = = =
On July 9 , 2006 at 4 : 45 pm , a structural failure in the ' Rose Bowl ' section of the ride created a bump on the track that caused a train to come to an abrupt stop . Twenty @-@ seven injuries were reported in the accident and rescue units were required to evacuate the riders . Most of the injuries were of the chest or neck . Seventeen people were released from the hospital within five hours of the accident , and two were admitted . None of the injuries were life @-@ threatening . After an inspection the following day , the park stated that the accident was caused by a crack or split in the wood . The ride was shut down for an extended period of time , while the park worked with the State of Ohio to complete a full investigation . The park completed repairs of the ride but the state asked for extensive testing to be done to ensure it would not happen again . The park indicated that the ride would not reopen until the 2007 season .
Two trains designed by Gerstlauer from the demolished Hurricane : Category 5 coaster at the Myrtle Beach Pavilion were purchased by Kings Island to serve as lighter replacements for original Son of Beast trains . The lighter trains were used to reduce the overall load on the wooden structure . The loop was also removed during this time to assist the lighter trains in completing the circuit . The park also claimed that the changes helped make the ride more comfortable .
In late June 2007 , reports circulated that the park was testing the new Gerstlauer trains . Eyewitnesses reported red and blue trains running on the track with test dummies in the seats . On July 4 , 2007 , Son of Beast reopened for the first time since the accident the year before . Despite the lack of the vertical loop , the coaster continued to hold the record as tallest and fastest wooden roller coaster in the world .
= = = 2009 = = =
On June 16 , 2009 , a woman claimed to have suffered a head injury from riding Son of Beast during her visit to the park on May 31 , 2009 . She did not report the incident to Kings Island officials prior to June 16 . She claimed to have suffered from a burst blood vessel in her brain , after riding Son of Beast , that required admission to an intensive care unit at a nearby hospital . " The first we heard of this was on June 16 . Her visit was on May 31 and there 's no record of going to first aid for anything here at the park , " said Don Helbig , public relations manager for Kings Island . Helbig also pointed out that there were no other reports of injuries on the ride that year . The Son of Beast was shut down as a precaution , however , during the investigation . " At this point it would be inappropriate to speculate on an exact date when the ride may reopen . We 're going to do a thorough maintenance review . We 're going to work with the state of Ohio on that , " said Helbig .
An investigation followed , and no irregularities were found with the ride . A summary of that investigation was released later , on July 29 . Despite the findings , the roller coaster remained closed and never reopened .
= = = 2012 = = =
Demolition of ' Son of Beast ' occurred in the Spring of 2012 .
= A Night of Neglect =
" A Night of Neglect " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the thirty @-@ ninth episode overall . It was written by Ian Brennan , directed by Carol Banker , and aired on Fox in the United States on April 19 , 2011 . It features the McKinley High glee club , New Directions , fundraising for a fellow extracurricular activity group by holding a benefit concert , while cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) attempts to thwart them .
Thirteen guest stars appeared in the episode , including Gwyneth Paltrow in her final season two appearance . Several cast members returned after extended absences : Jessalyn Gilsig , Cheyenne Jackson and Stephen Tobolowsky as members of Sue 's anti @-@ New Directions " League of Doom " , and Charice as student Sunshine Corazon . Four songs were covered and released as singles , and a fifth featured as a dance performance .
Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 80 million American viewers , and garnered a 3 @.@ 8 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Critical commentary was generally negative . Reviewers generally disliked the storyline centered on the under @-@ appreciation of student Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , though commended her performance of Aretha Franklin 's " Ain 't No Way " . The episode 's comedy moments attracted some praise , though the guest stars and League of Doom plot were ill @-@ received , as was the cutting short of a solo by Jenna Ushkowitz , and a rendition of Adele 's " Turning Tables " by Paltrow , which critics found inferior to the original .
= = Plot = =
Low on funds for an upcoming competition trip , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) suggests that the club members sell saltwater taffy to raise money . New Directions members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) and Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) reveal they are on the academic decathlon team , which is also having funding problems . Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) is the fourth , stand @-@ in member , and proves surprisingly knowledgeable about cat diseases . Will 's girlfriend , substitute teacher Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) , suggests holding a benefit concert for the decathlon team instead of selling additional taffy . Former McKinley student Sunshine Corazon ( Charice ) , who defected to rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , is awarded the closing number at the concert after promising to bring her six hundred Twitter followers .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) creates a " League of Doom " , with members that include Will 's ex @-@ wife Terri Schuester ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , Vocal Adrenaline coach Dustin Goolsby ( Cheyenne Jackson ) , and former McKinley High teacher Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , to destroy the glee club . Tasked with breaking up Will and Holly , Dustin makes a failed attempt at seducing her . The targeted relationship begins to crumble anyway , when Will helps his former love Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) with her stress @-@ worsened OCD , after she reveals that her husband Carl Howell has asked for an annulment .
Former New Directions member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) attends the concert , accompanied by his boyfriend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) . They are confronted by closeted homophobic bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , who is forced to back down by Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , in retribution for previously throwing a slushie in her face . Sunshine and her followers pull out of the concert on Dustin 's orders , and Sandy and McKinley students Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , Azimio ( James Earl ) and Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) — the only other members of the audience — heckle the glee club . Tina is reduced to tears by their booing ; Mike fares better as the hecklers are given taffy to keep their mouths full . During the intermission , Holly talks with the three students about the hidden cost of insults and suggests they cheer as opposed to jeering , but they opt to leave instead . Holly performs Adele 's " Turning Tables " to Will . Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , who on the advice of Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) has spent the lead @-@ up to the concert making outrageous demands on her fellow club members to gain greater respect from them , performs the final number : a powerhouse version of Aretha Franklin 's " Ain 't No Way " . She wows a stoned Sandy , who donates some of his drug profits to fund the academic decathlon team .
Holly takes a job in Cleveland , leaving Will free to pursue Emma , while Sue decides to bring Terri further into the game . The episode ends on the academic decathlon final 's tiebreaker question , which is in the category " hermaphrodite Nazi sympathizers " , a topic earlier taught in an irreverent history lesson by Holly .
= = Production = =
Thirteen guest stars were featured in " A Night of Neglect " , including Paltrow , who made her third and final second season appearance as substitute teacher Holly Holliday , following " The Substitute " and " Sexy " . Having previously appeared in the second season 's first episode , Jackson and Charice also returned , as Vocal Adrenaline 's Dustin and Sunshine , respectively . Additional recurring guest characters who appeared were New Directions members Mike Chang , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) and Lauren Zizes , school bullies Dave Karofsky and Azimio , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel , cheerleader Becky Jackson , local news anchor Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) , and Blaine Anderson , lead singer of the Dalton Academy Warblers .
The musical focus of the episode was , according to cast member Cory Monteith , " artists that may have been neglected or under @-@ appreciated over the years " . He revealed that the series ' attempt to clear music licensing rights to a song by Icelandic singer @-@ songwriter Björk was complicated by the fact that she apparently did not have a telephone number . She eventually declined the request , as later revealed by Glee creator Ryan Murphy , because she felt the song would not have been appropriate to use in its proposed accompanying scene , but remained open to future suggestions as she mentioned that she had enjoyed the show . The songs covered in the episode were Aretha Franklin 's " Ain 't No Way " performed by Riley ; Celine Dion 's cover of Eric Carmen 's " All by Myself " performed by Charice ; Lykke Li 's " I Follow Rivers " , performed by Ushkowitz ; and Adele 's " Turning Tables " , performed by Paltrow . This marks the second time " All by Myself " , a song Charice previously performed in concert , was covered on the series , the first being in the first season episode " Showmance " . Jack Johnson 's " Bubble Toes " also featured in the episode , as a dance routine performed by Shum , Jr . All four vocal performances were released as digital singles , though only " All by Myself " and " Turning Tables " charted . The former peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , while the latter reached number sixty @-@ six in both the US and Canada .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A Night of Neglect " was first broadcast on April 19 , 2011 in the United States . It garnered a 3 @.@ 8 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received nearly 9 @.@ 80 million American viewers during its initial airing . Viewership and ratings were down significantly from those of the previous episode , " Original Song " , which was watched by 11 @.@ 15 million American viewers and acquired a 4 @.@ 2 / 13 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon first airing . It was the most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast amongst adults aged 18 – 49 , and ranked 16th amongst all viewers .
The episode 's Canadian broadcast , also on April 19 , 2011 , attained 1 @.@ 74 million viewers and ranked ninth for the week . It registered a slight decline on " Original Song " , which was viewed by 1 @.@ 81 million , but also ranked ninth . In the UK , the episode was broadcast on May 2 , 2011 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 44 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 92 million on
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E4 , and 520 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the third most @-@ watched show on cable for the week . Broadcast on May 4 , 2011 in Australia , the episode attained 943 @,@ 000 viewers and ranked tenth for the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Night of Neglect " received generally negative reviews . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone deemed it a " very predictable episode " , which neglected to take risks with its musical numbers and left her with a " stale feeling " . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly was confused by the message presented . She approved of the Will – Emma plot and Holly 's departure , but was dismayed by the lack of Kurt and Blaine , and criticized Mercedes ' storyline for its repetitive nature . The Washington Post 's Lisa de Moraes lambasted the League of Doom plot , which , she wrote , consisted of " [ two characters ] whom viewers will barely remember , one who is super creepy , and another who fans despised " . She suggested that they were included for contractual , rather than storyline reasons , though lauded Jackson 's talent for " steal [ ing ] every scene he 's in . " Futterman also praised Jackson 's " long @-@ overdue return " .
CNN 's Lisa Respers France said the episode failed to meet her expectations . She was concerned that Mercedes ' plot may lead towards the character becoming unlikeable , and criticized Holly 's sudden departure . Though she enjoyed Sunshine 's return , seeing Kurt and Blaine at McKinley and Mercedes ' solo , she noted " all of those moments were fleeting and only contributed to the uneven feel of the show . " Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times called it a " quirky mixed bag , packed with amusing bits and pieces but very little emotional ( or musical ) oomph . " . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club graded the episode " C " . He suggested that its purpose was to address two criticisms of the show : the under @-@ use of its supporting cast members , and the " maniacal behavior " of Sue . McNutt wrote , " not only was the execution on these endeavors spotty at best and outright obnoxious at worst , but the growing futility of continuity in this series renders any and all developments wholly temporary . This episode was not a step in the right direction so much as it was an escalator to nowhere : A week from now , the chances of any of this resonating in the show itself is slim to none . " He felt that Mercedes has become a prop , rather than a character , and criticized the episode for attributing her blame for the marginalization the writers have subjected her to .
MTV 's Aly Semigran enjoyed the comedy and conclusion of Holly 's plot , in what she deemed a " pretty decent " episode , though found Charice 's appearance extraneous . IGN 's Robert Canning gave " A Night of Neglect " 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , and called it " a bright and funny installment " . He too praised the comedy storylines , particularly the League of Doom plot and the academic decathlon scenes , as : " it 's this type of off @-@ topic shenanigans ( read : not about fitting in or Rachel Berry becoming a star ) that breathes refreshing life into Glee and keeps reminding us how funny and entertaining this series can be . " He was less impressed with the benefit concert , which he felt harmed the episode 's pacing , and as with Gonzalez , found the nature of Mercedes ' storyline repetitive .
= = = = Musical performances = = = =
Musical performance in the episode , which Entertainment Weekly 's Emily Exton observed failed to fit the " neglected " criteria , also attracted mixed reviews . Futterman wrote that Charice " pull [ ed ] out all the stops " , with her cover of " All By Myself " , which reached " power notes [ that provided ] a viable threat to Rachel and Mercedes ' diva singing " . The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez commended her vocal " control and efficiency belying her young age " , Semigran called it a " stirring rendition " , and Gonzalez gave it an " A " , her joint highest grade of the episode . Her second " A " was awarded to " Bubble Toes " , which she called " one of the best [ performances ] of the season . " Semigran concurred , " [ Mike 's ] dancing is awesome . "
Critics disapproved of the continuing trend for cutting short Tina 's solos . Gonzalez gave her rendition of " I Follow Rivers " a " B " and commented : " Will Tina ever get to finish a song ? Well , judging by the 20 seconds we saw , she certainly deserves to . " Futterman called her performance " mostly spot @-@ on " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak pointed out : " Why is it that every time Tina sings — remember her sobbing " My Funny Valentine " — things end weirdly ? I wish we 'd gotten a little more vocal and a little less booing in an episode about the club 's underappreciated talents . " Exton suggested , " Maybe she 'll get a chance to do a non @-@ comedic relief song in its entirety by season 5 ? " Flandez disliked her performance ; he commented that she sounded " like a flailing white swan , a poor man 's Bjork . "
Holly 's performance of " Turning Tables " was considered inferior to the original . Futterman named it her least @-@ favorite of Paltrow 's covers to date and said that her vocals " lacked the texture that made Adele 's version so heartbreaking . " Gonzalez gave it her lowest grade of the episode , a " B – " , and Semigran opined that while Paltrow is " a nice enough singer , " she " in no way has the chops " the song requires . While Flandez called it a " scene @-@ stealing turn " and commended it visually and vocally , he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele 's veracity .
Mercedes ' " Ain 't No Way " was named the best performance of the episode by both Futterman , who enjoyed her " powerhouse vocals " , and the New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman , who called it " unbelievable " , and praised the focus placed on Mercedes following a season which failed to showcase her . Flandez described the number as being " glamorously sung like [ the ] star she is " , and hoped that she would be better used in future . In contrast , Reiter called it " a restrained rendition " , but " prettily sung nonetheless " , and Gonzalez struggled to connect with the " uncharacteristically average " song , though noted that for Mercedes that is " still 10 times better than a normal person " and awarded it a " B + " .
= 1964 Brinks Hotel bombing =
The Brinks Hotel in Saigon , also known as the Brink Bachelor Officers Quarters ( BOQ ) , was bombed by the Viet Cong on the evening of December 24 , 1964 , during the Vietnam War . Two Viet Cong operatives detonated a car bomb underneath the hotel , which housed United States Army officers . The explosion killed two Americans , an officer and an NCO , and injured approximately 60 , including military personnel and Vietnamese civilians .
The Vietcong commanders had planned the venture with two objectives in mind . First , by attacking an American installation in the center of the heavily guarded capital , the Vietcong intended to demonstrate their ability to strike in South Vietnam should the United States decide to launch air raids against North Vietnam . Second , the bombing would demonstrate to the South Vietnamese that the Americans were vulnerable and could not be relied upon for protection .
The bombing prompted debate within the administration of United States President Lyndon B. Johnson . Most of his advisers favored retaliatory bombing of North Vietnam and the introduction of American combat troops , while Johnson preferred the existing strategy of training the Army of the Republic of Vietnam to protect South Vietnam from the Vietcong . In the end , Johnson decided not to take retaliatory action .
= = Background and planning = =
Following World War II , the communist @-@ dominated Vietminh fought the French colonial forces in an attempt to gain Vietnamese independence . After the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 , Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel , pending national reunification elections in 1956 . The elections were canceled , resulting in the long @-@ term existence of communist North Vietnam and anti @-@ communist South Vietnam as separate states . In the late @-@ 1950s , South Vietnamese guerrillas known as the Viet Cong — covertly supported by North Vietnam — began an insurgency with the aim of forcefully reunifying the country under communist rule . With the Cold War at its height , the United States — the main backer of South Vietnam — sent military advisers into the country to help train and guide the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in their fight against the Vietcong . By 1964 , there were 23 @,@ 000 American military personnel in the country . The communists viewed the Americans as colonizers and the South Vietnamese as their puppets , and attacked both with force .
The bombing was planned and performed by two Vietcong agents who escaped uninjured and were never captured . Nguyen Thanh Xuan recollected his involvement to historian Stanley Karnow after the war had ended . In late @-@ November , Xuan and his comrade received orders from a Vietcong intermediary to bomb the Brinks Hotel . The building housed United States Army officers , including lieutenant colonels and majors , and attracted off @-@ duty personnel with its highly regarded food and drink , rooftop seating areas and movie screenings . It was a six @-@ story building and had 193 bedrooms . The Vietcong duo observed their target over the next month , mixing with the crowds in the busy street outside . Noting that South Vietnamese officers mingled freely with Americans , they obtained ARVN uniforms from Saigon 's black market , enabling them to get closer . Xuan disguised himself as a military chauffeur , while his partner dressed as a South Vietnamese major . They mingled with the real officers so that they could copy their mannerisms , speaking style and even their way of smoking . The Vietcong pair then procured the two cars and explosives needed for the operation .
The Vietcong commanders had planned the venture with two aims in mind . Firstly , by attacking an American institution in the heart of the heavily guarded capital , the bombing would demonstrate the Vietcong 's ability to strike against the Americans in Vietnam , should the United States decide to launch air raids against North Vietnam . Secondly , the attack would demonstrate to the South Vietnamese public that the Americans were vulnerable and could not be relied upon for protection . Xuan added that " all the crimes committed by the Americans were directed from this nerve center " . He recalled that the number of American officers at the Brinks Hotel had swelled on Christmas Eve because they were using the building to coordinate their celebrations , and that the attack would therefore cause more casualties than on a normal day .
= = Explosion = =
The bombers stashed explosives weighing approximately 90 kilograms ( 200 lb ) in the trunk of one of the cars , and set a timing device to trigger the bomb at 17 : 45 , during the happy hour in the officers ' bar at the hotel . The pair drove their vehicles into the hotel 's grounds . Knowing from their intelligence that a certain American colonel had returned to the US , the " major " lied and told the hotel clerk that he had an appointment with the American officer , claiming that the colonel would be coming from Da Lat . The clerk correctly replied that the colonel had left the country , but the " major " insisted that the clerk was mistaken . The " major " then parked his vehicle in the car park beneath the hotel , before ordering his chauffeur to leave and fetch the American with the other vehicle . He then left the hotel grounds , asking the guard to tell the American colonel to wait for him . The " major " claimed that he had not eaten all day and was going to a nearby café .
While the " major " was at the eatery , the bomb detonated , killing two Americans . The only officer killed was Lieutenant Colonel James Robert Hagen , who had served in the army for 20 years and was working for the MACV . The second victim was Staff Sergeant Benjamin Beltran Castañeda serving with the MACV and an army veteran of 20 years , who died of his wounds on January 23 , 1965 .
The injury reports are conflicting . Karnow reported that 58 people ( military and civilian ) were injured , Mark Moyar reported that 38 American officers were wounded along with 25 Vietnamese civilians , while journalist A. J. Langguth reported that 10 Americans and 43 Vietnamese were injured . Apart from the steel girders , which supported the building , the explosion completely destroyed the ground floor . The bottom four floors were all punctured by the blast and sustained significant damage . The damage was accentuated because several trucks were in the underground car park , with gas canisters ready for delivery . As a result , the explosion detonated the gas , creating a fireball . At the time , American entertainers , including Bob Hope , were in Saigon to perform for US personnel . It is unclear whether Hope was a target ; Moyar reported that Hope was targeted , but was delayed at the airport due to a luggage mishap , while Lawrence J. Quirk reported that the comedian and his troupe were staying in a hotel across the street and were not in range of the blast .
= = Reaction = =
The attack surprised American officials and policymakers on Vietnam , who were confident that the South Vietnamese government was in control in Saigon and that the Vietcong were only a threat in rural areas . The South Vietnamese government was unstable , as it was the latest in a series of military juntas that had ruled for brief periods before being deposed . The infighting exasperated Maxwell Taylor , the US ambassador to South Vietnam and former Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff , who felt that the disputes between the junta 's senior officers were derailing the war effort . Less than two weeks before the bombing , the generals had dissolved the High National Council , a civilian advisory body , prompting Taylor to summon the generals to his office . The ambassador then angrily denounced the generals , and the next day advised General Nguyen Khanh , the president , to resign and go into exile , as he had lost Taylor 's confidence . Khanh threatened to expel Taylor , who said that his forced departure would mean the end of US support for South Vietnam . On December 22 , Khanh announced on Radio Vietnam that " We make sacrifices for the country 's independence and the Vietnamese people 's liberty , but not to carry out the policy of any foreign country " . Khanh explicitly denounced Taylor in an interview published in the New York Herald Tribune on December 23 , and on the day of the bombing , he issued a declaration of independence from " foreign manipulation " . At the time , Khanh was also secretly negotiating with the communists , hoping to put together a peace deal so he could expel the Americans from Vietnam . As a result , there was a suspicion among a minority that Khanh and his officers had been behind the attack , even though the Vietcong had claimed responsibility through a radio broadcast .
General William Westmoreland , who was the U.S. Army commander in South Vietnam , Taylor , and other senior U.S. officers in Saigon and Washington , D.C. urged President Lyndon B. Johnson to authorize reprisal bombings against North Vietnam . Taylor messaged Washington on Christmas Day , saying , " Hanoi will get the word that , despite our present tribulations , there is still bite in the tiger they call paper , and the U.S. stock in this part of the world will take sharp rise . Some of our local squabbles will probably disappear in enthusiasm which our action would generate . " Taylor recommended that the US take unilateral action , citing the animosity between himself and Khanh 's junta .
Johnson called his U.S.-based advisers to his Texas ranch for discussions on Christmas Day . Secretary of State Dean Rusk and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara advised Johnson to reject Taylor 's proposal . Johnson declined to act , stating that an escalation during the Christmas period would be inappropriate , as it would damage public morale . He also noted that because of the political instability in Saigon , the international community and the American public were unlikely to believe that the Vietcong were behind the attack , feeling that they would instead blame local infighting for the bombing . This was despite the fact that the Vietcong had already claimed responsibility . Johnson administration officials concluded four days after the bombing that the Vietcong were responsible . Johnson believed that it was too late to retaliate and that any action taken more than 36 hours after the event constituted unprovoked aggression . The State Department cabled Taylor and the embassy , saying that " In view of the overall confusion in Saigon " , public U.S. and international opinion towards an American air strike would be that the Johnson administration was " trying to shoot its way out of an internal [ South Vietnamese ] political crisis " . Johnson said to Taylor that " Every time I get a military recommendation it seems to me that it calls for large @-@ scale bombing .
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implant station , he taught , the thetan returned to Earth , where it was incarnated . Hubbard taught the Christian concept of heaven was based on a physical location on another planet , which he claimed to have visited . He compared its appearance to Busch Gardens in Pasadena , California , and noted it contained effigies of characters from the New Testament . Over time , he recalled , the location fell into disrepair . A town nearby contained an implant station , at which thetans were convinced to return there .
Another significant encounter in Hubbard 's narrative occurred when a large group of planets formed the Marcab Confederacy , described as in search of slaves , and called a " decadent " society . The author related that this civilization caused a significant implant upon their encounter with thetans .
Hubbard discussed the history of human civilizations on Earth , and the lives of ancient sea monsters and fish people , as well . He also said humans could recover memories of previous lives , such as the experiences of clams and Neanderthals . In his mythos , Atlantis was a completely electronic civilization , whose inhabitants possessed disintegration technology ; in contrast , Earth was invaded by multiple groups around 1200 BCE , including the " fifth invader force from Martian Command " against the " fourth invasion force from Space Command " in battle .
On premise that thetans are forced to believe various faulty ideas , the church teaches that their courses allow " theta beings " to be freed from these beliefs and regain their former abilities . Committed Scientologists pursue courses and procedures offered by the church in the hope of gaining freedom and enlightenment , allegedly permitting travel around the solar system . The author referred to the process of a thetan leaving its human body as " exteriorization " , which he said allowed for space travel . Urban notes that this is similar to Aleister Crowley 's teachings of astral projection , although he adds that Hubbard did not use that term .
= = Space opera and Scientologists = =
A glossary on the Scientology website defined the term " space opera " as a description of actual events :
" Space opera has space travel , spaceships , spacemen , intergalactic travel , wars , conflicts , other beings , civilizations and societies , and other planets and galaxies . It is not fiction and concerns actual incidents . "
The Scientology publication Have You Lived Before This Life contains some space opera , describing past lives — including some on warlike planets — which were recalled through auditing . In the 1960s , Hubbard introduced a series of questions , known as " security checks " , to verify members ' loyalty . Mikael Rothstein , associate professor of religious history at the University of Copenhagen , sees the Xenu myth as building off of , and the culmination of , these accounts . The Xenu myth was released to Scientologists in the late 1960s , after teachings about thetans and their relationship to the physical body had been disseminated ; its release provided the cause and origin of many of the group 's teachings . Rothstein describes " space opera " as " Hubbard 's introduction of a new reality , and new foundation for everything " .
Although Hubbard spoke openly about space opera in the 1950s , Scientology eventually became an esoteric faith : some teachings are withheld until followers reach a certain point in their spiritual development , and the mythological foundation of the courses are unknown to many members . Over a decade of auditing and study — and donations of tens of thousands of dollars — are required for a member to reach the highest echelons of hidden knowledge . Followers below a certain level ( OT III ) of growth are denied access to the church 's cosmological teachings , and they are given different explanations for the church 's teachings . German scholar Gerald Willms notes that in addition to the esoteric foundations , Scientology cites practical justifications for its rituals , so they can be pursued without knowledge of advanced teachings . The Church of Scientology has attempted to prevent the public release of their esoteric teachings , but , through the internet , their confidential aspects have been widely released . The church considers public discussion of their space opera teachings offensive and has asked academics not to publish their details . Scientologists maintain that the true meaning of these texts is only accessible to those who have progressed through their courses , and that those who read them prematurely risk damage to their spiritual and physical conditions . Church leaders have sometimes outright refused to discuss the subject with journalists . Rothstein observes that the church also has a strong financial motivation to keep members from accessing higher level courses , as devotees are required to make large payments to obtain them . Free Zone Scientologists , however , are sometimes more open about space opera . Some Free Zone Scientologists believe that the Church of Scientology has been hijacked by undercover agents of the Marcabian Confederacy .
During auditing , Scientology members sometimes recall details of life in space . Rothstein states that this is part of a " mythological paradigm " that members initially partake of through Scientology 's scriptures . He notes , however , that some Scientologists do not believe that there are space opera myths in the group 's teachings , and that others have left the group after learning about the higher @-@ level doctrines . Reitman relates that some members accept the space opera teachings by seeing them as similar to seemingly implausible stories of popular religions or simply remain quiet about their doubts .
Rothstein states that space opera is a " part of the total fabric of Scientological thinking and narrative , but not of prime importance . " He argues that these teachings are a " second order belief " , in that they exist to support the group 's core teachings about thetans . Mike Rinder , a former spokesman of the Church of Scientology , stated that extraterrestrial auditing is merely " a small percent " of their canon .
= = Criticism and leaking = =
Scientology 's space opera teachings were publicized in accounts given by former church members , most notably during court cases . One such case was filed by a former Scientologist , Larry Wollersheim , against the church in 1980 . Five years later , Wollersheim offered confidential Scientology materials , including space opera teachings , to the court as evidence , a move that was vigorously protested by the church 's attorneys . They were unable to prevent disclosure , however , and the documents were published by the Los Angeles Times in November 1985 . This was the first time that some aspects of Scientology 's space opera teachings were offered as public evidence about the church . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Wollersheim published some of the materials on a website , prompting the church to sue his organization , FACTNet . The Church attested that the space opera narratives were trade secrets ; this claim was rejected by the court .
In 1990 , after being sued for libel by the Church of Scientology , Steven Fishman , a former member turned critic , offered a large amount of the group 's highly confidential teachings in court . The documents , contained in what is known as the Fishman Affidavit , included detailed accounts of the church 's space opera narratives . This material was subsequently posted on alt.religion.scientology and a website of Dutch journalist Karin Spaink . The church filed suits against those who posted the documents , claiming copyright violations . Lengthy court battles ensued , but the church was unable to prevent the materials ' dissemination over the internet .
Former Scientologists and members of the anti @-@ cult movement often discuss Scientology 's space opera teachings . They generally take a rationalistic approach to the narratives and see them as absurd , or even as drug @-@ fueled delusions , using them as a source of humor . The doctrines have been satirized in popular culture , most notably in the South Park episode " Trapped in the Closet " . The anti @-@ Scientology website Operation Clambake prominently uses space opera doctrines in their criticisms of the church , casting the implausibility of the stories as a clear reason to reject the group . Anti @-@ cult critics of Scientology argue that the content of these teachings demonstrates that Scientology misleads its followers ; many aspects of the narratives , such as the age of the volcanoes that Xenu is said to have used , contradict scientific consensus . The space opera teachings are , in fact , incompatible with scientific consensus on the age of the universe : around 14 billion years . Rothstein notes that scholars of religion usually do not pursue this line of analysis because all myths contain unscientific content ; he notes that cultural conditioning determines whether religious narratives appear reasonable .
= = Analysis = =
Rothstein argues that in the construction of the space opera narratives , Hubbard drew from tropes common to his audience . The concept of a Galactic Confederation , Rothstein observes , was present in other UFO religions of the 1950s ;
In contrast to the overpopulation and atomic bombs were often discussed therein . Urban cites UFO encounters and alien invasions as popular themes during the Cold War ;
Rothstein draws parallels between Hubbard 's teachings and the beliefs of UFO religions , citing similarities between thetans trapped in human bodies and the walk @-@ in hypothesis of the Ashtar Command . Andreas Grünschloß notes Scientology 's space opera teachings place them in the tradition of the ancient astronaut hypothesis ; he states the group 's teachings about thetans bears similarities to " star seeds " found in UFO religions .
Grünschloß speculates the UFO @-@ contact narratives may have played a role in the group 's development of space opera , specifically citing the resemblance of Hubbard 's description of life in Xenu 's time to statements by George Adamski , a UFO contactee of the 1950s . Rothstein notes the group 's teachings about extraterrestrials varies greatly from most of the UFO movement , particularly in Hubbard 's descriptions of demonic characters .
Hubbard was a science fiction writer before starting Scientology , and some aspects of the church 's space opera bear similarities to his previous writings . Noting similarities between Hubbard 's fiction writing and creation of religious myths , Rothstein argues ; " perhaps no division between such categories should be made " . Kent posits some of his cosmology , such as the priests and psychiatrists loyal to Xenu , were modeled after events in Hubbard 's life , such as his distaste for Christianity and clashes with the psychiatric establishment . Hubbard theorized science fiction writers sometimes recalled portions of events from past lives and incorporated it into their works , and Urban writes Hubbard 's science fiction writings " contain more than a few seeds of Hubbard 's religious movement , the Church of Scientology " .
Rothstein argues Scientology 's space opera identify Xenu as the root of evil and Hubbard as the hero , for having uncovered the mysteries of the universe . Rothstein states the group 's teachings about " salvation " may be a means to encourage reverence of Hubbard . In addition , Rothstein notes the space opera teachings also provide fundamental justifications for some practical aspects of Scientology , including the rejection of psychiatry and the formation of the Sea Org . He sees space opera as similar to most types of mythology , involving superhuman beings in the far distant past . Willms states the mythology of Scientology differs from many other religions because it focuses on material beings ; but argues the Xenu myth is a religious narrative , although the Church of Scientology has never used this claim in their efforts to be recognized as a religion .
= Etal Castle =
Etal Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the village of Etal , Northumberland , England . It was built around 1341 by Robert Manners , and comprised a residential tower , a gatehouse and a corner tower , protected by a curtain wall . The castle was involved both in local feuding and the border wars between England and Scotland . There was a battle between the rival Manners and Heron families outside the walls in 1428 , and in 1513 it was briefly captured by King James IV of Scotland during his invasion of England .
The castle passed into the hands of the Crown in 1547 and was garrisoned as part of the border defences , but fell into disrepair and was abandoned as a military fortification after 1603 . In the 18th century it ceased to be used as a domestic dwelling and became ruinous . In the 21st century the castle is owned by the Joicey family , but managed by English Heritage . Open to the public , it is protected under UK law as an ancient monument and a Grade I listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 14th – 15th centuries = = =
Etal Castle was built around 1341 by Robert Manners in the village of Etal , after Robert was granted a licence to crenellate by King Edward III in order to defend the location against the Scots . The Manners family had owned the manor since at least 1232 .
The earliest part of the castle was its residential tower . This tower may have been built around 1341 on the site of an older , unfortified house owned by the family on the same site , incorporating part of the structure into the new , crenellated tower . Alternatively , the central tower may have been built at some point between the late 13th and early 14th centuries , complete with crenellations , in which case the licence from Edward III served only to allow Manners to extend the perimeter fortifications . By the 1350s , the castle was surrounded by a manor which included mills for corn and fulling , lime kilns and coal mines .
Work continued under Robert 's son , John Manners , who inherited the property as a minor in 1354 . In 1355 , when Sir Edward de Letham acquired the wardship of the property , the site was described as a fortalice , a weakly defended location , but by 1368 , when the wardship passed to Joan , his widow , it was considered to be a fully @-@ fledged castle . De Letham was a powerful regional figure , and may have been granted the wardship by Edward III in order to retain his loyalty in the face of military advances by the Scots ; he and his wife allegedly ran down the surrounding estate , resulting in a commission being established to investigate the abuses .
John Manners died in 1402 , probably leaving the castle to his son , Robert , who in turn left the property to his own son , another John Manners . John was involved in a long @-@ running feud with the neighbouring Heron family , who owned the neighbouring Ford Castle , and on 20 January 1428 there was a fight between the two sides outside Etal Castle , in which William Heron died . The precise events are unclear and formed the basis of a subsequent lawsuit , but John argued that William had assaulted the castle , during which attack he had died , and that John had no direct involvement in his death . William 's widow blamed John and his eldest son , also called John , for William 's death and demanded compensation . After arbitration by the Church , eventually John agreed to pay for 500 masses for William 's soul , and to give 250 marks to his widow .
In 1438 , another of John Manners ' sons , Robert , inherited the castle and the estates . The lands had fallen in value considerably over the preceding years , as a result of the wars with the Scots , the feuding with the Herons and the poverty of the lands . Robert 's son , another Robert Manners , inherited the property in 1464 , and passed the castle onto his son , George , on his death in 1495 . George inherited the title of Baron de Ros from his mother 's side of the family and the castle was abandoned as a residence by the family around the end of the 15th century when the Manners moved closer to the royal court .
= = = 16th century = = =
In the absence of the Manners , Etal Castle was managed by the Collingwood family , who gradually became the castle 's hereditary constables , renting the demesne lands on the estate from the family as well . The castle was heavily involved in the border wars with Scotland , usually holding a garrison of 100 men and forming an important strategic defensive location , one step removed from the fortifications along the border itself .
In August 1513 , James IV of Scotland invaded England with a large army ; equipped with modern artillery , he took the border castles of Norham and Wark , and then moved south against Etal Castle . Etal surrendered quickly in the hope of avoiding being pillaged by James ' army , but nonetheless it was at least partially slighted - deliberately damaged to prevent it being used as a defence .
After the English victory at the Battle of Flodden the following month , the castle was retaken , garrisoned and used by Lord Dacre to store the captured Scottish artillery , under the guard of Sir Philip Tilney . Lord Dacre went on to use the castle extensively in 1515 and 1516 . In 1541 , a royal commission reported that the castle and its buildings were " in very great decaye " , recommending that the fortification should be repaired .
The Crown bought the castle from the Manners in 1547 in exchange for other estates in England , putting Sir John Elleker in charge of the property , along with a garrison of 100 horsemen and 200 foot soldiers . Within two years , however , the Collingwoods were once more acting as the castle constables , a position they would retain for the rest of the century . The castle remained important to the defence of the border but fell into in poor repair : in 1564 it was described as in poor condition , " scant able to lodge the captain " ; in 1580 another report reiterated similar problems ; and in 1584 commissioners wrote that the poor maintenance over many years had left it need of repairs in the order of £ 200 .
= = = 17th – 21st centuries = = =
In 1603 James VI of Scotland inherited the kingdom of England , uniting the two thrones , and Etal Castle lost its military value and soon passed into private ownership . In the 18th century it ceased to be used as a residence , and the ruins were painted in watercolour by Thomas Girtin in 1797 , based upon his visit to the castle in the autumn of 1796 .
Lord Joicey bought the castle in 1908 , and by 1922 the ruins had been cleaned of ivy and repointed . The castle was placed into the guardianship of the state in 1975 , and archaeological excavations and surveys were carried out on the site in 1978 , 1983 , 1994 and 1998
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would cease to exist .
= = = Other types = = =
= = = = Dyson net = = = =
Another possibility is the " Dyson net " , a web of cables strung about the star that could have power or heat collection units strung between the cables . The Dyson net reduces to a special case of Dyson shell or bubble , however , depending on how the cables are supported against the sun 's gravity .
= = = = Bubbleworld = = = =
A bubbleworld is an artificial construct that consists of a shell of living space around a sphere of hydrogen gas . The shell contains air , people , houses , furniture , etc . The idea was conceived to answer the question , " What is the largest space colony that can be built ? " However , most of the volume is not habitable and there is no power source .
Theoretically , any gas giant could be enclosed in a solid shell ; at a certain radius the surface gravity would be terrestrial , and energy could be provided by tapping the thermal energy of the planet . This concept is explored peripherally in the novel Accelerando ( and the short story Curator , which is incorporated into the novel as a chapter ) by Charles Stross , in which Saturn is converted into a human @-@ habitable world .
= = = = Stellar engine = = = =
Stellar engines are a class of hypothetical megastructures whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star , sometimes for specific purposes . For example , Matrioshka brains extract energy for purposes of computation ; Shkadov thrusters extract energy for purposes of propulsion . Some of the proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere .
A black hole could be the power source instead of a star in order to increase the energy @-@ to @-@ matter conversion efficiency . A black hole would also be smaller than a star . This would decrease communication distances that would be important for computer @-@ based societies as those described above .
= = Search for megastructures = =
In Dyson 's original paper , he speculated that sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial civilizations would likely follow a similar power @-@ consumption pattern to that of humans , and would eventually build their own sphere of collectors . Constructing such a system would make such a civilization a Type II Kardashev civilization .
The existence of such a system of collectors would alter the light emitted from the star system . Collectors would absorb and reradiate energy from the star . The wavelength ( s ) of radiation emitted by the collectors would be determined by the emission spectra of the substances making them up , and the temperature of the collectors . Because it seems most likely that these collectors would be made up of heavy elements not normally found in the emission spectra of their central star – or at least not radiating light at such relatively " low " energies compared to what they would be emitting as energetic free nuclei in the stellar atmosphere – there would be atypical wavelengths of light for the star 's spectral type in the light spectrum emitted by the star system . If the percentage of the star 's output thus filtered or transformed by this absorption and reradiation was significant , it could be detected at interstellar distances .
Given the amount of energy available per square meter at a distance of 1 AU from the Sun , it is possible to calculate that most known substances would be reradiating energy in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Thus , a Dyson sphere , constructed by life forms not dissimilar to humans , who dwelled in proximity to a Sun @-@ like star , made with materials similar to those available to humans , would most likely cause an increase in the amount of infrared radiation in the star system 's emitted spectrum . Hence , Dyson selected the title " Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation " for his published paper .
SETI has adopted these assumptions in their search , looking for such " infrared heavy " spectra from solar analogs . As of 2005 Fermilab has an ongoing survey for such spectra by analyzing data from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite ( IRAS ) . Identifying one of the many infrared sources as a Dyson sphere would require improved techniques for discriminating between a Dyson sphere and natural sources . Fermilab discovered 17 potential " ambiguous " candidates , of which four have been named " amusing but still questionable " . Other searches also resulted in several candidates , which are , however , unconfirmed .
On 14 October 2015 , the realization of a strange pattern of light from star KIC 8462852 , observed by the Kepler Space Telescope , raised speculation that a Dyson sphere may have been discovered .
= = Fiction = =
As noted above , the Dyson sphere originated in fiction , and it is a concept that has appeared often in science fiction since then . In fictional accounts , Dyson spheres are most often depicted as a Dyson shell with the gravitational and engineering difficulties of this variant noted above largely ignored .
= Cookiecutter shark =
Cookiecutter shark ( Isistius brasiliensis ) , also called the cigar shark , is a species of small dogfish shark in the family Dalatiidae . This shark occurs in warm , oceanic waters worldwide , particularly near islands , and has been recorded as deep as 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) . It migrates vertically up to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) every day , approaching the surface at dusk and descending with the dawn . Reaching only 42 – 56 cm ( 16 @.@ 5 – 22 in ) in length , the cookiecutter shark has a long , cylindrical body with a short , blunt snout , large eyes , two tiny spineless dorsal fins , and a large caudal fin . It is dark brown , with light @-@ emitting photophores covering its underside except for a dark " collar " around its throat and gill slits .
The name " cookiecutter shark " refers to its feeding habit of gouging round plugs , as if cut out with a cookie cutter , out of larger animals . Marks made by cookiecutter sharks have been found on a wide variety of marine mammals and fishes , as well as on submarines , undersea cables , and even human bodies . It also consumes whole smaller prey such as squid . Cookiecutter sharks have adaptations for hovering in the water column and likely rely on stealth and subterfuge to capture more active prey . Its dark collar seems to mimic the silhouette of a small fish , while the rest of its body blends into the downwelling light via its ventral photophores . When a would @-@ be predator approaches the lure , the shark attaches itself using its suctorial lips and specialized pharynx and neatly excises a chunk of flesh using its bandsaw @-@ like set of lower teeth . This species has been known to travel in schools .
Though rarely encountered because of its oceanic habitat , a handful of documented attacks on humans were apparently caused by cookiecutter sharks . Nevertheless , this diminutive shark is not regarded as highly dangerous . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the cookiecutter shark under Least Concern , as it is widely distributed , has no commercial value , and is not particularly susceptible to fisheries .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard originally described the cookiecutter shark during the 1817 – 1820 exploratory voyage of the corvette Uranie under Louis de Freycinet , giving it the name Scymnus brasiliensis because the type specimen was caught off Brazil . In 1824 , their account was published as part of Voyage autour du monde ... sur les corvettes de S.M. l 'Uranie et la Physicienne , Louis de Freycinet 's 13 volume report on the voyage . In 1865 , American ichthyologist Theodore Nicholas Gill coined the new genus Isistius for this species , after Isis , the Egyptian goddess of light .
One of the earliest accounts of the wounds left by the cookiecutter shark on various animals is in ancient Samoan legend , which held that atu ( skipjack tuna ) entering Palauli Bay would leave behind pieces of their flesh as a sacrifice to Tautunu , the community chief . In later centuries , various other explanations for the wounds were advanced , including lampreys , bacteria , and invertebrate parasites . In 1971 , Everet Jones of the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries ( a predecessor of the National Marine Fisheries Service ) discovered the cigar shark , as it was then generally known , was responsible . Shark expert Stewart Springer thus popularized the name " cookiecutter shark " for this species ( though he originally called them " demon whale @-@ biters " ) . Other common names used for this shark include luminous shark , smalltooth cookiecutter shark , and smooth cookiecutter shark .
= = Description = =
The cookiecutter shark has an elongated , cigar @-@ shaped body with a short , bulbously rounded snout . The nostrils have a very short flap of skin in front . The large , oval , green eyes are placed forward on the head , though not so that there is extensive binocular vision . Behind the eyes are large spiracles , positioned on the upper surface of the head . The mouth is short , forming a nearly transverse line , and is surrounded by enlarged , fleshy , suctorial lips . There are 30 – 37 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 25 – 31 tooth rows in the lower jaw , increasing with body size . The upper and lower teeth are extremely different : the upper teeth are small , narrow , and upright , tapering to a single , smooth @-@ edged cusp . The lower teeth are also smooth @-@ edged , but much larger , broader , and knife @-@ like , with their bases interlocking to form a single saw @-@ like cutting edge . The five pairs of gill slits are small .
The pectoral fins are short and roughly trapezoidal in shape . Two spineless dorsal fins are placed far back on the body , the first originating just ahead of the pelvic fins and the second located just behind . The second dorsal fin is slightly larger than the first , and the pelvic fins are larger than either . The anal fin is absent . The caudal fin is broad , with the lower lobe almost as large as the upper , which has a prominent ventral notch . The dermal denticles are squarish and flattened , with a slight central concavity and raised corners . The cookiecutter shark is chocolate brown in color , becoming subtly lighter below , and there is a dark " collar " that wraps around the gill region . The fins have translucent margins , except for the caudal fin , which has a darker margin . Complex , light @-@ producing organs called photophores densely cover the entire underside , except for the collar , and produce a vivid green glow . The maximum recorded length for this species is 42 cm ( 17 in ) for males and 56 cm ( 22 in ) for females .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Inhabiting all of the world 's major tropical and warm @-@ temperate oceanic basins , the cookiecutter shark is most common between the latitudes of 20 ° N and 20 ° S , where the surface water temperature is 18 – 26 ° C ( 64 – 79 ° F ) . In the Atlantic , it has been reported off the Bahamas and southern Brazil in the west , Cape Verde , Guinea to Sierra Leone , southern Angola , and South Africa in the east , and Ascension Island in the south . In the Indo @-@ Pacific region , it has been caught from Mauritius to New Guinea , Australia , and New Zealand , including Tasmania and Lord Howe Island , as well as off Japan . In the central and eastern Pacific , it occurs from Fiji north to the Hawaiian Islands , and east to the Galápagos , Easter , and Guadalupe Islands . Fresh wounds observed on marine mammals suggest this shark may range as far as California in warm years .
Based on catch records , the cookiecutter shark appears to conduct a diel vertical migration of up to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) each way . It spends the day at a depth of 1 – 3 @.@ 7 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 2 @.@ 30 mi ) , and at night it rises into the upper water column , usually remaining below 85 m ( 279 ft ) , but on rare occasions venturing to the surface . This species may be more tolerant of low dissolved oxygen levels than sharks in the related genera Euprotomicrus and Squaliolus . It is frequently found near islands , perhaps for reproductive purposes or because they hold congregations of large prey animals . In the northeastern Atlantic , most adults are found between 11 ° N and 16 ° N , with the smallest and largest individuals being found in lower and higher latitudes , respectively . There is no evidence of gender segregation .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Best known for biting neat round chunks of tissue from marine mammals and large fish , the cookiecutter shark is considered a facultative ectoparasite , as it also wholly ingests smaller prey . It has a wide gape and a very strong bite , by virtue of heavily calcified cranial and labial cartilages . With small fins and weak muscles , this ambush predator spends much of its time hovering in the water column . To maintain neutral buoyancy , its liver , which can comprise some 35 % of its weight , is rich in low @-@ density lipids . As this species has higher skeletal density than Euprotomicrus or Squaliolus , its body cavity and liver are proportionately much larger , and the oil content is much higher . Its large caudal fin allows for a quick burst of speed to catch larger , faster prey that come in range .
The cookiecutter shark regularly replaces its teeth like other sharks , but sheds its lower teeth in entire rows rather than one at a time . A cookiecutter shark 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long has been calculated to have shed 15 sets of lower teeth by the time it is 50 cm ( 20 in ) long , totaling 435 – 465 teeth . This represents a significant investment of resources and is probably why the shark swallows its old sets of teeth , so that it can recycle the calcium content . Unlike other sharks , the retina of the cookiecutter shark has ganglion cells concentrated in a concentric area rather than in a horizontal streak across the visual field ; this may help to focus on prey in front of the shark . This fat shark has been known to travel in schools , which may increase the effectiveness of its lure ( see below ) , as well as discourage counterattacks by much larger predators .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
The intrinsic green luminescence of the cookiecutter shark is the strongest known of any shark , and has been reported to persist for three hours after it has been taken out of water . The ventrally positioned photophores serve to disrupt its silhouette from below by matching the downwelling light , a strategy known as counter @-@ illumination , that is common among bioluminescent organisms of the mesopelagic zone . The individual photophores are set around the denticles and are small enough that they cannot be discerned by the naked eye , suggesting they have evolved to fool animals with high visual acuity and / or at close distances .
Set apart from the glowing underside , the darker , nonluminescent collar tapers at both sides of the throat , and has been hypothesized to serve as a lure by mimicking the silhouette of a small fish from below . The appeal of the lure would be multiplied in a school of sharks . If the collar does function in this way , the cookiecutter shark would be the only known case of bioluminescence in which the absence of light attracts prey , while its photophores serve to prevent premature detection by incoming would @-@ be predators . As the shark can only match a limited range of light intensities , its vertical movements likely serve to preserve the effectiveness of its disguise across various times of day and weather conditions .
= = = Feeding = = =
Virtually every type of medium to large @-@ sized oceanic animal sharing the habitat of the cookiecutter shark is open to attack : bite scars have been found on cetaceans ( including porpoises , dolphins , beaked whales , sperm whales , and baleen whales ) , pinnipeds ( including fur seals , leopard seals , and elephant seals ) , dugongs , sharks ( including blue sharks , goblin sharks , basking sharks , great white sharks , megamouth sharks and smalltooth sand tiger sharks ) , stingrays ( including deepwater stingrays , pelagic stingrays and sixgill stingrays ) , and bony fishes ( including billfishes , tunas , dolphinfishes , jacks , escolars , opahs , and pomfrets ) . The cookiecutter shark also regularly hunts and eats entire squid with a mantle length of 15 – 30 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) , comparable in size to the shark itself , as well as bristlemouths , copepods , and other prey of more modest dimensions .
Parasitic attacks by the cookiecutter shark leave a round " crater wound " , averaging 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) across and 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) deep . The prevalence of these attacks can be high ; off Hawaii , nearly every adult spinner dolphin bears scars from this species . Diseased or otherwise weakened animals appear to be more susceptible ; in the western Atlantic , there are records of emaciated beached melon @-@ headed whales with dozens to hundreds of recent and healing cookiecutter shark wounds , while such wounds are rare on nonemaciated beached whales . The impact of parasitism on prey species , in terms of resources diverted from growth or reproduction , is uncertain .
The cookiecutter shark exhibits a number of specializations to its mouth and pharynx for its parasitic lifestyle . The shark first secures itself to the body surface of its prey by closing its spiracles and retracting its basihyal ( tongue ) to create pressure lower than that of the surroundings ; its suctorial lips ensure a tight seal . It then bites , using its narrow upper teeth as anchors while its razor sharp lower teeth slices into the prey . Finally , the shark twists and rotates its body to complete a circular cut , quite possibly aided by the initial forward momentum and subsequent struggles of its prey . The action of the lower teeth may also be assisted by back @-@ and @-@ forth vibrations of the jaw , a mechanism akin to that of an electric carving knife . This shark 's ability to create strong suction into its mouth is likely also of utility in capturing smaller prey such as squid .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other dogfish sharks , the cookiecutter shark is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos being sustained by yolk until birth . Females have two functional uteruses and give birth to litters of 6 to 12 pups . There is a record of a female carrying 9 embryos 12 @.@ 4 – 13 @.@ 7 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 4 in ) long ; though they were close to the birth size , they still had well @-@ developed yolk sacs , suggesting a slow rate of yolk absorption and a long gestation period . The embryos had developed brown pigmentation , but not the dark collar or differentiated dentition . Newborn cookiecutter sharks measure 14 – 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long . Males attain sexual maturity at a length of 36 cm ( 14 in ) , and females at a length of 39 cm ( 15 in ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Favoring offshore waters and thus seldom encountered by humans , the cookiecutter shark is not considered very dangerous because of its small size . However , it has been implicated in a few attacks ; in one notable case , a school of fierce , 30 cm ( 12 in ) long fish with blunt snouts attacked an underwater photographer on an open ocean dive . Similar reports have come from shipwreck survivors , of suffering small , clean , deep bites during night time . In March 2009 , Maui resident Mike Spalding was bitten by a cookiecutter shark while swimming across Alenuihaha Channel . There are at least two records of bodies recovered from the water with post @-@ mortem cookiecutter shark bites .
During the 1970s , several U.S. Navy submarines were forced back to base to repair damage caused by cookiecutter shark bites to the neoprene boots of their AN / BQR @-@
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B machine " and play this to the band . During rehearsals , the band would listen to the B machine through headphones and record their output onto the " A machine " ; parts of Gabriel 's demo would also be transferred to the A machine at this stage . Subsequent takes of the song were then put onto the B machine in order for the band to hear what they had played with the demo , as well as the song 's new and old takes .
Other equipment included the " groundbreaking " Fairlight CMI synthesizer , which Gabriel said in an interview for Billboard meant " more human imagination is involved " . He added , " the creative decision @-@ making process has become more important than technique . You have a wider range of tools , a wider range of decisions " . Although remaining continually inspired to produce new music , he often struggled to write lyrics and would delay doing so by procrastinating . His proclivity to being dissatisfied with them required Killen to isolate certain vocal performances as the master track , in order to keep other tracks available so new lyrics could be edited in . Lanois took adverse measures to encourage his writing , such as destroying his much @-@ used telephone in the nearby woods and , on one occasion , nailed the studio door shut to lock him inside .
Towards the end of recording , Gabriel became " obsessed " with the album 's track listing and created an audio cassette of all the song 's beginnings and ends in order to hear how the sounds blended together . His original intention was to have " In Your Eyes " at the end of the record , but because of its prominent bass line , it had to be placed earlier in the listing on the vinyl edition as there is more room for the stylus to vibrate . With later CD releases , this restriction was removed and the track was placed at the end of the album . So was completed in February 1986 and cost £ 200 @,@ 000 to make . It was over @-@ dubbed at Power Station Studios in New York , despite Gabriel considering sending it via a computer @-@ telephone set up , reasoning , " that 's a lot of information to send via phone . Isn 't it amazing though ? You can send a song idea around the world to musicians then beam parts back by satellite " . It was mastered by Ian Cooper in mid @-@ February 1986 at London 's Townhouse Studios .
= = Composition = =
So has been described as Gabriel 's most commercially accessible and least experimental album . Like his previous albums , its basis is in art rock , although on So , Gabriel develops an increased focus on melody and now combines this genre with elements of soul and African music . Its songs are highly influenced by traditional world music , particularly African and Brazilian music , with Gabriel using the distinctive drum beat from these styles . In a 2011 interview for Uncut , Gabriel said , " I 'd had my fill of instrumental experimenting for a while , and I wanted to write proper pop songs , albeit on my own terms . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times notes that Gabriel " doesn 't just add on African drums or Indian violin to ordinary songs ; they are part of the foundation . " Daniel Lanois production was noted as textured , replete with ambient details and " immaculate warmth giving each note room to breathe , its textures lavish ( in the preferred style of the time ) without being sterile " .
= = = Side one = = =
Gabriel wanted the album to " crash open at the front " and despite disliking " metal " percussion instruments , he was persuaded by Lanois to allow The Police 's Stewart Copeland to play cymbals and hi @-@ hat on its opener , " Red Rain " . The track sees Gabriel sing in his upper register with a throaty , gravely texture , of a destructive world with social problems such as torture and kidnapping . Its concept originated from a dream in which he envisaged the parting of a vast , red sea and human @-@ like glass bottles filling up with blood . It was also intended to continue the story of Mozo , a recurring character in Gabriel 's first and second albums . The second track , " Sledgehammer " , was the final track to be conceived of . Although most of Gabriel 's band had packed away their equipment and were ready to leave the studio , Gabriel asked them to reassemble to quickly run through a song he had an idea for . " Sledgehammer " was partially inspired by the music of Otis Redding , and Gabriel sought out Wayne Jackson , who Gabriel had seen on tour with Redding in the 1960s , to record horns for the track . Opened by a shakuhachi bamboo flute , its beat is dominated by brass instruments , particularly Jackson 's horn , and features lyrics abundant with sexual euphemisms . Manu Katché 's drums were recorded in one take as he believed any subsequent version would be inferior to his original interpretation of the music .
So 's most prominent political statement , " Don 't Give Up " , was fuelled by Gabriel 's discontent with rising unemployment during Margaret Thatcher 's premiership and Dorothea Lange 's photograph " Migrant Mother " . The track began as a rhythm pattern of slow , low @-@ pitched tom @-@ tom drums that Gabriel made , and Lanois believed could serve as the centrepiece of a song . Tony Levin added bass to create a more harmonious sound , and during the second @-@ half of the track , put a nappy behind his bass strings to dampen the sound . Gabriel ensured the song , which follows a narrative of an unemployed man and his lover , was written as a conversational piece . He initially sought out Dolly Parton to portray the woman , although Parton declined ; his friend Kate Bush later agreed to feature . Bush serves as the song 's respondent , she assumes a comforting role and with delicate vocals , sings lines such as " Rest your head / you worry too much " . The album 's first side culminates with " That Voice Again " , in which Gabriel explores the concept of conscience , examining the " parental voice in our heads that either helps or defeats us " . Co @-@ written with David Rhodes , who plays guitar over Katché and Levin 's input , the song was written after Gabriel 's initial discussions with Martin Scorsese about scoring The Last Temptation of Christ ( 1988 ) .
= = = Side two = = =
" In Your Eyes " has been described as Gabriel 's greatest love song . Inspired by the Sagrada Família and its architect Antoni Gaudí , Gabriel sings over a drumbeat of only feeling complete in the eyes of his lover . The track 's powerful atmosphere is created through the scat singing of Senegalese musician Youssou N 'Dour , who sings in his native language . Gabriel became interested in the late American poet Anne Sexton after reading the anthology To Bedlam And Part Way Back . He dedicated So 's sixth track to her , calling it " Mercy Street " after " 45 Mercy Street " , a poem released in another posthumous collection . " Mercy Street " is set to one of several Forró @-@ inspired percussion compositions that Gabriel recorded in Rio de Janeiro . When these compositions were unearthed in the studio , they were accidentally played back at a speed ten per cent slower than the original recording , giving them a grainy quality that Gabriel and Lanois thought highlighted the cymbal and guitars . It features two harmonious Gabriel vocals , one of which is a shadow vocal which is an octave below the main vocal , intended to give a sensual , haunting effect , although this was hard to capture except when Gabriel had first woken up .
The dance song " Big Time " has funk influences and is built on a " percussive bass sound " . Its lyrics satirise the yuppie culture of the 1980s , materialism and consumerism and are the result of Gabriel 's self @-@ examination , after he considered whether he may have desired fame after all . " We Do What We 're Told ( Milgram 's 37 ) " was a song written for Gabriel 's third album Peter Gabriel or " Melt " and is described as an interlude . It references the experiment on obedience carried out by American social psychologist Stanley Milgram , intended as a reference to the obedience citizens show to dictators during times of war . Marotta 's drums on the song were said to resemble " a heartbeat heard from the womb " , these were coupled with Shankar 's violin and " two overdubbed guitar tracks by Rhodes " . The album is completed by " This Is The Picture ( Excellent Birds ) " , which Gabriel decided forty @-@ eight hours before his album submission , was going to be included . " Excellent Birds " was composed with American musician Laurie Anderson and featured on her 1984 album Mister Heartbreak . This was interpolated into another recording called " This Is The Picture " , which Nile Rodgers plays rhythmic guitar on .
= = Release = =
So is Gabriel 's first non @-@ eponymous album . Gabriel has noted his dislike for titling albums , mainly because it distracts from the sleeve design . In an interview for Rolling Stone , he explained that his American label Geffen Records refused to release Peter Gabriel IV until it was retitled Security . He elaborated that for So " [ he ] decided to go for the anti @-@ title ... It can be more a piece of graphic , if you like , as opposed to something with meaning and intention . And that 's what I 've done ever since " . When the album was profiled in the Classic Albums documentary series , Gabriel quipped that its short title meant it could be enlarged and useful when marketing it . The sleeve design is a portrait of Gabriel photographed by Trevor Key , who was then most famous for capturing the bell artwork for Mike Oldfield 's Tubular Bells ( 1973 ) . It was then designed by Peter Saville and Brett Wickens ; Saville was most known for designing several sleeves for Factory Records artists . Saville was paid £ 20 @,@ 000 for his design . Gabriel has since commented : " the only compromise I made was to go with Peter Saville 's idea for a retro @-@ style portrait . I was told my usual obscure LP sleeves alienated women . "
So was released on 19 May 1986 . It topped the charts of seven countries worldwide , including the United Kingdom , where it became Gabriel 's second number one album . In the United States , So became one of Geffen Records ' most commercially successful releases , peaking at number two and remaining on the chart for ninety @-@ three weeks . In April 1986 , " Sledgehammer " was released as the album 's lead single and became Gabriel 's first and only number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , displacing Genesis ' first and only US number one " Invisible Touch " . The track reached number four in the United Kingdom , where it ties with " Games Without Frontiers " as his highest charting single , and peaked at number one in Canada . The success of " Sledgehammer " can be seen , in part , due to its hugely popular and innovative stop motion music video , designed by Aardman Animations . Gabriel would go on to say in an interview for Rolling Stone that he believed the video exposed So 's songs to a wider audience , bolstering the album 's success . Two high @-@ charting singles followed , " Don 't Give Up " , which rose to number nine on the UK Singles Chart and a less successful seventy @-@ nine in America , while " Big Time " peaked at number thirteen in the UK and number eight in America . " In Your Eyes " saw moderate success in America , where it reached twenty @-@ six on the Hot 100 , while " Red Rain " peaked at forty @-@ six in the United Kingdom .
Bono contacted Gabriel to perform at A Conspiracy of Hope , a series of Live Aid @-@ inspired concerts that intended to spread awareness of human rights issues in light of Amnesty International 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary . Gabriel accepted and in June 1986 , he performed alongside Sting , The Police , Lou Reed and Joan Baez , with a set that opened with " Red Rain " and featured " Sledgehammer " . Gabriel described it as " the best tour [ he 'd ] ever been on " . In the same month , Gabriel performed at London 's Clapham Common , along with Boy George and Elvis Costello , for Artists Against Apartheid . Gabriel eventually embarked on the ninety @-@ three date This Way Up tour to support So , beginning in Rochester , New York on 7 November 1986 . One of the dates was a special two @-@ night residency ( 20 – 21 December ) at Tokyo 's Meiji Jingu Stadium to fund a global computer system for the University for Peace , a United Nations project . The tour suspended in early 1987 until June when it reached Europe , before going on to America and finishing at the Lycabettus Amphitheatre in Athens in October . Gabriel partially performed So at The Prince 's Trust Concert and at Human Rights Now ! Tour in 1988 .
= = Critical reception = =
So received mostly favourable reviews from music critics . Robert Christgau commented " Gabriel 's so smart he knows rhythm is what makes music go , which relieves him of humdrum melodic responsibilities but doesn 't get him up on the one — smart guys do go for texture in a pinch . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote " only a handful of Western rock musicians have managed to use exotic rhythms and instruments with so much ingenuity and conviction " . Pareles also praised his vocals , describing them as " grainy but not bluesy , ageless and joyless , the voice of some ancient mariner recounting disasters " . Tim Holmes writing for Rolling Stone described the album as " a record of considerable emotional complexity and musical sophistication " and was pleased that the records would assist exposing Gabriel to mainstream pop music . Terry Atkinson of Los Angeles Times viewed the album as offering " an amazing variety of tones , moods , and topics and a consistently powerful level of expression " . Although disliking " Big Time " , Atkinson concludes So is " a great album , possibly Gabriel 's best " . Chicago Tribune 's Lynn Van Matre praised the album 's " wave of funky rhythms " and called for more appreciation of Gabriel 's talent , but noted that there were no tracks as stand out as " Biko " , a single from his third eponymous album Peter Gabriel or " Melt " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commended So as Gabriel 's " catchiest , happiest record he ever cut " . Erlewine particularly praised Gabriel 's fusion of art rock with African music and soul . Jude Rogers of the BBC wrote " once you look past the bombast of " Sledgehammer " , ... you notice how easily its artful ideas slipped inside the 80s mainstream " . The Quietus ' Wyndham Wallace praised So 's sincerity and called it " a heartfelt journey through intense emotional territory , assembled and arranged with intricacy and commitment , laboured over with such care that it sounds effortless " . Ryan Bray , writer for Consequence of Sound , concluded So was an " all @-@ too @-@ rare record that manages to have it both ways , earning its richly deserved critical and commercial respect without giving so much as an artistic inch " . He added that " it still stands on its own two feet as one of the consensus best records of the 80s " . Mark Blake of Q described the album as " carbon @-@ dated to 1986 thanks to those blaring saxes and Fairlight CMI digital sampling synths " . He added that " Gabriel crafted an album of user @-@ friendly pop that was still reassuringly odd . " Mojo 's David Buckley contrasted the album with Gabriel 's earlier , more experimental work , claiming " on 1986 's So , he switched tack to write pop , and write big . The results are mixed . Sledgehammer , echoing both Stevie Wonders 's " Superstition " and David Bowie 's " Fame " , retains its punch . Elsewhere , Gabriel sounds airbrushed on Mercy Street , Red Rain and In Your Eyes , with only We Do What We 're Told a reminder of a daring past . " Writing in Uncut , John Lewis praised its state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art production in parts , highlighting " Big Time " and " Sledgehammer " as standout tracks , but claimed elsewhere it interfered , such as the Fairlight CMI synthesizer on " That Voice Again " and whistling ambient accompaniment on " Mercy Street " . Terry Staunton of Classic Rock wrote " Red Rain was familiarly pensive and politically charged , but the radio waves completely surrendered to the record 's muscular dance rock and slower tempo eloquence . " Staunton concluded that Gabriel had displayed " a masterful confidence , delivering a satisfyingly unified whole " .
= = Legacy = =
At the 29th Annual Grammy Awards , So was nominated for Album of the Year , losing to Paul Simon 's Graceland ( 1986 ) , while " Sledgehammer " received nominations for Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance . At the sixth Brit Awards , hosted by Jonathan King at the Grosvenor House Hotel , London , Gabriel won Best British Male Artist and " Sledgehammer " won Best British Music Video . Gabriel was most successful at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards where he was honoured with the Video Vanguard Award and " Sledgehammer " won an additional nine awards including Video of the Year , a record that has not been challenged . Its video is the most played music video in the history of MTV .
So is often regarded as Gabriel 's best album , as well as one of the best albums of the 1980s . It enabled Gabriel to transform from a cult artist , acclaimed for his cerebral , experimental solo work in the 1970s , into a mainstream , internationally @-@ known star . Rolling Stone placed So at 187 on its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and at 14 on its 100 Best Albums of the 1980s , noting that " despite its mass appeal , however , So also presented compelling challenges . " Stereogum placed it at number one on its list of Gabriel 's best albums , writing , " Peter Gabriel 's fifth studio album is a mesmerizing dichotomy : simultaneously hooky and experimental ; timeless , yet completely crystalizing its moment in history ... It 's a masterpiece . It has been profiled in the Classic Albums series and featured in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Slant Magazine listed the album at 41 on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the 1980s , describing it as " Gabriel 's most accessible yet ambitious work . A chronicle of political , emotional , and artistic exploration , the album [ attempts ] to balance standard pop orthodoxy with his still @-@ rumbling desire for sonic experimentation " . Conversely , The Guardian 's lead critic Alexis Petridis claimed Gabriel " suffered a musical mid @-@ life crisis " , describing it as " an album packed with ultra @-@ commercial priapic cod @-@ funk " and " a ruthless bid for mainstream success " .
It is Gabriel 's best @-@ selling album , having been certified fivefold platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . [ 1 ] In 2002 , So was re @-@ issued and remastered . In 2011 , several of tracks from So were featured on Gabriel 's ninth studio release New Blood , a project of orchestral re @-@ recordings from Gabriel 's discography . In 2012 , for the album 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary , a limited edition box set was released . It includes the remastered So album , the Live at Athens ( 1987 ) album and a So DNA album which examines its production , as well as new liner notes , photographs , vinyl collectibles and the So : Classic Albums documentary . In the same year , Gabriel embarked on the Back to Front Tour where Gabriel plays every song on the So album with several of the session musicians from its recording .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Peter Gabriel , except where indicated .
Notes
" This Is the Picture ( Excellent Birds ) " was not included on the original vinyl release .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from So 's liner notes . The track numbers correspond to the original release .
Peter Gabriel – lead and backing vocals , Fairlight CMI , Sequential Circuits Prophet @-@ 5 ( all except tracks 5 , 9 ) , piano ( all except tracks 7 , 9 ) , Linn LM @-@ 1 ( tracks 3 , 7 ) , synthesizer ( tracks 5 , 7 ) , percussion ( track 4 ) , Yamaha CS @-@ 80 ( track 6 ) , LinnDrum ( track 9 ) , Synclavier ( track 9 )
Tony Levin – bass guitar ( tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ) , drumstick bass guitar ( fretting only ) ( track 7 )
David Rhodes – guitar ( all except tracks 6 , 9 ) , backing vocals ( tracks 1 , 5 )
Jerry Marotta – drums ( tracks 1 , 8 ) , additional drums ( track 5 ) , drumstick bass guitar ( drumming only ) ( track 7 )
Manu Katché – drums ( tracks 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ) , percussion ( tracks 3 , 4 , 5 ) , talking drum ( tracks 5 , 9 )
Chris Hughes – LinnDrum programming ( track 1 )
Stewart Copeland – hi @-@ hat ( track 1 ) , drums ( track 7 )
Daniel Lanois – guitar ( tracks 1 , 2 , 4 ) , tambourine ( track 2 ) , surf guitar ( track 7 ) , 12 @-@ string guitar ( track 9 )
Wayne Jackson – trumpet ( track 2 , 7 ) , cornet ( track 7 )
Mark Rivera – tenor saxophone ( track 2 , 7 ) , processed saxophone ( track 6 ) , alto and baritone saxophone ( track 7 )
Don Mikkelsen – trombone ( track 2 , 7 )
P. P. Arnold – backing vocals ( track 2 , 7 )
Coral Gordon – backing vocals ( track 2 , 7 )
Dee Lewis – backing vocals ( track 2 , 7 )
Richard Tee – piano ( tracks 3 , 5 , 6 )
Simon Clark – Yamaha CS @-@ 80 chorus effect ( track 3 ) , Hammond , Fairlight CMI
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went down with her when she sank in the early hours of December 31 , 1862 .
= = Who won ? = =
The victory claims that were made by each side in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads , based as both were on misinterpretations of the opponent 's behavior , have been dismissed by present @-@ day historians . They agree that the result of the Monitor – Merrimack encounter was not a victory for either side . As the combat between ironclads was the primary significance of the battle , the general verdict is that the overall result was a draw . All would acknowledge that the Southern fleet inflicted far more damage than it received , which would ordinarily imply that they had gained a tactical victory . Compared to other Civil War battles , the loss of men and ships for the Union Navy would be considered a clear defeat . On the other hand , the blockade was not seriously threatened , so the entire battle can be regarded as an assault that ultimately failed .
However , initially after the Battle of Hampton Roads , both the Confederates and the Unions used media to claim victory for their own sides . The headline a Boston newspaper the day after the battle read " The Merrimac Driven back by the Steamer ! " , implying a Union victory , while Confederate media focused on their original success against wooden Union ships . Despite the battle ending in a stalemate , it was seen by both sides as an opportunity to raise war @-@ time morale , especially since the ironclad ships were an exciting naval innovation that intrigued citizens .
Evaluation of the strategic results is likewise disputed . The blockade was maintained , even strengthened , and Virginia was bottled up in Hampton Roads . Because a decisive Confederate weapon was negated , some have concluded that the Union could claim a strategic victory . Confederate advocates can counter , however , by arguing that Virginia had a military significance larger than the blockade , which was only a small part of the war in Tidewater Virginia . Her mere presence was sufficient to close the James River to Federal incursions . She also imposed other constraints on the Peninsula Campaign then being mounted by the Union Army under General George B. McClellan , who worried that she could interfere with his positions on the York River . Although his fears were baseless , they continued to affect the movements of his army until Virginia was destroyed .
= = Impact upon naval warfare = =
Both days of the battle attracted attention from almost all the world 's navies . The USS Monitor became the prototype for the monitor warship type . She thus became the first of two ships whose names were applied to entire classes of their successors . The other was HMS Dreadnought . Many more were built , including river monitors , and they played key roles in Civil War battles on the Mississippi and James rivers . The US immediately started the construction of ten more monitors based on Ericsson 's original larger plan , known as the Passaic @-@ class monitors . However , while the design proved exceptionally well @-@ suited for river combat , the low profile and heavy turret caused poor seaworthiness in rough waters . Russia , fearing that the American Civil War would spill into Russian Alaska , launched ten sister ships , as soon as Ericsson 's plans reached St. Petersburg . What followed has been described as " Monitor mania " . The revolving turret later inspired similar designs for future warships , which eventually became the modern battleship .
The vulnerability of wooden hulls to armored ships was noted particularly in Britain and France , where the wisdom of the planned conversion of the battle fleet to armor was given a powerful demonstration . Another feature that was emulated was not so successful . Impressed by the ease with which the Virginia had sunk the Cumberland , naval architects began to incorporate rams into their hull designs . The first purpose @-@ built ram in the modern era was the French armored ram Taureau ( 1863 ) , whose guns were said to have " the sole function of preparing the way for the ram . " The inclusion of rams in warship hull design persisted almost to the outbreak of World War I , despite improvements in naval gunnery that quickly made close action between warships almost suicidal , if not impossible .
= = Commemorating the battle : Virginia = =
The name of the warship that served the Confederacy in the Battle of Hampton Roads has been a continuing source of confusion and some contention . She was originally a screw frigate in the United States Navy carrying the name USS Merrimack . All parties continued to use the name after her capture by secessionists while she was being rebuilt as an ironclad . When her conversion was almost complete , her name was officially changed to Virginia . Despite the official name change , Union accounts persisted in calling the Merrimack by her original name , while Confederate sources used either Virginia or Merrimac ( k ) . The alliteration of Monitor and Merrimack has persuaded most popular accounts to adopt the familiar name , even when it is acknowledged to be technically incorrect .
A CSS Merrimac did actually exist . She was a paddle wheel steamer named for the victor ( as most Southerners saw it ) at Hampton Roads . She was used for running the blockade until she was captured and taken into Federal service , still named Merrimac . Her name was a spelling variant of the river , namesake of USS Merrimack . Both spellings are still in use around the Hampton Roads area .
A small community in Montgomery County , Virginia near the location where the iron for the Confederate ironclad was forged is now known as Merrimac . Some of the iron mined there and used in the plating on the Confederate ironclad is displayed at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth . The anchor of the Virginia sits on the lawn in front of the Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond .
= = Commemorating the battle : Monitor = =
After resting undetected on the ocean floor for 111 years , the wreck of Monitor was located by a team of scientists in 1973 . The remains of the ship were found upside down 16 mi ( 26 km ) off Cape Hatteras , on a relatively flat , sandy bottom at a depth of about 240 ft ( 73 m ) . In 1987 , the site was declared a National Marine Sanctuary , the first shipwreck to receive this distinction .
Because of Monitor 's advanced state of deterioration , timely recovery of remaining significant artifacts and ship components became critical . Numerous fragile artifacts , including the innovative turret and its two Dahlgren guns , an anchor , steam engine , and propeller , have been recovered . They were transported back to Hampton Roads to the Mariners ' Museum in Newport News , Virginia , where they were treated in special tanks to stabilize the metal . It is reported that it will take about ten years for the metal to completely stabilize . The new USS Monitor Center at the Mariners ' Museum officially opened on March 9 , 2007 , and a full @-@ scale replica of USS Monitor , the original recovered turret , and artifacts and related items are now on display .
= = Commemorating the Battle of Hampton Roads = =
The Battle of Hampton Roads was a significant event in both Naval and Civil War history that has been detailed in many books , televised Civil War documentaries , and in film , to include TNT 's 1991 Ironclads . In New York City , where the designer of the Monitor , John Ericsson , died in March 1889 , a statue was commissioned by the state to commemorate the battle between the Ironclads . The statue features a stylized male nude allegorical figure on water between two iron cleats . It is located in Msgr McGolrick Park .
In Virginia , the state dedicated the Monitor @-@ Merrimack Overlook at Anderson Park on a jetty that overlooks the site of the battle . The park contains several historical markers commemorating both ships . Also , in 1992 , Virginia dedicated the $ 400 million , 4 @.@ 6 mile @-@ long Monitor @-@ Merrimac Memorial Bridge @-@ Tunnel , which is located less than 1 mile from the site of the battle .
= 1996 – 97 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 1996 – 97 season was the 99th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club dismissed manager Bruce Rioch in the close season , who spent a year in @-@ charge . After much speculation , Frenchman Arsène Wenger was appointed as his replacement – the club 's first manager born outside of the British Isles . At the end of the campaign , Arsenal finished third in the Premier League and missed out on UEFA Champions League qualification . They made exits in the fourth round of both the FA Cup and Football League Cup to Leeds United and Liverpool respectively . In Europe , the club were eliminated in the UEFA Cup first round to Borussia Mönchengladbach of Germany .
Arsenal sold several fringe players in the transfer window , notably David Hillier to Portsmouth and Paul Dickov to Manchester City . Midfielders Rémi Garde and Patrick Vieira were purchased from RC Strasbourg and AC Milan respectively . John Hartson moved to West Ham United in January 1997 ; he was replaced in the squad by teenager Nicolas Anelka , who joined Arsenal a month later from Paris Saint @-@ Germain .
A strong start to their league campaign , with one defeat in their first 12 matches saw Arsenal begin November in first spot . Although the club were winless during the Christmas period , their chances of winning the title remained intact . A run of two draws and losses in February was more severe , as it moved Arsenal down to fourth spot . Draws in April prompted Wenger to rule his team out of the title race and make priority to second spot , which came with a qualifying spot for the Champions League . Defeat to Newcastle United in the penultimate game of the season all but ended Arsenal 's chances of finishing second , given Newcastle 's superior goal difference . A win on the final day against Derby County meant the club finished third , level on points with Newcastle and Liverpool .
28 different players represented the club in four competitions and there were 12 different goalscorers . Ian Wright was Arsenal 's top goalscorer of the season ; he scored 30 goals in 41 appearances .
= = Background = =
In June 1995 , Arsenal appointed Bruce Rioch , who had just guided Bolton Wanderers to the League Cup final and promotion to the top flight , as manager . Under his stewardship , the club broke the English transfer record by paying Internazionale £ 7.5million for Dutch striker Dennis Bergkamp and the new signing formed an impressive partnership with Ian Wright . Arsenal reached the League Cup semi @-@ finals and finished fifth in the Premier League at the end of 1995 – 96 , securing a place in the following season 's UEFA Cup .
= = = Managerial changes = = =
A week before the start of the league season , Arsenal sacked manager Rioch and cited the decision was in the " best long @-@ term interest of the club " . It was alleged that a dispute over transfer funds with the board of directors prompted his departure ; his relationship moreover with David Dein according to an insider was " no longer cordial " . Stewart Houston was once again put in temporary charge , with Pat Rice serving as first team coach . Johan Cruyff was considered the favourite for the job ; George Graham , Terry Venables and David O 'Leary were other names linked to the managerial position . Houston put his name forward for the job , but upon being told that he would not be considered , resigned to take over as manager of Division One side Queens Park Rangers , leaving Rice as the team 's second caretaker manager of the season . Arsenal would eventually select Frenchman Arsène Wenger as their next manager , but did not officially announce his appointment until September 1996 , once his contract with Japanese club Nagoya Grampus Eight was terminated by mutual consent . He became Arsenal 's 19th and highest @-@ paid manager , on a three @-@ year , £ 2 million contract .
= = = Transfers = = =
= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = Pre @-@ season = =
Source :
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began their league campaign on 17 August 1996 , at home to West Ham United . Three minutes before the half @-@ hour , Hartson gave Arsenal the lead , after his initial shot came back off the post , for a tap @-@ in . West Ham conceded a penalty in the second half when Marc Rieper handled Lee Dixon ’ s cross ; Bergkamp , in the absence of designated penalty taker Wright , struck the ball low to Luděk Mikloško ’ s right , to score the team 's second goal . Arsenal suffered their first loss of the league season two days later away to Liverpool ; Steve McManaman scored twice in six second half minutes . The team responded with a 2 – 0 win at Leicester City in a game where Wright started as a substitute but scored the decisive goal . A 3 – 3 draw with Chelsea in the first week of September was described as " outstanding " by Houston after the team had recovered from a two @-@ goal half @-@ time deficit . Although Linighan scored an injury time equaliser for Arsenal against Aston Villa , The Guardian match report suggested their most obvious problem in the match was " ... despite Merson 's valiant efforts , a lack of invention in midfield " . Wright scored a hat @-@ trick against Sheffield Wednesday on 16 September 1996 , to record 100 league goals for Arsenal . The game marked the debut of Patrick Vieira , who came on as a substitute for Ray Parlour . Goals by Hartson and Wright earned the team victory against Middlesbrough and the team won a third consecutive match – at home to Sunderland – to draw level on points with league leaders Liverpool .
Wenger 's first match in charge of Arsenal was against winless Blackburn Rovers on 12 October 1996 . Two goals , both scored by Wright extended Arsenal 's winning league run to four matches and helped consolidate their position . A goalless draw at home to Coventry City was marred by an incident involving Wright and Coventry goalkeeper Steve Ogrizovic that resulted in the latter having a broken nose . October concluded with a home fixture against Leeds United ; a 3 – 0 win for Arsenal marked defeat for former manager George Graham , who made his managerial return to Highbury . The team ended the month joint top of the table with Newcastle United , both on 24 points having played 11 games .
= = = November – February = = =
Arsenal 's first fixture of November was against Wimbledon . Wright after six minutes gave Arsenal the lead , only for Vinnie Jones to head in the equaliser , close to half time . Merson scored Arsenal 's second , but Marcus Gayle replied immediately , " bund [ ling ] the ball past ( David ) Seaman " . An own goal by Nigel Winterburn against Manchester United ended the champions run of three matches without a win and extended a barren run of Arsenal failing to score at Old Trafford since the creation of the Premier League . Wenger told the press he was not despondent about his first defeat as Arsenal manager : " Obviously , the way we lost was difficult to accept , but I 'm happy with the way we played . Our organisation was excellent , we kept fighting and I am very optimistic for the future . " Attention soon turned to the North London derby , where Arsenal faced Tottenham Hotspur on 24 November 1996 . Arsenal had not beaten their neighbours in over three years and Tottenham were unbeaten at Highbury since September 1991 . The match had ramifications in the league : a win potentially placed Arsenal in a position to move into first spot , if other results went in their favour . In the match , Wright put Arsenal into the lead through a penalty , but after 57 minutes , Sol Campbell headed on a long throw for Tottenham and the ball fell to Andy Sinton , whose shot " cannoned off the inside of the near post , then hit Lukic on the head and rebounded into the net " . Two minutes before the 90 @-@ minute mark , Tony Adams scored the winner and in injury time , Bergkamp added a third : he controlled a high ball with his left foot and evaded his marker Stephen Carr in a tight area to shoot . A 2 – 1 win against title challengers Newcastle United , having played three @-@ quarters of the match with ten men , moved Arsenal back to the top of the table .
Arsenal moved three points clear at the top of the Premier League with a 3 – 1 win at home to Southampton in early December . Against
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5th Fighter Interceptor Group at Jacksonville Air National Guard Base . Both units flew the F @-@ 106 . It also assumed command of the 107th Fighter Interceptor Group at Niagara Falls Air Reserve Station and the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group at Ellington Field , Texas . The latter two flew the F @-@ 4C Phantom .
The 102d Fighter Interceptor Wing lost its F @-@ 106s on 5 January 1988 . Between January and April 1988 , the wing converted to the F @-@ 15A Eagle , which it received from the 5th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron which was inactivating at Minot Air Force Base . It then resumed its alert commitment at Otis , and also established a new Detachment 1 at Loring Air Force Base , taking over for the inactivating 5th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron . The 102d was the first Air National Guard unit to be equipped with the F @-@ 15 .
On 24 January 1989 , airmen monitoring the radar at the Northeast Air Defense Sector at Griffiss Air Force Base spotted a plane which was not following any known flight plan . The order was then given to " scramble the Eagles , " after repeated attempts to contact the pilot failed . Two jets then took off from Loring to search for the " unknown rider . " The pilots later came across a plane that was blacked out , with no lights on inside or outside . The pilot was a narcotics smuggler from Colombia 's Medellin drug cartel . He was carrying had a street value of two hundred million dollars in the amount of 500 kilograms of cocaine .
= = = Post @-@ Cold War = = =
= = = = Local defense = = = =
The wing continued its air defense mission after the fall of the Soviet Union . In 1992 , the wing deployed eight pilots , five F @-@ 15 Eagles , and 48 maintenance and security personnel , for five days training at Canadian Forces Base Goose Bay , Labrador , Canada . The same year , with the reorganization of the Air Force , the wing was reassigned from the disbanding Tactical Air Command to the newly formed Air Combat Command . In July 1993 , the wing deployed 50 personnel from the 102d Civil Engineering Squadron under field conditions , to the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas . They helped rebuild schools and municipal facilities damaged by Hurricane Andrew .
On 11 February 1993 , jets were scrambled to intercept the hijacked Lufthansa Flight 592 , which eventually landed at John F. Kennedy International Airport without incident . The planes were joined by F @-@ 16s from the 177th Fighter Wing in Atlantic City , New Jersey . The F @-@ 15s initially intercepted the aircraft off the coast of eastern Canada . The planes then began to trail the jet at a distance of 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) . As they approached the airport , the distance decreased to 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . The fighters then did a low fly @-@ by as the plane landed . They continued to circle around the airport until they returned to Otis .
In 1994 , the 102d received more F @-@ 15A / B Eagles from the 32nd Fighter Group at Soesterberg Air Base , which was inactivating as part of the post Cold War draw down of forces in Europe .
= = = = Deployments = = = =
Between 1991 and 1995 , the 102d deployed to Panama as part of Operation Coronet Nighthawk , which was a drug interdiction operation . In 1992 the wing became simply the 102d Fighter Wing as part of an Air Force @-@ wide renaming of units . The wing was deployed from 1995 to 1998 to Iceland for periodic 45 day deployments . In 1998 , the wing 's members also trained and deployed to Iceland , Canada , Korea , and Europe . The next year , the 102d participated in Operation Northern Watch and was deployed to Turkey in order to enforce the no @-@ fly zone over Iraq north of the 36th Parallel . In 2000 , personnel were deployed to the Middle East and Europe in order to participate in Operation Southern Watch .
= = = = 9 / 11 terrorist attacks = = = =
Around 8 : 30 on the morning of 11 September 2001 , the Otis Air Base Operations Center received a call from the Federal Aviation Administration 's Cape Cod Facility Calls Operations Center that it might be receiving a call from the North American Aerospace Defense Command 's Northeast Air Defense Sector . The manager of the Cape Cod facility then called the 102d at Otis Air National Guard Base as they figured " ... a call [ to Otis Air Base ] will be coming from NEADS soon and a scramble order is likely . " He called the base because he figured that the pilots would appreciate the heads up . When he called the Otis operations center , the superintendent of aviation management , Mark Rose , answered . He was initially confused by the call as no identification was given . Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Duffy was then handed the phone and alerted of the situation . On his radio , he called pilot Major Daniel Nash , the pilot who was sharing alert duty , and told him to get ready for a coming alert call . He also told him to suit up and get ready for a scramble call .
Soon after , the commander of the 101st Fighter Squadron phoned the Northeast Air Defense Sector and asked for permission to launch the fighter jets . The sector in turn responded by ordering the commander of the weapons team which controlled the jets , Major Kevin Naspany , to place the fighters on " battle stations . " This resulted in a warning siren sounding at Otis and the pilots scrambled to their jets . Four to five minutes later , the scramble order was received and the jets took off . Officially , this occurred at 8 : 46 am , with a six @-@ minute difference between the official and unofficial accounts . Duffy radioed his command post for guidance and was told among other things that American Airlines Flight 11 was a Boeing 737 , when in reality it was a 767 . Once in the air , their radar kicked in , allowing them to effectively intercept the plane .
Difficulties in accurately locating Flight 11 caused a delay of five minutes , to 8 : 43 am , before the scramble order was given and pilots Duffy and Nash could respond . When Flight 11 hit the North Tower at 8 : 46 , the two jets were still readying for flight and did not take off until 8 : 52 am .
Major Naspany was then asked what to do with the fighters and he responded by saying , " Send ' em to New York City still . Continue ! Go ! This is what I got . Possible news that a 737 just hit the World Trade Center . This is a real @-@ world ... Continue taking the fighters down to the New York City area , JFK [ International Airport ] area , if you can . Make sure that the FAA clears it — your route all the way through ... Let 's press with this . " Unsure of their target , they were directed to a holding pattern in military @-@ controlled airspace Whiskey 105 off of Long Island to avoid New York area air traffic . At 9 : 03 am , United Airlines Flight 175 hit the South Tower as the fighters were progressing to their holding position . The Northeast Air Defense Sector was not advised of this hijacked aircraft until 9 : 03 .
Between 9 : 09 and 9 : 13 , the jets stayed in a holding pattern . Soon after , they headed toward Manhattan and arrived at 9 : 25 , where they established a Combat Air Patrol over the city .
While all of this was going on , senior battle staff at Otis were watching the news when United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower . This immediately caused one commander to shout out , " We need to go to battle staff ! " This order caused senior commanders to disperse and head towards nearby operations buildings . Inside , the gathered together in the battle cab of the installation operations center . Soon after , a voice came over the base 's loudspeakers : " The commander has ordered the 102d core battle staff to assemble . Please report to the operations building immediately . " Mobilization of the wing began to occur after this time . At the time of the order , eighteen planes were ready for flight and commanders began to prepare based on what they anticipated they would be asked to do . Most of these actions were guessing because there had never been an attack on the country before . Knowing that they couldn 't await on guidance from the North American Aerospace Defense Command , the recalled all training flights and began loading fuel and weapons onto all available fighter jets .
Meanwhile , at the battle cab , a maintenance squadron officer was told , " Listen , I want you to generate as many airframes [ i.e. fighter jets ] as you can ! " This immediately caused all personnel to be called back and they were ordered to work on the remaining jets . This rush involved the placement of missiles on all jets , including some newer missiles which were rarely pulled out . Six jets which were on a training mission were traversing through the Whiskey Airspace when they were told by the Boston Air Route Traffic Control Center to head back to Otis immediately . Once landed , the pilots were told to park their jets but leave the engines on . Finally , the first planes took off at 10 : 20 in the morning .
After a while , an order was received to launch all available fighters . Pilots were briefed on the national emergency and the potential that they might have to take out an aircraft . At this point , someone then ran into the room and said that there had been an order that was received from the Northeast Air Defense Sector that all available jets must launch . The pilots then ran out to their aircraft with speaker Treacy saying " Go , go , go ! " In the haste that the morning had become , not all the jets had been refueled and a majority of the jets were still unarmed . The handful of jets that were armed were sent up with one or two missiles . The standard missile load involves at least two missiles at launch . This is after the handlers had worked at a " furious pace " and " hurried to fix all available jets with live weapons . " Arming of the jets even began fifteen minutes after the South Tower had been hit. this fact would later lend credence to the theory that there was an idea floating around to ram the hijacked planes with a jet . Starting around 10 : 30 and ending at
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ability , restlessness , and other arousal symptoms , brought about by psychological dependence .
The dopamine system plays a crucial role in several aspects of addiction . At the earliest stage , genetic differences that alter the expression of dopamine receptors in the brain can predict whether a person will find stimulants appealing or aversive . Consumption of stimulants produces increases in brain dopamine levels that last from minutes to hours . Finally , the chronic elevation in dopamine that comes with repetitive high @-@ dose stimulant consumption triggers a wide @-@ ranging set of structural changes in the brain that are responsible for the behavioral abnormalities which characterize an addiction . Treatment of stimulant addiction is very difficult , because even if consumption ceases , the craving that comes with psychological withdrawal does not . Even when the craving seems to be extinct , it may re @-@ emerge when faced with stimuli that are associated with the drug , such as friends , locations and situations . Association networks in the brain are greatly interlinked .
= = = Psychosis and antipsychotic drugs = = =
Psychiatrists in the early 1950s discovered that a class of drugs known as typical antipsychotics ( also known as major tranquilizers ) , were often effective at reducing the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia . The introduction of the first widely used antipsychotic , chlorpromazine ( Thorazine ) , in the 1950s , led to the release of many patients with schizophrenia from institutions in the years that followed . By the 1970s researchers understood that these typical antipsychotics worked as antagonists on the D2 receptors . This realization led to the so @-@ called dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia , which postulates that schizophrenia is largely caused , by hyperactivity of brain dopamine systems . The dopamine hypothesis drew additional support from the observation that psychotic symptoms were often intensified by dopamine @-@ enhancing stimulants such as methamphetamine , and that these drugs could also produce psychosis in healthy people if taken in large enough doses . In the following decades other atypical antipsychotics that had fewer serious side effects were developed . Many of these newer drugs do not act directly on dopamine receptors , but instead produce alterations in dopamine activity indirectly . These drugs were also used to treat other psychoses . Antipsychotic drugs have a broadly suppressive effect on most types of active behavior , and particularly reduce the delusional and agitated behavior characteristic of overt psychosis . There remains substantial dispute , however , about how much of an improvement the patient experiences on these drugs .
Later observations , however , have caused the dopamine hypothesis to lose popularity , at least in its simple original form . For one thing , patients with schizophrenia do not typically show measurably increased levels of brain dopamine activity . Also , other dissociative drugs , notably ketamine and phencyclidine that act on glutamate NMDA receptors ( and not on dopamine receptors ) can produce psychotic symptoms . Perhaps most importantly , those drugs that do reduce dopamine activity are a very imperfect treatment for schizophrenia : they only reduce a subset of symptoms , while producing severe short @-@ term and long @-@ term side effects . Even so , many psychiatrists and neuroscientists continue to believe that schizophrenia involves some sort of dopamine system dysfunction . As the " dopamine hypothesis " has evolved over time , however , the sorts of dysfunctions it postulates have tended to become increasingly subtle and complex .
However , the widespread use of antipsychotic drugs has long been controversial . There are several reasons for this . First , antipsychotic drugs are perceived as very aversive by people who have to take them , because they produce a general dullness of thought and suppress the ability to experience pleasure . Second , it is difficult to show that they act specifically against psychotic behaviors rather than merely suppressing all types of active behavior . Third , they can produce a range of serious side effects , including weight gain , diabetes , fatigue , sexual dysfunction , hormonal changes , and a type of serious movement disorder known as tardive dyskinesia . Some of these side effects may continue long after the cessation of drug use , or even permanently .
= = = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder = = =
Altered dopamine neurotransmission is implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , a condition associated with impaired cognitive control , in turn leading to problems with regulating attention ( attentional control ) , inhibiting behaviors ( inhibitory control ) , and forgetting things or missing details ( working memory ) , among other problems . There are genetic links between dopamine receptors , the dopamine transporter , and ADHD , in addition to links to other neurotransmitter receptors and transporters . The most important relationship between dopamine and ADHD involves the drugs that are used to treat ADHD . Some of the most effective therapeutic agents for ADHD are psychostimulants such as methylphenidate ( Ritalin , Concerta ) and amphetamine ( Adderall , Dexedrine ) , drugs that increase both dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain . The clinical effects of these psychostimulants in treating ADHD are mediated through the indirect activation of dopamine and norepinephrine receptors , specifically dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor A2 , in the prefrontal cortex .
= = = Pain = = =
Dopamine plays a role in pain processing in multiple levels of the central nervous system including the spinal cord , periaqueductal gray , thalamus , basal ganglia , and cingulate cortex . Decreased levels of dopamine have been associated with painful symptoms that frequently occur in Parkinson 's disease . Abnormalities in dopaminergic neurotransmission also occur in several painful clinical conditions , including burning mouth syndrome , fibromyalgia , and restless legs syndrome .
= = = Nausea = = =
Nausea and vomiting are largely determined by activity in the area postrema in the medulla of the brainstem , in a region known as the chemoreceptor trigger zone . This area contains a large population of type D2 dopamine receptors . Consequently , drugs that activate D2 receptors have a high potential to cause nausea . This group includes some medications that are administered for Parkinson 's disease , as well as other dopamine agonists such as apomorphine . In some cases , D2 @-@ receptor antagonists such as metoclopramide are useful as anti @-@ nausea drugs .
= = Comparative biology and evolution = =
= = = Microorganisms = = =
There are no reports of dopamine in archaea , but it has been detected in some types of bacteria and in the protozoan called Tetrahymena . Perhaps more importantly , there are types of bacteria that contain homologs of all the enzymes that animals use to synthesize dopamine . It has been proposed that animals derived their dopamine @-@ synthesizing machinery from bacteria , via horizontal gene transfer that may have occurred relatively late in evolutionary time , perhaps as a result of the symbiotic incorporation of bacteria into eukaryotic cells that gave rise to mitochondria .
= = = Animals = = =
Dopamine is used as a neurotransmitter in most multicellular animals . In sponges there is only a single report of the presence of dopamine , with no indication of its function ; however , dopamine has been reported in the nervous systems of many other radially symmetric species , including the cnidarian jellyfish , hydra and some corals . This dates the emergence of dopamine as a neurotransmitter back to the earliest appearance of the nervous system , over 500 million years ago in the Cambrian era . Dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter in vertebrates , echinoderms , arthropods , molluscs , and several types of worm .
In every type of animal that has been examined , dopamine has been seen to modify motor behavior . In the model organism , nematode Caenorhabditis elegans , it reduces locomotion and increases food @-@ exploratory movements ; in flatworms it produces " screw @-@ like " movements ; in leeches it inhibits swimming and promotes crawling . Across a wide range of vertebrates , dopamine has an " activating " effect on behavior @-@ switching and response selection , comparable to its effect in mammals .
Dopamine has also consistently been shown to play a role in reward learning , in all animal groups . As in all vertebrates – invertebrates such as roundworms , flatworms , molluscs and common fruit flies can all be trained to repeat an action if it is consistently followed by an increase in dopamine levels .
It had long been believed that arthropods were an exception to this with dopamine being seen as having an adverse effect . Reward was seen to be mediated instead by octopamine , a neurotransmitter closely related to norepinephrine . More recent studies however have shown that dopamine does play a part in reward learning in fruit flies . Also it has been found that the rewarding effect of octopamine is due to its activating a set of dopaminergic neurons not previously accessed in the research .
= = = Plants = = =
Many plants , including a variety of food plants , synthesize dopamine to varying degrees . The highest concentrations have been observed in bananas — the fruit pulp of red and yellow bananas contains dopamine at levels of 40 to 50 parts per million by weight . Potatoes , avocados , broccoli , and Brussels sprouts may also contain dopamine at levels of 1 part per million or more ; oranges , tomatoes , spinach , beans , and other plants contain measurable concentrations less than 1 part per million . The dopamine in plants is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine , by biochemical mechanisms similar to those that animals use . It can be metabolized in a variety of ways , producing melanin and a variety of alkaloids as byproducts . The functions of plant catecholamines have not been clearly established , but there is evidence that they play a role in the response to stressors such as bacterial infection , act as growth @-@ promoting factors in some situations , and modify the way that sugars are metabolized . The receptors that mediate these actions have not yet been identified , nor have the intracellular mechanisms that they activate .
Dopamine consumed in food cannot act on the brain , because it cannot cross the blood – brain barrier . However , there are also a variety of plants that contain L @-@ DOPA , the metabolic precursor of dopamine . The highest concentrations are found in the leaves and bean pods of plants of the genus Mucuna , especially in Mucuna pruriens ( velvet beans ) , which have been used as a source for L @-@ DOPA as a drug . Another plant containing substantial amounts of L @-@ DOPA is Vicia faba , the plant that produces fava beans ( also known as " broad beans " ) . The level of L @-@ DOPA in the beans , however , is much lower than in the pod shells and other parts of the plant . The seeds of Cassia and Bauhinia trees also contain substantial amounts of L @-@ DOPA .
In a species of marine green algae Ulvaria obscura , a major component of some algal blooms , dopamine is present in very high concentrations , estimated at 4 @.@ 4 % of dry weight . There is evidence that this dopamine functions as an anti @-@ herbivore defense , reducing consumption by snails and isopods .
= = = As a precursor for melanin = = =
Melanins are a family of dark @-@ pigmented substances found in a wide range of organisms . Chemically they are closely related to dopamine , and there is a type of melanin , known as dopamine @-@ melanin , that can be synthesized by oxidation of dopamine via the enzyme tyrosinase . The melanin that darkens human skin is not of this type : it is synthesized by a pathway that uses L @-@ DOPA as a precursor but not dopamine . However , there is substantial evidence that the neuromelanin that gives a dark color to the brain 's substantia nigra is at least in part dopamine @-@ melanin .
Dopamine @-@ derived melanin probably appears in at least some other biological systems as well . Some of the dopamine in plants is likely to be used as a precursor for dopamine @-@ melanin . The complex patterns that appear on butterfly wings , as well as black @-@ and @-@ white stripes on the bodies of insect larvae , are also thought to be caused by spatially structured accumulations of dopamine @-@ melanin .
= = History and development = =
Dopamine was first synthesized in 1910 by George Barger and James Ewens at Wellcome Laboratories in London , England and first identified in the human brain by Kathleen Montagu in 1957 . It was named dopamine because it is a monoamine whose precursor in the Barger @-@ Ewens synthesis is 3 @,@ 4 @-@ dihydroxyphenylalanine ( levodopa or L @-@ DOPA ) . Dopamine 's function as a neurotransmitter was first recognized in 1958 by Arvid Carlsson and Nils @-@ Åke Hillarp at the Laboratory for Chemical Pharmacology of the National Heart Institute of Sweden . Carlsson was awarded the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for showing that dopamine is not only a precursor of norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) and epinephrine ( adrenaline ) , but is also itself a neurotransmitter .
= = = Polydopamine = = =
Research motivated by adhesive polyphenolic proteins in mussels led to the discovery in 2007 that a wide variety of materials , if placed in a solution of dopamine at slightly basic pH , will become coated with a layer of polymerized dopamine , often referred to as polydopamine . This polymerized dopamine forms by a spontaneous oxidation reaction , and is formally a type of melanin . Synthesis usually involves reaction of dopamine hydrochloride with Tr
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an industrial area . East of the Highlandtown neighborhood , MD 150 turns east onto Lombard Street , which crosses over three rail spurs that head south to Canton ; one line splits from CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision , while the other two spring from the Amtrak Northeast Corridor and are operated by Norfolk Southern Railway . The state highway 's run on Lombard Street ends at Ponca Street ; Lombard Street continues east toward ramps to northbound I @-@ 895 ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) and Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center . MD 150 turns south onto Ponca Street , a four @-@ lane divided highway that has a ramp to southbound I @-@ 895 toward the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel . The highway follows Ponca Street to the Greektown neighborhood , where MD 150 turns east onto Eastern Avenue and immediately crosses over I @-@ 895 .
MD 150 continues east as a six @-@ lane divided highway that reduces to four lanes at Dundalk Avenue . The highway runs through the Joseph Lee neighborhood , where it intersects Kane Street and meets the Canton Railroad at grade before the highway 's partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 . Access from eastbound MD 150 to southbound I @-@ 95 is provided via Kane Street to the south . Just east of I @-@ 95 , the state highway enters Baltimore County . While passing along the northern edge of Dundalk , MD 150 follows the edge of Oaklawn Cemetery and meets MD 151 ( North Point Boulevard ) at a cloverleaf interchange . The route passes along the north side of the Eastpoint Mall , crosses the Norfolk Southern rail spur to Sparrows Point , and meets I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Access from northbound I @-@ 695 to westbound MD 150 and from eastbound MD 150 to southbound I @-@ 695 is provided through MD 151 . East of the Beltway , MD 150 passes the city of Baltimore 's Back River Waste Water Treatment Plant and crosses the Back River .
= = = Essex to Chase = = =
On the east side of the Back River , MD 150 enters the densely populated community of Essex . Just east of Marlyn Avenue , the highway 's old alignment , Old Eastern Avenue , splits to the east . In the center of Essex , MD 150 has a partial interchange with MD 702 ( Southeast Boulevard ) that only allows access to and from the north ; access to the southern part of the Back River Neck is provided via Old Eastern Avenue 's connection with MD 702 or the parallel Stemmers Run Road . The route continues northeast and receives the other end of Old Eastern Avenue before crossing the Middle River into the community of Middle River . MD 150 has a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 700 ( Martin Boulevard ) at Lockheed Martin 's Middle River Complex . The highway closely parallels the Amtrak Northeast Corridor and meets the northern end of MD 587 ( Wilson Point Road ) , after which the route passes along the northern edge of Martin State Airport . MD 150 curves away from the railroad just west of the Martin State Airport station on MARC 's Penn Line and the highway 's intersection with MD 43 ( White Marsh Boulevard ) .
East of MD 43 and the adjacent General Services Administration facility , MD 150 becomes a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane east to Carroll Island Road . East of that county highway , which leads to the community of Bowleys Quarters , the state highway reduces to two lanes . MD 150 passes under a Norfolk Southern Railway spur from the Amtrak Northeast Corridor to the Charles P. Crane Generating Station and intersects Marshy Point Road , which leads into Dundee Natural Environment Area . The route ends at its intersection with Ebenezer Road and Graces Quarter Road in the community of Chase . Graces Quarter Road serves as a connector to the main section of the county highway , which heads east into a unit of Gunpowder Falls State Park . The county highway also heads west as Ebenezer Road , which passes over Eastern Avenue and the Amtrak Northeast Corridor immediately to the northeast on Eastern Avenue . Eastern Avenue itself continues northeast as a county highway to its end at Greenbank Road on the Gunpowder River .
= = History = =
The predecessor highway of MD 150 was an oyster shell road from the village of Highlandtown ( later annexed by Baltimore ) to Chase . Between the Back River and Middle River , this highway was operated as the east – west segment of the Back River Neck Turnpike ; the turnpike also included what is now Back River Neck Road . The first portion of Eastern Avenue improved by the Maryland State Roads Commission was from the eastern terminus in Chase to east of Earls Road , which was paved as a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide concrete road around 1923 . MD 150 was constructed as a macadam road from the Baltimore city line to the crossing of Middle River in 1924 ; this section would be widened with concrete shoulders to a width of 18 to 20 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 1926 . The gap between the Middle River and east of Earls Road remained a county highway until the existing highway was supplemented by concrete shoulders and repaved in macadam between 1932 and 1934 . The portion of Eastern Avenue in the city of Baltimore was not part of MD 150 , which had its western terminus at the city – county line as of 1939 .
Suburban development in Dundalk and Essex and the establishment of the Glenn L. Martin Company aircraft manufacturing plant in Middle River in 1929 resulted in heavy traffic along MD 150 . By 1934 , an average of 5 @,@ 275 vehicles per day used the highway between Baltimore and Middle River , leading the Maryland State Roads Commission to recommend widening the highway to 40 feet ( 12 m ) in width . Relief did not come until just before World War II when MD 150 from Baltimore to Middle River was deemed a vital defense connection between the city and the Martin aircraft plant . MD 150 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from Dundalk Avenue in Baltimore to east of the Martin aircraft plant in Middle River between 1942 and 1944 . This expansion involved the construction of interchanges at Martin Boulevard ( later designated MD 700 ) and North Point Boulevard , a northern extension of MD 151 that was also constructed as a defense access project . Replacement bridges were built over the Back River and Middle River . MD 150 was also relocated in Essex ; Old Eastern Avenue was designated MD 600 , a designation removed by 1956 .
By 1946 , MD 150 had been extended west into the city of Baltimore over Eastern Avenue at least as far as Highlandtown . Around 1950 , the state highway followed Highland Avenue south from US 40 to Eastern Avenue . MD 150 was moved to Kresson Street , Lombard Street , and Ponca Street , which met Eastern Avenue just west of its present junction , in 1960 . Around 1963 , Haven Street and Kresson Street were converted to a one @-@ way pair , with Haven Street carrying eastbound traffic south and Kresson Street handling westbound traffic toward US 40 . The portion of Lombard Street between Haven and Kresson was added to MD 150 ; the state highway was also extended north on Haven and Kresson to Monument Street , then east along Monument Street to MD 150 's new western terminus at US 40 at the U.S. Highway 's underpass of CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . This convoluted path was ameliorated around 2002 when the highway was shortened to its present course in East Baltimore .
= = Junction list = =
= Xenogears =
Xenogears is a science fiction role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Squaresoft ( now Square Enix ) for Sony 's PlayStation . It was released on February 11 , 1998 , in Japan and on October 20 , 1998 , in North America . The game was never released in PAL territories . It was re @-@ released by Squaresoft as a Greatest Hits title in 2003 , and on the PlayStation Network on June 25 , 2008 , in Japan and on February 22 , 2011 , in North America .
Xenogears follows protagonist Fei Fong Wong and several others as they journey to uncover the truth behind mysterious , cabalistic entities operating in their world . The principles and philosophies of Friedrich Nietzsche , Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung influence the plot , character design , and world of Xenogears . Additionally , the symbols , theological concepts , and devotional practices of several world religions are represented in fictionalized forms in the game . Major psychological themes are the nature of identity and human memory , particularly as these relate to the phenomenon of dissociative identity disorder . The relationship between humanity and machines is central to the game 's plot , as indicated by the presence of giant robots dubbed " gears , " which almost each playable character can control .
Xenogears received critical acclaim , with a 91 % rating on Game Rankings and a score of 83 out of 100 at Metacritic . Reviews particularly praised the storyline with multiple subplots , the gameplay , the characters , the themes ( including allusions to Jungian psychology , Freudian thought , and Gnostic spirituality ) , and the generally epic scope of the narrative . It was voted the 16th best video game of all time by readers of Famitsu in 2006 . Xenogears has shipped 1 @.@ 19 million copies worldwide as of March 31 , 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Xenogears combines traditional role @-@ playing video game structures such as Square 's signature Active Time Battle system with new features particular to the game 's martial @-@ arts combat style . It features two slightly different battle systems : in the first the user controls human characters in turn @-@ based combat manipulated through the sequencing of learned combos . The second , making use of " gears , " introduces different sets of statistics and abilities for each character . Xenogears features both traditional anime and pre @-@ rendered CGI movie clips by Production I.G to illustrate important plot points .
The player advances the protagonist and his companions through a fully three @-@ dimensional fictional world . There is an overworld map with visitable cities , geographical sites , and other important locations spread out across several continents . A couple of locations encountered throughout the game exist not on the original world map , but in the sky . At first , the party only travels on foot , but is eventually permitted to make use of a variety of vehicles , including their gears and the " sand submarine " Yggdrasil .
= = = Battle system = = =
Battle in Xenogears is a variant of the Active Time Battle system found in games such as Chrono Trigger and the Final Fantasy series . Most enemy encounters in Xenogears are random . When a battle begins , there is a transition to a separate screen with a combat interface . Player @-@ characters use a combination of martial arts moves , " Ether " ( magical ) attacks , and special " Deathblow " combinations which are learned through the repetition of specific proportions of strong , moderate , and weak hits . All offensive actions use Action Points ( AP ) , costing either three points , two points , or one point , corresponding to the intensity of the attack . Each character can initially use only three AP per turn , but at higher levels , they can eventually use up to seven AP per turn . At a certain point in the game , characters can begin using " Elemental Deathblows , " which , as the name implies , attach elemental attributes to physical combos . In addition to being used for attacks , AP may be saved and allocated to Attack Points for combo attacks during later turns . A total of 28 AP may be accumulated for combo attacks .
Characters can also use a variety of magical abilities for both offense and ally @-@ support . These abilities are limited by the number of Ether Points ( EP ) that are available to a character , which must be replenished using items during exploration ( non @-@ combat ) sequences . For most characters , these abilities are attributed to " Ether , " a mysterious power to which ( presumably ) all humans have access . Some characters ' magical abilities are referred to by different names , implying differences in their origins . For example , Fei 's magic is called " Chi " and Citan 's is called " Arcane " . While fighting in gears , human Ether abilities are amplified , though some change or become unavailable during this type of combat .
= = = Gear battle = = =
In addition to small @-@ scale , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , the characters sometimes fight from within their respective giant robots , called gears . In gear combat , the limiting factor of AP is replaced by fuel , with each attack consuming an amount corresponding
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the party .
= = Development = =
Xenogears was produced by Hiromichi Tanaka , who previously worked on the SNES game Secret of Mana . The scenario of the game was written by director Tetsuya Takahashi and by Kaori Tanaka . Yasuyuki Honne served as art director , while Kunihiko Tanaka was responsible for the character designs . Tetsuo Mizuno , Tomoyuki Takechi , and Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi were executive producers for Xenogears . Koichi Mashimo , an animation director and his studio Bee Train , was in charge of the anime cut scenes . Xenogears started out as an early concept conceived by Tetsuya Takahashi and Kaori Tanaka for the Square game Final Fantasy VII . Their superior in the company deemed it " too dark and complicated for a fantasy " , but Takahashi was allowed to develop it as a separate project . The project began under the working title " Project Noah " . The main impetus for Takahashi was that he was growing frustrated with the Final Fantasy series . The initial concept was to make Xenogears a sequel to Chrono Trigger , but after multiple clashes with the company over this and unspecified practical difficulties , it was decided to make it a completely original title . Due to this initial development idea , there were concepts unsuited for a fantasy world , so a compromise was made by incorporating both fantasy and science fiction into the game 's world .
Development took approximately two years , and included a staff of thirty developers . Preliminary planning and creation of the backstory extended to several years before that . The word " Xeno " had been decided between staff from an early stage , with its meaning being " something strange or alien " . " Gears " was chosen from multiple suggested words . The game 's Gears were not present during early stages , with their places being filled by traditional summoned monsters . The game 's use of anime cutscenes was chosen as it was difficult to properly recreated Tanaka 's Gear artwork into 3D CGI . The game 's engine was also designed to be best suited for the 3D map displays and battle arenas . Takahashi had wanted to create the game in full 3D , but the PlayStation 's capacities meant this could not be managed , resulting in the current mesh of 2D sprites against 3D backgrounds . The themes and story were greatly influenced by the works and philosophies of Friedrich Nietzsche , Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung . According to Tanaka , the reason for this correlation was simply due to a common interest with her husband . According to her , the story revolved around " where do we come from , what are we , where are we going " . There was a large portion of story and artwork that did not make it into the final game .
Square had announced that Xenogears may not have come out in the United States due to " sensitive religious issues " . The English translation of Xenogears was the first instance in which an English localization team worked directly with Square developers . It also was the first major project of Square translator Richard Honeywood . According to Honeywood , translating the game was a particularly difficult task due to it containing numerous scientific concepts and philosophies . He came into contact with it because its previously assigned translators quit or asked for reassignment due to its challenge . In a later interview , Honeywood stated that the biggest issue was with the multiple religious references , and the concept at the end of " killing God " , which needed to be adjusted so that it remained faithful to the original premise while stepping around some content that might offend . Honeywood unintentionally had a hand in the Japanese naming of Deus : the staff were originally going to call it Yahweh , and during his argument against it he said " yabeh @-@ o " , a Japanese phrase meaning something dangerous . Seeing it as a good pun , the staff used Yabeh as the name .
Square Enix released Xenogears on the Japanese PlayStation Network on June 25 , 2008 and in North America on February 22 , 2011 .
= = = Audio = = =
The music in Xenogears was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , composer of the SNES title Chrono Trigger . The Xenogears Original Soundtrack was released on two discs and published by DigiCube in Japan . The score contains 41 instrumental tracks , in addition to a choral track and two songs . According to Mitsuda , the music of Xenogears belongs to the traditional music genre . Though he first described it as stemming from " a world of [ his ] own imagining " rather than any specific country , he has also claimed a strong Irish or Celtic music influence . There are two vocal tracks included on the OST , and both are sung by Joanne Hogg . One of the tracks , " Stars of Tears " , did not appear in the final version of the game . It was originally intended to play in a cut scene at the start of the game along with the main staff credits . The scene , however , was removed for pacing issues , as it would have made the combined opening movie and introduction scenes last roughly ten minutes . The other , " Small Two of Pieces ~ Screeching Shards ~ " , was the first ending theme with sung lyrics to ever appear in a game developed by Square .
An arranged soundtrack of Xenogears also composed and arranged by Mitsuda was released as Creid . For Creid , he expanded on the theme from the original album of having Celtic influences in " easy @-@ to @-@ listen @-@ to " pop tracks to create an album of arranged Xenogears music with a more prominent Celtic style . The album contains a mixture of vocal and instrumental tracks , and combines Japanese and Celtic music together in its pieces . The album features five vocal tracks and five instrumental tracks . The main lyricist , Junko Kudo , wrote the lyrics to four of the five vocal tracks , while Mitsuda wrote the lyrics to the title track , which were then translated from Japanese to Gaelic for the recording . Celtic singer Joanne Hogg did not reprise her role in Creid . Instead , Tetsuko Honma sang the four tracks written by Kudo , while Eimear Quinn sang " Creid " .
In October 2010 , Mitsuda announced that he planned to work on Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album , a second arranged album of music from the game , in an orchestral style . He took suggestions from fans as to which tracks to include .
= = = Merchandise = = =
There have been several Japanese books and comics published concerning the Xenogears franchise . Xenogears God Slaying Story , a series by Masatoshi Kusakabe , was published by Shueisha in 1998 . DigiCube published both Xenogears Perfect Works and a memorial album named Thousands of Daggers , which contains the entire script to the game in Japanese , along with screenshots . Two manga books , Xenogears Comic Anthology and Xenogears 4koma Comic , were released by Movic . Movic also released wallscrolls , notebooks , pins , keychains , stickers , and postcards depicting the Xenogears cast .
= = Reception = =
Xenogears was a commercial success in both Japan and North America . It sold over 890 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 1998 . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game had shipped 1 @.@ 19 million copies worldwide , with 910 @,@ 000 of those copies being shipped in Japan and 280 @,@ 000 abroad . As a result of these sales , it was re @-@ released as a Greatest Hits title in December 2003 . In Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu , Xenogears was voted the 16th best video game of all time by its readers in a poll held in 2006 . On a similar poll at GameFAQs , users of the website voted Xenogears the 32nd " Best Game Ever " in 2005 . It was placed in the same position in IGN 's " Top 100 Games - Readers Choice " feature in 2006 , and as number 28 in 2008 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Xenogears was met with critical acclaim . Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the story , characters , gameplay , graphics , and soundtrack . IGN described it as the " hands @-@ down best RPG " of the year , praising the storyline , gameplay , graphics , presentation , and soundtrack . GameSpot described it as one of Squaresoft 's best role @-@ playing games , praising the story , gameplay , and audio , but criticized the lack of graphical polish . Allgame pointed out in a positive light that the character battles are " unlike most role @-@ playing games from this company " . Retrospectively , Edge commented that although it is " considered by some to be a multimillion @-@ yen , convoluted science @-@ fiction vanity project , Xenogears nevertheless remains one of the most keenly eulogized PlayStation RPGs . " The magazine also noted that it was Takahashi 's " most challenging and pure work " and that the Xenosaga series never quite matched up to Xenogears .
The game 's story and characters were well received . Electronic Gaming Monthly said it is " rich in story and character development . " Game Informer and Next Generation agreed that the plot was one of the game 's highlights , the former drawing comparisons to Star Wars , Star Blazers , the Old Testament , and many other Square games , making it " a game every RPG fanatic must play . " IGN said the storyline is intricate , engrossing , " deep , complex , and once in a while even confusing , until more of the real underlying plotline is uncovered . " GameSpot said the story is " excellent " and " thought @-@ provoking " but said it can be " a little preachy at times " , but went on to say that the religious and existential themes " enhance the story and [ our ] understanding of the game 's deep characterizations " . Game Revolution described the storyline as " epic " and " fabulous " with " many twists and turns " and a large cast of characters . RPGFan said " the story is unique and probably the most complex and interesting of any RPG " , giving it a 99 % rating for the story . Retrospectively , Edge praised the plot 's scope and ambition and the protagonist as the " most complicated Freudian hero " in video games , but said it has a " flawed " script and " muddied " translation , as well as too many cut scenes , especially on the second disc , where the use of the world map is restricted for an extended period and the amount of cut scenes increases . Years after the game 's release , Jeremy Parish of Electronic Gaming Monthly called the game 's plot " one of the wackiest game plotlines ever " , but said that it " actually makes sense " if the player ignores all of the sideplots . IGN , however , stated that despite having too many cut scenes and a sometimes confusing plot , " immersion is a key factor in Xenogears and the questions you may have about the storyline are all answered at some point in the game . " Following the PSN release , RPGFan 's James Quentin Clark said Xenogears has " hands down the best single story I have seen in any video game , " giving it a 100 % rating for the story .
Reviewers largely praised Xenogears ' gameplay . Next Generation praised Square 's Active Time Battle gauge and said that inclusion of the AP meter and combo attacks " is not only refreshing in a turn @-@ based RPG , but gives players a higher level of interaction during battle . " IGN claimed that " the most impressive feature in combat is the ability to use massive " Gears " or mechs " , noting that Square 's attention to programming these battles is made evident by how " visually satisfying " they are . IGN praised the game 's exploration , saying that the ability to jump and climb " adds even more depth to exploration of different environments and distances Xenogears from being too straightforward of a traditional RPG " , the only complaint being that the rotating camera is sometimes " clumsy " .
The soundtrack was well received . Electronic Gaming Monthly said the game sounds as " beautiful " as it looks . GameSpot said it " expertly uses audio to push the story along " and noted that many of the games ' tracks " include voice or chanting and all are appropriately uppity or low with the game 's mood " , but said there were many areas with silence or ambience making the " game 's soundtrack a tad sparse . " Xenogears was the first Square game to feature voice overs and anime cut scenes . Electronic Gaming Monthly said they are " some of the slickest animation cinemas " they have seen . Game Revolution praised the " absolutely spectacular and stunning " hand @-@ drawn anime cut @-@ scenes , but stated that they were sparse and poorly synched with the voice acting .
= = Legacy = =
Shortly after Xenogears was released , there was speculation of a sequel being released , although this never occurred . In 1999 , Tanaka said that a project related to Xenogears was being developed . He also revealed that a sequel to Xenogears was initially planned , but never came to be . While Xenogears has never had an official sequel or prequel , there was wide speculation that Namco and Monolith Soft 's Xenosaga was a prequel when it was first announced . Tetsuya Takahashi was the director and writer for both Xenogears and Xenosaga and has noted that " with our relation between Square , I think it is difficult for us to say it is a direct sequel or prequel " . Approximately twenty members of the Xenosaga development staff had previously worked on Xenogears .
On the connection between Xenogears and Xenosaga , Takahashi has stated :
It 's probably more suitable to say that it follows the direction and style of Xenogears . [ ... ] Now that we are under a different company , we figured we should start everything from scratch all over again . Though there are familiar faces that serve as important characters in Xenosaga , others are more like self @-@ parodies , so we don 't really want Xenogears fans to overreact . Like movies , sometimes you have the director of the movie or friend of the leading actor appearing as cameos , so it 's similar to that .
Several members of the Xenogears staff came together in 2008 to work on Sands of Destruction , a role @-@ playing game for the Nintendo DS , published by Sega . These staff members include Masato Kato , Kunihiko Tanaka , and Yasunori Mitsuda .
= Ysbeidiau Heulog =
" Ysbeidiau Heulog " ( pronounced [ əsˈbəidia ( ɨ ) ˈhəɨlɔɡ ] ; English : " Sunny Intervals " ) is the twelfth single by Super Furry Animals . It was the only single to be taken from the album Mwng and was released as a limited edition 7 " vinyl on the band 's own Placid Casual label on 1 May 2000 . It was the band 's first single to chart outside the UK Singles Top 75 peaking at number 89 . The Welsh language song has been described by singer Gruff Rhys as " throwaway pop " and likened to the music of ELO , The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band and Os Mutantes .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with some reviewers comparing the song to the work of Roxy Music . The track appears on 2004 's singles compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 but is not included on the DVD release as no music video was made .
= = Themes and recording = =
Singer Gruff Rhys has described " Ysbeidiau Heulog " as " throwaway pop ... old time pop music " , likening the song to the work of ELO and going on to claim that it is a tribute to late 1960s pop bands such as The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band and Os Mutantes . Rhys has stated that his lyrics are about " looking back at a bad time which had the odd good moment " and that " If there 's any song that doesn 't sum up [ Mwng ] it 's [ ' Ysbeidiau Heulog ' ] ! " The track was recorded in 1999 at Famous Studios , Cardiff and was engineered by Greg Haver . Overdubs were added at Ofn studios , Llanfaelog , Wales with the help of Gorwel Owen who also mixed the song at the studio along with the Super Furry Animals . B @-@ side " Charge " was recorded for an episode of BBC Radio 1 's The John Peel Show , which aired on 1 March 2000 . The track was produced for the BBC by Simon Askew and engineered by Nick Fountain .
= = Musical structure = =
" Ysbeidiau Heulog " is 2 minutes 51 seconds long and is in the key of B major . The track begins with an intro with a lead guitar melody , which plays twice , accompanied by drums , bass , distorted rhythm guitar and saxophone . The first verse begins on 14 seconds with Gruff Rhys singing the lines " Fe gawsom ni , ysbeidiau heulog , ysbeidiau heulog " with a vocoder being used on the second " ysbeidiau heulog " . This entire phrase is then repeated , with Rhys accompanied by harmony backing vocals . Throughout this first part of the verse the only instrumentation is a distorted bass guitar and drums . The second half of the verse begins at 28 seconds with rhythm guitar , playing the chords B , B , A and E twice with little sustain , joining the drums and bass , which is no longer distorted . The track breaks down for the first chorus with Rhys singing " ysbeidiau heulog " four times backed by harmony vocals and occasional keyboard noises with the band rejoining on the last " heulog " , the rhythm guitar playing an A chord on each of the word 's two syllables which are emphasised by cymbal crashes . After a drum fill an instrumental passage begins at 53 seconds . This follows the same arrangement as the intro although the lead guitar plays a melody line just once during the second half of the section , simply feedingback for the first half . The second verse starts at 1 minute 8 seconds leading into the second chorus which this time features drums fills and rhythm guitar alongside Rhys ' vocals . A short bridge plays at the end of the chorus with Rhys singing " Oedd ein cariad ni , heulog tan ddaeth glaw yn llif " . Instrumentation is sparse with a guitar , featuring flanging , playing several licks alongside bass and drums , which are heavily affected by flanging . The bridge leads into the third and last chorus , which follows the arrangement of the second chorus although this time the drums feature flanging . The track ends with an instrumental outro similar to the intro . The outro begins at 2 minutes 16 seconds and features a second lead guitar with a wah @-@ wah effect playing licks alongside the main lead guitar and saxophone . After the guitar melody has played twice the main lead guitar stops playing and the track begins to fade out .
= = Release and critical response = =
" Ysbeidiau Heulog " was released as a limited edition 7 " vinyl single on the Super Furry Animal 's own Placid Casual label on 1 May 2000 . It was the band 's first single to chart outside the UK Singles Top 75 peaking at number 89 . It received a generally positive response from critics . The track was awarded ' Single of the Week ' in the May 10 – 16 , 2000 issue of the Melody Maker by guest reviewers the Dum Dums who gave the song a perfect five @-@ star rating and claimed that it is a " summery , karaoke @-@ pop hit " . Pitchfork Media called " Ysbeidiau Heulog " the best track on parent album Mwng and described it as a " decidedly retro number that combines the swingin ' sounds of the ' 60s with some high @-@ tech vocal effects " . In a 2006 feature on the Super Furry Animals ' back catalogue Incendiary Magazine called the track a " clever slice of pop " . In a play on words on the track 's meaning in English , Drowned in Sound stated that " Ysbeidiau Heulog " was Mwng 's " sunny interval " and wouldn 't feel out of place on 1999 's Guerrilla . Both the NME and Rolling Stone likened the track to the work of Roxy Music with the former calling it " happily woozy " and the latter claiming it is a " spunky , sax @-@ spiked bop " . The NME also placed the track at number 33 in their single of the year list for 2000 . Yahoo ! Music described the track as a " playground free @-@ for @-@ all ... frazzled and psychedelic " . Art Sperl , writing for Rock 's Backpages in December 2000 , was critical of the track , calling it " flimsy " . The track appears on vinyl and CD copies of the band 's singles compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 but is not included on the DVD release as no music video was made .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
7 " ( PLC02 )
" Ysbeidiau Heulog " – 2 : 52
" Charge " – 3 : 19
= = Personnel = =
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the organization has never received negative feedback from a game composer or game publisher , and Lloyd stated , " Like all communities surrounding fan works , we 're out , first and foremost , to honor that which we love , and I think the concept and goals have been well received all around . "
Several video game industry professionals have praised the OC ReMixes of their compositions , including Alexander Brandon ( Tyrian / Unreal Tournament / Deus Ex ) , Barry Leitch ( Top Gear ) , Nicholas Varley ( Syberia ) , and David Wise ( Donkey Kong Country ) . OverClocked ReMix has also been praised for its work by several industry figures including Doom lead designer John Romero , Tommy Tallarico , " The Fat Man " George Sanger , and Jeremy Soule . Contra 4 associate producer Tomm Hulett stated he hoped the game 's music , scored by Jake " virt " Kaufman , would be arranged for OC ReMix in the future .
In late 2002 , the first OC ReMix by a veteran professional game composer was released , The 7th Guest " Fat Dance " by " The Fat Man " George Sanger . In early 2004 , this was followed by the second ReMix of its kind , Final Fantasy VI " Squaresoft Variation " by Jeremy Soule , who dedicated the arrangement to both OC ReMix founder David W. Lloyd and Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . In 2005 , Sanger provided another ReMix performed alongside Team Fat colleagues and game composers , Dave Govett , Joe McDermott and K. Weston Phelan , entitled Wing Commander " Wing Theme Surf . " Tommy Tallarico Studios ' Earthworm Jim Anthology marked the first release of OC ReMixes on a commercial video game music album in late 2006 . In October 2009 , composer Alexander Brandon and ReMixer Jimmy " Big Giant Circles " Hinson collaborated to arrange a track Brandon composed for the game Deus Ex . In March 2010 , OC ReMix released its Donkey Kong Country 2 ReMix album , Serious Monkey Business , featuring a closing track performed by the game 's original composer , David Wise , alongside Grant Kirkhope and Robin Beanland , three composers with ties to Rare 's Donkey Kong Country / Land franchise .
Several artists beginning as amateurs , many directly drawn to video game music arrangement by OC ReMix , have seen their interest in video game music catalyze into professional music opportunities , including Dain " Beatdrop " Olsen ( Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 ) , Jillian " pixietricks " Aversa ( Civilization IV : Beyond the Sword ) , Andrew " zircon " Aversa ( Monkey Island 2 Special Edition : LeChuck 's Revenge ) , Jimmy " Big Giant Circles " Hinson ( Mass Effect 2 ) and Danny Baranowsky ( Super Meat Boy ) .
Beginning in 2008 , at the invitation of Tommy Tallarico , OC ReMix promotional CDs have been given away as contest prizes at every performance of orchestral game music concert series , Video Games Live ; OC ReMixes were played in the concert hall before the show at the June 29 and June 30 , 2007 Kennedy Center performances in Washington , D.C.
= Harriman ( Erie Railroad station ) =
Harriman Station , formerly known as Turner Station until 1910 , was the first station on the Erie Railroad Main Line west of Newburgh Junction tower in Harriman , New York . Built on the side of Grove Street in Harriman , the station depot was constructed originally as Turner Station in 1838 , as a three story hotel @-@ train station combination . This station caught fire in 1873 and was replaced by a one @-@ story wooden structure . That structure survived as long as its predecessor before it began decaying and was replaced in 1911 with a new station on land donated by the widow of Edward Henry Harriman . A new one @-@ story structure was built on the land . The station was maintained as a one @-@ story depot with a large monument to the side dedicated to the work of Charles Minot . Minot was a director of the Erie Railroad who , in 1851 , while his train was stopped at Turner , made the first railroad call by telegraph .
The station depot remained in use by the Erie until October 1960 , when that was folded into the Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railroad , which itself would fold in April 1976 , as it was absorbed into the Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) . Conrail maintained passenger services until 1983 , when that job was taken over by Metro @-@ North Railroad . On April 18 , 1983 , the last passenger train left the Harriman station , as Conrail and Metro @-@ North abandoned the tracks in favor of using the Graham Line ( a high @-@ speed freight line ) for passenger and freight service . At that time , a new park & ride off of New York State Route 17 in Harriman opened for the newly realigned passenger service along the ex @-@ Graham Line .
The station depot remained on its concrete platform when the tracks were torn up on the old main line . In 1996 , workers removed the plaque attached to the Minot monument , but it was soon returned . However , the plaque was stolen shortly afterward and has not been recovered . The station depot itself was left in decrepit condition , and in 2006 , the village of Harriman 's building inspector ordered Norfolk Southern Railroad ( the successor to Conrail and who owned the right @-@ of @-@ way ) to either restore the building or demolish it . Norfolk Southern followed through with a demolition permit and in May 2006 , the station depot was demolished by a front loader . The station remains were taken to a dump in Hillburn , New York .
= = History = =
= = = First station constructed = = =
The first station in Harriman , New York , then known as Turner , was first constructed around 1838 by Peter Turner , as one of the many stretches of the New York and Lake Erie Railroad was constructed through town . The station itself was a 400 feet ( 120 m ) long brick depot , three stories tall and topped with a French roof . The station sat alongside the railroad tracks and was called the Orange Hotel . The dining room of the new structure was able to hold 500 people at a time and accommodate them with good food . During planning of the Erie , there was some concern to whether or not the railroad would work its way through Harriman at all , instead bypassing nearby Goshen and Middletown in favor of a terminus at Newburgh , also on the Hudson River . Train service to Harriman began in 1841 , when the New York and Lake Erie ran its first trains on June 30 , 1841 from Piermont @-@ on @-@ Hudson , the determined eastern terminus , to Goshen , the western end .
Construction progressed on the Erie Railroad , and by the end of 1841 , grading from Middletown to Goshen was in progress and 410 of the 447 miles ( 719 km ) chartered for the new railroad was contracted . The railroad had been running trains on the 46 miles ( 74 km ) railroad line , carrying about 250 passengers per day . The new railroad was completed in April 1851 at its intended length to Dunkirk on Lake Erie . On May 12 , 1851 , just about a month after the completion , a completion gala was held from Washington D.C .. Then @-@ president Millard Fillmore and several members of his cabinet , along with several former governors of New York , attended . Several other distinguished individuals came from around the United States . On May 14 , the tour arrived in New York City and began their trip on the first 447 miles ( 719 km ) ride at Piermont at 7 : 45 that morning . The Fillmore train arrived at Dunkirk just past 4 : 00 pm the next afternoon .
= = = Charles Minot and the telegraph = = =
In 1847 , Ezra Cornell of Ithaca , New York worked to expand telegraphic communication through the New York and Lake Erie Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way with the Western Union Telegraph Company , saving a telegraph line he built from New York City to Fredonia . The new telegraph was an instant hit , and was commonly used for gossip and casual chatting . The then @-@ superintendent of the New York and Lake Erie , Charles Minot , looked to expand this new technology with the railroad . He developed a system using telegraphs for train dispatches , for use when trains would want to pass one another along the line , such as at stations . Two @-@ letter telegraph codes were designated , and the new modern system was set up . For the ten years of the new railroad 's existence , passengers had been disgusted as trains waited for hours as another train had to pass them . This new system would relieve this issue .
On September 22 , 1851 , Minot was in a parked passenger train at Turner Station . He glanced out the window of the train and saw the new telegraph wires . Departing the train , Minot ran into the station , got on the new telegraph , and wired the next station along the line , Monroe , to see if the eastbound train to Piermont @-@ on @-@ Hudson had gone past . The station agent said no . At that point , Minot ordered the engineer of the train to proceed on their way to Goshen . The engineer refused to take Minot 's order , and instead , Minot got into the cab car himself and drove the train himself to Port Jervis , hours ahead of the planned scheduled time of arrival . This was the second of the several " firsts " the Erie Railroad created in its time , along with the shipment of milk by rail at Chester station in 1842 . The use of the telegraph and Minot 's system remained until 1888 , when a new system of block signaling , developed by the competitor Pennsylvania Railroad , helped expand Minot 's use of telecommunications to control rail traffic .
= = = Naming controversy = = =
Around 6 : 30 pm on the evening of Friday , December 26 , 1873 , the three @-@ story Orange Hotel station depot caught fire . Some staff of the re @-@ christened Erie Railroad were examining a room in the roof of the building , and upon looking into it , found it engulfed in smoke . The fire quickly spread , consuming the entire story . There was a lull , but the building re @-@ ignited as flames continued through the building . The Mansard roof on top of the building was destroyed by the flames . No fire @-@ ridding materials to douse the blaze were available to staff and no one could get near the building to inspect where the flames were . The flames finally destroyed the entire building , and just two hours after the fire was discovered , the walls began to collapse on the structure . Within a half @-@ hour , the entire hotel / depot had collapsed and was a pile of brick ruins . Train service on the Erie main line was disrupted for several hours due to the fire and station depot collapse . A later study determined the station depot burned down due to a defective flue .
The station depot was replaced by a wooden one @-@ story depot , referred to by locals as a shack , along the side of the tracks in downtown Turner . The new station itself lasted around the same amount of time that its predecessor station depot had ; however , the widow of Edward Henry Harriman ( d . September 9 , 1909 ) , a local railroad executive whose Arden estate was in the nearby hills , donated land in February 1910 in a different portion of Turner to build a brand new station to the east . The old one @-@ story depot had a roof and structural supports that were aging and on the verge of collapsing to the ground .
Plans for a new station didn 't come without controversy though , as in 1910 with the death of E.H. Harriman , there was a proposal by the Turner Village Improvement Association to rename the borough from Turner to Harriman as an honor to the late executive . On May 25 , 1910 , the association voted 58 to 13 to change the name . Harriman 's widow said if they changed the name , she 'd donate $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1910 USD , equivalent to $ 635 thousand in 2016 ) to help improvement the look and design of the village and $ 6 @,@ 000 ( 1910 USD , equivalent to $ 152 thousand in 2016 ) more for a brand @-@ new railroad station . It was proposed that by having the Erie Railroad change the station name on the decrepit depot from Turner to Harriman , the local Post Office would adopt the new name almost immediately . Erie conductors were told upon approaching Turner station to call the name Harriman . However , a local priest at the forefront of the controversy , Father McAran , thought the entire situation regarding the train from New York was a joke . To add to the annoyance of the priest , the old sign attached to the 1873 depot was replaced by a brand new one saying " Harriman " .
On the morning of May 26 , the Erie Railroad sent a statement out from Pavonia Terminal in Jersey City , New Jersey to disregard the order from the previous day . The new sign came down instantly and the conductors continued to call the station Turner once again . Old time locals felt the name Turner had more value to them and shouldn 't be touched . A self @-@ appointed committee run by the priest proposed a meeting on Saturday , June 4 , 1910 at nearby Gillette Hall to protest the name change . The priest also offered that if the name was to remain Turner 's , he would contribute $ 500 towards the construction of a new station . The post office also said they would remain named Turner even if the signage on the Erie Railroad station went back to the Harriman name . Sometime during the night between June 1 and June 2 , the Erie Railroad took the station depot sign for Turner down once again and re @-@ attached the Harriman sign to the station depot . Local resolutions were sent to the Erie showing citizens ' displeasure at changing the signage once again . The order from the Erie stated that beginning on July 15 , the station name would remain " Harriman " permanently . Father McAran returned to his outrage and continued to go to the press and give interviews on the issue at hand . To wrap the issue up , a sign in the front of the local church proclaiming " LONG LIVE TURNER " was destroyed . This hurt the enthusiasm of locals , who suggested renaming the local Arden station near the Harriman estate instead .
= = = New station opens at " Harriman " = = =
A year after the great naming controversy and the station permanently being established as Harriman , construction began on a new station to replace the " disgraceful shack " that residents called Harriman . That year a new station , built with the $ 6 @,@ 000 from Edward Henry Harriman 's widow , was constructed of brick with a stucco outlier . The roof of the one story depot was built with shingles , which helped it match the Tudor @-@ style used at the Tuxedo station eleven miles eastbound . The station , which was grounded on a large and wide concrete platform that also served as the new station platform , was built on Grove Street and had measurements of 20 ' x 26 @.@ 5 ' x 19 ' , common for a Type @-@ 9 Erie Railroad station design . Just a year after the new station depot opened ,
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for Outstanding Music Album for her Grammy Award @-@ winning sixth studio album The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) , which spoke out against homophobia and embraced same @-@ sex love . In 2005 , Jackson received the Humanitarian Award from the Human Rights Campaign and AIDS Project Los Angeles in recognition of her involvement in raising funds for AIDS Charities and received the Vanguard Award at the 19th Annual GLAAD Media Awards in 2008 . In June 2012 , Jackson announced she is currently executive producing a documentary on the lives of transgender people around the world titled Truth , saying she agreed to sign on to help stop discrimination against the transgender community .
= = The Velvet Rope and AIDS charities = =
During the recording of Jackson 's sixth studio album The Velvet Rope , the singer reportedly suffered from depression , which became a central theme to the album among other subjects including domestic abuse , low self @-@ esteem , sadomasochism , homophobia and sexual orientation . In his review of the album , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph observed , " [ Jackson ] even makes a bid for gay icon status , delivering a diva @-@ ish performance reminiscent of Diana Ross on ' Together Again ' ( a post @-@ Aids pop song ) , singing a paean to homosexuality on the jazzy ' Free Xone ' and climaxing ( if that 's the right word ) with a bizarre lesbian reinterpretation of Rod Stewart 's ' Tonight 's the Night ' . " The song " Free Xone " dealt specifically with homophobia and same @-@ sex relationships . Speculation over Jackson 's own sexual orientation began circulating after the release of The Velvet Rope — particularly regarding her cover version of Rod Stewart 's " Tonight 's the Night ( Gonna Be Alright ) " — however , Jackson denied rumors that she has had sexual relationships with other women .
I don 't mind people thinking that I 'm gay or calling me gay . People are going to believe whatever they want . Yes , I hang out at gay clubs , but other clubs too . I go where the music is good . I love people regardless of sexual preference , regardless of race . No , I am not bisexual . I have been linked with dancers in our group because we are so close . I grew up in a big family . I love being affectionate . I love intimacy and I am not afraid to show it . We fall asleep in each other 's arms . We hug , we kiss , but there is nothing beyond that . Because [ René Elizondo , Jr . ] and I broke up , it 's like people need some sort of drama , some sort of gossip .
The album 's second single " Together Again " , a hit in several countries , became an homage to loved ones Jackson has lost to AIDS , as well as an elegy to AIDS victims and their families worldwide . The upbeat dance song was arranged to celebrate the spirit of those who have passed on , rather than mourn their deaths , as Jackson comments . A portion of the single 's sales were donated by Jackson to The American Foundation for AIDS Research . On November 17 , 1997 , Jackson was honored by the National Black Lesbian and Gay Leadership Forum for the album 's sexual orientation @-@ related content , in addition to receiving the award for Outstanding Music Album at the 9th Annual GLAAD Media Awards in 1998 . In June 2005 , Jackson was given the Humanitarian Award by the Human Rights Campaign and AIDS Project Los Angeles in honor of her activism .
What I 've learned in these recent months is that there is a light at the end of the tunnel , and it 's real . It 's a beautiful light that both comforts our minds and strengthens our souls . Tonight my heart is filled with gratitude for that light . I 'm so grateful that prayers are answered , that faith is rewarded and tolerance is celebrated as a virtue . I 'm grateful that God is of unconditional love .
She has also been a strong advocate of practicing safe sex as a means of inhibiting the spread of the AIDS virus , criticizing those who are " careless " when it comes to sexual intercourse .
= = LGBT social movements = =
LGBT social movements , which include the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement , Gay Liberation , lesbian feminism , and transgender activism , have often garnered celebrity endorsement from many entertainers including Jackson . She has often voiced her support for same @-@ sex marriage , advocating all people have the right to fall in love . In 2008 , Jackson appeared in a public service announcement sponsored by the Logo television network and the Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network ( GLSEN ) in response to the E.O. Green School shooting . The announcement discusses the murder of fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Lawrence " Larry " King and the safety of LGBT youth in public schools . Jackson states that " none of us are safe , until all of us are safe " . On April 26 , 2008 , fellow gay icon Ellen DeGeneres presented Jackson with the Vanguard Award at the 19th Annual GLAAD Media Awards at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles .
We are delighted to honor Janet Jackson at the 19th Annual GLAAD Media Awards in Los Angeles as such a visible , welcoming and inclusive ally of the lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ( LGBT ) community . Ms. Jackson has a tremendous following inside the LGBT community and out , and having her stand with us against the defamation that LGBT people still face in our country is extremely significant .
Jackson spoke with Larry King on CNN , supporting the It Gets Better Project and The Trevor Project , a non @-@ profit organization providing crisis and suicide prevention for LGBT youth , in light of the high profile suicides committed in Fall , 2010 . She stated : " ( I was ) one of those kids ... holding everything inside ... internalizing everything . And that really can affect you , and feeling helpless and hopeless , and finding that person that you can trust , that adult , like I did later on in life , that I felt comfortable and safe to tell my issues , my worries , my pains , my aches to . This is what the Trevor Project is really all about . And they have a 24 @-@ hour hotline ... There 's someone there that you can speak with 24 hours that will be there for you . " She made an official It Gets Better video which was released on December 1 , 2010 .
Jackson is currently producing a documentary on the lives of transgender people around the world titled " Truth " , saying she agreed to sign on to help stop discrimination against the transgender community . " All people are very important to me . I 've been fortunate to make friends and learn about very different lives , " Jackson said in a statement . " ' Truth ' is our small chance to ask that you try and understand someone who lives their life in a way that is a little bit different from yours , even though all of our hearts are the same . We want to stop the hate and find understanding . " Director Robert Jason , who previously directed the Style Network documentary " Style Exposed : Born Male , Living Female , " about four transgender New Yorkers , said Jackson will play a prominent part in the finished product . " Janet Jackson will take us on a visually innovative , cerebral journey through the turbulent lives of transgendered [ sic ] people of all ages around the world and their epic struggle for equality , " he said in a statement announcing the project . " This film will highlight landmark mainstream stories and provide a glimpse at others that will change the gender landscape of the world forever . Just as it is hard to believe that there ever was a time when different components of society were required to use separate drinking fountains , it is as incredible that one 's gender expression remains just such a target for discrimination . " Jackson is working behind @-@ the @-@ scenes on the movie and will also take part in some of the on @-@ camera interviews as well .
= Too Short a Season =
" Too Short a Season " is the 16th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It first aired on February 8 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The teleplay was written by Michael Michaelian and D. C. Fontana , based on a story by Michaelian , and the episode was directed by Rob Bowman .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the Enterprise transports the elderly Admiral Mark Jameson ( Clayton Rohner ) to deal with a hostage negotiation on the planet Mordan IV . Jameson took a drug to reverse his aging , and must defuse the situation with a former adversary .
During re @-@ writes of the script by Fontana , various elements introduced by Michaelian were changed , including the ending . Guest stars included Michael Pataki , who had appeared in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Reviews were mixed , with particular criticism directed at the acting of Clayton Rohner as Admiral Jameson .
= = Plot = =
The Federation starship Enterprise , under the command of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) , brings aboard the elderly Admiral Mark Jameson and his wife Anne ( Marsha Hunt ) on request of Karnas ( Michael Pataki ) , the Governor of Mordan IV . Karnas warns that a dissident terrorist group has taken a Federation Ambassador and his staff hostage , and demand to speak to a negotiator . Jameson had negotiated a previous settlement on Mordan IV . As the ship travels to Mordan IV , they find that Jameson is becoming stronger and more able to move about on his own , and is no longer showing signs of the terminal Iverson 's Disease he was known to have before he was beamed aboard . The crew discovers that Jameson has been taking an array of drugs to reverse the aging process over the last two years , and only recently has taken an overdose of the drugs to prepare himself for the negotiations . Jameson begins to appear younger and full of energy , but has frequent pains as a result of the overdose . By the time they are nearing Mordan , Jameson now appears as a young adult .
As they approach the planet , Jameson begins audio communication with Karnas to learn more of the situation , but soon discovers that it is Karnas himself that has taken the Federation staff . Karnas reminds Jameson that his treachery during their last encounter on Mordan IV resulted in years of war . Against the advice of Picard , Jameson devises plans to rescue the hostages by transporting the away team , now including the captain , to the tunnels beneath Karnas ' mansion , where Jameson believes the hostages are being held . Picard privately confronts Jameson about Karnas ' motives . Jameson reveals that in the past , Karnas had captured a Federation starliner in revenge for the death of his father by another local tribe . Jameson had negotiated for the passengers ' release by giving Karnas what he demanded , a supply of Federation weapons . However , Jameson , in his interpretation of the Prime Directive , also supplied the warring tribes with an equal number of weapons . Jameson had thought this would only lead to a short @-@ lived skirmish , and had not expected a war that would last over forty years . Jameson is now insistent on correcting his past mistake and thus took the reverse aging drug in order to be at his best .
In orbit , the Enterprise crew and Jameson beam down into the tunnels beneath Karnas ' manor , but find that their arrival was anticipated and face off against armed guards . Jameson collapses during the fight , and the crew beams back to the Enterprise , where they discover Jameson was not shot but instead the reverse aging drug is destroying his body . Karnas demands to see Jameson or he will kill a hostage every 15 minutes . Picard opts to beam himself , Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) , Jameson , and eventually Jameson 's wife Anne directly to Karnas ' office . Though Karnas initially refuses to believe that the young man is Jameson , Picard shows him the images of his reverse aging over the last few days after which Jameson reveals a scar on his wrist inflicted by Karnas years ago . Karnas prepares to fire on Jameson to get his revenge , but decides to get his revenge by watching Jameson suffer and die horribly from the drug instead . Jameson dies shortly afterward in his wife 's embrace . Karnas agrees to let the hostages go , and to allow Jameson to be buried on Mordan IV at Anne 's request .
= = Production = =
Writer Michael Michaelian originally pitched a story idea based on andropause , sometimes referred to as " male menopause " . He wrote a treatment and first draft script involving reverse aging . D. C. Fontana later explained that the terrorist MacGuffin ( an ambiguous but central plot point ) was not quite right . Fontana was brought in to overhaul the ending , and explained that a " lot of what I put in at the end was also in Michael 's story and drafts , but approached with a different emphasis " . One significant alteration she made was to change the plot from involving actual terrorists to a trap that the crew must defuse . The original ending also had the two opposing parties on the planet sit down for peace talks with Jameson surviving the effects of the de @-@ aging drugs . He would have been reduced in age to fourteen and could no longer remember his wife .
Clayton Rohner was cast as Admiral Mark Jameson . Prior to filming , Rohner and director Rob Bowman worked together on weekends on the characterisation of Jameson . Bowman criticised the style of the script , describing it as " sit @-@ and @-@ tell " . He also had a variety of problems with the wheelchair used in this episode which cost $ 10 @,@ 000 to construct . It was referred to by plot designer Joe Longo as the " big albatross " , and when a wheelchair was required for the Deep Space Nine episode " Melora " they instead created a much simpler version . Karnas was played by Michael Pataki , who had previously portrayed the Klingon Korax in The Original Series episode " The Trouble with Tribbles " .
Make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore had previously used makeup to age DeForest Kelley in the season premiere " Encounter at Farpoint " , but " Too Short a Season " proved a unique challenge as four stages of make @-@ up were required to show Admiral Jameson de @-@ aging . The initial stage to show Jameson at his oldest , involved Rohner wearing a bald @-@ cap and wig plus latex prosthetics applied to his eyes , forehead , throat and jowls . That stage took up to four hours to apply to the actor . Westmore found himself worn out by the volume of work during this episode , as at the time the make @-@ up team on the series included just him and Werner Keppler . On the second day of shooting the first stage make @-@ up , Westmore arrived after Rohner had been in make @-@ up for three hours only to find that he was only half finished . Keppler and Westmore rushed to get him so as not to delay the filming of the episode . Bowman later criticised the make @-@ up used on Rohner , describing it as sub @-@ par . Westmore said that " if I was working on a film , and had several months to test Clayton 's make @-@ up beforehand , it probably would have turned out more to my liking . With less than a week to work with , I don 't think it turned out too badly . "
" Too Short a Season " marked the last time a cityscape would be built as a model for the show until the sixth season episode " Birthright " . They were instead replaced with matte paintings . Phasers from The Original Series and movies , along with a staff from " The Last Outpost " were used to decorate Karnas ' office .
CURIOSITY — Seems that humans in 24th Century do not bother about accessibility . At least Galaxy class ships were not constructed under this concern . The first hint to it is when Admiral Mark Jameson is beamed up and you start to ask yourself how his wheelchair will get out from there since the transport ' stage ' is one tall step above the floor . Certainly the wheelchair would have to be carried down by two crewmen . The second hint is that clearly the narrow doors ( to the quarters , for instance ) aren 't wide enough to allow his large chair to pass .
= = Reception = =
" Too Short a Season " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing February 14 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 9 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since " The Big Goodbye " four episodes earlier .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in June 2011 . He said that he liked the episode , but not because it was a typical Next Generation episode , saying that it was instead " a story about an old man who has been carrying guilt for four decades over something stupid he did in his youth , and he tries to recapture his youth in a move of even greater stupidity " . He described the return of Michael Pataki to Star Trek as " triumphant " but thought that Clayton Rohner was " simply horrible " , and that Marsha Hunt " creates no impression whatsoever " . He summed up the episode saying that it was a " missed opportunity " , and gave it a score of 5 / 10 . James Hunt watched the episode in January 2013 for the website Den of Geek . He felt that the episode had a good story at the core but highlighted the " rather dubious make @-@ up and over @-@ acting " . His main criticism was that Jameson was " fundamentally unlikeable " , and the lack of a Subplot in the episode .
Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , and also found that the character of Jameson was " thoroughly unlikable " . He described Rohner as " acting like a Muppet when he 's supposed to be elderly and weak , then laying on the over @-@ heated angst once his youth is restored " . Overall he felt that the main characters were sidelined in the episode , and so it was difficult to be involved in what went on . He gave the episode a grade of C + . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation in June 2007 . She said that the plot seen in " Too Short a Season " involving an " Evil Admiral " was one which had been more commonly seen on The Original Series such as Commodore Decker in " The Doomsday Machine " . She too criticised the makeup used on Rohner , but said that his acting became more " modulated , but then both Karnas and the actor playing him seem over @-@ the @-@ top by comparison " .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Too Short a Season " was on VHS cassette , appearing on July 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Stress Relief =
" Stress Relief " is a two @-@ part episode of the American comedy television series The Office . They constituted the fourteenth and fifteenth episode of the fifth season , and the 86th and 87th overall episodes of the series . Both episodes were directed by Jeffrey Blitz and written by Paul Lieberstein , who also plays Toby Flenderson on the show .
In this episode , Dwight stages a fire in the office to test the office 's fire safety skills , but things go from bad to worse when Stanley suffers a heart attack , causing Michael to come up with ways to relieve stress in the office , including a comedic roast of himself . Meanwhile , Andy , Jim , and Pam watch an illegally downloaded movie at work starring Jack Black , Jessica Alba and Cloris Leachman , and Pam deals with her parents ' recent argument that 's caused her father to move in with her and Jim .
Both parts of " Stress Relief " originally aired together immediately following the broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII , and The Office writers and producers sought to attract newcomers to the series with the expected increase in viewership . Guest stars Black , Alba and Leachman do not interact with the regular characters themselves , but rather appear in a film within the episode . The Office creator Greg Daniels said this was done to keep the episode more grounded in reality .
The episode received generally positive reviews , with Time magazine declaring it the best overall television episode of any series in 2009 . Many commentators particularly praised the chaotic cold open scene , in which Dwight panics his co @-@ workers with a simulated fire as part of a twisted safety demonstration . Because of its proximity to the Super Bowl , " Stress Relief " is the most viewed episode of The Office with 22 @.@ 9 million viewers according to Nielsen Media Research during its original broadcast . It won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , and received another nomination for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Annoyed that none of his co @-@ workers paid attention to the fire safety seminar he gave last week , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) tries another approach by sealing the office exits shut , cutting the phone lines and starting a fire in a trash can . Dwight calmly explains the proper safety procedures as the panicked employees try to flee , smashing windows , crawling through air ducts and destroying office equipment . Dwight eventually reveals it was just a drill , but Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) suffers a heart attack and collapses in the commotion . Dwight is subsequently censured by Dunder Mifflin CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , and Michael ( Steve Carell ) strips him of his position as safety officer . After Stanley is released from the hospital , his doctors warn him to keep his stress levels under control to avoid further damaging his health . Michael arranges for a CPR training session for the employees , but they are too easily distracted and the lesson proves fruitless . The session ends badly when Dwight destroys the expensive CPR dummy , earning another rebuke from David Wallace . Dwight is ordered to apologize to his co @-@ workers and get signatures acknowledging that they forgive him , but after he openly declares that his apology is insincere and denies that he is responsible for Stanley 's heart attack , they refuse to sign .
With tensions running high in the office , Michael tries to calm his workers down with yoga and meditation sessions . However , Michael soon realizes he is actually the source of his employees ' stress when Stanley ’ s stress reader beeps uncontrollably whenever Michael is nearby . Michael hands the stress reader to Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) and is horrified when the same result occurs . Meanwhile , Pam ’ s ( Jenna Fischer ) parents are going through a rough patch in their marriage , and Pam ’ s father is staying with her and Jim ( John Krasinski ) . Jim attempts to cheer Pam up by watching an unlicensed movie with Andy ( Ed Helms ) ( they do not know how to access such films while Andy does , so they have to watch the movie in Andy 's company ) . The film stars Jack Black , who is engaged to a character played by Jessica Alba , but falls in love with her elderly grandmother , played by Cloris Leachman . During the movie , Jim and Pam discuss the situation with Pam ’ s parents but , Andy believes their comments are directed at the characters in the film , leading him to conclude they are " movie geniuses " finding hidden depths in the film .
= = = Part two = = =
Michael decides the workers are stressed because they are reluctant to express their feelings , so he organizes a comedic roast of himself in the warehouse . Dwight tricks most of the employees into signing his apology letter by pretending it is a sign @-@ in sheet , but Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) catches on and refuses to sign it . Each of the office and warehouse workers gleefully take jabs at Michael , who initially seems to enjoy the jokes , but grows increasingly uncomfortable and offended . When it comes time for him to roast his employees , Michael ends up storming out of the warehouse , visibly upset . After the roast , Michael takes a personal day ( much to the concern of his employees , who start to feel bad about the scathing jokes towards Michael ) and spends time at a playground to reflect , feeding pigeons by tossing whole slices of bread on the ground and making bird noises , despite the lack of birds in the winter weather . Dwight tricks Phyllis into signing his apology letter by bribing a mailman to ask her to sign for a fake package . Michael returns to the office , where he roasts each of his co @-@ workers with one @-@ liners . Stanley laughs heartily when Michael roasts him , breaking the tension . Michael tells his employees that they are the reason he got into the paper business , and they applaud him .
Pam asks Jim to talk to her father and convince him to work things out with her mother . But shortly after they talk , Pam learns her father has sought a separation and will be looking for his own apartment . Pam assumes it is because of something Jim said to her father , and blames him for their breakup . Pam later confronts her father about why he left her mother while Jim looks on through the window . Pam returns to the office and tells Jim her father left because Jim told him how much he loves Pam , and he realized that he had never felt that way about her mother even at their best . Pam comes to terms with the separation and tearfully embraces Jim . Later , she expresses confidence that the two are true soul mates . Andy overhears her comments about her real life scenario , still thinks she is talking about the film they watched and concludes that he cannot be a movie critic because he is not as insightful as Jim and Pam .
In the final scene of the episode , the ending of the illegally downloaded movie is revealed : Jack Black visits Cloris Leachman with flowers and a new walker , only to discover her affair with another young man and he walks away heartbroken .
= = Production = =
" Stress Relief " was directed by Jeffrey Blitz and written by Paul Lieberstein , who also plays Toby Flenderson on the show . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 1 , 2009 , immediately after the broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII . NBC decided to air The Office after the Super Bowl , rather than another show , due to positive feedback the series received from short promo commercials it aired during the 2008 Summer Olympics . Some criticized the decision to place an episode of The Office , an already established NBC series , after the Super Bowl instead of a new show , and suggested it meant the network lacked any exceptional new material .
In writing the episode , Lieberstein said he sought to appeal to newcomers to the series and attract them to the show , without alienating regular The Office watchers : " We wanted to do a stand @-@ alone comedy episode that could bring people in . " Lieberstein said the script drew less attention to long @-@ standing story arcs , which new viewers would not understand . Lieberstein said , " It almost had an air of a pilot in a way , where we had to reintroduce everything . We wanted it to be extremely funny and extremely funny up front . " The Office creator Greg Daniels said he felt the episode had to focus on physical comedy and easily accessible set pieces . Daniels said , " I looked at all the shows that followed the Super Bowl in years past and I feel that a comedy would be a good choice in the current climate . People want to laugh so we 're trying our best to supply some laughs . " Actor Rainn Wilson said of the episode , " It 's a great opportunity for people to revisit the world of The Office and hopefully get into our style of comedy . "
The two parts of " Stress Relief " ran an hour long ( including commercials ) , compared to the typical half @-@ hour length of most The Office episodes . Since the end of the second season , the series had begun occasionally showing longer episodes ( which they dubbed " super @-@ sized " ) on special occasions . Unlike other episodes of The Office , " Stress Relief " included an extended main title sequence that included the names and images of the entire supporting cast of the series , in order to afford them recognition in anticipation of the high post @-@ Super Bowl viewership . The opening scene , in which the characters frantically scramble to escape the Dunder Mifflin office due to what they believe is a fire , took about a day @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to shoot . It took much longer than the average 45 minutes of shooting time for a scene of that length due to the amount of stunt work involved . Due to the pressure of following the Super Bowl , actress Jenna Fischer said , " I don 't think we 've ever worked so hard on an episode in the history of our show . " The Office actor and writer B.J. Novak , who did not appear in " Stress Relief " , said of the episode , " It 's awesome . After this airs , people are going to refer to the Super Bowl as the Pre @-@ Office Football Spectacular . "
In anticipation of particularly high viewership due to the Super Bowl , NBC officials encouraged The Office producers to feature celebrity guest appearances in the episode . Jack Black , Jessica Alba and Cloris Leachman all made guest appearances in " Stress Relief " as a result . However , they do not interact with the cast and characters of The Office , but rather appear separately in a bootleg film called Mrs. Albert Hannaday , which the characters watch within the episode . Greg Daniels said this was done because it " helps keep the show grounded and less like I Love Lucy " . Lieberstein also said the casting decision made sense because , " If we 're just casting some salesman that comes into the office and it 's Jack Black , it 's hard to believe that . " " Stress Relief " marked Black 's fourth television appearance in five years : he previously appeared in the Fox sitcom Cracking Up in 2004 , the Comedy Central series The Naked Trucker and T @-@ Bones Show in 2004 , and the Fox animated comedy series The Simpsons in 2007 . Steve Carell said of Leachman 's performance , " She is that extra seasoning . That extra spice to the pot that makes for a delicious comedy gumbo . "
= = Cultural references = =
Just before Dwight starts his fire simulation , he said his co @-@ workers previously failed to listen because he made a presentation on the computer program Microsoft PowerPoint , of which he said , " PowerPoint is boring " . Michael refers to Barack Obama , the first African American president of the United States , to Stanley while he is suffering a heart attack by shouting , " Stanley ! Barack is president ! You are black ! Stanley ! " A deleted scene further addresses Obama 's election , with Michael praising the choice and Darryl , with Darryl half @-@ jokingly telling the Caucasian office workers what will change for them ( they no longer have to pretend to like jazz , and Morgan Freeman won 't get any more acting work because " he 's more for you guys " ) . Michael calls an employee from the Red Cross , an international humanitarian movement , to conduct a lesson about CPR . The instructor suggests they pump the heart to the tune of " Stayin ' Alive " , a disco song by the pop band , the Bee Gees , but Michael mixes the song up with " I Will Survive " by Gloria Gaynor . At the end of the lesson , Dwight cuts the face off the CPR dummy and places it on his face in the manner of Hannibal Lecter , a fictional cannibalistic serial killer who cut the face off a man and wore it as a mask in the 1991 thriller film , The Silence of the Lambs . Watching Mrs. Albert Hannaday , Andy says the Cloris Leachman character was originally supposed to be played by the much younger actress , Nicole Kidman , and the last @-@ minute replacement prompted a minor overhaul in the film 's script . The songs " You Make My Dreams Come True " by Hall and Oates , " All Out of Love " by the soft rock duo Air Supply , " Have a Little Faith in Me " by singer @-@ songwriter John Hiatt , and " Lady " by Little River Band play during scenes in Mrs. Albert Hannaday .
Michael describes the roast as an event in the style of televised comedy specials that air on the cable network , Comedy Central . In describing the upcoming roast , Michael says he plans to call YouTube , an online video sharing website , to record the event . During the roast , Pam says Michael 's penis is so small , " If it were an iPod , it would be a Shuffle " , a reference to the smallest of the Apple Inc. portable media player brands . Kelly said she would rather kiss Lord Voldemort , the hideous antagonist of the Harry Potter novels and films , than Michael . Andy sings a song about Michael , " What I Hate About You " , to the tune of the rock song by The Romantics , " What I Like About You " . Angela makes a joke , " If you put sunblock on a window , you might be Michael Scott " , which is modeled after the " you might be a redneck " one @-@ liner jokes by comedian Jeff Foxworthy . While roasting his co @-@ workers at the end of the episode , Michael says to Andy , " Cornell called and they think you suck " , a reference to Cornell University , the Ithaca , New York college the Andy character attended .
= = Ratings = =
In its original American broadcast on February 1 , 2009 , " Stress Relief " was viewed by 22 @.@ 9 million viewers in 13 @.@ 34 million homes , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched episode of The Office and the only episode to reach over 20 million viewers . The episode drew a 10 @.@ 6 rating and 14 @.@ 46 million viewers between the ages 18 and 49 . It more than doubled the show 's previously highest rating in the age group , and constituted the largest 18 @-@ 49 rating for an NBC entertainment telecast in four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , since the tenth season finale of the medical drama series ER on May 13 , 2004 . An estimated 37 @.@ 7 million viewers watched at least six minutes or more of " Stress Relief " . As expected , The Office benefited highly from following the broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII , which was seen by 98 @.@ 7 million average viewers , making it the most watched Super Bowl in history at the time .
= = Critical reception = =
" Stress Relief " received generally positive reviews . Time magazine named it the best overall television episode of any series in 2009 . " Stress Relief " was voted the third highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 89 out of 10 . Stanley 's heart attack in response to Dwight 's fake fire drill ranked number 10 in phillyBurbs.com 's top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office . Many critics particularly praised the opening scene , in which Dwight panics his co @-@ workers by simulating a fire . The sequence included scenes such as Kevin looting a vending machine amid the chaos , Oscar 's legs crashing through the ceiling as he tries to crawl out , Angela tossing her cat through an open ceiling tile only for it to fall through another tile , and Andy 's reaction to a series of popping caps : " The fire is shooting at us ! "
Alan Sepinwall , television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger called it a " balls to the wall , gut @-@ busting , amazing Office episode " , and called the fire opening scene " not only the best Office pre @-@ credits sequence ever , but an all @-@ time sitcom classic " . Sepinwall said " Stress Relief " was accessible to newcomers and regular viewers , and displayed both the comedic and human sides of the characters . He said the only drawback of the episode was the Mrs. Albert Hannaday subplot , which he felt was an unnecessary gimmick added solely to accommodate the guest stars . TV Guide writer Shahzad
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for Kenshin 's return to Tokyo and Kaoru . The two finally meet , and Kenshin collapses into her arms as he clutches her to him . Kaoru then notices Kenshin 's scar has faded away , signifying his death . Nobuhiro Watsuki , after watching the last OVA , was quite unhappy with how the story ended , saying that " Kenshin went through so much crap and deserved a happy ending . "
Kenshin is a playable character in all of the Rurouni Kenshin video games , including Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars . In June 2013 , Kenshin was confirmed to be a playable character alongside Bleach 's Ichigo Kurosaki in J @-@ Stars Victory Vs for the PlayStation 3 .
The manga reboot Rurouni Kenshin : Restoration follows Kenshin 's stay in Tokyo as in the original series . Before the reboot , Watsuki also wrote a prequel chapter where Kenshin meets a western doctor during his years of wandering .
In the live @-@ action movie trilogy , Kenshin is portrayed by Takeru Satoh . Watsuki was surprised by Satoh 's work as well as the special effects in the first film which made Kenshin 's character realistic .
= = Reception = =
Kenshin has been highly popular with the Rurouni Kenshin reader base , having ranked first in every Shonen Jump popularity poll of the series , always with more than double the votes of second place . Two polls by the official Rurouni Kenshin anime featured Kenshin as one the series ' most popular characters . In the first , Kenshin was at the top , while in the second he placed second . His Battōsai incarnation was also fifth in the latter one . Watsuki received letters from fans describing Megumi Ogata 's CD book voice as a " good fit " for Kenshin . Watsuki said that he imagined Kenshin 's voice to be " more neutral . " The fact that the CD book voice actors , especially Ogata and Tomokazu Seki , who portrayed Sanosuke , did not get their corresponding roles in the anime disappointed Watsuki . He has also been featured various times in the Animage 's Anime Grand Prix polls , ranking as one of the most popular male anime characters .
An abundance of merchandise have been released in Kenshin 's likeness including keychains , action figures , and plush dolls . Since the manga was published , non @-@ functional and functional sakabatō have been produced for purchase by collectors and fans .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other media have provided praise and criticism on the character . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews criticized that Kenshin 's super deformed appearance in comedy scenes does not suit the context of the character and the series . Mania.com remarks that Kenshin has a " smartass " attitude in a review of volume 8 ; while they noted that is a common attitude in the anime that makes him look out @-@ of @-@ character . Anime News Network praises Kenshin for being a character that all people enjoy watching due to his comedy scenes . SciFi.com remarked " Kenshin 's schizoid personal conflict between his ruthless @-@ killer side and his country- bumpkin " as a perfect way to develop good stories . In About.com 's " Top 8 Anime Love Stories " , Kenshin and Kaoru 's relationship ranked 8th with Katherine Luther noting it a " classic romance . " He was also fifth in IGN 's Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time with writer Chris Mackenzie describing him as " A classic example of a classic anime type , the peace @-@ loving killing machine " . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Kenshin was voted as the eighth most popular male anime character from the 1990s . Kenshin 's Amakakeru Ryū no Hirameki technique has ranked third in a Japanese survey that featured the most popular moves in manga and anime . In 2014 , IGN ranked him as the fifth greatest anime character of all time , saying that " Although Kenshin 's momentary lapses make him a complete badass and set the stage for some of the most epic sword battles ever animated , Kenshin always goes back to his sweet persona once the danger is gone . "
The development of Kenshin in the Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection OVA series has had negative reviews by many publications . Anime News Network also adds that in Reflection he " continues to be his old mopey self " and criticizes that he never says " oro " , while IGN cited that some moments of the relationship between Kenshin and Kaoru were depressing . However , some reviewers noted Kenshin 's personality in the OVAs to be one of the most complex to ever be animated remarking the fact that he can not forget his bloody past , despite having a peaceful life . In an interview with Mayo Suzukaze , who is the voice actress for the character , says that she started feeling similar to Kenshin after years of work as his voice , and comments that providing the voice for the character was one of her best experiences .
For the 9th Asian Film Awards , Takeru Satoh was nominated in the category " Best Actor " for Kenshin .
= Deptford =
Deptford ( / ˈdɛtfəd / DET @-@ ford ) is an area of South @-@ East London , England , located mainly within the London Borough of Lewisham and partly within the Royal Borough of Greenwich .
From the mid @-@ 16th to the late 19th century , Deptford was home to Deptford Dockyard , the first Royal Navy Dockyard . The area declined as the Royal Navy moved out and commercial docks shut ; the last dock , Convoys Wharf , closed in 2000 .
Historically a part of Kent , Deptford became a Metropolitan Borough in 1900 . This became part of Inner London in 1965 , within the newly created county of Greater London .
= = History = =
Deptford began life as a ford of the Ravensbourne ( near what is now Deptford Bridge DLR station ) along the route of the Celtic trackway which was later paved by the Romans and developed into the medieval Watling Street . The modern name is a corruption of " deep ford " . Deptford was part of the pilgrimage route from London to Canterbury used by the pilgrims in Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , and is mentioned in the Prologue to the " Reeve 's Tale " . The ford developed into first a wooden then a stone bridge , and in 1497 saw the Battle of Deptford Bridge , in which rebels from Cornwall , led by Michael An Gof , marched on London protesting against punitive taxes , but were soundly beaten by the King 's forces .
A second settlement developed as a modest fishing village on the Thames until Henry VIII used that site for a royal dock repairing , building and supplying ships , after which it grew in size and importance , shipbuilding remaining in operation until March 1869 . Trinity House , the organisation concerned with the safety of navigation around the British Isles , was formed in Deptford in 1514 , with its first Master being Thomas Spert , captain of the Mary Rose . It moved to Stepney in 1618 . The name " Trinity House " derives from the church of Holy Trinity and St Clement , which adjoined the dockyard .
Originally separated by market gardens and fields , the two areas merged over the years , with the docks becoming an important part of the Elizabethan exploration . Queen Elizabeth I visited the royal dockyard on 4 April 1581 to knight the adventurer Francis Drake . As well as for exploration , Deptford was important for trade - the Honourable East India Company had a yard in Deptford from 1607 until late in the 17th century , later ( 1825 ) taken over by the General Steam Navigation Company . It was also connected with the slave trade , John Hawkins using it as a base for his operations , and Olaudah Equiano , the slave who became an important part of the abolition of the slave trade , was sold from one ship 's captain to another in Deptford around 1760 .
Diarist John Evelyn lived in Deptford at Sayes Court from 1652 . Evelyn inherited the house when he married the daughter of Sir Richard Browne in 1652 . On his return to England at the Restoration , Evelyn laid out meticulously planned gardens in the French style , of hedges and parterres . In its grounds was a cottage at one time rented by master woodcarver Grinling Gibbons . After Evelyn had moved to Surrey in 1694 , Russian Tsar Peter the Great studied shipbuilding for three months in 1698 . He and some of his fellow Russians stayed at Sayes Court , the manor house of Deptford . Evelyn was angered at the antics of the Tsar , who got drunk with his friends and , using a wheelbarrow with Peter in it , rammed their way through a fine holly hedge . Sayes Court was demolished in 1728 @-@ 9 and a workhouse built on its site . Part of the estates around Sayes Court were purchased in 1742 for the building of the Admiralty Victualling Yard , renamed the Royal Victoria Yard in 1858 after a visit by Queen Victoria . This massive facility included warehouses , a bakery , a cattleyard / abattoir and sugar stores , and closed in 1960 . All that remains is the name of Sayes Court Park , accessed from Sayes Court Street off Evelyn Street , not far from Deptford High Street . The Pepys Estate , opened on 13 July 1966 , is on the former grounds of the Royal Victoria Dockyard .
The Docks had been gradually declining from the 18th century ; the larger ships being built found The Thames difficult to navigate , and Deptford was under competition from the new docks at Plymouth , Portsmouth and Chatham . When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 the need for a Docks to build and repair warships declined ; the Docks shifted from shipbuilding to concentrate on victualling at the Royal Victoria Victualling Yard , and the Royal Dock closed in 1869 . From 1871 until the First World War the shipyard site was the City of London Corporation 's Foreign Cattle Market , in which girls and women butchered sheep and cattle until the early part of the 20th century . At its peak , around 1907 , over 234 @,@ 000 animals were imported annually through the market , but by 1912 these figures had declined to less than 40 @,@ 000 a year . The yard was taken over by the War Office in 1914 , and was an Army Supply Reserve Depot in the First and Second World Wars . The site lay unused until being purchased by Convoys ( newsprint importers ) in 1984 , and eventually came into the ownership of News International . In the mid @-@ 1990s , although significant investment was made on the site , it became uneconomic to continue using it as a freight wharf . In 2008 Hutchison Whampoa bought the 16ha site from News International with plans for a £ 700m 3 @,@ 500 @-@ home development scheme . The Grade II listed Olympia Warehouse will be refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site .
Deptford experienced economic decline in the 20th century with the closing of the docks , and the damage caused by the bombing during the Second World War - a V @-@ 2 rocket destroyed a Woolworths store outside Deptford Town Hall , killing 160 people . High unemployment caused some of the population to move away as the riverside industries closed down in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The local council have developed plans with private companies to regenerate the riverside area , and the town centre .
= = Governance = =
The Manor of Deptford or West Greenwich was bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Gilbert de Magminot or Maminot , bishop of Lisieux , one of the eight barons associated with John de Fiennes for the defence of Dover Castle . Maminot held the head of his barony at Deptford and according to John Lyon writing in 1814 , he built himself a castle , or castellated mansion at Deptford , of which all traces had by then long since been buried in their ruins , but from the remains of some ancient foundations which had been discovered the site was probably on the brow of Broomfield , near the Mast Dock and adjacent to Sayes Court .
Originally under the governance of the ancient parishes of St Paul and St Nicholas , in 1900 , a Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was formed out of the southern parish of St Paul , with St Nicholas and the area around the Royal Dockyard coming under the governance of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich . Under the London Government Act 1963 , the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed in 1965 into the newly created London Borough of Lewisham , with the area around the Royal Dockyard being transferred to Lewisham in a 1994 boundary adjustment of about 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) . The electoral wards consist of Evelyn in the north and part of New Cross to the south .
= = Geography = =
Deptford borders the areas of Brockley and Lewisham to the south , New Cross to the west and Rotherhithe to the north west ; Deptford Creek divides it from Greenwich to the east , and the River Thames separates the area from the Isle of Dogs to the north east ; it is contained within the London SE8 post code area . The area referred to as North Deptford is the only part of the London Borough of Lewisham to front the Thames and is sandwiched between Rotherhithe and Greenwich . Much of this riverside estate is populated by the former Naval Dockyards , now known as Convoys Wharf , the Pepys Estate and some eastern fringes of the old Surrey Commercial Docks .
The name Deptford — anciently written Depeford meaning " deep ford " — is derived from the place where the road from London to Dover , the ancient Watling Street ( now the A2 ) , crosses the River Ravensbourne at the site of what became Deptford Bridge at Deptford Broadway . The Ravensbourne crosses under the A2 at roughly the same spot as the DLR crosses over ; and at the point where it becomes tidal , just after Lewisham College , it is known as Deptford Creek , and flows into the River Thames at Greenwich Reach .
Deptford was mostly located in the Blackheath Hundred of the county of Kent , with the Hatcham part in Surrey . It was regarded as two parts and in 1730 was divided into the two parishes of St Nicholas in the north and St Paul in the south . The southern part by the ford was known as Deptford and the northern , riverside area was known as Deptford Strand . It was also referred to as West Greenwich , with the modern town of Greenwich being referred
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" . In the middle of the crossing , the ship " sprung a leak " and took on 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of water ; she had a list for a day or so , until repairs were made . The troops later disembarked at New York on 29 April .
Kroonland returned to Saint @-@ Nazaire in May and loaded Major General Joseph E. Kuhn and some 3 @,@ 000 men of his U.S. 79th Infantry Division , which included the 304th Engineer Regiment , and departed France on 18 May . The band of the 304th Engineers gave concerts on deck every evening on the voyage home to entertain the men . Though initially bound for Newport News , Kroonland 's crew received orders in mid ocean to head instead to New York , where they arrived on 29 May . After completing another passage to Newport News in late June , Kroonland sailed on 19 July with 3 @,@ 642 passengers — including officers , men , thirteen war brides , and one war baby — from Saint @-@ Nazaire , in the final transport departure from that port before it was closed as a port of embarkation by U.S. military authorities . Among the passengers was Brigadier General Samuel D. Rockenbach , the founder of the United States Tank Corps .
On 21 August , the USSB announced that Kroonland would be released from government service after surveys for repairs had been completed . After leaving New York on 10 August , the ship was in the middle of what would be her final trip returning soldiers . After arriving at Brest , 1 @,@ 532 officers and men boarded Kroonland for New York , where the transport arrived on 10 September . Also on board was Michael Gilhooley , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old stowaway making his fourth unsuccessful attempt to sneak into the United States aboard a Navy transport .
The ship was decommissioned and returned to the USSB on 13 September , and returned to International Mercantile Marine shortly thereafter . In her eight trips returning troops , Kroonland — affectionately called the " Empress of the Seas " by her crew — averaged just under 39 days per turnaround , beating the overall average of all ships by almost a full day , and edging out sister ship Finland by less than that .
= = Red Star Line service , 1920 – 1923 = =
After her return to International Mercantile Marine ( IMM ) , the ship underwent a refit at the W. & A. Fletcher Marine Works yard in Hoboken that outfitted her for 242 first- , 310 second- , and 876 third @-@ class passengers . On 8 January 1920 , while Kroonland was still under repair , the American Line ship St. Louis , berthed next to her at the Fletcher yard , caught fire . In the multi @-@ alarm fire , firefighters believed that St. Louis was a lost cause , and so focused their efforts on saving Kroonland . At one point , St. Louis heeled over and leaned on Kroonland but the only resulting damages were scorch marks on her side .
Kroonland resumed her civilian career in April 1920 , sailing once again for the Red Star Line on the New York – Antwerp route . She sailed from Pier 61 on the North River opposite sister ships Finland and Zeeland and the newer Lapland until early 1923 . Rough weather on the North Atlantic took its toll on Kroonland while sailing this route . A storm off Sable Island in December 1920 was so intense that the liner was only able to travel 126 nautical miles ( 233 km ) during one 24 @-@ hour stretch and nearly exhausted her fuel supply . When the liner arrived in New York , tugs were required to tow her from the quarantine station to the pier . Heavy seas in another storm in October 1921 broke Kroonland 's port propeller shaft 350 nautical miles ( 650 km ) past Sandy Hook . She returned to New York at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) and transferred most of the passengers to Lapland . Another eastbound crossing four months later was marked by almost continuous gales with winds up to 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) ; the liner arrived at Plymouth covered in ice and snow .
Kroonland was also involved in several non @-@ weather @-@ related events . On 12 November 1920 , after departing Antwerp for New York , she collided with a Dutch tug in the Scheldt , killing two of the tug 's crew . In March 1921 , a Czechoslovakian woman gave birth to fraternal twins on board the liner shortly after she and her husband sailed from Antwerp . Because the twins were born on a U.S.-flagged vessel , they were automatically American citizens . On 10 June 1922 , The New York Times reported that Charles Simmons , Kroonland 's Chief Steward , was found dead in his bunk . Crewmen aboard the ship , which had been docked in New York since 4 June , said Simmons had been seen on deck in apparently good health the day before . The medical examiner nevertheless asked police to investigate , because it appeared to him that Simmons had been dead for three to four days . During an August eastbound crossing , Kroonland stood by for two hours after receiving a report of an explosion and fire on RMS Adriatic , some 70 nautical miles ( 130 km ) behind . The gas explosion in one of Adriatic 's forward cargo holds killed five crewmen and seriously wounded three others . It also spawned a fire that was quickly extinguished and left little damage . Offers of help from ten liners ( including Kroonland ) were politely declined and Adriatic arrived in New York three days later . In October , U.S. Federal judge Learned Hand issued a restraining order preventing the Prohibition @-@ related seizure of alcohol aboard Kroonland , Finland , and St. Paul . IMM had sought the order to enable her to continue to carry Italian third @-@ class passengers ; Italian law required a minimum number of a ship 's crew to be Italian , with Italian wine of at least 12 % alcohol provided for them .
Kroonland also carried some notable passengers during her time on this route including a majority of the U.S. delegates to the International Chamber of Commerce for its meeting in Paris in June 1920 . Among those on board were Myron T. Herrick , former U.S. Ambassador to France ; Paul M. Warburg , former member of the Federal Reserve Board ; and 14 current and former directors of the United States Chamber of Commerce . Dr. Samuel Eyde , the newly appointed Norwegian Minister to the United States , sailed for his diplomatic post in December on Kroonland . On the same trip , Max Goldberg , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old flower delivery boy , returned from an accidental roundtrip , begun in New York when the gangway was raised and the ship departed while he was making a last @-@ minute delivery . Four of the United States ' seven delegates to the 19th Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union Convention in Stockholm — Congressmen Alben W. Barkley and Edwin B. Brooks , and Senators Thomas J. Walsh and William B. McKinley — returned on Kroonland in September 1921 .
Passengers were not the ship 's only cargo during this time . The New York press reported on gold deposits carried to the United States on the liner several times on the Antwerp route . In a storm @-@ tossed December 1920 voyage , for example , she carried $ 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 in gold , and the following June she carried £ 100 @,@ 000 gold to the Equitable Trust Company in New York . Another notable cargo arrived in New York in November 1922 , when Kroonland brought 840 @,@ 000 pounds ( 380 @,@ 000 kg ) of cheese from Switzerland . The shipment was said to be the first big shipment from that country since before World War I. A more unwelcome cargo was carried in March 1921 , when a Hungarian immigrant in steerage was found to have typhoid fever . Discovery of the disease necessitated that all 731 steerage passengers be quarantined indefinitely .
Kroonland began her last voyage on the Antwerp route in January 1923 , after which she underwent a refit during the first half of 1923 . The ship was converted to cabin- and third @-@ class passengers only , and was painted white . In preparation for her announced return to the Panama Pacific Line in October 1923 , more refrigeration and cool air space were added for transporting Southern California agricultural products .
After this refit , the ship was briefly assigned to the American Line for three roundtrips on a New York to Hamburg route , with intermediate stops at Plymouth and Cherbourg . On her first Hamburg trip , she carried American comedic actress Florence Shirley and her husband , headed for a European vacation . Cecil Arden , a mezzo @-@ soprano with the Metropolitan Opera , and botanist Otto Warburg sailed on the same trip .
= = Panama Pacific Line service , 1923 – 1925 = =
In April 1923 , IMM announced that Kroonland and sister ship Finland would be returned to the Panama Pacific Line beginning in late September , sailing from New York to San Francisco via Havana , the Panama Canal , and Los Angeles , with Los Angeles being the west coast hub of operations . On 18 October , Kroonland departed on her first voyage on the route since 1915 . Kroonland arrived in Los Angeles Harbor on 3 November amidst fanfare , becoming the largest liner to date to enter that harbor .
In contrast to her time on the North Atlantic , Kroonland encountered few weather or mechanical delays on the coast @-@ to @-@ coast route . In December 1923 , however , the ship was delayed one day by unusually heavy seas and gales off Baja California . Another delay in October 1924 proved to be fatal , according to the ship 's physician . An arrival two days late , caused by adverse currents north of Panama , cost a female passenger her life . Had the ship not been delayed , the physician believed , prompt hospital care could have saved her . On this same trip , Kroonland passed through a " hurricane zone " but was not adversely affected by the storm .
In December 1924 , the Panama Pacific Line announced that it would add Mongolia to the New York – California route in February to replace Kroonland . Even though press accounts reported as late as March 1925 that Kroonland had sailed her last on the route , she continued carrying passengers and cargo through at least June 1925 because of booming business . Although plans had been announced to convert Kroonland and Finland to freighters upon the delivery of two new ships ordered for the route in late 1924 , there is no evidence that this was ever carried out .
= = = Notable passengers = = =
Kroonland carried her share of notable passengers during her second stint for the Panama Pacific Line . On her first voyage , passengers included American Modernist poet Wallace Stevens and his wife , Elsie . After transiting the Panama Canal , the liner headed north along the western coast of Mexico . The ship passed the Gulf and Isthmus of Tehuantepec in early November , inspiring Stevens to later pen the poem " Sea Surface Full Of Clouds " . First published in the July 1924 issue of literary magazine The Dial , it was later included in the 1931 edition of Stevens ' Harmonium . Each of the five stanzas begins with the line " In that November off Tehuantepec " and is a different portrayal of the surface of the sea . The poem has been called one of Stevens ' " most persuasive statements of the imagination 's powers " , and considered " the most perfect example of a ' pure poem ' " .
Other notable passengers included Brooklyn Dodgers shortstop Ray E. French , who sailed with his wife to their home in California on the same voyage as Stevens . California artist William Barr , American author Frederick O 'Brien , and actress Mary Carr all sailed on Kroonland in December 1923 . In February 1924 , Daniel Willard , president of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , sailed from New York to Los Angeles . Acknowledging that the Panama Canal had " detract [ ed ] volumes of freight " from railroads , Willard said that there was no cause for alarm because the railroad business was booming . In January 1925 , Gene Byrnes , creator of the comic strip Reg 'lar Fellers , sailed from New York to Los Angeles with his wife . On the same voyage , University of Southern California president Rufus B. von KleinSmid boarded Kroonland at Panama after attending the Pan @-@ American Scientific Congress in Lima . In mid @-@ June the same year , short story author and screenwriter H. C. Witwer and his family returned to New York aboard the ship .
= = American Line service , 1925 – 1926 = =
In October 1925 , the American Line announced plans for the liner to sail on a weekly New York – Miami route . Kroonland , supplanted H. F. Alexander of the Admiral Line as the largest ship in Miami service , and sailed from Pier 62 in New York on Thursdays , arrived and departed Miami on Sundays , and returned to New York on Wednesdays . Though Kroonland 's passenger capacity was potentially much larger , she was outfitted for 500 passengers in first class only . She sailed on her first voyage with 400 passengers , including American professional golfer Gene Sarazen , on 10 December .
By the time the seasonal service to Miami ended in late March 1926 , Kroonland had carried 11 @,@ 000 passengers on the route . Though plans were announced for the liner to resume the route the following winter , this did not happen . IMM offered no reasons , but conditions in Miami at the end of 1926 were very different from the previous year . The wild South Florida real estate boom had collapsed in mid 1926 , and the Great Miami Hurricane struck on 18 September , killing more than 325 and leaving as many as 50 @,@ 000 residents homeless , while causing some $ 100 million damage ( just over $ 2 billion in 2005 dollars ) . With no place to put the aging ship , IMM laid up Kroonland in Hoboken .
The ship was later sold to shipbreakers in Italy and departed the United States for the last time on 29 January 1927 . After delivering a cargo of grain to her old homeport of Antwerp , she was taken to Genoa and scrapped . According to an Associated Press report , Kroonland had completed 234 voyages totaling 1 @,@ 635 @,@ 468 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 028 @,@ 887 km ) during the course of her career without serious accident .
= Ara Parseghian =
Ara Raoul Parseghian ( born May 21 , 1923 ) is a former American football player and coach who guided the University of Notre Dame to national championships in 1966 and 1973 . He is noted for bringing Notre Dame 's football program from years of futility back into a national contender in 1964 and is widely regarded alongside Knute Rockne and Frank Leahy as a part of the " Holy Trinity " of Notre Dame head coaches .
Parseghian grew up in Akron , Ohio and played football starting in his junior year of high school . He enrolled at the University of Akron , but soon quit to join the U.S
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76 , though an Associated Press report in August 1975 had suggested filming would start in late 1975 . Spielberg did not want to do any location shooting because of his negative experience on Jaws and wanted to shoot Close Encounters entirely on sound stages , but eventually dropped the idea .
Filming took place in Burbank , California ; Devils Tower National Monument in Wyoming ; two abandoned World War II airship hangars at the former Brookley Air Force Base in Mobile , Alabama ; and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad depot in Bay Minette . The home where Barry was abducted is located outside the town of Fairhope , Alabama . Roy Neary 's home is at Carlisle Drive East in Mobile . The UFOs fly through the former toll booth at the Vincent Thomas Bridge , San Pedro , California . The Gobi Desert sequence was photographed at the Dumont Dunes , California , and the Dharmsala @-@ India exteriors were filmed at the small village of Hal near Khalapur , 35 miles ( 56 km ) outside Bombay , India . The hangars in Alabama were six times larger than the biggest sound stage in the world . Various technical and budgetary problems occurred during filming . Spielberg called Close Encounters " twice as bad and twice as expensive [ as Jaws ] " .
Matters worsened when Columbia Pictures experienced financial difficulties . Spielberg estimated the film would cost $ 2 @.@ 7 million to make in his original 1973 pitch to Columbia , but the final budget came to $ 19 @.@ 4 million . Columbia studio executive John Veich remembered , " If we knew it was going to cost that much , we wouldn 't have greenlighted it because we didn 't have the money . " Spielberg hired Joe Alves , his collaborator on Jaws , as production designer . In addition the 1976 Atlantic hurricane season brought tropical storms to Alabama . A large portion of the sound stage in Alabama was damaged because of a lightning strike . Columbia raised $ 7 million from three sources : Time Inc . , EMI , and German tax shelters .
Cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond said that , during the time of shooting for the film , Spielberg got more ideas by watching movies every night which in turn extended the production schedule because he was continually adding new scenes to be filmed . Zsigmond previously turned down the chance to work on Jaws . In her 1991 book You 'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again , producer Julia Phillips wrote highly profane remarks about Spielberg , Zsigmond , and Truffaut , because she was fired during post @-@ production due to a cocaine addiction . Phillips blamed it on Spielberg being a perfectionist .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Douglas Trumbull was the visual effects supervisor , while Carlo Rambaldi designed the aliens . Trumbull joked that the visual effects budget , at $ 3 @.@ 3 million , could have been used to produce an additional film . His work helped lead to advances in motion control photography . The mother ship was designed by Ralph McQuarrie and built by Greg Jein . The look of the ship was inspired by an oil refinery Spielberg saw at night in India . Instead of the metallic hardware look used in Star Wars , the emphasis was on a more luminescent look for the UFOs . One of the UFO models was an oxygen mask with lights attached to it , used because of its irregular shape . As a subtle in @-@ joke , Dennis Muren ( who had just finished working on Star Wars ) put a small R2 @-@ D2 model onto the underside of the mothership . The model of the mothership is now on display in the Smithsonian Institution 's Air and Space Museum Udvar @-@ Hazy Annex at Washington Dulles Airport in Chantilly , Virginia .
Since Close Encounters was filmed anamorphically , the visual effects sequences were shot in 70 mm film to better conform with the 35 mm film used for the rest of the movie . A test reel using computer @-@ generated imagery was used for the UFOs , but Spielberg found it would be too expensive and ineffective since CGI was in its infancy in the mid @-@ 1970s .
The small aliens in the final scenes were played by local girls in Mobile , Alabama . That decision was requested by Spielberg because he felt " girls move more gracefully than boys . " Puppetry was attempted for the aliens , but the idea failed . However , Rambaldi successfully used puppetry to depict two of the aliens , the first being a marionette ( for the tall alien that is the first to be seen emerging from the mothership ) and an articulated puppet for the alien that communicates via hand signals with Lacombe near the end of the film .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Close Encounters is the first collaboration between film editor Michael Kahn and Spielberg . Their working relationship has continued for the rest of Spielberg 's films . Spielberg stated that no film he has ever made since has been as hard to edit as the last 25 minutes of Close Encounters and he and Kahn would go through thousands of feet of footage just to find the right shots for the end sequence . When Kahn and Spielberg completed the first cut of the film , Spielberg was dissatisfied , feeling " there wasn 't enough wow @-@ ness " .
Pick @-@ ups were commissioned but cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond could not participate due to other commitments . John A. Alonzo , László Kovács , and Douglas Slocombe worked on the pick @-@ ups .
Lacombe was originally to find Flight 19 hidden in the Amazon Rainforest , but the idea was changed to the Sonoran Desert . Composer John Williams wrote over 300 examples of the iconic five @-@ tone motif before Spielberg chose the one used in the film . Spielberg called Williams ' work " When You Wish upon a Star meets science fiction " . Spielberg wanted to have " When You Wish upon a Star " in the closing credits , but was denied permission ( though the song 's signature melody can be heard briefly just before Roy Neary turns to board the mothership ) . He also took 7 @.@ 5 minutes out from the preview .
Post @-@ production was completed by June 1977 , too late for the film to be released as a ' summer blockbuster ' which might have been just as well , as Star Wars opened that summer .
= = Soundtrack = =
The score was composed , conducted and produced by John Williams , who had previously won an Academy Award for his work on Spielberg 's Jaws . Much like his two @-@ note Jaws theme , the " five @-@ tone " motif for Close Encounters has since become ingrained in popular culture ( the five tones are used by scientists to communicate with the visiting spaceship as a mathematical language as well as being incorporated into the film 's signature theme ) . The score was recorded at Warner Bros. Scoring studios in Burbank , California .
Williams was nominated for two Academy Awards in 1978 , one for his score to Star Wars and one for his score to Close Encounters . He won for Star Wars , though he later won two Grammy Awards in 1979 for his Close Encounters score ( one for Best Original Film Score and one for Best Instrumental Composition for " Theme from Close Encounters " ) .
The soundtrack album was released on vinyl album ( with a gatefold sleeve ) , 8 @-@ track tape and audio cassette by Arista Records in 1977 , with a total running time of 41 minutes ( it was later released on compact disc in 1990 ) . The soundtrack album was a commercial success , peaking at # 17 on the US Billboard album chart in February 1978 and was certified Gold by the RIAA for 500 @,@ 000 copies shipped . It also peaked at # 40 in the UK album charts .
Although not included on the original soundtrack album , a 7 " single of a disco treatment of the five @-@ note motif , titled , " Theme from Close Encounters of the Third Kind " , was included with the album as a free bonus item . Despite being a giveaway , Billboard chart rules at that time allowed the single itself to chart , and it peaked at # 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in March 1978 . The single was later added as a bonus track to the cassette .
Following the release of the " Collector 's Edition " of the film in 1998 , a new expanded soundtrack was released on compact disc by Arista . The " Collectors Edition Soundtrack " was made using 20 @-@ bit digital remastering from the original tapes , and contained 26 tracks totalling 77 minutes of music . The CD also came with extensive liner notes including an interview with Williams . Cues were given new titles , and it also contained previously unreleased material , as well as material that was recorded but never used in the film .
= = = 1977 original album = = =
† 1978 reissue - bonus track ( cassette ) , free bonus 7 " single ( vinyl album ) .
= = = 1998 Collector 's Edition = = =
= = Themes = =
Film critic Charlene Engel observed Close Encounters " suggests that humankind has reached the point where it is ready to enter the community of the cosmos . While it is a computer which makes the final musical conversation with the alien guests possible , the characteristics bringing Neary to make his way to Devils Tower have little to do with technical expertise or computer literacy . These are virtues taught in schools that will be evolved in the 21st century . " The film also evokes typical science fiction archetypes and motifs . The film portrays new technologies as a natural and expected outcome of human development and indication of health and growth .
Other critics found a variety of Judeo @-@ Christian analogies . Devils Tower parallels Mount Sinai , the aliens as God and Roy Neary as Moses . Cecil B. DeMille 's The Ten Commandments is seen on television at the Neary household . Some found close relations between Elijah and Roy ; Elijah was taken into a " chariot of fire " , akin to Roy going in the UFO . Climbing Devils Tower behind the faltering Jillian , Neary exhorts Jillian to keep moving and not to look back , similar to Lot 's wife who looked back at Sodom and turned into a pillar of salt . Spielberg explained , " I wanted to make Close Encounters a very accessible story about the everyday individual who has a sighting that overturns his life , and throws it into complete upheaval as he starts to become more and more obsessed with this experience . "
Roy 's wife Ronnie attempts to hide the sunburn caused by Roy 's exposure to the UFOs and wants him to forget his encounter with them . She is embarrassed and bewildered by what has happened to him and desperately wants her ordinary life back . The expression of his lost life is seen when he is sculpting a huge model of Devils Tower in his living room , with his family deserting him . Roy 's obsession with an idea implanted by an alien intelligence , his construction of the model , and his gradual loss of contact with his wife , mimic the events in the short story " Dulcie and Decorum " ( 1955 ) by Damon Knight .
Close Encounters also studies the form of " youth spiritual yearning " . Barry Guiler , the unfearing child who refers to the UFOs and their paraphernalia as " toys " ( although that was unscripted , with the child being drawn to smile by being shown toys offstage ) , serves as a motif for childlike innocence and openness in the face of the unknown . Spielberg also compared the theme of communication as highlighting that of tolerance . " If we can talk to aliens in Close Encounters of the Third Kind , " he said , " why not with the Reds in the Cold War ? " Sleeping is the final obstacle to overcome in the ascent of Devils Tower . Roy , Jillian Guiler and a third invitee climb the mountain pursued by government helicopters spraying sleeping gas . The third person stops to rest , is gassed , and falls into a deep sleep .
In his interview with Spielberg on Inside the Actors Studio , James Lipton suggested Close Encounters had another , more personal theme for Spielberg : " Your father was a computer engineer ; your mother was a concert pianist , and when the spaceship lands , they make music together on the computer " , suggesting that Roy Neary 's boarding the spaceship is Spielberg 's wish to be reunited with his parents . In a 2005 interview , Spielberg stated that he made Close Encounters when he did not have children , and if he were making it today , he would never have had Neary leave his family and go on the mother ship .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
The film was originally to be released in summer 1977 , but was pushed back to November because of the various problems during production . Upon its release , Close Encounters became a box office success , grossing $ 116 @.@ 39 million in North America and $ 171 @.@ 7 million in foreign countries , totaling $ 288 million . It became Columbia Pictures ' most successful film at that time . Jonathan Rosenbaum refers to the film as " the best expression of Spielberg 's benign , dreamy @-@ eyed vision . " A.D. Murphy of Variety gave a positive review but felt " Close Encounters lacks the warmth and humanity of George Lucas 's Star Wars " . Murphy found most of the film slow @-@ paced , but praised the film 's climax . Pauline Kael called it " a kid 's film in the best sense . " Jean Renoir compared Spielberg 's storytelling to Jules Verne and Georges Méliès . Ray Bradbury declared it the greatest science fiction film ever made . Based on 46 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 96 % ( " Certified Fresh " ) of the reviewers have enjoyed the film and the site 's consensus states " Close Encounters ' most iconic bits ( the theme , the mashed @-@ potato sculpture , etc . ) have been so thoroughly absorbed into the culture that it 's easy to forget that its treatment of aliens as peaceful beings rather than warmongering monsters was somewhat groundbreaking in 1977 . "
= = = Reissue and home video = = =
On the final cut privilege , Spielberg was dissatisfied with the film . Columbia Pictures was experiencing financial problems , and they were depending on this film to save their company . " I wanted to have another six months to finish off this film , and release it in summer 1978 . They told me they needed this film out immediately , " Spielberg explained . " Anyway , Close Encounters was a huge financial success and I told them I wanted to make my own director 's cut . They agreed on the condition that I show the inside of the mother ship so they could have something to hang a [ reissue marketing ] campaign on . I never should have shown the inside of the mother ship . " In 1979 , Columbia gave Spielberg $ 1 @.@ 5 million to produce what became the " Special Edition " of the film . Spielberg added seven minutes of new footage , but also deleted or shortened various existing scenes by a total of ten minutes , so that the Special Edition was three minutes shorter than the original 1977 release . The Special Edition featured several new character development scenes , the discovery of the SS Cotopaxi in the Gobi Desert , and a view of the inside of the mothership . Close Encounters of the Third Kind : The Special Edition was released in August 1980 , making a further $ 15 @.@ 7 million , accumulating a final $ 303 @.@ 7 million box office gross . Roger Ebert " thought the original film was an astonishing achievement , capturing the feeling of awe and wonder we have when considering the likelihood of life beyond the Earth . ... This new version ... is , quite simply , a better film ... Why didn 't Spielberg make it this good the first time ? "
The 1980 Special Edition was the version officially available on video for years , until The Criterion Collection offered both versions on LaserDisc in 1990 . This triple @-@ disc LaserDisc set also included an interactive " Making Close Encounters " documentary featuring interviews with Spielberg and other cast and crew involved with the film , as well as stills and script excerpts .
In 1998 , Spielberg recut Close Encounters again for what would become the " Collector 's Edition , " to be released on home video and laserdisc . This version of the film is a re @-@ edit of the original 1977 release with some elements of the 1980 Special Edition , but omits the mothership interior scenes which Spielberg felt should have remained a mystery . The laserdisc edition also includes a new 101 @-@ minute documentary , The Making of Close Encounters , which was produced in 1997 and features interviews with Spielberg , the main cast and notable crew members . There have also been many other alternate versions of the film for network and syndicated television , as well as a previous LaserDisc version . Some of these even combined all released material from the 1977 and 1980 versions , but none of these versions were edited by Spielberg , who regards the " Collector 's Edition " as his definitive version of Close Encounters . The Collector 's Edition was given a limited release as part of a roadshow featuring select films to celebrate Columbia Pictures ' 75th anniversary in 1999 . It was the first and only time this version of the film has been shown theatrically .
Close Encounters was released on DVD in June 2001 as a two @-@ disc set that contained the " Collector 's Edition " . The second disc contained a wealth of extra features including the 101 @-@ minute " Making Of " documentary from 1997 , a featurette from 1977 , trailers and deleted scenes that included , among other things , the mothership interiors from the 1980 Special Edition .
Close Encounters was given a second DVD release and its first release on Blu @-@ ray Disc in November 2007 for the film 's 30th anniversary . These sets contain all three official versions of the film from 1977 , 1980 and 1998 , and a new 2007 interview with Spielberg , who talks about the film 's impact 30 years after its release . The set also includes the 1977 featurette , various trailers and the 1997 " Making Of " documentary – though this is now split over three discs on the DVD version rather than as a single feature as with the 2001 DVD release ( on the Blu @-@ ray release , it remains all on one disc ) . In addition to these features , the 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set also included storyboard @-@ to @-@ scene comparisons , an extensive photo gallery , and a " View from Above : Editor 's Fact Track " highlighting the different scenes in each version of the movie . A single disc version has also been released on Blu @-@ ray , which is basically the first disc of the 30th anniversary edition , which contains the three versions of the film with the " View from Above " feature .
= = = Legacy = = =
Shortly after the film 's release in late 1977 , Spielberg desired to do either a sequel or prequel , before deciding against it . He explained , " The army 's knowledge and ensuing cover @-@ up is so subterranean that it would take a creative screen story , perhaps someone else making the picture and giving it the equal time it deserves . "
The film was nominated for eight Oscars at the 50th Academy Awards , including Best Director , Supporting Actress ( Melinda Dillon ) , Visual Effects , Art Direction ( Joe Alves , Daniel A. Lomino , Phil Abramson ) , Original Music Score , Film Editing , and Sound ( Robert Knudson , Robert Glass , Don MacDougall and Gene Cantamessa ) . The film 's only win was for Vilmos Zsigmond 's cinematography , although the Academy honored the film 's sound effects editing with a Special Achievement Award ( Frank Warner ) . At the 32nd British Academy Film Awards , Close Encounters won Best Production Design , and was nominated for Best Film , Direction , Screenplay , Actor in a Supporting Role ( François Truffaut ) , Music , Cinematography , Editing , and Sound .
Close Encounters lost the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation to Star Wars , but was successful at the Saturn Awards . There , the film tied with Star Wars for Direction and Music , but won Best Writing . Richard Dreyfuss , Melinda Dillon and the visual effects department received nominations . Close Encounters was nominated for Best Science Fiction Film . The film received four more nominations at the 35th Golden Globe Awards .
When asked in 1990 to select a single " master image " that summed up his film career , Spielberg chose the shot of Barry opening his living room door to see the blazing orange light from the UFO . " That was beautiful but awful light , just like fire coming through the doorway . [ Barry 's ] very small , and it 's a very large door , and there 's a lot of promise or danger outside that door . " In 2007 , Close Encounters was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress , and was added to the National Film Registry for preservation . In American Film Institute polls , Close Encounters has been voted the 64th greatest film of all time , 31st most heart @-@ pounding , and 58th most inspiring . Additionally , the film was nominated for the top 10 science fiction films in AFI 's 10 Top 10 and the tenth anniversary edition of the 100 Movies list . The score by John Williams was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores .
Alongside Star Wars and Superman , Close Encounters led to the reemergence of science fiction films . In 1985 Spielberg donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Planetary Society for Megachannel ExtraTerrestrial Assay . In the 1979 James Bond film Moonraker the five @-@ note sequence is heard when a scientist punches the combination into an electronic door lock . In the South Park episode " Imaginationland " , a government scientist uses the five @-@ note sequence to try to open a portal . In " Over Logging " , a government scientist uses the five @-@ note sequence to try to get the central Internet router working . The " mashed potato " sculpture was parodied in the film UHF , the film Canadian Bacon , an episode of Spaced , an episode of The X @-@ Files , an episode of That ' 70s Show , and an episode of The Simpsons . It was satirized in the 200th issue of Mad Magazine , July 1978 , by Stan Hart and Mort Drucker as Clod Encounters of the Absurd Kind .
In 1977 , Saturday Night Live had Dreyfuss as a guest host and spoofed the film as Cone Encounters of the Third Kind featuring the recurring characters the Coneheads .
The 1980 short Closet Cases of the Nerd Kind spoofs the entire film ( in condensed form ) .
In 2007 , Muse have used one of the communications melodies to open their most popular live track , titled " Knights of Cydonia "
In 2011 , ABC aired a primetime special , Best in Film : The Greatest Movies of Our Time that counted down the best movies chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People . Close Encounters of the Third Kind was selected as the # 5 Best Sci @-@ Fi Film .
In the 2012 Deadmau5 album Album Title Goes Here , track no . 9 , titled " Closer , " features the five @-@ note sequence as the basis for the song 's opening and main melodic motif .
In 2013 , the TV Show Futurama spoofed the note sequence and Devil 's Tower sequence in episode " Games of Tones " .
In the Homestar Runner cartoon " The House That Gave Sucky Tricks , " the King of Town dresses up as the mashed potato sculpture of Devil 's Tower .
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - # 64
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills - # 31
AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers - # 58
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Science Fiction Film
= John Pope ( military officer ) =
John Pope ( March 16 , 1822 – September 23 , 1892 ) was a career United States Army officer and Union general in the American Civil War . He had a brief but successful career in the Western Theater , but he is best known for his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run ( Second Manassas ) in the East .
Pope was a graduate of the United States Military Academy in 1842 . He served in the Mexican @-@ American War and had numerous assignments as a topographical engineer and surveyor in Florida , New Mexico , and Minnesota . He spent much of the last decade before the Civil War surveying possible southern routes for the proposed First Transcontinental Railroad . He was an early appointee as a Union brigadier general of volunteers and served initially under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont . He achieved initial success against Brig. Gen. Sterling Price in Missouri , then led a successful campaign that captured Island No. 10 on the Mississippi River . This inspired the Lincoln administration to bring him to the Eastern Theater to lead the newly formed Army of Virginia .
He initially alienated many of his officers and men by publicly denigrating their record in comparison to his Western command . He launched an offensive against the Confederate army of General Robert E. Lee , in which he fell prey to a strategic turning movement into his rear areas by Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson . At Second Bull Run , he concentrated his attention on attacking Jackson while the other Confederate corps attacked his flank and routed his army . Following Manassas , Pope was banished far from the Eastern Theater to the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota , where he commanded U.S. Forces in the Dakota War of 1862 . He was appointed to command the Department of the Missouri in 1865 and was a prominent and activist commander during Reconstruction in Atlanta . For the rest of his military career , he fought in the Indian Wars , particularly against the Apache and Sioux .
= = Early life = =
Pope was born in Louisville , Kentucky , the son of Nathaniel Pope , a prominent Federal judge in early Illinois Territory and a friend of lawyer Abraham Lincoln . He was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Manning Force , and a distant cousin married the sister of Mary Todd Lincoln . He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1842 , and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Topographical Engineers . He served in Florida and then helped survey the northeastern border between the United States and Canada . He fought under Zachary Taylor in the Battle of Monterrey and Battle of Buena Vista during the Mexican @-@ American War , for which he was appointed a brevet first lieutenant and captain , respectively . After the war Pope worked as a surveyor in Minnesota . In 1850 he demonstrated the navigability of the Red River . He served as the chief engineer of the Department of New Mexico from 1851 to 1853 and spent the remainder of the antebellum years surveying a route for the Pacific Railroad .
= = Civil War = =
Pope was serving on lighthouse duty when Abraham Lincoln was elected and he was one of four officers selected to escort the president @-@ elect to Washington , D.C. He offered to serve Lincoln as an aide , but on June 14 , 1861 , he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers ( date of rank effective May 17 , 1861 ) and was ordered to Illinois to recruit volunteers .
In the Department of the West under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont , Pope assumed command of the District of North and Central Missouri in July , with operational control along a portion of the Mississippi River . He had an uncomfortable relationship with Frémont and politicked behind the scenes to get him removed from command . Frémont was convinced that Pope had treacherous intentions toward him , demonstrated by his lack of action in following Frémont 's offensive plans in Missouri . Historian Allan Nevins wrote , " Actually , incompetence and timidity offer a better explanation of Pope than treachery , though he certainly showed an insubordinate spirit . " Pope eventually forced the Confederates under Sterling Price to retreat southward , taking 1 @,@ 200 prisoners in a minor action at Blackwater , Missouri , on December 18 . Pope , who established a reputation as a braggart early in the war , was able to generate significant press interest in his minor victory , which brought him to the attention of Frémont 's replacement , Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck .
Halleck appointed Pope to command the Army of the Mississippi ( and the District of the Mississippi , Department of the Missouri ) on February 23 , 1862 . Given 25 @,@ 000 men , he was ordered to clear Confederate obstacles on the Mississippi River . He made a surprise march on New Madrid , Missouri , and captured it on March 14 . He then orchestrated a campaign to capture Island No. 10 , a strongly fortified post garrisoned by 12 @,@ 000 men and 58 guns . Pope 's engineers cut a channel that allowed him to bypass the island . Assisted by the gunboats of Captain Andrew H. Foote , he landed his men on the opposite shore , which isolated the defenders . The island garrison surrendered on April 7 , 1862 , freeing Union navigation of the Mississippi as far south as Memphis .
Pope 's outstanding performance on the Mississippi earned him a promotion to major general , dated as of March 21 , 1862 . During the Siege of Corinth , he commanded the left wing of Halleck 's army , but he was soon summoned to the East by Lincoln . After the collapse of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's Peninsula Campaign , Pope was appointed to command the Army of Virginia , assembled from scattered forces in the Shenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia . This promotion infuriated Frémont , who resigned his commission .
Pope brought an attitude of self @-@ assurance that was offensive to the eastern soldiers under his command . He issued an astonishing message to his new army on July 14 , 1862 , that included the following :
Let us understand each other . I have come to you from the West , where we have always seen the backs of our enemies ; from an army whose business it has been to seek the adversary and to beat him when he was found ; whose policy has been attack and not defense . In but one instance has the enemy been able to place our Western armies in defensive attitude . I presume that I have been called here to pursue the same system and to lead you against the enemy . It is my purpose to do so , and that speedily . I am sure you long for an opportunity to win the distinction you are capable of achieving . That opportunity I shall endeavor to give you . Meantime I desire you to dismiss from your minds certain phrases , which I am sorry to find so much in vogue amongst you . I hear constantly of " taking strong positions and holding them , " of " lines of retreat , " and of " bases of supplies . " Let us discard such ideas . The strongest position a soldier should desire to occupy is one from which he can most easily advance against the enemy . Let us study the probable lines of retreat of our opponents , and leave our own to take care of themselves . Let us look before us , and not behind . Success and glory are in the advance , disaster and shame lurk in the rear . Let us act on this understanding , and it is safe to predict that your banners shall be inscribed with many a glorious deed and that your names will be dear to your countrymen forever
Despite this bravado , and despite receiving units from McClellan 's Army of the Potomac that swelled the Army of Virginia to 70 @,@ 000 men , Pope 's aggressiveness exceeded his strategic capabilities , particularly since he was now facing Confederate General Robert E. Lee . Lee , sensing that Pope was indecisive , split his smaller ( 55 @,@ 000 man ) army , sending Maj. Gen. Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson with 24 @,@ 000 men as a diversion to Cedar Mountain , where
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Jackson defeated Pope 's subordinate , Nathaniel Banks . As Lee advanced on Pope with the remainder of his army , Jackson swung around to the north and captured Pope 's main supply base at Manassas Station . Confused and unable to locate the main Confederate force , Pope walked into a trap in the Second Battle of Bull Run . His men withstood a combined attack by Jackson and Lee on August 29 , 1862 , but on the following day Maj. Gen. James Longstreet launched a surprise flanking attack and the Union Army was soundly defeated and forced to retreat . Pope compounded his unpopularity with the Army by blaming his defeat on disobedience by Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter , who was found guilty by court @-@ martial and disgraced .
Brigadier General Alpheus S. Williams , who served briefly under Pope , held the general in particularly low esteem . In a letter to his daughter , he wrote :
" All this is the sequence of Gen. Pope 's high sounding manifestoes . His pompous orders ... greatly disgusted his army from the first . When a general boasts that he will look only on the backs of his enemies , that he takes no care for lines of retreat or bases of supplies ; when , in short , from a snug hotel in Washington he issues after @-@ dinner orders to gratify public taste and his own self @-@ esteem , anyone may confidently look for results such as have followed the bungling management of his last campaign ... I dare not trust myself to speak of this commander as I feel and believe . Suffice it to say ( for your eye alone ) that more insolence , superciliousness , ignorance , and pretentiousness were never combined in one man . It can with truth be said of him that he had not a friend in his command from the smallest drummer boy to the highest general officer . All hated him . "
Pope himself was relieved of command on September 12 , 1862 , and his army was merged into the Army of the Potomac under McClellan . He spent the remainder of the war in the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota , dealing with the Dakota War of 1862 . His months campaigning in the West paid career dividends because he was assigned to command the Military Division of the Missouri on January 30 , 1865 , and received a brevet promotion to major general in the regular army on March 13 , 1865 , for his service at Island No. 10 . On June 27 , 1865 , the War Department issued General Order No. 118 dividing the entire United States , including the states formerly a part of the Confederacy , into five military divisions and 19 subordinate geographical departments . Major General William T. Sherman was assigned to command the Division of the Missouri . Pope then became commander of its Department of the Missouri , replacing Major General Grenville M. Dodge .
Shortly after Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House , Pope wrote a letter to Edmund Kirby @-@ Smith offering the Confederates in Louisiana the same surrender terms that Grant allowed for Lee . He told Kirby @-@ Smith that further resistance was futile and urged the general to avoid needless bloodshed , devastation , and misery by accepting the surrender terms . Kirby @-@ Smith , however , rejected Pope 's overtures and said that his army remained " strong and well equipped and that despite the ' disparity of numbers ' his men could outweigh the differences ' by valor and skill ' . " Five weeks later Confederate General Simon Bolivar Buckner signed the surrender in New Orleans .
= = Postbellum years = =
In April 1867 , Pope was named governor of the Reconstruction Third Military District and made his headquarters in Atlanta , issuing orders that allowed African Americans to serve on juries , ordering Mayor James Williams to remain in office another year , postponing elections , and banning city advertising in newspapers that did not favor Reconstruction . President Andrew Johnson removed him from command December 28 , 1867 , replacing him with George G. Meade . Following this , Pope was appointed head of the Department of the Lakes from January 13 , 1868 , to April 30 , 1870 .
Pope returned to the West as commander of the Department of the Missouri and served with distinction in the Apache Wars . He made political enemies in Washington when he recommended that the reservation system would be better administered by the military than the corrupt Indian Bureau . He engendered controversy by calling for better and more humane treatment of Native Americans , but author Walter Donald Kennedy notes that he also said " It is my purpose to utterly exterminate the Sioux " and planned to make a " final settlement with all these Indians " .
Pope 's reputation suffered a serious blow in 1879 when a Board of Inquiry led by Maj. Gen. John Schofield concluded that Fitz John Porter had been unfairly convicted and that it was Pope himself who bore most of the responsibility for the loss at the Second Battle of Bull Run . The report characterized Pope as being reckless and dangerously uninformed about the events of the battle , and credited Porter 's perceived disobedience with saving the army from complete ruin . Pope was promoted to major general in the Regular Army in 1882 , was assigned to command of the Military Division of the Pacific in 1883 , and retired in 1886 . He died at the Ohio Soldiers ' Home near Sandusky , Ohio . He is buried in Bellefontaine Cemetery , St. Louis , Missouri .
= The 100 @-@ Mile Diet =
The 100 @-@ Mile Diet : A Year of Local Eating ( or Plenty : One Man , One Woman , and a Raucous Year of Eating Locally ) is a non @-@ fiction book written by Canadian writers Alisa Smith and J.B. MacKinnon . In the book , the authors recount their experiences , including motivations and challenges , on restricting their diet , for one year , to include only foods grown within 100 miles of their residence . Beginning in March 2005 , with little preparation the urban couple began only purchasing foods with ingredients they knew were all from within 100 miles . Finding little in grocery stores , they relied on farmers ' markets and visits to local farms . Staples in their diet included seafood , chicken , root vegetable , berries , and corn . They lacked cooking oils , rice , and sugar . They preserved foods for use in the winter but ended with extra supplies .
The couple first wrote about the experience in articles for the online magazine The Tyee . The popularity of the articles led to a book deal . In the book , Smith and MacKinnon each write alternate chapters , 12 in total . The first chapter is written by MacKinnon and focuses on the first month of their experience . They write in the first person as a memoir that explores their own dietary experiences and personal feelings .
In the Canadian market , the book spent five weeks on Maclean 's nonfiction bestseller list . The book spent 20 weeks on The Vancouver Sun 's nonfiction bestseller list . The authors won the Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Regional Prize from the British Columbia Booksellers Association for the best contribution to the enjoyment and understanding of British Columbia . The 100 @-@ mile diet concept , along with advocates of local food , were covered by media across North America . In 2009 , Food Network Canada aired The 100 Mile Challenge , a television series co @-@ created by MacKinnon and Smith and based on the book .
= = Background = =
Alisa Smith and J. B. MacKinnon 's idea of local eating began while visiting their cabin in northern British Columbia in August 2004 . Their food supplies were nearly exhausted so to feed their dinner guests they scrounged the surrounding land for food . Their dinner of Dolly Varden trout , wild mushrooms , dandelion leaves , apples , sour cherries , and rose hips , along with potatoes and garlic from the garden , so impressed the couple that once back home , in their Kitsilano apartment in Vancouver , they pursued the idea of eating only local food . They eventually decided to try a diet consisting of eating food , for one year , grown within 100 miles of their home . They began the diet symbolically on the first day of spring , March 21 . Beginning in June , they wrote articles for The Tyee about their experience . The couple , both in their 30s , each had experience in writing : Smith as a freelance journalist who had taught non @-@ fiction writing , and MacKinnon as the author of the award @-@ winning historical non @-@ fiction book Dead Man in Paradise and a past editor of Adbusters magazine .
They were overwhelmed by the response , first from other locavores and then from local and international news media . Eleven articles were published in the The Tyee series over the year , plus an additional four articles afterwards , between August 2006 and May 2007 . They launched an independent website , 100milediet.org , in April 2006 and began writing the book . Random House published the hardcover version on 12 March 2007 in Canada as The 100 Mile Diet : A Year of Local Eating and on 24 April in the United States as Plenty : One Man , One Woman , and a Raucous Year of Eating Locally . The trade paperback was released in Canada by Random House 's Vintage Canada imprint on 2 October and in the United States by the Three Rivers Press imprint on 22 April 2008 .
= = Content = =
The book consists of twelve chapters , plus an Epilogue and an Acknowledgements section at the end . Smith and MacKinnon individually write alternating chapters , each of which covers one month from March 2005 to February 2006 . In the first chapter MacKinnon tells how his idea for the 100 @-@ mile diet began and Smith agrees to try it for one year . They begin symbolically on the first day of Spring , March 21 , and define ' local ' as 100 miles , a convenient radius that would include the Lower Mainland , the southern half of Vancouver Island , and Whatcom County and Skagit County in Washington State . Their exceptions to this rule include meals eaten while traveling , meals prepared by friends , and business lunches . Their initial month was expensive as they scoured grocery stores for whatever they could find . In the second chapter , Smith describes her and MacKinnon as an unwed urban couple in their early thirties with no children and living in a rented apartment . They recount how eating impacted their relationship before and after the diet , the anonymity of prepackaged foods , the traceability of their diet , and the diets of the Coast Salish .
The farmers ' market opens in May and they are able to buy local honey to replace sugar . Seafood from the Strait of Georgia becomes a staple in their diet . The couple spend August at their cabin in northwestern BC where they fish the Skeena River , pick wild berries , and eat whatever grows in their garden . Back in the Lower Mainland , the September harvest provides them with melons , peppers , eggplant , grapes , and tomatoes . To prepare for winter they preserved corn and tomatoes , made jam from berries , collected herbs from their community garden , and bought many potatoes .
During the fall , each write on the troubles in their relationship . David Beers , the founder of the Tyee , hosts a 100 @-@ mile Thanksgiving dinner for Smith while MacKinnon was away . In November , during a family emergency , MacKinnon travels to Kamloops where he suspends his 100 @-@ mile diet a few days . They finally find a source of flour when they discover a farmer on Vancouver Island who grows his own fruits , vegetables , meats , and wheat . In December , Smith travels to Edmonton where her grandmother feeds her microwaved pasta which she accepts .
In January they find a restaurant that specializes in local cuisine and , previously vegetarians , they cook and eat beef for the first time in years . Working in Malawi , MacKinnon is struck by the contrast between their western diet and that of the poor country 's : there is ample food supplies in Malawi but most is exported to Canada and the United States who buy the food they do not require . The couple learn about Mexican and Maya cuisine while in Merida , Mexico for a wedding . The book ends with an epilogue , written by both Smith and MacKinnon six months after their one year diet . They make a symbolic journey to Bamfield , within their 100 @-@ mile radius , to collect sea water for its salt and prove they could obtain their own salt supply .
= = Style and genre = =
The book uses a first person memoir style with Smith and MacKinnon taking turns writing each chapter . The authors purposely avoided writing a self @-@ help book in favour of the memoir style , saying , " We wanted to show readers that process , and how it affected us and let them see it through our eyes . " The topics sometimes go beyond the motivations and challenges of the diet into more personal relationship issues . Prior to writing the book they created a general plan on where the narrative would lead . They took turns writing so they could monitor each other 's progress . As the two alternate there are shifts in perspectives , though the overall theme of " traceability " persisted . The general tone has been described as charming , innocent , and sometimes funny . Smith 's chapters have been said to demonstrate more honesty and vulnerability , while MacKinnon 's were more " show pieces , little tours de force " . The final chapter was authored together by Smith and MacKinnon writing as a disembodied third @-@ person narrator to summarize and conclude the book .
= = Reaction to the book = =
In the Canadian market , The 100 @-@ Mile Diet debuted at # 10 on Maclean 's nonfiction bestseller list on May 14 . It spent five weeks on the list , peaking at # 4 . In the Vancouver market , the book spent 20 weeks on The Vancouver Sun 's nonfiction bestseller list , peaking at # 5 . At the British Columbia Booksellers Association 's BC Book Prizes , in April 2008 , the book was short @-@ listed for the Hubert Evans Non @-@ Fiction Prize , while the authors won the Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Regional Prize , awarded to the authors of the book that best contributes to the enjoyment and understanding of British Columbia .
The book has been called engagingly written , wisely researched , and honestly told . Critics admired the wit and humour . The book reviewer for The Globe and Mail admitted he grew impatient with the grand and repetitive statements about the changing global food system and the authors ' hyperbole regarding their modest culinary discoveries . Compared to Kingsolver 's Animal , Vegetable , Miracle , The 100 @-@ Mile Diet was found to be more compelling and easier to read , with Smith and MacKinnon more relatable and sympathetic than Kingsolver .
= = Reaction to the diet = =
While the concept of only eating locally grown food is not new , the book coincided with the emerging popularity of the locavore movement and farmer 's markets . Media outlets in North America examined the feasibility of only eating food produced locally , local food @-@ themed events , and locavore groups . During World Food Day in 2006 , playing off the popularity of Smith and MacKinnon 's articles in The Tyee , the Vancouver City Hall held a 100 @-@ mile themed breakfast . Locavore groups have held local @-@ only dinner parties and week @-@ long challenges . Some restaurants and caterers offered 100 @-@ mile menus , one being The Herbfarm Restaurant in Woodinville , Washington . Some farmers , gardeners , or regional food producers began offering subscription services to deliver produce or urban farming or gardening services . The 100 @-@ mile diet spawned many variations to allow for various circumstances and motivations . Examples include the allowance of a few non @-@ local items , like Barbara Kingsolver chose to include spices into her local diet , or expanding the geographic area to more convenient boundaries , like the economic region , or the entire state or province . A ' made @-@ in @-@ Manitoba ' diet challenge led to a government Manitoba Food Charter recognizing and encouraging local food markets .
In 2014 , the American writer Vicki Robin published Blessing the Hands That Feed Us which descried her experiment to eat food sourced within a ten mile radius of her home in Washington State .
= Hurricane Baker ( 1950 ) =
Hurricane Baker was a major hurricane that affected the Leeward Islands , Greater Antilles , and the Gulf Coast of the United States . The tropical cyclone was the second intense hurricane , second hurricane , and second tropical storm of the 1950 Atlantic hurricane season . Hurricane Baker attained peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) near the Leeward Islands , traversed Antigua , and weakened to a tropical depression southwest of Puerto Rico . It re @-@ intensified south of Cuba , strengthened to a strong Category 2 hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico , and hit the United States near Gulf Shores , Alabama , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Hurricane Baker produced extensive damage in the Lesser Antilles and Cuba , but impacts were minimal in the United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
On the morning of August 20 , a strong tropical storm developed about 446 miles ( 718 km ) east of Basse @-@ Terre , Guadeloupe . The tropical storm deepened to hurricane intensity . On August 21 , it rapidly attained maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane . The hurricane passed over Antigua during the evening , while still producing winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . On August 22 , it lost intensity and weakened to a tropical storm . On August 23 , Baker made landfall near the Puerto Rican town of Guánica as a minimal tropical storm . The highest winds on the island of Puerto Rico were 35 – 40 mph ( 55 – 65 km / h ) . The storm then degenerated into an easterly tropical wave , and moved west @-@ northwestward over northeastern Hispaniola . On August 24 , it re @-@ entered the Atlantic Ocean , and Tropical Depression Baker crossed the coast of eastern Cuba early on the next day .
On August 25 , Baker redeveloped a center over the Caribbean Sea off southern Cuba , and re @-@ intensified to tropical storm status . On August 27 , Baker affected the Pinar del Río Province with 60 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds , and then turned northward over the southern Gulf of Mexico . On August 28 , Baker re @-@ strengthened to hurricane intensity ; reconnaissance and ship reports suggest the hurricane attained a second peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on August 30 . The minimum central pressure was 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 92 inHg ) on this date . The cyclone diminished in intensity prior to landfall . On August 31 , the hurricane struck Gulf Shores , Alabama as a Category 1 hurricane with sustained winds estimated near 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The estimated central pressure at landfall was 980 mbar ( 28 @.@ 95 inHg ) . Baker moved inland over Alabama and dissipated over southeastern Missouri on September 1 .
= = Impact = =
On Antigua , the Pan American Airways station 's power failed when winds reached 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) around midnight on August 22 . Unofficial estimates placed winds between 95 – 120 mph ( 150 – 195 km / h ) at the location , although damages and casualties were unknown . Subsequent reports indicated light damage occurred on the island ; later , information from the island indicated extensive damage . More than 100 homes were destroyed or damaged in the Willkie and Piggott areas , and large homes were destroyed in Prestown . Additionally , a manse was also demolished in Prestown . Electronic communications were dismantled , and thousands of homeless people sheltered in churches and schools . No deaths occurred on the island , but damages were expected to reach several thousand dollars . In Cuba , 37 people died , and the property losses reached several million dollars .
In the United States , the greatest property and crop damage occurred from Mobile , Alabama to Saint Marks , Florida , where losses approached $ 2 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 ( 1950 USD ) ; high tides and winds inflicted minimal damage in both cities . Panama City , Florida incurred heavy damage to homes and businesses from high tides and rainfall , which peaked at 14 @.@ 96 inches ( 380 mm ) . The highest rainfall total was 15 @.@ 49 inches ( 393 mm ) at Caryville , Florida . Peak gusts exceeded 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) on Santa Rosa Island , Florida . 200 to 300 cottages received damage in Panama City , and homes were flooded near the bay . Losses reached $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1950 USD ) in Gulf Shores , Alabama . Hurricane Baker spawned two tornadoes . On August 30 , a F1 tornado touched down in Apalachicola , Florida , destroying four dwellings and a store building and damaging another eleven buildings . On August 31 , a F0 tornado demolished one building near Marianna , Florida , in Jackson County . Inland , Birmingham International Airport recorded 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) wind gusts ; higher gusts were estimated near 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in elevated , mountainous locations . Hundreds of trees were prostrated as far north as the Birmingham , Alabama area , and one person was killed and two more injured by live wires falling from utility poles .
= Suavemente =
Suavemente ( English : Smoothly ) is the debut studio album by American merenguero recording artist Elvis Crespo . Released by Sony Music Latin on April 14 , 1998 , the album popularized merengue music and established Crespo as a leading artist in the Latin music market . He collaborated with several songwriters and record producers ( including Homero d 'Rodriguez , Raldy Vázquez , Luis Cruz , and Juan Perez ) , and wrote three songs creating an overall tropical music @-@ flavored recording .
With romantic ballads and uptempo songs , Suavemente received favorable reviews from music critics who praised its " energetic " and " catchy fan @-@ pleasing " songs . The album was the first merengue recording to peak at number one on the United States Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , and two of its singles ( " Suavemente " and " Tu Sonrisa " ) peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart ; Crespo is the first merengue artist with two number @-@ one merengue singles . Suavemente peaked at number 106 on the US Billboard 200 chart . The album was Crespo 's commercial breakthrough , introducing him to the popular music market with the Spanglish remix of its title track .
Suavemente received several accolades , including Billboard Latin Music Awards for Album of the Year and New Artist Album of the Year and a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Tropical Latin Performance . It won five Lo Nuestro Awards , including Tropical Album of the Year . The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has sold more than 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . Its title song remains a staple at Latin music nightclubs and festivals , and Suavemente has been ranked among the most essential Latin albums of the past 50 years by Billboard magazine .
= = Background = =
In 1993 , brothers Héctor and Oscar Serrano formed Grupo Manía in Puerto Rico . They enlisted Alfred Cotto , Reynaldo Santiago , and Elvis Crespo ( lead singer with the Serrano brothers ) to tour and record two @-@ step merengue music , popularizing the genre to a younger audience . In 1996 , Crespo left Grupo Manía and signed with Sony Music Latin ( the company which signed his former band ) , beginning his solo career . He said in a May 1999 Billboard interview that leaving the band was " a very hard decision " , since they worked well together . While Crespo was writing " Suavemente " , he began singing the song and discovered that his son " spent all afternoon singing it " . This led him to record the track , since he thought " [ it ] would be a hit " . Crespo originally intended for " Suavemente " and " Tu Sonrisa " , the singles which brought him international recognition , to be recorded with Grupo Manía .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released in the United States on April 14 , 1998 . Suavemente and American merengue singer Manny Manuel 's album , Es Mi Tiempo , increased US tropical @-@ music sales by 27 percent over the previous year . On November 28 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Suavemente gold for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies , the first merengue record certified gold . The album was certified gold in Chile , platinum in Venezuela , and platinum in Central America . During the 1998 Christmas season , Suavemente was among the top @-@ selling Latin albums in the United States . On February 20 , 1999 , Sony Discos president Oscar Llord expressed an interest in promoting Suavemente in Latin America and Europe since he believed that the album would sell over one million copies . In May , it sold 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . By June 2007 Suavemente had sold 800 @,@ 000 copies in the US , and by 2012 the album had sold an additional 64 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Crespo performed at the 23rd New York Salsa Festival at Madison Square Garden on September 5 , 1998 with El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico , and Latin jazz recording artist Eddie Palmieri . He was part of the Hot Latin Nights show at Walt Disney World 's Pleasure Island on September 19 , which was broadcast as a two @-@ part Telemundo special on December 14 and 31 . On October 11 Crespo ( performing with other Latin acts ) sang " Suavemente " on the seven @-@ hour Puerto Rico Se Levanta , a benefit concert broadcast live on Telemundo which raised $ 13 million for victims of Hurricane Georges on Hispaniola . He performed " Suavemente " at the 1999 Billboard Latin Music Awards . Crespo 's appearance was praised by Billboard 's John Lannert , who believed that it foreshadowed possible dominance at future music awards . He appeared at El Concierto Del Amor , an annual tropical @-@ music festival held at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey on February 14 , 1999 , with fellow salsa singers Jerry Rivera , Frankie Negron , Tito Nieves , and Michael Stuart . To promote Suavemente Crespo toured Uruguay , Argentina , Chile , Colombia , and Peru in the first quarter of the year , and he performed at Billboard 's 10th annual Latin Music conference on April 20 , 1999 .
= = Reception = =
In Billboard , Latin music contributor John Lannert called the album a " merengue @-@ bomba disc " and Crespo a " midtempo pop / merengue " artist . In his 2003 book , The Latin Beat , Ed Morales described the title song as a " salsa classic or pop hit . " True crime novelist M. William Phelps called " Suavemente " a " romantic Latin ballad " in his 2008 book , I 'll Be Watching You . In her 2005 book , Pop Culture Latin America , Lisa Shaw called " Suavemente " " an example of some of the best merengue with a rock @-@ pop sound . " According to Batanga magazine , Suavemente is " intoxicating , feverish , pure sabroso merengue . Sizzle in the summer streets to the fast @-@ paced beats , ear busting horns and percussive stamina " ; Latina magazine noted the album 's " feverish beat " . Spanish @-@ language magazine Vistazo called Crespo the new sensation of merengue music , and his album a favorite of listeners who enjoy pachanga .
Sony Music International Latin America president Frank Welzer called Crespo a " genius " who wrote " catchy fan @-@ pleasing " songs . Terry Jenkins of AllMusic praised the album 's " seductive Latin ballads " and found the focal mode of the recording to be sentimental , strong , lively , and swinging . Business Wire noted its popularity in the American and Latino markets . The Los Angeles Times called Suavemente and Crespo 's repertoire " energy @-@ packed " . Billboard 's Lannert wrote that other Latin acts tried to emulate Crespo 's style .
= = Chart history = =
Suavemente debuted at number six on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart for the week ending May 2 , 1998 . In its second week the album rose to number five , selling 3 @,@ 000 copies . Suavemente was number three on the chart for the week ending May 16 , selling 5 @,@ 000 copies ( a 60 @-@ percent increase ) . The following week the album rose to number two , behind Selena 's Anthology box set , and sold 7 @,@ 000 copies . The sales increase placed Suavemente at number 188 on the US Billboard 200 chart , only the second merengue album to make that chart . In its fifth week , album sales fell 50 percent and it dropped to number eight . The following week ( which included the Memorial Day weekend ) , Suavemente moved up to number six . For the week ending June 13 , the album re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 170 and peaked at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart . The next week it dropped to number three and 197 on the Top Latin Albums and Billboard 200 charts , respectively . Suavemente sold 6 @,@ 000 copies for the week ending June 13 , rising to number two on the Top Latin Albums chart behind Ricky Martin 's Vuelve . The album dropped to third the following week . Suavemente sold 6 @,@ 000 copies the next week , rising to number two behind Vuelve . After five weeks behind Vuelve , Suavemente passed it on the Top Latin Albums chart when its sales increased 16 percent to 8 @,@ 600 copies . For the week of August 8 , 1998 , it fell back to number two behind Vuelve . After three weeks of declining sales , Suavemente was number three when it sold 5 @,@ 000 copies as " Tu Sonrisa " ( its second single ) topped the Hot Latin Songs chart . It ended 1998 as the year 's eighth @-@ bestselling Latin album . Suavemente spent 98 consecutive weeks in the top 10 of the Top Latin Albums chart , the second @-@ longest run in history .
The album remained atop the US Tropical Albums chart for seven consecutive weeks after its release . It began sliding down the chart , but remained near the top . Suavemente returned to the top of the Tropical Albums chart after twelve weeks behind the Dance with Me soundtrack . The following week it sold 4 @,@ 000 copies , remaining at number one . In the album 's fourth consecutive week atop the chart , it sold 6 @,@ 500 copies . During its fifth straight week atop the Tropical Albums chart , it sold 6 @,@ 000 copies , down 16 percent . Suavemente ended 1998 as the fourth @-@ bestselling tropical @-@ music album . In its ninth consecutive week atop the Tropical Albums chart the album sold 7 @,@ 000 copies , down 17 percent from the previous week . The following week , its tenth consecutive at number one , it sold 7 @,@ 500 copies ( up seven percent ) . For the week ending February 6 , 1999 , although sales of Suavemente dipped 13 percent to 6 @,@ 500 copies the album remained atop the chart . On the February 27 , 1999 chart , album sales increased by 67 percent . The following week sales decreased 30 percent to 7 @,@ 000 copies , but Suavemente remained atop the Tropical Albums chart for its fourteenth straight week .
The album debuted at number 43 on the US Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart for the week ending May 2 , 1998 ; the following week , it rose to number 39 . For the week ending May 16 , the album jumped to number 13 ; the following week , it rose to number nine . In subsequent weeks , the album continued to rise up the chart ; for the week ending June 13 , it was number five .
= = Singles = =
After " Suavemente " debuted at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for the week ending April 25 , 1998 , the magazine 's John Lannert predicted that Crespo could " easily win a new artist award " in 1999 . Billboard music analyst Karl Ross called the album 's title song " a sultry [ track ] about the power of a kiss " . For the week ending May 16 " Suavemente " peaked at number one , displacing " Una Fan Enamorada " by Servando y Florentino . Crespo became the first merengue recording artist with a number @-@ one single on the Hot Latin Songs chart since Dominican singer Juan Luis Guerra 's " El Costo De la Vida " six years earlier . " Suavemente " remained at number one with 13 million audience impressions , a four @-@ percent increase over the previous week . The song broke the record for most weeks at number one for a tropical @-@ music recording on the Hot Latin Songs chart ( six ) since Billboard began monitoring Latin airplay in 1986 , and it was number one on the Tropical Songs chart for nine consecutive weeks . " Suavemente " ended 1998 as the year 's most @-@ successful tropical single . Sony Discos president Oscar Llord told Billboard about the " carefulness " of crossing over into the English @-@ language market , calling the lead single a process done " naturally " as a result of two US radio stations ( in Miami and New ) York requesting a Spanglish version . On musicianguide.com , Timothy Borden wrote that the song 's Spanglish version had " unexpected crossover appeal " . The bilingual version was released in Germany in the second quarter of 1999 . " Suavemente " became Crespo 's most @-@ popular song and a " teenage anthem " in the Latino community . It was the first Sony Music Latin release to debut on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at number 84 .
The album 's second single , " Tu Sonrisa " , was distributed to US radio stations in the second week of July 1998 . It debuted at number 21 on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks chart , as " Suavemente " remained in the top five . The song peaked at number one on the Tropical Songs chart , Crespo 's second number one . " Tu Sonrisa " topped the Hot Latin Tracks chart in its sixth week , the singer 's second number one on that chart . It displaced " Te Quiero Tanto Tanto " by Mexican Latin pop group Onda Vaselina , and Crespo became the first merengue artist with two number @-@ one Hot Latin Tracks singles . After a week at
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= =
In 1992 , Madonna founded her own multi @-@ media entertainment company , Maverick , consisting of a record company ( Maverick Records ) , a film production company ( Maverick Films ) , and associated music publishing , television broadcasting , book publishing and merchandising divisions . The deal was a joint venture with Time Warner and paid Madonna an advance of $ 60 million . It gave her 20 % royalties from the music proceedings , one of the highest rates in the industry , equaled at that time only by Michael Jackson 's royalty rate established a year earlier with Sony . Madonna said that she envisioned the company as an " artistic think tank " and likened it to a cross between the Bauhaus , the innovative German arts institute formed in Weimar in 1919 , and Andy Warhol 's New York @-@ based Factory of artists and assistants . She stated : " It started as a desire to have more control . There 's a group of writers , photographers , directors and editors that I 've met along the way in my career who I want to take with me everywhere I go . I want to incorporate them into my little factory of ideas . I also come in contact with a lot of young talent that I feel entrepreneurial about . " The first two projects from the venture were her fifth studio album , Erotica , and a coffee table book of photographs featuring Madonna , entitled Sex .
Madonna primarily collaborated with Shep Pettibone for the album . Pettibone first began working with Madonna during the 1980s , providing remixes for several of her singles . He later co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the lead single from the soundtrack album I 'm Breathless , " Vogue " , which topped the Billboard Hot 100 in 1990 . The same year , Pettibone worked with Madonna on her greatest hits album The Immaculate Collection , co @-@ producing new song " Rescue Me " and remixing her earlier songs for the compilation using audio technology QSound . In 1992 , Madonna collaborated with Pettibone on the soundtrack to the film A League of Their Own , " This Used to Be My Playground " , which was produced while recording Erotica . Alongside Pettibone , Madonna enlisted help from producer André Betts , who previously co @-@ produced " Justify My Love " for The Immaculate Collection . Madonna said that she was interested to work with Pettibone and Betts due to their ability to remain plugged into the dance underground , " They come from opposite ends of the spectrum in terms of their music style and approach to music , but they 're both connected to the street and they 're still young and hungry . "
= = Development = =
According to Pettibone in an article " Erotica Diaries " published on Madonna 's Icon magazine , he produced a tape with three songs for Madonna to listen to , before he traveled to Chicago , where she was filming A League of Their Own . She listened to the songs and liked all of them . After filming was complete , Madonna met Pettibone in New York City to start working together in November 1991 . Their schedule was sporadic in the beginning . Madonna and Pettibone were in the studio for a week and then she would work with Steven Meisel on Sex , for two weeks . Occasionally , Madonna also would meet André Betts . At first , Madonna did not like the first group of songs she had recorded . She wanted Erotica to have a raw edge to it , as if it were recorded in an alley in Harlem , and not a light glossy production to permeate her sound , according to Pettibone . " Deeper and Deeper " was not working for Madonna . Pettibone said they tried different bridges and changes , but in the end , Madonna wanted the middle of the song to have a flamenco guitar .
They had problems during sequencing and had to repair the songs , taking some time . Pettibone had to keep things moving as fast as possible as he did not want Madonna to lose interest in the music . At this point , as far as the music went , it was getting a little melancholy . However , as Pettibone explained , Madonna 's stories directed the creative direction of the songs into deeply personal territory as they were more serious and intense . Madonna left the album 's production to work on her next film Body of Evidence in Oregon . Shortly after , Pettibone started on a song called " Goodbye to Innocence " , which was not working . He further commented that he made a new bass line for the track . When Madonna went to record her vocals for " Goodbye to Innocence " , she started singing Little Willie John 's song " Fever " instead of singing the original words . They decided to record it , as they felt it sounded good . As they did not know the words , Madonna called Seymour Stein from Sire Records , and within an hour , they had the Peggy Lee version , and the original version of the song . This song was the last to be recorded for the album , in August 1992 , and it was finished within a month later .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Erotica is a concept album about sex and romance . It is a pop and dance record which incorporates elements from classic disco , modern house , techno and new jack swing . Madonna incorporated an alter @-@ ego named Mistress Dita , heavily inspired by actress Dita Parlo . " Erotica " is the first single and also the opening track from the album . Starting with Madonna saying " My name is Dita " , she invites her lover to be passive , while she tells him to " do as I say " and leads him to explore boundaries between pain and pleasure . It deals with sex hang @-@ ups , and has been described as " an ode to S & M " . Her cover version of " Fever " follows the title track . It is described as a " sassy , house @-@ style remake " of the pop standard . The third track , " Bye Bye Baby , " starts with the declaration , " This is not a love song , " and goes on to ask questions of a lover she is about to abandon . At one point , Madonna asks angrily : " Does it make you feel good to see me cry ? " The fourth track and second single from Erotica , " Deeper and Deeper , " is described as one of the " pure disco " moments of the album . Its bridge features a flamenco guitar , and its lyrics talk about sexual obsession . In the following track , " Where Life Begins " , Madonna promises to teach " a different kind of kiss " to the listener . In the song , Madonna talks about the pleasures of oral sex and also references safe @-@ sex . The sixth track is " Bad Girl " . It talks about a woman who would rather get drunk than end a relationship she is too neurotic to handle . The seventh song , " Waiting " , has been described as a " yearning ballad . " Featuring spoken words , it addresses rejection and unrequited love . The song has also been described as a sequel to " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) .
" Thief of Hearts " , the song that follows " Waiting " , is a dark and rumbling song . It uses tough hip @-@ hop language to ward off a rival for her lover 's attention . It opens with the smashing of a glass , and Madonna shouting , " Bitch ! / Which leg do you want me to break ? " and later , she sneers , " Little miss thinks she can have his child / Well anybody can do it . " " Words " was compared to the previous track " Thief of Hearts , " with music critics finding similarity in scope , each with sharp lyrics and catchy beats . The song features clattering programs and icy synth block @-@ chords . " Rain " is the tenth track and fifth single from the album . Its lyrics talk about waiting and hoping for love . The song features a crescendo towards the end . The subsequent track , " Why 's It So Hard , " is considered the album 's plea for solidarity with her audience , as Madonna sings : " Why 's it so hard to love one another ? " The following song , " In This Life , " was written in memory of friends who Madonna had lost to the AIDS epidemic . The drums were compared to a doomsday clock and the keyboard intervals were also compared to George Gershwin 's blues lullaby " Prelude No. 2 , " creating a sense of dis @-@ ease . The thirteenth track , " Did You Do It ? " features rappers Mark Goodman and Dave Murphy . The song was omitted in the clean edition of Erotica . Producer André Betts claimed that for fun , he just rapped over the track " Waiting , " while Madonna was gone , and she liked it after hearing later . The last track from the album , " Secret Garden , " is described as Erotica 's most personal song . In addition , " Secret Garden " is dedicated to the singer 's vagina , " the secret place where she could enjoy herself . " It features a jazz @-@ house beat .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Media appearance = = =
Due to the high scandal and controversy surrounding the book and the album , there was not any need for Madonna to promote it ; however , one of the few promotions for the book Madonna did was appearing on the cover of the October edition of Vogue , where she appeared dressed in " Hippie trip " fashion . These photographs were taken by Meisel . After the book was released , on October 22 , 1992 , MTV aired a special called The Day in Madonna , hosted by Kurt Loder ( the title of this special was a pun of the title of the channel 's daily show The Day in Rock ) , which profiled the release of Madonna 's Sex and Erotica , even taking the book to the streets to allow people , including a sex therapist and group of real @-@ life New York City dominatrices , to view it . MTV also interviewed many people who had viewed the Sex book on the day of its release at the HMV music store in New York City . In celebration of the release of the book , the store held a Madonna look @-@ alike contest and set up a booth where people could view the book for one dollar a minute , with all of the proceeds going to Lifebeat , the music industry organization founded to help fund AIDS research .
Madonna additionally performed " Fever " and " Bad Girl " on Saturday Night Live in January 1993 . During the latter , she referenced Sinéad O 'Connor 's actions by ripping a photograph of Pope John Paul II and yelling " Fight the real enemy " . The photograph Madonna used was of Joey Buttafuoco . During the 1000th The Arsenio Hall Show , Madonna performed the original version of " Fever " accompanied by a band , wearing a black classic dress and smoking a cigarette . Following this performance , Madonna sang " The Lady Is a Tramp " with Anthony Kiedis of the Red Hot Chili Peppers , dressed up in matching skirts , stockings , leather vests and cat @-@ ear caps . On September 2 , 1993 , Madonna opened the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards performing " Bye Bye Baby " cavorting with three scantily clad women in a brothel @-@ style setting , dressed in tuxedos and top hats , danced
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with women in corsets in a choreographed , highly sexual routine .
= = = Singles = = =
" Erotica " was the lead single released from the album in October 1992 . It was described by music critics as " brilliant " , who also compared it to her single " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , it reached the top ten in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom . Following the release of the song , Leabanese singer Fairuz claimed her vocals appear on the song without her consent , and said the lyrics " he crucified me today " , which was sung in Arabic , is taken from a religious song that is traditionally heard during Easter services . " Deeper and Deeper " was released as the second single in November 1992 . It received generally positive reviews from critics , with most of them praising its disco theme . " Deeper and Deeper " achieved top @-@ ten success in Belgium , Ireland , the United Kingdom and the United States . " Bad Girl " was released in February 1993 , receiving positive reviews , with music critics naming it " riveting " . The song had a modest success on the charts , peaking at number ten on the UK Singles Chart while reaching number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Fever " was released as the fourth single of the album in March 1993 in Europe and Australia . It became a top @-@ ten hit in several European countries including Finland , Ireland , and the United Kingdom , while topping the Dance Club Songs chart without a North American release . The fifth single , " Rain " , was released in July 1993 . It was described by music critics as an extended metaphor for ejaculation , and noted it as one of Madonna 's best works . However , it was described as a slushy rewrite of " This Used to Be My Playground " ( 1992 ) , which is a slushy rewrite of " Promise to Try " from her album Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . " Rain " peaked at number one in Italy and number two in Canada . " Bye Bye Baby " was released as the last single from the album in November 1993 . Critical response was positive , with music critics praising Madonna 's " honest " performance and noting her electronically altered voice in the song . It reached the top ten in Italy and peaked within the top twenty in Australia .
= = = Tour = = =
The album was further promoted on her fourth concert tour , the Girlie Show World Tour , which visited Israel and Turkey , Latin America and Australia for the first time in 1993 . The tour required 1500 costumes for the cast , and a 24 @-@ hour set up time for the stage . Madonna opened the show dressed as a dominatrix , surrounded by topless dancers of both sexes . Lighter moments included Madonna descending from the ceiling on a giant disco ball , wearing an Afro wig for " Express Yourself " , as well as the singer singing " Like a Virgin " in the guise of actress Marlene Dietrich and singing the word ' virgin ' as ' wirgin ' . She caused uproar in Puerto Rico by rubbing their national flag between her legs on stage . Orthodox Jews protested to force the cancellation of the concert in Tel Aviv , Israel . However , the rallies were unsuccessful as the show went on as scheduled . The Girlie Show received positive reviews from critics , and was a commercial success , grossing around US $ 70 million .
= = Critical reception = =
Erotica received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it " ambitious " and noted that Erotica contains some of Madonna 's best and most accomplished music . Paul Verna from Billboard considered it her most varied and creatively challenging collection to date . Arion Berger of Rolling Stone praised the album 's " cold , remote sound " , and wrote that " Erotica is everything Madonna has been denounced for being — meticulous , calculated , domineering and artificial . It accepts those charges and answers with a brilliant record to prove them " . Yahoo ! Music editor John Myers stated that the album is musically some of Madonna 's best work and offers intelligent insight into the taboos people have been taught to be afraid to speak of , combined with equally clever musical arrangements . NME said : " When Erotica the album is good – i.e. when it 's funny , original , lively and , yes , sexy – it 's about as good as the modern media event gets . " J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun stated that the most surprising thing on the songs is that they find Madonna singing about love , not about sex . Phil Sutcliffe gave three stars in a review for Q , writing : " The biggest surprise is ' Deeper and Deeper ' , which could be mistaken for a bopalong tribute to Kylie . However , the substance of Erotica resides in a range of straight @-@ talking , almost intimate songs based , not on an idea about sex , but on experience of relationships . " A retrospective review in Blender concluded : " That female artists ( except Millie Jackson ) never come on this strongly makes Erotica shocking and , well , arousing . "
Charles Aaron from Spin noted that the album is a brave comment on the chilly , tragic detachment of sex under AIDS . Stylus Magazine commented that each song has its own energy . He also noted that " Erotica was too sophisticated for a mainstream besotted with The Bodyguard and a college @-@ radio claque eager to praise R.E.M. ' s opaque dirges for the wisdom that Madonna 's club fodder showed with less fuss and with a better rhythm section " . Robert Christgau commented that " The singer doesn 't have great pipes , but because she 's too hip to belt [ this time ] , she doesn 't need them . She 's in control , all understated presence and impersonal personality except when she 's flashing some pink . [ ... ] " Love your sister , love your brother " thing , the lyrics are not stupid . I love the rap where the boast turns out to be a lie . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine recognized that " Pettibone 's beats might be time @-@ stamped with the sound of a genre that ruled a decade of one @-@ hitters before being replaced by commercialized hip @-@ hop " and classified Madonna 's voice as " nasal and remote " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly declared that Erotica may be the most joyless dance music of all time , while criticizing Madonna 's " soulless " voice . Stephen Holden from The New York Times wrote that the album is far from Madonna 's best album , as the hip @-@ hop songs lack the " musical breadth and confessional poignancy " of Like a Prayer , the record that established Madonna as a mature pop songwriter .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , Erotica debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 on November 11 , 1992 , with first week sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies . It was held off from reaching the top spot by Garth Brooks 's fourth studio album , The Chase , which that same week sold 4 @,@ 000 copies more than Erotica . The next week , the album dropped to number four on the chart . It was eventually certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of two million units . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Erotica has sold 1 @.@ 89 million copies in the United States by September 2009 . In Canada , the album debuted at number seven on the RPM Albums Chart on November 7 , 1992 . It reached a peak of number four on November 21 , 1992 . The album was present for a total of 38 weeks on the chart , and was certified two times platinum by Music Canada ( MC ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies .
In Australia , the album debuted at number one on the ARIA albums chart , and was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 210 @,@ 000 copies . It also reached the top five on the New Zealand Albums Chart . Erotica reached a peak of number five on the Japan Oricon albums chart , and received a double platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipping 400 @,@ 000 copies .
In the United Kingdom , Erotica debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart on October 24 , 1992 . It remained at its peak at number two for three weeks , and a total of 38 weeks on the chart . The album was certified two times platinum on June 1 , 1993 , by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album debuted at number one on the French Albums Chart on October 28 , 1992 , staying there for two weeks , then descending down the chart , selling a total of 250 @,@ 000 copies . In Germany , the album reached the top five on the Media Control Charts and was certified gold for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies . In Sweden , the album debuted in its peak of number six and spent only seven weeks on the chart . Similarly in Switzerland , Erotica peaked number five and was certified gold by IFPI Switzerland . It also received a platinum certification in Spain and gold in Brazil . To date , Erotica has sold more than six million copies worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
Slant Magazine listed Erotica at number 24 on " The 100 Best Albums of the 1990s " , calling it a " dark masterpiece " . Miles Raymer of Entertainment Weekly said that " in retrospect it 's her strongest album — produced at the peak of her power and provocativeness ... and helped elevate her from mere pop star to an era @-@ defining icon . " According to J. Randy Taraborrelli , the author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , " At the time of Erotica 's release in October 1992 , much of society seemed to reexamining its sexuality . Gay rights issues were at the forefront of social discussions globally , as was an ever @-@ increasing awareness of AIDS . A generation seemed increasingly curious to explore , without guilt , shame or apology , a different slice of life , something more provocative , maybe darker . " Music critic Sal Cinquemani commented about the album 's impact :
By 1992 , Madonna was an icon — untouchable , literally and figuratively — and Erotica was the first time the artist 's music took on a decidedly combative , even threatening tone , and most people didn 't want to hear it . Erotica 's irrefutable unsexiness probably says more about the sex = death mentality of the early ' 90s than any other musical document of its time . This is not Madonna at her creative zenith . This is Madonna at her most important , at her most relevant . No one else in the mainstream at that time dared to talk about sex , love , and death with such frankness and fearlessness .
Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine recalled that Erotica was met with a louder backlash and was more rampantly misrepresented than any of Madonna 's other albums . Madonna was banned from entering the Vatican and her music was banned there as well . The accompanying music video for " Erotica " also suffered mainstream condemnation due to its explicit sexual imagery . MTV put the video into heavy rotation , but only after midnight . It was completely banned from broadcast on NBC and Times Square because its bondage imagery was deemed too racy . The first album of her career to bear Parental Advisory label , Erotica was also banned in several Asian countries , such as China and Lebanon . In Singapore , after Erotica 's worldwide release , the album was on hold for its release , because their government censors thought the track " Did You Do It " was too explicit .
Taraborrelli commented that it is unfortunate that Erotica has to be historically linked to other less memorable ventures in Madonna 's career at this time . However , he quipped that the album should be considered on its own merits , not only as one linked to the other two adult @-@ oriented projects , because it has true value . When asked to name her biggest professional disappointment , Madonna answered , " The fact that my Erotica album was overlooked because of the whole thing with the Sex book . It just got lost in all that . I think there 's some brilliant songs on it and people didn 't give it a chance . That disappointed me , but I 'm not disappointed in the record itself ... Every review of the movie or the album was really a review of the book . It was transparent : they weren 't even talking about the songs or the music . OK , I thought , I get what 's happening here . It was a shame , but I understand it . " PopMatters ranked the album at number three on a list of " 15 Overlooked and Underrated Albums of the 1990s " .
Musician Doug Wimbish noted that Erotica was a record ahead of its time . In the early 1990s , Seattle grunge had kicked in , the bass @-@ driven beats of jungle were emerging on the dance floor , and hip @-@ hop hit a new level with the funky , conscious rap of acts such as De La Soul . " Madonna 's enough of an artist to take the hues and shades of what 's happening and put a concept together , It 's not just bash out a record " , he said . " She had Maverick , she 'd done the book , the film Dick Tracy , she dated a big @-@ ass Hollywood actor [ Warren Beatty ] , This was her first record with her concept . She just freaked everybody out . She turned the system upside down for a moment , and they had to deal with the shock and awe of it all " . Wimbish believes that Madonna forged a path for the next generation of female pop artists : " She was bringin ' it from her point of view as a woman , bringing it to the forefront for real . That set the template now for your Christina Aguileras , Britneys , Beyoncés . She paved the road for a lot of that . You can be nice and clean and then a freak . And there 'll be a lot of money for you in it at the end ! "
= = Track listing and formats = =
Additional notes
" Erotica " contains a sample of " Jungle Boogie " performed by Kool and the Gang . Another sample " El Yom ' Ulliqa ' Ala Khashaba " by Lebanese singer Fairuz was used which led to a lawsuit ; this was settled out of court .
Anthony Shimkin has been officially added by ASCAP as a co @-@ writer to " Erotica " , " Bye Bye Baby " , " Bad Girl " , " Thief of Hearts " , " Words " and " Why 's It So Hard " . Inlay notes to the album do not include this . Shimkin was only allowed to add his credit to one composition on the album ; he originally chose " Deeper and Deeper " .
" Fever " contains lyrics written and rearranged by singer Peggy Lee , who remains uncredited for her contribution .
= = = Formats = = =
CD – 13 track version , omits the track " Did You Do It ? "
CD – Explicit version with 14 tracks including the track " Did You Do It ? " This version comes with Parental Advisory label .
CD Collector 's Edition – Australian collector 's digipak edition released in 1993 to celebrate The Girlie Show World Tour in that country . Explicit version with 14 tracks including the track " Did You Do It ? "
Vinyl – 13 track version , omits the track " Did You Do It ? "
Vinyl – Explicit version with 14 tracks including the track " Did You Do It ? " This version comes with Parental Advisory label . The vinyl was reissued in 2012 by Warner Bros. Records with a different catalog number .
Cassette – 13 track version , omits the track " Did You Do It ? "
Digital Compact Cassette – European explicit version with 14 tracks including the track " Did You Do It ? " This version comes with Parental Advisory label .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= Douglas Park ( Chicago ) =
Douglas Park is a large Chicago Park District park that also serves as a cultural and community center on the West Side of Chicago , Illinois . It is named after the U.S. Senator Stephen A. Douglas , who died in 1861 . Originally named South Park , its 173 acres ( 0 @.@ 70 km2 ) are in the North Lawndale community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States with an official address of 1401 S. Sacramento Drive .
= = History = =
In 1869 , the Illinois state legislature established the West Park Commission , which was responsible for three large parks and interlinking boulevards . Later that year , on November 4 , 1869 the commissioners named the southernmost park in honor of Stephen A. Douglas ( 1813 – 1861 ) . Best remembered for his pre @-@ Civil War presidential defeat by Abraham Lincoln despite superb oratorical skills , Douglas was a United States Senator who helped bring the Illinois Central Railroad to Chicago . In 1871 , designer William Le Baron Jenney completed plans for the entire West Park System which included Douglas , Garfield , and Humboldt parks . Jenney 's engineering expertise was especially helpful for transforming Douglas Park 's poor natural site into parkland . He had manure from the Union Stock Yards and sand added to the marshy site . This process brought the 173 acres ( 0 @.@ 70 km2 ) of land to grade level . In the center of the landscape , Jenney created a picturesque lake , and a small section of the park was formally opened in 1879 . Inflated construction costs and post Great Chicago Fire tax collection difficulties resulted in phased projects . The first improvements were made to the park by Oscar DuBuis in the 1880s . Between 1886 and 1888 Douglas Park , like the other West Park System parks , replaced its greenhouse with a conservatory . In 1895 , members of several German turners ' clubs petitioned for an outdoor gymnasium , and the following year one of Chicago 's first public facilities was constructed with an outdoor gymnasium ( pictured right ) , swimming pool , and natatorium .
= = = 20th @-@ century redevelopment = = =
By the turn of the century , the West Park Commission was riddled with political graft , and the three parks became dilapidated . As part of a reform effort in 1905 , Jens Jensen was appointed as General Superintendent and Chief Landscape Architect for the entire West Park System . Jensen , now recognized as dean of the prairie style of landscape architecture , improved deteriorating sections of the parks and added new features . Among Jensen 's improvements were a semi @-@ circular entryway at Marshall Boulevard , and a formal garden at the corner of Ogden Avenue and Sacramento Drive . By the time Jensen designed the garden , Ogden Avenue , a diagonal roadway with a major streetcar thoroughfare that would later become part of Route 66 , had already been constructed . The road divided the park into two separate landscapes , creating a busy intersection at the junction of Ogden and Sacramento Avenues . Jensen 's solution was a long axial garden on the southeast side of the intersection , providing a buffer between Ogden Avenue and playing fields to the south . Jensen demolished the conservatories in each of the West Park System parks in favor of one grand conservatory at Garfield Park .
At the entrance to the garden , the area closest to the busy roadway intersection , Jensen placed a monumental garden shelter , known as Flower Hall , and a formal reflecting pool . The designer of the structure is unknown , however , it was possibly Jensen himself , or his friend , prairie school architect Hugh Garden . East of the building , the garden becomes more naturalistic . Jensen included perennial beds , a lily pool , and unique prairie @-@ style benches . In 1928 , the West Park Commission constructed a fieldhouse in Douglas Park . The structure was designed by architects Michaelsen and Rognstad , who were also responsible for other notable buildings including the Garfield Park Gold Dome Building , the Humboldt and LaFolette Park Fieldhouses , and the On Leong Merchants Association Building in Chinatown . In 1934 , Douglas Park became part of the Chicago Park District , when the city 's 22 independent park commissions merged into a single citywide agency .
= = Today = =
The park has served as a central location for recreation since it was first built . It currently houses a miniature golf course , five playgrounds , an outdoor swimming pool , soccer fields , basketball courts , and an oval running track . The park also retains its original lagoon , a wide variety of trees and the original Jenney designed stone bridge . The greenhouse that attracted visitors from throughout the city was torn down in 1905 . The statue of Czech patriot , Karel Havlíček Borovský , by Joseph Strachovsky was moved to Solidarity Drive on today 's Museum Campus in the vicinity of the Adler Planetarium in 1981 . Chicago 's 2016 Olympic bid included plans to host the Olympic cycling competitions in this park , including a velodrome and a BMX course . Beginning in 2015 , the park is the new home of the Riot Fest .
= Five Mile Point Light =
Five Mile Point Light , also known as Five Mile Point Lighthouse or Old New Haven Harbor Lighthouse , is a lighthouse in New Haven , Connecticut , United States , on the harbor entrance to Long Island Sound , five miles ( 8 km ) from Downtown New Haven . Originally in 1805 , a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) octagonal wooden tower was built by Abisha Woodward . In 1847 , a new 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) octagonal tower was constructed by Marcus Bassett with East Haven brownstone from Jabez Potter 's quarry . The light was powered by 12 lamps with reflectors and was located 97 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level . Also constructed was a two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half story brick house to replace an existing structure in a " very bad state of repair " . In 1855 , a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens replaced the lamps , and a fog bell was added in the 1860s . The light was discontinued in 1877 and replaced by the Southwest Ledge Light . The lighthouse is located in Lighthouse Point Park and the light and its keeper 's house were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990 .
= = History = =
During the American Revolutionary War in July 1779 , a battle took place on the site of the future lighthouse when British troops anchored offshore and staged an invasion of New Haven . Patriot forces launched a defense of the beachfront as the attackers landed their boats . Ensign and Adjutant Watkins of the King 's American regiment was the first of the British soldiers killed in the skirmish , shot while attempting to disembark on the shoreline . He was buried close to where the lighthouse at Five Mile Point would eventually be erected a few decades later . Although the British went on to burn the nearby house of Amos Morris and several other residences in the area , they suffered heavy losses and ultimately abandoned their advance on New Haven .
= = Original tower = =
In 1804 , the United States Congress passed a statute requiring the secretary of the treasury to build a lighthouse at Five Mile Point if land could be obtained for a reasonable price . That same year , Amos Morris , Jr . , son of the man whose home was the first to be razed during the 1779 British invasion , sold a suitable one @-@ acre plot of his father 's coastal estate to the federal government for
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$ 100 . On March 16 , 1805 , an appropriation for $ 2500 was issued for the construction of the lighthouse . Late that year , a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) octagonal wooden tower was built by Abisha Woodward on the southwest edge of the harbor and to mark the path around the Southwest Ledge . The fixed white light was made by eight oil lamps with 13 inches ( 33 cm ) parabolic reflectors , but it was criticized for being too dim . The lighthouse also had a keeper 's quarters constructed in 1805 . The first keeper of the light was Amos Morris Jr . , for a period of just three weeks . An 1832 report noted that the light was 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the water and that its visibility had been improved with the removal of some trees . In 1838 , Lieutenant George M. Bache reported that the wooden tower and keeper 's house was in a poor state . Congress would appropriate $ 10 @,@ 000 to construct a new stone lighthouse on March 3 , 1847 .
= = Current tower = =
Constructed in 1847 , the new 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) octagonal tower was constructed by Marcus Bassett with East Haven brownstone from Jabez Potter 's quarry . The interior of the lighthouse was lined with New Haven brick and a 74 @-@ step granite stairway leads to the cast @-@ iron lantern . The light was powered by 12 lamps with reflectors and was located 97 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level . Also constructed was a new two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half story brick house to replace the one in a " very bad state of repair " . The light would be replaced with a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens in 1855 . In the 1860s , a fog bell was also added .
The lighthouse was extinguished in 1877 when the offshore Southwest Ledge Light replaced it for navigation . The keeper , Elizur Thompson , went to be the Southwest Ledge Light 's keeper for five years before returning to live in the Five Mile Point Light keeper 's quarters and fly storm signal flags for the United States Weather Bureau . In 1896 , the lighthouse was transferred to the United States Department of War and was improved by a leasee named Albert Widmann . In 1922 , the property was split up , with the land given to the state of Connecticut and the buildings to the city of New Haven . Two years later , New Haven purchased the land from the state for $ 11 @,@ 180 . The tower was renovated in 1986 . The $ 86 @,@ 000 restoration included repairing cracked mortar , steam cleaning the interior and exterior and removing " guano [ that had ] accumulated over the decades " .
= = Importance = =
Roth and Clouette note that the " Five Mile Point Lighthouse is significant because it embodies the distinctive characteristics of American lighthouse construction during the first half of the 19th century ... [ it ] is also significant in the maritime history of New Haven . " The keeper 's dwelling currently is a private residence for New Haven Recreation Department personnel and has been modified with the addition of a porch . The lighthouse and the keeper 's residence were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990 .
= = List of keepers = =
= Mascarene martin =
The Mascarene martin or Mascarene swallow ( Phedina borbonica ) is a passerine bird in the swallow family that breeds in Madagascar and in the Mascarene Islands . The nominate subspecies occurs on Mauritius and Réunion and has never been found away from the Mascarene Islands , but the smaller Madagascan subspecies , P. b. madagascariensis , is migratory and has been recorded wintering in East Africa or wandering to other Indian Ocean islands .
The Mascarene martin is a small swallow that has grey @-@ brown underparts becoming white on the throat and lower abdomen , dark grey @-@ brown upperparts and a slightly forked tail . The underparts are heavily streaked with black . It nests in small colonies anywhere with suitably sheltered sites for constructing a nest , such as ledges , buildings , tunnels , caves or amongst rocks . The nest is a shallow cup of twigs and other plant material , and the normal clutch is two or three brown @-@ spotted white eggs . The incubation and fledging times are unknown . The Mascarene martin has a heavy flight with slow wingbeats interspersed with glides , and frequently perches on wires . It feeds on insects in flight , often hunting low over the ground or vegetation . In eastern Africa , open habitats such as deforested areas are frequently used for hunting . A number of internal and external parasites have been detected in this species .
Tropical cyclones can adversely affect populations on the smaller islands , but the Mascarene martin is a locally common bird with an apparently stable population and is classed as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Its legal protection ranges from none on the French overseas department of Réunion to a status on Mauritius as a " species of wildlife in respect of which more severe penalties are provided " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Mascarene martin was first formally described in 1789 as Hirundo borbonica by German zoologist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his 13th edition of Linnaeus 's Systema Naturae . It is likely that the species had previously been described by French naturalist Philibert Commerson who died in Mauritius in 1773 . His huge collection of specimens and notes was sent back to the Paris Museum in 1774 , but destroyed by sulphur fumigation in about 1810 . French biologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte moved the martin to his newly created genus Phedina in 1855 . The genus name is derived from the Greek phaios ( φαιός ) " brown " and the Italian rondine " swallow " , and the species name refers to the Île de Bourbon ( old French name for Réunion ) . There are two subspecies , nominate P. borbonica borbonica on Mauritius and Réunion , and P. b. madagascariensis in Madagascar .
The Phedina swallows are placed within the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " , such as the barn swallow , which build a nest from mud . The Phedina species nest in burrows and therefore belong to the " core martins " .
The genus Phedina is thought to be an early offshoot from the main swallow lineage , although the striped plumage of its two species suggests a distant relationship with streaked African Hirundo species . The other member of the genus is the Brazza 's martin P. brazzae , although in the past it has sometimes been suggested that Brazza 's martin should be moved to its own genus , Phedinopsis , due to the significant differences in vocalisations and nest type from its relative . The nearest relation of the two Phedina martins is the banded martin , Riparia cincta , which appears not to be closely related to the other members of its current genus and resembles Brazza 's martin in its nesting habits and calls . The current Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) -recommended practice is to move the banded martin to its own genus as Neophedina cincta , rather than to merge it into Phedina , since the banded martin 's larger size , different bill and nostril shape and non @-@ colonial nesting are differences from the current Phedina species . German ornithologist Gustav Hartlaub separated the Madagascan population of the Mascarene martin as a full species , P. madagascariensis , but more recent authorities have considered it to be only a subspecies , P. b. madagascariensis .
= = Description = =
Adult Mascarene martins of the nominate subspecies are 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with wings averaging 117 mm ( 4 @.@ 6 in ) and weigh 23 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 84 oz ) . This small hirundine has dark brown @-@ grey upperparts with faint streaking . It has grey @-@ brown underparts becoming white on the throat and lower abdomen , all being heavily streaked with black . The slightly forked tail averages 54 @.@ 6 mm ( 2 @.@ 15 in ) long and has white edges to the brown undertail coverts . The wings are blackish @-@ brown and the bill and legs are black . The eyes are dark brown and the black bill averages 11 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 44 in ) long . The sexes are similar , but juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking , and white tips to the feathers covering the closed wing . The Madagascan subspecies is overall paler and larger @-@ billed than the nominate form . It has denser streaking on the breast , but only very fine lines on the lower abdomen and on the white undertail . It is distinctly smaller than the nominate subspecies , 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length with an average weight of 20 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 73 oz ) . This martin moults in December and January on Mauritius , and Madagascan breeders wintering on the African mainland moult in June and July .
The Mascarene martin is a relatively quiet bird , but it has a warbled siri @-@ liri siri @-@ liri song given in flight or when perched ; some calls given by perched birds end in a glissando . Other vocalisations may be used during mating or displays of aggression . There is a chip contact call , and the young birds produce a fast twittering sound when begging for food . Birds wintering in mainland Africa are usually silent .
No other streaked swallow species occur within the island breeding range of the Mascarene martin , and in Africa the lesser striped swallow is larger , has a deeply forked tail and a very different plumage , with dark blue upperparts , a red rump and a chestnut head . The brown @-@ throated sand martin has similar structure and plumage colour to the Mascarene martin , but has plain , unstreaked underparts . The small Mascarene swiftlet has longer , narrower wings than the martin , and a much lighter flight . The Brazza 's martin is smaller , has a plainer back and finer dashing on the throat and chest , but there is no range overlap .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Mascarene martin 's breeding range is restricted to Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands . The nominate subspecies breeds on Mauritius and Réunion and P. b. madagascariensis occurs in Madagascar . It may also nest on Pemba Island where it has been seen in the breeding season . Breeding habitat can be anywhere with suitable sites for constructing a nest , such as ledges , buildings , tunnels , caves or amongst rocks . The martin is found on the east side of Réunion between 200 – 500 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) , and on the south and west coasts of Mauritius . It also occurs on inland cliffs on Mauritius .
The subspecies P. b. borbonica is resident on Mauritius and Réunion , although there are local seasonal movements on these island , but the Madagascan subspecies is migratory . The Imerina Plateau is deserted from April to September , the martins moving to lower ground or to the African mainland . It is normally uncommon and local in coastal Mozambique , Zambia , Malawi and Pemba Island , and very rare in Kenya and mainland Tanzania , although large numbers sometimes winter in Mozambique or Malawi . It has also been recorded from Comoros and other Indian Ocean locations including at least four islands in the Seychelles . As of 2012 , a total of eight birds had been sighted in the Seychelles , occurring in both the spring and autumn migration periods . Some of these records may be due to vagrant birds carried by cyclones . There are unsubstantiated claims of occurrences in the Transvaal .
= = Behaviour = =
The Mascarene martin has a heavy flight with slow wingbeats interspersed with glides , and may repeatedly return to a favourite perch . This martin is often seen perched on wires , and sometimes rests on sandy beaches . The martin roosts in small flocks in bushes , on buildings or on cliffs . Sometimes it is joined at the roost by other birds , such as blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eaters in the Seychelles .
= = = Breeding = = =
The Mascarene martin nests in the wet season , August to November in Madagascar , and September to early January on Mauritius and Réunion . It breeds in groups typically comprising a few pairs , although a colony of about 20 pairs has been recorded on Mauritius . The nest is a shallow cup of twigs and coarse plant material such as grass and Casuarina with a softer lining of feathers and finer vegetation . It may be constructed anywhere suitably flat and inaccessible to predators , including locations 3 – 5 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 16 @.@ 4 ft ) over water , on slate ledges , or in underground passageways ; one particularly unusual nesting site was on a small boat moored 20 m ( 66 ft ) off the coast . The normal clutch is two eggs on Madagascar and Mauritius , but two or three on Réunion . The eggs are white with brown spots and average 21 @.@ 6 mm × 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 85 in × 0 @.@ 59 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 088 oz ) and are incubated by the female alone . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , although as with all hirundines the chicks are altricial , hatching naked and blind . The male helps to feed the young , and the chicks are fed by the parents after fledging , and one pair on Mauritius was observed to feed its two chicks at roughly five @-@ minute intervals .
= = = Feeding = = =
The martins feed in flight , often low over the ground or vegetation . They hunt singly , in small groups or with other swallows and swifts , and are most active just before dusk . The flying insects that make up their diet include scarab , click and other beetles , bugs and flying ants . The feeding habitat in Madagascar includes woodlands , agricultural land , wetlands , semi desert and open ground at altitudes up to 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . In Mauritius and Réunion this martin feeds from sea level up to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) over reservoirs and coasts , along cliffs and over Casuarina or other trees and scrubs , and in eastern Africa , areas deforested by logging or conversion to agriculture are used for hunting .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Mascarene martins will mob the Mauritius kestrel , suggesting that it is perceived as a potential predator . Martins on Mauritius may be infected by an endemic trypanosome , Trypanosoma phedinae , although the pathogenicity is unknown . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have also been found in the martin on Mauritius , although no blood parasites were found in a Madagascan specimen . A new species of louse fly , Ornithomya cecropis , was first found on a martin in Madagascar , and another bird from that island carried the feather mite Mesalges hirsutus , more commonly found in parrots .
= = Status = =
The breeding range of the Mascarene martin is restricted to three islands . Madagascar has an area of 592 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 228 @,@ 900 sq mi ) , but the next largest island , Réunion , is just 2 @,@ 512 square kilometres ( 970 sq mi ) . Although this bird has a limited range , it is abundant on Mauritius and Réunion , and locally common in Madagascar . The population size is unknown , but exceeds the vulnerability threshold of 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals and is believed to be stable . This martin is therefore classed as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
Tropical cyclones present a natural threat , particularly on the small islands inhabited by the nominate subspecies . The populations on Mauritius and Réunion were badly affected by a cyclone in February 1861 , and a British ornithologist , Edward Newton , claimed not to have seen a single specimen on Mauritius between the six @-@ day storm and June of the following year . It took many years for this population to fully recover , but by about 1900 it was reported to be common but local , and in 1973 – 74 there were 200 – 400 pairs on Réunion and 70 – 75 pairs in Mauritius . More recent cyclones , like one in 1980 , seem to have had less damaging effects than the 1861 storm . A number of species in the region are vulnerable partly because they are restricted to one island , or are badly affected by habitat degradation or introduced predators , and several species have been lost from the Mascarene islands since human colonisation in the seventeenth century . The martin and the Mascarene Swiftlet occur on all the main islands , and are less vulnerable to the effects of human activities , especially since they can utilise houses for nest sites .
In Mauritius , the Mascarene martin is legally protected as a " species of wildlife in respect of which more severe penalties are provided " . It is illegal to kill any bird of the species or to take or destroy their nests under section 16 of the Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993 @.@ although Madagascar and the African mainland countries have no special measures beyond general bird protection legislation . Réunion is an overseas department of France , but the Birds Directive does not apply outside Europe , so there is no European @-@ level bird protection legislation effective on the island , despite the possibility that European Union agricultural and other funding may be adversely affecting birds and vulnerable habitats .
= Operation Sky Monitor =
Operation Sky Monitor was a NATO mission to monitor unauthorized flights in the airspace of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina during the Bosnian War . The operation began in response to United Nations Security Council Resolution 781 , which established a ban on the use of military aircraft in Bosnian airspace , and requested the aid of member states in monitoring compliance . Beginning on October 16 , 1992 , NATO monitored violations of the no @-@ fly zone using E @-@ 3 Sentry NAEW aircraft based in Germany , Italy , Greece , and the United Kingdom . The operation documented more than 500 violations of the no @-@ fly zone by April 1993 . In response to this high volume of unauthorized flights , the Security Council passed Resolution 816 , which authorized NATO to enforce the no @-@ fly zone , and engage violators . In response , NATO deactivated Sky Monitor on April 12 , 1993 , transferring its forces to the newly established Operation Deny Flight .
= = Background = =
On September 25 , 1991 , at the beginning of the Yugoslav wars , the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 713 , which established " a general and complete embargo on all deliveries of weapons and military equipment to Yugoslavia " , with the goal of reducing violence and bloodshed throughout the country . In May , the Security Council reaffirmed the embargo in Resolution 757 , and added a provision for a naval force to monitor compliance with the embargo . In resolution 757 , the Council also called on states to " deny permission to any aircraft to take off , land in or overfly their territory if it is destined to land in or had taken off from the territory of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia " , setting the precedent for later anti @-@ air measures .
In response to resolution 757 , NATO began to perform its first operations on behalf of the United Nations on July 16 , 1992 with Operation Maritime Monitor , which monitored violations of Security Council Resolutions by ships . As a part of Maritime Monitor , NATO dispatched E @-@ 3 Sentry airborne early warning aircraft to the region to monitor sea traffic . These aircraft flew more than 200 missions over the course of the operation .
On October 9 , 1992 , the Security Council passed resolution 781 . In the resolution , the Security Council expressed concern about the use of aircraft by the belligerents in the War in Bosnia and established a formal " ban on military flights in the airspace of Bosnia and Herzegovina " . It also called upon member states to help the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) in monitoring " compliance with the ban on military flights " . Shortly thereafter , on October 15 , NATO aircraft operating under Maritime Monitor began monitoring flights over Bosnia for the UN . The essential goal of this mission was to conduct surveillance in order to determine whether or not the various parties in the conflict were respecting the UN no @-@ fly zone . The next day , October 16 , Operation Sky Monitor officially began when NATO planes expanded their monitoring with flight paths over the Adriatic .
= = Operation = =
During Operation Sky Monitor , aircraft operated in two " orbits " , one over the Adriatic established on October 16 , and a second one over Hungary , established with the permission of the Hungarian government on October 31 . Both of these orbits operated 24 hours a day , providing constant surveillance of Bosnian airspace . The first flight over Hungary on October 31 was an important milestone in NATO history as it was the " first operational mission in a former Warsaw Pact nation " for the alliance . Even more significantly , Hungary agreed that if a NATO aircraft were attacked in its airspace , the Hungarian Air Force would provide support with Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 fighters . This support never became necessary , but it marked another important milestone , actual military cooperation between NATO and the former Warsaw Pact .
The monitoring aircraft of Sky Monitor were initially drawn from the NATO Airborne Early Warning squadron based at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen in Germany , but Aviano Air Base in Italy , Preveza in Greece , and Trapani in Italy were all used as forward operating bases . As the operation expanded , the British No. 8 Squadron RAF and the French E @-@ 3F squadron at Avord Air Base were also used . All of these NATO forces fell under the authority of Allied Forces Southern Europe , commanded by Admiral Jeremy Boorda of the United States Navy . Eleven NATO countries provided personnel or aircraft for the operation : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Germany , Greece , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Turkey , and the United States .
The rules of engagement for Sky Monitor were very restrictive . Because the purpose of the operation was to monitor , rather than prevent , unauthorized flights , participating aircraft were only authorized to use force in self @-@ defense . Furthermore , under the rules of engagement , NATO forces were directed to take evasive action if attacked rather than engage an opponent if at all possible . As a result of the strict rules of engagement , no NATO forces were engaged in combat during Operation Sky Monitor .
Sky Monitor documented many violations of the no @-@ fly zone , the most significant of which came in March 1993 , when Serb aircraft bombed two Muslim villages . This violation , the first " combat violation " of the no @-@ fly zone , led to calls for NATO to actively enforce the zone , rather than just monitoring compliance .
= = Results = =
At the beginning of April 1993 , NATO had documented more than 500 violations of the no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia , including violations from all sides in the conflict . Out of these numerous violations , however , NATO documented only one that it considered a " combat mission " . Although most of the violations were not combat missions , NATO had decided even before the end of Sky Monitor that the UN ban was ineffective . On December 18 , 1992 , the NATO members voted to enforce the no @-@ fly zone with military force if requested by the United Nations . This escalation of NATO involvement also gained the crucial backing of US President @-@ elect Bill Clinton in December , when he told the press that he had " been in favor of enforcing the no @-@ fly zone for some time . "
The UN called for NATO to use force in response to the " blatant violations of the ban on military flights in the airspace of Bosnia and Herzegovina " with Security Council Resolution 816 on March 31 , 1993 . The resolution authorized UN member states to " take all necessary measures " in order " to ensure compliance " with the no @-@ fly zone . As a result of this new resolution , NATO deactivated Sky Monitor , and began Operation Deny Flight on April 12 , 1993 . Under Deny Flight , NATO forces continued to monitor and document unauthorized flights , but they were also authorized to enforce the zone and engage violators if necessary .
Operation Sky Monitor was the first of many NATO air operations in the Balkans , including the more significant Operation Deliberate Force and Operation Allied Force . Sky Monitor was also NATO 's first out of area air operation , and one of its first collaborative missions with the United Nations . Thus , it set the precedent for future NATO @-@ UN cooperation , based on a model where NATO forces would use their superior technical expertise to assist the UN in pursuing its broader mission . Sky Monitor also affected military policy , as it proved the utility of the E @-@ 3 Sentry , NATO 's principal aircraft in the operation , for monitoring missions under a wide variety of circumstances . Thus , the E @-@ 3 became an important part of NATO 's planning for later operations .
= Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 =
The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 ( Russian : Микоян и Гуревич МиГ @-@ 3 ) was a Soviet interceptor and fighter aircraft used during World War II . It was a development of the MiG @-@ 1 by the OKO ( opytno @-@ konstruktorskij otdel — Experimental Design Department ) of Zavod ( Factory ) No. 1 to remedy problems that had been found during the MiG @-@ 1 's development and operations . It replaced the MiG @-@ 1 on the production line at Factory No. 1 on 20 December 1940 and was built in large numbers during 1941 before Factory No. 1 was converted to build the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 .
On 22 June 1941 at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa , some 981 were in service with the VVS ( the Soviet Air Force ) , the PVO ( Soviet territorial air defense organization ) and Naval Aviation . The MiG @-@ 3 was difficult to fly in peacetime and much more so in combat . It had been designed for high @-@ altitude combat but combat over the Eastern Front was generally at lower altitudes where it was inferior to the German Messerschmitt Bf 109 as well as most modern Soviet fighters . It was also pressed into service as a fighter @-@ bomber during the autumn of 1941 but it was equally unsuited for this . Over time the survivors were concentrated in the PVO , where its disadvantages mattered less , the last being withdrawn from service before the end of the war .
= = Development = =
The large number of defects noted during flight testing of the MiG @-@ 1 forced Mikoyan and Gurevich to make a number of modifications to the design . Testing was done on a full @-@ size aircraft in the T @-@ 1 wind tunnel belonging to the Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute ( TsAGI ) to evaluate the problems and their proposed solutions . The first aircraft to see all of these changes applied was the fourth prototype of the I @-@ 200 . It first flew on 29 October 1940 and was approved for production after passing its State acceptance trials . The first MiG @-@ 3 as the improved aircraft was named on 9 December , was completed on 20 December 1940 and another 20 were delivered by the end of the year .
These changes included :
The engine was moved forward 100 mm ( 4 in ) to improve longitudinal stability .
A new water radiator ( OP @-@ 310 ) was fitted
The first two modifications allowed an additional 250 litres ( 66 US gal ) fuel tank to be fitted underneath the pilot 's seat .
The outer wing panel dihedral was increased by one degree to increase lateral stability .
An additional oil tank was mounted under the engine .
Piping was fitted to use cooled inert exhaust gasses in the fuel tanks to reduce the chance of fire .
The back of the pilot 's seat was armored with a 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) plate ( increased to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) in later models ) .
The supercharger intakes were streamlined .
The main landing gear was strengthened and the size of the main wheels was increased to 650 x 200 mm ( 25 @.@ 5 x 7 @.@ 87 in ) .
The canopy glazing was extended aft to improve the view to the rear which allowed for the installation of a shelf behind the pilot for an RSI @-@ 1 radio ( later upgraded to an RSI @-@ 4 ) .
The instrument panel layout was improved and a PBP @-@ 1A gunsight replaced the original PBP @-@ 1 .
Ammunition for the ShKAS guns was increased to 750 rounds per gun .
Two additional underwing hardpoints were added to carry up to 220 kg ( 485 lb ) of bombs , spray containers or RS @-@ 82 rockets .
State acceptance testing of two production aircraft was conducted between 27 January and 26 February 1941 . They were found to be over 250 kg ( 550 lb ) heavier than the MiG @-@ 1 , which reduced maneuverability and field performance . Time to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) decreased by over a minute and the service ceiling proved to be 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) less . The MiG @-@ 3 was faster at sea level and at altitude . While the ranges reached by both aircraft were farther than that of the older aircraft , they were still less than the 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) required . Mikoyan and Gurevich protested against the range results as their calculations showed that the MiG @-@ 3 could reach 1 @,@ 010 km ( 630 mi ) based on a specific fuel consumption ( SFC ) of 0 @.@ 46 kg / km ( 1 @.@ 64 lb / mile ) . During the State acceptance trials the SFC was 0 @.@ 48 kg / km ( 1 @.@ 71 lb / mile ) but the operational trials conducted earlier showed a SFC of 0 @.@ 38 kg / km ( 1 @.@ 35 lb / mile ) . They blamed the deficiency on a failure to use an altitude correction and that the engines had not been properly adjusted . They went as far as arranging for two more flights between Leningrad and Moscow to prove the MiG @-@ 3 could fly 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) . Two production aircraft were flown to ranges of 1 @,@ 100 km ( 680 mi ) and 971 km ( 603 mi ) , flying at 90 % of maximum speed and at an altitude of 7 @,@ 300 m ( 24 @,@ 000 ft ) , contradicting the report of the NII VVS ( Naoochno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-
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house over to Phips . Gage also gave orders to ready a force of troops for action the next day , something that did not go unnoticed by the local population . At some point that day , General Gage , whether by his intent , accident , or theft by a messenger , lost possession of William Brattle 's letter ; the widely held story is that it was dropped . News of its content spread rapidly , and many considered it to be a warning to Gage to remove the provincial powder before Patriots could seize it .
Early in the morning of September 1 , a force of roughly 260 British regulars from the 4th Regiment , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Maddison , were rowed in secrecy up the Mystic River from Boston to a landing point near Winter Hill in modern @-@ day Somerville . From there they marched about a mile to the Powder House , a gunpowder magazine that held the largest supply of gunpowder in Massachusetts . Phips gave the King 's Troops the keys to the building , and after sunrise they removed all of the gunpowder . Most of the regulars then returned to Boston the way they had come , but a small contingent marched to Cambridge , removed two field pieces , and took them to Boston by foot over the Great Bridge and up Boston Neck . The field pieces and powder were then taken from Boston to the British stronghold on Castle Island , then known as Castle William ( renamed Fort Independence in 1779 ) .
= = Response to the raid = =
Rumors flew throughout the day across the countryside about the British troop movements . The regulars were marching ; provincial powder had been seized ; war was at hand ; people had been killed ; Boston was being bombarded by His Majesty 's warships . The alarm spread as far as Connecticut . From all over the region , people took up arms and began streaming toward Boston . One traveler in Shrewsbury reported that in the space of 15 minutes , 50 men had gathered , equipped themselves , sent out messengers to surrounding towns , and left for Boston . On the 2nd , several thousand men bent on violence gathered in Cambridge , where they forced several notable Loyalists , including William Brattle , to flee to Boston and the protection of the military . Sheriff Phips was forced , in writing , to dissociate himself from any and all government actions . Eventually facts caught up with the rumors , and militia units ( some of which were still heading toward Boston ) returned home .
Also on the 2nd , Boston newspapers published a letter from William Brattle in which he protested that he had not warned Gage to remove the powder ; Gage had requested from him an accounting of the storehouse 's contents , and he had complied . The content of his letter to Gage would be published on the 5th . Brattle remained on Castle Island through the siege of Boston , leaving when the British evacuated the city in March 1776 . He died in Halifax , Nova Scotia in October 1776 at the age of 70 .
When the horrid news was brought here of the bombardment of Boston , which made us completely miserable for two days , we saw proofs of both the sympathy and the resolution of the continent . War ! war ! war ! was the cry , and it was pronounced in a tone which would have done honor to the oratory of a Briton or a Roman . If it had proved true , you would have heard the thunder of an American Congress .
= = British reaction = =
Gage , surprised by the size and scope of the colonial reaction , delayed and eventually cancelled a second planned expedition to the storehouse in Worcester . He concentrated his troops in Boston , and called for reinforcements from London , writing " if you think ten thousand men sufficient , send twenty ; if one million is thought enough , give two ; you save both blood and treasure in the end . " However , Gage 's request was seen by some in London as absurd , as there were only 12 @,@ 000 troops in Britain at the time , but he did eventually receive an additional 400 Marines in response to these requests . He later began planning and executing seizures again , and he further fortified the Boston peninsula .
= = Colonial reaction = =
After the Powder Alarm , militia forces throughout New England were more cautious with their supplies and more intent on gaining information about Gage 's plans and troop movements . Paul Revere played a significant role in distributing this information due to his geographical position in Boston , his social position as a middle @-@ class craftsman in contact with all social classes , and his political position as a well @-@ known Patriot propagandist and organizer .
= = = The colonists organize = = =
On September 21 , 1774 , Patriot leaders met in Worcester and urged town meetings to organize a third of the militias into special companies of minutemen in constant readiness to march . They also instituted the system of express riders and alarms that would prove to be critical at Lexington and Concord . In October , the former legislature of Massachusetts met in defiance of the Massachusetts Government Act and declared itself to be the First Provincial Congress . It created a Committee of Safety modeled after a body with the same name during the English Civil War and it recommended that a quarter of the militia be designated as minutemen . Military stores were to be stockpiled away from the coast ( more than a convenient day 's march ) , to make attempts to seize them more difficult . The largest stockpiles were located at Concord and Worcester .
= = = Portsmouth Alarm = = =
Early in December , British military command voted to prohibit the export of arms and powder to North America , and to secure all remaining stores . On December 12 , intelligence received by Paul Revere indicated that a seizure of stores at Fort William and Mary in Portsmouth , New Hampshire was imminent . He rode from Boston to Portsmouth the next day to notify the local Patriots , who quickly raided the fort on the 14th and removed its supplies . Revere 's intelligence had been incorrect ; although a British operation had been contemplated , it had not been ordered . The British did send ships carrying troops to Portsmouth , and they arrived three days after the fort 's supplies were removed . The first arrived on the 17th , and was directed into shallows at high tide by a local Patriot pilot , much to the captain 's anger .
Stores of gunpowder — typically referred to by Loyalists as " the King 's powder " but in contrast by Patriots as " the militia 's powder " — were also carried off from forts in Newport , Rhode Island , Providence , Rhode Island , and New London , Connecticut and distributed to the militias in towns away from the coast . Cannon and other supplies were smuggled out of Boston and Charlestown .
= = = Salem confrontation = = =
On February 27 , 1775 , HMS Lively brought a force of about 240 British regulars from the 64th Regiment under Colonel Alexander Leslie to confiscate weapons in Salem , Massachusetts . They were stopped by a small crowd that raised a drawbridge in their path and taunted them while others moved the cannon to safety and sent for help from nearby towns . Eventually , the drawbridge was lowered and the regulars were permitted to search the forge where the cannon had once been . They returned to their ship while being mocked by a growing force of irregulars marching along in lock @-@ step next to them . There were minor scuffles , but no shots were fired .
= Séance Time =
" Séance Time " is the sixth and final episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It was first broadcast on 29 April 2015 on BBC Two . The episode was written by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , and directed by Dan Zeff . It stars Pemberton , Shearsmith , Alison Steadman , Alice Lowe , Sophie McShera , Dan Starkey , Cariad Lloyd and Caden @-@ Ellis Wall . The episode begins with Tina ( McShera ) arriving at a Victorian villa for a séance . Hives ( Shearsmith ) sits her at a table and then escorts the ominous , shrouded Madam Talbot ( Steadman ) into the room .
Like " The Harrowing " , the final episode of the first series of Inside No. 9 , " Séance Time " is somewhat more horrific than is typical for the programme , though humour remains . In writing the episode , Pemberton and Shearsmith began with the idea of a séance , and developed the plot from there . The theme was one that they had wanted to address for some time , though they wanted to approach it in an original way . The writers aimed to begin " Séance Time " with minimal humour , presenting it as straight horror , before introducing the first twist .
The episode explores both the norms of horror films and the unpleasantness of actors and the television industry . Critics responded positively to " Séance Time " , praising the horror — several considered the episode genuinely frightening — the humour , and the writing . Steadman 's performance was singled out as strong , with critics commending her character as a highlight .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration and writing = = =
The second series of Inside No. 9 was written in 2014 by the programme 's creators Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith . The idea for " Séance Time " began with the " trigger " of a séance , and the plot grew out of this , while the episode 's title was taken from a line performed by David Warner in the film From Beyond the Grave . Shearsmith had previously taken part in a séance with The League of Gentlemen in a putatively @-@ haunted house . He had heard tapping and seen movement on a ouija board , and believed he had experienced something supernatural until Mark Gatiss confessed that he was responsible . Shearsmith said that he and Pemberton had always wanted to do a séance @-@ inspired story , but had never been able to find a new angle from which to approach the theme . " Séance Time " , he thought , " felt a bit different " to how séances had previously been portrayed . The writers were unsure how to conclude the episode , and considered 15 to 20 different endings before settling on the one they used .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " Séance Time " starred Sophie McShera as Tina — though Tina was played by an uncredited extra in the opening shot of a house 's exterior — Shearsmith as " Hives " / Terry , Alison Steadman as " Madam Talbot " / Anne , Dan Starkey as " Blue Demon Dwarf " / Clive , Cariad Lloyd as Gemma , Alice Lowe as Amanda , Pemberton as Pete and Caden @-@ Ellis Wall as William . The writers felt the episode featured a number of good roles for women . Members of Inside No. 9 's crew , include the episode 's third assistant director Saloum N 'Jie , appeared as uncredited extras playing members of a television crew . Though there were only a small production crew seen in the episode , this mirrors real crews of the kind featured .
Shearsmith had previously worked with Steadman on Agatha Christie 's Marple , while she and Pemberton had met , though the pair had not worked together . She was ill upon arrival for filming , which led to Pemberton worrying that production would have to be suspended . As a result of Steadman 's illness , her character 's croaking voice was mostly her own . One journalist commented on the appropriateness of the casting , given the influence of Abigail 's Party — in which Steadman starred — on " Nana 's Party " , the previous week 's episode . The actor was one of a number ( the others being Jane Horrocks and Claire Skinner ) who appeared in Inside No. 9 's second series who had also starred in Life Is Sweet . During filming , Steadman expressed happiness to be working with Pemberton and Shearsmith . She explained that they are excellent writers as they are " off the wall " .
Pemberton knew McShera through his friend Siobhan Finneran , who co @-@ starred with McShera in Downton Abbey . He felt that McShera would be able to bring a " mousey quality " to the role of Tina . Shearsmith felt that her performance was funny while retaining realism . The writers found the role of " Blue Demon Dwarf " difficult to cast , but were very happy with the performance of Starkey , who kept some of his character 's props . The writers also praised Lowe , who they felt was able to make a lot of a comparatively small part . The character of Amanda , they said , was to seem bored and aloof , attempting to get away with doing as little work as possible , while also favouring people seen as more important .
The name Hives , used by Shearsmith 's character , was taken from a Laurel and Hardy butler of the same name . Meanwhile , Hives 's costume and mannerisms were inspired by those worn and adopted by Noel Edmonds in undercover practical jokes . A related influence for the episode was a prank @-@ gone @-@ wrong seen on YouTube , in which a joke 's target punches a costumed person when the latter surprises the former . Pemberton 's character spoke with a cockney accent , something unusual for Pemberton , who normally does not affect accents when acting . In addition to playing Pete , Pemberton provided the deep voice spoken by " Madam Talbot " during the séance .
= = = Style = = =
Shearsmith said that he and Pemberton sometimes aim to produce episodes with genuinely scary scenes , comparing " Séance Time " to " The Harrowing " , the sixth episode of Inside No. 9 's first series , which was also particularly horrific . He said that the writers and crew had similar aims in terms of atmosphere in " Séance Time " as they had in " The Harrowing " . The episodes also shared similar openings , with a lone woman walking towards a large house . Thematically , Shearsmith felt that the episode served to tie together a number of ideas with which he had been " obsessed " for years , including horror , ghosts and magic . The episode 's director , Dan Zeff , got behind the idea of genuine horror , and Shearsmith was happy with how the initial séance was portrayed . A large number of horror clichés were used , but the reason that these clichés are present is subsequently revealed .
Props utilised to heighten the horror included a trick candle — swapped back @-@ and @-@ forth with a real one — which could shoot a large flame . This was operated by a technician hiding under the table on which it was placed . A doll seen on screen , the writers claimed , was probably visible only to Terry among the characters . For the white eyes of " Madam Talbot " , Steadman wore partially white contact lenses . Had she worn fully white lenses , she would have been unable to see , and this would have led to more work for the production crew . Instead , her partially white eyes were made fully white in post @-@ production . Also added in post @-@ production was the wetness of Terry 's clothes in the final scene .
The writers hoped to fool viewers into thinking that they were doing a straightforward séance episode , and so there is little humour prior to the episode 's first twist . For Steadman , the writing meant that both the audience and the character of Tina are fooled together . Nonetheless , humour remained elsewhere in the script ; Lloyd looked forward to performing a particular joke involving blue paint . Terry refers to his colleagues variously as " Pepe and His Friends " , a reference to a variety act with a similar name , and a " warm prop " , a disparaging name which , according to the writers , has been used in the film industry to refer to extras .
= = = Filming and release = = =
Inside No. 9 's second series was filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . " Séance Time " was the second episode of the second series to be filmed , and the filming was completed shortly before production ceased for a Christmas break . The episode was filmed at Langleybury , a country house in Abbots Langley , Hertfordshire . The same house was used for " The Harrowing " , as well as in Shearsmith and Pemberton 's pre @-@ Inside No. 9 television series Psychoville .
On its first showing on BBC Two , " Séance Time " was moved from Inside No. 9 's usual slot on a Thursday evening . It was instead shown on Wednesday 29 April ; this showing was at 10pm in most of the UK , and at 11.20pm in Northern Ireland . The freelance journalist Dan Owen suggested that this , combined with their refusal to release the series on Blu @-@ ray , suggested that the BBC had little faith in Inside No. 9 . He nonetheless called for a third series , a request echoed by other commentators . In their commentary on the episode , Pemberton said that he and Shearsmith had plans for a potential third series , and hoped to be able to get on with producing it . " Séance Time " , along with the other episodes from the second series , was released on DVD on 5 May 2016 , and a third series was
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1997 , and 2003 . Despite the lack of powerful seismic events in Alabama , earthquakes from nearby fault zones , including the New Madrid Seismic Zone , pose a serious threat to infrastructure . Even an earthquake similar in size to the 1916 Irondale event today could damage thousands of buildings and cause up to $ 1 billion in damage .
= = Background = =
= = = Regional = = =
Seismicity in the south – central United States is moderately powerful . The energy from a mid @-@ continent earthquake extends over as much as ten times area of a similarly sized earthquake in the western United States . A magnitude 4 @.@ 0 earthquake west of the Rocky Mountains reaches up to 60 miles ( 97 km ) from its epicenter , while a magnitude 5 @.@ 5 earthquake in the eastern US can be felt 300 miles ( 483 km ) from its epicenter . Science failed to explain the phenomena until 1978 , when geologists discovered a massive fault line running from the middle of the continent to its eastern coast . More recent magnetic surveys show that the structure is a 500 @-@ million year @-@ old strike @-@ slip fault , which starts under the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone and runs to the eastern coast . This corresponds to the strike @-@ slip faulting exhibited in the Eastern Tennessee Zone , and explains the presence of mid @-@ continent earthquakes in the United States . Still , it is not clear if the fault is definitely related to mid @-@ continental seismicity .
= = = Local = = =
Earthquakes in Alabama are sporadic , and tend to cause little to no damage . During a 91 @-@ year period , there were 19 earthquakes , varying from near @-@ imperceptible to damaging . The first known activity in Alabama , the New Madrid earthquakes of 1812 , registered Mercalli intensities of VII ( Very strong ) throughout the northern and central portions of the state . On February 4 , 1886 , the first recorded earthquake from Alabama hit the western part of the state , jolting people in Sumter and Marengo counties .
Following minor events in 1917 , 1927 , 1931 , and 1939 , threatening activity resumed in the late 1950s , when , in 1957 , an earthquake near Birmingham extended from northern Alabama to Georgia and Tennessee , cracking and displacing small objects . A 1959 event in Huntsville , although smaller , damaged chimneys , wrecked plaster , and threw objects from shelves and tables . More recently , events occurred in Escambia County in 1997 and in 2003 in Fort Payne , registering magnitudes of 4 @.@ 9 and spawning shaking . The Fort Payne earthquake spread over 13 states and wrought structural cracks .
= = Geology = =
While earthquakes have taken place throughout Alabama , the northern part of the state is associated with the greatest amount of earthquakes because it lies near the Appalachian Mountains . Three major fault zones lie near Alabama : the New Madrid , Eastern Tennessee , and South Carolina seismic zones .
The New Madrid Seismic Zone ( NMSZ ) lies particularly close and has produced large earthquakes , such as those in 1811 and 1812 . Because the fault zone lies in a densely populated area , a major earthquake from the zone could be catastrophic . The Geological Survey of Alabama predicts a 90 percent chance of an earthquake of 6 @.@ 0 or greater in the area by 2040 . The shaking from such an earthquake would spread again into the northern segment of Alabama . The Southern Appalachian system , which extends into Alabama , poses a moderate threat to eastern and central Alabama and is responsible for most of the state 's earthquakes . The South Carolina seismic zone has produced earthquakes as powerful as 7 @.@ 3 on the Richter scale , and a large earthquake originating from it could easily reach Alabama . The 1886 Charleston earthquake , for example , was felt as far as 750 miles ( 1 @,@ 207 km ) from its epicenter . Another more recently active zone in eastern Tennessee has produced small earthquakes , including one in Alabama in 1997 .
The earthquake originated in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone , among the most active seismic areas in the Southeastern United States and one capable of producing moderately strong earthquakes , a few of which have caused damage . The frequency for non @-@ damaging earthquakes from this zone measures out to about one per year , and it has produced many faint earthquakes recorded on seismographs . Such earthquakes have been helpful in highlighting the activity of faults below the Paleozoic detachment . Fault @-@ plane solutions of multiple earthquakes throughout the area confirmed strike @-@ slip faulting between two steeply declining planes . Both right and left @-@ lateral movement occurs in the area , most movement being associated with north @-@ to @-@ south planes ( right @-@ lateral ) and east @-@ to @-@ west planes ( left @-@ lateral ) . All of these mechanisms indicate reactivation of basement faults below more @-@ recent faults . These basement faults probably converge on one another , and one being strong and the other being weak , produce earthquakes .
Near its epicenter , the 1916 Irondale earthquake produced intensities measuring VI ( Strong ) and VII ( Very strong ) on the Mercalli intensity scale . Further away , its intensities ranged from III ( Weak ) to IV ( Light ) .
= = Damage = =
The earthquake originated near the city of Irondale , 3 miles ( 5 km ) north of Birmingham , striking just after 4 P.M. local time . Because the earthquake took place before Alabama had a seismograph network , its Richter scale magnitude of 5 @.@ 1 is an estimate , but it is still considered the most powerful earthquake in state history , affecting seven other states .
Although there were no deaths , structural damage , including cracked windows , occurred . The most serious damage was in Irondale , where chimneys were toppled . In a two @-@ block area , shaking wrecked fourteen chimneys , including six chimneys at one brick store which collapsed . Throughout the city , oscillation collapsed many other chimneys or damaged them beyond repair . In other cities , chimneys lost bricks and light damage occurred . In Birmingham , a few " poorly built " chimneys sustained damage . Other damage reports included extensive damage to wells ; five wells in Irondale were cut off from their underground supplies . Lower water levels were common in both Irondale and Pell City , where one well was lowered by as much as 12 inches ( 305 mm ) .
In Birmingham , the shaking prompted the evacuation of office buildings . A news article at the time reported that " The sensation on the upper floors of buildings was similar to that of standing on the deck of a vessel in a slight sea . There was the slight pitch , with the suggestion of a roll " .
= = Threat = =
The United States Geological Survey at the Center for Earthquake Research and Information ( CERI ) at the University of Memphis , along with a seismic station in Birmingham which is part of the Advanced National Seismic System facilitate monitoring of inter @-@ state earthquakes , which tend to be moderate and often originate in the NMSZ and other , smaller fault zones .
Andrew Goodlife , a professor of geological sciences at the University of Alabama , believes the state is at " high " risk from earthquakes . He claims that " If there is an earthquake in one of the zone areas , North Alabama is certainly going to feel it . There 's going to be damage and some perhaps major . If one occurred in the zone close to Memphis , it would be devastating because buildings are not made to withstand earthquakes . Places like San Francisco are aware of earthquake risks and structures are built to withstand them . " By his definition , the state 's earthquakes are " insignificant " . Emergency planner Bill Thomison feels skeptical about a major earthquake , stating , " I don 't believe there are any major faults ( interface of rocks ) here . It depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and the Richter scale . You could have a No. 4 ( magnitude ) earthquake in California and not damage anything , but the same type in New York could be devastating because the building codes don 't factor in earthquakes . "
The impact of the 1916 earthquake was minor , but if a similarly sized earthquake were to occur , damage could be extensive . A 2007 United States Geological Survey study estimates that up to $ 1 billion in damage might result should a fairly powerful earthquake occur in a heavily populated area . Considering building codes , soil types , and population numbers from the 2000 United States Census , it estimates 26 buildings destroyed , 3 @,@ 300 structures damaged , and several deaths .
= Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power =
Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power is a platforming and adventure video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It was developed by UK @-@ based company Zippo Games for Rare ; it was published by Acclaim and released in North America in March 1992 and in Europe on January 21 , 1993 . It is the third and final installment in the Wizards & Warriors series and is the sequel to the 1989 title Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II . The game picks up immediately from the events at the end of Ironsword where the knight warrior Kuros had just defeated the evil wizard Malkil from the peak of IceFire Mountain . Unaware that Malkil 's spirit is still intact , Kuros gets struck by a bolt of magic from the spirit , causing him to lose his armor , memory , and honor . Malkil then flees to the city of Piedup and seizes the throne from Good King James . Meanwhile , Kuros , after wandering for months in the wilderness without weapons , armor , or food , arrives at the city of Piedup , where he must build strength and utilize various disguises and abilities in order to take on Malkil . The game is nonlinear and requires players to explore various areas to pick up items and gain abilities to unlock different parts of the city in order to progress .
Wizards & Warriors III was developed by Zippo Games ' founders Ste and John Pickford , who also had a few additional programmers and artists to assist them . The Pickford brothers designed the game as a homage to Ultimate Play the Game 's ( Rare 's former incarnation ) 1983 ZX Spectrum title Atic Atac ; they also drew inspiration for gameplay and art from other NES titles such as Metroid , Faxanadu , and Super Mario Bros. 3 . The game had moderate sales , though not as good as its predecessor Ironsword . It was praised for its bold graphics , expansive gameplay , and challenge . However , it was mostly criticized for its controls , lack of fighting , and the lack of continues or passwords . While the game received mixed reviews , Ste Pickford said that this game was his personal favorite . Zippo Games , which was acquired by Rare and was known as Rare Manchester during development , shut down shortly before this game 's completion , and while the game hinted at another sequel , it has never occurred .
= = Plot = =
Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power takes place immediately after the events at the end of the previous game , Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II , when Kuros has defeated his nemesis , the evil wizard Malkil , on the peak of IceFire Mountain . Unaware that Malkil 's spirit has survived , Kuros is struck by a bolt of magic from the spirit , knocking him out and removing his armor , memory , and honor . A weakened Malkil then flees and takes refuge in the peaceful city of Piedup , where he dethrones Good King James and takes control of the city . Meanwhile , Kuros has been left to wander in the wilderness without any weapons , armor , or food . After wandering for several months , he finally reaches the city of Piedup , where Malkil 's spirit lies . While in the city , Kuros assumes several disguises of wizard , knight , and thief , in order to travel through town undetected and build strength and skill , rescue damsels , and prepare for his battle with Malkil .
Eventually , Kuros makes his way to the throne room in the castle of Piedup . After freeing Good King James , Kuros encounters Malkil , who offers his partnership to Kuros , saying that they would only destroy each other and that they could rule the world if they joined together . Players are then given the option of choosing " yes " or " no " . If the player chooses " yes " , Malkil then shoots Kuros in the back with magic and instantly defeats him while saying : " Ha ! Ha ! Ha ! The Fool ! ! " Malkil then holds Kuros prisoner , and the game ends . If the player chooses " no " , then the final battle commences ; after Kuros defeats Malkil , Kuros is then sucked into a time portal , sending him into the future . The game then concludes , saying that Kuros has restored the city of Piedup to its former self , that the damsels have been saved , and that Good King James has taken back his throne ; Kuros ' legend is then immortalized among the people , as his saga " unfurls like a glorious banner " . The game concludes by saying that , while Malkil will return , Kuros will be there to defeat him repeatedly , and according to the game , " the light shall reign until the end of time " . The game 's ending sets the stage for a sequel , but no sequel for the game was ever released .
= = Gameplay = =
Wizards & Warriors III is a platforming video game which features open @-@ ended gameplay elements similar to games such as Metroid and Faxanadu . Players control the main character Kuros as he sets out to defeat Malkil and free the town of Piedup . The game features three separate realms in which the player must explore - the town , the underworld , and the palace ; players can freely navigate from one realm to another . Throughout the game , players find money which can be used to buy items from inns located throughout Piedup ; players can buy keys for unlocking doors , food and drink for restoring health , and information from shopkeepers . Players begin the game with three lives , and the game ends when all lives have been lost ; unlike the previous Wizards & Warriors games , there is no password or continue feature .
Kuros ' first objective is to gain new disguises , powers , and abilities from the three main character classes : knight , thief , and wizard . In order to do that , Kuros must first collect bronze , silver , and gold statues of each character class and return each statue to its corresponding " guild " . Upon returning a statue to a guild , Kuros must pass a test - in the form of a horizontal or vertical @-@ scrolling level with a boss to defeat at the end - from the person who runs the guild . After defeating the boss , Kuros is then outfitted with a new attire and ability . Each character class has three levels , and each corresponds to a specific statue which must be returned to a specific guild . For example , if Kuros find the bronze thief statue , he must return it to the first level of the thief 's guild ; if Kuros passes the test , he then receives the disguise and ability of a " level one thief " . At the levels of the guild increase , the more difficult the tests become . Each new ability allows players to access new areas which would normally be unreachable with other character classes and abilities . New abilities include improved weaponry for the knight , greater magic for the wizard , and increased access to buildings through doors and windows for the thief .
Another objective to finding and defeating Malkil in Wizards & Warriors III is to find four secret gems which will unlock the hidden passage through the town of Piedup to the castle 's throne room where the evil wizard is located . To do this , Kuros must rescue King James ' three princesses who are hidden somewhere in Piedup ; each of them will grant Kuros a gem and agree to marry him when rescued . The final gem is obtained by defeating a dragon in the town 's underworld .
= = Development = =
Development of Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power started in 1990 , when , after strong sales with Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II , Rare gave Zippo Games the rights to develop and direct the third installment in the series ; the company 's founders , Ste and John Pickford , co @-@ designed the game . Ste Pickford was the lead artist and designed all the concept art for the game , while Lyndon Brooke also assisted with some of the drawings , and Steve Hughes and Andy Miah wrote the software . The game was originally titled Silversword , which was the name of the development project . The Pickford brothers came up with the concept of Kuros ' disguises of knight , wizard , and thief as a homage to Ultimate Play the Game 's ( Rare 's former incarnation ) 1983 ZX Spectrum title Atic Atac . Ste Pickford said that designing a game which consisted of multiple characters , guilds , and secrets " was a dream come true at the time " , saying that they wanted to pay tribute to the various Ultimate Play the Game titles they played in the early 1980s . Pickford wanted to design a game that was a step forward from most Action RPGs for the NES ; he opted for nonlinear gameplay in which the different disguises and accompanying abilities would allow the player to access new areas of the map . " Wizards & Warriors III was more like a game that I really wanted to make . " Pickford said .
As with Zippo Games ' previous projects , the concept art was drawn on paper . The graphics were then drawn with Deluxe Paint and then translated into the ROM manually , sprite @-@ by @-@ sprite , as the NES hardware required precision in sprite placements ; this was different from what Rare did , which was to place each pixel of the graphics sprites on graph paper with marker pens and then tasked people to type the code into the ROM . Ste Pickford said that while Rare 's sprite @-@ drawing method was easier , his method , while time @-@ consuming , was more efficient . Most everything from the previous Wizards & Warriors games were removed , except for the main protagonist , Kuros , and the game 's main antagonist , Malkil . The concept art was originally drawn in black and white , even though the games were being designed in color , to save money from photocopying or printing in color - both of which were very expensive at the time . In developing the " Demon " mini @-@ boss , Pickford could only use about three animation frames , as the sprite was large for the NES hardware . Pickford designed the " Worm " boss similar to the bosses found in R @-@ Type , where a series of smaller sprites formed a snake or worm @-@ like enemy ; however , he commented that " it ended up in the game more like a giant floating head " . Pickford drew inspiration from the thrones in Super Mario Bros. 3 in designing the final boss , Malkil .
However , near the end of development , time constraints led the Pickford brothers to sell Zippo Games to Rare , in which Zippo was renamed Rare Manchester . With Rare as their boss , morale dropped for the development staff , and eventually everyone left the company before the game could be completed , thus shutting Rare Manchester down . According to Ste Pickford : " One of the programmers completed the game himself after the studio closed . " Pickford included a cover , which consisted of a knight in a light @-@ blue armor , in which he said " was just something I drew for fun " . However , when the final version of the game was sent to Rare for approval after the studio 's closing , they threw away the cover and added their own . According to Pickford , " The document came back with about two typos fixed , a new cover , and ' revised by Tim Stamper ' in big letters on the title page , with all trace of myself or any of the Zippo Games names removed , so I guess Tim had a major role . " The game was published by Acclaim Entertainment and released in North America in March 1992 and in Europe on January 21 , 1993 .
The Pickford brothers included a couple of easter egg references . One of them revolved around the name of one of the tavern keepers , Newton N. Ridley , which is a play off the brewery Newton and Ridley from the British soap opera Coronation Street . Another easter egg reference was made to Dragon Warrior with regards to the princesses Kuros must save during the game . Upon saving a princess , she asks Kuros to marry her , prompting a yes / no response for the player ; if the player selects " no " , the princess responds with " If you refuse , my heart will surely break ! " and prompts the yes / no response again - similar to the " but thou must " response in Dragon Warrior . In addition , as all three princesses will have committed to marrying all three forms of Kuros , the original plan for the game 's ending was for the three princesses to come together and see their heroes whom they were going to marry , only to find out all three princesses promised to marry the same person . To rectify the situation , Pickford called for what he referred to as " the ultimate cheapo cop @-@ out " , where a UFO abducts Kuros with a teleport beam , sending him into the future and setting the stage for the next sequel which would have been called Lasersword . However , this never came to be .
= = Reception = =
Wizards & Warriors III received preview coverage in the November 1991 issue of Nintendo Power . There , the magazine praised the graphics as being " eye @-@ grabbers " , saying that " Rare has a knack for bold , colorful graphics " . They also lauded the game 's expansiveness and challenge . However , a couple months later , they announced that the game 's release was delayed . The game would eventually receive a rating in its " George & Rob 's Now Playing " review section in its April 1992 issue , but it did not receive a review .
Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 30 @,@ 000 copies in Europe , according to company figures . It was also one of the featured reviews in the February 1992 issue of GamePro magazine . There , reviewer " Slasher Quan " compared the controls to the previous Wizards & Warriors titles , saying that Kuros " is hard @-@ to @-@ control in certain instances , but it 's still razor sharp " . His criticisms of the game included frustrating item @-@ tracking due to the game 's nonlinear structure , lack of fighting , and the lack of continues or passwords ; he added that , with regard to the lack of continues or passwords , that " this is particularly a shame because Acclaim reports this baby 's about twice as long as Ironsword " . Overall , he said that Wizards & Warriors III was " slightly blurry compared to its predecessors " .
In a retrospective review of the game in 2008 , Destructoid 's Conrad Zimmerman criticized Wizards & Warriors III for many issues . While he initially praised the game for its depth , he criticized the game by comparing Kuros to the previous games in the series , saying that he is " still a good @-@ looking knight with a useless sword which he holds as if it were his manhood when jumping " and adding that he " is still one of the most inept fighters in videogame history " . He also criticizes the game for its lack of action and fighting , saying that it is " more of a platforming game with the occasional boss fight " . Other criticisms include slow and unresponsive controls and hard @-@ to @-@ defeat bosses . Overall , he says that Wizards & Warriors III " isn 't a bad game , just one that has some great ideas hampered by serious flaws " .
Wizards & Warriors III received praise from Retro Gamer magazine in September 2010 , as part of its retrospective on the Wizards & Warriors series . They said that the third installment was the best game in the series as well as developer Ste Pickford 's personal favorite , despite the fact that it did not sell as well as its predecessor Ironsword . Developer Ste Pickford said : " Wizards & Warriors III was more like a game that I really wanted to make . IronSword was pretty much a straight sequel for a game dropped in our lap ; we look at it and tried to make a new version with some improvements . " Pickford added that , while he could have done better with both Ironsword and Wizards & Warriors III , he wished he would have been able to see the latter to its completion .
While Wizards & Warriors III hinted at a sequel at the end of the game , it has not happened . The publishing rights for the series remained with Acclaim , who went bankrupt in 2004 , with their intellectual property rights going to Throwback Entertainment . As of late 2010 , the Toronto @-@ based company has no plans for any future games in the series .
= And the Rockets ' Dead Glare =
" And the Rockets Dead Glare " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 17 , 1993 . In the episode , Howard testifies in a murder trial , Pembleton is offered a promotion , and Lewis and Crosetti go to the Chinese Embassy in Washington , D.C. to investigate a political refugee 's murder .
The teleplay was written by Jorge Zamacona based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and the episode was directed by Peter Markle . It marked the first appearances of two recurring characters : defense attorney Darin Russom ( Michael Willis ) and Detective Frank Pembleton 's wife Mary , who was played by actor Andre Braugher 's real @-@ life wife Ami Brabson . The episode also featured a guest performance by actress and future model Bai Ling .
The murder trial portrayed in the episode is based on a trial featured in David Simon 's 1991 non @-@ fiction book , Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , on which the series was based . Howard 's procedural missteps , and her subsequent recovery , was based on that real @-@ life trial . The writers sought to realistically portray the trial scenes by focusing on less dramatic courtroom elements . Some of the detectives in " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " make arguments for drug liberalization , particularly John Munch , whose arguments were inspired by actor Richard Belzer 's real @-@ life personal history with drug abuse .
Since ratings for Homicide had gradually declined throughout the season , NBC announced a decision about whether the series would be renewed would depend on the Nielsen ratings of the final four episodes , including " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " . Nevertheless , it was seen by a relatively low 6 @.@ 61 million household viewers , a decline from the previous week 's " A Dog and Pony Show " .
= = Plot summary = =
Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti investigate the execution @-@ style shooting death of a
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, implying these stars shared a common origin in an open cluster . Its nearest neighbor , the binary star system Luyten 726 @-@ 8 , will have a close encounter with Epsilon Eridani in approximately 31 @,@ 500 years when they will be separated by about 0 @.@ 93 ly . As one of the nearest Sun @-@ like stars with the potential for a planet that may harbor life , Epsilon Eridani has been the target of SETI searches . Epsilon Eridani appears in science fiction stories and has been suggested as a destination for interstellar travel . From Epsilon Eridani , the Sun would appear as a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ magnitude star in Serpens .
= = Observation history = =
= = = Cataloguing = = =
Epsilon Eridani has been known to astronomers since at least the 2nd century , when it was included by Claudius Ptolemy , a Greek astronomer from Alexandria , Egypt , in his catalogue of more than 1000 stars . The catalogue was included as the 7th ( northern sky ) and 8th ( southern sky ) books of his 13 @-@ book astronomical treatise Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις ( Mathēmatikē Syntaxis ) , known by its later Arabic name Almagest . Constellation Eridanus , named by Ptolemy " Ποταμού " ( " River " ) , was included in the 8th book as the 9th constellation ( or 36th from the beginning ) , and Epsilon Eridani was the 13th star , listed in the River . Ptolemy called Epsilon Eridani " ό τών δ προηγούμενος " ( here " δ " is number " 4 " ) , which means in Greek " a foregoing of the four " . The " four " is a group of four stars in Eridanus : γ , π , δ and ε ( 10th – 13th ) , of which ε is the most western , and thus , the first of the four in the apparent daily motion of the sky from east to west . The modern designations of its entry in Ptolemy 's catalogue are " P 784 " ( in order of appearance ) and " Eri 13 " . The magnitude , assigned to Epsilon Eridani by Ptolemy , was 3 .
Epsilon Eridani was included in star catalogues of medieval Islamic astronomical treatises , which were based on Ptolemy 's catalogue : in Al @-@ Sufi 's Book of Fixed Stars , published in 964 , Al @-@ Biruni 's Mas 'ud Canon , published in 1030 , and Ulugh Beg 's Zij @-@ i Sultani , published in 1437 . Al @-@ Sufi 's estimate of Epsilon Eridani 's magnitude was 3 . Al @-@ Biruni quotes magnitudes from Ptolemy and Al @-@ Sufi ( however , for Epsilon Eridani he quotes the value 4 for both Ptolemy 's and Al @-@ Sufi 's magnitudes , whereas original values of both these magnitudes are 3 ) . Its number in order of appearance is 786 . Ulugh Beg carried out new measurements of Epsilon Eridani 's coordinates in his observatory at Samarkand , and quotes magnitudes from Al @-@ Sufi ( 3 for Epsilon Eridani ) . The modern designations of its entry in Ulugh Beg 's catalogue are " U 781 " and " Eri 13 " ( the latter is the same as Ptolemy 's catalogue designation ) .
In 1598 Epsilon Eridani was included in Tycho Brahe 's star catalogue , republished also in 1627 by Johannes Kepler as part of his Rudolphine Tables . This catalogue was based on Tycho Brahe 's observations including those on the island of Hven at his observatories Uraniborg and Stjerneborg , during 1577 — 1597 . The sequence number of Epsilon Eridani in constellation Eridanus was 10 , and it was designated " Quae omnes quatuor antecedit " , which means in Latin " Which precedes all four " ; the meaning is the same as Ptolemy 's designation . Brahe assigned it magnitude 3 .
Epsilon Eridani 's Bayer designation was established in 1603 as part of the Uranometria , a star catalogue produced by German celestial cartographer Johann Bayer . His catalogue assigned letters from the Greek alphabet to groups of stars belonging to the same visual magnitude class in each constellation , beginning with alpha ( α ) for a star in the brightest class . However , Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness within each class . Thus , although Epsilon is the fifth letter in the Greek alphabet , the star is the tenth brightest star in Eridanus . In addition to the letter ε , Bayer had given it the number 13 ( the same as Ptolemy 's catalogue number , as were many of Bayer 's numbers ) and designation " Decima septima " , which means in Latin " The seventeenth " . The meaning of this : Bayer designated 21 stars in the northern part of Eridanus along the river from east to west from the first ( β , " Supra pedem Orionis in flumine , prima " , that is " Above the foot of Orion in the river , the first " ) to the twenty @-@ first ( σ , " Vigesima prima " , that is " the twenty @-@ first " ) , and Epsilon Eridani was the seventeenth of them . These 21 stars are : β , λ , ψ , b , ω , μ , c , ν , ξ , ο ( two stars ) , d , A , γ , π , δ , ε , ζ , ρ , η , σ . Bayer assigned Epsilon Eridani magnitude 3 .
In 1690 Epsilon Eridani was included in the star catalogue of Johannes Hevelius . Its sequence number in constellation Eridanus was 14 , its designation was " Tertia " ( " the third " ) , and it was assigned magnitude 3 ( according to Verbunt and Gent ) or 4 ( according to Baily ) . The star catalogue of English astronomer John Flamsteed , published in 1712 , gave Epsilon Eridani the Flamsteed designation 18 Eridani because it was the eighteenth catalogued star in the constellation of Eridanus by order of increasing right ascension . In 1818 Epsilon Eridani was included in Friedrich Bessel 's catalogue , based on James Bradley 's observations during 1750 – 1762 . Assigned magnitude was 4 . It also appeared in Nicolas Louis de Lacaille 's catalogue of 398 principal stars , whose 307 @-@ star version was published in 1755 in the Ephémérides des Mouvemens Célestes , pour dix années , 1755 — 1765 , and whose full version was published in 1757 in Astronomiæ Fundamenta , Paris . In its 1831 edition by Francis Baily Epsilon Eridani has the number 50 . Lacaille assigned it magnitude 3 .
In 1801 Epsilon Eridani was included in Histoire Céleste Française , Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande 's catalogue of about 50 @,@ 000 stars , based on his observations during 1791 — 1800 , in which observations are arranged in a time order . It contains three observations of Epsilon Eridani : 1796 September 17 ( page 246 ) , 1796 December 3 ( page 248 ) and 1797 November 13 ( page 307 ) . In 1847 , an edition of Lalande 's catalogue ( Francis Baily et al . ) was published , containing the majority of its observations , in which the stars were numbered in order of right ascension . Because every observation of every star was numbered and Epsilon Eridani was observed three times , it got three numbers : 6581 , 6582 and 6583 . ( Today numbers from this catalogue are used with the prefix " Lalande " , or " Lal " ) . Lalande assigned Epsilon Eridani magnitude 3 . Also in 1801 it was included in the catalogue of Johann Bode , in which about 17 @,@ 000 stars were grouped into 102 constellations and numbered ( Epsilon Eridani got the number 159 in the constellation Eridanus ) . Bode 's catalogue was based on observations of various astronomers , including Bode himself , but mostly on Lalande 's and Lacaille 's ( for the southern sky ) , and an observer for Epsilon Eridani was Lalande . Bode assigned Epsilon Eridani magnitude 3 . In 1814 Giuseppe Piazzi published the second edition of his star catalogue ( its first edition was published in 1803 ) , based on observations during 1792 — 1813 , in which more than 7000 stars were grouped into 24 hours ( 0 — 23 ) . Epsilon Eridani is number 89 in hour 3 . Piazzi assigned it magnitude 4 . In 1918 Epsilon Eridani appeared in the Henry Draper Catalogue with the designation HD 22049 and a preliminary spectral classification of K0 .
= = = Detection of proximity = = =
Based on observations between 1800 and 1880 , Epsilon Eridani was found to have a large proper motion across the celestial sphere , which was estimated at an angular velocity of three arcseconds annually . This movement implied it was relatively close to the Sun , making it a star of interest for the purpose of trigonometric parallax measurements . This process involves recording the position of Epsilon Eridani as Earth moves around the Sun , which allows a star 's distance to be estimated . From 1881 to 1883 , American astronomer William L. Elkin used a heliometer at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa to compare the position of Epsilon Eridani with two nearby stars . From these observations , a parallax of 0 @.@ 14 ± 0 @.@ 02 arcseconds was calculated . By 1917 , observers had refined their parallax estimate to 0 @.@ 317 arcseconds . The modern value of 0 @.@ 3109 arcseconds is equivalent to a distance of about 10 @.@ 50 ly ( 3 @.@ 22 parsecs ) .
= = = Circumstellar discoveries = = =
Based on unexplained changes in the position of Epsilon Eridani between 1938 and 1972 , Dutch – American astronomer Peter van de Kamp proposed that an unseen companion with an orbital period of 25 years was causing gravitational perturbations in its position . This claim was refuted in 1993 by German astronomer Wulff @-@ Dieter Heintz and the false detection was blamed on a systematic error in the photographic plates .
Launched in 1983 , the space telescope IRAS detected infrared emissions from stars near to the Sun . Two years later , the presence of an excess infrared emission close to Epsilon Eridani was announced , which indicated a disk of fine @-@ grained cosmic dust was orbiting Epsilon Eridani . This debris disk has since been extensively studied . Evidence for a planetary system was discovered in 1998 by the observation of asymmetries in this dust ring . These clumps of dust could be explained by gravitational interaction with a planet orbiting just inside the ring of dust .
In 1987 , the detection of an orbiting planetary object was announced by Bruce Campbell , Gordon Walker and Stephenson Yang . From 1980 to 2000 , a team of astronomers led by American Artie P. Hatzes made radial velocity observations of Epsilon Eridani , measuring changes in motion of Epsilon Eridani along the line of sight to Earth , which provided evidence of the gravitational effect of a planet orbiting it with a period of about seven years . Although there is a high level of noise in the radial velocity data due to magnetic activity in its photosphere , any periodicity caused by this magnetic activity is expected to show a strong correlation with variations in emission lines of ionized calcium ( the Ca II H and K lines ) . Because no such correlation was found , a planetary companion was deemed the most likely cause . This discovery was supported by astrometric measurements of Epsilon Eridani made between 2001 and 2003 with the Hubble Space Telescope , which showed evidence for gravitational perturbation of Epsilon Eridani by a planet .
American astrophysicist Alice C. Quillen and her student Stephen Thorndike performed computer simulations of the structure of the dust disk around Epsilon Eridani . Their model suggested that the clumping of the dust particles could be explained by the presence of a second planet in an eccentric orbit . They announced this finding in 2002 .
= = = SETI and proposed exploration = = =
In 1960 , American physicist Philip Morrison and Italian physicist Giuseppe Cocconi proposed that extraterrestrial civilizations might be using radio signals for communication . Project Ozma , headed by American astronomer Frank Drake , used the Tatel Telescope to search for such signals from the nearby Sun @-@ like stars Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti . The systems were observed at the emission frequency of neutral hydrogen , 1 @,@ 420 MHz . No signals of intelligent extraterrestrial origin were detected . Drake repeated the experiment in 2010 , with the same negative result . Despite this lack of success , Epsilon Eridani made its way into science fiction literature and television shows for many years following news of Drake 's initial experiment .
In Habitable Planets for Man , a 1964 RAND Corporation study by American space scientist Stephen H. Dole , the probability of a habitable planet being in orbit around Epsilon Eridani were estimated at 3 @.@ 3 % . Among the known stars within 22 ly , it was listed with the 14 stars that were thought most likely to have a habitable planet .
American space scientist William I. McLaughlin proposed a new strategy in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) in 1977 . He suggested that widely observable events such as nova explosions might be used by intelligent extraterrestrials to synchronize the transmission and reception of their signals . This idea was tested from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in 1988 , which used outbursts of Nova Cygni 1975 as the timer . Fifteen days of observation showed no anomalous radio signals coming from Epsilon Eridani .
Because of the proximity and Sun @-@ like properties of Epsilon Eridani , American physicist Robert L. Forward considered the system as one of the targets for interstellar travel in 1985 . The following year , the British Interplanetary Society suggested Epsilon Eridani as one of several targets in its Project Daedalus paper study . The system has continued to be among the targets of such proposals , as with Project Icarus in 2011 .
Based on its location within 23 @.@ 5 ly ( 7 @.@ 2 parsecs ) , Epsilon Eridani was among the target stars of Project Phoenix , a 1995 microwave survey for signals from extraterrestrial intelligence . The project had checked about 800 stars by 2004 , but had not yet detected an unimpeachable signal .
= = Properties = =
At a distance of 10 @.@ 50 ly ( 3 @.@ 22 parsecs ) , Epsilon Eridani is the 13th @-@ nearest known star ( and ninth nearest solitary star or stellar system ) to the Sun as of 2014 . Its proximity makes it one of the most studied stars of its stellar classification . Epsilon Eridani is located in the northern part of the constellation Eridanus , about 3 ° east of the slightly brighter star Delta Eridani . With a declination of − 9 @.@ 46 ° , Epsilon Eridani can be viewed from much of Earth 's surface . Only to the north of latitude 80 ° N is it permanently hidden below the horizon . The apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 73 can make it difficult to observe from an urban area with the unaided eye , because the night skies over cities are obscured by light pollution .
Epsilon Eridani has an estimated 82 % of the Sun 's mass and 74 % of the Sun 's radius , but only 34 % of its luminosity . The estimated surface temperature is 5 @,@ 084 K. With a stellar classification of K2 V , it is the second @-@ nearest K @-@ type main @-@ sequence star after Alpha Centauri B. Indeed , since 1943 , the spectrum of Epsilon Eridani has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified . Its metallicity , or enrichment in elements heavier than helium , is slightly lower than the Sun 's . In Epsilon Eridani 's chromosphere , a region of the outer atmosphere just above the light emitting photosphere , the proportion of iron is estimated at 74 % of the Sun 's abundance .
Epsilon Eridani 's K @-@ type classification indicates that the spectrum has relatively weak absorption lines from energy absorbed by hydrogen and strong lines of neutral atoms and singly ionized calcium ( Ca II ) . The luminosity class V is assigned to stars that are undergoing thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in their core . For a K @-@ type main @-@ sequence star , this fusion is dominated by the proton – proton chain reaction , wherein a series of mergers of four hydrogen nuclei results in a helium nucleus . In their inner region , energy is transported outward from the core by means of radiation , which results in no net motion of the surrounding plasma . Outside of this region , in their envelope , energy is carried to the photosphere by plasma convection , where it then radiates into space .
= = = Magnetic activity = = =
Epsilon Eridani has a higher level of magnetic activity than the Sun , and hence demonstrates increased activity in the outer parts of its atmosphere : the chromosphere and corona . The average magnetic @-@ field strength of Epsilon Eridani across the entire surface is ( 1 @.@ 65 ± 0 @.@ 30 ) × 10 − 2 T , which is more than forty times greater than the ( 5 – 40 ) × 10 − 5 T magnetic @-@ field strength in the Sun 's photosphere . The magnetic properties can be modeled by assuming that regions with a magnetic flux of about 0 @.@ 14 T randomly cover approximately 9 % of the photosphere , whereas the remainder of the surface is free of magnetic fields . The overall magnetic activity of Epsilon Eridani is irregular , but it may vary with a 4 @.@ 9 @-@ year period . Assuming that its radius does not change over this interval , the long @-@ term variation in activity level appears to produce a temperature variation of 15 K , which corresponds to a variation in visual magnitude ( V ) of 0 @.@ 014 .
The magnetic field on the surface of Epsilon Eridani causes variations in the hydrodynamic behavior of the photosphere . This results in greater jitter during measurements of its radial velocity Doppler shift . Variations of 15 m s − 1 were measured over a 20 year period , which is much higher than the measurement error rate of 3 m s − 1 . This makes interpretation of periodicities in the radial velocity of Epsilon Eridani , such as those caused by the gravitational perturbations of an orbiting planet , more difficult .
Epsilon Eridani is classified as a BY Draconis variable because it has regions of higher magnetic activity that move into and out of the line of sight as it rotates . Measurement of this rotational modulation suggests that its equatorial region rotates with an average period of 11 @.@ 2 days , which is less than half of the rotation period of the Sun . Observations have shown that Epsilon Eridani varies as much as 0 @.@ 050 in V magnitude due to starspots and other short @-@ term magnetic activity . Photometry has also shown that the surface of Epsilon Eridani , like the Sun , is undergoing differential rotation , which means that the rotation period at the surface varies by latitude . The measured periods range from 10 @.@ 8 to 12 @.@ 3 days . The axial tilt of Epsilon Eridani toward the line of sight from Earth is uncertain . Estimates range from 24 ° to 72 ° .
The high levels of chromospheric activity , strong magnetic field , and relatively fast rotation rate of Epsilon Eridani are characteristic of a young star . The age of Epsilon Eridani is about 440 million years , but this remains subject to debate . Most age estimation methods place it in the range from 200 million to 800 million years . However , the low abundance of heavy elements in the chromosphere of Epsilon Eridani is indicative of an older star , because the medium out of which stars form is steadily enriched by heavier elements produced by older generations of stars . This anomaly might be caused by a diffusion process that has transported some of the helium and heavier elements out of the photosphere and into a region below Epsilon Eridani 's convection zone .
The X @-@ ray luminosity of Epsilon Eridani is about 2 × 1028 ergs / s ( 2 × 1021 W ) . It is brighter in X @-@ ray emission than the Sun at peak activity . The source for this strong X @-@ ray emission is Epsilon Eridani 's hot corona . Epsilon Eridani 's corona appears larger and hotter than the Sun 's , with a temperature of 3 @.@ 4 × 106 K as measured from observation of the corona 's ultraviolet and X @-@ ray emission .
The stellar wind emitted by Epsilon Eridani expands until it collides with the surrounding interstellar medium of sparse gas and dust , resulting in a bubble of heated hydrogen gas . The absorption spectrum from this gas has been measured with the Hubble Space Telescope , allowing the properties of the stellar wind to be estimated . Epsilon Eridani 's hot corona results in a mass loss rate from Epsilon Eridani 's stellar wind that is 30 times higher than the Sun 's . This wind is generating an astrosphere ( the equivalent of the heliosphere that surrounds the Sun ) that spans about 8 @,@ 000 AU and contains a bow shock that lies 1 @,@ 600 AU from Epsilon Eridani . At its estimated distance from Earth , this astrosphere spans 42 arcminutes , which is wider than the apparent size of the full Moon .
= = = Kinematics = = =
Epsilon Eridani has a high proper motion , moving − 0 @.@ 976 arcseconds per year in right ascension ( the celestial longitude ) and 0 @.@ 018 arcseconds per year in declination ( the celestial latitude ) , for a total proper motion of 0 @.@ 962 arcseconds per year . It has a radial velocity of + 15 @.@ 5 km / s away from the Sun . The space velocity components of Epsilon Eridani in the galactic coordinate system are ( U , V , W ) = ( − 3 , + 7 , − 20 ) km / s , which means that it is traveling within the Milky Way at a mean galactocentric distance of 28 @.@ 7 kly ( 8 @.@ 79 kiloparsecs ) from the core along an orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 09 . The velocity and heading of Epsilon Eridani indicate that it may be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group that share a common motion through space . This behavior suggests that the members originated in an open cluster that has since diffused . The estimated age of this group is 500 ± 100 million years , which lies within the range of the age estimates for Epsilon Eridani .
During the past million years , three stars are believed to have come within 7 ly ( 2 parsecs ) of Epsilon Eridani . The most recent and closest of these encounters was with Kapteyn 's Star , which approached to a distance of about 3 ly ( 0 @.@ 9 parsecs ) roughly 12 @,@ 500 years ago . The other two stars were Sirius and Ross 614 . None of these encounters are thought to have affected the circumstellar disk orbiting Epsilon Eridani .
Epsilon Eridani made its closest approach to the Sun about 105 @,@ 000 years ago , when they were separated by 7 ly ( 2 @.@ 1 parsecs ) . Based upon a simulation of close encounters with nearby stars , the binary star system Luyten 726 @-@ 8 , which includes the variable star UV Ceti , will encounter Epsilon Eridani in approximately 31 @,@ 500 years at a minimum distance of about 0 @.@ 9 ly ( 0 @.@ 29 parsecs ) . They will be less than 1 ly ( 0 @.@ 3 parsecs ) apart for about 4 @,@ 600 years . If Epsilon Eridani has an Oort cloud , Luyten 726 @-@ 8 could gravitationally perturb some of the comets with long orbital periods .
= = Planetary system = =
= = = Dust disk = = =
Observations with the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope at a wavelength of 850 μm show an extended flux of radiation out to an angular radius of 35 arcseconds around Epsilon Eridani . The peak emission occurs at an angular radius of 18 arcseconds , which corresponds to a radius of about 60 AU . The highest level of emission occurs over the radius 35 – 75 AU from Epsilon Eridani and is substantially reduced inside 30 AU . This emission is interpreted as coming from a young analogue of the Solar System 's Kuiper belt : a compact dusty disk structure surrounding Epsilon Eridani . From Earth , this belt is viewed at an inclination of roughly 25 ° to the line of sight .
Dust and possibly water ice from this belt migrates inward because of drag from the stellar wind and a process by which stellar radiation causes dust grains to slowly spiral toward Epsilon Eridani , known as the Poynting – Robertson effect . At the same time , these dust particles can be destroyed through mutual collisions . The time scale for all of the dust in the disk to be cleared away by these processes is less than Epsilon Eridani 's estimated age . Hence , the current dust disk must have been created by collisions or other effects of larger parent bodies , and the disk represents a late stage in the planet @-@ formation process . It would have required collisions between 11 Earth masses ' worth of parent bodies to have maintained the disk in its current state over its estimated age .
The disk contains an estimated mass of dust equal to a sixth of the mass of the Moon , with individual dust grains exceeding 3 @.@ 5 μm in size at a temperature of about 55 K. This dust is being generated by the collision of comets , which range up to 10 to 30 km in diameter and have a combined mass of 5 to 9 times that of Earth . This is similar to the estimated 10 Earth masses in the primordial Kuiper belt . However , the disk around Epsilon Eridani contains less than 2 @.@ 2 × 1017 kg of carbon monoxide . This low level suggests a paucity of volatile @-@ bearing comets and icy planetesimals compared to the Kuiper belt .
The clumpy structure of the dust belt may be explained by gravitational perturbation from a planet , dubbed Epsilon Eridani b . The clumps in the dust occur at orbits that have an integer resonance with the orbit of the suspected planet . For example , the region of the disk that completes two orbits for every three orbits of a planet is in a 3 : 2 orbital resonance . In computer simulations the ring morphology can be reproduced by the capture of dust particles in 5 : 3 and 3 : 2 orbital resonances with a planet that has an orbital eccentricity of about 0 @.@ 3 . Alternatively , the clumpiness may have been caused by collisions between minor planets known as plutinos .
Observations from NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope suggest that Epsilon Eridani actually has two asteroid belts and a cloud of exozodiacal dust . The latter is an analog of the zodiacal dust that occupies the plane of the Solar System . One belt sits at approximately the same position as the one in the Solar System , orbiting at a distance of 3 @.@ 00 ± 0 @.@ 75 AU from Epsilon Eridani , and consists of silicate grains with a diameter of 3 μm and a combined mass of about 1018 kg . If the planet Epsilon Eridani b exists then this belt is unlikely to have had a source outside the orbit of the planet , so the dust may have been created by fragmentation and cratering of larger bodies such as asteroids . The second , denser belt , most likely also populated by asteroids , lies between the first belt and the outer comet disk . The structure of the belts and the dust disk suggests that more than two planets in the Epsilon Eridani system are needed to maintain this configuration .
In an alternative scenario , the exozodiacal dust may be generated in an outer belt that is orbiting between 55 and 90 AU from Epsilon Eridani and has an assumed mass of 10 − 3 times the mass of Earth . This dust is then transported inward past the orbit of Epsilon Eridani b . When collisions between the dust grains are taken into account , the dust will reproduce the observed infrared spectrum and brightness . Outside the radius of ice sublimation , located beyond 10 AU from Epsilon Eridani where the temperatures fall below 100 K , the best fit to the observations occurs when a mix of ice and silicate dust is assumed . Inside this radius , the dust must consist of silicate grains that lack volatiles .
The inner region around Epsilon Eridani , from a radius of 2 @.@ 5 AU inward , appears to be clear of dust down to the detection limit of the 6 @.@ 5 m MMT telescope . Grains of dust in this region are efficiently removed by drag from the stellar wind , while the presence of a planetary system may also help keep this area clear of debris . Still , this does not preclude the possibility that an inner asteroid belt may be present with a combined mass no greater than the asteroid belt in the Solar System .
= = = Possible planets = = =
As one of the nearest Sun @-@ like stars , Epsilon Eridani has been the target of many attempts to search for planetary companions . However , its chromospheric activity and variability means that finding planets with the radial velocity method is difficult , because the stellar activity may create signals that mimic the presence of planets . Attempts at direct imaging of potential exoplanets have proven unsuccessful to date .
Infrared observation has shown there are no bodies of three or more Jupiter masses in this system , out to at least a distance of 500 AU from the host star . Planets with similar masses and temperatures as Jupiter should be detectable by Spitzer at distances beyond 80 AU , but none has been discovered in this range . Planets more than 150 % as massive as Jupiter can be ruled out at the inner edge of the debris disk at 30 − 35 AU .
= = = = Planet b = = = =
Referred to as Epsilon Eridani b , this planet was announced in 2000 , but the discovery has remained controversial . A comprehensive study in 2008 called the detection " tentative " and described the proposed planet as " long suspected but still unconfirmed " . However , many astronomers believed the evidence is sufficiently compelling that
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to Greenwich Village , where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman . He took up painting as a hobby , exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of the New York Evening World . With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons , Crowley revived The Equinox with the first issue of volume III , known as " The Blue Equinox " . He spent mid @-@ 1919 on a climbing holiday in Montauk before returning to London in December .
= = = Abbey of Thelema : 1920 – 23 = = =
Now destitute and back in London , Crowley came under attack from the tabloid John Bull , which labelled him traitorous " scum " for his work with the German war effort ; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue , but he decided not to . When he was suffering from asthma , a doctor prescribed him heroin , to which he soon became addicted . In January 1920 , he moved to Paris , renting a house in Fontainebleau with Leah Hirsig ; they were soon joined in a ménage à trois by Ninette Shumway , and also by Leah 's newborn daughter Anne " Poupée " Leah . Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites , which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de Thélème in François Rabelais ' satire Gargantua and Pantagruel . After consulting the I Ching , he chose Cefalù ( on Sicily , Italy ) as a location , and after arriving there , began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April .
Moving to the commune with Hirsig , Shumway , and their children Hansi , Howard , and Poupée , Crowley described the scenario as " perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven . " They wore robes , and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day , also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass ; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests . Undertaking widespread correspondences , Crowley continued to paint , wrote a commentary on The Book of the Law , and revised the third part of Book 4 . He offered a libertine education for the children , allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic . He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies , including drugs ; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life , and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity . There was no cleaning rota , and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building , which soon became unsanitary . Poupée died in October 1920 , and Ninette gave birth to a daughter , Astarte Lulu Panthea , soon afterwards .
New followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley . Among them was film star Jane Wolfe , who arrived in July 1920 , where she was initiated into the A ∴ A ∴ and became Crowley 's secretary . Another was Cecil Frederick Russell , who often argued with Crowley , disliking the same @-@ sex sexual magic that he was required to perform , and left after a year . More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett , who also spent several months at the Abbey . In February 1922 , Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction . He then went to London in search of money , where he published articles in The English Review criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel , Diary of a Drug Fiend , completed in July . On publication , it received mixed reviews ; he was lambasted by the Sunday Express , which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints .
Subsequently , a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May ; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley , May detested him and life at the commune . She later said that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat , and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun " I " . Loveday drank from a local polluted stream , soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923 . Returning to London , May told her story to the press . John Bull proclaimed Crowley " the wickedest man in the world " and " a man we 'd like to hang " , and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous , he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them . As a result , John Bull continued its attack , with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America . The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley 's activities and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy ; without him , the Abbey closed .
= = Later life = =
= = = Tunisia , Paris , and London : 1923 – 29 = = =
Crowley and Hirsig went to Tunis , where , dogged by continuing poor health , he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin , and began writing what he termed his " autohagiography " , The Confessions of Aleister Crowley . They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd , who became Crowley 's public relations consultant . Employing a local boy , Mohammad ben Brahim , as his servant , Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta , where they performed sex magic together . In January 1924 , Crowley travelled to Nice , France , where he met with Frank Harris , underwent a series of nasal operations , and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man , and had a positive opinion of its founder , George Gurdjieff . Destitute , he took on a wealthy student , Alexander Zu Zolar , before taking on another American follower , Dorothy Olsen . Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta , where he also wrote To Man ( 1924 ) , a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity . After spending the winter in Paris , in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis , where he wrote The Heart of the Master ( 1938 ) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance . In March Olsen became pregnant , and Hirsig was called to take care of her ; she miscarried , following which Crowley took Olsen back to France . Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley , who then denounced her .
According to Crowley , Reuss had named him head of the O.T.O. upon his death , but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O. , Heinrich Tränker . Tränker called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia , Germany , which Crowley attended . There , prominent members like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed Crowley 's leadership , but other key figures like Albin Grau , Oskar Hopfer , and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it , resulting in a split in the O.T.O. Moving to Paris , where he broke with Olsen in 1926 , Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years , with whom he experimented in sex magic . Throughout , he was dogged by poor health , largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions . In 1928 , Crowley was introduced to young Englishman Israel Regardie , who embraced Thelema and became Crowley 's secretary for the next three years . That year , Crowley also met Gerald Yorke , who began organising Crowley 's finances but never became a Thelemite . He also befriended Thomas Driberg ; Driberg did not accept Thelema either . It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works , Magick in Theory and Practice , which received little attention at the time .
In December 1929 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez . Crowley was deported from France by the authorities , who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent . So that she could join him in Britain , Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929 . Now based in London , Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six @-@ volume set , also publishing his novel Moonchild and book of short stories The Stratagem . Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930 , before the entirety of Crowley 's Confessions could be published . Mandrake 's owner P.R. Stephenson meanwhile wrote The Legend of Aleister Crowley , an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him .
= = = Berlin and London : 1930 – 38 = = =
In April 1930 , Crowley moved to Berlin , where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner ; the relationship was troubled . In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa . There , he decided to fake his own death , doing so with Pessoa 's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation . He then returned to Berlin , where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann @-@ Nierendorf . Crowley 's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism ; few of them sold , but the press reports were largely favourable . In August 1931 , he took Bertha Busch as his new lover ; they had a violent relationship , and often physically assaulted one another . He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city , and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler . After befriending him , in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger , through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left ; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time , monitoring the communist movement .
Crowley left Busch and returned to London , where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman . Undergoing further nasal surgery , it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles ' Literary Luncheon , also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research . In need of money , he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed had libelled him , some of which proved successful . He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett 's Laughing Torso ( 1932 ) – a book he thought libelled him – but lost the case . The court case added to Crowley 's financial problems , and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt . During the hearing , it was revealed that Crowley had been spending three times his income for several years .
Crowley developed a platonic friendship with Deidre Patricia O 'Doherty ; she offered to bear his child , who was born in May 1937 . Named Randall Gair , Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk . Crowley continued to socialise with friends , holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them . In 1936 , he published his first book in six years , The Equinox of the Gods , which contained a facsimile of The Book of the Law and was considered to be volume III , number 3 , of The Equinox periodical . The work sold well , resulting in a second print run . In 1937 he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho . Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the O.T.O. ' s Agape Lodge in California , led by rocket scientist John Whiteside " Jack " Parsons . Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany , and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema ; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer , who fled to the US , Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician .
= = = Second World War and death : 1939 – 47 = = =
When the Second World War broke out , Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services , but they declined . He associated with a variety of figures in Britain 's intelligence community at the time , including Dennis Wheatley , Roald Dahl , Ian Fleming , and Maxwell Knight , and claimed to have been behind the " V for Victory " sign first used by the BBC ; this has never been proven . In 1940 , his asthma worsened , and with his German @-@ produced medication unavailable , he returned to using heroin , once again becoming addicted . As the Blitz hit London , Crowley relocated to Torquay , where he was briefly hospitalised with asthma , and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club . Tiring of Torquay , he returned to London , where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry , to whom Crowley awarded the title of " Hymenaeus Alpha " . He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor , McMurty should succeed Germer as head of the O.T.O. after the latter 's death . With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris , Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set , designed by him and painted by Harris . Accompanying this was a book , published in a limited edition as The Book of Thoth by Chiswick Press in 1944 . To aid the war effort , he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity , Liber Oz , and a poem for the liberation of France , Le Gauloise . Crowley 's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry , Olla : An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song . Another of his projects , Aleister Explains Everything , was posthumously published as Magick Without Tears .
In April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire , where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard , before relocating to Hastings in Sussex , where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house . He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary , paying him in magical teaching rather than wages . He was also introduced to John Symonds , whom he appointed to be his literary executor ; Symonds thought little of Crowley , later publishing negative biographies of him . Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther , it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner , the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca . They became friends , with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain 's ailing O.T.O. Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler , who interviewed Crowley for her book The Myth of the Magus . Other friends and family also spent time with him , among them Doherty and Crowley 's son Aleister Atatürk . On 1 December 1947 , Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration , aged 72 . His funeral was held at a Brighton crematorium on 5 December ; about a dozen people attended , and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass , The Book of the Law , and " Hymn to Pan " . The funeral generated press controversy , and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids . Crowley 's ashes were sent to Germer in the US , who buried them in his garden in Hampton , New Jersey .
= = Beliefs and thought = =
Crowley 's thought was not always cohesive , and was influenced by a variety of sources , ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism , scientific naturalism , and various currents within Western esotericism , among them ceremonial magic , alchemy , astrology , Rosicrucianism , Kabbalah , and the Tarot . Philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley 's thought was rooted in Romanticism and the Decadent movement , an assessment shared by historian Alex Owen , who noted that Crowley adhered to the " modus operandi " of the decadent movement throughout his life .
Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity 's entry to the Aeon of Horus , a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny . He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris , in which paternalistic religions like Christianity , Islam , and Buddhism dominated the world , and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis , which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship . Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue , and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe . The moral code of " Do What Thou Wilt " is believed by Thelemites to be the faith 's ethical law , although academic Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure , as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism .
Crowley believed in the objective existence of magic , which he chose to spell " Magick " . In his book Magick in Theory and Practice , Crowley defined Magick as " the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will " . He also told his disciple Karl Germer that " Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours . Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level . " Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science , giving The Equinox the subtitle of " The Method of Science ; the Aim of Religion " .
Both during his life and after it , Crowley has been widely described as a Satanist , usually by detractors . Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist , nor did he worship Satan , as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist . He was also accused of advocating human sacrifice , largely because of a passage in Book 4 in which he stated that " A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim " . This was intended as a veiled reference to male masturbation .
= = Personal life = =
Crowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley was " self @-@ confident , brash , eccentric , egotistic , highly intelligent , arrogant , witty , wealthy , and , when it suited him , cruel " . Similarly , Richard Spence noted that Crowley was " capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty " . Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited " courage , skill , dauntless energy , and remarkable focus of will " while at the same time showing a " blind arrogance , petty fits of bile , [ and ] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men " . The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley " was by no means perfect " and " often alienated those who loved him dearest . "
Crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality , with John Symonds noting that he " was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time " . Crowley 's political thought was subjected to an in @-@ depth study by academic Marco Pasi , who noted that for Crowley , socio @-@ political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones . Pasi argued that it was difficult to classify Crowley as being either on the political left or right , but he was perhaps best categorised as a " conservative revolutionary " despite not being affiliated with the German @-@ based conservative revolutionary movement . Pasi noted that Crowley sympathised with extreme ideologies like Nazism and Marxism @-@ Leninism , in that they wished to violently overturn society , and hoped that both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union might adopt Thelema . Crowley described democracy as an " imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness " , and commented that The Book of the Law proclaimed that " there is the master and there is the slave ; the noble and the serf ; the ' lone wolf ' and the herd " . In this attitude he was influenced by the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and by Social Darwinism . Crowley also saw himself as an aristocrat , describing himself as Laird Boleskine ; he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy , and once described his ideology as " aristocratic communism " .
Crowley was bisexual , and exhibited a sexual preference for women . In particular he had an attraction toward " exotic women " , and claimed to have fallen in love on multiple occasions ; Kaczynski stated that " when he loved , he did so with his whole being , but the passion was typically short @-@ lived " . Even in later life , he was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers , largely due to his charisma . During same @-@ sex anal intercourse , he usually played the passive role , which Booth believed " appealed to his masochistic side " . Crowley argued that gay and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation , commenting that a person " must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart ; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion , or medieval morality
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attack operations had become more serious . The requirements now included that the aircraft would be designed specifically for the 30 mm rotary cannon . The RFP also specified a maximum speed of 460 mph ( 400 kn ; 740 km / h ) , takeoff distance of 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , external load of 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) , 285 @-@ mile ( 460 km ) mission radius , and a unit cost of US $ 1 @.@ 4 million . The A @-@ X would be the first USAF aircraft designed exclusively for close air support . During this time , a separate RFP was released for A @-@ X 's 30 mm cannon with requirements for a high rate of fire ( 4 @,@ 000 round / minute ) and a high muzzle velocity . Six companies submitted aircraft proposals , with Northrop and Fairchild Republic selected to build prototypes : the YA @-@ 9A and YA @-@ 10A , respectively . General Electric and Philco @-@ Ford were selected to build and test GAU @-@ 8 cannon prototypes .
Two YA @-@ 10 prototypes were built in the Republic factory in Farmingdale , New York and first flew on 10 May 1972 by pilot Howard " Sam " Nelson . Production A @-@ 10 's were built at Fairchild in Hagerstown , Maryland . After trials and a fly @-@ off against the YA @-@ 9 , on 18 January 1973 , the USAF announced the YA @-@ 10 's selection for production . General Electric was selected to build the GAU @-@ 8 cannon in June 1973 . The YA @-@ 10 had an additional fly @-@ off in 1974 against the Ling @-@ Temco @-@ Vought A @-@ 7D Corsair II , the principal USAF attack aircraft at the time , in order to prove the need for a new attack aircraft . The first production A @-@ 10 flew in October 1975 , and deliveries commenced in March 1976 . In total , 715 airplanes were produced , the last delivered in 1984 .
One experimental two @-@ seat A @-@ 10 Night Adverse Weather ( N / AW ) version was built by converting an A @-@ 10A . The N / AW was developed by Fairchild from the first Demonstration Testing and Evaluation ( DT & E ) A @-@ 10 for consideration by the USAF . It included a second seat for a weapons system officer responsible for electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) , navigation and target acquisition . The N / AW version did not interest the USAF or export customers . The two @-@ seat trainer version was ordered by the Air Force in 1981 , but funding was canceled by U.S. Congress and the jet was not produced . The only two @-@ seat A @-@ 10 built now resides at Edwards Air Force Base 's Flight Test Center Museum .
= = = Production = = =
On 10 February 1976 , Deputy Secretary of Defense Clements authorized full @-@ rate production , with the first A @-@ 10 being accepted by the Air Force Tactical Air Command on 30 March 1976 . Production continued at a rate of 15 aircraft per month , which was believed to be the best rate Fairchild could deliver . A total ( including the two prototypes ) 715 airplanes was delivered in 1984 . When A @-@ 10 full rate production was first authorized the planned service life was 6 @,@ 000 hours . A small reinforcement to the design was quickly adopted when the A @-@ 10 failed initial fatigue testing at 80 % of testing , with the fix , the A @-@ 10 passed the fatigue tests .
8 @,@ 000 flight hour service lives were becoming common at the time , so fatigue testing of the A @-@ 10 continued with a new 8 @,@ 000 flight hour target . Fatigue testing for the new target quickly discovered serious cracks at WS . 23 where the outboard portions of the wings are joined to the fuselage . The first production change was to add cold working at WS . 23 to address this problem . Soon after that , the Air Force determined that the real world A @-@ 10 fleet fatigue was more harsh than estimated forcing them to change their fatigue testing , introducing " spectrum 3 " equivalent flight hour testing .
Spectrum 3 fatigue testing started in 1979 . This round of testing quickly determined that more drastic reinforcement would be needed . The second change in production , starting with aircraft # 442 was to increase the thickness of the lower skin on the outer wing panels . A tech order was issued to retrofit the " thick skin " to the whole fleet , but the tech order was rescinded after roughly 242 planes leaving roughly 200 planes with the original " thin skin " . Starting with aircraft # 530 cold working at WS0 was performed , and this retrofit was performed on earlier aircraft . A fourth , even more drastic change was initiated with aircraft # 582 , again to address the problems discovered with spectrum 3 testing . This change increased the thickness on the lower skin on the center wing panel but it required modifications to the lower spar caps to accommodate the thicker skin . The Air Force determined that it was not economically feasible to retrofit earlier planes with this modification .
= = = Upgrades = = =
The A @-@ 10 has received many upgrades over the years . Beginning in 1978 , the Pave Penny laser receiver pod was adopted , which receives reflected laser radiation from laser designators for faster and more accurate target identification . The A @-@ 10 began receiving an inertial navigation system in 1980 . The Low @-@ Altitude Safety and Targeting Enhancement ( LASTE ) upgrade provided computerized weapon @-@ aiming equipment , an autopilot , and a ground @-@ collision warning system . The A @-@ 10 is compatible with night vision goggles for low @-@ light operation . In 1999 , aircraft began receiving Global Positioning System navigation systems and a multi @-@ function display . The LASTE system was upgraded with Integrated Flight & Fire Control Computers ( IFFCC ) .
Proposed further upgrades included integrated combat search and rescue locator systems and improved early warning and anti @-@ jam self @-@ protection systems , and the Air Force recognized that the A @-@ 10 's engine power was sub @-@ optimal and had been planning to replace them with more powerful engines since at least 2001 at an estimated cost of $ 2 billion .
= = = = Hog @-@ Up Service Life Extension and Wing Replacement Program = = = =
In 1987 , Grumman Aerospace took over the A @-@ 10 program . Following from the 1992 decision to keep the A @-@ 10 , Grumman developed a Force Structural Maintenance Plan and Damage Threat Assessment by 1993 . On the military side , the A @-@ 10 Program Office did not incorporate the updated procedures into the maintenance tech orders . Critically , the Analytical Condition Inspection implemented by the program office did not inspect every plane as specified in the FSMP , but , instead , employed statistical sampling , inspecting only a fraction of the fleet . A @-@ 10 maintenance suffered from budget constraints , and inspections were performed in the field rather than centralized with programmed depot maintenance . The A @-@ 10 program would see a large amount of upheaval on both the military and corporate side , with numerous changes in contractor along with large upheavals on the military side resulting from changes brought about by the base re @-@ alignment and closure commission .
The first sign of trouble were two " near @-@ critical " sized cracks found . Initially these were classified as minor , they would be reclassified as critical in 2001 . Northrop Grumman was tasked with creating a plan to double the service life of the fleet in 1998 , this would be used as the foundation for attempted service life extension programs . Unfortunately the Grumman plan was based on the assumption that the FSMP had been implemented and that subsequent testing had been uneventful , both these assumptions were wrong . The SPO began a repair program to implement Grumman 's planned wing replacement program in 1999 as the " HOG UP " program . Classing it as a repair program bypassed the acquisition process , and allowed the SPO to use maintenance funding for the program . This also bypassed the Configuration Control Board , as well as strict evaluation of the proposed upgrade .
The SPO added center wing fuel bladder replacement , rework of the flight control system , nacelle fitting inspections , and other areas at the request of Air Combat Command . During this period the two near critical cracks previously uncovered received more scrutiny . The cracks previously classified as minor were classified as critical . This disrupted the HOG UP program , greatly increasing its scope and more than quadrupling its cost . An independent review of the HOG UP program at this point concluded that the data the wing upgrade relied on could no longer be trusted . This independent review was presented in September 2003 . Shortly after that , fatigue testing on a test wing failed . There were also mounting problems with wings in service that were failing inspections at an increasing rate . The Air Force estimated that they would run out of wings by 2011 . Three plans were explored , replacing all the wings with new ones was the cheapest , costing $ 741 million to implement , and $ 1 @.@ 72 billion over the life of the program .
In 2007 , the A @-@ 10 was subject to a service life extension program ( SLEP ) ; Boeing was awarded a contract to build as many as 242 A @-@ 10 wing sets in June 2007 . In November 2011 , two A @-@ 10s flew with the new wings fitted . In September 2013 , the USAF awarded Boeing a $ 212 million follow @-@ on contract for 56 new wings , increasing the total ordered to 173 . Re @-@ winging improves mission readiness , decreases maintenance costs , and allows the A @-@ 10 to be operated up to 2035 . In plans to retire the A @-@ 10 , the USAF considered halting the wing replacement program , saving an additional $ 500 million on top of the total savings of retiring the fleet , for a total of $ 4 @.@ 2 billion . By May 2015 , the re @-@ winging program was too far into the contract to be financially efficient to cancel . The A @-@ 10 fleet with the new TUSK wings could fly past 2040 according to the contractor , Boeing .
= = = = A @-@ 10C = = = =
In 2005 , the entire A @-@ 10 fleet began receiving the Precision Engagement upgrades that include an improved fire control system ( FCS ) , electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) , and smart bomb targeting . Aircraft which received this upgrade are redesignated A @-@ 10C ; work was to be completed in 2011 . The Government Accounting Office in 2007 estimated the cost of upgrading , refurbishing , and service life extension plans for the A @-@ 10 force to total $ 2 @.@ 25 billion through 2013 . In September 2007 the A @-@ 10C reached initial operating capability . The Air Force Material Command 's Ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB , Utah completed work on its 100th A @-@ 10 precision engagement upgrade in January 2008 . The PE upgrade will also add all @-@ weather combat capability to the A @-@ 10 . The upgrade will also upgrade the A @-@ 10 with a Hand on Throttle and Stick configuration mixing the F @-@ 16 's flight stick with the F @-@ 15 's throttle . The A @-@ 10 will also receive a modern communications suite including Link @-@ 16 radio and SATCOM .
The Precision Engagement upgrades " backbone is the central interface control unit , which replaces most of the old armament control system and also interfaces with other mission subsystems to provide an integrated solution for the pilot and maintenance technician . The CICU takes various sources of information from the aircraft 's subsystems--such as targeting pods , radios , processors and displays--and integrates and displays the information in a manner that is meant to reduce pilot workload . " The A @-@ 10 's low @-@ altitude safety and targeting enhancement ( LASTE ) system is replaced by the integrated flight and fire control computer ( IFFCC ) included in the PE upgrade .
The central interface control unit ( CICU ) " provides digital stores management and overall avionics systems integration , upgraded processors , Up front controller ( UFC ) , a new instrument panel , upgraded power systems , and the interfaces necessary to accommodate the new gps guided smart weapons . " The upgrade also includes " the situational awareness data link ( SADL ) which will provide both air @-@ to @-@ air and ground @-@ to @-@ air digital communications of target data . " " SADL uses the enhanced position location reporting system ( EPLRS ) waveform , which will provide secure , jam @-@ resistant data communications , such as friendly force data from Army units , in near real time . "
Two multifunction displays replace analog switching displays and controls . Information from the data link and other sources are automatically oriented and scaled providing the pilot an accurate view of forces from both sides on the ground . " Pilots thumb through the menus on the displays , using the surrounding bezel keys or the HOTAS ( hands on throttle and stick ) . The PE kit will add the up front controller , which is positioned just below the HUD , so that Warthog pilots can keep eyes up while inputting data . The UFC has the same keyboard as on the CDU and typically would be used to input menu items , navigational information and weapons delivery data . "
" The mission planning system ( MPS ) will allow the pilot to plan his route , the weapons employed and drop sequences , and target information on the ground . He then uses a cartridge to load the mission plan onto the aircraft . " An MPS upgrade is part of the PE upgrade . Pilots will be able to check the status of , and target weapons in @-@ flight . " For the maintenance technician , the A / OA @-@ 10 's CICU and an existing control display unit ( CDU ) have been fitted with upgraded software to improve the detection and isolation of avionics subsystem failures . " The diagnostic system provided by the new operational test system included in the upgrade will improve the system 's maintainability and , thus , its availability .
In July 2010 , the USAF issued Raytheon a contract to integrate a Helmet Mounted Integrated Targeting ( HMIT ) system onto A @-@ 10Cs . The Gentex Corporation Scorpion Helmet Mounted Cueing System ( HMCS ) was also evaluated . In February 2014 , Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James ordered that development of Suite 8 software upgrade continue , in response to Congressional pressure . Software upgrades were originally to be ceased due to plans to retire the A @-@ 10 . Suite 8 software includes IFF Mode 5 , which modernizes the ability of friendly units to identify the A @-@ 10 as a friendly aircraft .
In 2012 , Air Combat Command requested the testing of a 600 @-@ gallon external fuel tank which would extend the A @-@ 10 's loitering time by 45 – 60 minutes ; flight testing of such a tank had been conducted in 1997 , but did not involve combat evaluation . Over 30 flight tests were conducted by the 40th Flight Test Squadron to gather data on the aircraft 's handling characteristics and performance across different load configurations . The tank slightly reduced stability in the yaw axis , however there is no decrease in aircraft tracking performance .
Sometime prior to 2012 , the Air Force began removing the Pave Penny pods from their pylons , as the receive @-@ only capability had become redundant with the installation of the AN / AAQ @-@ 28 ( V ) 4 LITENING AT targeting pods ( typically on station 9 or 10 ) , or the Sniper XR targeting pod ( typically on station 2 ) , which have both a laser designator and laser rangefinder ( along with other sensors ) . The pylons for the Pave Penny have been left in place initially , but are being removed to avoid possible repairs .
= = = Other uses = = =
On 25 March 2010 , an A @-@ 10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend . The flight , performed at Eglin Air Force Base , used a 1 : 1 blend of JP @-@ 8 and Camelina @-@ based fuel . On 28 June 2012 , the A @-@ 10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol ; known as ATJ ( Alcohol @-@ to @-@ Jet ) , the fuel is cellulousic @-@ based that can be derived using wood , paper , grass , or any cellulose based material , and are fermented into alcohols before being hydro @-@ processed into aviation fuel . ATJ is the third alternative fuel to be evaluated by the Air Force as a replacement for petroleum @-@ derived JP @-@ 8 fuel . Previous types were a synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from coal and natural gas and a bio @-@ mass fuel derived from plant @-@ oils and animal fats known as Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet .
In 2011 , the National Science Foundation granted $ 11 million to modify an A @-@ 10 for weather research for CIRPAS at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School , replacing a retired North American T @-@ 28 Trojan . The A @-@ 10 's armor is expected to allow it to survive the extreme meteorological conditions , such as 200 mph hailstorms , found in inclement high @-@ altitude weather events .
In 2015 , Boeing revealed that it was holding initial discussions on the prospects of selling retired or stored A @-@ 10s in near @-@ flyaway condition to international customers . However , the Air Force subsequently stated that it will not permit the aircraft to be sold .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
" The A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt 2 is a cantilever low @-@ wing monoplane with wide chord , deep airfoil section . One @-@ piece constant chord center wing section , tapered outer panels , cambered wing tips . Two @-@ segment , three @-@ position , trailing @-@ edge slotted flaps , interchangeable right and left . Wide span ailerons , made up of upper and lower surfaces that separate to serve as airbrakes . Small leading @-@ edge slat inboard each mainwheel fairing . Redundant , armor shielded flight control system . Semi @-@ monocoque aluminum alloy fuselage with four main longerons , multiple frames , and lap @-@ jointed , and riveted skin . " It has " cantilever aluminum structure with twin fins and interchangeable rudders mounted at tips of constant chord tailplane . Interchangeable elevators , each with an electrically operated trim tab . "
The A @-@ 10 has superior maneuverability at low speeds and altitude because of its large wing area , high wing aspect ratio , and large ailerons . The wing also allows short takeoffs and landings , permitting operations from primitive forward airfields near front lines . The aircraft can loiter for extended periods and operate under 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) ceilings with 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) visibility . It typically flies at a relatively low speed of 300 knots ( 350 mph ; 560 km / h ) , which makes it a better platform for the ground @-@ attack role than fast fighter @-@ bombers , which often have difficulty targeting small , slow @-@ moving targets .
The leading edge of the wing has a honeycomb structure panel construction , providing strength with minimal weight ; similar panels cover the flap shrouds , elevators , rudders and sections of the fins . The skin panels are integral with the stringers and are fabricated using computer @-@ controlled machining , reducing production time and cost . Combat experience has shown that this type of panel is more resistant to damage . The skin is not load @-@ bearing , so damaged skin sections can be easily replaced in the field , with makeshift materials if necessary . The ailerons are at the far ends of the wings for greater rolling moment and have two distinguishing features : The ailerons are larger than is typical , almost 50 percent of the wingspan , providing improved control even at slow speeds ; the aileron is also split , making it a deceleron .
The A @-@ 10 is designed to be refueled , rearmed , and serviced with minimal equipment . Its simple design enables maintenance at forward bases with limited facilities . Also , most repairs can be done in the field . An unusual feature is that many of the aircraft 's parts are interchangeable between the left and right sides , including the engines , main landing gear , and vertical stabilizers . The sturdy landing gear , low @-@ pressure tires and large , straight wings allow operation from short rough strips even with a heavy aircraft ordnance load , allowing the aircraft to operate from damaged airbases , flying from taxiways or even straight roadway sections .
The front landing gear is offset to the aircraft 's right to allow placement of the 30 mm cannon with its firing barrel along the centerline of the aircraft . During ground taxi , the offset front landing gear causes the A @-@ 10 to have dissimilar turning radii . Turning to the right on the ground takes less distance than turning left . The wheels of the main landing gear partially protrude from their nacelles when retracted , making gear @-@ up belly landings easier to control and less damaging . All landing gears are hinged toward the aircraft 's rear ; if hydraulic power is lost , a combination of gravity and wind resistance can open and lock the gear in place .
= = = Durability = = =
The A @-@ 10 is exceptionally tough , being able to survive direct hits from armor @-@ piercing and high @-@ explosive projectiles up to 23 mm . It has double @-@ redundant hydraulic flight systems , and a mechanical system as a back up if hydraulics are lost . Flight without hydraulic power uses the manual reversion control system ; pitch and yaw control engages automatically , roll control is pilot @-@ selected . In manual reversion mode , the A @-@ 10 is sufficiently controllable under favorable conditions to return to base , though control forces are greater than normal . The aircraft is designed to fly with one engine , one half of tail , one elevator , and half of a wing missing .
The cockpit and parts of the flight @-@ control system are protected by 1 @,@ 200 lb ( 540 kg ) of titanium aircraft armor , referred to as a " bathtub " . The armor has been tested to withstand strikes from 23 mm cannon fire and some strikes from 57 mm rounds . It is made up of titanium plates with thicknesses from 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 to 38 mm ) determined by a study of likely trajectories and deflection angles . The armor makes up almost 6 percent of the aircraft 's empty weight . Any interior surface of the tub directly exposed to the pilot is covered by a multi @-@ layer nylon spall shield to protect against shell fragmentation . The front windscreen and canopy are resistant to small arms fire .
The A @-@ 10 's durability was shown on 7 April 2003 when Captain Kim Campbell , while flying over Baghdad during the 2003 invasion of Iraq , suffered extensive flak damage . Iraqi fire damaged an engine and crippled the hydraulic system , requiring the aircraft 's stabilizer and flight controls to be operated via the ' manual reversion mode ' . Despite this damage , Campbell flew the aircraft for nearly an hour and landed safely .
The A @-@ 10 was envisioned to fly from forward air bases and semi @-@ prepared runways with high risk of foreign object damage to the engines . The unusual location of the General Electric TF34 @-@ GE @-@ 100 turbofan engines decreases ingestion risk , and allows the engines to run while the aircraft is serviced and rearmed by ground crews , reducing turn @-@ around time . The wings are also mounted closer to the ground , simplifying servicing and rearming operations . The heavy engines require strong supports , four bolts connect the engine pylons to the airframe . The engines ' high 6 : 1 bypass ratio have a relatively small infrared signature , and their position directs exhaust over the tailplanes further shielding it from detection by infrared homing surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . The engines and their exhausts are angled upward by nine degrees to cancel out the nose @-@ down pitching moment they would otherwise generate due to being mounted above the aircraft 's center of gravity , avoiding the need to trim the control surfaces against the force .
To reduce the likelihood of damage to the A @-@ 10 's fuel system , all four fuel tanks are located near the aircraft 's center and are separated from the fuselage ; projectiles would need to penetrate the aircraft 's skin before reaching a tank 's outer skin . Compromised fuel transfer lines self @-@ seal ; if damage exceeds a tank 's self @-@ sealing capabilities , check valves prevent fuel flowing into a compromised tank . Most fuel system components are inside the tanks so that fuel will not be lost due to component failure . The refueling system is also purged after use . Reticulated polyurethane foam lines both the inner and outer sides of the fuel tanks , retaining debris and restricting fuel spillage in the event of damage . The engines are shielded from the rest of the airframe by firewalls and fire extinguishing equipment . In the event of all four main tanks being lost , two self @-@ sealing sump tanks contain fuel for 230 miles ( 370 km ) of flight .
= = = Weapons = = =
Although the A @-@ 10 can carry considerable disposable stores , its primary built @-@ in weapon is the 30 mm GAU @-@ 8 / A Avenger Gatling @-@ type cannon . One of the most powerful aircraft cannon ever flown , it fires large depleted uranium armor @-@ piercing shells . In the original design , the pilot could switch between two rates of fire : 2 @,@ 100 or 4 @,@ 200 rounds per minute ; this was changed to a fixed rate of 3 @,@ 900 rounds per minute . The cannon takes about half a second to come up to speed , so 50 rounds are fired during the first second , 65 or 70 rounds per second thereafter . The gun is accurate enough to place 80 percent of its shots within a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 @.@ 4 m ) diameter circle from 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 220 m ) while in flight . The GAU @-@ 8 is optimized for a slant range of 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 220 m ) with the A @-@ 10 in a 30 @-@ degree dive .
The fuselage of the aircraft is built around the cannon . The GAU @-@ 8 / A is mounted slightly to the port side ; the barrel in the firing location is on the starboard side at the 9 o 'clock position so it is aligned with the aircraft 's centerline . The gun 's 5 @-@ foot , 11 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 816 m ) ammunition drum can hold up to 1 @,@ 350 rounds of 30 mm ammunition , but generally holds 1 @,@ 174 rounds . To prevent enemy fire from causing the GAU @-@ 8 / A rounds to fire prematurely , armor plates of differing thicknesses between the aircraft skin and the drum are designed to detonate incoming shells . A final armor layer around the drum protects it from fragmentation damage . The gun is loaded by Syn @-@ Tech 's linked tube carrier GFU @-@ 7 / E 30 mm ammunition loading
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12 of them , including 28 neutral Americans , died . After sinking Athenia , U @-@ 30 went on to sink two more vessels , Blairlogie and the SS Fanad Head .
Following the attack , the German Ministry of Propaganda checked incoming reports from both London and the German Naval High command . Having been told by Kriegsmarine that there was not a single U @-@ boat in the vicinity of Athenia on the day of her sinking , the Propaganda Ministry promptly denied all allegations that any German U @-@ boat had sunk Athenia . They claimed instead that the British had torpedoed their own vessel in an attempt to bring the United States into the war on the side of the Allies .
In order to calm @-@ down any American response to the sinking of Athenia , Joachim von Ribbentrop , the German Foreign Minister , arranged a meeting between Grand Admiral Erich Raeder and the American naval attaché on 16 September 1939 . During the meeting , Raeder assured the attaché that he had received reports from every German submarine at sea and " as a result of which it was definitely established that Athenia had not been sunk by a German U @-@ boat " . Raeder then asked the attaché to inform the American government . However , not every submarine had returned to port and all U @-@ boats maintained radio silence while at sea .
Once U @-@ 30 docked on 27 September , Admiral Karl Dönitz met Lemp while he was disembarking from the U @-@ boat . Dönitz later said that Lemp looked " very unhappy " and that he told the Admiral that he was in fact responsible for the sinking of Athenia . Lemp had mistaken Athenia for an armed merchant cruiser , which he claimed was zig @-@ zagging . Dönitz subsequently received orders that Athenia affair was to be kept a " total secret " , the High Command of the Navy ( OKM ) were not to court @-@ martial Lemp as they considered his actions in good @-@ faith , and that any other political explanations about the sinking of Athenia were to be handled by the OKM who would deny any allegations that a German U @-@ boat had sunk the vessel . In order to keep the sinking of Athenia a secret , Dönitz had U @-@ 30 's log altered in order to erase any evidence . It was not until the Nuremberg trials in 1946 that the truth about the fate of the liner was brought forth publicly by the Germans .
= = = Second patrol = = =
As a result of the investigation undertaken by the German General Staff following the sinking of Athenia , U @-@ 30 remained in port until 9 December 1939 when she was finally allowed to put to sea again for her second war patrol . It lasted only six days , during which time she travelled up to the southern coast of ( then neutral ) Norway before returning to Wilhelmshaven on 14 December 1939 . During the voyage U @-@ 30 did not encounter any enemy vessels , consequently she returned to port without any claims .
= = = Third patrol = = =
U @-@ 30 's third patrol was much more successful . Having left Wilhelmshaven on 23 December 1939 , she journeyed into the North Sea . She then circumnavigated the British Isles and travelled along the southern coast of Ireland . It was near to the west coast of Scotland that U @-@ 30 sank her first enemy vessel during her third patrol , the 325 ton anti @-@ submarine trawler HMS Barbara Robertson , on 28 December . That same day , she hit a much bigger target , the British battleship HMS Barham . Following the sinking of Barbara Robertson , U @-@ 30 fired a torpedo at the battleship and damaged her , killing four crew members . U @-@ 30 's next three victims were sunk by mines laid by the U @-@ boat : El Oso , sunk on 11 January ; Gracia , damaged on 16 January and Cairnross , sunk on 17 January . Meanwhile , U @-@ 30 returned to her home port of Wilhelmshaven on 17 January 1940 .
= = = Fourth patrol = = =
The fourth patrol that U @-@ 30 undertook began on 11 March 1940 when she left Wilhelmshaven for the west coast of Norway in preparation for the invasion of that country . For a period of 20 days , she traveled northeast along the Norwegian coast in search of any Allied convoys , she did not find any and returned to Wilhelmshaven on 30 March 1940 .
= = = Fifth patrol = = =
Like her fourth patrol , U @-@ 30 's fifth patrol ended without any losses . She put to sea on 3 April 1940 to support the German invasion of Norway and Denmark ( codenamed Operation Weserubung ) . For 32 days , U @-@ 30 travelled up the west coast of Norway . She then headed southwest to Scotland in order to intercept British warships that were heading north to defend Norway . She failed to encounter any vessels , however , and returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving there on 4 May .
= = = Sixth patrol = = =
U @-@ 30 's sixth patrol was the first time in which she had sunk any enemy ships since her third patrol . Having left Wilhelmshaven on 8 June 1940 , she once again entered the North Sea in an attempt to sink any Allied ships in the area . For 32 days , U @-@ 30 circumnavigated the British Isles and sank five enemy ships in the Bay of Biscay . The first vessel to be attacked was the 4 @,@ 876 ton British merchantman , Otterpool which was sunk on 20 June 1940 . Two days later , the 3 @,@ 999 ton Norwegian vessel Randsfjord was sunk . On 28 June , the British ship Llanarth was torpedoed , followed by Beignon on 1 July and the Egyptian Angele Mabro on 6 July . Following these attacks , U @-@ 30 headed back to port . Instead of returning to Wilhelmshaven , however , U @-@ 30 put in at Lorient , in France , which had been captured after the fall of that country . In doing so , she became the first German U @-@ boat to enter the port .
= = = Later patrols and retirement = = =
U @-@ 30 began her first patrol operating from Lorient and her seventh overall on 13 July 1940 . During a period of 12 days , she traveled as far south as Portugal and sank the 712 ton British ship Ellaroy on the 21st . Three days later , on 24 July , U @-@ 30 returned to Lorient , having experienced a malfunction in one of her engines . It then became clear that the boat was suffering a number of mechanical difficulties and as a result it was decided that she would need to be used sparingly . For her next patrol it was decided that she would leave from Lorient , but would return to Germany .
The eighth and last war patrol that U @-@ 30 was to undertake , began on 5 August 1940 when she left Lorient for the North Atlantic . In 26 days , she travelled north of the British Isles , into the North Sea and entered the German port city of Kiel on 30 August 1940 . During that time , she sank the Swedish vessel Canton on 9 August and the British steam merchantman Clan Macphee on 16 August 1940 . Both of these attacks took place off the west coast of neutral Ireland . After these successes , however , U @-@ 30 once again experienced engine trouble and was forced to end her patrol early , returning to Germany . Before she arrived , Lemp received word that he had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for the boat 's previous war patrols .
Following her eighth patrol , U @-@ 30 was retired from front @-@ line service on 15 September 1940 and was assigned to training flotillas in the Baltic for the rest of the war . After her retirement , many of U @-@ 30 's experienced crew members , including Lemp , were transferred to U @-@ 110 . In the last months of the war , U @-@ 30 was used as a range boat ( gunnery platform ) before being scuttled by her crew on 4 May 1945 at Flensburg in Kupfermühlen Bay , in order to avoid surrendering the boat to the Allies as part of Operation Regenbogen . The wreck of the U @-@ boat was later raised and broken up in 1948 .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 30 took part in one wolfpack , namely .
Prien ( 12 – 17 June 1940 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 30 sank 16 commercial ships , a loss of 86 @,@ 165 GRT , and one warship for a loss of 325 GRT . She also damaged one commercial ship of 5 @,@ 642 GRT and damaged the battleship HMS Barham .
= Spathularia flavida =
Spathularia flavida , commonly known as the yellow earth tongue , the yellow fan , or the fairy fan , is an ascomycete fungus found in coniferous forests of Asia , Europe and North America . It produces a small , fan- or spoon @-@ shaped fruit body with a flat , wavy or lobed cream to yellow colored " head " raised on a white to cream stalk . The height is usually approximately 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) , and up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The fungus fruits on the ground in mosses , forest duff or humus , and fruit bodies may occur singly , in large groups , or in fairy rings . The spores produced by the fungus are needle @-@ like , and up to 95 micrometers long . Several varieties have been described that differ largely in their microscopic characteristics . S. flavida has been described by authorities variously as inedible , of unknown edibility , or edible but tough .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first described in 1774 by the German botanist Jacob Christian Schäffer . Schaeffer gave it the binomial Elvella clavata , and called it Der keulenförmige Faltenschwamm ( " the club @-@ shaped wrinkled sponge " ) in the vernacular . In 1794 , Christian Hendrik Persoon published Spathularia flavida as a nomen novum ( new replacement name ) , as Schaeffer 's published name was not legitimate . Elias Fries sanctioned this name in the first edition of his Systema Mycologicum ( 1821 ) . According to the taxonomical database MycoBank , additional synonyms include Boletus elvela as defined by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch in 1783 , and Spathularia clavata published by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1889 . In a 1955 publication , American mycologist Edwin Butterworth Mains considered Charles Horton Peck 's 1903 Mitruliopsis flavida to be the same species as S. flavida .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " yellow earth tongue " , " yellow fan " , of " fairy fan " . Samuel Gray called it the " yellowish spatula @-@ stool " in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British plants . The specific epithet flavida is Latin for " blonde " or " golden yellow " .
= = Description = =
The fan- or spoon @-@ shaped fruit bodies of S. flavida may be up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) high , although a range between 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) is more typical . Occasionally , fruit bodies are produced with the " head " split into two separate lobes . The color is light to strong yellow , the flattened fertile area at times paler ; the color tends to deepen with the age of the fruit body . The fertile area ( the region that produces spores ) is often irregularly wrinkled and sometimes notched at apex , and is up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide ; it tapers down the length of either side of the stem ( i.e. , decurrently ) from a half to a third of the total stem length . The division between the head and the stem is sharply defined . The stem is hollow , smooth ( glabrous ) , and has a white to yellowish mycelium at its base . The flesh of the fruit body is whitish , but becomes yellowish @-@ brown when dry .
The edibility of Spathularia flavida is variously described as untested , unknown , or " edible , but rather tough " . The small size would likely discourage table use . The odor and taste are not distinctive .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In mass , the spores appear yellowish @-@ brown , especially when they are dry . Viewed under the microscope , they appear hyaline ( translucent ) . The spores are variable in size , but typically in the range of 30 – 95 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 µm . They may be non @-@ or several septate , slender and pointed ( acicular ) , and have an outer wall with a gelatinous layer . The asci ( the spore @-@ bearing structures ) are club @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 85 – 125 by 8 – 12 µm . The asci do not have a covering lid known as an operculum . The paraphyses ( sterile cells found in the hymenium ) are filamentous , and hyaline ( translucent ) ; some are ring @-@ shaped ( circinate ) .
= = = Variants = = =
Mains described a number of varieties of S. flavida based largely on differences in the shapes and sizes of their spores . All varieties were described from collections made in the United States .
S. flavida var. flavida
In the typical variety , spores range in size from 40 – 62 µm ( although a smaller range of 45 – 56 µm is most typical ) by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 µm ; the paraphyses are either slightly branched above or not at all , and are curved to circinate at their apices .
S. flavida var. tortuosa
In this variety , the paraphyses are more curved to circinate and twisted at the apices , and often form a dense intertwined layer above the asci .
S. flavida var. ramosa
The spores are smaller than the typical variety , usually 39 – 42 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 µm ; the paraphyses are irregularly branched on the upper portion . Fruit bodies in this variety are club @-@ shaped and flattened compared to the typical tongue @-@ shape of the typical variety .
S. flavida var. brevispora
This variety , common in Michigan , has spores that are 32 – 40 by 2 µm .
S. flavida var. longispora
Variety longispora is known from the Pacific Northwest . It has spores that are 55 – 75 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 µm , and paraphyses that are similar to the typical variety .
= = = Similar species = = =
Spathularia flavida may be distinguished from the velvet @-@ foot fairy fan ( Spathulariopsis velutipes ) by differences in the stem : S. velutipes is fuzzy and brown rather than smooth and yellowish . The fuzziness is a result of a thin layer of intertwined hyphae that cover the stem , which project short hyphae outward from the surface . The closely related species S. neesi has an ochre color , spores that measure 60 – 80 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 µm , and paraphyses that are branched on the upper parts . Neolecta irregularis is roughly similar in appearance to S. flavida , but lacks a sharply differentiated ,
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spoon @-@ shaped head , has a stem lighter in color than the head , and microscopically , has much smaller oval to elliptical spores that measure 5 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 by 3 – 4 µm . Another yellowish earth @-@ tongue fungus , Microglossum rufum , has a well @-@ defined oval to spoon @-@ shaped head , and sausage- to spindle @-@ shaped spores that are 18 – 38 by 4 – 6 µm .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies grow scattered or in groups on forest duff or humus under conifers , summer and fall , and may grow in rings or arcs . Thought to be a saprobic species ( that is , obtaining nutrients from dead or decomposing organic matter ) , it has also been found on rotten wood . The fungus is able to protect itself from mycophagy by the springtail Ceratophysella denisana , a common mushroom feeder , by releasing repellent odorous compounds when it is injured .
A cosmopolitan and widespread species , S. flavida is common in temperate regions such as the Pacific Northwest region of North America , extending north to Alaska ; it is , however , unknown in Mexico . In Europe , it has been collected from Britain , Germany , Spain , Austria , Belgium , Scandinavia , and Italy ; in Asia , it has been reported from India Japan , and Turkey . Spathularia flavida is considered a protected species in Slovakia . One field guide says of this species , " that one is apt to see [ it ] while down on the ground looking for something else . "
= River Parrett =
The River Parrett flows through the counties of Dorset and Somerset in South West England , from its source in the Thorney Mills springs in the hills around Chedington in Dorset . Flowing northwest through Somerset and the Somerset Levels to its mouth at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea , into the Bridgwater Bay nature reserve on the Bristol Channel , the Parrett and its tributaries drain an area of 660 square miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km2 ) – about 50 per cent of Somerset 's land area , with a population of 300 @,@ 000 .
The Parrett 's main tributaries include the Rivers Tone , Isle , and Yeo , and the River Cary via the King 's Sedgemoor Drain . The 37 @-@ mile ( 60 km ) long river is tidal for 19 miles ( 31 km ) up to Oath . The fall of the river between Langport and Bridgwater is only 1 foot per mile ( 0 @.@ 2 m / km ) , so it is prone to frequent flooding in winter and during high tides . Many approaches have been tried since at least the medieval period to reduce the incidence and effect of floods and to drain the surrounding fields .
In Anglo @-@ Saxon times the river formed a boundary between Wessex and Dumnonia . It later served the Port of Bridgwater , and enabled cargoes to be transported inland . The arrival of the railways led to a decline in commercial shipping , and the only working docks are at Dunball . Man 's influence on the river has left a legacy of bridges and industrial artefacts . The Parrett along with its connected waterways and network of drains supports an ecosystem that includes several rare species of flora and fauna . The River Parrett Trail has been established along the banks of the river .
= = Course = =
The River Parrett is 37 miles ( 60 km ) long , flowing roughly south to north from Dorset through Somerset . Its source is in the Thorney Mills springs in the hills around Chedington , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) from that of the River Axe , in nearby Beaminster , which runs in the opposite direction to the English Channel at Axmouth in Devon . The two rivers give their names to Parrett and Axe Parish Council .
From its source , the Parrett runs north through South Perrott and under the Salisbury to Exeter railway line before passing to the west of North Perrott and Haselbury Plucknett . It then runs through fields between Merriott to the west and West Chinnock and Chiselborough to the east . Passing under the A303 road to the east of South Petherton , the river flows between East Lambrook and Bower Hinton west of Martock and then towards Kingsbury Episcopi , through Thorney and Muchelney , passing the remains of Muchelney Abbey before entering Langport , which is about 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Chiselborough . Below Thorney Bridge the river 's banks have been raised to mitigate flooding .
The Parrett then flows northwest for approximately another 10 miles ( 16 km ) to Bridgwater through the Somerset Levels past Aller , close to the Aller and Beer Woods and Aller Hill biological Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . The sluice gate ( formerly a lock built in the late 1830s ) at the deserted medieval village of Oath marks the river 's tidal limit . The river then crosses Southlake Moor . The next major landmark along the river 's course is Burrow Mump , an ancient earthwork owned by the National Trust . The river then arrives in Burrowbridge , where the old pumping station building was once a museum . Flowing north , it passes Langmead and Weston Level SSSI , and on past the land @-@ drainage pumping station at Westonzoyland .
Further downstream the river passes the village of Huntworth before flowing under the M5 motorway at Dunwear . As it enters Bridgwater it passes under Somerset and Hamp Bridges , and past Bridgwater Castle , which had a tidal moat up to 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide in places , fed by water from the river . From Bridgwater to the sea is approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . The King 's Sedgemoor Drain empties into the River Parrett next to the wharf at Dunball ; it enters via a clyce ( or clyse ) , which is a local word for a sluice . The clyce has been moved about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 500 m ) downstream from its original position and now obstructs the entrance to the small harbour next to the wharf .
The course of the river below Bridgwater is now somewhat straighter than in former times . The village of Combwich lies adjacent to a channel in the river known as " Combwich Reach " ; from here the Parrett flows to the Bristol Channel past the Steart Peninsula . Cartographic evidence indicates that in the early 18th century the peninsula was longer than at present . A " neck " started to form in the peninsula , and by 1802 the tip had broken off to form Stert Island . Fenning Island also broke away but has rejoined the peninsula . Much of the peninsula 's northern end eroded away or now exists as " islands " visible at low tide within an intertidal area of mud known as the Stert Flats .
The mouth at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea is a nature reserve where the river flows into Bridgwater Bay on the Bristol Channel . In addition to the rivers Parrett , Brue and Washford , several of the man @-@ made drainage ditches , including the River Huntspill from the Somerset Levels , and the Cannington Brook from the " Pawlett Hams " , also discharge into the bay .
= = = Flow and tidal bore = = =
The Parrett has only one gauging station , at Chiselborough , fairly close to the source . It measures flow from the first 29 square miles ( 75 km2 ) of the drainage basin , or about 4 @.@ 3 per cent of the total . The mean flow measured by the Environment Agency at Chiselborough was 42 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 19 m3 / s ) , with a peak of 6 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 173 m3 / s ) on 30 May 1979 and a minimum of 2 @.@ 5 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 07 m3 / s ) over a seven @-@ day period in August 1976 . Tributaries of the Parrett with gauging stations include the Yeo , Isle , Cary , and Tone .
The lower Parrett has a fall of only 1 foot per mile ( 0 @.@ 2 m / km ) between Langport and Bridgwater . To the northeast of the River Parrett 's mouth , the Bristol Channel becomes the Severn Estuary , which has a tidal range of 14 metres ( 46 ft ) . The rate and direction of flow of the Parrett is therefore dependent on the state of the tide on the River Severn . In common with the lower reaches of the River Severn , the Parrett experiences a tidal bore . Certain combinations of the tides funnel the rising water into a wave that travels upstream at about 6 miles per hour ( 10 km / h ) , against the river 's current .
= = = Hydrology and water quality = = =
Near the source at Chiselborough the typical level range for the depth of the river is 0 @.@ 05 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 0 @.@ 63 metres ( 2 ft 1 in ) but has reached a maximum of 2 @.@ 93 metres ( 9 ft 7 in ) . The mean flow rate is 1 @.@ 196 cubic metres per second ( 42 @.@ 2 cu ft / s ) . By the time it reaches Gaw Bridge the normal level range is 0 @.@ 23 metres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) to 0 @.@ 97 metres ( 3 ft 2 in ) and a highest reading of 3 @.@ 84 metres ( 12 @.@ 6 ft ) . At West Quay in Bridgwater where the river is tidal the highest astronomical tide level is 8 @.@ 63 metres ( 28 @.@ 3 ft ) above ordnance datum ( AOD ) .
For the purpose of water quality measurement the river is divided into five water body areas by the Environment Agency . Both the area from the source to Broad River around Crewkerne and the area from Broad River to Lopen Brook are rated good for chemical quality and moderate for ecological quality . The area from Lopen Brook to the River Isle , around Martock and South Petherton , is rated good for chemical quality , poor for ecological quality and poor overall . From the River Isle to River Yeo around Muchelney , chemical quality is rated good , and ecology is rated moderate . The section around Langport to the West Sedgemoor Drain continues to rate good for chemical quality and moderate for ecological quality , as does the final area leading to Bridgwater Bay .
= = History = =
The origin of the name Parrett is unclear , but several derivations from the Celtic languages used in Wales have been suggested . Priestley @-@ Evans suggests , " Parrett has been said to be a form of the Welsh pared , a partition , and that it was the name which the Welsh people of Somerset and Devon gave to that river because it was at one time the dividing line between themselves and the Saxons " . Another spelling , parwydydd , is also translated as partition . Another explanation from Welsh , Peraidd , meaning the sweet or delicious river , has also been suggested . An alternative explanation , based on Old English , is a derivation from Pedair or Pedride from pedr , meaning four and the Old Cornish Rit meaning flow , which in this case would relate to the four flows or streams : the Tone , Yeo , Isle and Parrett . This is based on the explanation given in Ekwall 's 1928 book English River Names . Whichever derivation is correct , the name Parrett and its spelling variations have been in use since the Anglo @-@ Saxon era , as evidenced by the addition of -tun onto river names as seen in the local towns North Petherton and South Petherton . The spelling Pedred and Pedrida are also mentioned in connection with the Parrett . The Oxford Dictionary of British Place Names states only that the name is a ' pre @-@ English river @-@ name of obscure origin ' .
= = = Landscape = = =
The River Parrett , the Bristol Channel and the Severn Estuary are believed to have been used for riverine bulk transportation of people and supplies in Somerset under Roman and later Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman occupation . Roman Somerset , which lasted for over 250 years until around the beginning of the 5th century , had various settlements , including Bath ( Aquae Sulis ) , Ilchester ( Lindinis ) and lead mines at Charterhouse ; and four roads surrounding the Somerset Levels . There is evidence of two Roman ports on the Parrett . The port at Combwich , on the west bank , was ill @-@ recorded before its destruction by quarrying and erosion . The other at Crandon Bridge on the east bank near where the current King 's Sedgemoor Drain enters the Parrett , was in use between the first and the fourth centuries . Evidence of an extensive site with storehouses was found in the mid @-@ 1970s , during motorway construction works . The Crandon Bridge site may have been linked by a probable Roman road over the Polden Hills to the Fosse Way , at Ilchester . Ilchester , the largest Roman town in Somerset , was a port with large granaries , sited where the Fosse Way crossed the Ilchester Yeo by means of a paved ford . The Yeo was navigable by small craft all the way to the Parrett allowing military supplies to be brought by boat directly to Ilchester ; however , disembarkation at Crandon Bridge and use of the Polden Hills roadway allowed more rapid movement to Ilchester . The Yeo may already have been straightened and canalised before Roman occupation .
The Parrett was established as the border between the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Wessex and the Brythonic kingdom of Dumnonia in 658 , following the Dumnonians ' defeat at the Battle of Peonnum that year . This natural border endured for almost a century until further fighting between the Anglo @-@ Saxons and Britons in the mid @-@ 8th century , when the border shifted west to its current location between the modern ceremonial counties of Somerset and Devon . It is thought a ford , usable only at low tide , crossed the river near its mouth , between Combwich and Pawlett ( east bank ) . This crossing , at the western end of the Polden Hills , was known since Roman times and lay on the route of a Saxon herepath . It was here , or in the immediate vicinity , that Hubba , the Danish raider , was defeated and killed by Odda in 878 . In the Domesday Book Combwich was known as Comich , which means " the settlement by the water " , from the Old English cumb and wic . The ford was later replaced by a ferry , one of which was in operation from at least the 13th century . In the 15th century the ferry was regarded as part of the King 's Highway , and both passengers and cattle were carried in the 16th and 17th centuries . Records of the joint Manorial ownership and costs of the ferry exist for 1589 and 1810 . The White House Inn , a licensed victualler and part @-@ owner of the ferry , traded on the Pawlett bank from 1655 to 1897 ; the building was retained as a farm dwelling for another 20 years . The Combwich river crossing , which was a main route until the 18th century , fell out of use due to turnpike trusts improving what were to become the
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Upon leaving hockey in 1963 , he focused on a career in harness racing . Stewart 's father built a track on the family farm and held a horse racing meet each year to entertain the residents of Pilot Mound . He also followed and assisted his father when the elder Stewart acted as a race judge at fairs held in Manitoba . Stewart was actively involved in the sport from the time he retired as a player . He worked as a race timer and held various judging roles during the summers . He was a judge with the Ontario Racing Commission for nearly 30 years where his reputation matched that of his playing days .
Stewart retired to Florida but returned to Michigan to undergo treatment for cancer . He died on May 6 , 1983 , at his home in Troy following a lengthy battle with the disease . A widower , he was survived by two children , son Barclay and daughter Jaqueline .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= TripleOne Somerset =
The TripleOne Somerset ( Chinese : 新加坡能源大厦 ; pinyin : Xīnjiāpō néngyuán dàshà ) is a high @-@ rise commercial building and shopping mall on Somerset Road in Orchard , Singapore . The building was first known as Public Utilities Board Building ( PUB Building ) until 1995 , and was later known as Singapore Power Building until 2008 when acquired by YTL Corporation Pacific Star . It currently houses the corporate headquarters of Singapore Power .
The Embassy of Sweden is located on the 5th floor of the building .
= = History = =
The PUB Building , located near Singapore 's main shopping belt of Orchard Road , was built to accommodate several departments of the Public Utilities Board which had outgrown its office space in City Hall .
The building was the result of an architectural design competition . In July 1971 , a contest to design PUB 's corporate headquarters was launched . Of 23 submissions , four were picked by a jury headed by then PUB chairman Lim Kim San . The proposal by the now @-@ defunct Singapore architectural firm Group 2 Architects ( 1970 – 1978 ) , formed by Ong Chin Bee and Tan Puay Huat , won .
Built to a height of 100 metres ( 328 ft ) , the PUB Building was completed in 1977 ; construction cost S $ 32 million . It was renamed as the Singapore Power Building , after PUB 's electricity and gas operations were corporatised to Singapore Power on 1 October 1995 . The Singapore Power Building was renovated in 2006 , when Singapore Power chose not to redevelop its corporate headquarters . Instead , it opted to refurbish and reclad the building in silvery metal .
On 29 January 2007 , PUB moved out of the building to join its parent ministry , Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources , at the Environment Building on Scotts Road . When YTL Pacific Star acquired the building in February 2008 , it was renamed to its present name . The new owner undertook a S $ 50 million renovation and added more retail space to the building by converting offices , a cafeteria , empty spaces in the lobby areas as well as the carpark and the auditorium . It now has 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 000 m2 ) of offices , 60 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 600 m2 ) of retail space and a 5 @,@ 000 square feet ( 460 m2 ) outdoor refreshment area . The complex now houses a FairPrice Finest supermarket when the retail area opened in January 2010 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Design concept = = =
In the 1971 design competition for the PUB Building , the other three finalists proposed high @-@ rise structures to project a corporate image . However , Group 2 Architect 's winning design , in the jury 's words , allowed " natural form and function to achieve character and dignity " for the building . The 17 @-@ storey high PUB building shows the influence of Gerhard M. Kallmann 's 1962 Boston City Hall , also a competition winner , which was , in turn , influenced by Le Corbusier 's Sainte Marie de La Tourette ( 1957 – 1960 ) by . The development of the form of the PUB Building was mannerist , however , in contrast to the inherent logic evident in La Tourette , and to some degree in in the City Hall .
Situated between Somerset Road and Devonshire Road , Group 2 Architects designed the PUB Building as an H @-@ shaped block with a central service core and a naturally @-@ ventilated lobby . Facing north and south , the two parallel wings are of unequal height , and are linked by a wider transverse area three floors in height , and further up by the lift shaft and the access to each floor . Between the two wings is a landscaped courtyard .
= = = Horizontal emphasis = = =
The architects sought to create an approachable building that reflected the role of the PUB as a public supplier of gas and electricity , and this led them to choose strong horizontal elements for the design . In the building 's façade , this is achieved with distinctive rows of vertical fins , staggered so as to emphasise horizontal movement ; these fins also provide shade . A secondary horizontal pattern results from grouping two or more rows of these fins in blocks .
The Singapore Power Building 's defining architectural motif is its " inverted ziggurat " façade . The building tapers from cantilevered upper floors to recessed lower floors , and the resulting overhangs help to shade the lower levels , a logical response to the tropical climate . The tropical setting also led to the provision of a generous shaded concourse at ground level . It was the combination of design features intended to reflect the climate , together with an objective of making the floor areas congruent with the size of the administrative elements of the utility that occupied them , that resulted in the building 's distinctive structural profile . Internally , the building was organised to reflect the distribution of office spaces required by PUB 's departments at the time , with more space needed on the upper floors . The chamfered parapets at the ends soften the corners of the building . The length of the building is emphasised and the design elements are visually integrated by vertical projections housing staircases . The staggered façade provides views to the exterior , while offering voids in between that afford " breathing space " .
The ground floor of the building was dedicated to public access and use . It is entered via wide steps under columns that are three- or four @-@ storeys high , and these pilotis create a sense of space for the naturally ventilated public lobby areas . From the concourse , which is decorated with wall @-@ relief sculptures , steps lead to upper and lower public service areas , a cafeteria and carparks .
The original design of the Singapore Power Building was executed virtually without later alteration although it would later be surrounded by hotels , the Somerset MRT Station and shopping complexes .
= = = Structural framework = = =
The structural framework of the building utilises a simple system of reinforced concrete beams and slabs , and was originally clad in square mosaic and rectangular ceramic tiles on its walls and columns . The building 's foundation comprises large diameter bored piles installed in decomposed sandstone . Beams span an average 7 @.@ 6 metres except at the main entrance where post @-@ tensioned concrete beams span 15 metres . The auditorium is roofed over by 24 @-@ metre long steel trusses with a composite reinforced concrete covering .
= Love Won 't Wait =
" Love Won 't Wait " is a song by English singer @-@ songwriter Gary Barlow from his debut album Open Road . It was released as the second single from the album on 25 April 1997 by BMG and RCA Records . The song was written by Madonna and Shep Pettibone , and was an unreleased demo from her Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) studio sessions . Barlow came by the demo in 1997 , while looking to record more songs for Open Road . He changed the lyrics to represent a male point of view rather than Madonna 's , and recorded the track with Stephen Lipson as producer .
Barlow was apprehensive about releasing the track , but due to contractual obligations he had to release it . The song became Barlow 's second consecutive number one release on the UK Singles Chart , following " Forever Love " , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Elsewhere it received moderate success . A music video for the song was directed by Rocky Schenck and showed Barlow singing " Love Won 't Wait " across different locations . He also performed the song at the 1997 pre @-@ Grammy Award party , where his performance was negatively received .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her fifth studio album , Erotica ( 1992 ) , Madonna and her producer Shep Pettibone continued writing more songs in the same vein as present in the album . However , she later abandoned the project and collaborated with record producers Dallas Austin and Nellee Hooper to create Bedtime Stories , her sixth studio album , released in 1994 . Many of the songs from the writing sessions with Pettibone were not included and remained as demos . In the meantime , Gary Barlow wanted to release his debut album , Open Road , to coincide with his first single , " Forever Love " . However , he wanted to continue recording songs for the album . He came across one of Madonna 's demos called " Love Won 't Wait " and decided to record it , after shortening the lyrics .
Barlow 's manager , Simon Fuller , chose Stephen Lipson to produce the song , seeing his success with 1980s artists like Grace Jones and Frankie Goes to Hollywood . Although the song did not sound like what Barlow would usually record , he nevertheless explained in an interview : " It took me a while to get my interpretation right because Madonna had written from a female point of view . It 's not the kind of song I would write myself . But as soon as I heard it , I thought ' This is a hit ' . " A dance @-@ pop song , " Love Won 't Wait " is set in the time signature of common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Barlow 's voice spans between the nodes of C ♯ m and A3 and has a basic chord progression of C – A – B – C ♯ m in the pre @-@ chorus and E – B – D – A – C – E – A – C ♯ m in the chorus .
= = Release and promotion = =
Barlow had arrived in the United States in February 1997 for recording the track , where Clive Davis , who was managing his career in the United States , played him a " poppier " version of the song , remixed by Junior Vasquez . He also requested Barlow to perform " Love Won 't Wait " at the 1997 pre @-@ Grammy Award party . However , the singer did not have any time to rehearse or memorize the lyrics , resulting in the performance receiving negative reviews from critics and audience alike . With The Times Barlow recounted the evening saying , " I don 't remember the words . I came in at all the wrong times . I can see people drifting off to the toilet in droves . Talk about dying on your arse ! " The combination of the negative review towards his performance and contractual obligations led to Barlow release " Love Won 't Wait " as his second single on 24 April 1997 in the United Kingdom . The CD single consisted of the single version along with the Vasquez remix and two other tracks from Open Road , " Meaning Of A Love Song " and " Always " . Another song , " Cuddly Toy " , was released on the B @-@ side of another CD single for the song , released in May 1997 . " Love Won 't Wait " was also remixed by DJs Cuca and Monster Makers , and was released in a CD single in June 1997 .
An accompanying music video was directed by Rocky Schenck and was released on 28 April 1997 . It features Barlow performing the song in France , walking down a highway littered with stage props and crew members actively changing the scenes as he walks forward . As he performs the chorus , he jumps off the set and walks towards his stage chair , where he sits and observes his surroundings . The video ends with Barlow running away from a woman down a country road , as the video fades from view .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
While the album received mostly negative reviews , songs like " Love Won 't Wait " were considered a stand @-@ out by The Times . The Daily Mirror noted it as a " classic track you 've known all your life " , while a reviewer from The Sunday Mirror rated it seven out of ten , and cautioned that " Take That fans will lap up another smooth one from Gary , but I can 't help thinking he 's trying to turn into Elton John far too soon . " In the United Kingdom , " Love Won 't Wait " became Barlow 's second solo number one single on the UK Singles Chart , following " Forever Love " . It was number one for one week , and was present for a total of nine weeks within the top 100 of the chart . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it silver , for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song also reached number one in Spain , and the top @-@ ten of the charts in Denmark , Ireland , Italy and Taiwan . In Australia , " Love Won 't Wait " peaked at number 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Hurricane Karl ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Karl was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the eleventh named storm , eighth hurricane and sixth major hurricane of the 2004 season . Karl formed on September 16 , originating from a strong tropical wave that emerged off of Africa . It rapidly intensified , becoming a major hurricane on two occasions . Karl peaked as a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on September 21 with 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) winds . It weakened as it moved northward , becoming extratropical on September 24 in the north Atlantic and becoming absorbed by another system on September 28 . The extratropical storm affected the Faroe Islands , but no damage was reported there and no lives were lost .
= = Meteorological history = =
Karl originated in a strong tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 13 . The wave gradually became better organized , and it was declared Tropical Depression Twelve about 670 miles ( 1 @,@ 080 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands on the morning of September 16 , as it headed westward in the open tropical Atlantic following the periphery of the subtropical ridge . That afternoon , the depression continued to rapidly organize and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karl . Due to healthy outflow around an upper @-@ level anticyclone over Karl and a favorable environment with the warmest sea surface temperatures of the year , rapid deepening began on the evening of September 17 , with the storm developing a small eye and being upgraded to Hurricane Karl . With water around 28 ° C ( 83 ° F ) and low wind shear , the cyclone continued to rapidly intensify on the morning of September 18 . The intensity leveled off somewhat that afternoon as a strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) .
Late in the evening of September 18 , Karl attained Category 3 status , becoming the sixth major hurricane of 2004 . On September 19 , Karl continued to strengthen , maintaining a well @-@ defined eye , and strengthening late that day into a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 948 mbar . Early on September 20 , the storm weakened slightly as a result of an eyewall replacement cycle , weakening back to a strong Category 3 hurricane . At this time Karl began to turn sharply northward into a weakness in the subtropical ridge .
After intensification stopped on September 20 due to the eyewall cycle and slightly increased wind shear , Karl quickly restrengthened that evening over very warm water , and early on September 21 reached its peak intensity as a powerful Category 4 hurricane with 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) winds and a minimum central pressure of 9
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38 mbar . That morning , as Karl was moving northward , another eyewall replacement cycle began to take place and vertical shear increased , again weakening the storm temporarily . The trend continued into the evening , and the storm weakened to a Category 2 hurricane by early on September 22 . The weakening trend slowed down and eventually leveled off that afternoon with Karl remaining a Category 2 hurricane as the storm turned towards the north @-@ northeast . Late that evening , Karl began to restrengthen once again as wind shear diminished . The intensification continued into the morning of September 23 , as Karl became a major hurricane a second time , reaching a final peak of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) winds . Cooler waters and increased shear soon prevailed , however , and the storm quickly weakened , dropping to a Category 1 hurricane by late that evening as the low @-@ level circulation became detached from the mid @-@ level circulation due to the strong southwesterly vertical wind shear .
Early on September 24 , Karl continued its north @-@ northeast track over the open north @-@ central Atlantic and continued to gradually weaken . It started to come in contact with the baroclinic zone and began to lose tropical characteristics , while still a Category 1 hurricane . Karl became extratropical shortly afterward over the northern Atlantic at about 47 ° N , with its winds dropping below hurricane strength shortly thereafter . The extratropical storm made landfall on the Faroe Islands with hurricane @-@ force wind gusts . As an extratropical low , the cyclone moved northeastward and eastward across the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea , eventually reaching Norway before it was absorbed into another extratropical low late on September 28 .
= = Impact = =
Karl made landfall on Norway as an extratropical storm with sustained winds near 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and with wind gusts up to 89 mph ( 144 km / h ) . No damages or deaths were reported , and no ships came directly into contact with Karl ; the strongest winds reported were from the ship Rotterdam , which reported 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) sustained winds in the north Atlantic while Karl was a Category 1 storm in extratropical transition .
= Winnie Winkle =
Winnie Winkle is an American comic strip which appeared over a 76 @-@ year span ( 1920 – 96 ) . The strip 's premise was conceived by Joseph Medill Patterson , but the stories and artwork were by Martin Branner , who wrote the strip for over 40 years . Winnie Winkle was one of the first comic strips about working women . The main character Winnie was a young woman who had to support her parents and adopted brother , serving as a reflection of the changing role of women in society . It ran in more than 100 newspapers for several decades , and translations of the strip 's Sunday pages were made available in Europe , focusing on her little brother Perry Winkle and his gang .
Due to its originality and longevity , Winnie Winkle became a household name and an icon , inspiring even Pop Art artist Roy Lichtenstein . Winnie Winkle was reprinted in Dell Comics , and for a time her face appeared on a cigar box lid . In retrospect , Winnie Winkle is seen as one of the comic strips heralding a new , more independent role for American women after World War I.
= = Publication history = =
The Chicago Tribune Syndicate launched the comic strip on September 20 , 1920 . By 1939 , Winnie Winkle was running in more than 140 newspapers . It was titled Winnie Winkle the Breadwinner until 1943 . By 1970 , Winnie Winkle still ran in more than 150 newspapers .
Winnie Winkle ended July 28 , 1996 , after 76 years , one of the longest runs in American comic strip history . Tribune Media Services , the syndicate that distributed the comic strip , " felt that the Winnie Winkle character was not recognized as a contemporary role model for the ' 90s . " At the time , the strip was carried by only a handful of newspapers .
= = Characters and story = =
The eponymous character Winnie Winkle was a young , unmarried woman who had to support her parents , making it the first popular comic strip about working women . It was a reflection of the new role of women in society , as could also be seen in comics such as Tillie the Toiler from 1921 . Writing for the Associated Press in 1993 , Hugh A. Mulligan noted , " After women got the vote and joined the work force , family @-@ centered comics were joined by working @-@ girl strips like Winnie Winkle , Tillie the Toiler , Dixie Dugan , Somebody 's Stenog and Brenda Starr , which was drawn by a woman , Dale Messick . Almost from the beginning , politics and a social conscience hovered over the drawing board . "
During its first years , the daily Winnie Winkle evolved from simple gags to more complex humorous situations . A new character was introduced in the form of Perry , a little boy from the backstreets , whom the Winkles adopted in 1922 . The focus of the Sunday pages then shifted to the adventures of Perry at home , school and on the streets . Although compelled to wear a duffle coat and fancy clothes , he continued to frequent his old neighborhood . The local gang , the Rinkydinks , in contrast , still wore torn and patchy clothing , and were regarded by Winnie as " loafers . " One member of the Rinkydinks was the dunce , Denny Dimwit , who popularized the catch phrase , " Youse is a good boy , Denny . "
Other major plot elements were the 1937 marriage of Winnie to engineer Will Wright and the disappearance of Will during World War II , leaving a pregnant Winnie behind . This realistic and unfortunate situation was too risqué for some newspapers : The Baltimore Sun dropped the strip early in 1941 because of the pregnancy of Winnie . The comic strip changed significantly over the years ; with Winnie working in the fashion industry after the war , seemingly as a widow until her husband returned after a few decades . She took on various other jobs and endeavors over the years , including a stint in the Peace Corps .
= = Artists = =
Branner employed a number of assistants , including Royal King Cole ( during the 1930s ) , Rolf Ahlson , Mike Peppe , and Max Van Bibber ( 1938 – 1962 ) . Another assistant was the young French author Robert Velter , who on his return to Europe created the famous series Spirou et Fantasio .
From 1941 until 1958 , Branner 's assistant was John A. Berrill , who later created Gil Thorp . After Branner suffered a stroke in 1962 , Van Bibber continued the series until 1980 , later followed by students from the Joe Kubert School of Cartoon and Graphic Art , and finally by veteran artist Frank Bolle . Bolle recalled :
I did Winnie Winkle for 20 years , and when they told me , " You have 90 days to wrap it up , " because they were discontinuing it , I felt terrible , but after I finished it , I didn 't even miss it . I was depressed because I lost a good job , but I just didn 't miss it . Maybe it was the routine of it every week I didn 't miss , but I have a lot of good memories of doing that strip .
= = International spin @-@ offs and translations = =
In 1923 , Winnie 's adopted younger brother Perry Winkle and his friends the Rinkydinks became the focus of the Sunday pages . In Europe , only the Sunday pages were translated . In Holland and France , local artists made new comics about Perry when the number of weekly pages by Branner was no longer sufficient .
The Dutch translated the strip as Sjors van de Rebellenclub which became very popular in the Netherlands , where it was the predecessor of the long @-@ running series Sjors en Sjimmie by Frans Piët .
In France , it was known as Bicot and published by Hachette in 14 albums between 1926 and 1939 .
In Flanders , Belgium the series De Vrolijke Bengels by Willy Vandersteen and De Lustige Kapoentjes by Marc Sleen were directly inspired by this strip .
The Sunday page of Winnie Winkle was the first American comic published in a Yugoslavian daily newspaper , Jutarnji list from Zagreb . It first appeared on August 5 , 1923 , and lasted until April 1941 , the beginning of World War II in that country . Perry , the hero , was renamed " Ivica " ( Johnny ) , and Winnie " Suzana . " The Rinkydinks were rechristened " Rantanplanci , " allegedly after a group of kids from a contemporary Hollywood film series . The title was Pustolovni Ivica ( " Adventurous Johnny " ) . A single Christmas episode taking place in Zagreb was published , the work of unknown local authors . Three albums collected the stories published in the newspaper .
= = Films = =
From 1926 to 1928 , ten Winnie Winkle the Breadwinner movies were produced , written by Branner and starring Ethelyn Gibson as Winnie , with Billy West as director .
= = Awards = =
In 1958 , Branner received the National Cartoonists Society 's Humor Comic Strip Division Award for Winnie Winkle .
= = Archives = =
Syracuse University houses the Martin Branner Cartoons collection of 300 original daily cartoons from Winnie Winkle ( 1920 – 1957 ) . There is a complete week from each year represented , with additional random cartoons from each year . ( There are no holdings for 1946 – 47 . ) The daily cartoons display traces of graphite , blue pencil , Zip @-@ A @-@ Tone , brush , pen and ink on illustration board measuring approximately 7 ¼ x 22 ½ inches . The Smithsonian 's National Museum of American History has 28 volumes of Branner 's proofs for the strip .
= Strawberry Bubblegum =
" Strawberry Bubblegum " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his third studio album , The 20 / 20 Experience ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , with additional writing from James Fauntleroy . " Strawberry Bubblegum " is a mid @-@ tempo pop , R & B and soul song with elements of EDM and ambient . Its music structure received comparison to the works of musicians such as Barry White , Prince and Stevie Wonder .
Music critics were divided on " Strawberry Bubblegum " ; the song 's production was generally praised , but the lyrics were criticized as being cliché . Despite the mixed reactions from reviewers , the song debuted at number 22 on the singles chart in South Korea , upon the release of The 20 / 20 Experience . It also peaked at number 34 and 38 on the UK R & B Singles Chart and US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart respectively . Timberlake performed " Strawberry Bubblegum " for the first time on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on March 15 , 2013 .
= = Writing and production = =
" Strawberry Bubblegum " was written by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , and James Fauntleroy , with production by Timbaland , Timberlake and Harmon . Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals , which were recorded at Larabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . Harmon provided keyboards for the song , while Elliot Ives played the guitar . The track was engineered by Chris Godbey , with assistance from Alejandro Baima , and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , Godbey and Timberlake at Larabee Studios .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Strawberry Bubblegum " is characterized as a pop song by HitFix 's Melinda Newman , an R & B song by Billboard magazine 's Jason Lipshutz , and a combination of slick grooves and psychedelic soul by Arwa Haider of Metro . Jean Bentley of Hollywood.com found the song influenced by electro , while Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal said that it evokes music by Barry White , Sly Stone , and Drake 's " ambient R & B " style . According to Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times , the song transitions from a stark electro song to an amiable keyboard vamp comparable to Stevie Wonder 's 1973 song " You Are the Sunshine of My Life " . The song features electronic blips , string movements , and upbeat percussion breaks . Mesfin Fekadu of Times Colonist wrote that the song is " smooth , airy and full of sexual innuendoes , and it transitions into something that 's heaven @-@ like . " Timberlake sings in a falsetto voice and refers to a mature woman as his strawberry bubblegum in the song 's lyrics . Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle remarked that the eccentric song recalls the work of Prince . Helen Brown of The Daily Telegraph attributed the song 's relaxing style to how it samples Barry White , while Lauren Martin of Fact found the song to be in the style of Frank Ocean .
" Strawberry Bubblegum " begins with the sound of a stylus dropping on a vinyl record . The line " Hey , pretty lady " is declared by a deep voice , and Timberlake sings " This goes out to you ! " . ABC News reporter Allan Raible wrote that " such a move seems engineered to make gullible teen girls in the audience scream " . The lyrics feature daft double @-@ entendres and are complemented by spoken @-@ word background vocals . MusicOMH 's David Meller wrote that the song 's transition into " ’ 70s funk @-@ cum @-@ porno keyboards " is likable , but may seem ridiculous to many listeners . The string loops and the record scratches on the song complete " the faux @-@ vintage " vibe of " Strawberry Bubblegum " . Raible concluded that it attempts to sound like Michael Jackson 's 2002 song " Butterflies " because of its delicate tone . According to Clyde Erwin Barretto of Prefix Mag , " Strawberry Bubblegum " takes its R & B style in a more avant @-@ garde direction , but its second half is more classic @-@ sounding . Craig Manning of the Western Herald said that the first half of " Strawberry Bubblegum " draws from Frank Ocean 's psychedelic style of R & B , while the outro is more comparable to the music of ' NSYNC , Timberlake 's former group . Jason Lipshutz called the outro " sashaying " and " pleasant " .
Lyrically , Timberlake assures his love interest that they are " making love like professionals " and declares : " If you ’ ll be my strawberry bubblegum , I ’ ll be your blueberry lollipop " . In addition , he sings about the girl 's many characteristics and sensual qualities , and proclaims that he will love her until they " make it pop " . The Boston Globe 's James Reed wrote that the lyrics are silly , but irresistible , while Sarah Dean of The Huffington Post found " Strawberry Bubblegum " as seductive as its title , but according to her , " if you had too much of it you might end up feeling a little sick " . Additionally , Timberlake sings lyrics about he has " recipe for a good time " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club felt that the lyrics ' sense of humor is somewhat similar to " Pop " by ' NSYNC .
= = Critical response = =
Mesfin Fekadu of the Times Colonist called " Strawberry Bubblegum " an " eight @-@ minute event " and one of the album 's standout songs . Sean Daly of the Tampa Bay Times wrote that the song is " best enjoyed on satin sheets " . Clyde Erwin Barretto of Prefix Mag wrote that " as the name suggests " , the song is " as sweet as it sounds " . Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that the " surface silliness " of the song " deepens to a feeling of respect a few plays in , when the penny drops , and everything suddenly makes sense " .
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that while " Strawberry Bubblegum " is musically " rich and rewarding " , the lyrics are " embarrassingly cliché " . According to VH1 's Bené Viera , one would expect a cliché such as " Strawberry Bubblegum " to " fall flat " . He wrote that Timberlake 's falsettos " make it almost cute " to hear a " grown man referring to a grown woman as his strawberry bubblegum " . He concluded that envisioning Timberlake perform on stage at a " small juke joint on Bill Street " is not " far fetched " . Lauren Martin of Fact wrote that " if you ’ re going to release an eight minute song with only two verses and a hook " , singing the words " strawberry " and " bubblegum " 34 and 20 times respectively " begins to grate " . Jed Gottlieb of The Boston Herald wrote that " Strawberry Bubblegum " is a " killer vamp " without a " killer change to hook us " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed " Strawberry Bubblegum " for the first time on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on March 15 , 2013 . Wearing varsity baseball @-@ style jackets , Timberlake and his backup singers " shook and finger @-@ snapped " through the song , according to Rachel Brodsky of MTV Buzzworthy . " Building upon the performance 's sports theme " , additional backup dancers later joined them onstage in full baseball uniforms . Brodsky suggested that the choice of wearing baseball hats and striped pants could " have something to do with baseball players and their penchant for chewing [ bubble ] gum " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience .
Locations
Vocals recorded and mixed at Larrabee Studios , North Hollywood , California
Personnel
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of The 20 / 20 Experience , due to digital downloads " Strawberry Bubblegum " charted at number 34 on the UK R & B Singles Chart . For the week dated March 17 , 2013 , the song debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 22 with sales of 7 @,@ 089 digital copies .
= Tickle Cock Bridge =
Tickle Cock Bridge is a pedestrian underpass in Castleford , England , under a railway line originally built by the York and North Midland Railway between York and Normanton . Built in 1890 , the thoroughfare now connects the town 's main residential area with the Carlton Lanes Shopping Centre , and is used by 50 @,@ 000 pedestrians each week . The original Victorian structure , described by the shopping centre 's manager as " small , narrow , very low and gloomy " and " frightening to walk through " , was replaced in 2008 as part of an urban regeneration scheme .
The replacement bridge was initially renamed Tittle Cott . After a protest organised by a local over @-@ 50s group , Wakefield Council reversed its decision and a plaque bearing the original name , Tickle Cock , was installed .
= = Etymology = =
The word cock was first recorded in use as a vulgar term for the penis in 1618 , perhaps deriving from one of the word 's other meanings " a spout or short pipe serving as a channel for passing liquids through " . It was once common in England for areas to be given names that reflected their function or the activity taking place within them . Local historian Brian Lewis believes that may be the explanation for the name that locals gave to the bridge during the late 19th or early 20th century : " [ the underpass ] would function in the same way as any ' monkey run ' , where you paraded up and down to find a boyfriend or girlfriend " .
= = Replacement = =
The new underpass was designed by architects Deborah Saunt and Sam Potter of DSDHA in collaboration with Brian Lewis and artist Martin Richman . Funding for the project was provided jointly by Wakefield Council , the Neighbourhood Renewal Fund , Network Rail , and the Arts Council England , Yorkshire .
After a competition in 2003 , design and planning work continued until 2007 . The Victorian underpass was replaced by a prefabricated concrete tunnel , twice the width and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) taller than the original , by construction engineers Jane Wernick Associates in December 2005 . As the installation took place under a live railway line that was supported by the underpass , work was planned to cause the minimum disruption to train services ; the line had to be closed for only two days – Christmas Day and Boxing Day 2005 . The bridge 's surroundings were improved in 2008 , with better lighting , a new green space , and an angular seating shelter facing south @-@ west to catch the sun in the evening . Richman worked on the lighting scheme , and the designers decided to line the walls of the underpass with a tactile red flock material , as an allusion to its " colourful history " .
The new bridge was opened on 27 June 2008 by Councillors Denise Jefferey and Mark Burns Williamson . The Times newspaper described the £ 200 @,@ 000 structure as a " piece of sophisticated concrete geometry " . Saunt commented that it " is about cheering up those spots planning usually forgets about " .
The replacement of the underpass was one of twelve elements in the Castleford Regeneration Project , originally proposed in 2001 . It was featured in a four @-@ part television series , Kevin McCloud and the Big Town Plan , broadcast by Channel 4 in August – September 2008 .
= = Naming controversy = =
The council decided to name the new underpass Tittle Cott , a move that was met with dismay by local residents . The Castleford Area Voice for the Elderly , an over @-@ 50s group , organised a campaign to have the name Tickle Cock restored . The group 's chairman , Margaret Shillito , was quoted in the press as saying " the old plaque was wrong , it had the wrong name on and we were offended by it " . Brian Lewis was quoted as saying " I feel we should never alter names and Tickle Cock has a very clear message behind it " . A public meeting was held at which a " large majority " voted in favour of reverting to the original name , a decision that persuaded the council to replace the bridge 's plaque with one bearing the legend Tickle Cock .
= The Boat Race 1873 =
The 30th Boat Race
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took place on the 29 March 1873 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Joseph William Chitty , Cambridge won by three lengths in a time of 19 minutes and 35 seconds , the fastest time in the history of the event . It was the first time that rowers raced on sliding seats .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by two lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's thirteen .
Although the use of sliding seats had been considered the previous year , the then @-@ Cambridge boat club president John Goldie disallowed the Light Blue boat manufacturer Harry Clasper from fitting them . However , for the 1873 race , both boats were , for the first time , fitted with the innovation .
Cambridge were coached by John Graham Chambers ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1862 and 1863 races , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1865 race ) Oxford 's coaches was Robert Lesley , the non @-@ rowing president of Oxford University Boat Club ( who had rowed in the 1871 and 1872 races ) .
Joseph William Chitty ( who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race ) returned as umpire for the race ( with Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd having officiated the previous year ) while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 lb ( 74 @.@ 7 kg ) , 5 @.@ 25 pounds ( 2 @.@ 4 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford saw four former Blues return from the 1872 crew , while Cambridge 's crew included three rowers who had participated the previous year , in James Brooks Close , Charles Stokes Read and Constantine William Benson .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race commenced at 2.32pm. Oxford 's higher stroke rate enabled them to make " a good race of it " , and remained in contention for the first mile @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to Hammersmith Bridge , but in doing so exhausted themselves . Cambridge eased off and won the race by three lengths . The winning time was 19 minutes and 35 seconds , the fastest time in the history of The Boat Race and 29 seconds faster than the previous record set in the 1869 .
= AgustaWestland AW101 =
The AgustaWestland AW101 is a medium @-@ lift helicopter used in both military and civil applications . It was developed by a joint venture between Westland Helicopters in the UK and Agusta in Italy in response to national requirements for a modern naval utility helicopter . Several operators , including the armed forces of Britain , Denmark , Norway and Portugal , use the name Merlin for their AW101 aircraft . It is manufactured at factories in Yeovil , England and Vergiate , Italy ; licensed assembly work has also taken place in Japan and the United States .
Prior to 2007 , the aircraft had been marketed under the designation EH101 . The original designation was EHI 01 but a transcription error of a handwritten note changed this to EH101 and the designation stuck . In 2000 , Westland Helicopters and Agusta merged to form AgustaWestland , leading to the type 's redesignation as AW101 . The AW101 first flew in 1987 , and entered into service in 1999 . Since the AW101 's introduction , it has replaced several older helicopter types , such as the Sikorsky S @-@ 61 , performing roles such as medium @-@ sized transport , anti @-@ submarine warfare , and ship @-@ based utility operations .
The Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) operates a variant of the AW101 , designated CH @-@ 149 Cormorant , in the air @-@ sea rescue role . Another variant , designated VH @-@ 71 Kestrel , was developed to serve in the US presidential transport fleet ; however , the program was cancelled . Civil operators also use AW101s in roles such as passenger and VIP transportation . The type has been deployed to active combat theatres , such as in support of coalition forces during the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1977 , the UK Ministry of Defence issued a requirement for an anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) helicopter to replace the Royal Navy 's Westland Sea Kings , which were becoming inadequate in the face of advances in Soviet submarine technology . Westland Helicopters put together a proposal , designated WG.34 , for a three @-@ engined helicopter of similar dimensions to the Sea King ; the WG.34 was to feature more autonomy and a greater range than its predecessor . At the same time , the Italian Navy ( Marina Militare ) was also considering the replacement of its fleet of Sea Kings , which had been built by the Italian company Agusta ; Westland and Agusta soon began talks regarding the joint development of a successor helicopter .
Agusta and Westland finalised an agreement to work on the project together , and formed a jointly owned new company , EH Industries Limited ( EHI ) , to pursue the development and marketing of the new helicopter to potential operators . On 12 June 1981 , the UK government confirmed its participation in the project , allocated an initial budget of £ 20 million to develop nine pre @-@ series examples . A major agreement , which secured funding for the majority of the EH101 's development program , was signed by both the British and Italian governments in 1984 . At the 1985 Paris Air Show , Agusta showed a mock @-@ up of a utility version of the new helicopter , leading to a more generalised design that could be customised to meet the needs of various civilian or military customers . The first prototype flew on 9 October 1987 .
In 1987 , Canada had selected the EH101 to replace their Sea Kings in anti @-@ submarine warfare and search and rescue roles ; the EH101 's third engine and increased autonomy compared favorably against rivals such as the Sikorsky Seahawk , its range and de @-@ icing capability were also seen as vital for North Atlantic operations . The fledgling EH101 , of which up to 50 were on order to replace the Canadian Armed Forces 's ( CAF ) Sea Kings , found itself subject to a wider political battle between the Conservative and Liberal parties , the latter viewing the aircraft as too costly . Critics attacked the EH101 purchase as excessive and unnecessary after the Cold War 's end in the early 1990s . Wide @-@ ranging cost estimates were presented by both proponents and opponents of the EH101 procurement , with opponents backing life extensions of Sikorsky CH @-@ 124 Sea King and Boeing Vertol CH @-@ 113 Labrador helicopter fleets . The EH101 controversy was seen as a factor in the 1993 Canadian federal election . The order was cancelled by the new Liberal government in 1993 resulting in a $ 470 million cancellation fee .
= = = Into production = = =
Several pre @-@ production aircraft were assembled during the late 1980s and early 1990s . Flight tests were suspended for six months following the crash of the second pre @-@ production aircraft on 21 January 1993 . On 6 June 1993 , the first EH101 flew with the Rolls @-@ Royce / Turbomeca RTM322 turboshaft engine . Nine prototypes were built to explore military and civil applications , including a " heliliner " configuration . In February 1995 , Britain formally placed its first order for a total of 22 EH101s ; this was quickly followed by Italy 's order for 16 EH101s in October 1995 . The EH101 order was not without controversy , the RAF had declared its preference for an all @-@ Chinook fleet ; also , Boeing allegedly offered cheaper terms for the Chinook . RAF deliveries began in 1997 ; RN deliveries started the following year .
In 2005 , a team of AgustaWestland and Lockheed Martin was selected as the winners of the US VXX competition to replace the President 's Marine One helicopters of the United States Marine Corps . A variant of the AW101 , designated VH @-@ 71 Kestrel , was to be manufactured domestically and had proceeded into the flight testing stages . However the programme encountered significant cost overruns and political opposition , which led to the procurement being scrapped in June 2009 . Separately , the Marine Corps had also conducted studies into the adoption of the EH101 as a fallback option to the Bell @-@ Boeing V @-@ 22 Osprey tiltrotor during the 1990s .
Following the merger of Westland and Agusta to form AgustaWestland in 2000 , there was no need for the separate EHI entity ; the EH101 was formally re @-@ branded as the AW101 in 2007 . In 2008 , the volume of AW101 orders was reported as having filled production capacity in excess of the following five years . By April 2009 , more than 180 AW101s had been sold worldwide ; the combined operational fleet had also accumulated a total of 170 @,@ 000 flying hours .
= = = Further developments = = =
In November 2007 , Algeria signed a contract for 6 AW101 helicopters . In August 2012 , it was reported that Algeria had signed an agreement with AgustaWestland for the provision of up to 80 helicopters , 42 of which were to be AW101s . Under the terms of this arrangement , early aircraft were to be manufactured by AgustaWestland , while Algeria was to commence the assembly of some AW101s later on .
The AW101 was a candidate in the Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter ( NAWSARH ) programme to replace the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Westland Sea King Mk.43B helicopter fleet . Other candidates included Bell Boeing V @-@ 22 Osprey , Eurocopter EC225 , NHIndustries NH90 , and Sikorsky S @-@ 92 . Iceland cooperated with Norway on the programme and was to buy 3 – 4 helicopters to replace its Super Puma helicopters , but withdrew in 2012 due to limited finances . The AW101 was selected in November 2013 .
On 7 June 2010 , it was announced that Boeing had acquired a manufacturing license and the rights from AgustaWestland for US production of a localised AW101 variant , designated as the Boeing 101 . In October 2012 , the AW101 was submitted in a U.S. Air Force competition to replace the HH @-@ 60 Pave Hawk ; however , the bid was dropped three months later .
In September 2013 , AgustaWestland was reportedly in the process of acquiring new civil certification for the AW101 , target customers include long @-@ range offshore oil platform transport operators and VIP clients . As of February 2014 , AgustaWestland was considering adapting the AW101 as a heavyweight unmanned aerial vehicle , it is proposed that in this configuration an AW101 could be optionally manned .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The AW101 Merlin follows a conventional design layout , but makes use of advanced technologies , such as the design of the rotor blades , avionics systems , and the extensive use of composite materials . The fuselage structure is modular and comprises an aluminium @-@ lithium alloy , designed to be both light and damage @-@ resistant . The AW101 is designed for operating in extreme weather conditions ; it is fitted with a de @-@ icing system and rated to operate in temperatures ranging between − 45 to + 50 ° C. The aircraft 's control systems allow the AW101 to maintain a stable hover in 74 km / h ( 40 kn ) crosswinds .
An active vibration control system , known as the active control of structural response system , reduces airframe vibration by up to 80 % which increases crew comfort and minimises the buildup of stress on the airframe . The cockpit is fitted with armoured seats for the crew , and can withstand an impact velocity of over 10 m / s . Dual flight controls are provided , though the AW101 can be flown by a single person . The pilots ' instrument displays include six full @-@ colour high @-@ definition screens and an optional mission display ; a digital map or forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) display can also be installed .
= = = Powerplant = = =
The AW101 is powered by three turboshaft engines . The Rolls @-@ Royce / Turbomeca RTM322 and General Electric CT7 are the two available engine types . The Rolls @-@ Royce RTM322 was specifically developed for the AW101 ; it was subsequently adopted on the WAH @-@ 64 Apache and the NHIndustries NH90 helicopters . About 80 % of AW101s use the RTM322 powerplant , according to Rolls @-@ Royce .
The engines power an 18 @.@ 59 metre diameter five @-@ bladed main rotor . The rotor blades are constructed from carbon / glass with nomex honeycomb and rohacell foam , edged with titanium alloy in a sandwich construction . The shaping of the main rotor blades is derived from the BERP rotor blades first used on the Westland Lynx . This blade design improves aerodynamic efficiency at the blade tip and reduces the acoustic signature . Improved BERP IV rotors have since been developed ; when installed , this increases the AW101 's maximum takeoff weight .
Each engine is supplied by a separate 1 @,@ 074 litre ( 276 US Gallon , 230 Imperial Gallon ) fuel tank using dual booster pumps . Optional fourth and fifth tanks can be added to act as a reservoir supply , topping up the main tanks during flight , increasing range or endurance . The AW101 can also be outfitted with a probe for aerial refuelling . Self @-@ sealing fuel tanks are an optional item to be selected by the customer . An inlet particle separator system can be installed , protecting the engine when operating in sandy environments .
= = = Armament and defensive systems = = =
Most variants of the AW101 are equipped with self @-@ defence systems , such as chaff and flare dispensers , directed infrared countermeasures ( infrared jammers ) , ESM ( electronic support measures in the form of RF heads ) , and a laser detection and warning system . British Merlins have been outfitted with protective armour against small @-@ arms fire . A chin @-@ mounted forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) imaging sensor has been fitted to some variants .
Two hardpoints are present on the underside of the airframe on which the HM1 model can carry four Sting Ray torpedoes or Mk 11 Mod 3 depth charges . Some customers have chosen to deploy the Marte anti @-@ ship missile on the AW101 ; as of 2011 , the Royal Navy is considering equipping their Merlin fleet with an anti @-@ surface missile . The
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Mk1 , Mk3 and Mk3A variants can mount general purpose machine guns in up to five locations in the main cabin , aimed out of both door and window apertures . AgustaWestland has examined the integration of rockets and additional ground @-@ attack weapons .
= = = Avionics = = =
Westland and IBM formed a consortium in 1991 to perform the helicopter 's complex systems integration . The AW101 features a network of helicopter management and mission systems designed to reduce pilot workload and enable the helicopter to undertake a wide variety of missions . A digital automatic flight control system ( AFCS ) is employed by the AW101 . The AFCS allows the operation of a four @-@ axis ( pitch , roll , yaw and collective ) autopilot and the automatic stabilisation system , and is linked in with the aircraft 's flight management systems . The AFCS , manufactured by Smiths Aerospace , is a dual @-@ duplex system using two flight computers to provide redundancy and fault @-@ tolerance .
The AW101 's navigation system includes a GPS receiver and inertial navigation system , VHF omnidirectional radio range ( VOR ) , instrument landing system ( ILS ) , TACAN , and automatic direction finding . The Mk1 and Mk3 are equipped with a Doppler velocity system ( DVS ) which provides relative ground velocities ; the DVS is also linked into the AFCS as part of the autostabilisation system . For safety , the aircraft is equipped with obstacle and terrain avoidance warning systems , traffic collision avoidance system ( TCAS ) , and both voice and flight data recorders .
The AW101 is equipped with the Blue Kestrel search and detection radar which is capable of 360 degree scanning and can detect small targets as far as 25 nautical miles . As part of the Royal Navy 's Merlin HM2 upgrade program , Lockheed Martin implemented a series of improvements to the radar , notably allowing it to track 40 times the number of targets previously capable . Danish EH101s are fitted with the RDR @-@ 1600 search and weather radar . Royal Navy Merlins are equipped with the AQS901 anti @-@ submarine system for processing sonographic data from sonobuoys to detect and target submerged submarines . The AQS901 was derived from the system on the earlier Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft .
= = = Crew and cargo = = =
The AW101 is typically operated by a crew of three : a pilot , an observer , and a crewman / operator . The pilot is able to fly for the majority of a mission in a hands @-@ off mode , enabled by the sophisticated autopilot . All crew members have individual access to management computers and tactical information .
The fuselage has a volume of 31 @.@ 91 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 127 cu ft ) and the cargo compartment is 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) in length , 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 ft 7 in ) wide and 1 @.@ 91 metres ( 6 ft 3 in ) high . The military version of the AW101 can accommodate up to 24 seated or 45 standing combat troops and their equipment . Alternative loads include a medical team and 16 stretchers , and cargo pallets .
The ramp , 1 @.@ 91 by 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 6 ft 3 in × 7 ft 7 in ) , can take a 3 @,@ 050 @-@ kilogram ( 6 @,@ 720 lb ) load , allowing it to carry vehicles such as Land Rovers . The ramp and cabin floor are fitted with flush tie @-@ down points . A cargo hook under the fuselage can carry external loads of 5 @,@ 440 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 990 lb ) via the use of a semi @-@ automatic cargo release unit ( SACRU ) . A rescue hoist and a hover trim controller are fitted at the cargo door . An optional cargo winch can be installed near to the rear ramp .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Navy = = =
The RN 's final order was for 44 ASW aircraft , originally designated Merlin HAS.1 but soon changed to Merlin HM1 . The first fully operational Merlin was delivered on 17 May 1997 , entering service on 2 June 2000 . All aircraft were delivered by the end of 2002 , and are operated by four Fleet Air Arm squadrons : 814 NAS , 820 NAS , 824 NAS and 829 NAS , all based at RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall . 700 NAS was the Merlin Operational Evaluation Unit from 2000 to 2008 . In March 2004 , Navy Merlins were temporarily grounded following an incident at RNAS Culdrose in which a tail rotor failed due to a manufacturing defect . An improved tail rotor was designed and adopted on most AW101s ; according to AgustaWestland , the redesigned rotor also significantly reduced associated maintenance .
In 1995 , it was announced that the Navy 's Westland Lynx helicopters would be retired in favour of an all @-@ Merlin fleet . However , the subsequent 2010 SDSR stated that the future naval helicopters would be the Merlin and the Wildcat , a derivative of the Lynx . Royal Navy Merlins have seen action in the Caribbean , on counter @-@ narcotics and hurricane support duties , as well as maritime security duties in the Persian Gulf . Merlins have also seen active duty in Iraq , providing support to British and coalition forces based in the region .
The Merlin HM1 has been cleared to operate from the Royal Navy 's aircraft carriers , amphibious assault ships , Type 23 frigates and several Royal Fleet Auxiliary ( RFA ) vessels including the Fort Victoria @-@ class ; it is also to equip the Type 45 destroyer . 30 aircraft have been upgraded to Merlin HM2 standard under the £ 750m Merlin Capability Sustainment Programme ; Lockheed Martin UK delivered the final HM2 on 11 July 2016 . The HM2 has a new mission system , digital cockpit , electro @-@ optical camera and multi @-@ static processing for the sonar system . The HM2 performed its first ship @-@ borne test flight in September 2012 and achieved IOC on 30 June 2014 , after nine HM2 had flown 480 hours from Illustrious during Exercise Deep Blue earlier that month . It was also reported that some of the eight airframes not scheduled to be upgraded for financial reasons may be updated .
Five HM2s are in maintenance at any one time , leaving 25 available at readiness , of which 14 will be assigned to the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carrier . In addition to its anti @-@ submarine role , the HM2 will be able to carry an airborne early warning ( AEW ) pod under procurement through the Crowsnest programme to replace the Sea King ASaC7 . In September 2011 , Thales UK proposed re @-@ using Sea King ASaC7 equipment , such as the Searchwater 2000 , on the Merlin ; Lockheed Martin has proposed developing a new multi @-@ functional sensor for either the AW101 or other aircraft . Lockheed originally planned to use a derivative of the F @-@ 35 's APG @-@ 81 radar but is now believed to be using an Elta system ; both it and the Thales system will begin flight trials in the summer of 2014 with Main Gate in 2016 . Ten pods are planned with IOC in 2019 . On 22 May 2015 , The MOD and Lockheed Martin UK , as the prime contractor for Crowsnest , selected Thales as the chosen bidder to provide the radar and mission system at the heart of the Crowsnest capability .
On 15 December 2009 , plans were announced to transfer RAF Merlin HC3s and HC3As to the Commando Helicopter Force to replace retiring Sea King HC4 helicopters . The Sea King is to retire in 2016 , after which the Navy will operate a combination of the Wildcat and Merlin . 846 NAS reformed with ex @-@ RAF Merlin HC3s on 30 September 2014 ; 845 NAS followed on 9 July 2015 .
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
The RAF ordered 22 Merlin HC3 for transport missions , the first of which entered service in January 2001 with No. 28 Squadron RAF based at RAF Benson . The type is equipped with extended @-@ range fuel tanks and is capable of air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling . The Merlin is frequently utilised for troop transport duties and for the transport of bulky objects , either internally or underslung , including vehicles and artillery . The Merlin Depth Maintenance Facility at RNAS Culdrose performed most tasks upon the Merlin HC3 .
The Merlin 's first operational deployment was to the Balkans region in 2003 . RAF Merlins were first deployed to Iraq as part of Operation Telic in 2004 , supporting coalition forces and were operated as the main medevac asset in southern Iraq ; both Flight Lieutenant Kev Harris and Flight Lieutenant Michelle Goodman were awarded the DFC during this period . Merlins routinely operated around Basra until Britain 's withdrawal in June 2009 .
In 2002 , Westland made an unsuccessful unsolicited offer to the British Ministry of Defence , proposing an enhanced Merlin variant intended to satisfy the demand for additional lift capacity . An alternative measure was the acquisition of six AW101s from Denmark in 2007 ; designated Merlin HC3A , these were assigned to the RAF , allowing Merlins to be deployed in Afghanistan . The HC3A is used for training and not for frontline operations due to various configuration differences . In December 2007 , a second Merlin squadron , No. 78 Squadron was formed at Benson .
In 2009 , five Merlin Mk3s were operating in Afghanistan , transporting troops and supplies . The deployment to Afghanistan was criticized as the aircraft reportedly lacked protective Kevlar armour . By July 2010 , the Merlin fleet was fully fitted with ballistic armour . The deployment of Merlins to Afghanistan allowed the detachment of Sea Kings to be withdrawn from the region in October 2011 . As part of the UK drawdown in Afghanistan , Merlins were withdrawn from theatre in June 2013 .
In 2012 , the RAF 's Merlin HC3 / 3A fleet began to be transferred to the Royal Navy for use by the Commando Helicopter Force . Royal Navy personnel worked alongside RAF crew at Benson to build experience during the transition . A £ 454m Merlin Life Sustainment Programme will see 25 HC3 / 3A airframes fitted with the cockpit electronics of the HM2 , folding tails and main rotor heads , strengthened landing gear , deck lashing mounting points , obsolescence updates , fast @-@ roping points and a common emergency egress system . The first HC4 will begin flight trials in September 2017 , with an IOC in mid @-@ 2018 ; an interim folding main rotor head will be fitted to some HC3 for shipborne operations prior to the HC4 upgrade . Command of the UK Merlin HC3 / 3A fleet was formally transferred from the RAF to the Royal Navy during a ceremony at RAF Benson on 30 September 2014 . As part of the same ceremony , the RAF 's 78 Sqn was disbanded and the Royal Navy 's 846 Naval Air Squadron stood @-@ up with the Merlin .
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The RAF 's 28 ( AC ) continued to operate as part of the Commando Helicopter Force until July 2015 , when 28 ( AC ) Sqn stood down and 845 Naval Air Squadron stood @-@ up . 846 NAS relocated from RAF Benson to RNAS Yeovilton in March 2015 , with 845 NAS due to follow in July 2016 .
= = = Italian Navy = = =
In 1997 , the Italian government ordered twenty EH101 helicopters for the Italian Navy , with options for four more . These EH101s included ten of the anti @-@ surface / submarine ( ASuW / ASW ) version , four airborne early warning ( AEW ) , four utility , and four amphibious support helicopters ( ASH ) . As of June 2011 , the AW101 has also been chosen to meet an Italian Air Force ( Aeronautica Militare Italiana ) requirement for up to 12 helicopters in the combat search and rescue role to replace several ageing Sea King HH @-@ 3F ; deliveries are expected from 2014 onwards .
The first Italian Navy production helicopter ( MM81480 ) flew on 4 October 1999 and was officially presented to the press on 6 December 1999 . Italy accepted delivery of the 21st AW101 , configured for anti @-@ submarine warfare , on 4 August 2009 . Italian EH101s have operated from a variety of ships and have seen service overseas ; in 2009 the Italian Navy used its AW101 fleet as executive transports for visiting heads of state and officials during the 35th G8 summit .
In 2010 , the Italian Navy deployed three AW101s to Afghanistan , where they were flown in both the transport and utility roles . In 2011 , it was reported that the Italian contingent in Afghanistan , consisting of AW101s , had been providing coverage of a wide area of the country .
= = = Royal Canadian Air Force = = =
In 1997 , in light of the declining condition of its helicopter fleet , Canada launched the Canadian Search and Rescue Helicopter competition . It was won by the EH101 , which was designated CH @-@ 149 Cormorant in Canadian service .
In 2004 , the EH101 was entered into a Canadian competition to replace the shipboard Sea King fleet , but the Sikorsky CH @-@ 148 Cyclone was selected . In 2013 , following difficulties with the CH @-@ 148 procurement , the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) was reported to be seriously considering canceling the contract with Sikorsky and was investigating the possibility of procuring the AW101 instead .
= = = Royal Danish Air Force = = =
In 2001 , the Royal Danish Air Force ( RDAF ) announced the purchase of eight EH101s for SAR duties and six tactical troop transports for 722 Squadron . The last of the 14 AW101s was delivered in March 2007 and the first SAR AW101s became operational out of Karup Airport in April 2007 . In 2007 , the six troop transport AW101s were transferred to the British MOD ; in exchange , the British government ordered six new @-@ build AW101s as replacements for the RDAF .
Danish AW101s have a higher gross weight capacity of 15 @,@ 600 kg and were , as delivered , coated in a paint designed to reduce the aircraft 's infrared signature . In the SAR role , RDAF AW101s have a crew of six and were initially painted yellow to distinguish themselves from AW101 allocated to military duties , but were later painted green , and all 14 AW101s are used for SAR and troop transport .
On 28 January 2008 , the drive shaft of a Danish AW101 broke , leading to an emergency landing at Billund Airport . Following the incident , the Danish fleet was grounded as a precaution and the AW101 's future was publicly debated . In the first six months of 2008 , the RDAF reported an operational availability of roughly 50 % , well below the target of 80 % , partly due to an inadequate maintenance organization and staff shortages .
In January 2011 , the Danish Ministry of Defence reportedly could not afford the retrofitting of the AW101 fleet for Afghanistan operations , against earlier reports of a deployment in 2012 . In February 2013 , Aviation Week reported that earlier reliability problems had been resolved and that a full upgrade package would be applied to Danish AW101s ; these included the addition of electronic warfare pods and a new electro @-@ optical system , in advance of a deployment in Afghanistan in 2014 . In September 2013 , Danish AW101s were to receive L @-@ 3 Wescam MX @-@ 15 electro @-@ optical / infrared ( EO / IR ) sensors ; SAR aircraft already carry the FLIR Systems Star Safire II EO / IR sensor .
= = = Royal Norwegian Air Force = = =
On 25 October 2007 , a project started that had the intent to replace all Westland Sea King search and rescue helicopters with new , temporal rescue helicopters by 2020 . On 19 December 2013 , a contract was signed between AgustaWestland and the government , for the purchase of 16 AgustaWestland AW101 helicopters . The agreement came about after fierce competition between different manufacturers to satisfy the Norwegian requirements . Participants were AgustaWestland , Eurocopter , NHIndustries , Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation and The Boeing Company . The Government considered that AgustaWestland AW101 met the requirements and specifications in the best possible way .
= = = Portuguese Air Force = = =
The Portuguese Air Force had purchased 12 Merlins under a € 446 million contract , the first of which was delivered on 22 December 2004 . The type has been used to conduct transport , search and rescue , and maritime surveillance missions , progressively replacing the Aérospatiale Puma previously tasked with these missions . The main role of Portuguese AW101s is to perform search and rescue missions within Portugal 's maritime zone . They are operated by 751 Squadron and are kept on constant alert at three bases : Montijo near Lisbon , Lajes Field on the Azores , and Porto Santo Island .
= = = Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force = = =
The Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force ( JMSDF ) ordered 14 aircraft in 2003 to use in both the airborne mine countermeasures ( AMCM ) and transport roles . The AW101 was modified by Kawasaki Heavy Industries , and the Japan Defense Agency designated the model MCH @-@ 101 . Special features of the MCH @-@ 101 include the automated folding of the rotor and tail . The MCH @-@ 101 has also been outfitted with Northrop Grumman 's AQS @-@ 24A for the mine @-@ hunting role .
In 2002 , AgustaWestland , Kawasaki and Marubeni entered a general agreement for cooperation ; Kawasaki began the assembly of both the CH @-@ 101 and the MCH @-@ 101 in 2003 . Kawasaki also began licensed production of the RTM322 engines in 2005 . In a separate agreement between Marubeni and AgustaWestland , a supply depot was established in Japan to support the MCH @-@ 101 and CH @-@ 101 fleets . The first MCH @-@ 101 was delivered to the JMSDF on 3 March 2006 .
The MCH @-@ 101 will replace the MH @-@ 53E ( S @-@ 80 @-@ M @-@ 1 ) in the AMCM role . The CH @-@ 101 will operate in the transport / support role for Antarctic missions , replacing the Sikorsky S @-@ 61A , and will be working in coordination with the Ministry of Education , Culture , Sports , Science and Technology .
= = = VIP and other usage = = =
AgustaWestland developed a specialized luxury variant , the AW101 VVIP ( Very Very Important Person , i.e. a head of state ) , aimed at business and VIP customers . As of April 2009 , 15 % of all AW101s sold were for VIP purposes . By September 2013 , customers operating the VIP variant included Saudi Arabia , Algeria , Nigeria and Turkmenistan .
The AW101 was being acquired by the United States Marine Corps under the VXX program as a replacement for the Presidential Marine One helicopters . Designated VH @-@ 71 Kestrel , the variant was heavily customized and equipped with various self @-@ defense systems . However , in 2009 the VH @-@ 71 procurement was abruptly terminated following the withdrawal of funding . In 2010 , Boeing considered an AW101 submission in the restarted VXX program .
In April 2009 , India ordered 12 AW101 to serve as executive transport helicopters for the Indian President and Prime Minister . The selection followed field trial assessments between the AW101 and the Sikorsky S @-@ 92 held in 2008 . However , the procurement was put on hold and subsequently cancelled due to the 2013 Indian helicopter bribery scandal , in which Finmeccanica , AgustaWestland 's parent company , had allegedly used bribes to win the contract . The three helicopters delivered as part of the contract may be returned to the manufacturer as part of the arbitration process .
= = Variants = =
Pre @-@ production
PP1 – Westland @-@ built basic air vehicle prototype , first flown 9 October 1987 .
PP2 – Agusta @-@ built Italian basic air vehicle prototype first flown on 26 November 1987 and used for deck trials but was destroyed on 21 January 1993 following a rotor brake malfunction .
PP3 – Westland @-@ built and the first civil configured Heliliner , used for engine vibration tests and icing trials in Canada .
PP4 – Westland @-@ built British naval prototype , lost in an accident on 7 April 1995 after a drive train control rod failure .
PP5 – Westland @-@ built Merlin development aircraft eventually equipped with Merlin avionics .
PP6 – Agusta @-@ built development aircraft for Italian Navy variant first flown 26 April 1989 .
PP7 – Agusta @-@ built military utility aircraft with rear @-@ loading ramp .
PP8 – Westland @-@ built civil prototype .
PP9 – Agusta @-@ built military utility prototype with rear @-@ loading ramp .
Model 110
Italian Navy ASW / ASuW variant , eight built . Powered by T @-@ 700 @-@ GE @-@ T6A1 engines . Fitted with Eliradar APS @-@ 784 radar and Honeywell HELRAS dipping sonar . Armed with torpedoes or Marte anti @-@ ship missiles .
Model 111
Royal Navy ASW / ASuW variant , designated Merlin HM1 by customer . Powered by RTM322 engines and fitted with Blue Kestrel radar , Thomson Marconi FLASH dipping sonar and Orange Reaper ESM . 44 built .
Model 112
Italian Navy early warning variant with same airframe as Model 110 but with Eliradar HEW @-@ 784 radar in large underfuselage radome . Four built .
Series 200
Proposed military utility version with no rear @-@ loading ramp .
Series 300 Heliliner
Proposed civil transport with no ramp . In 2000 , British International Helicopters conducted service trials using PP8 ; these did not lead to a commercial service .
Series 310
Proposed version of Heliliner with full airline avionics for operation from oil platforms . No production .
Model 410
Italian Navy transport variant with folding rotors and tail boom . Four built .
Model 411
Royal Air Force transport variant , designated Merlin HC3 by customer , 22 built .
Model 413
Italian Navy special forces and amphibious assault transport with more advanced avionics .
Model 500
Proposed civil utility variant with rear @-@ ramp .
Model 510
Civil utility variant with rear ramp , two built . One used for Tokyo Metropolitan Police Agency and one used to support US101 bid .
Model 511
Canadian military search and rescue variant , designated CH @-@ 149 Cormorant by customer .
Model 512
Merlin Joint Supporter for Royal Danish Air Force . Eight acquired for search and rescue ( 512 SAR ) and six for tactical transport ( 512 TTT ) . The six transports were sold to RAF ( as Merlin HC.3As ) and replaced by six new @-@ build Merlins .
Model 514
Portuguese Air Force search and rescue variant , six built .
Model 515
Portuguese Air Force fisheries protection variant , two built .
Model 516
Portuguese Air Force combat search and rescue variant , four built .
Model 518
Japanese Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force mine countermeasures and transport variant , two built .
Model 519
Presidential Transport variant for the United States Marine Corps as the VH @-@ 71 Kestrel , four test vehicles and five pilot production aircraft built .
Model 611
Italian Air Force Combat Search and Rescue variant . 15 on order .
Model 612
Norwegian search and rescue variant , operated by the Air Force . 16 ordered with option for 6 more .
Merlin HM1
Royal Navy designation for the Model 111 .
Merlin HM2
Avionics retrofit of 30 HM1s for the Royal Navy .
Merlin HC3
Royal Air Force designation for the Model 411 .
Merlin HC3A
Royal Air Force designation for six former Royal Danish Air Force Model 512s modified to UK standards .
Merlin HC3i
Royal Navy will fit seven HC3 with folding rotor heads as an Interim measure until the full HC4 upgrade is available .
Merlin HC4 / 4A
Planned conversion of 25 RAF HC3 / 3A for RN use . HM2 cockpit , folding tail / blades and other adaptations for naval use .
Merlin ASaC5
Planned conversion of 8 RN HM1 for use in carrier based airborne early warning role .
CH @-@ 148 Petrel
Ship @-@ based anti @-@ submarine helicopter for Canada . 35 originally ordered by the Canadian Forces , reduced to 28 and cancelled in 1993 .
CH @-@ 149 Chimo
Search and rescue helicopter for Canada . 15 ordered by the Canadian forces , but later cancelled .
CH @-@ 149 Cormorant
Search and rescue helicopter for Canada , 15 ordered and delivered .
Lockheed Martin VH @-@ 71 Kestrel
Cancelled USMC variant that was intended to serve as the US Presidential helicopter .
SH @-@ 101A
Italian military designation from 2012 for the MP variant .
EH @-@ 101A
Italian military designation from 2012 for the AEW variant .
UH @-@ 101A
Italian military designation from 2012 for the ASH variant .
HH @-@ 101A
Italian military designation for the CSAR variant .
= = Operators = =
= = = Military operators = = =
Algeria
Algerian Air Force
Algerian Navy
Canada
Royal Canadian Air Force ( see CH @-@ 149 Cormorant )
Denmark
Royal Danish Air Force
Indonesia
Indonesian Air Force ( 3 on order )
Italy
Italian Air Force
Italian Navy
Japan
Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force
Nigeria
Nigerian Air Force
Norway
Royal Norwegian Air Force ( 16 on order ) 330 Squadron
Portugal
Portuguese Air Force751 Squadron
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Air Force
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan Air Force
United Kingdom
Royal Navy814 Naval Air Squadron
820 Naval Air Squadron
824 Naval Air Squadron
829 Naval Air Squadron
845 Naval Air Squadron
846 Naval Air Squadron
= = = Law enforcement operators = = =
Japan
Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department
= = = Former operators = = =
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force28 ( AC ) Squadron
78 Squadron
= = Notable accidents and incidents = =
21 January 1993 – Italian development Merlin PP2 crashed near Novara @-@ Cameri airfield in Italy after an uncommanded application of the rotor brake in flight . Four people were killed .
7 April 1995 – British development Merlin PP4 ( ZF644 ) crashed while in @-@ flight from Yeovil , England . All four crew members escaped the helicopter during its descent before it hit the ground .
20 August 1996 – Italian development Merlin PP7 ( I @-@ HIOI ) was damaged in an accident when it turned over after the tail rotor drive failed on landing . The helicopter was repaired .
27 October 2000 – Royal Navy Merlin ( ZH844 ) ditched near the Isle of Skye , Scotland after a hydraulic fire caused by the rotor brake being partially engaged .
30 March 2004 – Royal Navy Merlin ( ZH859 ) crashed on take @-@ off from RNAS Culdrose due to tail rotor hub cracking .
15 November 2007 – During embarkation for a medical evacuation on São Jorge Island , Azores , a Portuguese Air Force Merlin caused injuries to five people when it unexpectedly climbed by one metre before the pilot recovered control . A Portuguese Air Force spokesperson later stated that this kind of incident is unheard of .
14 October 2009 - A British Royal Navy EH101 Merlin landed short of the designated landing pad on the Canadian Forces HMCS Montreal . The cause was determined to be pilot error . Substantial damage to helicopter but no injuries .
11 October 2014 - A Royal Danish Air Force AW101 suffered extensive damage after rolling over after experiencing pilot @-@ induced oscillation following a landing in Afghanistan . No casualties .
= = Specifications ( Merlin HM1 ) = =
Data from Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 2003 – 2004 , AgustaWestland
General characteristics
Crew : 3 – 4
Capacity :
26 troops ( 38 passengers ) or 5 tonnes of payload or 4 stretchers ( with sonar removed ) for Merlin HM1 ;
30 seated troops or 45 standing fully equipped combat troops , or 3 @,@ 050 kg ( 6 @,@ 724 lb ) of internal payload , 5 @,@ 520 kg ( 12 @,@ 169 lb ) of external payload , or 16 stretchers for AW101
Length : 19 @.@ 53 m @-@ fuselage length ( 64 ft 1 in )
Rotor diameter : 18 @.@ 59 m ( 61 ft 0 in )
Height : 6 @.@ 62 m ( 21 ft 8 ¾ in )
Disc area : 271 @.@ 51 m ² ( 2 @,@ 992 @.@ 5 ft ² )
Empty weight : 10 @,@ 500 kg ( 23 @,@ 149 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 14 @,@ 600 kg ( 32 @,@ 188 lb )
Powerplant : 3 × Rolls @-@ Royce Turbomeca RTM322 @-@ 01 turboshafts , 1 @,@ 566 kW ( 2 @,@ 100 shp ) ( take @-@ off power ) each
Performance
Never exceed speed : 309 km / h ( 167 knots , 192 mph )
Cruise speed : 278 km / h ( 150 knots , 167mph )
Range : 833 km ( 450 nmi , 517 mi )
Endurance : 5 hours
Service ceiling : 4 @,@ 575 m ( 15 @,@ 000 ft )
Armament
Bombs : 4 × Sting Ray homing torpedoes or depth charges
Avionics
Smiths Industries OMI 20 SEP dual @-@ redundant digital automatic flight control system
Navigation systems :
BAE Systems LINS 300 ring laser gyro , Litton Italia LISA @-@ 4000 strapdown AHRS
Radar :
Selex Galileo Blue Kestrel 5000 maritime surveillance radar
ECM
Racal Orange Reaper ESM
Sonar
Thomson Marconi Sonar AQS @-@ 903 acoustic processor
Active / passive sonobuoys
Thomson Sintra FLASH dipping sonar array
= = Notable appearances in media = =
= One Time ( song ) =
" One Time " is the debut single of Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . It is the first single released from his debut EP , My World . It was first solicited to mainstream and rhythmic radio on May 18 , 2009 . It was released via digital download in the United States and Canada on July 7 , 2009 , and was released in several other countries during autumn 2009 . An acoustic version of the song , called the " My Heart Edition " was released to iTunes on December 22 , 2009 . The song , moderately paced with R & B , pop , and hip @-@ hop influences , is an ode to young love .
The song received positive reviews from critics , commending its production , vocals and quality of lyrics . The song was a commercial success , reaching the top twenty in Canada , US , Germany , United Kingdom , France and New Zealand and also charted in several other countries . The single has been certified Platinum in Canada and the United States . The accompanying music video portrays Bieber at a house party , and features his mentor , Usher and hometown friend , Ryan Butler . As of April 2016 , the video had been viewed over 460 million times on the video
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was removed immediately from the store but the title was later officially announced on 16 April 2012 . Filmmaker Albert Hughes was commissioned to produce The 7 Wonders of Crysis 3 , a series of six short stylized videos , each of which features a different aspect of the game .
A PC @-@ only closed alpha version of the multiplayer was released to selected Origin users on 31 October 2012 . The test began on 2 November and ended on 9 November 2012 . A public multiplayer beta containing two maps ( " Museum " and " Airport " ) and two game modes ( " Crash Site " and " Hunter " ) was available for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 console platforms , as well as for the PC through Origin . The beta was made available on 29 January 2013 and ended on 12 February 2013 . Crytek and EA announced that 3 million people participated in the beta .
Crysis 3 was released worldwide on 19 February 2013 in the US and 21 February 2013 in the UK for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The Wii U version was cancelled after relations between Nintendo and EA became troubled . The Hunter Edition , which features exclusive in @-@ game items , and early access to the compound bow in the multiplayer portion of the game , was released alongside the game . Players who had pre @-@ ordered the game could also get the original Crysis for free . On 4 March 2015 , the game was made available for Android via Nvidia Shield . The Crysis Trilogy bundle was released on 20 February 2014 consisting of the original , the Deluxe Edition of Crysis , along with other games in the series .
On 30 May 2013 , Electronic Arts announced The Lost Island downloadable content ( DLC ) . The multiplayer @-@ only DLC includes two weapons , four maps , and two competitive multiplayer modes called " Frenzy " and " Possession " . The downloadable content was released worldwide on 4 July 2013 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 .
= = Reception = =
Crysis 3 has received generally positive reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites Metacritic rated the Xbox 360 version 76 / 100 , the PlayStation 3 version 77 / 100 and the PC version 76 / 100 .
The visuals and graphics of the game were widely praised by reviewers . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer praised the game 's stable frame rate . Furthermore , he considered the game 's environmental design " artful " . Matthew Rorie of GameSpy thought that the game was visually stunning . He applauded the team at Crytek for creating an environment that is " both inhospitable and queerly beautiful " . Matt Bertz of Game Informer praised the visuals powered by CryEngine , and considered the game one of the best @-@ looking games ever created . He especially praised its realistic environments , water effects , and character facial animation . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot also praised the mix of the decayed urban environment and the rainforest , saying that it made the game striking to look at .
The game 's design was praised by various reviewers . Donlan considered the game 's support of stealth a welcoming addition , despite calling the game 's last level a forgettable experience . Rorie praised the game 's map design ; he opined that the opened @-@ up levels encourage exploration . Bertz considered the game 's world had successfully captured a balance between the settings of its predecessors , and that the larger levels allowed players to deploy strategy before performing attacks . He added that some of the best missions were featured in the later stages of the game . Tristan Ogilvie of IGN thought that the control was almost perfect , despite criticizing the clumsy control of several segments which require players to control vehicles . VanOrd criticized the game for being too easy for players to play .
The game 's online multiplayer received positive reviews from critics . Josh Harmon of Electronic Gaming Monthly thought that the game 's multiplayer was better than the campaign , and that it made the overall experience more enjoyable . Donlan praised the Hunter mode ; he believed that it had delivered a tense experience . Bertz echoed similar thoughts , but felt that the mode 's appeal was not as good as typical modes like Domination . As well , he criticized the multiplayer 's respawn system and terrain @-@ design . Lorenzo Veloria of GamesRadar thought that some of the game modes were unique and entertaining , despite noting some technical issues . Michael Rougeau of Complex criticized the Hunter mode , calling it " unbalanced " . He furthered criticized the game for lacking a co @-@ operative multiplayer mode . David Hinkle of Joystiq also noted some design errors in the Hunter mode .
The story was not so well received by critics compared to the game 's other aspects . Harmon thought that several emotional segments of the game failed to deliver , as well as criticizing the forgettable storyline and plot twists . Despite that , he praised the game 's finale and considered that it brought a proper closure to the Crysis trilogy . In contrast , Donlan commented that it was not quite the conclusion the series deserved . Rorie thought that the story was more mature than its predecessors , despite having a relatively weak start and short length of about six hours . Bertz opined that the story was the most cohesive of the titles in the series . Veloria , however , criticized the game 's narrative ; she added that it was uninspiring due to the lack of character development and interesting dialogue . In contrast , Ogilvie thought that the game 's dialogue and voice @-@ acting were excellent , citing the game 's relateable characters that its predecessors failed to achieve . He considered the game 's storytelling a massive improvement for the series .
Many reviewers considered Crysis 3 was an evolution of the series instead of a groundbreaking revolution . Rorie criticized the game for being unambitious , and that despite the game 's overall refinements , it had not strayed far enough from its predecessors . He concluded that Crysis 3 did not achieve the revolution brought by the original Crysis . Veloria thought that the title failed to bring any new element to the genre , but the overall experience delivered by the game was still satisfying . Evan Lahti of PC Gamer commented that the game did not surprise players , and that the title presented a feeling of Crysis 2 : Episode 2 instead of a proper sequel .
= = = Sales = = =
During its debut release week and the next , Crysis 3 was the best @-@ selling retail game in the UK closely followed by Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance . It sold 205 @,@ 000 copies in 12 days in North America during its debut month . The title , along with Dead Space 3 , another EA title that was released in the same month , failed to meet the company 's sales expectations . Cevat Yerli , Crytek 's CEO , was also disappointed by the sales of Crysis 3 . Nevertheless , he considered Crysis 3 the best game the studio had produced so far .
= = Future = =
With Crysis 3 being the end of the Crysis trilogy , Crytek teased that the series would have a " radical future " . Yerli confirmed that the next installment would not be called Crysis 4 , as he considered such a title " misleading " . On 12 June 2012 , it was revealed that Crytek would focus only on free @-@ to @-@ play titles following the release of Crysis 3 .
= 2008 Philadelphia Phillies season =
The Philadelphia Phillies ' 2008 season was the 126th in the history of the franchise . The team finished with a regular season record of 92 – 70 , first in the National League East . In the post @-@ season , the Phillies won the World Series ; this was the first major sports championship for Philadelphia since the 76ers swept the 1983 NBA Finals . During the season , they were managed by Charlie Manuel .
The Phillies opened the season by posting their first winning April since 2003 . They also scored 60 runs over 5 games in late May in a sweep over the Colorado Rockies and accrued a 14 – 4 record over 18 games entering the month of June . The Phillies ' performance declined in late June , but they improved after the All @-@ Star break , going 9 – 6 immediately following the midseason hiatus . Closer Brad Lidge earned eight saves in those games , and did not blow a save throughout the season and the postseason . Philadelphia traded sweeps with the Los Angeles Dodgers in August and went 13 – 3 in their last 16 games , taking advantage of a late swoon by the New York Mets for the second year in a row to capture the division crown . The team won its position in the playoffs after its second consecutive East Division title . The Phillies also posted the best road record in the National League , at 44 – 37 .
Philadelphia defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , 3 – 1 , and the Dodgers in the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) , 4 – 1 , to win the National League Pennant and advance to the World Series .. In the World Series , the Phillies defeated the Tampa Bay Rays , 4 – 1 , to win their first championship in 28 years , ending the Curse of Billy Penn . Phillies starting pitcher Cole Hamels was named the most valuable player of the NLCS and the World Series .
Statistical leaders in batting for the 2008 team included center fielder Shane Victorino ( batting average , .293 ) , first baseman Ryan Howard ( home runs , 48 ; runs batted in , 146 ) , and second baseman Chase Utley ( runs scored
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the one hand and Massachusetts on the other offers evidence of such divergent outcomes . In September 2012 , the Congressional Budget Office estimated that nearly six million will pay the penalty in 2016 .
Under the law , setting up an exchange gives a state partial discretion on standards and prices of insurance , aside from those specifics set @-@ out in the ACA . For example , those administering the exchange will be able to determine which plans are sold on or excluded from the exchanges , and adjust ( through limits on and negotiations with private insurers ) the prices on offer . They will also be able to impose higher or state @-@ specific coverage requirements — including whether plans offered in the state are prohibited from covering abortion ( making the procedure an out @-@ of @-@ pocket expense ) or mandated to cover abortions that a physician determines is medically necessary ; in either case , federal subsidies are prohibited from being used to fund the procedure . If a state does not set up an exchange itself , they lose that discretion , and the responsibility to set up exchanges for such states defaults to the federal government , whereby the Department of Health and Human Services assumes the authority and legal obligation to operate all functions in these federally facilitated exchanges . As of May 2013 , 23 states and the District of Columbia plan to operate state @-@ based exchanges themselves , seven of which will do so in partnership with the federal government — an arrangement where they retain discretionary management but the federal government executes various functions . The remaining 27 states default to federally facilitated exchanges .
The law is also designed to be flexible by allowing states , from 2017 onwards , to apply for a " waiver for state innovation " from the federal government that allows them to experiment with their own state @-@ based system , on condition that it meets certain criteria . To obtain a waiver , a state must pass legislation setting up an alternative health system that provides insurance at least as comprehensive and as affordable as that the ACA would , covers at least as many residents , and does not increase the federal deficit . Provided a state meets these conditions , receiving a waiver can exempt states from some of the central requirements of the ACA , including the individual mandate , the provision of an insurance exchange , and the employer mandate . The state would also receive compensation equal to the aggregate amount of any federal subsidies and tax credits for which its residents and employers would have been eligible under the ACA plan , if they cannot be paid out due to the structure of the state plan .
In May 2011 , Vermont , a state in which Republicans are but a small minority , had enacted Green Mountain Care , a state @-@ based single @-@ payer system for which they intended to pursue a waiver to implement . In December 2014 , Vermont decided not to pursue the single @-@ payer system .
= = = = = Implementation = = = = =
Early implementation efforts for the healthcare exchanges , especially the exchanges operated by the federal government , have received nearly universally negative reactions in the media and from politicians . HealthCare.gov , the website that allows people to apply for insurance through the exchanges operated by the federal government , crashed on opening and suffered from a rash of problems throughout the first month . Many users have also found the available plans to be unattractive . Ongoing problems with the website have prompted the development of HealthSherpa , an independently produced alternative to HealthCare.gov , that contains consumer information .
Various committees in both chambers of Congress have conducted hearings where cyber security concerns related to HealthCare.gov have been discussed . Experts disagree over the extent HealthCare.gov is vulnerable to cyber attacks .
As of March 2013 , " radio ads providing information on the Affordable Care Act " have been broadcast in Ojibwe , Yupik , Inupiat , Lakota and Navajo , according to Indian Country Today Media Network .
The House Energy and Commerce Committee reported on April 30 , 2014 , that 67 % of individuals and families who had selected a health plan in the Federally Facilitated Marketplace had paid their first month 's premium ; and that 25 % of paid enrollees are ages 18 to 34 . On the same day , Committee ranking member Henry A. Waxman issued a statement saying the reporting was " ... inaccurate , irresponsible , and out @-@ of @-@ date " accompanied by a memorandum detailing the basis behind his statement . A week later , representatives for top health insurance companies told members of Congress that more than 80 percent of people who 've signed up under the new health care law have gone on to pay their premiums .
On July 30 , 2014 , the Government Accountability Office released a non @-@ partisan study that concluded the administration did not provide " effective planning or oversight practices " in developing the HealthCare.gov website .
= = = = Change in insurance standards = = = =
The ACA includes regulations that set standards for insurance , some specified in the law , others subsequently established by the Secretary of Health and Human Services . Among these new standards are a ban on the ability to drop policyholders if they become sick , a ban on price discrimination on the basis of pre @-@ existing conditions or sex through a partial community rating , and allowing children and dependents to remain on their parents ' insurance plan until their 26th birthday .
Under the law 's authorization , Secretary of Health Kathleen Sebelius issued a set of defined " essential health benefits " that all new insurance plans have to include . Insurers are prohibited from imposing annual or lifetime coverage caps on these essential benefits . These cover : " ambulatory patient services ; emergency services ; hospitalization ; maternity and newborn care ; mental health and substance use disorder services , including behavioral health treatment ; prescription drugs ; rehabilitative and habilitative services and devices ; laboratory services ; preventive and wellness services and chronic disease management ; and pediatric services , including oral and vision care " . In determining what would qualify as an essential benefit , the law requires that the scope of standard benefits should equal that of a " typical employer plan " . States have some discretion in determining what should be considered the benchmark plan within the requirements of the law , and may include services beyond those set out by the Secretary .
Among the essential health benefits , preventive care , childhood immunizations and adult vaccinations , and medical screenings are covered by an insurance plan 's premiums , and cannot be subject to any co @-@ payments , co @-@ insurance , or deductibles . Specific examples of such services covered include : mammograms and colonoscopies , wellness visits , gestational diabetes screening , HPV testing , STI counseling , HIV screening and counseling , FDA @-@ approved contraceptive methods , breastfeeding support and supplies , and domestic violence screening and counseling .
In addition , the law established four tiers of coverage : bronze plan , silver plan , gold plan , and platinum plan . All categories offer the same set of essential health benefits . What the categories specify is the division of premiums and out @-@ of @-@ pocket costs : bronze plans will have the lowest monthly premiums and highest out @-@ of @-@ pocket costs , and vice versa for platinum plans . The percentages of health care costs that plans are expected to cover through premiums ( as opposed to out @-@ of @-@ pocket costs ) are , on average : 60 % ( bronze ) , 70 % ( silver ) , 80 % ( gold ) , and 90 % ( platinum ) .
Insurers are also required to implement an appeals process for coverage determination and claims on all new plans . They are also required to spend at least 80 – 85 % of premium dollars on health costs and claims instead of administrative costs and profits ; rebates must be issued to policyholders if this is violated .
= = = = = Coverage for contraceptives = = = = =
One provision in the law mandates that health insurance cover " additional preventive care and screenings " for women , as specified in regulations to be issued by the Health Resources and Services Administration ( HRSA ) . The HRSA guidelines , issued August 1 , 2011 , included in this mandate " [ a ] ll Food and Drug Administration approved contraceptive methods , sterilization procedures , and patient education and counseling for all women with reproductive capacity " . This mandate applies to all employers and educational institutions except for religious organizations . These regulations were included on the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine , which concluded that access to contraception is medically necessary " to ensure women 's health and well @-@ being " .
The initial regulations proved controversial among certain religious groups , most notably evangelicals and Lutherans , and especially the Roman Catholic hierarchy , whose hospitals , charities and educational institutions of higher learning , as well as other enterprises , oppose contraception on doctrinal grounds . To accommodate those concerns while still guaranteeing access to contraception , the regulations were adjusted to " allow religious organizations to opt out of the requirement to include birth control coverage in their employee insurance plans . In those instances , the insurers themselves will offer contraception coverage to enrollees directly , at no additional cost " .
The contraception rule has also been challenged by corporations as a burden against their religious expression . The first challenge to reach the Supreme Court was Burwell v. Hobby Lobby . The Court ruled that closely held corporations , such as Hobby Lobby , would be exempt from the contraception rule under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act , which applies to regulations that govern the activities of closely held for @-@ profit corporations . In a follow up case to Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the U.S. Supreme Court issued an injunction pending appeal under which an evangelical college in Illinois and other religiously affiliated nonprofit groups will not have to fill out a form offered to religious nonprofits that would effectively transfer the cost of its employees ’ contraceptives to insurers . Wheaton College argued that filling out the form would " trigger " emergency contraceptive coverage and is therefore still against the institution 's religious beliefs .
= = = = Effects on insurance premiums = = = =
Several studies on insurance premiums expect that with the subsidies offered under the ACA , more people will pay less ( than they did prior to the reforms ) than those who will pay more , and that those premiums will be more stable ( even in changing health circumstances ) and transparent , due to the regulations on insurance . The Kaiser Family Foundation has calculated that about half the people who currently buy insurance on their own today will be eligible for subsidies . Among those receiving subsidies ( which excludes those with incomes above four times the poverty line — about $ 46 @,@ 000 for individuals or $ 94 @,@ 000 for a family of four ) , the subsidies are projected to be worth an average of $ 5 @,@ 548 per household , which would effectively discount the projected price of insurance by two @-@ thirds , on average . For individuals , NPR and the Kaiser Family Foundation collaborated to produce a quick online calculator for people to estimate their premiums and subsidy amount , based on where they live , income , and family size .
For the effect on health insurance premiums , the CBO forecast that by 2016 the individual market would comprise 17 % of the market , and that premiums per person would increase by 10 % to 13 % but that over half of these individuals would receive subsidies that would decrease the premium paid to " well below " premiums charged under current law . It also forecast that for the small group market , 13 % of the market , premiums would be impacted 1 % to -3 % , and -8 % to -11 % for those receiving subsidies ; for the large group market comprising 70 % of the market , premiums would be impacted 0 % to -3 % , with those under high premium plans subject to excise taxes being charged 9 % to 12 % less . Factors taken into account by this analysis included increased benefits particularly for the individual market , more healthy policyholders due to the mandate , administrative efficiencies related to the health exchanges , and high @-@ premium insurance plans reducing some benefits in response to the tax . As of September 2013 , the final projections of the average monthly premium scheduled to be offered in the exchanges came in below CBO expectations , reducing expected costs not only for consumers but also for the government by reducing the overall cost of the subsidies .
Larry Levitt , a health policy analyst from the Kaiser Family Foundation , noted that the individual market compromises a relatively small share of those under 65 , and said , in contrast , " I don 't think anyone expects significant [ cost ] increases in the employer market , " where the majority of Americans get their health insurance . Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius also indicated that some cost increase in the individual market was expected because the standard of insurance allowed in the insurance exchanges would be higher quality than that generally available currently ( and thus more expensive ) , and that the government subsidies provided to make insurance affordable are intended to more than offset this effect .
In June 2013 , a study by the Kaiser Family Foundation focused on actual experience under the Act as it affected individual market consumers ( those buying insurance on their own ) . The study found that the Medical Loss Ratio provision of the Act had saved this group of consumers $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2011 and $ 2 @.@ 1 billion in 2012 , reducing their 2012 costs by 7 @.@ 5 % . The bulk of the savings were in reduced premiums for individual insurance , but some came from premium rebates paid to consumers by insurance companies that had failed to meet the requirements of the Act . The Associated Press reported that , as a result of ACA 's provisions closing the Medicare Part D coverage gap ( between the " initial coverage limit " and the " catastrophic coverage threshold " in the prescription drug program ) , individuals formerly falling in this " donut hole " would save about 40 percent . Almost all of the savings came reportedly because , with regard to brand @-@ name drugs , ACA secured a discount from pharmaceutical companies . The change benefited more than two million people , most of them in the middle class .
= = = = Healthcare cost inflation = = = =
In a May 2010 presentation on " Health Costs and the Federal Budget " , the CBO stated that " Rising health costs will put tremendous pressure on the federal budget during the next few decades and beyond . In CBO 's judgment , the health legislation enacted earlier this year does not substantially diminish that pressure . "
The CBO further observed that " Putting the federal budget on a sustainable path would almost certainly require a significant reduction in the growth of federal health spending relative to current law ( including this year 's health legislation ) . " and concluded ,
... there is considerable agreement that a substantial share of current spending on health care contributes little if anything to people 's health , and providers and health analysts are making significant efforts to make the health system more efficient ... [ though ] it is not clear what specific policies the federal government can adopt to generate fundamental changes in the health system ; that is , it is not clear what specific policies would translate the potential for significant cost savings into reality .
Jonathan Cohn , a health policy analyst , commented :
CBO doesn 't produce estimates of how reform will affect overall health care spending — that is , the amount of money our society , as a whole , will devote to health care . But the official actuary for Medicare does . The actuary determined that ... the long @-@ term trend is towards less spending : Inflation after ten years would be lower than it is now . And it 's the long @-@ term trend that matters most ... [ The Affordable Care Act ] will reduce the cost of care — not by a lot and not by as much as possible in theory , but as much as is possible in this political universe .
He and fellow The New Republic editor Noam Scheiber claimed the CBO did not include in its estimate various cost @-@ saving provisions intended to reduce health inflation , also positing that the CBO has a history of consistently underestimating the impact of health legislation .
Jonathan Gruber , a consultant who helped develop both the Massachusetts healthcare reform under Mitt Romney and the ACA , has acknowledged that the ACA is not guaranteed to significantly " bend the curve " of rising healthcare costs :
The real question is how far the ACA will go in slowing cost growth . Here , there is great uncertainty — mostly because there is such uncertainty in general about how to control cost growth in health care . There is no shortage of good ideas for ways of doing so ... There is , however , a shortage of evidence regarding which approaches will actually work — and therefore no consensus on which path is best to follow . In the face of such uncertainty , the ACA pursued the path of considering a range of different approaches to controlling health care costs ... Whether these policies by themselves can fully solve the long run health care cost problem in the United States is doubtful . They may , however , provide a first step towards controlling costs — and understanding what does and does not work to do so more broadly .
The law created the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation and requires numerous pilot programs and demonstrations that may affect healthcare costs . These cost reductions were not factored into CBO cost estimates .
The Business Roundtable , an association of CEOs , commissioned a report from the consulting company Hewitt Associates , which found that the legislation " could potentially reduce that trend line by more than $ 3 @,@ 0
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00 per employee , to $ 25 @,@ 435 " , with respect to insurance premiums . It also stated that the legislation " could potentially reduce the rate of future health care cost increases by 15 % to 20 % when fully phased in by 2019 " . The group cautioned that all of this would be dependent upon the success of the cost @-@ saving government pilot programs , which must then be wholly copied in the private market .
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services reported in 2013 that , while costs per capita continue to rise , the rate of increase in annual healthcare costs has fallen since 2002 . Per capita cost increases have averaged 5 @.@ 4 % annually since 2000 . Costs relative to GDP , which had been rising , have stagnated since 2009 . Several studies have attempted to explain the reduction in the rate of annual increase . Reasons include , among others :
Higher unemployment due to the 2008 @-@ 2010 recession , which has limited the ability of consumers to purchase healthcare ;
Out @-@ of @-@ pocket payments , and deductibles , which constitute the amount an individual pays for their health costs before insurance begins to cover claims , have risen . These rising costs generally cause less consumption of healthcare services . The proportion of workers with employer @-@ sponsored health insurance requiring a deductible climbed to about three @-@ quarters in 2012 from about half in 2006 .
Structural changes in the healthcare system made by the ACA that aim to shift the healthcare system from paying @-@ for @-@ quantity to paying @-@ for @-@ quality . Examples include incentives to reduce hospital infections and to use electronic medical records , accountable care organizations , and bundled payments to coordinate care and prioritize quality over quantity . Some of these changes have occurred due to healthcare providers acting in anticipation of future implementation of reforms .
Uncertainty exists about the extent to which each factor is responsible for the recent reduction in health inflation , and about the durability of the overall trend , including the accompanying reduction in long @-@ term deficit projections due to reduced healthcare costs . However , several studies found that the temporary effects of the recession cannot account for the entirety of the slowdown and that structural changes likely share at least partial credit .
One study estimated that the changes to the health system are responsible for about a quarter of the recent reduction in inflation . Paul Krawzak posits that even if cost controls succeed in reducing the amount spent on healthcare , such efforts on their own may be insufficient to outweigh the long @-@ term burden placed by demographic changes , particularly the growth of the population on Medicare .
In a 2016 review of the ACA , Barack Obama reported that from 2010 through 2014 mean annual growth in real per @-@ enrollee Medicare spending was negative , down from a mean of 4 @.@ 7 % per year from 2000 through 2005 and 2 @.@ 4 % per year from 2006 to 2010 ; similarly , mean real per @-@ enrollee growth in private insurance spending has been 1 @.@ 1 % per year since 2010 , compared with a mean of 6 @.@ 5 % from 2000 through 2005 and 3 @.@ 4 % from 2005 to 2010 .
= = = = Federal deficit = = = =
= = = = = CBO estimates of revenue and impact on deficit = = = = =
The 2011 comprehensive CBO estimate projected a net deficit reduction of more than $ 200 billion during the 2012 – 2021 period : it calculated the law would result in $ 604 billion in total outlays offset by $ 813 billion in total receipts , resulting in a $ 210 billion net reduction in the deficit . The CBO separately noted that while most of the spending provisions do not begin until 2014 , revenue will still exceed spending in those subsequent years . The CBO averred that the bill would " substantially reduce the growth of Medicare 's payment rates for most services ; impose an excise tax on insurance plans with relatively high premiums ; and make various other changes to the federal tax code , Medicare , Medicaid , and other programs " — ultimately extending the solvency of the Medicare trust fund by 8 years .
However , this estimate was made prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling that enabled states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion , thereby forgoing the federal funding . The CBO and JCT subsequently updated the budget projection , estimating the impact of the ruling would reduce the cost estimate of the insurance coverage provisions by $ 84 billion .
The CBO reported in June 2015 that repeal of the ACA would increase the deficit between $ 137 billion and $ 353 billion over the 2016 – 2025 period in total , depending on the impact of macroeconomic feedback effects . In other words , ACA is a deficit reducer , as its repeal would raise the deficit . CBO also reported that repeal of ACA would likely raise economic output , mainly by boosting the supply of labor as low @-@ income persons would have more incentive to work without healthcare coverage provided by ACA .
Major sources of deficit reduction include : higher Medicare taxes on the wealthy ; new annual fees on health insurance providers ; similar fees on the healthcare industry such as manufacturers and importers of brand @-@ name pharmaceutical drugs and certain medical devices ; limits on tax deductions of medical expenses and flexible spending accounts ; a new 40 % excise tax on " Cadillac " insurance policies - plans with annual insurance premiums in excess of $ 10 @,@ 200 for an individual or $ 27 @,@ 500 for a family ; revenue from mandate penalty payments ; a 10 % federal sales tax on indoor tanning services ; and spending offsets such as a reduction in Medicare reimbursements to insurers and drug companies for private Medicare Advantage policies that the Government Accountability Office and Medicare Payment Advisory Commission found to be overpaid ( relative to government Medicare ) ; and reductions in Medicare reimbursements to hospitals that do not meet standards of efficiency and care .
Although the CBO generally does not provide cost estimates beyond the 10 @-@ year budget projection period because of the degree of uncertainty involved in the projection , it decided to do so in this case at the request of lawmakers , and estimated a second decade deficit reduction of $ 1 @.@ 2 trillion . CBO predicted deficit reduction around a broad range of one @-@ half percent of GDP over the 2020s while cautioning that " a wide range of changes could occur " .
A commonly heard complaint regarding the CBO cost estimates is that CBO was required to exclude from its initial estimates the effects of likely " doc fix " legislation that would increase Medicare payments by more than $ 200 billion from 2010 to 2019 . However , the " doc fix " is a separate issue that would have existed whether or not the ACA became law - omitting its cost from the ACA is no different from omitting the cost of the Bush tax cuts .
= = = = = Opinions on CBO projections = = = = =
There was mixed opinion about the CBO estimates . Uwe Reinhardt , a health economist at Princeton , wrote that " The rigid , artificial rules under which the Congressional Budget Office must score proposed legislation unfortunately cannot produce the best unbiased forecasts of the likely fiscal impact of any legislation " , but went on to say " But even if the budget office errs significantly in its conclusion that the bill would actually help reduce the future federal deficit , I doubt that the financing of this bill will be anywhere near as fiscally irresponsible as was the financing of the Medicare Modernization Act of 2003 . " Douglas Holtz @-@ Eakin , CBO director during the George W. Bush administration , who later served as the chief economic policy adviser to U.S. Senator John McCain 's 2008 presidential campaign , alleged that the bill would increase the deficit by $ 562 billion because , he argued , it front @-@ loaded revenue and back @-@ loaded benefits .
The New Republic editors Noam Scheiber and Jonathan Cohn , countered critical assessments of the law 's deficit impact , arguing that it is as likely , if not more so , for predictions to have underestimated deficit reduction than to have overestimated it . They noted that it is easier , for example , to account for the cost of definite levels of subsidies to specified numbers of people than account for savings from preventive healthcare , and that the CBO has a track record of consistently overestimating the costs of , and underestimating the savings of health legislation ; " innovations in the delivery of medical care , like greater use of electronic medical records and financial incentives for more coordination of care among doctors , would produce substantial savings while also slowing the relentless climb of medical expenses ... But the CBO would not consider such savings in its calculations , because the innovations hadn 't really been tried on such large scale or in concert with one another — and that meant there wasn 't much hard data to prove the savings would materialize . "
David Walker , former U.S. Comptroller General now working for The Peter G. Peterson Foundation , has stated that the CBO estimates are not likely to be accurate , because they are based on the assumption that Congress is going to do everything they say they 're going to do . The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities objected : in its analysis , Congress has a good record of implementing Medicare savings . According to their study , Congress followed through on the implementation of the vast majority of provisions enacted in the past 20 years to produce Medicare savings .
= = = = Employer mandate and part @-@ time working hours = = = =
Not to be confused with the individual mandate
The employer mandate is a penalty that will be incurred by employers with more than 50 employees that do not offer health insurance to their full @-@ time workers . This provision was included as a disincentive for employers considering dropping their current insurance plans once the insurance exchanges began operating as an alternative source of insurance . Proponents of the reform law wanted to address the parts of the healthcare system they believed to not be working well , while causing minimal disruption to those happy with the coverage they have . Lawmakers recognized that approximately 80 % of Americans already have insurance , of whom 54 % ( 44 % of the total population ) are covered directly or indirectly through an employer , and 29 % ( 23 % of the total population ) are covered by the government — mainly though Medicare and Medicaid . While 73 % of the total population reported themselves satisfied with their insurance situation , significant minorities , even among those that reported favorably , had medically @-@ related financial troubles and / or dissatisfaction with aspects of their insurance coverage , especially among the poor and sick . The intent of the employer mandate ( along with a grandfather clause in the ACA ) is to help ensure that existing employer @-@ sponsored insurance plans that people like will stay in place .
As no company with fewer than 50 full @-@ time employees will face this penalty , many are concerned that the employer mandate creates a perverse incentive for business to employ people part @-@ time instead of full @-@ time . This hypothetical phenomenon has sometimes been referred to by commentators on both sides of the political spectrum as " The Obamacare Effect " .
Despite concerns over a massive spike in part @-@ time workers driven by cost @-@ cutting efforts on the part of large employers , the number of part @-@ time jobs in the United States had , in fact , declined by 230 @,@ 000 , while the number of full @-@ time jobs has increased by 2 million during the period leading up to the start @-@ date of Obamacare as of early 2014 . Where full @-@ time jobs have turned into part @-@ time jobs seems to be in the public sector ( as a result of efforts to reduce state and federal deficits ) rather than as an effort to maintain or increase corporate profits in the private sectors ( the original fear of individuals who coined the term ' Obamacare Effect ' ) . Similarly , a 2016 study found only limited evidence that the ACA had increased part @-@ time employment .
Several businesses and the State of Virginia have clarified the contracts of their part @-@ time employees by adding a 29 @-@ hour @-@ a @-@ week cap , to reflect the 30 @-@ hour threshold for full @-@ time hours , as defined by the law . Some labor market experts claim such shifts are not clearly attributable to the implementation of the ACA : pre @-@ existing , long @-@ term trends in working hours , and the effects of the Great Recession correlate with part @-@ time working hour patterns . The impact of this provision on employers ' decision @-@ making is partially offset by other factors : offering healthcare helps attract and retain employees , while increasing productivity and reducing absenteeism ; and to trade a smaller full @-@ time workforce for a larger part @-@ time work force carries costs of training and administration for a business . The amount of employers with over 50 employees is relatively small , and more than 90 % of these already offer insurance , so changes in employer plans from this provision are expected to be small . Workers who do not receive insurance from an employer plan would be able to purchase insurance on the exchanges .
Regardless of the rationale for maintaining existing insurance arrangements for those happy with them , most policy analysts ( on both the right and left ) are critical of the employer mandate provision on the policy merits . They argue that the perverse incentives regarding part @-@ time hours , even if they do not change many existing insurance plans , are real and harmful ; that the raised marginal cost of the 50th worker for businesses could limit companies ' growth ; that the costs of reporting and administration — the paperwork for businesses and the state enforcement — are not worth the trade @-@ off of incentivizing the maintenance of current employer plans ; and note that the employer mandate , unlike the individual mandate , is a non @-@ essential part of the law . Some analysts have suggested that an alternate ' pay or play ' version of the employer mandate would partially avoid these problems , by instead taxing business that do not offer insurance by a percentage of their payroll rather than using the 50 @-@ employee and 30 @-@ hour cut @-@ offs . Furthermore , many healthcare policy analysts think it would be better to transition away from the employer @-@ based system to systems ( whether state- or market @-@ based ) where insurance is more portable and stable , and hence think that it is a bad idea to even try to maintain existing employer insurance systems . The effects of the provision have also generated vocal opposition from business interests and some unions not granted exemptions .
On July 2 , 2013 , the Obama Administration announced on the Treasury Department 's Proposed Regulations REG @-@ 138006 @-@ 12 would delay the implementation of the employer mandate for one year , until 2015 .
A 2013 / 4 survey by the National Association for Business Economics found that about 75 percent of those surveyed said the ACA hasn ’ t influenced their planning or expectations for 2014 , and 85 percent said the law wouldn ’ t prompt a change in their hiring practices . Some 21 percent of 64 businesses surveyed said that the act would have a harmful effect and 5 percent said it would be beneficial .
On February 10 , 2014 , the Treasury Department issued Treasury Decision 9655 , which are final regulation , that it would delay the employer mandate until 2015 . The Treasury Decision 9655 modifies Proposed Regulations REG @-@ 138006 @-@ 12 .
= = = = Changes in existing individual insurance plans = = = =
At various times during and after the debate surrounding the ACA , Obama stated that " if you like your health care plan , you 'll be able to keep your health care plan " . However , the law grandfathers only those insurance plans that were in effect before the law was enacted and have not been significantly changed since then . Plans that do not satisfy these criteria must be cancelled if they do not comply with the law 's new requirements for insurance standards . Furthermore , the law does not prohibit insurers from cancelling older plans for other reasons , such as a determination that a plan is too expensive to maintain . For these reasons , in fall 2013 millions of Americans with individual policies received notices that their insurance plans were being terminated , and several million more are in danger of seeing their current plans cancelled .
On November 7 , 2013 , President Obama stated : " I am sorry that [ people losing their plans ] are finding themselves in this situation based on assurances they got from me " , and he promised to work to help the affected Americans . Various acts have been introduced in Congress to allow people to keep their existing individual insurance plans . President Obama 's previous unambiguous assurance that consumers ' could keep their own plans has become a focal point for critics of the ACA and a political liability for the law 's proponents . Whether or not President Obama knew that his statements were incorrect at the time he made them has also become the focus of discussion .
= = = = Clawback controversy = = = =
The asset @-@ recovery provision of Medicaid , nicknamed the " clawback " provision , was enacted in 1993 by Congress in response to rising Medicaid administrative costs . States were compelled to try to recover costs from the estates of the deceased who used the program for long @-@ term care , either via liens placed on an individual 's home or claims on their assets . There was also an option for states to recover other routine medical care expenses . The expansion of Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act made more residents eligible for Medicaid . The state and federal government as of February 2014 have not clarified clawback guidelines , triggering complaints from consumers and advocacy groups from the uncertainty .
= = = = Hospitals = = = =
From the start of 2010 to November 2014 , 43 hospitals in rural areas closed , according to the North Carolina Rural Health Research Program . Critics of the Affordable Care Act have stated that the new law has caused these hospitals to close . Many of these rural hospitals were built using funds from the 1946 Hill – Burton Act , to increase access to medical care in rural areas . Some of these hospitals have re @-@ opened as other forms of medical facilities , but only a small number of those re @-@ opened facilities operate emergency rooms or urgent care centers .
Since January 2010 , a quarter of emergency room ( ER ) doctors say they have seen a major surge in ER patients , while nearly half have seen a less significant increase in the number of patients . Seven in ten ER doctors say they lack the resources to deal with large increases in the number of patients . The biggest factor in the increased number of patients at ERs is an insufficient number of primary care providers to handle the larger number of insured patients .
= = = = Public opinion = = = =
Public opinion polls indicate that the United States public generally supports healthcare reform , but the public 's views became increasingly negative in reaction to specific plans discussed during the legislative debate over 2009 and 2010 . Polling statistics for the general population show a general negative opinion of the law in the first years ; with those in favor at approximately 40 % and those against at 51 % , as of October 2013 . About 29 % of whites approve of the law , compared with 61 % of Hispanics and 91 % of African Americans , according to a Pew Research Center and USA Today survey conducted on 4 – 8 September 2013 . USA Today found opinions were strongly divided by age of the person at the law 's inception , with a solid majority of seniors opposing the bill and a solid majority of those younger than forty years old in favor .
Specific elements are very popular across the political spectrum , with the notable exception of the mandate to purchase insurance . FiveThirtyEight , describing public opinion of the law , said , " while surveys have consistently found that a plurality of Americans have an overall negative view of the Affordable Care Act , they have just as consistently shown that large majorities of Americans favor individual elements of the law . " For example , a Reuters @-@ Ipsos poll during June 2012 indicated that 44 % of Americans supported the law , with 56 % against . By party affiliation , 75 % of Democrats , 27 % of Independents , and 14 % of Republicans favored the law overall . Individual provisions of the law received varying levels of support : 82 % favored banning insurance companies from denying coverage to people with pre @-@ existing conditions , 61 % favored allowing children to stay on their parents ' insurance until age 26 , 72 % supported requiring companies with more than 50 employees to provide insurance for their employees , and 39 % supported the individual mandate to own insurance or pay a penalty . By party affiliation , 19 % of Republicans , 27 % of Independents , and 59 % of Democrats favored the mandate . Other polls showed additional provisions receiving majority support include the creation of insurance exchanges , pooling small businesses and the uninsured with other consumers so that more people can take advantage of large group pricing benefits , and providing subsidies to individuals and families to make health insurance more affordable . Other specific ideas that were not enacted but which showed majority support included importing prescription drugs from Canada ( with its lower , government @-@ controlled prices ) , limiting malpractice awards , reducing the age to qualify for Medicare , and the Public health insurance option .
Pollsters probed the reasons for opposition . In a CNN poll , 62 % of respondents said they thought the ACA would " increase the amount of money they personally spend on health care " , 56 % said the bill " gives the government too much involvement in health care " , and 19 % said they thought they and their families would be better off with the legislation . Other polls found that people were concerned that the law would cost more than projected , and would not do enough to control the cost of health care affecting their families .
However , part of the opposition to the law is because some Americans believe the reform did not go far enough : A Reuters @-@ Ipsos poll indicated that , for those opposed to the bill , 71 % of Republican opponents reject it overall while 29 % believed it did not go far enough ; independent opponents were divided 67 % to 33 % ; and among the relatively much smaller group of Democratic opponents , 49 % reject it overall , and 51 % wanted the measure to go further .
As of 2011 many Democrats believed that the ACA would grow more popular over time , like Medicare did after its implementation , as the benefits of the law take effect and close the information gap about the contents of the bill .
In June 2013 , a majority of the public ( 52 – 34 % ) indicated a desire for " Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it " . Following the Supreme Court upholding the constitutionality of the individual mandate in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius , a poll released in July 2012 showed that " most Americans ( 56 % ) want to see critics of President Obama 's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues . " The RAND Health Reform Opinion Study for May 1 , 2014 , showed that 48 @.@ 9 % of respondents had an unfavorable view of the ACA vs. 38 @.@ 3 % who had a favorable view ( of more than 5 @,@ 500 individuals ) .
Polling averages from RealClearPolitics showed public approval of the ACA as 52 @.@ 1 % against and 38 @.@ 6 % for ( poll averages from February 27 to March 25 , 2014 ) .
An Associated Press @-@ GfK poll released March 28 , 2014 showed that 26 % of Americans support the ACA .
A Wall Street Journal / NBC poll released April 30 , 2014 , indicated that 8 % of respondents say that the Affordable Care Act " is working well the way it is " .
By the end of 2014 , a Rasmussen 3 @-@ option poll showed Repeal : 30 % , Leave as is : 13 % , Improve : 52 % , i.e. , 65 % wanted to leave the ACA alone or improve upon it .
In June 2015 , a CBS News / New York Times poll showed that 47 % of Americans approved the health care law . This was the first time that a major poll indicated that the number of Americans who approved the ACA is bigger than the ones who disapprove it , though by a small margin .
= = = Political = = =
= = = = Term " Obamacare " = = = =
The term " Obamacare " was originally coined by opponents of the Affordable Care Act as a pejorative term for the law . The term was first put in print in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott penned it in a health industry journal , writing " We will soon see a ' Giuliani @-@ care ' and ' Obama @-@ care ' to go along with ' McCain @-@ care ' , ' Edwards @-@ care ' , and a totally revamped and remodeled ' Hillary @-@ care ' from the 1990s " . According to research by Elspeth Reeve at The Atlantic magazine , the expression Obamacare first was used in early 2007 , generally by writers describing the candidate 's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured . The word was first uttered in a political campaign by Mitt Romney in May 2007 in Des Moines , Iowa . Romney said , " In my state , I worked on healthcare for some time . We had half a million people without insurance , and I said , ' How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare ? ' And let me tell you , if we don 't do it , the Democrats will . If the Democrats do it , it will be socialized medicine ; it 'll be government @-@ managed care . It 'll be what 's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare , or whatever you want to call it . "
By mid @-@ 2012 , Obamacare had become the most common colloquial term used to refer to the law by both supporters and opponents . In contrast , the use of " Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act " or " Affordable Care Act " became limited to more formal and official use . Use of the term in a positive sense was suggested by Democrat John Conyers . President Obama endorsed the nickname , saying , " I have no problem with people saying Obama cares . I do care . " Because of the number of " Obamacare " search engine queries , the Department of Health and Human Services purchased Google advertisements , triggered by the term , to direct people to the official HHS site . In March 2012 , the Obama reelection campaign embraced the term " Obamacare " , urging Obama 's supporters to post Twitter messages that begin , " I like # Obamacare because ... " . After its debut as a phrase on Capitol Hill , according to an analysis by the Sunlight Foundation , from July 2009 to June 2012 the term " Obamacare " was used nearly 3 @,@ 000 times in congressional speeches .
In October 2013 the Associated Press and NPR began cutting back on use of the term . Stuart Seidel , NPR 's managing editor , said that the term " seems to be straddling somewhere between being a politically @-@ charged term and an accepted part of the vernacular " .
= = = = Common misconceptions = = = =
= = = = = " Death panels " = = = = =
On August 7 , 2009 , Sarah Palin claimed the proposed legislation would create " death panels " that would decide if sick and elderly Americans were " worthy " of medical care . The allegation was named PolitiFact 's " Lie of the Year " , one of FactCheck.org 's " whoppers " , and the most outrageous term by the American Dialect Society . The AARP described such rumors
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eye patch , which she later removed after she was lowered to the main stage .
" Rehab " was the fourth song on the set list for Rihanna 's Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) . Her performance in Manchester was released in the UK through iTunes and is featured on the Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD . Rihanna performed " Rehab " on February 7 , 2009 , at a pre @-@ Grammy party . She was scheduled to perform at the 51st Grammy Awards ceremony , but canceled her performance after an altercation with her then boyfriend , singer Chris Brown .
" Rehab " was the twelfth song on Rihanna 's set list for her 2010 Last Girl on Earth Tour , throughout which she performed it on a therapist 's couch adorned with metal casts of human heads and limbs . David Sprague of Variety called her performance of " Rehab " at Madison Square Garden dishearteningly leaden . Ben Ratliff from The New York Times wrote that " Rihanna 's lip curl during ' Rehab ' and her low hip @-@ grind during ' Rude Boy ' were the smash hits of her body language . " Deborah Linton of City Life wrote that Rihanna " even manages to make a psychiatric couch look sexy " . Linton called the show 's stage sets impressive and imaginative . Rick Massimo of The Providence Journal wrote that Rihanna " looked like a neon @-@ sign rendition of herself during ' Rehab ' , rarely addressed the audience , and didn 't rise above flat cliché in that until the very end of the show " . " Rehab " and Rihanna 's 2009 single " Russian Roulette " were excluded from the set list during the tour 's Australian leg .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the Good Girl Gone Bad liner notes .
Locations
Vocals recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; mixed at The Hit Factory Criteria in Miami , Florida
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Offa of Mercia =
Offa was King of Mercia , a kingdom of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , from 757 until his death in July 796 . The son of Thingfrith and a descendant of Eowa , Offa came to the throne after a period of civil war following the assassination of Æthelbald . Offa defeated the other claimant , Beornred . In the early years of Offa 's reign , it is likely that he consolidated his control of Midland peoples such as the Hwicce and the Magonsæte . Taking advantage of instability in the kingdom of Kent to establish himself as overlord , Offa also controlled Sussex by 771 , though his authority did not remain unchallenged in either territory . In the 780s he extended Mercian supremacy over most of southern England , allying with Beorhtric of Wessex , who married Offa 's daughter Eadburh , and regained complete control of the southeast . He also became the overlord of East Anglia and had King Æthelberht II of East Anglia beheaded in 794 , perhaps for rebelling against him .
Offa was a Christian king who came into conflict with the Church , particularly with Jaenberht , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Offa persuaded Pope Adrian I to divide the archdiocese of Canterbury in two , creating a new archdiocese of Lichfield . This reduction in the power of Canterbury may have been motivated by Offa 's desire to have an archbishop consecrate his son Ecgfrith as king , since it is possible Jaenberht refused to perform the ceremony , which took place in 787 . Offa had a dispute with the Bishop of Worcester , which was settled at the Council of Brentford in 781 .
Many surviving coins from Offa 's reign carry elegant depictions of him , and the artistic quality of these images exceeds that of the contemporary Frankish coinage . Some of his coins carry images of his wife , Cynethryth – the only Anglo @-@ Saxon queen ever depicted on a coin . Only three gold coins of Offa 's have survived : one is a copy of an Abbasid dinar of 774 and carries Arabic text on one side , with " Offa Rex " on the other . The gold coins are of uncertain use but may have been struck to be used as alms or for gifts to Rome .
Many historians regard Offa as the most powerful Anglo @-@ Saxon king before Alfred the Great . His dominance never extended to Northumbria , though he gave his daughter Ælfflæd in marriage to the Northumbrian king Æthelred I in 792 . Historians once saw his reign as part of a process leading to a unified England , but this is no longer the majority view . In the words of a recent historian : " Offa was driven by a lust for power , not a vision of English unity ; and what he left was a reputation , not a legacy . " Offa died in 796 ; his son , Ecgfrith , succeeded him , but reigned for less than five months before Coenwulf of Mercia became king .
= = Background and sources = =
In the first half of the 8th century , the dominant Anglo @-@ Saxon ruler was King Æthelbald of Mercia , who by 731 had become the overlord of all the provinces south of the River Humber . Æthelbald was one of a number of strong Mercian kings who ruled from the mid @-@ 7th century to the early 9th , and it was not until the reign of Egbert of Wessex in the 9th century that Mercian power began to wane .
The power and prestige that Offa attained made him one of the most significant rulers in Early Medieval Britain , though no contemporary biography of him survives . A key source for the period is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals in Old English narrating the history of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The Chronicle was a West Saxon production , however , and is sometimes thought to be biased in favour of Wessex ; hence it may not accurately convey the extent of power achieved by Offa , a Mercian . That power can be seen at work in charters dating from Offa 's reign . Charters were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen and were witnessed by the kings who had the authority to grant the land . A charter might record the names of both a subject king and his overlord on the witness list appended to the grant . Such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma , for example , where Æthelric , son of king Oshere of the Hwicce , is described as a " subregulus " , or subking , of Æthelbald 's . The eighth @-@ century monk and chronicler the Venerable Bede wrote a history of the English church called Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum ; the history only covers events up to 731 , but as one of the major sources for Anglo @-@ Saxon history it provides important background information for Offa 's reign .
Offa 's Dyke , most of which was probably built in his reign , is a testimony to the extensive resources Offa had at his command and his ability to organise them . Other surviving sources include a problematic document known as the Tribal Hidage , which may provide further evidence of Offa 's scope as a ruler , though its attribution to his reign is disputed . A significant corpus of letters dates from the period , especially from Alcuin , an English deacon and scholar who spent over a decade at Charlemagne 's court as one of his chief advisors , and corresponded with kings , nobles and ecclesiastics throughout England . These letters in particular reveal Offa 's relations with the continent , as does his coinage , which was based on Carolingian examples .
= = Ancestry and family = =
Offa 's ancestry is given in the Anglian collection , a set of genealogies that include lines of descent for four Mercian kings . All four lines descend from Pybba , who ruled Mercia early in the 7th century . Offa 's line descends through Pybba 's son Eowa and then through three more generations : Osmod , Eanwulf and Offa 's father , Thingfrith . Æthelbald , who ruled Mercia for most of the forty years before Offa , was also descended from Eowa according to the genealogies : Offa 's grandfather , Eanwulf , was Æthelbald 's first cousin . Æthelbald granted land to Eanwulf in the territory of the Hwicce , and it is possible that Offa and Æthelbald were from the same branch of the family . In one charter Offa refers to Æthelbald as his kinsman , and Headbert , Æthelbald 's brother , continued to witness charters after Offa rose to power .
Offa 's wife was Cynethryth , whose ancestry is unknown . The couple had a son , Ecgfrith , and four daughters : Ælfflæd , Eadburh , Æthelburh and Æthelswith . It has been speculated that Æthelburh was the abbess who was a kinswoman of King Ealdred of the Hwicce , but there are other prominent women named Æthelburh during that period .
= = Early reign , the midland territories and the Middle and East Saxons = =
Æthelbald , who had ruled Mercia since 716 , was assassinated in 757 . According to a later continuation of Bede 's Historia Ecclesiastica ( written anonymously after Bede 's death ) the king was " treacherously murdered at night by his own bodyguards , " though the reason why is unrecorded . Æthelbald was initially succeeded by Beornred , about whom little is known . The continuation of Bede comments that Beornred " ruled for a little while , and unhappily " , and adds that " the same year , Offa , having put Beornred to flight , sought to gain the kingdom of the Mercians by bloodshed . " It is possible that Offa did not gain the throne until 758 , however , since a charter of 789 describes Offa as being in the thirty @-@ first year of his reign .
The conflict over the succession suggests that Offa needed to re @-@ establish control over Mercia 's traditional dependencies , such as the Hwicce and the Magonsæte . Charters dating from the first two years of Offa 's reign show the Hwiccan kings as reguli , or kinglets , under his authority ; and it is likely that he was also quick to gain control over the Magonsæte , for whom there is no record of an independent ruler after 740 . Offa was probably able to exert control over the kingdom of Lindsey at an early date , as it appears that the independent dynasty of Lindsey had disappeared by this time .
Little is known about the history of the East Saxons during the 8th century , but what evidence there is indicates that both London and Middlesex , which had been part of the kingdom of Essex , were finally brought under Mercian control during the reign of Æthelbald . Both Æthelbald and Offa granted land in Middlesex and London as they wished ; in 767 a charter of Offa 's disposed of land in Harrow without a local ruler as witness . It is likely that both London and Middlesex were quickly under Offa 's control at the start of his reign . The East Saxon royal house survived the 8th century , so it is probable that the kingdom of Essex retained its native rulers , but under strong Mercian influence , for most or all of the 8th century .
It is unlikely that Offa had significant influence in the early years of his reign outside the traditional Mercian heartland . The overlordship of the southern English which had been exerted by Æthelbald appears to have collapsed during the civil strife over the succession , and it is not until 764 , when evidence emerges of Offa 's influence in Kent , that Mercian power can be seen expanding again .
= = Kent and Sussex = =
Offa appears to have exploited an unstable situation in Kent after 762 . Kent had a long tradition of joint kingship , with east and west Kent under separate kings , though one king was typically dominant . Prior to 762 Kent was ruled by Æthelberht II and Eadberht I ; Eadberht 's son Eardwulf is also recorded as a king . Æthelberht died in 762 , and Eadberht and Eardwulf are last mentioned in that same year . Charters from the next two years mention other kings of Kent , including Sigered , Eanmund and Heahberht . In 764 , Offa granted land at Rochester in his own name , with Heahberht on the witness list as king of Kent . Another king of Kent , Ecgberht , appears on a charter in 765 along with Heahberht ; the charter was subsequently confirmed by Offa . Offa 's influence in Kent at this time is clear , and it has been suggested that Heahberht was installed by Offa as his client . There is less agreement among historians on whether Offa had general overlordship of Kent thereafter . He is known to have revoked a charter of Ecgberht 's on the grounds that " it was wrong that his thegn should have presumed to give land allotted to him by his lord into the power of another without his witness " , but the date of Ecgberht 's original grant is unknown , as is the date of Offa 's revocation of it . It may be that Offa was the effective overlord of Kent from 764 until at least 776 . The limited evidence for Offa 's direct involvement in the kingdom between 765 and 776 includes two charters of 774 in which he grants land in Kent ; but there are doubts about their authenticity , so Offa 's intervention in Kent prior to 776 may have been limited to the years 764 – 65 .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that " the Mercians and the inhabitants of Kent fought at Otford " in 776 , but does not give the outcome of the battle . It has traditionally been interpreted as a Mercian victory , but there is no evidence for Offa 's authority over Kent until 785 : a charter from 784 mentions only a Kentish king named Ealhmund , which may indicate that the Mercians were in fact defeated at Otford . The cause of the conflict is also unknown : if Offa was ruling Kent before 776 , the battle of Otford was probably a rebellion against Mercian control . However , Ealhmund does not appear again in the historical record , and a sequence of charters by Offa from the years 785 – 89 makes his authority clear . During these years he treated Kent " as an ordinary province of the Mercian kingdom " , and his actions have been seen as going beyond the normal relation of overlordship and extending to the annexation of Kent and the elimination of a local royal line . After 785 , in the words of one historian , " Offa was the rival , not the overlord , of Kentish kings " . Mercian control lasted until 796 , the year of Offa 's death , when Eadberht Praen was temporarily successful in regaining Kentish independence .
Ealhmund was probably the father of Egbert of Wessex , and it is possible that Offa 's interventions in Kent in the mid @-@ 780s are connected to the subsequent exile of Egbert to Francia . The Chronicle claims that when Egbert invaded Kent in 825 , the men of the southeast turned to him " because earlier they were wrongly forced away from his relatives " . This is likely to be an allusion to Ealhmund , and may imply that Ealhmund had a local overlordship of the southeastern kingdoms . If so , Offa 's intervention was probably intended to gain control of this relationship and take over the dominance of the associated kingdoms .
The evidence for Offa 's involvement in the kingdom of Sussex comes from charters , and as with Kent there is no clear consensus among historians on the course of events . What little evidence survives that bears on Sussex 's kings indicates that several kings ruled at once , and it may never have formed a single kingdom . It has been argued that Offa 's authority was recognised early in his reign by local kings in western Sussex , but that eastern Sussex ( the area around Hastings ) submitted to him less readily . Simeon of Durham , a twelfth @-@ century chronicler , records that in 771 Offa defeated " the people of Hastings " , which may record the extension of Offa 's dominion over the entire kingdom . However , doubts have been expressed about the authenticity of the charters which support this version of events , and it is possible that Offa 's direct involvement in Sussex was limited to a short period around 770 – 71 . After 772 , there is no further evidence of Mercian involvement in Sussex until c . 790 , and it may be that Offa gained control of Sussex in the late 780s , as he did in Kent .
= = East Anglia , Wessex and Northumbria = =
In East Anglia , Beonna probably became king in about 758 . Beonna 's first coinage predates Offa 's own , and implies independence from Mercia . Subsequent East Anglian history is quite obscure , but in 779 Æthelberht II became king , and was independent long enough to issue coins of his own . In 794 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , " King Offa ordered King Æthelberht 's head to be struck off " . Offa minted pennies in East Anglia in the early 790s , so it is likely that Æthelberht rebelled against Offa and was beheaded as a result . Accounts of the event have survived in which Aethelberht is killed through the machinations of Offa 's wife Cynethryth , but the earliest manuscripts in which these possibly legendary accounts are found date from the 11th and 12th centuries , and recent historians do not regard them with confidence . The legend also claims that Æthelberht was killed at Sutton St. Michael and buried four miles ( 6 km ) to the south at Hereford , where his cult flourished , becoming at one time second only to Canterbury as a pilgrimage destination .
To the south of Mercia , Cynewulf came to the throne of Wessex in 757 and recovered much of the border territory that Æthelbald had conquered from the West Saxons . Offa won an important victory over Cynewulf at the Battle of Bensington ( in Oxfordshire ) in 779 , reconquering some of the land along the Thames . No indisputably authentic charters from before this date show Cynewulf in Offa 's entourage , and there is no evidence that Offa ever became Cynewulf 's overlord . In 786 , after the murder of Cynewulf , Offa may have intervened to place Beorhtric on the West Saxon throne . Even if Offa did not assist Beorhtric 's claim , it seems likely that Beorhtric to some extent recognised Offa as his overlord shortly thereafter . Offa 's currency was used across the West Saxon kingdom , and Beorhtric had his own coins minted only after Offa 's death . In 789 , Beorhtric married Eadburh , a daughter of Offa ; the Chronicle records that the two kings combined to exile Egbert to Francia for " three years " , adding that " Beorhtric helped Offa because he had his daughter as his queen " . Some historians believe that the Chronicle 's " three years " is an error , and should read " thirteen years " , which would mean Egbert 's exile lasted from 789 to 802 , but this reading is disputed . Eadburh is mentioned by Asser , a 9th @-@ century monk who wrote a biography of Alfred the Great : Asser says that Eadburh had " power throughout almost the entire kingdom " , and that she " began to behave like a tyrant after the manner of her father " . Whatever power she had in Wessex was no doubt connected with her father 's overlordship .
If Offa did not gain the advantage in Wessex until defeating Cynewulf in 779 , it may be that his successes south of the river were a necessary prerequisite to his interventions in the southeast . In this view , Egbert of Kent 's death in about 784 and Cynewulf 's death in 786 were the events that allowed Offa to gain control of Kent and bring Beorhtric into his sphere of influence . This version of events also assumes that Offa did not have control of Kent after 764 – 65 , as some historians believe .
Offa 's marital alliances extended to Northumbria when his daughter Ælfflæd married Æthelred I of Northumbria at Catterick in 792 . However , there is no evidence that Northumbria was ever under Mercian control during Offa 's reign .
= = Wales and Offa 's Dyke = =
Offa was frequently in conflict with the various Welsh kingdoms . There was a battle between the Mercians and the Welsh at Hereford in 760 , and Offa is recorded as campaigning against the Welsh in 778 , 784 and 796 in the 10th century Annales Cambriae .
The best known relic associated with Offa 's time is Offa 's Dyke , a great earthen barrier that runs approximately along the border between England and Wales . It is mentioned by the monk Asser in his biography of Alfred the Great : " a certain vigorous king called Offa ... had a great dyke built between Wales and Mercia from sea to sea " . The dyke has not been dated by archaeological methods , but most historians find no reason to doubt Asser 's attribution . Early names for the dyke in both Welsh and English also support the attribution to Offa . Despite Asser 's comment that the dyke ran " from sea to sea " , it is now thought that the original structure only covered about two @-@ thirds of the length of the border : in the north it ends near Llanfynydd , less than five miles ( 8 km ) from the coast , while in the south it stops at Rushock Hill , near Kington in Herefordshire , less than fifty miles ( 80 km ) from the Bristol Channel . The total length of this section is about 64 miles ( 103 km ) . Other earthworks exist along the Welsh border , of which Wat 's Dyke is one of the largest , but it is not possible to date them relative to each other and so it cannot be determined whether Offa 's Dyke was a copy of or the inspiration for Wat 's Dyke .
The construction of the dyke suggests that it was built to create an effective barrier and to command views into Wales . This implies that the Mercians who built it were free to choose the best location for the dyke . There are settlements to the west of the dyke that have names that imply they were English by the 8th century , so it may be that in choosing the location of the barrier the Mercians were consciously surrendering some territory to the native Britons . Alternatively it may be that these settlements had already been retaken by the Welsh , implying a defensive role for the barrier . The effort and expense that must have gone into building the dyke are impressive , and suggest that the king who had it built ( whether Offa or someone else ) had considerable resources at his disposal . Other substantial construction projects of a similar date do exist , however , such as Wat 's Dyke and Danevirke , in what is now Germany as well as such sites as Stonehenge from millennia earlier . The dyke can be regarded in the light of these counterparts as the largest and most recent great construction of the preliterate inhabitants of Britain .
= = Church = =
Offa ruled as a Christian king , but despite being praised by Charlemagne 's advisor , Alcuin , for his piety and efforts to " instruct [ his people ] in the precepts of God " , he came into conflict with Jaenberht , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Jaenberht had been a supporter of Ecgberht II of Kent , which may have led to conflict in the 760s when Offa is known to have intervened in Kent . Offa rescinded grants made to Canterbury by Egbert , and it is also known that Jaenberht claimed the monastery of Cookham , which was in Offa 's possession .
In 786 Pope Adrian I sent papal legates to England to assess the state of the church and provide canons ( ecclesiastical decrees ) for the guidance of the English kings , nobles and clergy . This was the first papal mission to England since Augustine had been sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 597 to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The legates were George , the Bishop of Ostia , and Theophylact , the Bishop of Todi . They visited Canterbury first , and then were received by Offa at his court . Both Offa and Cynewulf , king of the West Saxons , attended a council where the goals of the mission were discussed . George then went to Northumbria , while Theophylact visited Mercia and " parts of Britain " . A report on the mission , sent by the legates to Pope Adrian , gives details of a council
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hours later , Stephen Curry challenged him , via Twitter , to a three @-@ point shooting contest . Curry had set the National Basketball Association single @-@ season three pointers made record one week earlier . The following morning ESPN retweeted the video and noted that Stauskas made 46 in a row . A few hours later , when Stauskas woke up , he said he would look forward to such a contest . Soon Stauskas and Curry 's representatives arranged to have a showdown televised on TSN , but the contest would have been in violation of NCAA rules against competition between amateur athletes and professional athletes .
= 2004 – 05 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2004 – 05 season was the 107th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club ended the campaign as FA Cup winners , but failed to retain their Premier League title as they finished second to Chelsea . In the UEFA Champions League , Arsenal made an exit in the knockout stages to Bayern Munich .
In the transfer window Arsenal purchased goalkeeper Manuel Almunia , who initially served a backup to Jens Lehmann , and midfielder Mathieu Flamini . The club kept hold of its captain Patrick Vieira after much transfer speculation over his expected move to Real Madrid . Several players left Arsenal before the campaign got under way ; defender Martin Keown left to play for Leicester City , Ray Parlour joined Middlesbrough while Sylvain Wiltord signed for Lyon .
Arsenal began the season in good form and equalled Nottingham Forest 's unbeaten league run of 42 matches against Middlesbrough . The team set a new English division record and went a further seven games unbeaten before losing to Manchester United in controversial circumstances . Arsenal 's form suffered as a result and defensive shortcomings became more apparent ; two draws and a defeat in November reinforced Chelsea 's position at the top of the table , where they remained for the rest of the season . At home to Crystal Palace in February 2005 , Wenger named an Arsenal squad with no English players – a first in the club 's history which attracted criticism from the media . The team ended the season strongly , with a run of eight wins from nine games ensuring a second @-@ place finish . 32 different players represented the club in five competitions and there were 15 different goalscorers . Arsenal 's top goalscorer was Thierry Henry , who scored 30 goals in 42 games .
= = Background = =
Arsenal ended the previous season as league champions , becoming the first side since Preston North End 115 years earlier to do so undefeated . They completed their historic league campaign with 26 wins , 12 draws and 90 points .
By the end of January 2004 Arsenal were still in the hunt for all four trophies , but suffered setbacks in each of the cup competitions ; they were unable to retain the FA Cup , losing out to eventual winners Manchester United in the semi @-@ finals and days later were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League by Chelsea at the quarter @-@ final stage . They exited the League Cup after defeat to Middlesbrough in early February .
= = = Transfers = = =
In
Out
= = Pre @-@ season = =
= = FA Community Shield = =
The 2004 edition of the FA Community Shield , was contested between Manchester United and Arsenal at the Millennium Stadium on 8 August . Cesc Fàbregas started alongside Gilberto Silva in midfield for Arsenal as Vieira was absent , while Thierry Henry partnered Dennis Bergkamp up front . After a goalless first half , Arsenal took the lead when Gilberto scored in the 50th minute . Manchester United equalised through Alan Smith five minutes after , but José Antonio Reyes restored Arsenal 's advantage two minutes before the hour mark . Mikaël Silvestre scored an own goal 11 minutes before the end to give Arsenal a 3 – 1 victory . Wenger praised Fàbregas 's performance after the match , describing the midfielder as a " complete player " and reiterated his desire to keep Vieira .
= = Premier League = =
A total of 20 teams competed in the Premier League in the 2004 – 05 season . Each team played 38 matches ; two against every other team and one match at each club 's stadium . Three points were awarded for each win , one point per draw , and none for defeats . At the end of the season the top two teams qualified for the group stages of the UEFA Champions League ; teams in third and fourth needed to play a qualifier . The provisional fixture list was released on 24 June 2004 , but was subject to change in the event of clashes with other competitions , international football , inclement weather , or matches being selected for television coverage .
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began their defence of the league title against Everton on 15 August 2004 . Fàbregas was named in the first eleven ; at 17 years 103 days he became the club 's youngest ever Premier League player . It was Bergkamp on his 500th league appearance who opened the scoring for Arsenal and Reyes made it 2 – 0 , heading the ball in from Fredrik Ljungberg 's cross . Ljungberg added a third goal in the second half and in spite of the team conceding moments after , Robert Pirès scored Arsenal 's fourth in the 83rd minute . Shortly before the kick @-@ off at home to Middlesbrough the following weekend , the club was presented a golden replica of the Premier League trophy , to commemorate their unbeaten season . In the match , Henry gave Arsenal the lead , which was cancelled out before half time by Joseph @-@ Désiré Job 's goal @-@ bound effort . Four minutes after the interval , Franck Queudrue exploited an error from defender Pascal Cygan and in turn passed the ball to Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink , who " finish [ ed ] with perfect brutality " . Queudrue scored to put Middlesbrough 3 – 1 up in the 53rd minute , but Bergkamp replied with a goal for Arsenal a minute later . The home team completed the comeback with further goals by Reyes , Pirès and Henry . Wenger afterwards admitted Arsenal 's defending was poor , but said their attacking threat made up for their deficiencies . The 5 – 3 win meant Arsenal equalled Nottingham Forest 's record of 42 league matches undefeated . Three days later , the team beat Blackburn Rovers 3 – 0 to set a new record . Arsenal at the end of the month travelled to Norwich City , where three first half goals set the team on the way to a 4 – 1 victory . The win ended Norwich 's eight @-@ month undefeated record at Carrow Road .
Due to international fixtures , Arsenal did not play another game for two weeks . On the resumption of club football , they travelled across London to face Fulham . Vieira made his return to the first team in place of Fàbregas . Fulham was awarded a penalty in the first half , after Ashley Cole brought down striker Andy Cole in the penalty area . Referee Mark Halsey however changed his mind after protests from the Arsenal players and a consultation with his assistant ; the game was restarted with a dropped @-@ ball . Arsenal scored three times in the second half and ended the weekend of 6 September 2004 top of the league table , two points clear of second place Chelsea . The league champions dropped their first points of the season at home to Bolton Wanderers . At the City of Manchester Stadium on 25 September 2004 , a goal by Cole earned Arsenal a 1 – 0 win against Manchester City . Journalist Russell Thomas , writing for The Guardian , commented on Arsenal 's fatigue during the second half and opined that the team needed to keep their focus against sterner opposition .
Arsenal beat Charlton Athletic in early October to extend their unbeaten run to 48 league matches . Charlton manager Alan Curbishley said of his opponents : " The gulf between Arsenal and the rest of the Premier League means that the rest have got it all to do to try and stop them , and I 'm including the big three or four . " Two goals from Pirès and one from Henry ensured a 3 – 1 win against Aston Villa , who had led the game early on . Attention soon turned to Arsenal 's trip to face Manchester United . The champions were looking to go half a century of league games unbeaten , whereas the home team – in transition , attempted to push on for a title challenge . In the match , a challenge by Sol Campbell on Wayne Rooney earned Manchester United a penalty , converted by Ruud van Nistelrooy in the 73rd minute . Rooney then scored United 's second goal of the match to end Arsenal 's unbeaten run on 49 games . Tempers boiled over in the players ' tunnel , where pizza was thrown at Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson . When speaking to the media , a distraught Wenger told reporters that Rooney dived to win the penalty and criticised the refereeing performance of Mike Riley . He was later found guilty of insinuating that Van Nistelrooy was a cheat , and fined £ 15 @,@ 000 by the FA .
The final match of October was against Southampton at Highbury . Henry who missed a penalty early on , scored to put Arsenal in front in the 67th minute . Southampton replied with two goals from Rory Delap , but Van Persie in stoppage time equalised for the home team with a curling shot . The draw meant Arsenal stood in first position and had accumulated 26 points . The team were level on points with Chelsea , with a marginally better goal difference .
= = = November – December = = =
For the second league game in succession , Arsenal dropped two points . The team drew 1 – 1 at Crystal Palace on 6 November 2004 , which meant Chelsea overtook them in first position . Wenger rued Arsenal 's inability to hold onto leads in matches and admitted the fluency had disappeared in their football , possibly because of the manner in which they lost the unbeaten record . A week later Arsenal faced Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane . It was Tottenham who began the match the better of the two teams and took the lead after 36 minutes when Noureddine Naybet scored . Henry equalised for Arsenal moments before half @-@ time , and the champions went in front after Lauren converted a penalty . Vieira scored on the hour mark to make it 3 – 1 , before Jermain Defoe replied for Tottenham instantly with a " wonderful , dipping finish into the top corner . " Fàbregas created Arsenal ’ s fourth goal , scored by Ljungberg . In the final 16 minutes Tottenham scored twice and Arsenal once ; the final score was 5 – 4 , making it the highest scoring North London derby . Arsenal 's defending was ridiculed by Chelsea manager José Mourinho , who told reporters : " Five @-@ four is a hockey score , not a football score . "
Arsenal only managed a draw against West Bromwich Albion on 20 November 2004 ; Robert Earnshaw 's goal with 11 minutes remaining of normal time cancelled out Pirès ’ s opener . Arsenal lost their final match of November , away to Liverpool at Anfield . Vieira finished off a one @-@ touch move to equalise for Arsenal – who were behind in the first half – but Neil Mellor scored the winning goal of the game , shooting from long range . Football pundit Alan Hansen in his analysis on Match of the Day criticised the temperament of Arsenal ’ s players and questioned their desire : " When you have success , sometimes it isn 't there and you have to dig in with great determination and hard work , and at the moment they are not doing that . When you look at their two big players , Henry and Vieira , [ you think they ] must do better in future . " Arsenal ended the month in second , five points behind leaders Chelsea .
Henry scored two late goals in Arsenal ’ s victory over Birmingham City on 4 December 2004 . Wenger replaced Lehmann in goal with Almunia , who made his league debut . Arsenal then faced league leaders Chelsea at Highbury ; the match was billed as " Judgement Day " by Sky Sports . With Vieira suspended and Gilberto and Edu injured , Wenger picked Flamini to partner Fabregas in midfield . The first chance of the match went to Henry , who scored inside 75 seconds . John Terry levelled the score , but Henry restored Arsenal ’ s lead from a contentious free @-@ kick – Graham Poll allowed the striker to take it quickly without warning the Chelsea players . Eiður Guðjohnsen equalised early in the second half for Chelsea , and late on Henry missed a chance to score a hat @-@ trick . There were no further goals and the match ended 2 – 2 , meaning Chelsea remained five points clear of Arsenal . Wenger said he was disappointed in the manner his team conceded to Chelsea – from two set pieces , but added : " I thought we did really well , and it was important for us to come back to the level we want to be at . "
Arsenal won their remaining games in December and conceded no goals . They beat Portsmouth courtesy of a Campbell goal in the second half , and on Boxing Day defeated Fulham by two goals . Vieira scored the winning goal against Newcastle United , a volley that deflected over goalkeeper Shay Given . After 20 games Arsenal accumulated 44 points and lay second in the league table .
= = = January – February = = =
On New Year 's Day , Ljungberg scored two goals in Arsenal ’ s 3 – 1 win against Charlton Athletic .
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The team four days later drew at home to Manchester City . Arsenal lost further ground to Chelsea after defeat to Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium . Wenger conceded that Chelsea were favourites to win the league because of their point advantage , but added : " We will keep going and fight until the last minute of the championship . " Arsenal ended January with a 1 – 0 home win against Newcastle United . Wenger made four changes from the Bolton defeat , with Bergkamp the match scorer coming in place of Van Persie .
The first night of February saw Arsenal host Manchester United at Highbury . In the tunnel before the match Roy Keane was seen confronting Vieira ; the United captain accused him of intimidating his teammate Gary Neville . Vieira scored after eight minutes , but Giggs equalised for Manchester United 10 minutes later . Bergkamp restored Arsenal ’ s advantage nine minutes before half time , but two goals by Cristiano Ronaldo and one by John O 'Shea in the second half gave United a 4 – 2 win . It was Arsenal 's fourth league defeat of the season and moved them down to third spot , overtaken by their opponents . Wenger ruled his team out of the title race and refused to blame Almunia for his error in Ronaldo 's first goal . The goalkeeper was dropped in Arsenal 's next game , away to Aston Villa . Three first half goals by Ljungberg , Henry and Cole gave Arsenal a comfortable win .
For the match against Crystal Palace on 14 February 2005 , Wenger named an Arsenal squad that did not feature a single British player – a first in the club ’ s history . The team did not get off to the best of starts with Lehmann miskicking a back pass and Vieira losing possession routinely , but grew as the game went on and scored three goals in seven minutes . On his 200th league appearance , Henry scored in either half , with the result 5 – 1 to Arsenal . The result was somewhat overshadowed by the foreign makeup of the team ; former player Paul Merson called it a " joke " and PFA chairman Gordon Taylor noted it was a " worrying pattern for English football . " When asked about his team selections , Wenger said : " I don 't look at the passport of people , I look at their quality and their attitude . "
Arsenal only earned a point at Southampton , where Van Persie was sent off for a late challenge on Graeme Le Saux . The team remained in third at the end of February , four points behind Manchester United and 10 behind leaders Chelsea , who played a game less than both challengers .
= = = March – May = = =
Arsenal ’ s form improved as the season drew to a close . At home to Portsmouth on 5 March 2005 , the team earned three points courtesy of Henry ’ s hat @-@ trick . Van Persie scored the only goal in Arsenal ’ s match against Blackburn Rovers and the team moved back to second position with a home win against Norwich City – Henry scored another hat @-@ trick . A week later Pirès ’ s goal was enough for Arsenal to beat Middlesbrough at the Riverside Stadium and win their fourth consecutive match . The team then played out a goalless draw against Chelsea , who were on course to become champions ; Wenger congratulated his opponents on their season and felt Arsenal needed to score first so that they could " force them to come out from the back . "
Arsenal defeated Tottenham 1 – 0 on 25 April 2005 , which meant Chelsea needed to wait on Saturday in order to mathematically win the title . Second position was the best Arsenal could aim for by the time they faced West Bromwich Albion on 2 May 2005 . Goals from Van Persie and Edu earned a 2 – 0 win for the team and Arsenal beat Champions League finalists Liverpool at Highbury to all @-@ but secure second spot . Arsenal recorded the biggest win of the league season , against Everton at Highbury . An inspired performance by Bergkamp helped the team win 7 – 0 ; he created the opening two goals and scored in the second half . Arsenal lost their final game of the campaign , away to Birmingham City . It was a lacklustre performance by the visitors , who equalised through Bergkamp after going a goal behind , but conceded in the 90th minute .
= = = Matches = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the competition in the third round , by virtue of their Premier League status . Their opening match was a home tie against Stoke City . The visitors took the lead just before the break , but goals from Reyes and Van Persie in the second half meant Arsenal won 2 – 1 . They then faced Wolverhampton Wanderers at home in the next round ; a goal apiece from Vieira and Ljungberg secured a comfortable 2 – 0 victory .
Arsenal 's opponent in the fifth round was Sheffield United . After 35 minutes Bergkamp was sent off for his apparent push on Cullip . With eleven minutes of normal time remaining , Robert Pirès scored for Arsenal , but the team conceded a late penalty which Andy Gray converted . The equaliser for Sheffield United meant the match was replayed at Bramall Lane on 1 March 2005 . Both teams played out a goalless draw after full @-@ time and throughout extra @-@ time , so the tie was decided by a penalty shootout . Almunia saved two penalties , which ensured progress into the quarter @-@ finals .
Bolton Wanderers hosted Arsenal at the Reebok Stadium in the sixth round of the competition . Ljungberg scored the only goal of the tie after just three minutes ; he had an opportunity to extend Arsenal 's lead in stoppage time , but hit the ball over from six yards . Arsenal faced Blackburn Rovers in the semi @-@ final which was played at the Millennium Stadium . Two goals from Van Persie and one from Pirès gave Arsenal a 3 – 0 win , in a match marred by Blackburn 's aggressive tactics .
This set up a showdown with Manchester United in the final on 21 May 2005 . United were on top for long periods of the game but Arsenal resisted their pressure and the match ended 0 – 0 after 120 minutes , albeit Arsenal were a man lighter after Reyes ' dismissal with a minute remaining for two bookable offences . The match went to penalties with all the penalty takers converting barring Paul Scholes , whose effort was denied by Lehmann . Vieira converted the final and winning spot @-@ kick to seal a tenth FA Cup crown for Arsenal .
= = Football League Cup = =
The Football League Cup is a cup competition open to clubs in the Premier League and Football League . Like the FA Cup it is played on a knockout basis , with the exception of the second round and semi @-@ finals , which are contested over a two @-@ legged tie . Together with the other clubs playing in European competitions , Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round . The team were drawn to face Manchester City , on the week of 25 October 2004 . Wenger fielded a relatively young team for the tie , which took the lead in the second half when Van Persie scored . Daniel Karbassiyoon extended the visitor 's lead in the 90th minute , just before Manchester City striker Robbie Fowler scored from a free @-@ kick .
In the fourth round , Arsenal faced Everton at Highbury . The team went behind after eight minutes of play , but Quincy Owusu @-@ Abeyie levelled the scoreline and in the second half Arturo Lupoli scored twice . Wenger was pleased with how his team responded to the setback and added : " They played intelligently , technically well and with the spirit we like to play the game . " Arsenal bowed out of the competition away to Manchester United ; the only goal of the match came inside 19 seconds when David Bellion profited from an error by goalkeeper Almunia .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal were drawn in Group E , along with Dutch champions PSV Eindhoven , Greek club Panathanaikos and Norwegian side Rosenborg . An Alex own goal was enough for Arsenal to claim three points against PSV on the first matchday . The team drew away to Rosenborg and earnt a point at Panathinaikos , despite twice having taken the lead at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium . In the reverse fixture Cygan scored an own goal to cancel out Henry 's first @-@ half opener ; the result left Arsenal in second position . Their next match was against PSV at the Philips Stadion , where after eight minutes the home side took the lead . Henry equalised for Arsenal , having created the chance following a one @-@ two with Ljungberg . In the second half Lauren and Vieira were both sent off , for two bookable offences . Wenger accepted referee Herbert Fandel 's decision , but added his surprise that Mark van Bommel was not cautioned : " If you look at the number of fouls he made without being punished it is very surprising because he made some deliberate fouls . Some people might criticise Patrick when we were down to 10 men but he felt he had to fight harder to win the ball . "
The draw against PSV meant Arsenal had to beat against Rosenborg to qualify for the last 16 . A 5 – 1 win at home , with five different goalscorers on the scoresheet , put Arsenal top of the group given PSV lost to Panathinaikos .
= = = Knockout phase = = =
= = = = Round of 16 = = = =
Arsenal were drawn against Bayern Munich in the knockout stages . In the first leg a mistake from Touré presented Claudio Pizarro to score inside four minutes . The striker then scored his second of the match in the 58th minute , getting past his marker Touré , and Hasan Salihamidžić added a third for Bayern seven minutes later . Touré scored an away goal late on for Arsenal , which gave them a slender chance of progressing into the quarter @-@ finals . Arsenal beat Bayern in the second leg , but a solitary goal – scored by Henry in the 66th minute , meant the club was eliminated .
= = Player statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 32 players during the 2004 – 05 season and there were 18 different goalscorers . There were also three squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation throughout the season , but Wenger deployed a 4 – 5 – 1 formation for the cup final . Touré featured in 49 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign .
The team scored a total of 117 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Henry , with 30 goals , followed by Pirès who scored 17 goals . Five Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Vieira , Reyes , Bergkamp , Van Persie and Lauren .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= Toussaint Tyler =
Toussaint L 'Ouverture Tyler ( first name pronounced " Too @-@ San " , born March 19 , 1959 ) is a former running back in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played with New Orleans Saints in 1981 and 1982 .
Born in Barstow , California , Tyler moved to Oceanside , California where he starred as halfback at El Camino High School . After receiving a number of awards following his senior season , he was recruited to the University of Washington . With the Washington Huskies , he played mainly as a fullback . The Huskies won the 1978 Rose Bowl his freshman year , and he started for the first time in a game the following season . The back took a larger role in his junior year as the team went 10 – 2 and won a bowl game .
Early in Tyler 's final year at Washington , injuries to the Huskies ' halfbacks prompted head coach Don James to move him there from fullback . Washington finished 8 – 2 in the regular season , earning them a trip to the 1981 Rose Bowl against the Michigan Wolverines . With the score tied at zero in the first quarter , Tyler fumbled at the one @-@ yard line ; Michigan went on to win the game 23 – 6 . The running back was drafted 222nd overall ( first in the ninth round ) by the New Orleans Saints in the 1981 NFL Draft . He played two seasons with the Saints , appearing in all 23 games over those two seasons . Before the 1983 NFL season , the Saints cut him in order to meet the limit on how many players a team may have . He then went on to a short stint with the Oakland Invaders , and then tried to make the Minnesota Vikings . He now lives in Kent , Washington , where he works as a juvenile detention officer .
= = Early life = =
Born on March 19 , 1959 , Tyler was named after the 18th @-@ century Haitian leader Toussaint Louverture . His mother was a seamstress and his father , Walter , was a boxing trainer who handled , among others , heavyweight champion Mike Weaver . The running back later said " My father tried to interest me in boxing but I wasn 't into getting smacked in the face . " Tyler , along with two brothers and four sisters , lived in Barstow , California until he was in seventh grade . His parents then divorced and he went to live with his mother in Oceanside , California .
In Oceanside , he played at El Camino High School under coach Herb Meyer . Rushing for 1 @,@ 732 yards with an eight yards @-@ per @-@ carry average in his senior season , the halfback drew comparisons to fellow El Camino back C. R. Roberts . The El Camino team won the California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) district title in 1976 . One of six Californians named to that year 's All @-@ American high school football team by Scholastic Coach , a magazine for athletic directors and coaches , he was San Diego County 's player of the and shared CIF ( San Diego Section ) player of the year honors with offensive tackle Curt Marsh . Both players were considered blue @-@ chip recruits and went to the University of Washington .
= = College career = =
At Washington , Tyler was converted from halfback to fullback . Because of this , Tyler needed to learn how to block , a transition in which he said he " pinched a lot of nerves and got a lot of stiff necks " . When asked during his senior year a Washington which position he prefers , Tyler responded " I love tailback , but I 'll play any position to help our team . " Tyler finished third in a pre @-@ season poll of sportswriters predicting the conference 's offensive rookie of the year . In Tyler 's freshman year , the 1977 Washington Huskies finished with nine wins and two losses in the regular season . In his first collegiate contest , Tyler rushed for 70 yards on seven carries in a victory against San Jose State University . In a game against the California Golden Bears , then ranked 17th in the AP Poll , Tyler scored a touchdown to help the team win 50 – 31 , giving them a record of 4 – 1 , tying them with two other teams for the lead in the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference . They then won the 1978 Rose Bowl 27 – 20 over the Michigan Wolverines .
The following season , Tyler started at fullback for the first time in a game against Oregon State , winless at the time , and rushed for 151 yards , including a 55 @-@ yard fourth @-@ quarter touchdown , to lead the Huskies to a 20 – 14 victory . In the team 's next game , the back scored twice as Washington beat twelfth @-@ ranked Arizona State . The Huskies finished with seven wins and four losses , missing a bowl game . Tyler averaged 5 @.@ 5 yards a carry in the 1978 season .
To begin 1979 , Washington won 38 – 2 and 41 – 7 against non @-@ conference opponents , with Tyler scoring once in both games and averaging 8 @.@ 2 yards per carry . In their conference opener the next week , the Huskies won on a late @-@ fourth @-@ quarter punt return touchdown from Mark Lee , Lee 's first ever punt return ; Tyler gained 81 yards over 16 rushing attempts . The winning continued for two games , with Tyler scoring from three yards in both . Called " one of the Pac @-@ 10 's most under @-@ rated players " , the back now needed 65 yards to tie Credell Green for tenth on Washington 's list of career rushing yards leaders . The now twelfth @-@ ranked Huskies lost their next two games , to Arizona and the Pittsburgh Panthers . To conclude the season , Washington , then number 13 , upset the Texas Longhorns 14 – 7 with Tyler rushing 19 times for 70 yards .
Going into his senior season , Tyler , wearing a jersey number of 45 , was the school 's seventh leading rusher . Tyler was moved to halfback early in the season after the Huskies ' third @-@ string halfback was injured . Washington won 50 – 7 and 45 – 7 in games against Air Force and Northwestern ; in the second game , Tyler scored from one , three , and six yards in the first quarter . After splitting their next two games , the back scored twice from nine yards to help the Huskies beat Oregon State 41 – 6 . At this point , Tyler was third in the conference with 49 points scored and fourth with 446 yards rushing . Washington then beat Stanford 27 – 24 ; during the game , Tyler injured a tendon in his right knee , leading to him being used sparsely in the final four regular season games . After a 24 – 10 loss to Navy in which head coach Don James said Washington was " embarrassed " , the Huskies were 5 – 2 ( 2 – 1 in the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ) and still top contenders for a Rose Bowl appearance .
The Huskies proceeded to win 25 – 0 over Arizona State and 45 – 22 against the University of Arizona Wildcats , with Tyler scoring once in each game . Washington , although unranked at 7 – 2 , was leading in the race for the Pac @-@ 10 spot in the Rose Bowl . Only four other teams in the conference were eligible for the appearance , as , in the previous August , the presidents of Pac @-@ 10 schools had voted unanimously to disqualify half of the conference 's members from Rose Bowl contention because of rules violations . The teams disqualified included UCLA and USC , two of the league 's strongest teams . The next week , despite not having Tyler due to injury , Washington beat USC 20 – 10 ; this clinched a spot in Rose Bowl on New Year 's Day . In the 1981 Rose Bowl against the Michigan Wolverines , Washington was beaten 23 – 6 . In a scoreless first quarter , it was originally ruled a touchdown when Tyler dove over a pile near the goal line . After the officials conferred , however , it was decided that Tyler had fumbled at the one @-@ yard line , which he later admitted to .
Tyler , nicknamed " Tudy " in college , was a muscular 6 ⅓ feet and 215 pounds . He ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 7 seconds , on the low end for a halfback , but Mal Florence of the Los Angeles Times said he was " much faster in game situations " .
= = Professional career and later life = =
On the second day ( April 29 ) of the 1981 NFL Draft , the New Orleans Saints selected Tyler with the first pick of the ninth round , 222nd overall . The Saints also possessed the draft 's first @-@ overall pick , which they used on Heisman Trophy winner George Rogers , a halfback from the University of South Carolina . In his first training camp , Tyler wore number 42 , and was signed to a contract on June 23 . The 1981 New Orleans Saints finished with four wins and 12 losses , and Tyler played in all 16 games but started none . The former Washington Husky accumulated 183 yards rushing on 36 carries as well as 23 receptions . He fumbled four times overall . In the nine @-@ game 1982 NFL season , the Saints went 4 – 5 . Tyler played all nine games , but again did not start any . On August 29 , 1983 , the Saints cut Tyler , along with five other players , in order to reach the 49 @-@ man roster limit .
After a short stint with the Oakland Invaders of the United States Football League , Tyler attempted to earn a spot on the Minnesota Vikings but was waived during training camp . Tyler now lives in Covington , Washington , working as a juvenile detention officer for King County . When Marsh , Tyler 's former Huskies teammate and co @-@ CIF player of the year honoree , had his ankle amputated , Tyler spent two days at his bedside .
= Oklahoma State Highway 108 =
State Highway 108 ( abbreviated SH @-@ 108 ) is a minor state highway in Payne , Noble , and Pawnee counties in north @-@ central Oklahoma . It runs for 24 @.@ 1 miles ( 38 @.@ 8 km ) , from SH @-@ 33 south of Ripley to U.S. Route 64 ( US @-@ 64 ) in Lela . SH @-@ 108 has no lettered spurs .
SH @-@ 108 was added to the state highway system on July 11 , 1955 . At this time , the highway had the same extent as it does today ; the only changes made to the highway over the years were slight modifications to its alignment due to the straightening of connecting highways .
= = Route description = =
SH @-@ 108 begins in Payne County approximately halfway between Perkins and Cushing at SH @-@ 33 . From here , the highway runs north on Ripley Road . About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) into its journey , the road passes through the town of Ripley ( pop . 444 ) . North of Ripley , it crosses the Cimarron River . Seven miles ( 11 km ) later , the highway intersects SH @-@ 51 , and SH @-@ 108 turns west along it , forming a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) concurrency . SH @-@ 108 then continues north on Rose Road .
Approximately eight miles ( 13 km ) north of SH @-@ 51 , SH @-@ 108 enters Glencoe ( pop . 583 ) . The highway then crosses the Cimarron Turnpike on a grade separation with no interchange . The highway shifts to the east about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Glencoe . Upon exiting Payne County , the highway straddles the Noble – Pawnee County line all the way to its terminus at US @-@ 64 in the unincorporated settlement of Lela .
As of 2012 , the highest average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) count along SH @-@ 108 was 5 @,@ 900 , measured along the concurrency with SH @-@ 51 . The highest traffic volume on SH @-@ 108 alone was an AADT of 1 @,@ 900 , measured north of SH @-@ 51 . The lowest AADT measured was 1 @,@ 500 , which occurred both in Glencoe and south of Ripley . No part of SH @-@ 108 has been designated as part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
SH @-@ 108 was first designated on July 11 , 1955 . The highway was mostly gravel at that time ; only the portions from the southern terminus to Ripley and the concurrency with SH @-@ 51 were paved . In 1960 , the section of SH @-@ 108 between SH @-@ 51 and Glencoe was paved . In 1963 , the paved segment extended north of Glencoe , to the highway 's northern terminus .
The first change to the highway 's alignment occurred on November 1 , 1966 , when SH @-@ 51 was straightened between Stillwater and Yale ; SH @-@ 108 was realigned to continue to concur with SH @-@ 51 . Around the same time , the remainder of SH @-@ 108 was paved . The final change to SH @-@ 108 was made on June 4 , 1974 , when a straightening of SH @-@ 33 resulted in a slight extension of SH @-@ 108 to continue to meet the new highway . No changes have been made since .
= = Junction list = =
= Bismarck ( video game ) =
Bismarck is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed by Personal Software Services and published by Mirrorsoft . It was first released for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum in 1987 for the United Kingdom . It was ported to Amiga , Apple II , Atari ST and Atari 8 @-@ bit home computers in both the United Kingdom and the United States the following year . The game is the tenth instalment in the Strategic Wargames series . In the game , the player can choose to control either the German battleship Bismarck or command the pursuing fleet of Royal Navy ships .
The game is set during the Last battle of the battleship Bismarck of World War II and revolves around the Bismarck attempting to escape a perusing fleet of Royal Navy ships , who desire to avenge the deaths of 1 @,@ 412 men in the sinking of the flagship and " pride of the Royal Navy " , HMS Hood . The game received positive reviews upon release ; critics praised the graphics and presentation , though one reviewer found difficulty with the controls .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and takes place during the Last battle of the battleship Bismarck on 27 May 1941 . The battle is a sequel to the Battle of the Denmark Strait , in which the Kriegsmarine ships Bismarck and Prinz Eugen sank the Royal Navy flagship , HMS Hood , resulting in the deaths of 1 @,@ 412 men . Incensed by the loss of the " pride of the Royal Navy " , a large British force was dispatched in order to pursue and destroy the Bismarck and its support ship , the Prinz Eugen .
The player has the option to choose which side they wish to command at the beginning of the game . If the German side is picked , the objective of the game is to evade the Royal Navy fleet by either sailing to Iceland or heading to the safety of Nazi occupied France . The player will only have the ability to control the Bismarck itself , and must defend themselves against Royal Navy and Royal Air Force attacks if compromised . If the British side is chosen , then the player must command the hunting Royal Navy fleet in order to search and destroy the Bismarck . To achieve both these ends , the player will be able to access an in @-@ game command centre , which will give out alerts depending on the side chosen . If controlling the Bismarck , the player will be reported of hostile British U @-@ boat sightings . If controlling the Royal Navy fleet , they will be told of radio intercepts , which will pinpoint the Bismarck 's approximate location .
If the Bismarck has been intercepted or compromised by Royal Navy ships , the game will automatically shift to an arcade sequence which will give the player an opportunity to defend the ship against a British attack , or alternatively , if playing as the British , the sequence is utilised in order to destroy the Bismarck . The feature can be displayed at any time , though it is automatically enabled if either side comes into conflict . The interface of the feature is split into three sections ; the upper part of the screen shows a view of the ocean in front of the ship and any hostile ship in the vicinity . The middle section contains buttons and icons which are used to control ship movement and to fire weapons . The lower part of the screen displays a diagrammatic representation of the ship from the side chosen ( Bismarck or Royal Navy ships ) ; the diagram will change colours once the ship receives damage from shelling .
Once a hostile ship is in range , the player will have the choice to either open fire or outmanoeuvre the enemy . The Bismarck is able to withstand 99 points of damage ; internal fires may break out during battle and will risk destroying the ship if the fires are not contained quickly enough or if they reach fuel tanks . If fires occur , the player is given the option to order fire @-@ fighting crews to contain the blaze , although it will cause the ship to disengage from combat . The game proceeds in real time , and has the option to change speed from slow to fast at any time .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Iwo Jima and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in which Cockayne admitted that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . Peter Berlin of Your Sinclair praised the presentation of the game , stating that it was " good to look at " and well organised . Philippa Irving of Crash asserted that the graphics and interface were " rather bland " but " pretty " . Despite stating that the map of the game was " unexciting " , Irving noted that it was offset by " pretty touches " and new graphical additions . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games stated that the game was " historically good " . Their only criticism was the unsuitability of using a joystick for the game , which they deemed " virtually unusable " . David Buckingham of Computer Gamer considered Bismarck the best game Personal Software Studios had released at the time , and added that the two genres of strategy and action work " very well " .
Gary Rook of Sinclair User heralded the gameplay as an " exciting " blend of strategy and arcade simulation . Berlin suggested that Bismarck was a good introduction for players who were " bored " with the arcade genre and preferred " something a little bit tougher " . Irving praised the gameplay as smoothly @-@ presented and " undemanding " , stating that the type of game Personal Software Studios were creating was " successful " . She also considered the rules of the game to be detailed in all important respects , well @-@ presented and " helpful " , albeit " not voluminous " . Regarding the arcade aspect of the game , Rook noted that the level of action in it was sufficient , but was sceptical that it was a " true " wargame .
= Torrie Wilson =
Torrie Anne Wilson ( born July 24 , 1975 ) is an American model , fitness competitor , actress and retired professional wrestler . She is best known for her time in World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) and World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) .
As a fitness competitor , Wilson won the Miss Galaxy competition in 1999 . Shortly after , she was signed by World Championship Wrestling , where she stayed from 1999 until 2001 ( when it was purchased by WWE ) . In 2001 , she began appearing on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) television as part of The Invasion ( by WCW , of the [ then- ] WWF ) storyline . Her most high profile storyline took place in 2003 when she feuded with Dawn Marie . Wilson has also been a part of the all @-@ female stable ( i.e. , a group of storyline @-@ associated characters ) , known as Vince 's Devils , which ended its run in 2006 .
Aside from pro wrestling , Wilson has been on the cover of several magazines , including FHM and Playboy ( for which she posed twice ) .
= = Early life = =
Wilson was born in Boise , Idaho . She claims that while growing up she was painfully shy as a child . Wilson found her niche in many school activities , including cheerleading , dance , and was very competitive in track and field .
During her sophomore year of high school , after Wilson 's interest in modeling grew more serious , her mother urged her to pursue it . They visited an agency and were informed that Wilson would have to lose weight to be considered for jobs . In the process of losing weight , she began a bout with anorexia nervosa and then bulimia that lasted from ages 14 @-@ to @-@ 20 .
After recovering from the disorder , Wilson became involved in fitness . She began eating six meals a day and working out . She placed third in her first competition , and she later won the
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nessy reportedly drew inspiration for his strategy from the Panzer tactics of Wehrmacht general Heinz Guderian .
Most sportswriters , unfamiliar with the T formation , called it the " Shaughnessy Formation " or " Shaughnessy 's new razzle @-@ dazzle attacks . " Bill Reiser of the San Francisco Chronicle referred to it correctly when he wrote :
" No one knows for sure what kind of football the Indians will play from this new T @-@ Formation ... They start from the Notre Dame T and then stop looking like Notre Dame because they don 't shift at all and never do get into the famous box formation . The man @-@ in @-@ motion may stop anywhere on the field . He changes the formation . [ Quarterback Frankie ] Albert parks himself right behind the center and takes the ball directly from his hands on nearly all plays . It 's football unlike any previously played on the Coast . "
= = = = 1940 season = = = =
The team conducted intense preparations during the spring and fall practices before the 1940 season . On one occasion , Stanford athletic director Al Masters angrily complained that the maintenance department had left on the practice field lights , only to be told that the team was still practicing . In one scrimmage , the varsity offense managed only a single touchdown against the freshman team , which prompted Shaughnessy to secretly draft a single @-@ wing playbook in the event that the T formation failed .
The 1940 season opened with Stanford facing the University of San Francisco Dons at Kezar Stadium as part of the first @-@ ever major college football doubleheader . It also featured Santa Clara and Utah , but despite its unusual nature , the event was overshadowed by a concurrent game deemed much more significant between California and Michigan in nearby Berkeley . After Santa Clara defeated Utah , 34 – 14 , the Stanford game began at 3 : 30 p.m. It started off sloppily , and the Indians failed to advance the ball in their first two possessions . In their third series , however , Albert connected with an uncovered receiver , Hugh Gallarneau , for a 17 @-@ yard pass . Fullback Norm Standlee then rushed for 20 yards . Halfback Pete Kmetovic ran untouched up the middle for the game 's first touchdown . Stanford went on to win , 27 – 0 , and outgained San Francisco by a margin of 247 yards to eight . After the game , San Francisco head coach George Malley said , " We were baffled , naturally , by all that running around in the backfield . " After the game , convinced that the T formation worked , Shaughnessy discarded the single @-@ wing playbook he had drafted .
The following week , Stanford defeated Oregon , 13 – 0 . The Indians then beat Santa Clara , 7 – 6 , which was the Broncos ' only loss of the season . Stanford rallied to beat 19th @-@ ranked Washington State , 24 – 13 . A week later , the Indians defeated their fifth unbeaten opponent , 17th @-@ ranked Southern California , 21 – 7 . They continued on to beat UCLA , 20 – 14 ; 11th @-@ ranked Washington , 20 – 10 ; 19th @-@ ranked Oregon State , 28 – 14 ; and California , 13 – 7 . Stanford , with a perfect 9 – 0 record , secured the Pacific Coast Conference championship and an invitation to the 1941 Rose Bowl , where they faced seventh @-@ ranked Nebraska . The Indians won , 21 – 13 , with the final score coming on a 39 @-@ yard punt return by Kmetovic .
Before the Rose Bowl , Shaughnessy lent help to his old associate George Halas of the Chicago Bears , which in Sid Luckman , had found a quarterback well suited to the T formation . Before the NFL Championship Game against the Washington Redskins , Shaughnessy devised a series of counter plays to confuse their opponent , which on game film had shown a tendency to shift linebackers in the direction of the motion man . His preparations helped Chicago rout Washington , 73 – 0 .
At the end of the season , the Poling System named Stanford the national champions , and in later years , the Billingsley Report and Helms Athletic Foundation did likewise retroactively . Shaughnessy was voted the Scripps @-@ Howard Coach of the Year by a wide margin , and Albert and Gallarneau were named to All @-@ America first teams . The media nicknamed the 1940 squad the " Wow Boys " , a play on their impressive feats and the earlier Stanford " Vow Boys " , which were named for Tiny Thornhill 's promise to never lose to Southern California .
Stanford 's and the Chicago Bears ' unexpected success with the modern T formation prompted coaches around the nation to adopt it . Shaughnessy and Halas taught coaching clinics , and Bears quarterback Sid Luckman installed the formation at his alma mater , Columbia . Luckman also helped implement the T on national championship teams at both Army and Notre Dame . By 1944 , more than half of the country 's football teams at the collegiate and professional level were using the T. In 1949 , the Pittsburgh Steelers were the only NFL team still using the single @-@ wing . The T formation led to numerous derivatives , many of which remain in use today , including the power I , pro set , veer , wishbone , split T , wing T , and West Coast offense .
= = = = 1941 season = = = =
Shaughnessy made the " pessimistic " prediction of at least two losses for his 1941 squad , which lost Gallarneau and Standlee to graduation . His forecast proved accurate , as injuries took their toll , and the team lost to Oregon State , Washington State , and California to finish with a 6 – 3 record . After the Indians fell in their penultimate game , Stanford , Washington , and Oregon State were tied for first @-@ place in the Pacific Coast Conference with two losses each . California 's upset win over Stanford , 16 – 0 , in the finale ensured that Oregon State received the Rose Bowl bid .
In February 1942 , Shaughnessy traveled to Yale University , which was considering three candidates for its vacant head coaching position . A month later , he said he was not interested in Yale , but that he might move to an unnamed Eastern school with little football tradition . Shaughnessy resigned in March 1942 to move to Maryland . A 1977 Sports Illustrated article reported that he decided to leave when he realized Stanford might discontinue its football program during World War II . He expressed disappointment about leaving , but believed the new job would provide a challenge . Maryland reportedly offered the same salary as Stanford , $ 9 @,@ 000 ( $ 130 @,@ 344 adjusted for inflation ) , and a position on its faculty .
= = = First stint at Maryland = = =
At Maryland , Shaughnessy served as the head football coach , athletic director , and director of physical education , under a " lifetime contract " . Shaughnessy introduced a red and white color scheme for the Maryland uniforms , which replaced the longstanding combination of black and gold . He installed the T formation , and mentored quarterback Tommy Mont , whom he compared favorably with Frankie Albert . He also praised Terrapins fullback Jack Wright and likened him to Norm Standlee . In 1942 , the Terrapins amassed a 7 – 2 record under Shaughnessy , and the Associated Press assessed it was a " pretty fair ball club " . Mont finished the season as one of the top three passers in the nation . After the season , Shaughnessy left Maryland for Pittsburgh , a move he later called , " the worst thing I ever did . "
= = = Pittsburgh = = =
In 1943 , Shaughnessy replaced Pittsburgh head coach Charles W. Bowser , who had applied for a commission in the United States Navy . The University of Pittsburgh had de @-@ emphasized football , a move with which Shaughnessy said he was in accordance . He also said he would not guarantee any number of wins as coach . During this time , Shaughnessy had to contend with the loss of players to the wartime draft . At Pittsburgh , his teams compiled a 10 – 17 record from 1943 to 1945 without a winning season . In 1943 , the National Safety Council honored him with an award for " developing and applying coaching methods that provide maximum protection for the players . "
In March 1944 , Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall hired Shaughnessy as an advisor , a position he held concurrently with his duties at Pittsburgh . He mentored new head coach Dudley DeGroot in the T formation , in which quarterback Sammy Baugh excelled . Pittsburgh , however , disapproved of his affiliation with the professional franchise .
= = = Second stint at Maryland = = =
In February 1946 , Shaughnessy accepted an offer to return to Maryland amidst mounting criticism at Pittsburgh , which included the threat of resignation from assistant coaches Charles Hartwig , Bobby Hoel and Stan Olenn . University of Maryland president Dr. H. C. Byrd , himself a former football coach , called Shaughnessy one of the top @-@ three coaches in the nation . Shaughnessy complained that he was not given a fair chance to succeed at Pittsburgh and that controversy over his role with the Redskins was without basis . The Pittsburgh athletic board had recommended Shaughnessy be retained as coach if he resigned from the Redskins , but he refused .
Shaughnessy said , " The funny part of it is that I gave Maryland the roughest deal I have ever given anyone in my life , and when Dr. [ Byrd ] offered me a chance to come back , I accepted . " Because of his repeated job changes , the Associated Press dubbed Shaugnessy " football 's man in motion " . At Maryland , he replaced Bear Bryant who had departed for Kentucky . Shaughnessy reintroduced his preferred red and white uniforms , which again replaced the black and gold scheme and remained the dominant colors until 1987 .
His return to Maryland was far less successful than his first stint . The Terrapins amassed a 3 – 6 record in 1946 . In November , he claimed a Washington Post story misquoted him as calling some of his ex @-@ servicemen players " bums " . The same article reported he would be fired at the end of the season . The Post ran another quote that Shaughnessy admitted was accurate : " There are some boys on this team who would have been fired a long time ago by another coach for their personal conduct . "
After the season , it was rumored that the Redskins were interested in promoting him to replace head coach Turk Edwards , but the franchise denied it and Shaughnessy would not comment on his plans . In January 1947 , he quit as Maryland coach , stating that he did not want to remain athletic director or resign from the Washington Redskins , both of which the school wanted . Shaughnessy said he would work full @-@ time for the Redskins for the remaining year on his contract , and might return to coach only college football at the end of his term , possibly with Maryland . President Byrd affirmed that Shaughnessy 's poor 1946 record was not related to his departure . He was replaced by split T proponent Jim Tatum .
= = = Los Angeles Rams = = =
In 1948 , Shaughnessy joined the Los Angeles Rams as a " technical advisor " to head coach Bob Snyder . In the preseason , owner Dan Reeves was so impressed with Shaughnessy that Reeves promoted him to head coach and fired Snyder . At Los Angeles , Shaughnessy developed the pro set that used a three wide receiver set . He made this change to capitalize on running back Elroy " Crazy Legs " Hirsch , whom he thought would make a better flanker . Los Angeles captured the Western Conference Championship in 1949 .
Reeves fired Shaughnessy after two seasons , because he had created " internal friction " . One source explained that Shaughnessy 's eccentricities and continuously expanding playbook had taken its toll on the players . He was replaced by assistant coach Joe Stydahar . Shaughnessy said , " Stydahar coach the Rams ? I could take a high school team and beat him . " Stydahar , however , led the Rams to the National Conference Championship that season , and the team set numerous NFL passing and scoring records .
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
In 1951 , Shaughnessy was rumored as a candidate for the vacant Washington Redskins head coaching job , but nothing came of it . From 1951 to 1962 , Shaughnessy served on the staff of the Chicago Bears as a technical advisor , vice president , and defensive specialist . Halas retained responsibility for the offense , including the Bears ' T formation . Ironically , Shaughnessy was tasked with developing a defense to counter the T formation . One of his solutions was the 5 – 3 – 3 defense , which left outside linebackers available to defend against end runs and passes in the flat .
In 1954 , Shaughnessy attended the Blue – Gray Game in Montgomery , Alabama , scouting specifically for flankers . Jacksonville State assistant Ray Wedgeworth told him the best receiver in the state was not playing in the game : Harlon Hill of Florence State Teachers ' College . Shaughnessy requested game film from Hill 's coach , and eventually , the Bears selected him with their 15th pick in the 1954 NFL Draft . That season , he was named the NEA NFL MVP .
In October 1961 , the Bears — utilizing Shaughnessy 's complex , shifting defensive alignments — stifled San Francisco 49ers coach Red Hickey 's new shotgun formation , 31 – 0 . Chicago had learned lessons against the Baltimore Colts who had attempted to use the shotgun the previous week . Shaughnessy explained his Chicago defensive scheme in November 1961 :
" We can adjust to fit three things . We have defenses to fit the [ offense ] we face , the personnel we face and the situation in the game . Bill George calls the basic overall defense . Then Fred Williams calls the defense for the rush men . Richie Petitbon calls the defense for the backs . All of these are real bright boys , and they do a great job . "
Shaughnessy mentored middle linebacker Bill George as the defensive play @-@ caller . Bears coach Abe Gibron likened George to having Shaughnessy himself on the field . Shaughnessy worked to counter the increasing use of the forward pass . He emphasized man @-@ to @-@ man coverage , dropped linebackers or defensive ends into pass coverage , and utilized blitzes from multiple directions — which had previously consisted mostly of just a middle linebacker .
Former Chicago Bears head coach Heartley " Hunk " Anderson gave a highly critical account of his interactions with Shaughnessy in Notre Dame , Chicago Bears , and Hunk Anderson . He described one incident , during a game against the Cleveland Browns , where Shaughnessy implored Anderson to call an " end run " . Anderson , thinking he noticed a vulnerability to exploit , asked which end run and which blocking assignments to use . Shaughnessy replied that any end run would do . Anderson asked in disgust for Shaughnessy to sit down and watch the rest of the game . He explained that the Bears had 28 different end runs to each side for each of the four backs , each of which had numerous blocking schemes . He added , " You just can 't say ' any end run ' ... You have to choose one . " Anderson also claimed Shaughnessy plagiarized plays from other coaches , renamed them , and claimed them as his own .
At the end of the 1962 season , Shaughnessy tendered his resignation with a year remaining on his contract . He expressed regret in his departure and admiration for Halas , but said that he felt it was time for a change .
= = = Hawaii = = =
Shaughnessy briefly returned to coaching in 1965 when he took over at Hawaii , where the football program was " in a moribund state " and " close to extinction " . Hawaii amassed a 1 – 8 – 1 record during Shaughnessy 's only season , but the Associated Press credited him with reviving the program . He was replaced by the school 's first full @-@ time coach , Phil Sarboe .
= = Personal life = =
In December 1917 , he married L. Mae , with whom he had one son and two daughters : Clark Shaughnessy , Jr . ; Janice Shaughnessy ; and Marcia Wilson . He met his wife in New Orleans while coaching at Tulane . A teetotaler , Shaughnessy held a negative opinion of both drinkers and smokers . Marchmont Schwartz noted , " When he said , ' Let 's go have a drink , ' he meant , ' Let 's go drink a milk shake ... He disappointed a lot of newspapermen that way . " Aside from his declared hobby as a football coach and experimenter , he enjoyed long @-@ distance driving . Shaughnessy preferred to devise plays late at night , between midnight and dawn , while his household slept . A 1977 Sports Illustrated article described him as an " ascetic " and his lifestyle as " Spartan " . It noted he would go to bed as early as 7 o 'clock , and wake up for work at three or four in the morning .
Shaughnessy did not take criticism well . In one incident , he demanded that a critical columnist leave a Northern California Football Writers ' Association meeting . During a 1945 press conference while coach at Pittsburgh , Shaughnessy responded to criticism that he had been too conservative in a 6 – 0 win over Temple and taken too many risks in a 39 – 9 loss to Notre Dame . He said , " You tell me what to do . Shall we play a conservative game — hold down the score and play to look good — or shall we gamble , depending on a freak chance to win but losing by a big score if we fail ? "
After he joined the Chicago Bears ' staff , sportswriter Roger Treat said , " I always looked upon Clark Shaughnessy as a conscientious idealist who might better have followed the trail of Father Flanagan of Boys Town . He may never be entirely happy in the jovial thuggery of pro football , where every man has a little assassin in him . " Illinois head coach Robert Zuppke said , " The world lost the greatest undertaker when Clark Shaughnessy decided on football coaching . "
Shaughnessy 's grandson is Grateful Dead drummer Bill Kreutzmann .
= = Later life = =
Shaughnessy retired to Santa Monica , California . On May 4 , 1970 , he was admitted to Santa Monica Hospital suffering from hypertension . He died there at the age of 78 on May 15 .
The College Football Hall of Fame inducted Shaughnessy in 1968 . Shaughnessy was a semifinalist in the 2010 Pro Football Hall of Fame class , but was not selected . Shaughnessy had been a finalist for induction in 1970 , 1975 , and 1976 , but fell short in the voting each time . He was inducted into the University of Minnesota " M " Club Hall of Fame in 2010 , the Tulane University Athletics Hall of Fame in 1977 , and the Stanford University Athletic Hall of Fame .
= = Published works = =
The Modern " T " Formation with Man @-@ in @-@ Motion , Clark Shaughnessy , Ralph Jones , and George Halas , Chicago , 1941 .
Football in War & Peace , Clark Shaughnessy , Clinton , SC : Jacobs Press , 1943 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = College football = = =
= Hurricane Barry ( 1983 ) =
Hurricane Barry was the fourth tropical depression , second hurricane and named storm of the inactive 1983 Atlantic hurricane season . Developing out of a tropical wave on August 23 , Barry quickly strengthened off the coast of Florida , reaching an initial peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , increased wind shear caused the storm to weaken to a tropical depression before making landfall near Melbourne , Florida , the next morning . Traveling almost due west , the storm regenerated and became a hurricane on August 28 . The storm made landfall on the northern Mexican coastline later that day at peak intensity . Rapid weakening followed shortly after and the storm dissipated the next day . The storm had only minor effects in the United States but destroyed hundreds of homes and left over 400 homeless in northern Mexico . Despite the damage , there were no reports of
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In 2000 , 244 ha of Cubzac 's land was farmland , representing 25 % of the total 987 ha .
= = History = =
The first traces of settlements in Cubzac date back to the Magdalenian epoch . Those were discovered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , with scrapers , chisels , nuclei , and harpoons found . Cut and polished axes , arrowheads , scrapers , awls and flint strikers , and a few fragments of pottery from the Neolithic epoch are plentiful in Cubzac , especially on the mound of the " Four Sons of Amon " . A very large bronze deposit for making weapons was found from the time of the Bronze and Iron Ages . The town was mentioned in the Roman epoch as a surveillance post . Already , crossing the river Dordogne was done at Cubzac . The town has been reconverted through the centuries . The territory was occupied from the 6th century BC by a Bituriges Vivisques tribe . The village was occupied in 1250 by Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester . The centre of Cubzac is built on a small hill that dominates the Dordogne valley .
The village has developed from the domain of Cupitius , a wealthy landowner of the Gallo @-@ Roman era , from which the name Cubzac derives .
= = = Ancient crossing methods = = =
The first ferries crossing the Dordogne were flat @-@ bottomed boats driven by oars or keelboats driven by a sail . The passage was very risky and accidents occurred , especially during high tides and storms . From 1754 , a cable ferry crossed the 550 m wide river . The cable lay above the waters and stretched obliquely to the current . In 1821 , the cable ferry was replaced by a two @-@ part ferry powered by a carousel of twelve horses . The horses set in motion gears which in turn powered a large paddle wheel . In good weather , the crossing time was improved to 30 – 45 minutes , but in bad weather the trip remained uncertain .
The decision to establish a bridge in Cubzac is taken by Napoleon Bonaparte on 30 January 1812 and February 3 , 1813 . The bridge was originally to be completed in 1820 . However , Cubzac 's first bridge was a suspension bridge for which construction works started in 1834 , under Louis @-@ Philippe I. Works lasted four years , and public inauguration occurred on August 17 , 1839 by the Duc and Duchesse of Orleans . The bridge had cost an estimated 3 million gold francs , was 545 m long and had 5 bays . Shortly after its construction , the pillars sank about one metre . During its 30 years of existence , it withstood storms despite the large amplitude oscillations caused . However , on March 2 , 1869 a large storm , causing oscillations of more than two metres , partially destroyed the bridge and rendered it useless . Ancient methods to cross the Dordogne where reinstated . At first , barges and steamboats were used . Then , starting from October 1870 , a large steam tub was used , measuring 21 m by 13 m . To cover the expensive construction costs , a toll was levied for the first 27 years .
= = Current bridges = =
= = = Eiffel bridge = = =
When the suspension bridge fell in 1869 , the idea of a new bridge was discussed at length . The initial project dates from 1875 , which proposed that the new bridge had accompanying rail tracks , and that it be built on the remaining foundations of the suspension bridge , using scaffolding . Actually , given the height of the bridge and the river 's depth and current , scaffolding is almost technically impossible to implement . In the final project from 1878 , a jetting alternative was offered , despite very few companies mastering the technique at the time . The problem of fitting rail tracks , which was later abandoned , delayed the project .
In 1873 , masonry works had started on the right bank . In 1879 , Gustave Eiffel , who had waited more than ten years for a positive response to his project , took in hand the large undertaking in Cubzac , which finished in 1883 . The Cubzac bridge is the most important roadwork by the Eiffel company . It necessitated 3284 tonnes of metal , measures 552 m , and is divided in eight bays . The parapet consists of iron braces rather than solid walls , alleviating the structure . The company manufacturing the iron pieces later provided those used for the Eiffel Tower .
As the Allies landed in Normandy , the German troupes , in their escape , partially destroyed the Eiffel bridge using explosives . Starting from August 21 , 1944 , all traffic on the bridge was restricted for the retirement of the German troupes . On 28 August 1944 , as the last soldiers passed , German engineers arrived in bicycles and fitted explosives which detonated at 9 : 20pm . Three of the eight bays had fallen in the waters and the North abutment was seriously damaged . The delicate repair works where operated by the company Anciens Ets Eiffel with the help of the Entreprise Générale Industrielle du Sud @-@ Ouest , which coincidentally was directed by Jacques Eiffel , the grand son of Gustave Eiffel . For this reason , the bridge is sometimes called " the twice Eiffel bridge " .
The bridge is now part of the Route nationale 10 which runs between Hendaye and Paris . Both viaducts to the bridge date from 1839 and each measures approximately 250 m . Over time , large settlements occurred , causing serious disturbances in the masonry and requiring the replacement of many vaults in 1880 , 1903 and 1934 .
= = = Railway bridge = = =
The rail bridge was constructed by Lebrun , Dayde and Pile by the compagnie Deyle et Pillet . Its style resembles that of the adjacent Eiffel bridge . It was commissioned by the Chemins de Fer de l 'État for the Chartres @-@ Bordeaux line , and the construction lasted from 1884 to 1885 . Inaugurated in 1886 , it is 561 @,@ 60 m long above the Dordogne are divided in eight bays . The rails are 21 @.@ 80 m above the highest waters . The bridge is made of iron pillars fitted in braces . Despite being younger than the Eiffel bridge , the construction necessitated more funds and effort . The constructions hidden under water and earth make up the bulk of the value and volume of materials used . Foundations only total to 57 @,@ 800 cubic meters . Even though less damaged than the Eiffel bridge , it also sustained damage from German bombing on the same day . The reconstruction works ended June 15 , 1946 , taking less than two years to complete .
= = = Motorway bridge = = =
In 1957 it was decided to study the implementation of a bridge to relieve the old Eiffel bridge which allowed only one lane per direction , and cutback on traffic jams . From 1957 to 1963 various solutions where studies . In 1971 the construction works were tendered and given to the company Campenon @-@ Bernard @-@ Europe . The works should have lasted only two years but where completed in 1974 . The new motorway bridge made of reinforced concrete , having relieved the traffic jams , was celebrated on radio , and by the song " Ne partez pas en vacances , ne partez pas ! " ( Do not , do not go on holiday ! ) by Pierre Perret . In 2000 , the bridge was doubled to 2x3 lanes .
= = Sights = =
= = = Saint @-@ Julien church = = =
The Saint @-@ Julien church is named after Julian the Hospitaller , patron of Cubzac . Julian is a legendary saint destined to kill his parents , and informed about his destiny by a stag . He fled to escape his fate , but the prophecy realized nonetheless , and he became a hermit , helping people cross a river . One day , the Christ arrived to announce his pardon . From the Middle Ages to the French Revolution , the town would have been called Saint @-@ Julien @-@ de @-@ Cubzac . The church is made of limestone and underwent important modifications in the 19th century , when in particular the steeple was rebuilt . The façade , however , still contains Roman remains . The church holds an 18th @-@ century painting of the Baptism of Christ , classified Monument historique in 1913 . The church is surrounded by a cemetery which was excavated in August 1978 by archaeologists under the direction of Richard Boudet . Coins dating from the time of Francis I , Henry III , Henry IV , Louis XIII , Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel were uncovered . A gold Merovingian signet ring bearing the Christian symbol Ichthys was also discovered under many potsherds .
= = = Four Sons of Amon castle = = =
At Cubzac , on the high rocky shoreline overlooking the Dordogne , and in the town centre , are the ruins of the castle " des Quatre fils Aymon " within ordinary houses . The entrance of the fortress is flanked by the remains of two towers . These few stones are however extraordinarily rich in history and legend . First off , the castle did not belong to the four sons of Aymon who lived , perhaps , the time of Charlemagne . It was built and rebuilt in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries . It was the seat of the lordship of Cubzaguais . In 1206 , John Lackland , the king of England and youngest son of Eleanor of Aquitaine , took revenge of the king of France Philippe Auguste , who accused him of treason and deprived him of his fiefs , by engaging in miscellaneous abuses . He stormed the castle of Cubzac , and destroyed it . It is a brief English victory . The lordship returns to the French , and is attributed to Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , son of the terrible and bloody winner of the Albigensian Crusade . He built a new castle deemed impregnable , on behalf of the King of England , with double walls , and yet it is the one for which ruins remain . He was sacked by the Gascon barons revolted against Simon de Montfort . Half sacked , it served as a stately home , until moving to the lordship Bouih . The legions days that the two mediaeval castles have erected on the site of a building dating from the Carolingian period , which nothing remains . The Four Sons of Amon castle was registered as a historic monument in 1938 .
= = = Terrefort @-@ Quancard castle = = =
Positioned atop a hill dominating Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts and Saint @-@ André @-@ de @-@ Cubzac , the Terrefort @-@ Quancard castle is a wine property and family house . The main building is a limestone rectangular body of living area , covered with slate for the roof . The surrounding grape wines , most of which are Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot , span approximately 70 hectares of land . Various vestiges remain , including a wash for linen and horses , and a wind @-@ will for flour .
During its history spanning seven centuries , the castle was owned by a succession of seven families . One of the owners , the count Lafaurie of Monbadon , peer of France , was a catalyst to the construction of the Eiffel bridge . In March 1891 , the Quancard brothers Jean and Eugène bought the property for 110 000 francs , and the Quancard family remains the last owners . The purchase came after a severe phylloxera outbreak , causing the death of over half of French vineyards , devalued the property . The land area was covered mostly with rock until the Quancard brothers used explosives to remove it , and large amounts of clay @-@ limestone soil , known to be beneficial for the wine produce , was brought to replace it .
The Quancard family has played a role in the life and history of Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts . Firstly , Jean Quancard was elected by absolute majority as mayor of Cubzac on May 15 , 1892 and remained in office for 27 years . Also , a fair , organised annually from 1936 to 1939 for its success , supported restoration work for the Saint @-@ Julien steeple and provided financial help to the priest . Finally , the owners periodically host events , including expositions , family weddings and family reunions . The last family reunion , from May 2006 , saw approximately 200 members of the Quancard family .
= = = Wine caves = = =
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , the mound of Cubzac was slashed all around to provide stone for Bordeaux 's construction and the ballast of some river banks , creating deep excavations in the limestone . In 1898 , André Cousteau , uncle of the researcher and ecologist Jacques Cousteau , started using the caves to make a sparkling wine based on traditional Champagne @-@ making techniques . The wine , treated in a closed tank , bottled , and kept neck down many months at constant temperature , became bubbly and had its impurities accumulate near the cap . Once this deposit was removed , the bottles were resealed by force , and the corks muzzled . In 1920 , the Cousteau property was sold to the Société Anonyme Gay @-@ Mousse . In 1966 , the caves where entrusted to Monsieur Lateyron who , one year later , created the Café de Paris .
= = = Books = = =
Bardeau , Claude ( 1988 ) . Cubzac ... l 'ignorée . Bordeaux , France : self @-@ published .
Bardeau , Gérard ; Bardeau , Claude ( 1980 ) . Saint @-@ André @-@ de @-@ Cubzac notre pays. self @-@ published .
Cassagne , Jean @-@ Marie ; Korsak , Mariola ( 2001 ) . Origine des noms de villes et villages . Jean @-@ Michel Bordessoules. p . 92 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 913471 @-@ 40 @-@ 5 .
Carmona , Michel ( 2002 ) . Eiffel . Fayard. pp. 158 – 168 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 213 @-@ 61204 @-@ 1 .
Dufaure , Michel . Gironde terre occitane : le cadre géographique . Ostau Occitan. pp. 2 – 12 .
Reigniez , Pascal ( 2009 ) . Cubzac et le château des Quatre Fils Aymon . Indes savantes .
Quancard , Sylvette ( 2009 ) . Terrefort en Guyenne. self @-@ published .
= = = Web = = =
art @-@ et @-@ histoire.com. " Base d 'ouvrages en service ou construits au XIXème siècle en France " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
Centre d 'Études Technique de l 'Équipement du Sud @-@ Ouest . " RN 10 Pont de Saint @-@ André de Cubzac " ( PDF ) . Retrieved August 18 , 2010 .
Delvarre , Lionel . " Informations géographique sur Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
Direction générale de la prévention des risques . " Ma commune face au risque majeur " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
Google Maps . " Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts to Bordeaux " . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 .
Idrac , Francis ( 2006 @-@ 03 @-@ 22 ) . " Arrêté portant modification des limites d 'arrondissement dans le département de la Gironde " ( PDF ) . p . 48 . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
INSEE . " Fiche de la commune de Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
INSEE statistiques locales . " Exploitations agricoles " ( PDF ) . p . 16 . Retrieved August 17 , 2010 .
Mairie de Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts . " Site de la mairie de Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
Meynard , Christophe . " Le Cubzaguais , terre d 'estuaire " . Retrieved July 25 , 2010 .
Structurae . " Pont ferroviaire de Cubzac " . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 .
" Le patrimoine naturel de la Haute Gironde " . Retrieved August 15 , 2010 .
Réseau ferré de France . " LGV Sud Europe Atlantique > Les cartes " ( PDF ) . Retrieved August 18 , 2010 .
Patrimoine de France . " Tableau : Le baptême du Christ à Cubzac @-@ les @-@ Ponts " . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 .
" Cheval Quancard " . Retrieved September 14 , 2010 .
" Saint Julian Hospitaller " . Retrieved October 19 , 2010 .
= SM U @-@ 17 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 17 or U @-@ XVII was a U @-@ 10 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during World War I. U @-@ 17 was laid down in Germany in April 1915 and shipped in sections by rail to Pola in August , where she was assembled . She was delivered to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy at the end of September and commissioned in October 1915 .
U @-@ 17 primarily operated from Cattaro , patrolling off the Italian and Albanian coasts . The submarine had several opportunities to sink merchant ships and warships throughout the war , but sank only one Italian destroyer in July 1916 as part of an effort to disrupt the Otranto Barrage . At the end of the war , U @-@ 17 was undergoing repairs at Pola . She was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 17 was a small , coastal submarine that displaced 125 @.@ 5 long tons ( 127 @.@ 5 t ) surfaced and 140 @.@ 25 long tons ( 142 @.@ 50 t ) submerged . She featured a single shaft , a single 60 bhp ( 45 kW ) Daimler diesel engine for surface running , and a single 120 shp ( 89 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . U @-@ 17 was capable of up to 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) while surfaced and 5 @.@ 5 knots ( 10 @.@ 2 km / h ; 6 @.@ 3 mph ) while submerged at a diving depth of up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She was designed for a crew of 17 officers and men .
U @-@ 17 was equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . In October 1916 , U @-@ 17 's armament was supplemented with a 37 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun . This gun was replaced by a 47 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun in November 1917 .
U @-@ 17 was ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 1 April 1915 and laid down at AG Weser in Bremen later that month . When completed , the submarine was broken down into sections , loaded onto railcars , and shipped to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main base at Pola on 30 August . After completing the four @-@ day journey , the sections were riveted together . Though there is no specific mention of how long it took for U @-@ 17 's sections to be assembled , a sister boat , the German Type UB I submarine UB @-@ 3 , shipped to Pola from Germany in mid @-@ April 1915 , was assembled in about two weeks . U @-@ 17 was delivered to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 30 September .
= = Operational history = =
SM U @-@ 17 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 6 October under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Frank Skopinic . The boat patrolled the Italian coast out of Pola for most of the next two months , interrupted by engine repairs in mid November . On 9 December , Skopinic was succeeded as U @-@ 17 's commanding officer by Linienschiffsleutnant Zdenko Hudecek .
By the end of December , U @-@ 17 was operating from Cattaro and patrolling off the Albanian and Montenegrin coasts . Hudecek and U @-@ 17 made two unsuccessful attacks on enemy destroyers in January . On 23 February , Hudecek attempted an attack on a cargo ship off Durazzo , but was discovered and depth charged . Two days later the submarine put in to Cattaro to replace a broken gyrocompass with a new magnetic compass . In mid @-@ March , U @-@ 17 shifted to patrol off the Italian coast once again and was attacked by air on 15 March off Brindisi . The Italian patrols continued until late May , when U @-@ 17 was sent to patrol in the Ionian Sea . Duty in the Straits of Otranto followed in June , as part of the plan to disrupt the Otranto Barrage . On 12 June , the submarine attempted an attack on an Italian Orfeo @-@ class torpedo boat ; the torpedo boat survived and repaid U @-@ 17 by dropping several depth charges nearby . On 10 July , U @-@ 17 torpedoed and sank the 680 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 750 @-@ short @-@ ton ) Italian destroyer Impetuoso , The Italian ship had been guarding drifters , small fishing vessels with anti @-@ submarine nets stretched between them as part of the Otranto Barrage . Impetuoso was the only ship sunk by U @-@ 17 . The U @-@ boat continued patrols in the Adriatic throughout the remainder of 1916 . U @-@ 17 was depth charged by a destroyer off Fano on 14 September . Two days later , a failed attack on a steamer resulted in another depth charging of U @-@ 17 , this time by an Orfeo @-@ class torpedo boat . In early October , an air attack by two airplanes damaged U @-@ 17 .
The year 1917 was uneventful for U @-@ 17 . The submarine resumed patrols off Albania in January . In May , the U @-@ boat had to crash dive near Valona when a bomber appeared overhead and dropped its payload . A foray to Bari in July provided another opportunity to attack a steamer , but the torpedoes missed their mark . On 16 August , U @-@ 17 , by now under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Hermann Rigele , attempted a torpedo attack on a cargo ship off Saseno . At the end of October , U @-@ 17 escaped damage from a torpedo attack by an enemy submarine near Cape Menders , Albania . A month later , the submarine was once again attacked by air , surviving two bombs dropped from a single airplane .
In the first part of June 1918 , U @-@ 17 patrolled off the coast of Italy , but had returned to Cattaro on 12 June . Two weeks later , the boat set out for Pola to undergo repairs . At the end of the war , the ship 's repairs remained unfinished . U @-@ 17 , at Pola with six other Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , was ceded to Italy as a war reparation . U @-@ 17 was broken up at Pola by the Italians in 1920 .
= Mycena aurantiomarginata =
Mycena aurantiomarginata , commonly known as the golden @-@ edge bonnet , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae . First formally described in 1803 , it was given its current name in 1872 . Widely distributed , it is common in Europe and North America , and has also been collected in North Africa , Central America , and Japan . The fungus is saprobic , and produces fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) that grow on the floor of coniferous forests . The mushrooms have a bell @-@ shaped to conical cap up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , set atop a slender stipe up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long with yellow to orange hairs at the base . The fungus is named after its characteristic bright
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Most of those lords refused to accept Charles 's rule and proposed the crown to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia 's son and namesake , Wenceslaus , whose bride , Elisabeth , was Andrew III 's only daughter . Although Wenceslaus was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár , the legitimacy of his coronation was also questionable because John Hont @-@ Pázmány , Archbishop of Kalocsa , put the crown on Wenceslaus 's head , although customary law authorized the Archbishop of Esztergom to perform the ceremony .
After Wenceslaus 's coronation , Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csák 's domains in the southern regions of the kingdom . Pope Boniface sent his legate , Niccolo Boccasini , to Hungary . Boccasini convinced the majority of the Hungarian prelates to accept Charles 's reign . However , most Hungarian lords continued to oppose Charles because , according to the Illuminated Chronicle , they feared that " the free men of the kingdom should lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church " . Charles laid siege to Buda , the capital of the kingdom , in September 1302 , but Ivan Kőszegi relieved the siege . Charles 's charters show that he primarily stayed in the southern parts of the kingdom during the next years although he also visited Amadeus Aba in the fortress of Gönc .
Pope Boniface who regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See declared Charles the lawful king of Hungary on 31 May 1303 . He also threatened Wenceslaus with excommunication if he continued to style himself king of Hungary . Wenceslaus , left Hungary in summer 1304 , taking the Holy Crown with him . Charles met his cousin , Rudolph III of Austria , in Pressburg ( now Bratislava in Slovakia ) on 24 August . After signing an alliance , they jointly invaded Bohemia in the autumn . Wenceslaus who had succeeded his father in Bohemia renounced his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III , Duke of Bavaria on 9 October 1305 .
Otto was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1304 by Benedict Rád , Bishop of Veszprém , and Anton , Bishop of Csanád . He was never able to strengthen his position in Hungary , because only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons supported him . Charles seized Esztergom and many fortresses in the northern parts of Hungary ( now in Slovakia ) in 1306 . His partisans also occupied Buda in June 1307 . Ladislaus Kán , Voivode of Transylvania , seized and imprisoned Otto in Transylvania . An assembly of Charles 's partisans confirmed Charles 's claim to the throne on 10 October , but three powerful lords — Matthew Csák , Ladislaus Kán , and Ivan Kőszegi — were absent from the meeting . In 1308 , Ladislaus Kán released Otto , who then left Hungary . Otto never ceased styling himself King of Hungary , but he never returned to the country .
Pope Clement V sent a new papal legate , Gentile Partino da Montefiore , to Hungary . Montefiore arrived in the summer of 1308 . In the next few months , he persuaded the most powerful lords one by one to accept Charles 's rule . At the Diet , which was held in the Dominican monastery in Pest , Charles was unanimously proclaimed king on 27 November 1308 . The delegates sent by Matthew Csák and Ladislaus Kán were also present at the assembly .
= = Reign = =
= = = Wars against the oligarchs ( 1308 – 1323 ) = = =
The papal legate convoked the synod of the Hungarian prelates , who declared the monarch inviolable in December 1308 . They also urged Ladislaus Kán to hand over the Holy Crown to Charles . After Kán refused to do so , the legate consecrated a new crown for Charles . Thomas II , Archbishop of Esztergom crowned Charles king with the new crown in the Church of Our Lady in Buda on 15 or 16 June 1309 . However , most Hungarians regarded his second coronation invalid . The papal legate excommunicated Ladislaus Kán , who finally agreed to give the Holy Crown to Charles . On 27 August 1310 , Archbishop Thomas of Esztergom put the Holy Crown on Charles 's head in Székesfehérvár ; thus , Charles 's third coronation was performed in full accordance with customary law . However , his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom .
Matthew Csák laid siege Buda in June 1311 , and Ladislaus Kán declined to assist the king . Charles sent an army to invade Matthew Csák 's domains in September , but it achieved nothing . In the same year , Ugrin Csák died , enabling Charles to take possession of the deceased lord 's domains , which were situated between Požega in Slavonia and Temesvár ( present @-@ day Timișoara in Romania ) . The burghers of Kassa ( now Košice in Slovakia ) assassinated Amadeus Aba in September 1311 . Charles 's envoys arbitrated an agreement between Aba 's sons and the town , which also prescribed that the Abas withdraw from two counties and allow the noblemen inhabiting their domains to freely join Charles . However , the Abas soon entered into an alliance with Matthew Csák against the king . The united forces of the Abas and Matthew Csák besieged Kassa , but Charles routed them in the Battle of Rozgony ( now Rozhanovce in Slovakia ) on 15 June 1312 . Almost half of the noblemen who had served Amadeus Aba fought on Charles 's side in the battle . In July , Charles captured the Abas ' many fortresses in Abaúj , Torna and Sáros counties , including Füzér , Regéc , and Munkács ( now Mukacheve in Ukraine ) . Thereafter he waged war against Matthew Csák , capturing Nagyszombat ( now Trnava in Slovakia ) in 1313 and Visegrád in 1315 , but was unable to win a decisive victory .
Charles transferred his residence from Buda to Temesvár in early 1315 . Ladislaus Kán died in 1315 , but his sons did not yield to Charles . Charles launched a campaign against the Kőszegis in Transdanubia and Slavonia in the first half of 1316 . Local noblemen joined the royal troops , which contributed to the quick collapse of the Kőszegis ' rule in southern parts of their domains . Meanwhile , James Borsa made an alliance against Charles with Ladislaus Kán 's sons and other lords . They offered the crown to Andrew of Galicia . Charles 's troops , which were under the command of a former supporter of the Borsas , Dózsa Debreceni , defeated the rebels ' united troops at Debrecen at the end of June . In the next two months , many fortresses of Borsa and his allies fell to the royal troops in Bihar , Szolnok , Borsod and Kolozs counties . No primary source has made reference to Charles 's bravery or heroic acts , suggesting that he rarely fought in person in the battles and sieges . However , he had excellent strategic skills : it was always Charles who appointed the fortresses to be besieged .
Stefan Dragutin , who controlled the Szerémség , Macsó and other regions along the southern borders of Hungary , died in 1316 . Charles confirmed the right of Stefan Dragutin 's son , Vladislav , to succeed his father and declared Vladislav the lawful ruler of Serbia against Stefan Uroš II Milutin . However , Stefan Uroš II captured Vladislav and invaded the Szerémség . Charles launched a counter @-@ campaign across the river Száva and seized the fortress of Macsó . In May 1317 , Charles 's army suppressed the Abas ' revolt , seizing Ungvár and Nevicke Castle ( present @-@ day Uzhhorod and Nevytsky Castle in Ukraine ) from them . After that , Charles invaded Matthew Csák 's domains and captured Komárom ( now Komárno in Slovakia ) on 3 November 1317 . After his uncle , King Robert of Naples , granted the Principality of Salerno and the domain of Monte Sant 'Angelo to his brother ( Charles 's younger uncle ) , John , Charles protested and laid claim to those domains , previously held by his father .
After Charles neglected to reclaim Church property that Matthew Csák had seized by force , the prelates of the realm made an alliance in early 1318 against all who would jeopardize their interests . Upon their demand , Charles held a Diet in summer , but refused to confirm the Golden Bull of 1222 . Before the end of the year , the prelates made a complaint against Charles because he had taken possession of Church property . In 1319 , Charles fell so seriously ill that the pope authorized Charles 's confessor to absolve him from his all sins before he died , but Charles recovered . In the same year , Dózsa Debreceni , whom Charles had made voivode of Transylvania , launched successful expeditions against Ladislaus Kán 's sons and their allies , and Charles 's Judge royal , Alexander Köcski , seized the Kőszegis ' six fortresses . In summer , Charles launched an expedition against Stefan Uroš II Milutin , during which he retook Belgrade and restored tha Banate of Macsó . The last Diet during Charles 's reign was held in 1320 ; following that , he failed to convoke the yearly public judicial sessions , contravening the provisions of the Golden Bull .
Matthew Csák died on 21 March 1321 . The royal army invaded the deceased lord 's province , which soon disintegrated because most of his former castellans yielded without resistance . Charles personally led the siege of Csák 's former seat , Trencsén ( now Trenčín in Slovakia ) , which fell on 8 August . About three months later , Charles 's new voivode of Transylvania , Thomas Szécsényi , seized Csicsó ( present @-@ day Ciceu @-@ Corabia in Romania ) , the last fortress of Ladislaus Kán 's sons .
In January 1322 , two
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a red super @-@ devil and a fan @-@ made modern devil .
= = Rivalries = =
Belgium 's main football rivals are its neighbours the Netherlands and France , with which it shares close cultural and political relations . The matchup between the Belgian and Dutch team is known as the Low Countries derby ; as of June 2016 they have played each other in 125 official games . The clash between the Belgian and French sides is nicknamed le Match Sympathique in French ( " the Friendly Match " ) ; they have contested 73 official games as of June 2016 .
Belgium won the first four — unofficial — matches against the Netherlands , but lost their first FIFA @-@ recognised contest . The two national teams played each other biannually between 1905 and 1964 , except during the World Wars . They have met 18 times in major tournament campaigns , and have played at least 35 friendly cup matches : in Belgium for the Coupe Vanden Abeele , and in the Netherlands for the Rotterdamsch Nieuwsblad @-@ Beker . The overall balance favours the Netherlands , with 55 wins against 41 Belgian victories . The Low Countries ' squads co @-@ operated in fundraising initiatives between 1925 and 1941 ; they played five unofficial games for charity , FIFA and the Belgian Olympic Committee .
The first match between Belgium and France , the Évence Coppée Trophy played in 1904 , was the first official game for both teams and the first official football match between independent countries on the European continent . Until 1967 , the sides met almost annually . As of May 2016 , France has played most often against Belgium in international football . Belgium have the better record , with 30 wins to France 's 24 .
= = Management = =
Since 1904 , the RBFA , 23 permanent managers and two caretaker managers have officially been in charge of the national team ; this includes one national footballer selector . As of 15 July 2016 , a crew of over 20 RBFA employees guides the player group ; it has no head coach after the dismissal of Marc Wilmots . As of 15 July 2016 , Wilmots is statistically the best performing Belgium manager with an average of 2 @.@ 18 points per match . These results led to Belgium 's top FIFA ranking spot in 2015 , and earned him the title of Best Coach of the Year at the 2015 Globe Soccer Awards . Under Guy Thys , the squad achieved record results at World and European championships ; World Soccer magazine accordingly proclaimed him Manager of the Year in 1986 .
Rather than developing innovative team formations or styles of play , Belgium 's managers applied conventional tactics . At the three 1930s World Cups , the Red Devils were aligned in a contemporary 2 – 3 – 5 " pyramid " . In 1954 , Doug Livingstone 's squad played in a 3 – 2 – 5 " WM " arrangement during World Cup matches . Throughout most of their tournament games in the 1970s , the 1980s and the 1990s , the team played in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Since Raymond Goethals ' leadership in the 1970s , a key strength of the Belgian squad has been their systematic use of the offside trap , a defensive tactic that was already intensively applied in the 1960s by Anderlecht coach Pierre Sinibaldi . According to football journalist Wim De Bock , " master tactician " Goethals represented the " conservative , defensive football of the Belgian national team " ; he added that in the 1970s , the contrast between the Belgian playing style and the Total Football of their Dutch rivals " could not be bigger " .
In an attempt to win a game at the 1998 World Cup , Georges Leekens chose a 4 – 3 – 3 arrangement for Belgium 's second and third group matches . Robert Waseige , Belgium coach around 2000 , said that " above all , [ his ] 4 – 4 – 2 system [ was ] holy " , in the sense that he left good attackers on the bench to keep his favourite formation . Wilmots opted for the 4 – 3 – 3 line @-@ up again , with the intention of showing dominant football against any country .
= = Players = =
= = = Current = = =
The following 23 players were in the final squad for Euro 2016 . Note that Eden Hazard served as captain following Vincent Kompany 's injury , and that the RBFA listed all wingers as forwards .
Caps and goals are correct as of 1 July 2016 after the game against Wales ; only FIFA @-@ recognised matches are included . The player numbers for Euro 2016 were assigned on 31 May .
= = = Recent = = =
The following footballers were part of a national selection in the past 12 months , but are not part of the current squad .
Notes
INJ
= Not part of the current squad due to injury
WD =
Withdrew from this squad due to injury
PRE = Preliminary squad / standby
= = = Notable = = =
Between 1904 and 1980 , mainly attacking Belgium players were recognised as talented footballers . In the team 's first decade , striker Robert De Veen was very productive with 26 goals in 23 international appearances . Richard Henshaw described Alphonse Six as " Belgium 's greatest player in the prewar period ... [ who ] was often called the most skillful forward outside Great Britain " . The key player of the victorious 1920 Olympic squad was Robert Coppée , who scored a hat @-@ trick against Spain 's Ricardo Zamora , and the penalty in the final . Other outstanding Belgian strikers in the interwar period were top scorer Bernard Voorhoof and " Belgium 's football grandmaster " Raymond Braine , considered " one of the greatest players of the era " .
Gifted players in the 1940s and the 1950s included centre @-@ back Louis Carré and attackers Jef Mermans , Pol Anoul and Rik Coppens ; at the 1954 World Cup , Anoul shone with three goals , and newspaper L 'Équipe named Coppens the event 's best centre forward . The 1960s and the early 1970s were the glory days of forward and four @-@ time Belgian Golden Shoe Paul Van Himst , later elected Belgian UEFA Golden Player of 1954 – 2003 and Belgium 's Player of the Century by IFFHS . At the 1965 Ballon d 'Or , Van Himst ranked fourth , achieving Belgium 's highest ever position at the European football election . Decades after Coppens and Van Himst had retired from playing football , a journalist on a Flemish television show asked them " Who [ from both of you ] was the best , actually ? " . Coppens replied : " I will ask Paul that ... If Paul says it was me , then he 's right " . In 1966 , striker Raoul Lambert and defending midfielder Wilfried Van Moer joined the national team ; while the UEFA praised Lambert for his skills at Euro 1972 , Van Moer won three Golden Shoes and equalled Van Himst 's fourth rank at the Ballon d 'Or in 1980 .
Belgium has seen two talented waves since 1980 , from which several players in defensive positions gained international fame . In the 1980s and the early 1990s , goalkeepers Jean @-@ Marie Pfaff and Michel Preud 'homme were elected best custodians at FIFA World Cups , while FIFA recognised midfielders Jan Ceulemans and Enzo Scifo as the propelling forces of Belgium 's 1986 FIFA World Cup squad . In 2002 , after all players of this generation had retired , Marc Wilmots became Belgium 's top scorer at the World Cup with five goals .
During the 12 years in which Belgium failed to qualify for major tournaments , another golden generation matured , most of whom later featured in foreign top football leagues ; as of July 2013 , 12 Belgian national team players would play the next season in the English Premier League . Five players of this generation gained both prime individual and team awards in foreign top competitions or European club competitions : defenders Vincent Kompany and Jan Vertonghen , wingers Eden Hazard and Kevin De Bruyne , and forward Kevin Mirallas . However , as of July 2016 none of them were regarded by FIFA or UEFA to be the best at their position in any major international tournament yet .
= = Competitive record = =
= = = FIFA World Cup = = =
Belgium failed to progress past the first round of their earliest five World Cup participations . After two scoreless defeats at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 , the team scored in their first @-@ round knockout games in the 1934 and 1938 editions — but only enough to save their honour . In 1954 , they tied with England ( 4 – 4 after extra time ) , and in 1970 , they won their first World Cup match against El Salvador ( 3 – 0 ) . From 1982 until 2002 , Belgium reached six successive World Cups by playing qualification rounds , advancing to the second phase five times . In the 1982 FIFA World Cup opener , Belgium beat defending champions Argentina 1 – 0 . Their tournament ended in the second group stage , after a Polish hat @-@ trick by Zbigniew Boniek and a 0 – 1 loss against the Soviet Union .
At Mexico 1986 , the Belgian team achieved their best @-@ ever World Cup run . In the knockout phase as underdogs they beat the Soviets after extra time ( 3 – 4 ) ; the unnoticed offside position of Jan Ceulemans , during the initial ninety minutes , allowed him to equalise ( 2 – 2 ) and force the game into extra time . They also beat Spain , in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 draw , but lost to eventual champions Argentina in the semi @-@ final 2 – 0 , and France in the third @-
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0 marks ( worth about 11 @,@ 000 euros in terms of purchasing power today ) . After the declaration of war against Russia , eleven " Russian " players ( Alekhine , Efim Bogoljubov , Fedor Bogatyrchuk , Alexander Flamberg , N. Koppelman , Boris Maliutin , Ilya Rabinovich , Peter Romanovsky , Pyotr Saburov , Alexey Selezniev , and Samuil Weinstein ) were interned in Rastatt , Germany . On September 14 , 17 , and 29 , 1914 , four of them ( Alekhine , Bogatyrchuk , Saburov , and Koppelman ) were freed and allowed to return home . Alekhine made his way back to Russia ( via Switzerland , Italy , London , Sweden , and Finland ) by the end of October 1914 . A fifth player , Romanovsky , was released in 1915 , and a sixth , Flamberg , was allowed to return to Warsaw in 1916 .
When Alekhine returned to Russia , he helped raise money to aid the Russian chess players who remained interned in Germany by giving simultaneous exhibitions . In December 1915 , he won the Moscow Chess Club Championship . In April 1916 , he won a mini @-@ match against Alexander Evensohn with two wins and one loss at Kiev , and in summer he served in the Union of Cities ( Red Cross ) on the Austrian front . In September , he played five people in a blindfold display at a Russian military hospital at Tarnopol . In 1918 , he won a " triangular tournament " in Moscow . In June of the following year , after the Russians forced the German army to retreat from Ukraine , Alekhine was charged with links with White counter @-@ intelligence and was briefly imprisoned in Odessa 's death cell by the Odessa Cheka . Rumors appeared in the West that he had been killed by the Bolsheviks .
= = = = 1920 – 27 = = = =
When conditions in Russia became more settled , Alekhine proved he was among Russia 's strongest players . For example , in January 1920 , he swept the Moscow City Chess Championship ( 11 / 11 ) , but was not declared Moscow Champion because he was not a resident of the city . Also in October 1920 , he won the All @-@ Russian Championship in Moscow ( + 9 − 0 = 6 ) ; this tournament was retroactively defined as the first USSR Championship . His brother Alexei took third place in the tournament for amateurs .
In March 1920 , Alekhine married Alexandra Batayeva . They divorced the next year . For a short time in 1920 – 21 , he worked as an interpreter for the Communist International ( Comintern ) and was appointed secretary to the Education Department . In this capacity , he met a Swiss journalist and Comintern delegate , Anneliese Rüegg , who was thirteen years older than he was , and they married on March 15 , 1921 . Shortly after , Alekhine was given permission to leave Russia for a visit to the West with his wife , from which he never returned . In June 1921 , he abandoned his second wife in Paris and went to Berlin .
In 1921 – 23 , Alekhine played seven mini @-@ matches . In 1921 , he won against Nikolay Grigoriev ( + 2 − 0 = 5 ) in Moscow , drew with Richard Teichmann ( + 2 − 2 = 2 ) and won against Friedrich Sämisch ( + 2 − 0 = 0 ) , both in Berlin . In 1922 , he won against Ossip Bernstein ( + 1 − 0 = 1 ) and Arnold Aurbach ( + 1 − 0 = 1 ) , both in Paris , and Manuel Golmayo ( + 1 − 0 = 1 ) in Madrid . In 1923 , he won against André Muffang ( + 2 − 0 = 0 ) in Paris .
From 1921 to 1927 , Alekhine won or shared first prize in about two @-@ thirds of the many tournaments in which he played . His least successful efforts were a tie for third place at Vienna 1922 behind Akiba Rubinstein and Richard Réti , and third place at the New York 1924 chess tournament behind ex @-@ champion Emanuel Lasker and world champion José Raúl Capablanca ( but ahead of Frank Marshall , Richard Réti , Géza Maróczy , Efim Bogoljubov , Savielly Tartakower , Frederick Yates , Edward Lasker , and Dawid Janowski ) . Technically , Alekhine 's play was mostly better than his competitors ' — even Capablanca 's — but he lacked confidence when playing his major rivals .
Alekhine 's main goal throughout this period was to arrange a match with Capablanca . He thought the greatest obstacle was not Capablanca 's play , but the requirement under the 1922 " London rules " ( at Capablanca 's insistence ) that the challenger raise a purse of US $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to about $ 391 @,@ 000 in 2006 ) , of which the defending champion would receive over half even if defeated . Alekhine in November 1921 and Rubinstein and Nimzowitsch in 1923 challenged Capablanca , but were unable to raise the $ 10 @,@ 000 . Raising the money was Alekhine 's preliminary objective ; he even went on tour , playing simultaneous exhibitions for modest fees day after day . In New York on April 27 , 1924 , he broke the world record for simultaneous blindfold play when he played twenty @-@ six opponents ( the previous record was twenty @-@ five , set by Gyula Breyer ) , winning sixteen games , losing five , and drawing five after twelve hours of play . He broke his own world record on February 1 , 1925 by playing twenty @-@ eight games blindfold simultaneously in Paris , winning twenty @-@ two , drawing three , and losing three .
In 1924 , he applied for the first time for a residence privilege in France and for French citizenship while pursuing his studies in the Sorbonne Faculty of Law to obtain a PhD . Although sources differ about whether he completed his studies there , he was known as " Dr. Alekhine " in the 1930s . His thesis was on the Chinese prison system . " He received a degree in law in Saint Petersburg in 1914 but never practiced . "
His French citizenship application was postponed because of his frequent travels abroad to play chess and because he was reported once in April 1922 , shortly after his arrival in France , as a " bolshevist charged by the Soviets of a special mission in France " . Later in 1927 , the French Chess Federation asked the Ministry of Justice to intervene in Alekhine 's favor to have him lead the French team in the first Nation tournament to be held in London in July 1927 . Nevertheless , Alekhine had to wait for a new law on naturalization which was published on 10 August 1927 . The decree granting him French citizenship ( among hundreds of other citizens ) was signed on 5 November 1927 and published in the Official Gazette of the French Republic on 14 – 15 November 1927 , while Alekhine was playing Capablanca for the World title in Buenos Aires .
In October 1926 , Alekhine won in Buenos Aires . From December 1926 to January 1927 , he beat Max Euwe 5 ½ – 4 ½ in a match . In 1927 , he married his third wife , Nadiezda Vasiliev ( née Fabritzky ) , another older woman , the widow of the Russian general V. Vasiliev .
= = World Chess Champion , first reign ( 1927 – 35 ) = =
= = = 1927 title match = = =
In 1927 , Alekhine 's challenge to Capablanca was backed by a group of Argentine businessmen and the president of Argentina , who guaranteed the funds , and organized by the Club Argentino de Ajedrez ( Argentine Chess Club ) in Buenos Aires . In the World Chess Championship match played from September to November 1927 at Buenos Aires , Alekhine won the title , scoring + 6 − 3 = 25 . This was the longest formal World Championship match until the contest in 1984 between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov . Alekhine 's victory surprised almost the entire chess world , since he had never previously won a single game from Capablanca . After Capablanca 's death Alekhine expressed surprise at his own victory , since in 1927 he did not think he was superior to Capablanca , and he suggested that Capablanca had been overconfident . Capablanca entered the match with no technical or physical preparation , while Alekhine got himself into good physical condition and had thoroughly studied Capablanca 's play . According to Kasparov , Alekhine 's research uncovered many small inaccuracies , which occurred because Capablanca was unwilling to concentrate intensely . Vladimir Kramnik has commented that this was the first contest in which Capablanca had no easy wins .
= = = Rematch offered , never finalized = = =
Immediately after winning the match , Alekhine announced that he was willing to give Capablanca a return match , on the same terms that Capablanca had required as champion : the challenger must provide a stake of US $ 10 @,@ 000 , of which more than half would go to the defending champion even if he was defeated . Negotiations dragged on for several years , often breaking down when agreement seemed in sight . Their relationship became bitter , and Alekhine demanded much higher appearance fees for tournaments in which Capablanca also played . The rematch never took place . After Capablanca 's death in 1942 , Alekhine wrote that Capablanca 's demand for a $ 10 @,@ 000 stake had been an attempt to avoid challenges .
Grandmaster Robert Byrne wrote that Alekhine consciously sought lesser opponents for his subsequent championship matches , rather than give Capablanca another chance .
= = = Defeats Bogolyubov twice in title matches = = =
Although he never agreed terms for a rematch against Capablanca , Alekhine played two world title matches with Bogoljubov , an official " Challenger of FIDE " , in 1929 and 1934 , winning handily both times . The first was held at Wiesbaden , Heidelberg , Berlin , The Hague , and Amsterdam from September through November 1929 . Alekhine retained his title , scoring + 11 − 5 = 9 . From April to June 1934 , Alekhine faced Bogoljubov again in a title match held in twelve German cities , defeating him by five games ( + 8 − 3 = 15 ) . In 1929 , Bogoljubov was forty years old and perhaps already past his peak .
= = = Anti @-@ Bolshevik statements , controversy = = =
After the world championship match , Alekhine returned to Paris and spoke against Bolshevism . Afterwards , Nikolai Krylenko , president of the Soviet Chess Federation , published an official memorandum stating that Alekhine should be regarded as an enemy of the Soviets . The Soviet Chess Federation broke all contact with Alekhine until the end of the 1930s . His older brother Alexei , with whom Alexander Alekhine had had a very close relationship , publicly repudiated him and his anti @-@ Soviet utterances shortly after , but Alexei may have had little choice about this decision . In August 1939 , Alexei was murdered in Russia , probably due to his open support of the Nazis .
= = = Dominates rivals = = =
Alexander Alekhine dominated chess into the mid @-@ 1930s . His most famous tournament victories were at the San Remo 1930 chess tournament ( + 13 = 2 , 3 ½ points ahead of Nimzowitsch ) and the Bled 1931 chess tournament ( + 15 = 11 , 5 ½ points ahead of Bogoljubov ) . He won most of his other tournaments outright , shared first place in two , and the first tournament in which he placed lower than first was Hastings 1933 – 34 ( shared second place , ½ point behind Salo Flohr ) . In 1933 , Alekhine also swept an exhibition match against Rafael Cintron in San Juan ( + 4 − 0 = 0 ) , but only managed to draw another match with Ossip Bernstein in Paris ( + 1 − 1 = 2 ) .
From 1930 to 1935 , Alekhine played first board for France at four Chess Olympiads , winning the first brilliancy prize at Hamburg in 1930 , gold medals for board one at Prague in 1931 and Folkestone in 1933 , and the silver medal for board one at Warsaw in 1935 . His loss to Latvian master Hermanis Matisons at Prague in 1931 was his first loss in a serious chess event since winning the world championship .
In the early 1930s , Alekhine travelled the world giving simultaneous exhibitions , including Hawaii , Tokyo , Manila , Singapore , Shanghai , Hong Kong , and the Dutch East Indies . In July 1933 , he played thirty @-@ two people blindfold simultaneously ( a new world record ) in Chicago , winning nineteen , drawing nine and losing four games .
In 1934 Alekhine married his fourth wife , Grace Freeman ( née Wishaar ) , sixteen years his senior . She was the American @-@ born widow of a British tea @-@ planter in Ceylon , who retained her British citizenship to the end of her life and remained Alekhine 's wife until his death .
About 1933 Reuben Fine noticed that Alekhine was drinking increasing amounts of alcohol . Hans Kmoch wrote that Alekhine first drank heavily during the tournament at Bled in 1931 , and drank heavily through the 1934 match with Bogoljubov .
= = Loss of the World title ( 1935 – 37 ) = =
In 1933 , Alekhine challenged Max Euwe to a championship match . Euwe , in the early 1930s , was regarded as one of three credible challengers ( the others were José Raúl Capablanca and Salo Flohr ) . Euwe accepted the challenge for October 1935 . Earlier that year , Dutch radio sports journalist Han Hollander asked Capablanca for his views on the forthcoming match . In the rare archival film footage where Capablanca and Euwe both speak , Capablanca replies : " Dr. Alekhine 's game is 20 % bluff . Dr. Euwe 's game is clear and straightforward . Dr. Euwe 's game — not so strong as Alekhine 's in some respects — is more evenly balanced . " Then Euwe gives his assessment in Dutch , explaining that his feelings alternated from optimism to pessimism , but in the previous ten years , their score had been evenly matched at 7 – 7 .
On October 3 , 1935 the world championship match began in Zandvoort , the Netherlands . Although Alekhine took an early lead , from game thirteen onwards Euwe won twice as many games as Alekhine . The challenger became the new champion on December 15 , 1935 with nine wins , thirteen draws , and eight losses . This was the first world championship match that officially had seconds : Alekhine had the services of Salo Landau , and Euwe had Géza Maróczy . Euwe 's win was a major upset . Kmoch wrote that Alekhine drank no alcohol for the first half the match , but later took a glass before most games . However , Salo Flohr , who also assisted Euwe , thought overconfidence caused more problems than alcohol did for Alekhine in this match , and Alekhine himself had previously said he would win easily . Later World Champions Vasily Smyslov , Boris Spassky , Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov analyzed the match for their own benefit and concluded that Euwe deserved to win and that the standard of play was worthy of a world championship .
According to Kmoch , Alekhine abstained from alcohol altogether for five years after the 1935 match . In the eighteen months after losing the title , Alekhine played in ten tournaments , with uneven results : tied for first with Paul Keres at Bad Nauheim in May 1936 ; first place at Dresden in June 1936 ; second to Flohr at Poděbrady in July 1936 ; sixth , behind Capablanca , Mikhail Botvinnik , Reuben Fine , Samuel Reshevsky , and Euwe at Nottingham in August 1936 ; third , behind Euwe and Fine , at Amsterdam in October 1936 ; tied for first with Salo Landau at Amsterdam ( Quadrangular ) , also in October 1936 ; in 1936 / 37 he won at the Hastings New Year tournament , ahead of Fine and Erich Eliskases ; first place at Nice ( Quadrangular ) in March 1937 ; third , behind Keres and Fine , at Margate in April 1937 ; tied for fourth with Keres , behind Flohr , Reshevsky and Vladimirs Petrovs , at Kemeri in June – July 1937 ; tied for second with Bogoljubow , behind Euwe , at Bad Nauheim ( Quadrangular ) in July 1937 .
= = World Chess Champion , second reign ( 1937 – 46 ) = =
= = = 1937 – 39 = = =
Max Euwe was quick to arrange a return match with Alekhine , something José Raúl Capablanca had been unable to obtain after Alekhine won the world title in 1927 . Alekhine regained the title from Euwe in December 1937 by a large margin ( + 10 − 4 = 11 ) . In this match , held in the Netherlands , Euwe was seconded by Fine , and Alekhine by Erich Eliskases . The match was a real contest initially , but Euwe collapsed near the end , losing four of the last five games . Fine attributed the collapse to nervous tension , possibly aggravated by Euwe 's attempts to maintain a calm appearance . Alekhine played no more title matches , and thus held the title until his death .
1938 began well for Alekhine , who won the Montevideo 1938 chess tournament at Carrasco ( in March ) and at Margate ( in April ) , and tied for first with Sir George Alan Thomas at Plymouth ( in September ) . In November , however , he only tied for 4th – 6th with Euwe and Samuel Reshevsky , behind Paul Keres , Reuben Fine , and Mikhail Botvinnik , ahead of Capablanca and Flohr , at the AVRO tournament in the Netherlands . This tournament was played in each of several Dutch cities for a few days at a time ; it was therefore perhaps not surprising that rising stars took the first three places , as the older players found the travel very tiring .
Immediately after the AVRO tournament , Botvinnik , who had finished in third place , challenged Alekhine to a match for the world championship . They agreed on a prize fund of US $ 10 @,@ 000 with two @-@ thirds going to the winner , and that if the match were to take place in Moscow , Alekhine would be invited at least three months in advance so that he could play in a tournament to get ready for the match . Other details had not been agreed when World War II interrupted negotiations , which the two players resumed after the war .
Keres , who had won the AVRO tournament on tiebreak over Fine , also challenged Alekhine to a world championship match . Negotiations were proceeding in 1939 when they were disrupted by World War II . During the war Keres ' home country , Estonia , was invaded first by the USSR , then by Germany , then again by the USSR . At the end of the war , the Soviet government prevented Keres from continuing the negotiations , on the grounds that he had collaborated with the Germans during their occupation of Estonia ( by Soviet standards ) .
Alekhine was representing France at first board in the 8th Chess Olympiad at Buenos Aires 1939 when World War II broke out in Europe . The assembly of all team captains , with leading roles played by Alekhine ( France ) , Savielly Tartakower ( Poland ) , and Albert Becker ( Germany ) , plus the president of the Argentine Chess Federation , Augusto de Muro , decided to go on with the Olympiad .
Alekhine won the individual silver medal ( nine wins , no losses , seven draws ) , behind Capablanca ( only results from finals A and B — separately for both sections — counted for best individual scores ) . Shortly after the Olympiad , Alekhine swept tournaments in Montevideo ( 7 / 7 ) and Caracas ( 10 / 10 ) .
At the end of August 1939 , both Alekhine and Capablanca wrote to Augusto de Muro regarding a possible world championship rematch . Whereas the former spoke of a rematch as a virtual certainty , even stating that the Cuban was remaining in Buenos Aires until it came about , the latter referred at length to the financial burden in the aftermath of the Olympiad . Supported by Latin @-@ American financial pledges , José R. Capablanca challenged Alexander Alekhine to a world title match in November . Tentative plans not , however , actually backed by a deposit of the required purse ( $ 10 @,@ 000 in gold ) , led to a virtual agreement to play at Buenos Aires , Argentina beginning April 14 , 1940 .
= = = World War II ( 1939 – 45 ) = = =
Unlike many participants in the 1939 Chess Olympiad , Alekhine returned to Europe in January 1940 . After a short stay in Portugal , he enlisted in the French army as a sanitation officer .
After the fall of France ( June 1940 ) , he fled to Marseille . Alekhine tried to go to America by traveling to Lisbon and applying for an American visa . In October 1940 , he sought permission to enter Cuba , promising to play a match with Capablanca . This request was denied . To protect his wife , Grace Alekhine and her French assets ( a castle at Saint Aubin @-@ le @-@ Cauf , near Dieppe , which the Nazis looted ) , he agreed to cooperate with the Nazis . Alekhine took part in chess tournaments in Munich , Salzburg , Kraków / Warsaw , and Prague , organised by Ehrhardt Post , the chief executive of the Nazi @-@ controlled Grossdeutscher Schachbund ( " Greater Germany Chess Federation " ) — Keres , Bogoljubov , Gösta Stoltz , and several other strong masters in Nazi @-@ occupied Europe also played in such events . In 1941 , he tied for second @-@ third with Erik Lundin in the Munich 1941 chess tournament ( Europaturnier in September , won by Stoltz ) , shared first with Paul Felix Schmidt at Kraków / Warsaw ( the 2nd General Government @-@ ch , in October ) and won in Madrid ( in December ) . The following year he won in the Salzburg 1942 chess tournament ( June 1942 ) and in Munich ( September 1942 ; the Nazis named this the Europameisterschaft , which means " European Championship " ) . Later in 1942 he won at Warsaw / Lublin / Kraków ( the 3rd GG @-@ ch ; October 1942 ) and tied for first with Klaus Junge in Prague ( Duras Jubileé ; December 1942 ) . In 1943 , he drew a mini @-@ match ( + 1 − 1 ) with Bogoljubov in Warsaw ( March 1943 ) , he won in Prague ( April 1943 ) and tied for first with Keres in Salzburg ( June 1943 ) .
By late 1943 , Alekhine was spending all his time in Spain and Portugal , as the German representative to chess events . This also allowed him to get away from the onrushing Soviet invasion into eastern Europe . In 1944 , he narrowly won a match
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Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
In the beginning of March 2011 , Arjona released a teaser for the video of " Marta " . > On 29 March 2011 , the entire music video was released on the iTunes Store , alongside the single release of the song . Mexican telenovela actress Edith González is featured on the music video . She commented that " what I had to do was heavy , more than daring , strong , I accepted because Arjona is of the stars on the musical market , whoever likes it or not . " Joaquín Cambre , who also directed the music videos for " Puente " and " Vida " , directed the music video for " Marta " .
The video starts showing Arjona watching through a window while Edith Gonzalez walks over the street to which the window is fronting . Then , the singer is shown singing while playing the song on a piano , interpolated with images of Gonzalez on a small flat . Moments after , a man is shown inside the flat alongside Gonzalez , as she is about to dance and have sex with him . After they had sex , the man puts some bills on the table and leaves the room . Then , Gonzalez is shown drinking wine before committing suicide inside the bathtub . As of 16 August 2012 , the video has reached 4 @.@ 1 million views on YouTube .
= = = Live performances and media appearances = = =
" Marta " was included on the film Poquita Ropa – Una Historia Apasionada , a compilation of the music videos for all of the songs on the album which primered on February 2011 by HBO . It was directed by Joaquín Cambre , and co @-@ starred Arjona , González , Edgar Vivar , Daniel Arenas , Mimi Morales , and Kenny . Jesús Grovas , HBO 's corporate communication manager for Mexico and Central America said that it was " a pleasure to have on screen the music of a songwriter like Ricardo Arjona , which is warranty of quality " . The film was also broadcast by A & E.
= = Trackslisting = =
Digital Download
" Marta " — 5 : 51
" Marta " ( music video ) — 5 : 51
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet .
= = Release history = =
= Hurricane Frank ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Frank was the last of three hurricanes in the 2010 Pacific hurricane season , which set a record low within modern day records for the basin . It formed from an area of thunderstorms from the Caribbean Sea , and became Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E on August 21 while located just south of the Mexican Coast . It moved northwest , and became Tropical Storm Frank only 12 hours after it was declared a depression . It strengthened to its initial peak as a moderate tropical storm , and weakened due to increasing wind shear late on the August 23 . It later recovered , and became a hurricane on August 25 . After peaking as a strong Category 1 hurricane , it rapidly weakened , and dissipated on August 28 . Although Frank never made landfall , it did impact western Mexico . A total of six people were killed with over 800 @,@ 000 people affected .
= = Meteorological history = =
Frank origins were difficult to track from a tropical wave from the west coast of Africa . A large area of thunderstorms formed near the Windward Islands . Atmosphere convection fluctuated as its associated tropical wave moved across the Caribbean Sea and a mid @-@ level circulation developed . Shower and thunderstorm activity increased as it crossed Central America , and a broad area of low pressure formed about 115 mi ( 185 km ) south of the Mexican coast on August 19 . The system was in a favorable environment , thus gradual development was anticipated . On August 21 , the atmospheric convection had become better organized , and it develop curved rainbands . On 1800 UTC August 21 , advisories were initiated on Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E while located roughly 205 mi ( 330 km ) southeast of Salina Cruz , Mexico .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the storm was located in a favorable environment with sea surface temperatures near 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and fairly weak wind shear . As such , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) anticipated the storm to reach minimal hurricane intensity . Due to weak steering currents , the depression drifted westbound . Initially there was no change in organization , but on August 22 , the cloud patterns improved . Based on estimates from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Frank on 1200 UTC August 22 . Although deep convection had weakened , the NHC re @-@ assessed the intensity at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) later that day . However , high levels of northeasterly wind shear caused the system to weaken slightly the next day , and by early August 24 , the NHC was no longer forecasting the storm to become a hurricane . Despite the shear , there was a burst of deep convection later that day and a gradual increase in organization . Microwave imagery at 0834 and 1714 UTC showed a closed ring of thunderstorm activity that resembled an eye and by early August 25 , the cyclone was just below hurricane intensity .
During the next six hours , Frank became much better organized with a large area of very deep convection near the center . Based on this , the NHC upgraded the system into a hurricane . Gradually intensifying , an eye became intermediately visible on infrared imagery and a persistent eye was visible via microwave imagery . On 1800 UTC , Frank reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) while located 350 mi ( 560 km ) south of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . While at peak intensity , satellite imagery showed a small but distinct eye surrounded by a central dense overcast , or a large area of thunderstorm activity . Moving west @-@ northwest , Frank began a weakening trend overnight as the eye became less defined . Continuing to weaken , Frank became less organized and its eye collapsed . On August 27 , the NHC downgraded Frank into a tropical storm , with poorly organized convection located west of the center due to strong wind shear . As such , the agency predicted the storm to weaken into a tropical depression within the next 36 hours . Frank rapidly lost all thunderstorm activity because of cooler water , and the storms intensity was reduced to a swirl of clouds while it turned towards the north due to a mid @-@ level trough . The cyclone weakened back into a tropical depression early on August 28 . Frank degenerated into a remnant low while located 230 mi ( 370 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . The remnant low dissipated early on August 29 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Although Frank never made landfall , it did come very close to the Mexican Riviera , and upon development , a tropical storm watch was issued for parts of the Mexican coast by the local government . On 1800 UTC August 22 , a tropical storm warning was issued . These watches and warnings were dropped on August 24 as the system moved away from the coast . The National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) in the high terrain of Mexico . These rains had the potential to produce life @-@ threatening flash floods and mudslides . Officials gave Frank a hazard rating of intense for the Mexican Pacific , and strong for Baja California Sur . In Guerrero , Michoacán , and Jalisco , alerts were issued due to the threat of torrential rainfall . Forecasters also noted the possibility of the storm affecting Sinaloa , with high waves being the main threat .
The maximum 24 ‑ hour rainfall total was 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Miguel de la Madrid , Oaxaca . In addition , seven other sites received more than 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rain in a 24 @-@ hour period . The storm also produced gusty conditions along the Mexican coast . In addition , a total of six deaths were reported . A total 30 homes were destroyed with 26 others damaged due to flooding . Two major roads were damaged with another road blocked due to a landslides . Several rivers overflowed their banks , thus causing 171 rural communities to be flooded in seven municipalities . In the state of Tabasco over 800 @,@ 000 people were affected . The city of Villahermosa received the worst flood since 2007 , and a total of 8 @,@ 500 people were victims of the storm . To prevent the situation from getting worse , residents piled up sandbags . In Oaxaca , four people were killed . A mudslide in the municipality of Totontepec Villa de Morelos caused two farmers to die . Another mudslide in Oaxaca caused six vehicles to drive off Federal Highway 182 , causing two more deaths . A total of 60 @,@ 000 people were homeless . Many communities were isolated as several bridges and roads were destroyed due to the heavy rainfall .
In the aftermath of the storm , the Mexican Army provided aid for the people affected . A total of 110 communities requested assistance from the government . By September 14 , an estimated 200 @,@ 000 food packages were distributed to the region . Damage repairs from Hurricane Frank totaled to 100 million pesos ( $ 8 @.@ 3 million USD ) .
= William Henry Sheppard =
William Henry Sheppard ( 1865 – 1927 ) was one of the earliest African Americans to become a missionary for the Presbyterian Church . He spent 20 years in Africa , primarily in and around the Congo Free State , and is best known for his efforts to publicize the atrocities committed against the Kuba and other Congolese peoples by King Leopold II 's Force Publique .
Sheppard 's efforts contributed to the contemporary debate on European colonialism and imperialism in the region , particularly amongst those of the African American community . However , it has been noted that he traditionally received little attention in literature on the subject .
= = Early life = =
Sheppard was born in Waynesboro , Virginia on March 8 , 1865 , to William Henry Sheppard , Sr. and Fannie Frances Sheppard ( née Martin ) , a free " dark mulatto " , a month before the end of the American Civil War . No records exist to confirm William Sr. ' s status as a slave or freedman , but it has been speculated that he may have been among the slaves forced to serve the Confederacy as Union troops marched upon the South . William Sr. was a barber , and the family has been described as the closest to middle class that blacks could have achieved given the time and place . At age twelve , William Jr. became a stable boy for a white family several miles away while continuing to attend school ; he remembered his two @-@ year stay fondly and maintained written correspondence with the family for many years . Sheppard next worked as a waiter to put himself through the newly created Hampton Institute , where Booker T. Washington was among his instructors in a program that allowed students to work during the day and attend classes at night . A significant influence on his appreciation for native cultures was the " Curiosity Room " , in which the school 's founder maintained a collection of Native Hawaiian and Native American works of art . Later in life he would collect artifacts from the Congo , specifically those of the Kuba , and bring them back for this room , as evidenced by his letters home , such as " [ i ] t was on the first of September , 1890 that William H. Sheppard addressed a letter to General Samuel Armstrong , Hampton , From Stanley Pool , Africa , that he had many artifacts , spears , idols , etc . , and he was ' ... saving them for the Curiosity Room at Hampton ' " .
After graduation , Sheppard was recommended to Tuscaloosa Theological Institute ( now Stillman College , which dedicated its library in Sheppard 's honor in 1959 ) in Alabama . He met Lucy Gantt near the end of his time there and the two became engaged , although they would not marry for ten years . Sheppard cultivated a desire to preach in Africa , but despite the support of Tuscaloosa founder Charles Stillman , the Southern Presbyterian Church had yet to establish its mission in the Congo . He was ordained in 1888 and served as pastor to a church in Atlanta , Georgia , but did not adapt well to the life of an urban black in a heavily segregated area of the Southern United States . After two years of writing to the Presbyterian Foreign Missionary Board in Baltimore , Maryland to inquire about starting a mission in Africa , he became frustrated by the vague rationale of the rejection letters and took a train to Baltimore to ask the chairman in person . The man politely informed Sheppard that the board would not send a black man without a white supervisor .
Samuel Lapsley , an eager but inexperienced white man from a wealthy family , finally enabled Sheppard 's journey to Africa . They " inaugurated the unique principle of sending out together , with equal ecclesiastical rights and , as far as possible , in equal numbers , white and colored workers " .
= = Mission with Lapsley = =
Sheppard and Lapsley 's activities in Africa were enabled by the very man whose atrocities Sheppard would later attempt to expose . The pair traveled to London in 1890 en route to the Congo ; while there , Lapsley met General Henry Shelton Sanford , an American ally of King Leopold II and friend of a friend of Lapsley 's father . Sanford promised to do " everything in his power " to help the pair , even arranging an audience with King Leopold when Lapsley visited him in Belgium . Neither the secular Sanford nor the Catholic Leopold were interested in the Presbyterians ' work ; the latter was eager to have them make inroads into his newly acquired territory , both to begin the process of " civilizing " the natives and to legitimize his rule . The missionaries were , however , oblivious of Leopold 's true motives .
The pair made their way to Leopoldville , and Sheppard 's own writings as well as Lapsley 's letters home suggest Sheppard viewed the natives in a markedly different manner from other foreigners . Sheppard was considered as foreign as Lapsley and even acquired the nickname " Mundele N 'dom " , or " black white man " . Despite being of African descent , Sheppard believed in many of the stereotypes of the time regarding Africa and its inhabitants , such as the idea that African natives were uncivilized or savage . Very quickly though his views changed , as exemplified by a journal entry :
I grew very found of the Bakuba and it was reciprocated . They were the finest looking race I had seen in Africa , dignified , graceful , courageous , honest , with an open smiling countenance really hospitable . Their knowledge of weaving , embroidering , wood @-@ carving and smelting was the highest equatorial Africa .
The natives ' resistance to conversion bothered Lapsley more than Sheppard , as Sheppard viewed himself more as an explorer than a missionary . While Lapsley was on a trip to visit fellow missionary – explorer George Grenfell , Sheppard became familiar with the natives ' hunting techniques and language . He even helped to avert a famine by slaying thirty @-@ six hippos . Sheppard contracted malaria 22 times in his first 2 years in Africa .
= = Contact with the Kuba = =
Having become versed in Kuba language and culture , Sheppard took a team of men to the edge of Kuba territory in 1892 . His original plan was to ask for directions to the next village under the guise of purchasing supplies , but the chief of the village only allowed one of his men to go . Sheppard used a variety of tricks to make his way further into the kingdom , including having a scout follow a group of traders and , most famously , eating so many eggs that the townspeople could no longer supply him and his scout was able to gain access to the next village to find more eggs . Eventually , however , he encountered villagers that would allow him to go no further . While Sheppard was formulating a plan , the king 's son , Prince N 'toinzide , arrived and arrested Sheppard and his men for trespassing .
King Kot aMweeky , rather than executing Sheppard , told the village that Sheppard was his deceased son . King aMweeky declared Sheppard " Bope Mekabe " , which spared the lives of Sheppard and his men . This was a political move on the part of the king ; in danger of being overthrown , he encouraged interest in the strangers to direct attention away from himself . During his stay in the village , Sheppard collected artifacts from the people and he eventually secured permission for a Presbyterian mission . The king allowed him to leave on the condition that he return in one year . He would be unable to do so for several years , however , by which time Kot aMweeky had been overthrown by Mishaape , the leader of a rival clan .
= = Documentation of Belgian atrocities = =
In the late nineteenth century , King Leopold II started to receive criticism for his treatment of the natives in Congo Free State . In the United States , the main outlet of this criticism was the Presbyterian church . In 1891 , Sheppard became involved with William Morrison after Lapsley 's death . They would report the crimes they saw , and later , with the help of Roger Casement , would form the Congo Reform Association ( CRA ) , one of the world 's first humanitarian organizations .
In January 1900 the New York Times published a report that said fourteen villages had been burned and ninety or more of the local people killed in the Bena Kamba country by Zappo Zap warriors sent to collect taxes by the Congo Free State administration . The report was based on letters from Southern Presbyterian missionaries Rev. L. C. Vass and Rev. H. P. Hawkins stationed at Luebo and the subsequent investigation by Sheppard who visited to the Zappo Zaps 's camp . Apparently taken for a government official , he was openly shown the bodies of many of the victims . Sheppard saw evidence of cannibalism . He counted eighty @-@ one right hands that had been cut off and were being dried before being taken to show the State officers what the Zappo Zaps had achieved . He found sixty women confined in a pen . The massacre caused an uproar against Dufour and the Congo Free State itself . When Mark Twain published his King Leopold 's Soliloquy five years later , he mentioned Sheppard by name and referred to his account of the massacre .
In January 1908 , Sheppard published a report on colonial abuses in the American Presbyterian Congo Mission ( APCM ) newsletter , and both he and Morrison were sued for libel against the Kasai Rubber Company ( Compagnie de Kasai ) , a prominent Belgian rubber contractor in the area . When the case went to court in September 1909 , the two missionaries had support from the CRA , American Progressives , and their lawyer , Emile Vandervelde , a prominent Belgian socialist . The judge acquitted Sheppard ( Morrison had been acquitted earlier on a technicality ) on the premise that his editorial had not named the major company , but smaller charter companies instead . However , it is likely that the case was decided in favor of Sheppard as a result of international politics ; the U.S. , socially in support of the missionaries , had questioned the validity of King Leopold II 's rule over the Congo .
Sheppard 's reports often portrayed actions by the State that broke laws set by the European nations . Many of the documented cases of cruelty or violence were in direct violation of the Berlin Act of 1885 , which gave Leopold II control over the Congo as long as he " care [ d ] for the improvements of their conditions of their moral and material well @-@ being " and " help [ ed ] in suppressing slavery . "
= = Legacy = =
Sheppard 's efforts contributed to the contemporary debate on European colonialism and imperialism in the region , particularly amongst the African American community . However , historians have noted that he has traditionally received little recognition for his contributions .
Over the course of his journeys , Sheppard amassed a sizable collection of Kuba art , much of which he donated to his alma mater , Hampton University , which has his art on display at the Hampton University Museum . He was possibly the first African American collector of African art . This art collection was notable because it " acquired the art objects in Africa , from Africans at all levels in their society ... in the context of their daily existence " and , as a whole , Kuba art is considered " one of the most highly developed of African visual art forms ... " The collection as a whole is quite large ; from the time of his arrival to Congo Free State in 1890 until his final departure 20 years later in 1910 , Sheppard was collecting art and artifacts from the cultures around him .
Sheppard 's collection was also useful to ethnologists of the time , because the Kuba culture was not well known by the outside world , or even by those well @-@ versed with African studies . For example , the collection does not feature a large number of carved human figures or any figurine that could be connected to a deity of some sort . This could be taken as evidence that the Kuba had no religion , or had one that was not outwardly expressed through art . On the issue of the collection 's scientific value , Jane E. Davis of the Southern Workman journal wrote that " it not only meets the requirements of the ethnologists , but those of the artist as well . Already it has been used by scientists to establish the origins of the culture of the Bakuba tribe " .
= = Archival collections = =
The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , has a collection of photographs and personal papers of William H. Sheppard . The collection includes pictures of Sheppard , fellow missionaries , native people in the Congo , dwellings and landscapes . The personal papers in the society ’ s collection include correspondence with Sheppard ’ s wife , sermon notes , and newspaper clippings .
= Munir Malik =
Munir Malik ( Urdu : منيرملک ; 10 July 1934 – 30 November 2012 ) was a Pakistani cricketer who played three Tests for Pakistan between 1959 and 1962 . A right @-@ arm fast @-@ medium bowler , he took nine wickets in Test cricket at an average of 39 @.@ 77 , including a five @-@ wicket haul against England . During his first @-@ class career , he took 197 wickets at the average of 21 @.@ 75 .
= = First @-@ class career = =
Malik played 49 first @-@ class matches for Karachi , Punjab , Rawalpindi and Services teams during 1956 – 66 . During his first @-@ class career , he achieved five or more wickets in an innings on fourteen occasions , and ten or more wickets in a match four times .
Malik made his first @-@ class debut for Punjab B during the Quaid @-@ e @-@ Azam Trophy , against Bahawalpur in 1956 – 57 . He finished the season taking 13 wickets at an average of 8 @.@ 30 . His 5 wickets for 19 runs for Punjab B , against Punjab , was his best performance in the season . Malik played three matches during 1957 – 58 and his best bowling figures came against Punjab , taking 5 for 66 . In the next two domestic seasons , he was more effective with the ball , taking 23 and 28 wickets respectively . Malik played a match against the Indian Starlets at Sargodha in April 1960 . He took 12 wickets for 135 runs in the match . His next match was for Pakistan Eaglets against the Ceylon Cricket Association : he bowled 17 overs and took 1 wicket for 19 runs in the first innings , and captured 2 wickets for 25 runs in the second innings in 9 overs .
During the 1961 – 62 domestic season , Malik took 38 wickets . He was a part of the Pakistan team that toured England in 1962 , where he played sixteen matches , including three Tests , and took 43 wickets at the average of 39 @.@ 93 . The same year he scored 72 runs for Combined Services , his career best in first @-@ class cricket , against Sargodha . In the next three domestic seasons , he only played seven matches and took 28 wickets , including his best performance of 8 wickets for 154 runs , against the Punjab University while playing for Karachi Whites . He played his last first @-@ class match during the Ayub Trophy in 1965 – 66 .
= = International career = =
Malik made his Test debut against Australia at the National Stadium , Karachi in 1959 . He took 3 wickets in the match conceding 100 runs . Malik played his next Test against England at the Headingley Stadium , Leeds in July 1962 . He captured 5 wickets for 128 runs in the match , which was his best bowling performance in Test cricket . He played his last Test at the Trent Bridge , Nottingham , during the same series between the teams where he only took one wicket .
= = Personal life = =
Malik was born in Leiah , British India ( now Pakistan ) on 10 July 1934 . He has five children , all daughters . On 30 November 2012 , he died after a long illness at the age of 78 , and was buried at the PECHS graveyard .
= Conwy Castle =
Conwy Castle ( Welsh : Castell Conwy , English : Conway Castle ) is a medieval fortification in Conwy , on the north coast of Wales . It was built by Edward I , during his conquest of Wales , between 1283 and 1289 . Constructed as part of a wider project to create the walled town of Conwy , the combined defences cost around £ 15 @,@ 000 , a huge sum for the period . Over the next few centuries , the castle played an important part in several wars . It withstood the siege of Madog ap Llywelyn in the winter of 1294 – 95 , acted as a temporary haven for Richard II in 1399 and was held for several months by forces loyal to Owain Glyndŵr in 1401 .
Following the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 , the castle was held by forces loyal to Charles I , holding out until 1646 when it surrendered to the Parliamentary armies . In the aftermath the castle was partially slighted by Parliament to prevent it being used in any further revolt , and was finally completely ruined in 1665 when its remaining iron and lead was stripped and sold off . Conwy Castle became an attractive destination for painters in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Visitor numbers grew and initial restoration work was carried out in the second half of the 19th century . In the 21st century the ruined castle is managed by Cadw as a tourist attraction .
UNESCO considers Conwy to be one of " the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe " , and it is classed as a World Heritage site . The rectangular castle is built from local and imported stone and occupies a coastal ridge , originally overlooking an important crossing point over the River Conwy . Divided into an Inner and an Outer Ward , it is defended by eight large towers and two barbicans , with a postern gate leading down to the river , allowing the castle to be resupplied from the sea . It retains the earliest surviving stone machicolations in Britain and what historian Jeremy Ashbee has described as the " best preserved suite of medieval private royal chambers in England and Wales " . In keeping with other Edwardian castles in North Wales , the architecture of Conwy has close links to that found in the kingdom of Savoy during the same period , an influence probably derived from the Savoy origins of the main architect , James of Saint George .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
Before the English built the town of Conwy , Aberconwy Abbey , the site was occupied by a Cistercian monastery favoured by the Welsh princes . The location also controlled an important crossing point over the River Conwy between the coastal and inland areas of North Wales , that Deganwy Castle for many years had defended . The kings of England and the Welsh princes had vied for control of the region since the 1070s and the conflict had resumed during the 13th century , leading to Edward I intervening in North
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of Conway , but five years later Edward decided to strip the remaining iron and lead from the castle and sell it off . The work was completed under the supervision of Edward Conway 's overseer William Milward , despite opposition from the leading citizens of Conwy , and turned the castle into a total ruin .
By the end of the 18th century , the ruins were considered picturesque and sublime , attracting visitors and artists , and paintings of the castle were made by Thomas Girtin , Moses Griffith , Julius Caesar Ibbetson , Paul Sandby and J. M. W. Turner . Several bridges were built across the River Conwy linking the town and Llandudno during the 19th century , including a road bridge in 1826 and a rail bridge in 1848 . These improved communication links with the castle and further increased tourist numbers . In 1865 Conwy Castle passed from the Holland family , who had leased it from the descendants of the Conways , to the civic leadership of Conwy town . Restoration work on the ruins then began , including the reconstruction of the damaged Bakehouse tower . In 1953 the castle was leased to the Ministry of Works and Arnold Taylor undertook a wide range of repairs and extensive research into the castle 's history . An additional road bridge was built to the castle in 1958 . Already protected as a scheduled monument , in 1986 it was also declared part of the World Heritage Site of the " Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd " .
In the 21st century the castle is managed by Cadw as a tourist attraction and 186 @,@ 897 tourists visited the castle in 2010 ; a new visitor centre was opened in 2012 . The castle requires ongoing maintenance and repairs cost £ 30 @,@ 000 over the 2002 – 03 financial year .
= = Architecture = =
UNESCO considers Conwy Castle one of " the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe " . It hugs a rocky coastal ridge of grey sand- and limestone , and much of the stone from the castle is largely taken from the ridge itself , probably when the site was first cleared . The local stone was not of sufficient quality to be used for carving details such as windows , however , and accordingly sandstone was brought in from the Creuddyn peninsula , Chester and the Wirral . This sandstone was more colourful than the local grey stone , and was probably deliberately chosen for its appearance .
The castle has a rectangular plan and is divided into an Inner and Outer Ward , separated by a cross @-@ wall , with four large , 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) tall towers on each side ; originally the castle would have been white @-@ washed using a lime render . The outside of the towers still have the putlog holes from their original construction , where timbers were inserted to create a spiralling ramp for the builders . Although now somewhat decayed , the battlements originally sported triple finial designs and featured a sequence of square holes running along the outside of the walls . It is uncertain what these holes were used for – they may have been drainage holes , supports for defensive hoarding or for displaying ornamental shields .
The main entrance to the castle is through the western barbican , an exterior defence in front of the main gate . When first built , the barbican was reached over a drawbridge and a masonry ramp that came up sharply from the town below ; the modern path cuts east along the outside of the walls . The barbican features the earliest surviving stone machicolations in Britain , and the gate would originally have been protected by a portcullis .
The gate leads through to the Outer Ward which , when first built , would have been full of various administrative and service buildings . The north @-@ west tower was reached through the porter 's lodge and contained limited accommodation and space for stores . The south @-@ west tower may have been used either by the castle 's constable , or by the castle 's garrison , and also contained a bakehouse . On the south side of the ward is a range of buildings that included the great hall and chapel , sitting on top of the cellars , which are now exposed . The stubs and one surviving stone arches from the 1340s can still be seen . Behind the great hall was the tower used by the constable for detaining prisoners ; this included a special room for holding prisoners , called the " dettors chambre " ( " debtors ' chamber " ) in the 16th century , and an underground dungeon . On the north side of the ward was a range of service buildings , including a kitchen , brewhouse and bakehouse , backed onto by the kitchen tower , containing accommodation and store rooms .
The Inner Ward was originally separated from the Outer Ward by an internal wall , a drawbridge and a gate , protected by a ditch cut into the rock . The ditch was filled in during the 16th century and the drawbridge removed . The spring @-@ fed castle well built alongside the gate survives , and today is 91 @-@ foot ( 28 m ) deep . Inside , the ward contained the chambers for the royal household , their immediate staff and service facilities ; today , historian Jeremy Ashbee considers them to be the " best preserved suite of medieval private royal chambers in England and Wales " . They were designed to form a royal palace in miniature , that could , if necessary , be sealed off from the rest of castle and supplied from the eastern gate by sea almost indefinitely , although in practice they were rarely used by the royal family .
The royal rooms were positioned on the first floor of a range of buildings that ran around the outside of the ward , facing onto a courtyard . The four towers that protected the Inner Ward contained service facilities , with the Chapel Tower containing the private royal chapel . Each tower has an additional watchtower turret , probably intended both for security and to allow the prominent display of the royal flag . The arrangement was originally similar to that of the 13th century Gloriette at Corfe Castle , and provided a combination of privacy for the king while providing extensive personal security . The two sets of apartments were later unified into a single set of rooms , including a great chamber , outer chamber and inner chamber .
On the east side of the Inner Ward is another barbican , enclosing the castle garden . This was overlooked by the royal apartments , and changed in style over the years : in the early 14th century there was a lawn , in the late 14th century vines , in the 16th century crab @-@ apple trees and a lawn and in the 17th century formal ornamental flowers . A postern gate originally led down to the river where a small dock was built , allowing key visitors to enter the castle in private and for the fortress to be resupplied by boat , although this gate is now concealed by the later bridges built on the site .
The architecture of Conwy has close to links to that found in the kingdom of Savoy in the same period . These include window styles , the type of crenellation used on the towers and positioning of putlog holes , and are usually ascribed to the influence of the Savoy architect Master James . The links between Conwy and Savoy are not straightforward , however , as in some cases the relevant Savoy structures were built after James had left the region . The similarity in architectural details may , therefore , be the result of the wider role played by Savoy craftsmen and engineers on the Conwy project .
= Empress Matilda =
Empress Matilda ( c . 7 February 1102 – 10 September 1167 ) , also known as the Empress Maude , was the claimant to the English throne during the civil war known as the Anarchy . The daughter of King Henry I of England , she moved to Germany as a child when she married the future Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. She travelled with her husband into Italy in 1116 , was controversially crowned in St. Peter 's Basilica , and acted as the imperial regent in Italy . Matilda and Henry had no children , and when he died in 1125 , the crown was claimed by Lothair II , one of his political enemies .
Meanwhile , Matilda 's younger brother , William Adelin , died in the White Ship disaster of 1120 , leaving England facing a potential succession crisis . On Henry V 's death , Matilda was recalled to Normandy by her father , who arranged for her to marry Geoffrey of Anjou to form an alliance to protect his southern borders . Henry I had no further legitimate children and nominated Matilda as his heir , making his court swear an oath of loyalty to her and her successors , but the decision was not popular in the Anglo @-@ Norman court . Henry died in 1135 but Matilda and Geoffrey faced opposition from the Norman barons and were unable to pursue their claims . The throne was instead taken by Matilda 's cousin Stephen of Blois , who enjoyed the backing of the English Church . Stephen took steps to solidify his new regime , but faced threats both from neighbouring powers and from opponents within his kingdom .
In 1139 Matilda crossed to England to take the kingdom by force , supported by her half @-@ brother , Robert of Gloucester , and her uncle , King David I of Scotland , while Geoffrey focused on conquering Normandy . Matilda 's forces captured Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141 , but the Empress 's attempt to be crowned at Westminster collapsed in the face of bitter opposition from the London crowds . As a result of this retreat , Matilda was never formally declared Queen of England , and was instead titled the Lady of the English . Robert was captured following the Rout of Winchester in 1141 , and Matilda agreed to exchange him for Stephen . Matilda became trapped in Oxford Castle by Stephen 's forces that winter , and was forced to escape across the frozen River Isis at night to avoid capture . The war degenerated into a stalemate , with Matilda controlling much of the south @-@ west of England , and Stephen the south @-@ east and the Midlands . Large parts of the rest of the country were in the hands of local , independent barons .
Matilda returned to Normandy , now in the hands of her husband , in 1148 , leaving her eldest son to continue the campaign in England ; he eventually succeeded to the throne as Henry II in 1154 . She settled her court near Rouen and for the rest of her life concerned herself with the administration of Normandy , acting on Henry 's behalf when necessary . Particularly in the early years of her son 's reign , she provided political advice and attempted to mediate during the Becket controversy . She worked extensively with the Church , founding Cistercian monasteries , and was known for her piety . She was buried under the high altar at Bec Abbey after her death in 1167 .
= = Childhood = =
Matilda was born to Henry I , King of England and Duke of Normandy , and his first wife , Matilda of Scotland , possibly around 7 February 1102 at Sutton Courtenay in Oxfordshire . Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror , who had invaded England in 1066 , creating an empire stretching into Wales . The invasion had created an Anglo @-@ Norman elite , many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel . These barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France , which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities , under only the minimal control of the king . Her mother Matilda was the daughter of King Malcolm III of Scotland , a member of the West Saxon royal family , and a descendant of Alfred the Great . For Henry , marrying Matilda of Scotland had given his reign increased legitimacy , and for her it had been an opportunity for high status and power in England .
Matilda had a younger , legitimate brother , William Adelin , and her father 's relationships with numerous mistresses resulted in around 22 illegitimate siblings . Little is known about Matilda 's earliest life , but she probably stayed with her mother , was taught to read , and was educated in religious morals . Among the nobles at her mother 's court were her uncle David , later the King of Scotland , and aspiring nobles such as her half @-@ brother Robert of Gloucester , her cousin Stephen of Blois and Brian Fitz Count . In 1108 Henry left Matilda and her brother in the care of Anselm , the Archbishop of Canterbury , while he travelled to Normandy ; Anselm was a favoured cleric of Matilda 's mother . There is no detailed description of Matilda 's appearance ; contemporaries described Matilda as being very beautiful , but this may have simply reflected the conventional practice among the chroniclers .
= = Holy Roman Empire = =
= = = Marriage to the Emperor = = =
In late 1108 or early 1109 , Henry V , then the King of the Romans , sent envoys to Normandy proposing that Matilda marry him , and wrote separately to her royal mother on the same matter . The match was attractive to the English King : his daughter would be marrying into one of the most prestigious dynasties in Europe , reaffirming his own , slightly questionable , status as the youngest son of a new royal house , and gaining him an ally in dealing with France . In return , Henry V would receive a dowry of 10 @,@ 000 marks , which he needed to fund an expedition to Rome for his coronation as the Holy Roman Emperor . The final details of the deal were negotiated at Westminster in June 1109 and , as a result of her changing status , Matilda attended a royal council for the first time that October . She left England in February 1110 to make her way to Germany .
The couple met at Liège before travelling to Utrecht where , on 10 April , they became officially betrothed . On 25 July Matilda was crowned Queen of the Romans in a ceremony at Mainz . There was a considerable age gap between the couple , as Matilda was only eight years old while Henry was 24 . After the betrothal she was placed into the custody of Bruno , the Archbishop of Trier , who was tasked with educating her in German culture , manners and government . In January 1114 Matilda was ready to be married to Henry , and their wedding was held at the city of Worms amid extravagant celebrations . Matilda now entered public life in Germany , complete with her own household .
Political conflict broke out across the Empire shortly after the marriage , triggered when Henry arrested his Chancellor Adalbert and various other German princes . Rebellions followed , accompanied by opposition from within the Church , which played an important part in administering the Empire , and this led to the formal excommunication of the Emperor by Pope Paschal II . Henry and Matilda marched over the Alps into Italy in early 1116 , intent on settling matters permanently with the Pope . Matilda was now playing a full part in the imperial government , sponsoring royal grants , dealing with petitioners and taking part in ceremonial occasions . The rest of the year was spent establishing control of northern Italy , and in early 1117 the pair advanced on Rome itself .
Paschal fled when Henry and Matilda arrived , and in his absence the papal envoy Maurice Bourdin , later the Antipope Gregory VIII , crowned the pair at St. Peter 's Basilica , probably that Easter and certainly by Pentecost . Matilda used these ceremonies to claim the title of the Empress of the Holy Roman Empire . The Empire was governed by elected monarchs who , like Henry V , had been selected by the major nobles to become the King of the Romans . These kings typically hoped to be subsequently crowned by the Pope as the Holy Roman Emperor , but this could not be guaranteed . Henry V had coerced the Pope into crowning him in 1111 , but Matilda 's own status was less clear . As a result of her marriage she was clearly the legitimate Queen of the Romans , a title that she used on her seal and charters , but it was uncertain if she had a legitimate claim to the title of empress .
Both Bourdin 's status and the ceremonies themselves were deeply ambiguous . Strictly speaking , the ceremonies were not imperial coronations but instead were formal " crown @-@ wearing " occasions , among the few times in the year when the rulers would wear their crowns in court . Bourdin had also been excommunicated by the time he conducted the second ceremony , and he was later to be deposed and imprisoned for life by the Pope . Nonetheless , Matilda maintained that she had been officially crowned as the empress in Rome . The titles of emperor and empress were not always consistently used in this period , and in any case her use of the title became widely accepted . Matilda chose not to dispute Anglo @-@ Norman chroniclers who later incorrectly recorded that the Pope himself had crowned her in Rome .
= = = Death of Henry = = =
In 1118 , Henry returned north over the Alps into Germany to suppress fresh rebellions , leaving Matilda as his regent to govern Italy . There are few records of her rule over the next two years , but she probably gained considerable practical experience of government . In 1119 , she returned north to meet Henry in Lotharingia . Her husband was occupied in finding a compromise with the Pope , who had excommunicated him . In 1122 , Henry and probably Matilda were at the Council of Worms . The council settled the long @-@ running dispute with the Church when Henry gave up his rights to invest bishops with their episcopal regalia . Matilda attempted to visit her father in England that year , but the journey was blocked by Charles I , Count of Flanders , whose territory she would have needed to pass through . Historian Marjorie Chibnall argues Matilda had intended to discuss the inheritance of the English crown on this journey .
Matilda and Henry remained childless , but neither party was considered to be infertile and contemporary chroniclers blamed their situation on the Emperor and his sins against the Church . In early 1122 , the couple travelled down the Rhine together as Henry continued to suppress the ongoing political unrest , but by now he was suffering from cancer . His condition worsened and he died on 23 May 1125 in Utrecht , leaving Matilda in the protection of their nephew Frederick , the heir to his estates . Before his death , he left the imperial insignia in the control of Matilda , but it is unclear what instructions he gave her about the future of the Empire , which faced another leadership election . Archbishop Adalbert subsequently convinced Matilda that she should give him the insignia , and the Archbishop led the electoral process which appointed Lothair of Supplinburg , a former enemy of Henry , as the new King of the Romans .
Now aged 23 , Matilda had only limited options as to how she might spend the rest of her life . Being childless , she could not exercise a role as an imperial regent , which left her with the choice of either becoming a nun or remarrying . Some offers of marriage started to arrive from German princes , but she chose to return to Normandy . She does not appear to have expected to return to Germany , as she gave up her estates within the Empire and departed with her personal collection of jewels , her own imperial regalia , two of Henry 's crowns , and the valuable relic of the Hand of St James the Apostle .
= = Succession crisis = =
In 1120 , the English political landscape changed dramatically after the White Ship disaster . Around three hundred passengers – including Matilda 's brother William Adelin and many other senior nobles – embarked one night on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy across to England . The vessel foundered just outside the harbour , possibly as a result of overcrowding or excessive drinking by the ship 's master and crew , and all but two of the passengers died . William Adelin was among the casualties .
With William dead , the succession to the English throne was thrown into doubt . Rules of succession were uncertain in western Europe at the time ; in some parts of France , male primogeniture was becoming more popular , in which the eldest son would inherit a title . It was also traditional for the King of France to crown his successor while he was still alive , making the intended line of succession relatively clear . This was not the case in England , where the best a noble could do was to identify what Professor Eleanor Searle has termed a pool of legitimate heirs , leaving them to challenge and dispute the inheritance after his death . The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo @-@ Norman successions over the previous sixty years . William the Conqueror had invaded England , his sons William Rufus and Robert Curthose had fought a war between them to establish their inheritance , and Henry had only acquired control of Normandy by force . There had been no peaceful , uncontested successions .
Initially , Henry put his hopes in fathering another son . William and Matilda 's mother - Matilda of Scotland - had died in 1118 , and so Henry took a new wife , Adeliza of Louvain . Henry and Adeliza did not conceive any children , and the future of the dynasty appeared at risk . Henry may have begun to look among his nephews for a possible heir . He may have considered his sister Adela 's son Stephen of Blois as a possible option and , perhaps in preparation for this , he arranged a beneficial marriage for Stephen to Matilda 's wealthy maternal cousin and namesake the Countess of Boulogne . Theobald of Blois , his close ally , possibly also felt that he was in favour with Henry . William Clito , the only son of Robert Curthose , was King Louis VI of France 's preferred choice , but William was in open rebellion against Henry and was therefore unsuitable . Henry might have also considered his own illegitimate son , Robert of Gloucester , as a possible candidate , but English tradition and custom would have looked unfavourably on this . Henry 's plans shifted when Empress Matilda 's husband , Emperor Henry , died in 1125 .
= = Return to Normandy = =
= = = Marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou = = =
Matilda returned to Normandy in 1125 and spent about a year at the royal court , where her father Henry was still hoping that his second marriage would generate a male heir . In the event that this might fail to happen , Matilda was now Henry 's preferred choice , and he declared that she was to be his rightful successor if he should die without a male heir . The Anglo @-@ Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster on Christmas 1126 , where they swore in January to recognise Matilda and any future legitimate heir she might have .
Henry began to formally look for a new husband for Matilda in early 1127 and received various offers from princes within the Empire . His preference was to use Matilda 's marriage to secure the southern borders of Normandy by marrying her to Geoffrey of Anjou , the eldest son of Fulk , the Count of Anjou . Henry 's control of Normandy had faced numerous challenges since he had conquered it in 1106 , and the latest threat came from his nephew William Clito , the new Count of Flanders , who enjoyed the support of the French King . It was essential to Henry that he did not also face a threat from the south as well as the east of Normandy . William Adelin had married Fulk 's daughter Matilda , which would have cemented an alliance between Henry and Anjou , but the White Ship disaster put an end to this . Henry and Fulk argued over the fate of the marriage dowry , and this had encouraged Fulk to turn to support William Clito instead . Henry 's solution was now to negotiate the marriage of Matilda to Geoffrey , recreating the former alliance .
Matilda appears to have been unimpressed by this plan . She felt that marrying the son of a count diminished her own status and was probably also unhappy about marrying someone so much younger than she was ; Matilda was 25 and Geoffrey was only 13 . Hildebert , the Archbishop of Tours , eventually intervened to persuade her to go along with the engagement . Matilda finally agreed , and she travelled to Rouen in May 1127 with Robert of Gloucester and Brian Fitz Count where she was formally betrothed to Geoffrey . Over the course of the next year , Fulk decided to depart for Jerusalem , where he hoped to become king , leaving his possessions to Geoffrey . Henry knighted his future son @-@ in @-@ law , and Matilda and Geoffrey were married a
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stack . Work on both proceeded over the next six years .
The Freeman Diversion opened to traffic in August 1958 , with the old route becoming an eastward extension of Plains Road . The 2 @,@ 700 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) four @-@ lane skyway was opened to traffic by Leslie Frost two months later on October 30 . Although it greatly reduced traffic delays , it was not without controversy due to its height , cost , tolling , and most especially its name . Residents in Burlington demanded it be named the Burlington Skyway , while Hamilton residents countered with the Hamilton Skyway . As a compromise , the Thomas B. McQuesten Skyway was proposed . However , the provincial government had the final say in the matter , and opted to name it the Burlington Bay Skyway . Tolls were collected beginning on November 10 .
Elsewhere , in St. Catharines , planning was already advanced on a second skyway to cross the Welland Canal . The Homer Lift Bridge , a longstanding feature along Highway 8 , was another point where the QEW narrowed to two lanes and traffic faced regular delays . Construction of the Homer Skyway , as it was tentatively known , began in July 1960 and progressed over the following three years . The $ 20 million ( in 1963 , $ 158 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 adjusted for inflation ) structure was officially opened by Premier John Robarts on November 15 , 1963 . However , traffic had already been flowing on the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) bridge since October 18 . As with the Burlington Bay Skyway , tolls were collected on the new bridge . However , the name was almost unanimously chosen by St. Catharines residents to be the Garden City Skyway . The collection of tolls on both skyways continued until December 28 , 1973 .
= = = = 1960s and 1970s – Expansion and new interchanges = = = =
On September 15 , 1960 , the Shook 's Hill interchange , a unique rotary junction , was completed . It was opened to traffic the following day , and completed the program to make the QEW a freeway between Burlington and Toronto . A final project , to reconstruct the intersection with Brant Street into an interchange , was carried out in 1964 and made the QEW a freeway between Hamilton and Toronto .
By 1963 , work was underway to improve the Niagara Falls – Hamilton stretch of the QEW into a controlled @-@ access highway . At the end of 1966 , the QEW was six lanes wide through Mississauga and Toronto , as well as between the Freeman Interchange and east of Brant Street . This six @-@ laning was extended west from Ninth Line to Kerr Street by 1968 . The remaining section of four @-@ lane highway along the Burlington to Toronto stretch , between Brant Street and Kerr Street , was reconstructed beginning in 1970 and completed by 1972 .
The late 1960s and early 1970s also saw the complete reconstruction of three important interchanges : The Rainbow Bridge Approach ( later Highway 420 ) in Niagara Falls , Highway 20 ( Centennial Parkway ) in Hamilton and Highway 27 in Toronto . The former two were traffic circles in place since the QEW was opened in 1940 . The third was a large cloverleaf interchange that had become outdated with the expansion of Highway 27 to ten lanes throughout the 1960s . The connections with the Rainbow Bridge Approach and with Highway 27 required new massive high @-@ speed interchanges to accommodate freeway – freeway traffic movements .
The junction with Highway 27 was built over 48 @.@ 5 ha ( 120 acres ) and required the construction of 19 bridges and the equivalent of 42 km ( 26 mi ) of two @-@ lane roadway . Construction began in September 1968 , although preliminary work had been ongoing since 1966 ; the interchange opened to traffic on November 14 , 1969 , and included an expansion of the QEW to ten lanes between what would become known as Highway 427 and Lake Shore Boulevard . Construction of the three @-@ level stack interchange between the QEW and Rainbow Bridge Approach began in 1971 . This removed the two traffic circles along the approach at the QEW and Dorchester Road . The interchange between the QEW and Lundy 's Lane ( Highway 20 ) was also removed ; instead , the new stack interchange provided access to Montrose Road . The work was completed by April 1972 , at which point the Rainbow Bridge Approach was designated as Highway 420 . Planning for the removal of the Stoney Creek traffic circle was completed by 1970 , and reconstruction began in 1974 . This involved the removal of a rail line which crossed through the circle , and was the demise of one of two major features along the route . The new interchange opened in 1978 , completing the transformation of the QEW into a controlled @-@ access highway .
During the late 1970s , construction was carried out on several new interchanges between Hamilton and Toronto . A new interchange at Dorval Drive and Trafalgar Road replaced the one at Kerr Street . In Mississauga , work commenced at Cawthra Road , while in Burlington a new interchange was built at Appleby Line .
= = = = 1980s to 1997 - Growing capacity = = = =
Now functioning as a freeway , the QEW was already overburdened by the ever @-@ increasing number of vehicles . The Burlington Bay Skyway , the lone four @-@ lane link on the route between Hamilton and Toronto , was initially designed to handle 50 @,@ 000 vehicles daily , but by 1973 there were 60 @,@ 000 vehicles crossing it . Preliminary work on a second parallel structure began a decade later in 1983 . In July of that year , Transportation Minister James Snow broke ground for the new bridge . Construction was carried out over two years , and the twinned structure was opened on October 11 , 1985 . It was named the James N. Allan Skyway , in honour of James Allan , Minister of Highways during construction of the original skyway . The new name was not well received by locals , and debate erupted once again whilst the original bridge was closed and repaired for several years . It reopened on August 22 , 1988 , with Toronto @-@ bound traffic crossing the original bridge . The twin structure was renamed the Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway , though it is commonly referred to as simply the Burlington Skyway .
Alongside the twinning of the skyway , the QEW was widened to eight lanes between Burlington Street in Hamilton and Northshore Boulevard ( then Highway 2 ) in Burlington , and to six lanes north to the Freeman Interchange and south to Centennial Parkway . A variable lighting system , changeable message signs and traffic cameras were added to create a new traffic @-@ management system called COMPASS . Modern interchanges were constructed with Burlington Street , Northshore Boulevard , Fairview Street and Brant Street , and the interchange with Plains Road was removed . Eastport Drive was built at the same time to relieve traffic on Beach Boulevard . This work was completed between late 1984 and 1990 .
With the expanded capacity of the skyway , and the unanticipated traffic volumes on Highway 403 , the Freeman Interchange was now faced with a capacity problem . To resolve this , the renamed Ministry of Transportation began planning on Highway 403 between Burlington and Mississauga ; this right @-@ of @-@ way would be sold to the 407 ETR consortium in 1995 and built as part of that route . Work began in August 1991 to rebuild the interchange and add a fourth leg . The rebuilt interchange was opened on October 23 , 1993 ; the first sod for what would open as Highway 407 was turned that day .
Budgetary restraints in the 1990s forced the provincial government to sell off or download many highways to lower levels of government , or , in the case of Highway 407 , to a private consortium . As part of recommendations , the QEW east of Highway 427 to the Humber River was transferred to the responsibility of the City of Toronto . The transfer took place on April 1 , 1997 . The city subsequently renamed it as part of the Gardiner Expressway .
= = = Recent work = = =
Beginning in May 1999 , the grade @-@ separated traffic circle junction with Erin Mills Parkway and Southdown Road , which dated back to the early 1960s , was completely reconstructed as a standard parclo A4 interchange ; it was reopened in 2001 . The nearby Hurontario Street interchange was upgraded from a cloverleaf to a parclo A4 on the south side and a diamond interchange on the north side . Work was completed in 2010 .
The Red Hill Valley Parkway project , which opened on November 16 , 2007 , added a significant new interchange to the QEW . The ramp to the southbound parkway did not open until December 2008 . As part of this project , the Burlington Street and Centennial Parkway interchanges were reconstructed , and the QEW widened to eight lanes from Burlington Street to Centennial Parkway . Construction was completed in 2009 .
The highway was widened to permit an additional HOV lane in either direction between Guelph Line and Trafalgar Road starting in 2007 . These lanes were opened to traffic on November 29 , 2010 . In 2005 , work began to widen the QEW through St. Catharines from Highway 406 to the Garden City Skyway . This work was completed on August 26 , 2011 , at a cost of $ 186 million .
= = = High @-@ occupancy toll lanes = = =
On December 7 , 2015 , Ontario 's Transportation Ministry announced that it was working on a plan to create permanent high @-@ occupancy toll lanes ( HOT ) on a 16 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) stretch , in both ways , between Trafalgar Road in Oakville and Guelph Line in Burlington starting on September 15 , 2016 . This would require vehicles with a single occupant to purchase a permit for such use . ( A portion of Highway 427 would also have HOT lanes . ) Vehicles that are classified as environmentally @-@ friendly , and denoted with a green license plate , would not be required to pay when using the HOT lanes . Prices for the permits had not yet been determined for this plan , described as a pilot project , said Transportation Minister Steven Del Duca during a press conference .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the exits along the QEW . Exits are numbered from Fort Erie to Toronto .
= = In popular culture = =
As the principal travel route between Toronto and Buffalo , whenever sports teams from the two cities face each other ( particularly the Sabres and Maple Leafs in the National Hockey League ) the game or series is called as The Battle of the QEW .
= Italian ironclad Lepanto =
Lepanto was an Italian ironclad battleship built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , the second and last ship of the Italia class . Lepanto was laid down in November 1876 , launched in March 1883 , and completed in August 1887 . She was armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) guns mounted in a central barbette and was capable of a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) . Unlike other capital ships of the era , Lepanto had an armored deck rather than the more typical belt armor .
Lepanto spent the first two decades of her career in the Active and Reserve Squadrons , where she took part in annual training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet . In 1902 , she was withdrawn from service for use as a training ship . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , the ship provided fire support to Italian troops defending Tripoli in Libya . Lepanto was ultimately stricken from the naval register in January 1914 and sold for scrapping in March 1915 .
= = Design = =
Lepanto was 124 @.@ 7 meters ( 409 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 34 m ( 73 @.@ 3 ft ) and an average draft of 9 @.@ 39 m ( 30 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 336 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 125 long tons ; 14 @,@ 700 short tons ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 649 t ( 15 @,@ 402 long tons ; 17 @,@ 250 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of four compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , oval boilers and sixteen fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 18 @.@ 4 knots ( 34 @.@ 1 km / h ; 21 @.@ 2 mph ) at 15 @,@ 797 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 780 kW ) . She could steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 669 – 701 officers and men .
Lepanto was armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) 27 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two pairs en echelon in a central barbette . She carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 26 @-@ caliber guns and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 32 @-@ caliber guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried four 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . Unlike other ships built at the time , Lepanto dispensed with vertical belt armor . Her designer , Benedetto Brin , believed that contemporary steel alloys could not effectively defeat armor @-@ piercing shells of the day , and so he discarded it completely . Lepanto was instead protected by an armored deck that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick . Her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate . The barbette had 19 in ( 483 mm ) of steel armor .
= = Service history = =
Lepanto was under construction for nearly 11 years . She was laid down at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard at Livorno on 4 November 1876 , ten months after her sister Italia . She spent nearly six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years on the building ways and was not launched until 17 March 1883 , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years after Italia . Lepanto was not completed for another four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , her construction finally being finished on 16 August 1887 , twenty @-@ two months after the completion of Italia . After entering service , Lepanto took part in the annual 1888 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclads Caio Duilio , Italia , Enrico Dandolo , and San Martino , a protected cruiser , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy .
In 1890 , Lepanto participated in the annual fleet maneuvers in the First Squadron , along with the protected cruisers Piemonte and Dogali and several torpedo boats . The exercises were conducted in the Tyrrhenian Sea , where the First Squadron was tasked with defending against an attacking " hostile " squadron . The ship served as the flagship of the 1st Division of the Active Squadron during the 1893 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclad Ruggiero di Lauria , the torpedo cruisers Euridice and Monzambano , and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Active Squadron simulated a French attack on the Italian fleet .
In 1895 , Italia and Lepanto were assigned to the Reserve Squadron , along with the ironclads Ruggiero di Lauria and Re Umberto . That year , unrest in the Ottoman Empire that killed hundreds of foreign nationals prompted several of the European great powers to send an international fleet to pressure the Ottomans into compensating the victims . In November , a small Italian squadron sent to Smyrna to join the fleet in there ; Folgore was mobilized as part of a larger force in Naples that consisted of the ironclads Francesco Morosini and Ruggiero di Lauria , the protected cruiser Elba , the torpedo cruisers Calatafimi and Folgore , and five torpedo boats . This second squadron was stocked with coal and ammunition in the event that it would need to reinforce the squadron at Smryna . In June 1897 , Lepanto steamed to Britain to represent Italy at the Fleet Review for Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee , held on the 26th of the month . For the periodic fleet maneuvers later that year , Lepanto was assigned to the First Division of the Reserve Squadron , which also included the ironclads Caio Duilio and Ruggiero di Lauria and the protected cruiser Lombardia . The following year , the Reserve Squadron consisted of Lepanto , Ruggiero di Lauria , Francesco Morosini , and five cruisers . In 1899 , Lepanto , Re Umberto , Sicilia , and the three Ruggiero di Lauria @-@ class ironclads served in the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for eight months of the year , with the remainder spent with reduced crews .
In the early 1890s , the Italian Navy had considered rebuilding Lepanto along the same lines as Enrico Dandolo , which had received new , quick @-@ firing 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) guns in place of her slow 17 @-@ inch guns . Lepanto and her sister were to have their guns replaced with new 13 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns , but by 1902 this plan had been abandoned as too costly . Lepanto was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in that year and she became a gunnery training ship . By that time , her armament consisted of her original 17 in guns and four of her 4 @.@ 7 in guns ; to these , nine 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 25 @-@ caliber guns , and two machine guns had been added . Her torpedo tubes had been removed by this time . In 1910 she became a depot ship at La Spezia .
During the annual fleet maneuvers in September – October 1907 , Lepanto was present to carry observers of the exercises , though she did not directly take part in the training . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Lepanto was assigned to the 5th Division of the Italian fleet , along with her sister Italia and the ironclad Enrico Dandolo . In December 1911 , Lepanto and Italia were sent to Tripoli , replacing the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads , to support the Italian garrison that had captured the city . The two Italias were sent in large part because the Italian Navy had a large stockpile of 17 in shells . Lepanto was stricken on 26 May 1912 , but was reinstated on 13 January 1913 as a first @-@ class auxiliary ship . She was stricken a second time on 15 January 1914 , sold for scrap on 27 March 1915 , and subsequently broken up .
= Norma Paulus =
Norma Paulus ( born March 13 , 1933 ) is an American lawyer and politician in the state of Oregon . A native of Nebraska , she was raised in Eastern Oregon before becoming a lawyer . A Republican , she first held political office as a representative in the Oregon House of
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about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
= = Development = =
When the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848 , the landmass at Wolf Point was decreased by dredging to accommodate a turning basin for ships . In the autumn of the same year the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad opened Chicago 's first railroad depot at Wolf Point , on the southwestern corner of Kinzie and Canal Streets . By 1857 the site of Wolf Point Tavern was being used as a lumber yard ; the Fulton Elevator , one of Chicago 's earliest grain elevators , was built just to the north of the former tavern in 1852 . Several blocks to the west of Wolf Point were destroyed in a large fire on September 15 , 1859 . The Fulton Elevator survived this , and the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 , but was burned down on September 7 , 1873 . It was rebuilt in the same year , and another grain elevator , the St Paul Elevator , was added immediately to the south of the original in 1879 . The Chicago , Milwaukee and St. Paul railway company purchased both elevators in 1889 for $ 400 @,@ 000 ( $ 10 @.@ 5 million today ) , but demolished them in 1906 . Currently , the site is occupied by the Riverbend Condominiums at 333 North Canal Street .
The property on the north bank of the river at Wolf Point was owned by businessman Marshall Field until it was sold to Democratic Party figure and Kennedy family patriarch Joseph P. Kennedy in 1945 or 1946 , depending on the source . Although the Kennedy family sold much of the complex center property to Vornado Realty Trust in 1998 as part of a larger $ 625 million ( $ 907 @.@ 4 million ) transaction , the family retained their interest in the 4 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) of Wolf Point land . The area still owned by the Kennedy family is bounded by the Chicago River to the east , west , south and 350 West Mart Center to the north . The Merchandise Mart is located diagonally to the northeast . The location is currently used as a parking lot . There have been numerous plans to develop the property dating back to the late 1980s . In 2007 , the Kennedys planned to develop the property with three high @-@ rises and skyscrapers to designs by Argentine @-@ American architect César Pelli . In 2012 , updated plans were proposed with several target completion dates over the next decade . The property is a coveted real estate location that has had several serious redevelopment plans in the past . In 2014 , construction began on the first phase of the planned Wolf Point Towers
The south bank is being redeveloped as part of Mayor Rahm Emanuel 's plans to extend the Chicago Riverwalk , which is located on the south bank of the Chicago River and will extend from Lake Michigan to the intersection of North Wacker Drive and Lake Street . Design plans are being finalized as of Spring 2015 with completion targeted by the end of 2016 pending funding . Currently , the plan will include a three story retail space , a large park , and an iconic bridge linking Wacker to the Riverwalk path .
= Mississippi Highway 602 =
Mississippi Highway 602 ( MS 602 ) was a highway in southern Mississippi . Its southern terminus was at MS 43 , which is now inside the John C. Stennis Space Center . The road traveled a slightly curved route to its northern terminus at U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) and MS 43 in Picayune . MS 602 was designated in 1958 , only in Pearl River County . The route was extended south into Hancock County two years later . MS 602 was then removed from the state highway system in 1967 , less than a decade after it was designated .
= = Route description = =
As of 1965 , the route was located in northwestern Hancock and southern Pearl River counties . MS 602 started at MS 43 , where which is now part of the Stennis Space Center . The road , known as Flat Top Road , traveled northeast through the dense forest . About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the southern terminus , MS 602 intersected Texas Flat Road . The road then crossed over Dead Tiger Creek , and shifted back slightly to the west . MS 602 crossed Stall and Everett Branches before turning northwest . It intersected Lott McCarty Road before entering Pearl River County . The route turned west shortly inside the county , traveling toward Picayune . A short section of the former route is now part of MS 43 . As MS 602 entered Picayune , it became East Canal Street . The route ended at US 11 , next to a railroad track . The road continued as West Canal Street . The road was maintained by the Mississippi State Highway Commission and Hancock County , as part of the state highway system .
= = History = =
MS 602 first appeared in maps in 1958 , connecting from MS 43 and US 11 in Picayune , to the Pearl River – Hancock county line . The route was fully paved at that time . Two years later , MS 602 was extended into Hancock County , connecting back to MS 43 . The section was maintained by the county . The Stennis Space Center was built on a section of the route in 1965 , and by 1967 , the route was removed from the state highway system . MS 43 was rerouted onto a part of MS 602 , bypassing the space center .
= = Major intersections = =
The route is documented as it existed in 1965 .
= New York State Route 134 =
New York State Route 134 ( NY 134 ) is a 6 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 22 km ) state highway in the western part of Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It begins at an intersection with NY 133 in the village of Ossining and heads northeast to the hamlet of Kitchawan , located adjacent to the New Croton Reservoir in the town of Yorktown . From here , the route turns southeast to reach its east end at a junction with NY 100 . The highway passes the Thomas J. Watson Research Center , one of the main research headquarters for IBM , just east of an interchange with the Taconic State Parkway .
Taken over by the state of New York between 1908 and 1926 , NY 134 was assigned to its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . In 1960 , in conjunction with construction of the Watson Research Center , an interchange was added to NY 134 for the Taconic .
= = Route description = =
NY 134 begins at an intersection with NY 133 ( Croton Avenue ) in the village of Ossining , just east of the latter 's west end at U.S. Route 9 ( North Highland Avenue ) . The route proceeds northeast as the two @-@ lane Dale Avenue , passing through a residential section of the village and passing Dale Cemetery . Just past the cemetery , the highway changes names to Hawkes Avenue as it leaves the village for other parts of the town of Ossining . The route continues generally northeastward past homes to the vicinity of NY 9A ( the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway ) , where NY 134 forks from Hawkes Avenue and begins to parallel NY 9A on Kitchawan State Road , a short connector to nearby Croton Dam Road . Upon intersecting Croton Dam Road , NY 134 turns northward and immediately intersects NY 9A at an at @-@ grade intersection .
Past NY 9A , NY 134 heads northeast across the northern fringe of Ossining , climbing uphill as it passes Purdy Pond and crossing into the town of New Castle . Here , the homes gradually diminish in number , with dense woods taking their place . This trend continues into the adjacent town of Yorktown , where NY 134 becomes Kitchawan Road . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town line , the highway entering an interchange with the Taconic State Parkway . For a short distance after the interchange , NY 134 becomes four lanes as the road serves IBM 's Thomas J. Watson Research Center . It narrows to two lanes past the facility , from where the highway takes a slightly more easterly track across Yorktown to reach the Kitchawan Preserve on the southern edge of the New Croton Reservoir .
At this point , the road makes a turn to the southeast to enter the small hamlet of Kitchawan , located at NY 134 's junction with Pines Bridge Road ( unsigned County Route 1323 or CR 1323 ) . Pines Bridge Road was once NY 135 , and its junction with NY 134 in Kitchawan was NY 135 's eastern terminus . From Pines Bridge Road , NY 134 bends southward to run alongside a reservoir inlet connecting to Cornell Brook . After about 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) , the route makes a final turn to the east to cross Cornell Brook and reach its east end at an intersection with NY 100 ( Saw Mill River Road ) .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 134 date back to the late 1900s when the state of New York improved the portion of the route outside of the Ossining village limits to state highway standards . A contract for the $ 59 @,@ 973 project ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 52 million in 2016 ) was awarded on June 30 , 1908 , and the rebuilt road was added to the state highway system on August 1 , 1910 , as unsigned State Highway 768 ( SH 768 ) . Its continuation into the village limits was taken over by the state by 1926 . Neither state highway had a posted route number until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , when hundreds of state @-@ maintained roads were given signed designations for the first time . The two state highways were combined to create NY 134 .
In 1960 , a new interchange was built between NY 134 and the Taconic State Parkway as part of the construction of IBM 's Thomas J. Watson Research Center . During the excavation process for the junction , a bone from a woolly mammoth ( colloquially known as Jefferson 's mammoth ) was found buried in the earth below . The bones were moved to the New York State Museum in Albany . The construction also required the relocation of the Kitchawan Tavern from the site of the exit to the junction of Kitchawan and Chadeanye roads a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the east .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= M @-@ 104 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 104 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the Western Michigan region of the state . It runs from Ferrysburg to Nunica in Ottawa County , passing through Spring Lake . The highway serves as a connector between Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) and US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) , helping connect Grand Haven with the Grand Rapids metro area . A related Connector 104 runs between the M @-@ 104 and US 31 in Ferrysburg . During the 1920s and 1930s , a different highway bore the M @-@ 104 designation . The current highway was previously a section of US 16 until 1940 when that designation was shifted to a road going from Nunica to Muskegon ; the orphaned highway was redesignated M @-@ 104 at the same time . Since then , two routing changes have caused short segments to be transferred to local control and removed from the highway .
= = Route description = =
The western terminus of M @-@ 104 is at US 31 in Ferrysburg at the north end of the drawbridge spanning the Grand River north of Grand Haven . The highway runs along Savidge Street and crosses a bridge over the channel that connect the river with Spring Lake . On the opposite shore , the trunkline continues along Savidge Street , running between the river to its south and the lake to its north . M @-@ 104 crosses the central business area of the village of Spring Lake . East of downtown , the highway transitions to follow Cleveland Street which continues due east to Nunica . The landscape becomes more rural east of Spring Lake where the highway crosses terrain with a mix of open fields and woods . There are various businesses and homes that line the roadway . The eastern terminus of M @-@ 104 is located at the exit 9 interchange along I @-@ 96 just west of Nunica .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 104 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 20 @,@ 663 vehicles used the highway daily in near the western terminus in Ferrysburg and 8 @,@ 018 vehicles did so each day near the eastern terminus near Nunica , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 104 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
From 1927 until 1939 , the first M @-@ 104 followed a gravel road from M @-@ 47 ( now M @-@ 52 ) at Pittsburg , through Laingsburg , to DeWitt , and the current M @-@ 104 was originally part of US 16 .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1940 , a rerouting of US 16 eliminated M @-@ 126 between Nunica and Muskegon ; the previous routing of US 16 between Nunica and Ferrysburg was redesignated M @-@ 104 at this time . This highway designation was truncated on November 25 , 1961 , after the I @-@ 96 / US 16 freeway opened , and the section of M @-@ 104 between the freeway and the old US 16 routing was transferred to local control . Another short segment of the highway was bypassed when a new bridge was built between Spring Lake and Ferrysburg in 1965 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Ottawa County .
= = Related trunkline = =
Connector 104 is an unsigned trunkline in Ferrysburg that runs north along Pine Street and west along 3rd Street to connect exit 104B on US 31 to M @-@ 104 . According to MDOT , 14 @,@ 231 vehicles used the trunkline on average each day .
= Howard Knox Ramey =
Howard Knox Ramey ( 28 June 1896 – 26 March 1943 ) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II . Ramey learned to fly in 1918 during World War I and served as an instructor at the Air Corps Advanced Flying School and as a staff officer with the 1st Bombardment Wing between the wars . He was commander of the IV Bomber Command from 12 August 1942 to 8 November 1942 , and was promoted to brigadier general on 17 September 1942 . In November 1942 , he became deputy commander of the Seventh Air Force in Hawaii . In January 1943 he became the commander of the V Bomber Command in Australia and Papua , which he led during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea . In March 1943 he disappeared on a reconnaissance flight over the Torres Strait . Neither his aircraft nor his body has ever been found .
= = Early life = =
Howard Knox Ramey was born in Waynesboro , Mississippi on 28 June 1896 . He attended Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College from 1915 to 1917 . In December 1917 he enlisted as a private first class in the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps , in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 20 April 1918 .
= = Between the wars = =
In July 1920 , Ramey received a permanent commission as a first lieutenant in the United States Army Air Service . He attended the Air Service Photography School in 1921 , and became commander of the 6th Photo Section at Camp Nichols in the Philippines from January to October 1925 . He then served as intelligence officer there until he returned to the United States in February 1927 . He commanded the 22nd Photo Section at Kelly Field , San Antonio , Texas from 1927 to 1928 , and was an instructor at the Air Corps Advanced Flying School there from 1928 to 1931 .
After more than ten years as a first lieutenant , Ramey was finally promoted to captain on 1 March 1932 . On 26 March 1934 , Ramey was one of 35 American World War I military pilots who founded the Order of the Daedalians , a fraternal order of military pilots .
He attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field , Alabama , graduating in 1934 , and then the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , graduating in 1936 . Shortly afterwards , he was promoted to major on 16 June 1936 . Ramey served as operations officer and assistant chief of staff for intelligence of the 1st Bombardment Wing at March Field , California from 1936 to 1941 . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 30 December 1940 .
= = World War II = =
Ramey was deputy chief of staff for operations ( G @-@ 3 ) of the Fourth Air Force from January to August 1942 , with the rank of colonel from 5 January 1942 . He was commander of the IV Bomber Command from 12 August 1942 to 8 November 1942 , and was promoted to brigadier general on 17 September 1942 . In November 1942 , he became deputy commander of the Seventh Air Force .
Following the death of the commander of the V Bomber Command , Brigadier General Kenneth Walker , in an air raid over Rabaul in January 1943 , the commander of the Fifth Air Force , Lieutenant General George Kenney asked Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the chief of Army Air Forces to send Ramey to Australia as a replacement . The two men had known each other for years and Ramey had recently been on Kenney 's staff when Kenney was commander of the Fourth Air Force . " I had a lot of confidence in him , " Kenney later wrote , " and believed he would do a real job for me . Arnold replied the next day that I could have him . " Ramey assumed command of V Bomber Command in January 1943 . After the arguments over bombing tactics with Walker , Kenney was pleased that Ramey liked the skip bombing tactics the Fifth Air Force was developing . These tactics were put in practice with devastating effect at the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943 .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 26 March 1943 , Ramey took off from Port Moresby in the B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress # 41 @-@ 24384 , " Pluto " , to carry out a scheduled seven @-@ hour reconnaissance flight to Merauke and Horn Island . A message from the radio operator twenty minutes after take @-@ off was the last that was ever heard from the aircraft . An extensive air search was conducted but no sign was found of the aircraft or the twelve men on board . Ramey was declared dead on 19 November 1945 . He left behind a wife and two daughters . Ramey Air Force Base in Puerto Rico was named in his honour .
In February 2007 , diver Ben Cropp reported that he had found the wreckage of the plane . However , the plane turned out to have been a misidentified C @-@ 47 . The location of the wreck of " Pluto " remains unknown .
= Cyclone Cilla =
Cyclone Cilla ( RSMC Nadi designation : 10F , JTWC designation : 13P ) was a tropical cyclone that brought minor damage several islands in the South Pacific in January 2003 . The fifth cyclone of the 2002 @-@ 03 South Pacific cyclone season , Cyclone Cilla developed from a monsoon trough on January 26 northwest of Fiji . Initially , Cilla moved east , and due to decreased wind shear , Cilla was able to intensify . On January 28 , Cilla reached its peak intensity of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . After slightly weakening , Cilla briefly re @-@ intensified the next day . However , Cilla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on January 30 . Along its path , Cilla dropped heavy rainfall over islands it passed . During its formative stages , the low dropped heavy rain over Fiji , which had already been effected by Cyclone Ami two weeks prior . Damage in Tonga was mostly limited to vegetation and fruit trees ; infrastructural damage was also relatively minor . Cilla also brought moderate rain to American Samoa .
= = Meteorological history = =
On January 25 , 2003 , a low @-@ pressure area formed within a monsoon trough about 300 mi ( 485 km ) northwest of Fiji and moved to the east @-@ southeast . That morning , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to issue warnings on the system , designating it as 12P . Shortly thereafter , Cilla turned southeast hours later in the general direction of Tonga Early on January 26 , RSMC Nadi designated the low as Tropical Depression 07F , after attaining 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . At the time , the slow moving system had a poorly defined center of circulation that was hard to identify via radar and satellite imagery . In addition , most of the deep thunderstorm activity was displaced to the north and southeast of the center . Later that morning , the JTWC reported winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; however , the depression did not become any better organized throughout the day . Early the next day , RSMC Nadi upgraded the tropical depression to a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian intensity scale and named it Cilla . By 0600 UTC January 27 , the JTWC reported that Cilla had attained 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , which according to JTWC data , was its peak intensity . Subsequently , Cilla turned east @-@ southeast .
Throughout the day , wind shear conditions lessened further ; however , shower activity separated from the center , prompting the JTWC to issue its last warning on Tropical Cyclone Cilla later that day . At 2100 UTC January 27 , RMSC Nadi remarked that the cyclone had become better organized . Upon attaining peak intensity , the storm passed fairly closed to Tonga . At 0600 UTC January 28 , Cilla reached its peak intensity , with 10 – minute sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) per RMSC Nadi . At this time , the tropical cyclone was located about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south @-@ southeast of Pago Pago . Rapidly moving , Cilla showed baroclinic characteristics , hinting that the system was a hybrid low , sustaining characteristics of both tropical and nontropical cyclones . According to RMSC Nadi , Cilla weakened slightly as the storm lost organization due to increased wind shear .
On January 29 , thunderstorm activity once again increased in converge around the center , though at first , the convection was sheared at times . On 0000 UTC , Dvorak satellite intensity estimates yielded a 3 @.@ 0 , suggesting a tropical cyclone with 10 – minute winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) , Cilla 's secondary peak intensity . Satellite images indicated a banding pattern associated with the cyclone . The JTWC briefly watched this system for regeneration , noting it had a " fair " chance . However , continued wind shear began to weaken Cilla , and by 1200 UTC on January 29 , Cilla was reduced to a tropical depression just before the system turned south @-@ southeast . With the center exposed from the deep convection , Tropical Depression Cilla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1100 UTC the next day , on January 30 . The extratropical cyclone completely dissipated two days later .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
As a tropical depression , Cilla passed over Vanua Levu . Even though the region had been severely affected by Cyclone Ami two weeks earlier , flood waters that resulted from rains associated with the cyclone quickly receded due to the storm 's rapid motion .
When Cilla first posed a threat to Tonga , the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) issued a tropical cyclone alert for the entire island chain . Damage in Tonga was mostly limited to vegetation and coconut and banana trees ; damage to infrastructure was minor . Peak winds of 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) and peak gusts of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) were recorded in Ha 'apai . Power was lost on Lifuka for about three hours during the night of January 27 . Communications services were also affected but restored on January 28 .
Cilla also affected the American Samoa , providing moderate rainfall over the area , peaking at 2 @.@ 21 in ( 56 mm ) in Asasfou . The name Cilla was retired by the World Meteorological Organization after the season .
= John Edward Brownlee sex scandal =
The John Brownlee sex scandal occurred in 1934 in Alberta , Canada , and forced the resignation of the provincial Premier , John Edward Brownlee . Brownlee was accused of seducing Vivian MacMillan , a family friend and a secretary for Brownlee 's attorney @-@ general in 1930 , when she was 18 years old , and continuing the affair for three years . MacMillan claimed that the married premier had told her that she must have sex with him for his own sake and that of his invalid wife . She had , she testified , relented after physical and emotional pressure . Brownlee called her story a fabrication , and suggested that it was the result of a conspiracy by MacMillan , her would @-@ be fiancé , and several of Brownlee 's political opponents in the Alberta Liberal Party .
MacMillan and her father sued Brownlee for seduction . After a sensational trial in June 1934 , the six @-@ man jury found in favour of the plaintiffs , awarding them $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 5 @,@ 000 , respectively . In an unusual move , trial judge William Ives disregarded the jury 's finding and dismissed the case . The Supreme Court of Canada eventually overturned the decision and awarded MacMillan $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages . This award was affirmed by the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council , Canada 's highest court of appeal at the time . All of this was largely academic to Brownlee , who resigned after the jury 's finding . During the next election , his United Farmers of Alberta were wiped out of the legislature , losing every seat .
= = Background = =
John Brownlee became Premier of Alberta in 1925 as the leader of the parliamentary caucus of the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) . Early in his premiership , he achieved a number of successes , including winning control of the province 's natural resources from the federal government , but by 1933 the Great Depression was taking its toll on his government 's popularity . Political forces were advocating radical overhauls of the financial system . The Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation and elements of the UFA 's grassroots favored socialism and government ownership of the means of production , while the Alberta Liberal Party , many within the UFA , and William Aberhart 's new provincial movement favored social credit , although in differing forms and with differing levels of enthusiasm .
In 1934 , Brownlee was embroiled in a sex scandal , with major consequences to his political career . Those involved with the scandal gave widely disparate accounts of the surrounding facts ; on only a minority of details did the parties agree . In 1930 , Brownlee visited Edson while campaigning in the 1930 provincial election . While there , Allan MacMillan — the mayor of Edson and a political ally of Brownlee 's — took him to a farmers ' picnic . On the way to the event , Brownlee chatted with MacMillan 's daughter , Vivian , then seventeen years old and unsure as to her future . The premier encouraged her to come to Edmonton and study business at Alberta College . She did so and , after graduating in June 1931 , started working in the office of the provincial Attorney @-@ General as a stenographer on July 3 .
While in Edmonton , she became close to the Brownlee family . On July 5 , 1933 , while the rest of his family was vacationing at Sylvan Lake , Brownlee was taking MacMillan for a car ride when he noticed they were being followed . In the pursuing vehicle were John Caldwell , a suitor of MacMillan 's and third @-@ year medical student at the University of Alberta , and Neil MacLean , a prominent Edmonton lawyer and Liberal Party supporter who had been opposing counsel in the acrimonious and high profile divorce proceeding of Brownlee 's Minister of Public Works , Oran McPherson . Brownlee made a series of sharp turns and reversals , in an effort to first ascertain whether he was indeed being followed and , once satisfied that he was , to evade the other car . Unable to do so , he dropped MacMillan off at her home and returned to his .
That August , Brownlee received a letter from MacLean reading in part " We have been instructed to commence action against you for damages for the seduction of Miss Vivian MacMillan . " Later that month , he took advantage of a recess in the federal Royal Commission on Banking and Currency , of which he was a member , to visit Allan MacMillan in Edson . He spoke instead to Mrs. MacMillan , who initially refused to let him into the house and asked him to leave . She eventually relented and let him in ; he told her that pursuing the matter could ruin Vivian 's future , to which she responded " what about you ? " Concluding that the meeting was pointless , Brownlee parted by announcing " I am not asking you to refrain from your action , but I want to tell you that the allegation is not true and I will face them frankly and answer any questions ... If its [ sic ] money you are after , I haven 't got it . "
On September 22 , MacLean filed a statement of claim before Judge John R. Boyle on behalf of Allan and Vivian MacMillan . The claim was made under the Alberta Seduction Act , and sought damages of $ 10 @,@ 000 for Vivian and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Allan . It alleged that Brownlee , after arranging for Vivian 's move from Edson to Edmonton , had seduced her in the fall of 1930 when she was eighteen , and had had regular sexual contact with her for a period of three years . Brownlee denied the allegations immediately ( and made a rejected offer to resign from the Royal Commission ) and on November 13 filed a counter @-@ claim against Vivian MacMillan and John Caldwell , alleging that they had conspired to obtain money through false allegations .
= = Vivian MacMillan 's story = =
According to Vivian MacMillan , when she met Brownlee in 1930 he told her that she would " grow up to be a beautiful woman " , urged her to move to Edmonton , and offered to arrange a government job for her . He further offered to act as guardian to her and allow her to live in his house until she found a place of her own . On his advice and assurances , she moved to Edmonton and , after graduating from Alberta College , received the stenographer 's position that
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also been found .
Mackinac Island contains over 600 species of vascular plants . Flowering plants and wildflowers are abundant , including trillium , lady slippers , forget @-@ me @-@ nots , violets , trout lily , spring beauty , hepatica , buttercups , and hawkweeds in the forests and orchids , fringed gentian , butter @-@ and @-@ eggs , and jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pulpit along the shoreline . The island 's forests are home to many varieties of trees , such as maple , birch , elm , cedar , pine , and spruce .
= = Media = =
The island 's newspaper is the Mackinac Island Town Crier . It has been owned and operated by Wesley H. Maurer Sr. and his family since 1957 as training for journalism . It is published weekly from May through September and bimonthly during the rest of the year .
= = Transportation = =
The island can be reached by private boat , by ferry , by small aircraft , and in the winter , by snowmobile over an ice bridge . The airport has a 3 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 070 m ) paved runway , and daily charter air service from the mainland is available . In the summer tourist season , ferry service is available from Arnold Transit Company , Shepler 's Ferry , and Star Line Ferry to shuttle visitors to the island from St. Ignace and Mackinaw City .
Motorized vehicles have been prohibited on the island since 1898 , with the exception of snowmobiles during winter , emergency vehicles , and service vehicles . Travel on the island is either by foot , bicycle , or horse @-@ drawn carriage . Roller skates and roller blades are also allowed , except in the downtown area . Bicycles , roller skates / roller blades , carriages , and saddle horses are available for rent . An 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) road follows the island 's perimeter , and numerous roads , trails and paths cover the interior . M @-@ 185 , the United States ' only state highway without motorized vehicles , makes a circular loop around the island , closely hugging the shoreline .
The island is the location of Mackinac Island State Park , which covers approximately 80 percent of the island and includes Fort Mackinac as well as portions of the island 's historic downtown and harbor . No camping is allowed on the island , but numerous hotels and bed and breakfasts are available .
The downtown streets are lined with many retail stores , candy shops , and restaurants . A popular item at the candy shops is the locally produced and nationally known Mackinac Island fudge , leading to tourists sometimes being referred to as " fudgies " . Many shops sell a variety of fudge , and some of the confectioners have been operating for more than a century . The popularity of the fudge has led to the sales and marketing of Mackinac Island fudge not only throughout Michigan but outside the state as well .
= = Architecture = =
Most of the buildings on Mackinac Island are built of wood , a few are of stone , and most have clapboard siding . The architectural styles on the island span 300 years , from the earliest Native American structures to the styles of the 19th century . The earliest structures were built by the Anishinaabe and Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) tribes before European exploration . At least two buildings still exist from the original French settlement in the late 18th century . Mackinac Island has the only example of northern French rustic architecture in the United States , and one of few survivors in North America .
Mackinac Island also contains examples of Federalist , Colonial , and Greek Revival styles . Much of the island is built in the later style of the Victorian era which includes Gothic Revival , Stick style , Italianate , Second Empire , Richardson Romanesque and Queen Anne styles . The most recent styles used on the island date from the late 19th century to the 1930s and include the Colonial and Tudor revival styles .
= = Points of interest = =
All of Mackinac Island was listed as a National Historic Landmark in October 1960 . In addition , because of the island 's long history and preservation efforts starting in the 1890s , eight separate locations on the island , and a ninth site on adjacent Round Island , are listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places .
The entire island , Haldimand Bay , and a small shipwreck form a historic district .
Fort Mackinac was built in 1780 and was closed as a fort in 1895 as it no longer had any strategic purpose . It has been restored to its late 19th century state through efforts beginning in the 1930s .
The Biddle House , one of the oldest structures on Mackinac Island , was built about 1780 and is interpreted in its role as a prosperous family home during the height of the fur trade in the 1820s .
The McGulpin House , a working @-@ class home possibly constructed prior to 1780 , is interpreted as a frontier working @-@ class home .
The Agency House of the American Fur Company was built in 1820 as the home for the company 's Mackinac Island agent , Robert Stuart . It is now open to the public as a fur trade museum .
The Mission House was built on Mission Point in 1825 by Presbyterian missionary William Montague Ferry as a boarding school for Native American children . It became a hotel in 1849 and a rooming house in 1939 . It is restored and now houses State Park employees .
The 108 ft. tall glassed @-@ in Mission Point historical museum has five floors of historical exhibits and spectacular views of the Mackinac Straits . Exhibits include the maritime history of Mackinac Island , Great Lakes lighthouses , shipping , and shipwrecks , Mackinac Bridge construction , and the film Somewhere in Time , which was primarily filmed on Mission Point property .
The Mission Church was built in 1829 and is the oldest surviving church building in Michigan . Restoration efforts have returned the church to its 1830s appearance .
The Indian Dormitory was constructed under direction of U.S. Indian agent Henry Rowe Schoolcraft after the signing of the 1836 Treaty of Washington , as a school and a place for Native Americans visiting the island to stay when receiving yearly allotments . The building was restored in 1966 and converted to a museum , which was closed in 2003 . On July 2 , 2010 , the building reopened as The Richard and Jane Manoogian Mackinac Art Museum . It showcases Mackinac art from prehistory to the present , and includes a kids ' art studio .
The Matthew Geary House was built in 1846 , was added to the register in 1971 , and is now available for vacation rentals .
The current Sainte Anne Church was built starting in 1874 . It replaced earlier parish churches in use on Mackinac Island and the adjacent mainland ; the parish register lists sacraments performed starting in 1695 .
The Grand Hotel is a Victorian @-@ style structure that opened in 1887 . The 1980 film Somewhere in Time was shot on location at the hotel .
The Round Island Lighthouse is located just south of the island on the small , uninhabited Round Island . The light was built in 1894 and automated in 1924 . Extensive restoration efforts began in the 1970s and the exterior and structure have since been repaired .
Wawashkamo Golf Club was laid out in 1898 as a Scottish links @-@ type course and is now the oldest continuously played golf course in Michigan .
The Michigan Governor 's Summer Residence was built overlooking the harbor in 1902 and was purchased by the state for use as a governor 's residence in 1943 .
Anne 's Tablet is an Art Nouveau sculptural installation added to a blufftop overlook in 1916 .
There are several children 's parks on the island . The most popular ones include the playground on the schoolyard ; Marquette Park ; and the less known Great Turtle Park , which includes a baseball field , skate park , barbecue area , and a play set .
= = Culture = =
= = = Events = = =
Mackinac Island is home to many cultural events , including an annual show of American art from the Masco collection of 19th @-@ century works at the Grand Hotel . There are at least five art galleries on the island .
Since 1949 , the island 's residents have been celebrating the island 's native lilacs with an annual 10 @-@ day festival , culminating in a horse @-@ drawn parade that has been recognized as a local legacy event by the Library of Congress .
= = = Scout Service Camp = = =
Every summer , Mackinac Island accommodates up to 54 Michigan Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts and their leaders over alternate weeks . These scouts serve the state park as the Mackinac Island Governor 's Honor Guard . The program began in 1929 , when the State Park Commission invited eight Eagle Scouts , including young Gerald Ford , to serve as honor guards for the Michigan governor .
In 1974 , the program was expanded to include Girl Scouts . The program is popular , selective , and a long @-@ standing tradition . Scouts raise and lower twenty @-@ six flags on the island , serve as guides , and complete volunteer service projects during their stay . These scouts live in the Scout Barracks behind Fort Mackinac .
= = = Sailing = = =
Mackinac Island is the destination for two sailing races . The island has a sailing club , the Mackinac Island Yacht Club . It serves as the finish line for both the Port Huron to Mackinac Race and the Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac . The races run a week apart , in July . They are both among the longest freshwater sailing races in the world and attract over 500 boats and 3 @,@ 500 sailors combined . Both races are historical events , having been run every year since the 1920s .
= = = Filming location = = =
The swimming pool at the Grand Hotel is named for Esther Williams , who starred in the 1947 film This Time for Keeps which featured many of its scenes on Mackinac Island .
The majority of the 1980 film Somewhere in Time was filmed at Mission Point on Mackinac Island . Several landmarks are visible in the film , including the Grand Hotel and the lighthouse on nearby Round Island . The film 's director said he needed to " find a place that looked like it hadn 't changed in eighty years . "
Mackinac Island was featured on two episodes of the mid @-@ 2000s TV series Dirty Jobs , with host Mike Rowe as a Mackinac Bridge maintenance worker , and a horse manure and garbage removal / composting collector .
= = Notable people = =
= The Colours of Animals =
The Colours of Animals is a zoology book written in 1890 by Sir Edward Bagnall Poulton ( 1856 – 1943 ) . It was the first substantial textbook to argue the case for Darwinian selection applying to all aspects of animal coloration . The book also pioneered the concept of frequency @-@ dependent selection and introduced the term " aposematism " .
The book begins with a brief account of the physical causes of animal coloration . The second chapter gives an overview of the book , describing the various uses of colour in terms of the advantages it can bring through natural selection . The next seven chapters describe camouflage , both in predators and in prey . Methods of camouflage covered include background matching , resemblance to specific objects such as bird droppings , self @-@ decoration with materials from the environment , and the seasonal colour change of arctic animals . Two chapters cover warning colours , including both Batesian mimicry , where the mimic is edible , and Mullerian mimicry , where distasteful species mimic each other . A chapter then looks at how animals combine multiple methods of defence , for instance in the puss moth . Two chapters examine coloration related to sexual selection . Finally Poulton summarizes the subject with a fold @-@ out table including a set of Greek derived words that he invented , of which " aposematic " and " cryptic " survive in biological usage .
The Colours of Animals was well received on its publication , although the book 's support for sexual selection was criticised by Alfred Russel Wallace , and its Darwinism and critique of Lamarckism were attacked by Edward Drinker Cope . Wallace liked Poulton 's experimental work but was critical of his opinions on sexual selection . The Neo @-@ Lamarckian Cope criticised Poulton 's support for Darwin but liked the book 's many observations of animal coloration . Modern biologists respect Poulton 's advocacy of natural selection and sexual selection , despite the lack at the time of an adequate theory of heredity , and his recognition of frequency @-@ dependent selection .
= = Book = =
= = = Approach = = =
Evidence for natural selection
Poulton explains in his Preface that
My chief object has been to demonstrate the utility of colour and marking in animals . In many cases I have attempted to prove that Natural Selection has sufficed to account for the results achieved ; and I fully believe that further knowledge will prove that this principle explains the origin of all appearances except those which are due to the subordinate principle of Sexual Selection ...
Evidence for sexual selection
Poulton strongly supports Darwin both on the general theme of natural selection , and on the power of sexual selection in species which are sexually dimorphic ( where , usually , the male is showier than the female ) :
When we look at the marvellous eyes upon the train of a Peacock , or the more beautiful markings on the feathers of the male Argus Pheasant , it seems impossible that so wonderful and complete a result can have been produced by the aesthetic preferences of female birds . And yet Mr. Darwin shows the relation between these characters and much simpler markings on other parts of the surface . He proves that the one has been derived from the other by gradual modification ... Such facts , while eminently suggestive of ... some selective agency , seem to be unexplained by any other theory .
Poulton knew his view was controversial , but believed he was winning the argument :
Mr. Wallace 's chief objection is the lack of evidence that the female has any aesthetic preferences at all in the selection of her mate . When , however , he admits that display of their decorative plumage by male birds is ' demonstrated ' , and that the females are in all probability ' pleased or excited by the display ' , he certainly admits the possession of an aesthetic sense ...
Frequency @-@ dependent selection
In The Colours of Animals , Poulton introduced the concept of frequency @-@ dependent selection ( selection based on how abundant a form is ) in the context of a polymorphism which he argued would otherwise soon vanish :
If we breed from moths developed from the green larvae of , e.g. , the Large Emerald , the larvae in the next generation are chiefly green , and after several generations there is little doubt that the brown form would become excessively rare ; so also the green form would disappear if we bred from the brown varieties . But in nature both forms are common , and therefore it is certain that both must be advantageous to the species , or one of them would quickly disappear . I believe that it is a benefit to the species that some of its larvae should resemble brown and others green catkins , instead of all of them resembling either brown or green . In the former case the foes have a wider range of objects for which they may mistake the larvae , and the search must occupy more time , for equivalent results , than in the case of other species which are not dimorphic .
Mimicry and aposematism
The basic concept of warning coloration ( aposematism , like the black and yellow pattern of a wasp ) is approached very simply :
When an animal possesses an unpleasant attribute , it is often to its advantage to advertise the fact as publicly as possible . In this way it escapes a great deal of experimental ' tasting . ' The conspicuous patterns and strongly contrasted colours which serve as the signal of danger or inedibility are known as Warning Colours .
In the next paragraph Poulton ties aposematism to mimicry as follows :
It is these Warning Colours which are nearly always the objects of Protective Mimicry , and it will therefore be convenient to describe the former before the latter .
Poulton introduced the term aposematism with the words :
The second head ( Sematic Colours ) includes Warning Colours and Recognition Markings : the former warn an enemy off , and are therefore called Aposematic ;
= = = Contents = = =
The book 's structure emphasises the extent to which Poulton , like Darwin , relied on a mass of evidence , mainly from insects , to make his case :
Chapter 1 The Physical Cause of Animal Colours .
Poulton introduces absorption , scattering , colour due to " thin plates " ( structural coloration ) , diffraction and refraction .
Chapter 2 The Uses of Colour .
The effects of natural selection in creating or destroying colour are discussed . Colour can be non @-@ significant , e.g. directly useful for absorbing heat , Poulton argues , but " By far the most widespread use of colour is to assist an animal in escaping from its enemies or in capturing its prey ; the former is Protective , the latter Aggressive [ resemblance , i.e. camouflage ] . " The topics of mimicry , warning coloration , and sexual selection are introduced .
Chapter 3 Protective Resemblances in Lepidoptera .
Poulton distinguishes " special " from " general " resemblances , meaning mimicking a specific object " of no interest to its enemies " , or just harmonising " with the general artistic effect of its surroundings " , giving examples from moth caterpillars found in England such as the peppered moth and the brimstone moth .
Chapter 4 Protective Resemblances in Lepidoptera ( continued ) , Dimorphism , Etc .
The privet hawkmoth caterpillar is used as an example of " general resemblance " . Dimorphism , where caterpillars of a species are sometimes green , sometimes brown , is discussed . The delicacy of larvae is given as a reason for their " wonderful concealment " : one touch from a predator " being practically fatal " . The resemblance of Kallima and some moths to dead leaves is examined .
Chapter 5 Protective Resemblances In Vertebrata , Etc .
The camouflage of snakes , female birds that " undertake the duty of incubation " , birds ' eggs , mammals , fish , and marine molluscs is briefly covered .
Chapter 6 Aggressive Resemblances — Adventitious Protection .
The camouflage of predators including lizards , angler fish , mantises including Hymenopus bicornis and the bird @-@ dropping spider is described . " Adventitious protection " , making use of materials from the environment , is illustrated with examples such as the decorator crabs and caddis fly larvae , which build tubes " of grains of sand , small shells ( often alive ) , vegetable fragments " .
Chapter 7 Variable Protective Resemblance in Vertebrata , Etc .
The ability of animals including fish , lizards and frogs to change their colours quickly is discussed . The changing of the pelage of arctic animals is attributed to the indirect effect of the change in temperature , i.e. a physiological response not a simple physical effect .
Chapter 8 Variable Protective Resemblance In Insects .
Poulton describes in detail experiments demonstrating that moth pupae take on the colour of the background experienced earlier by the larvae .
Chapter 9 Protective Resemblances in Lepidoptera ( continued ) .
Poulton discusses the metallic appearance of insect pupae , which he says is the reason for the name " chrysalis " . He rejects the ( Lamarckian ) view of the " origin of colour , by the direct influence of environment accumulated through many generations " , which he agrees is " a very tempting conclusion " , because of " clear evidence that the medium of the nervous system was necessary .
Chapter 10 Warning Colours .
The conspicuous warning colours of many insects , skunks , snakes and salamanders are discussed . " It must have been obvious to any one interested in natural history that the insects met with during a walk in summer may be arranged in two great groups : ... difficult to find ... and ... startling colours and conspicuous attitudes " The association of warning with " nauseous or dangerous " animals is identified . The idea that warning coloured animals must be scarce relative to palatable ones is mentioned , along with the reason why different animals use the same warning colours .
Chapter 11 Warning Colours ( continued ) .
Poulton discusses the relationship of colours used for sexual selection and for warning , and continues the discussion of warning with many examples , including Mullerian mimicry , noting that this can both make a pair of distasteful species converge in appearance , and make a group of such species all resemble each other .
Chapter 12 Protective Mimicry .
The chapter looks at Batesian mimicry ( where the mimic is edible ) in both tropical butterflies and English moths , beginning " We now approach one of the most interesting aspects of our subject " .
Chapter 13 Protective and Aggressive Mimicry .
Poulton gives examples of mimicry in other insect groups , remarking the " very imperfect " resemblance of bee hawk @-@ moths to bees , which totally failed to " impose on " a lizard , but noting that the much more convincing mimicry of the hornet clearwing moth was treated with extreme caution by an inexperienced lizard .
Chapter 14 The Combination of Many Methods of Defence .
The chapter describes animals including the puss moth caterpillar which combines a threatening display with camouflage and the ability to eject an irritant fluid for protection . Poulton also discusses the lobster moth caterpillar .
Chapter 15 Colours Produced by Courtship .
Poulton discusses sexual selection in birds , butterflies and moths , and spiders , which he treats as another process alongside but supordinate to natural selection , with arguments against the views of Alfred Russel Wallace . He notes that it was remarkable that biological research since Darwin had focussed mainly on comparative anatomy and embryology , whereas Darwin himself was interested in " questions which concern the living animal as a whole " , and observes that there are " comparatively few true naturalists " , as opposed to " anatomists , microscopists , systematists , or collectors " .
Chapter 16 Other Theories of Sexual Colouring .
In this chapter , Poulton looks at " the causes which Mr. Wallace and other writers believe to have been efficient in producing sexual colouring " , such as the principle of " recognition marking " . Poulton uses the example of the satin bowerbird as evidence for an aesthetic sense .
Chapter 17 Summary And Classification .
Poulton sums up his views with a fold @-@ out table of " The Colours of Animals Classified According to Their Uses " . The Greek derived category names include the now widely used aposematic and cryptic , alongside such epithets as " apatetic " , " procryptic " , " anticryptic " , " episematic " and " epigamic " , with variants .
= = Reception = =
= = = On first publication in 1890 = = =
= = = = Wallace in Nature = = = =
The co @-@ discoverer of natural selection Alfred Russel Wallace , reviewing Poulton in Nature , was interested by Poulton 's observations on thin films producing iridescence : " In some cases dried insects lose some of their metallic colours , but these reappear when the specimen is dipped in water . " However , Wallace objected to Poulton 's suggestion that arctic birds and mammals are white to reduce heat loss by radiation , for which he argued there was no evidence in favour , while a thicker " covering , such as actually occurs in all arctic animals " would reduce heat loss effectively , and could be observed to do so .
Wallace was enthusiastic about Poulton 's experimental work on how butterfly larvae vary their coloration according to the background , admiring " a number of ingenious experiments " in which Poulton illuminated the insects in light of one colour or another , causing reliable colour changes which could not be direct , like photography , but had to be mediated by the animal 's nervous system :
In some cases even the cocoons spun by the larvæ are modified by the surrounding colours ; and still more curious changes are effected in the larva itself when ... the same species feeds on several plants having differently @-@ coloured leaves . Even the presence of numerous dark twigs has been shown to cause a corresponding change of colour in the larva of the peppered moth ( Amphidasis betularia ) . "
Wallace 's main criticism , occupying half his lengthy review , was of Poulton 's acceptance of sexual selection . He begins by stating " Mr. Poulton fully accepts Darwin 's theory of female choice as the source of the greater part of the brilliant colour , delicate patterns , and ornamental appendages that exist among animals , and especially among birds and insects . " Wallace then cites Poulton on the courtship behaviour of spiders :
" ' The female always watches the antics of the male intently , but often refuses him in the end , ' even after dancing before her for a long time . ' Such observations strongly point towards the existence of female preference based on æsthetic considerations '
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him apart in loneliness and forced him to take refuge in the safer and more conventional image of the talented and hypersensitive poet ... " Both believe " The Snowman " has its source and inspiration in Andersen 's relationship with a young male ballet dancer associated with the Royal Theater in Copenhagen .
= = = Andersen and Harald Scharff = = =
In 1857 in Paris , he made the acquaintance of fellow Dane Harald Scharff , a handsome and highly regarded young ballet dancer with Copenhagen 's Royal Theatre . Andersen was returning to Copenhagen via Paris following a visit to Charles Dickens in England , and Scharff was on holiday with his Copenhagen housemate , the actor Lauritz Eckardt . Andersen and Scharff toured Notre Dame together . Three years passed before Andersen again met the pair quite by accident in Bavaria in July 1860 ; the three men enjoyed a week together in Munich and its environs . It is probable that Andersen fell in love with Scharff at this time . According to his diary , Andersen did not " feel at all well " when the two young men left Munich on 9 July 1860 for Salzburg .
Following the departure of Scharff and Eckardt for Salzburg , Andersen traveled to Switzerland but grew despondent and then depressed . In November , he returned to Copenhagen and spent Christmas at Basnæs , the estate of an aristocratic patron and friend on the coast of Zealand . His spirits lifted with the holiday festivities and " The Snowman ” was composed on New Year ’ s Eve 1860 . It was published with several other new tales by Andersen two months later on 2 March 1861 in New Fairy Tales and Stories . Second Series . First Collection . 1861 @.@ by the Copenhagen publisher C. A. Reitzel .
Andersen 's relationship with Scharff continued to develop and early in 1862 the two entered a relationship that brought Andersen " joy , some kind of sexual fulfillment and a temporary end to loneliness . " Andersen referred to this time in his life as his " erotic period " , but he was not discreet in his conduct with Scharff and displayed his feelings much too openly . Onlookers regarded the relationship as improper and ridiculous . The affair came to an end late in 1863 as Scharff gradually withdrew to focus on his friendship with Eckardt who had married an actress . Andersen noted in his diary 13 November 1863 : " Scharff has not visited me in eight days ; with him it is over . " Andersen took the end of the affair calmly and the two former lovers thereafter met in overlapping social circles without bitterness . Andersen tried several times to lure Scharff into another intimate relationship but without success .
= = = Commentaries = = =
Andersen retained story ideas in his mind sometimes for years before coalescing with an event or mood in his life , and telling stories such as “ The Snowman ” was a compulsion with him . The tale has been described as poignant and lyrical , and as a self @-@ mocking autobiographical revelation in which Andersen expressed his conviction that love is a burning , unreciprocated pain , and that he would end his life partnerless and alone . The light @-@ hearted Snowman is a complement to Andersen ’ s tragic Fir Tree and , in telling the tale , Andersen returns “ to his earlier , tragicomic mode of sketching the fleeting autobiography of an everyday object which seems to have caught his eye at random and yet whose life story has an uncanny appropriateness to its physical form . ”
Andersen referred to " The Snowman " as a simple fairy tale , but the story may be viewed as a metaphor for life . The Snowman remains frozen to the ground , questioning fate , existence , and all that he sees and experiences . In this respect , the Snowman shares a common bond with Hamlet — both grope for what is hidden , for the real behind the surface . But there the similarities end . Scholars Jackie Wullschlager and Alsion Prince argue that Andersen 's tales are expressions of his homosexuality , and Graham Robb author of Strangers : Homosexual Love in the 19th Century calls his work an " Aesop of 19th @-@ century homosexuality " . and many of his heroes the victims of an unpopular sexual preference . " The Snowman " is a tale about misguided love , about a snowman who falls in love with what he believes is a female stove , and is Andersen 's best argument for the price paid for falling in love with the wrong type – with the stove representing the danger in this " wrong " relationship . Andersen spent a lifetime seeking validation by women and experienced only the pain of unreciprocated love . His diaries reveal Andersen resorted to masturbation as a sexual outlet , and one critic notes that " [ Andersen ] so fabulously struck out with the ladies that it seems he simply expanded his dating pool to men to hedge his bets . "
Andersen biographer Alison Prince believes the tale to be a parable representing the different kinds of love . When the Snowman asks the dog why a young man and woman stroll about the wintry garden hand @-@ in @-@ hand , the disillusioned old dog tells him the two are engaged and will soon be moving into " the same kennel together and sharing each other 's bones " . The Snowman has a different idea of love , being enamored of the stove . Prince considers the image of the poker found within the Snowman 's remains " a homoerotic image of such potency that a failure to spot it seems inconceiveable . "
= Gary Schiff =
Gary Schiff ( born February 3 , 1972 , as Gary J. Schiffhauer ) is an American politician and activist who represented Ward 9 on the Minneapolis City Council . A member of the Minnesota Democratic @-@ Farmer @-@ Labor Party ( DFL ) , he was first elected in 2001 and re @-@ elected in 2005 and 2009 . Prior to his political career , Schiff was involved with a variety of activist groups and causes ranging from human rights with the Human Rights Campaign , to historic preservation with Save Our Shubert .
During his city council tenure , Schiff worked to ease ordinances prohibitive to small businesses , especially microbreweries , and strongly advocated against a publicly funded stadium for the Minnesota Vikings . In January 2013 , Schiff began a campaign for Mayor of Minneapolis in the 2013 election but after an unsuccessful DFL endorsement convention , dropped out of the race and backed an opponent ( the eventual winner ) in mid @-@ June . His third and final term on the City Council ended in January 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Schiff was born Gary J. Schiffhauer on February 3 , 1972 , and grew up the youngest of six children in Western New York State . In 1990 , the American Civil Liberties Union represented Schiff after he graduated from Lewiston @-@ Porter High School in his hometown of Youngstown , New York . According to The Buffalo News , Schiff had painted a mural along the school 's stairwell that referenced " drugs , safe sex , AIDS and racism " in the style of artist Keith Haring . In September of that year , the school 's superintendent , Walter S. Polka , decided that parts of the mural 's text were objectionable . The American Civil Liberties Union became involved in an extended legal fight over the constitutionality of Polka 's censorship , and a New York Supreme Court Justice sided with the Lewiston @-@ Porter School Board . In 1991 , the school board voted 5 @-@ 1 to paint over the mural . The board cited Schiff 's involvement in a recent ACT @-@ UP demonstration at the school — where demonstrators gave condoms and safe sex literature to students — as a major influence on their decision .
As part of a transition that included moving from Youngstown to Minneapolis to attend college at the University of Minnesota , Schiff shortened his name from the original Schiffhauer as a result of his parents ' shame and refusal to acknowledge his sexuality in the small conservative town of Youngstown NY where the family attended church in a conservative Roman Catholic Parish ( St. Bernard 's , Youngstown , NY ) . However , Robert and Rita Schiffhauer , Gary 's parents , soon joined the PFLAG Chapter in nearby Buffalo , NY in order to understand and support their son which they continued to do throughout their lives . Schiff 's official public statement is that he shortened his name in an effort to move athe memories of bullying that he said made his youth " an act of survival " . In October 1992 , he and six other students protested against the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) and its compliance with a longstanding ban on homosexuals in the military . The seven protesters interrupted a meeting of the University Board of Regents , demanded the expulsion of the ROTC from campus , and handcuffed themselves to the Regents ' chairs . Wearing signs that read " $ old , " suggesting that their human rights had been traded for Federal grant money , Schiff and the six other students were arrested by University Police and each charged with misdemeanors .
From 1993 to 1995 , Schiff directed the Progressive Student Leadership Exchange ( PLSE ) , a program modeled on the Civil Rights Movement 's Freedom Summer . The Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) took interest in the program , and invited Schiff to direct it as the newly named " Youth College for Campaign Training " in Washington , D.C. The HRC @-@ funded program invited people aged 18 – 24 to participate in workshops , and sent the participants to " target states " where they worked in groups as campaign staff members . The program was still in operation as late as 2006 .
After graduating in 1994 with a B.A. in women 's studies , Schiff moved to Washington , D.C. to work with the Human Rights Campaign . He returned to Minneapolis to work with Progressive Minnesota , " a grassroots group focused on community organizing and electoral politics . " In December 1997 , he became involved in a fight to save the Shubert Theater , a former vaudeville house on " Block E " in downtown Minneapolis , after the Minneapolis City Council approved a redevelopment plan that called for the theater 's demolition . Within days , Schiff organized " Save Our Shubert , " a grassroots effort to preserve the theater . After eight months , during which time Save our Shubert acted as a media contact , lobbied the city council , and " kept the Shubert in the public eye " , the Minneapolis City Council voted 9 @-@ 3 to move the theater to a space adjacent to the Hennepin Center for the Arts at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 9 million .
= = Minneapolis City Council = =
Schiff , at the time working as a teaching assistant in the University of Minnesota 's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs on his way to earning a master 's degree in urban planning , took a leave of absence to run for a seat on the Minneapolis City Council against Michael Guest and Kathy Thurber in 2001 . He won unanimous DFL endorsement on September 11 , 2001 and , in a race that was overshadowed by the 2001 terrorist attacks , he ran against Lucky Rosenbloom , an African @-@ American Republican . Schiff received the endorsement of the Star Tribune , which noted his " first @-@ hand knowledge " of light rail systems in other U.S. cities . Elected by a large majority in November 2001 , Schiff became one of seven newly elected members on the 13 @-@ member city council , joining two Green Party members , two other openly gay council members , one African @-@ American council member , and four women . He was sworn into office on December 17 , 2001 , earlier than his fellow councilmembers , when Thurber resigned from her seat to assume the position of deputy director of Perpich Center for Arts Education .
= = = First term ( 2001 – 05 ) = = =
In his first term , Schiff sponsored and cosponsored numerous legal reforms to the Minneapolis Zoning Code that reduced bureaucratic obstacles for small businesses and housing developers , including a measure that permitted sidewalk cafes to use permanent outdoor furniture and a change in city zoning code that facilitated the construction of denser and more affordable housing . He also sponsored an ordinance to add domestic partnerships to the Zoning Code 's definition of " family " in terms of housing .
In 2003 , with colleagues Barbara Johnson and Sandy Colvin Roy , Schiff developed a last @-@ minute plan to restore $ 2 million in proposed cuts to the Minneapolis Fire and Police Departments , following a $ 26 million cut from Local Government Aid by former Governor Tim Pawlenty . That same year , he sponsored an ordinance that effectively blocked police officers , city inspectors , and other city employees from inquiring about a resident 's immigration status . The ordinance forbids police officers from arresting a suspect solely on the grounds of a suspected immigration status violation .
= = = Second term ( 2005 – 09 ) = = =
In July 2004 , the Minneapolis City Council passed a ban on indoor smoking in bars , restaurants , pool halls , and bowling alleys by a 12 @-@ 1 margin . In March 2005 , the ban took effect alongside other indoor smoking bans passed by other cities in the Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul metropolitan area . Subsequently , during the 2005 Minneapolis City Council elections , a write @-@ in candidate named Dave Shegstad received 10 percent of the ninth ward vote under a " Smoke Out Gary " campaign slogan — a reference to Schiff 's role as a co @-@ author of the smoking ban . 59 percent of voters re @-@ elected Schiff to a second term ; his main opponent , Green Party candidate David Bicking , won 30 percent of the vote .
In 2006 , Schiff sponsored eliminating a cap on taxi licenses in Minneapolis . The move angered some local taxi drivers , who noted that an attending increase in licenses would lead to greater competition in the local taxicab business . The City Council passed the cap lift , and the number of Minneapolis taxis doubled between 2010 and 2012 .
Beginning in 2008 , Schiff and other city leaders contended with local ramifications of the 2008 @-@ 2012 global recession , which included spate of foreclosures in economically distressed neighborhoods . In April 2008 , the city council approved a pilot mortgage assistance program called Minneapolis Advantage . The program , which passed the council 10 @-@ 2 , offered forgivable loans to homebuyers who were interested in properties on the same block as foreclosed or city @-@ owned properties within targeted neighborhoods . Schiff argued that the initiative was not targeted enough to have the designed effect and voted against it , along with fellow councilmember Paul Ostrow .
The city also strictly regulated non @-@ motorized pedicabs ; it first permitted the bicycle @-@ powered taxis in 1984 , but there were no active pedicab licenses in the city by 2008 . Schiff proposed eliminating some restrictions , and the city council passed ordinances allowing pedicabs to operate on downtown streets , downtown bridges , and on the Nicollet Mall , at any time except the morning and evening rush hours . In October 2011 , when the city permitted pedicabs to operate during rush hours ( with new safety regulations ) , eight licensed pedicab companies operated forty cabs in the downtown area .
= = = Third term ( 2009 – 13 ) = = =
In February 2012 , a reporter for the Minnesota Daily wrote that Schiff is " possibly the most active and popular City Council member " and noted that 60 percent of Ward 9 voters reelected him to a third term in 2009 .
An avid supporter of microbrewing in Minneapolis , Schiff sponsored the " Brew Beer Here " ordinance that allowed the sale of 64 @-@ ounce " growlers " of beer on Minneapolis brewery premises . Passed in August 2010 , the ordinance facilitated brewery operation within Minneapolis city limits and led to the opening of Harriet Brewing Company , the first Minneapolis brewery to open in decades . With colleague Elizabeth Gidden , Schiff co @-@ sponsored the " Surly Bill , " an ordinance that permits breweries to sell pints of their products on @-@ site . Schiff also proposed eliminating zoning constraints against establishments serving alcohol within 300 feet of a house of worship outside of the downtown area . The ordinance change was inspired by a struggle between Rob Miller , a brewer interested in opening a " pico brewery " called Dangerous Man Brewing in Northeast Minneapolis , and the church of Saints Cyril and Methodius Church , located across the street from the brewery 's proposed location . Citing his work to ease ordinances prohibitive to the microbrewing industry , Twin Cities Business named Schiff the most business @-@ friendly city councilor in Minneapolis in 2012 .
In 1997 , before he became a member of the city council , Schiff co @-@ authored an amendment to the City of Minneapolis Charter that mandated a voter referendum on city stadium subsidies that cost taxpayers over $ 10 million . As of 2009 , the Minnesota Vikings were moving forward on a $ 870 million plan to rebuild a downtown stadium on the site of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome . The team also considered building a new stadium in other cities , including Anoka , Minnesota and Los Angeles , California . Though supportive of the Vikings remaining in Minneapolis in 2012 , Schiff became an outspoken critic of the financing plan for the stadium when it came to a vote before the Minneapolis City Council , in part because it bypassed the charter amendment . Schiff also argued that the plan 's estimated cost to Minneapolis taxpayers , cited at $ 150 million in construction costs , failed to account for interest , maintenance costs , and upgrades over the course of the stadium 's expected 30 @-@ year lifespan . In a Star Tribune editorial , Schiff quoted figures presented by the city 's chief financial officer , Kevin Carpenter , which estimated a cumulative , 30 @-@ year cost that could range from $ 675 million to $ 890 million . Despite Schiff 's objections , the Minneapolis City Council approved the stadium financing 7 @-@ 6 . Subsequently , the football team moved forward with plans to demolish the Metrodome and rebuild a new stadium on the site , and Governor Mark Dayton signed a financing plan approved by the legislature .
= = Mayoral bid ( 2013 ) = =
Schiff had been considering running for mayor of Minneapolis in the 2013 Minneapolis mayoral election as early as June 2012 , and stated that his ultimate decision would not be contingent upon whether Mayor R.T. Rybak opted to run for another term . Speaking from the Harriet Brewing tap room on January 29 , 2013 , Schiff announced his official candidacy for the position . On the same day , he also held an event in the Dinkytown area near the University of Minnesota with rapper Brother Ali to kick off his campaign . Schiff was the second City Councilmember to announce his candidacy after Betsy Hodges of Ward 13 , and Don Samuels of Ward 5 announced his candidacy later .
The University of Minnesota 's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs hosted the first mayoral debate on March 27 , with Schiff among the five declared candidates who were seeking the DFL nomination . A week later , on April 4 , Schiff took part in the city 's second mayoral debate , this time located at a Kingfield @-@ neighborhood church . During the proceedings , he pledged that he would abide by the DFL 's endorsement , making him the sole candidate to vow so among the five candidates seeking the endorsement at the time . Schiff also participated in the city 's first mayoral debate dealing specifically with issues concerning Minneapolis 's Somali population , an event that took place on May 31 and was hosted at a Somali restaurant on Lake Street . Schiff received endorsements from the Minneapolis Firefighters Union , state representative Karen Clark , and former Vikings punter Chris Kluwe , among others .
At the DFL endorsement convention , Schiff came in third place behind Mark Andrew and Hodges during the first two rounds of voting but was denied a place on the third round ballot after failing to meet a minimum vote threshold during round two . When Schiff backed Hodges with the intention , according to the Star Tribune , of preventing Andrew from receiving the 60 % of votes needed to win the endorsement , he lost the support of the Minneapolis Firefighters Union . The convention concluded with no winner and , because no one was endorsed , Schiff stated that he would remain in the race . His campaign manager , Mark Warren , left Schiff 's campaign shortly after the convention and a few days later , he declared an end to his bid for mayor and announced that he would campaign actively for Hodges .
= = = Post @-@ mayoral bid = = =
Schiff did not run for reelection in the City Council elections in 2013 . Activist and communications specialist Alondra Cano won his seat with over 47 percent of the vote and was sworn into office on January 6 , 2014 . On July 1 , 2014 , Schiff took over as president of the Council on Crime and Justice , an organization with the goal of guaranteeing " equal justice and improved public safety at the same time " .
= = Personal life = =
An avid cyclist , Schiff lives in the Corcoran neighborhood of South Minneapolis . He sits on the board of In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theatre and has served as co @-@ chair of the capital campaign of the Little Earth for United Tribes . Schiff is gay and does not eat gluten .
= = Electoral history = =
= SMS Thüringen =
SMS Thüringen was the third vessel of the Helgoland class of dreadnought battleships of the German Imperial Navy . Thüringen 's keel was laid in November 1908 at the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen . She was launched on
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27 November 1909 and commissioned into the fleet on 1 July 1911 . The ship was equipped with twelve 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in six twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Thüringen was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career , including World War I.
Along with her three sister ships , Helgoland , Ostfriesland , and Oldenburg , Thüringen participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I in the North Sea against the British Grand Fleet . This included the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 , the largest naval battle of the war . Thüringen was involved in the heavy night fighting at Jutland , including the destruction of the armored cruiser HMS Black Prince . The ship also saw action against the Imperial Russian Navy in the Baltic Sea , where she participated in the unsuccessful first incursion into the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 .
After the German collapse in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow during the peace negotiations . The four Helgoland @-@ class ships were allowed to remain in Germany and were therefore spared the destruction of the fleet in Scapa Flow . Thüringen and her sisters were eventually ceded to the victorious Allied powers as war reparations ; Thüringen was transferred to France in April 1920 and used as a target ship for the French Navy . She was sunk off Gavres and broken up in situ in 1923 – 1933 , though some sections of the ship remain .
= = Construction = =
Thüringen was ordered by the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) under the provisional name Ersatz Beowulf , as a replacement for the old coastal defense ship Beowulf . The contract for the ship was awarded to the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen under construction number 166 . Work began on 2 November 1908 with the laying of her keel , and the ship was launched a year later on 27 November 1909 . She was christened by Duchess Adelheid von Sachsen @-@ Altenburg , and Grand Duke Wilhelm Ernst gave the speech . Fitting @-@ out , including completion of the superstructure and the installation of armament , lasted until June 1911 . Following her completion , six pontoon barges were attached to the new battleship to reduce her draft to allow her to be towed down the Weser River to the North Sea . Thüringen , named for Thuringia , a state in central Germany , was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 June 1911 , less than three years after work commenced , at a cost of 46 @.@ 314 million gold marks , the most expensive unit of her class .
The ship was 167 @.@ 2 m ( 548 ft 7 in ) long overall , had a beam of 28 @.@ 5 m ( 93 ft 6 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 94 m ( 29 ft 4 in ) , and displaced 24 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) at full load . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion steam engines and fifteen water @-@ tube boilers . The engines were rated at 27 @,@ 617 ihp ( 20 @,@ 594 kW ) and were capable of producing a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Thüringen stored up to 3 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 100 long tons ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After 1915 , the boilers were modified to spray oil on the coal to increase its burn rate ; the ship could carry up to 197 metric tons ( 194 long tons ) of fuel oil .
Thüringen was armed with a main battery of twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns in six twin gun turrets , with one turret fore , one aft , and two on each flank of the ship . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns . After 1914 , two of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced by 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . Thüringen was also armed with six 50 cm ( 20 in ) submerged torpedo tubes ; one was in the bow , one in the stern , and two on each broadside . Her main belt of armor was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick , with the same thickness of armor on her main battery turrets . Her deck was 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 50 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning on 1 July 1911 , Thüringen conducted sea trials , which were completed by 10 September . On 19 September , she was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , alongside her sisters . She then went on to conduct individual ship training exercises , which were followed by I Squadron exercises and then fleet maneuvers in November . The annual summer cruise in July and August , which typically went to Norway , was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise only went into the Baltic . Thüringen and the rest of the fleet then fell into a pattern of individual ship , squadron , and full fleet exercises over the next two years . In October 1913 , William Michaelis became the ship 's commanding officer ; he held the post until February 1915 .
On 14 July 1914 , the annual summer cruise to Norway began . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On 27 July , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skudenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day , and within a week all the major European powers had joined the conflict . By 29 July Thüringen and the rest of I Squadron were back in Wilhelmshaven . During the first year of the war , the future anti @-@ Nazi Lutheran pastor Martin Niemöller served aboard the ship as an officer .
= = = World War I = = =
Thüringen was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . Admiral von Ingenohl intended to use the battlecruisers of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on the English coast . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Thüringen and her three sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . Skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
The Battle of Dogger Bank , in which Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons ambushed the I Scouting Group battlecruisers , occurred on 24 January 1915 . Thüringen and the rest of I Squadron were sortied to reinforce the outnumbered German battlecruisers ; I Squadron left port at 12 : 33 CET , along with the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of II Squadron . The High Seas Fleet was too late , so it failed to locate any British forces . By 19 : 05 , the fleet had returned to the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven . In the meantime , the armored cruiser Blücher had been overwhelmed by concentrated British fire and sunk , while the battlecruiser Seydlitz was severely damaged by an ammunition fire . As a result , Wilhelm II removed von Ingenohl from his post and replaced him with Admiral Hugo von Pohl on 2 February .
The eight I Squadron ships went into the Baltic on 22 February 1915 for unit training , which lasted until 13 March . Following their return to the North Sea , the ships participated in a series of uneventful fleet sorties on 29 – 30 March , 17 – 18 April , 21 – 22 April , 17 – 18 May , and 29 – 30 May . Thüringen and the rest of the fleet then remained in port until 4 August , when the I Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of training maneuvers . From there , the squadron was attached to the naval force that attempted to sweep the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces in August 1915 . The assault force included the eight I Squadron battleships , the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz , several light cruisers , 32 destroyers and 13 minesweepers . The plan called for channels to be swept in Russian minefields so that the Russian naval presence , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought Slava , could be eliminated . The Germans would then lay minefields of their own to prevent Russian ships from returning to the Gulf . Thüringen and the majority of the other big ships of the High Seas Fleet remained outside the Gulf for the entirety of the operation . The dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen were detached on 16 August to escort the minesweepers and to destroy Slava , though they failed to sink the old battleship . After three days , the Russian minefields had been cleared , and the flotilla entered the Gulf on 19 August ; reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted a German withdrawal from the Gulf the following day . By 26 August , the I Squadron had returned to Wilhelmshaven .
On 23 – 24 October , the High Seas Fleet undertook its last major offensive operation under the command of von Pohl , though it ended without contact with British forces . By January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened von Pohl to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties , and he was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . Scheer 's first operation was a sweep into the North Sea on 5 – 7 March , followed by two more on 21 – 22 March and 25 – 26 March . During Scheer 's next operation , Thüringen supported a raid on the English coast on 24 April 1916 conducted by the German battlecruiser force . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short gun duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Thüringen was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Thüringen was the second ship in the I Division of I Squadron and the tenth ship in the line , directly astern of the squadron flagship Ostfriesland and ahead of another sister Helgoland . The I Squadron was the center of the German line , behind the eight König- and Kaiser @-@ class battleships of III Squadron . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions , II Battle Squadron , formed the rear of the formation .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
While the leading battleships engaged the British battlecruiser squadron , Thüringen and ten other battleships , too far out of range to attack the British battlecruisers , fired on the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . Thüringen and Kronprinz engaged the cruiser Dublin , though both ships failed to score a hit . Thüringen fired for eight minutes at ranges of 18 @,@ 600 to 20 @,@ 800 yd ( 17 @,@ 000 to 19 @,@ 000 m ) , expending twenty @-@ nine 30 @.@ 5 cm shells . The British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement , laid directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet . Thüringen and three other battleships destroyed Nestor with their primary and secondary guns while several III Squadron battleships sank Nomad . Shortly after 19 : 15 , the British dreadnought Warspite came into range ; Thüringen opened fire at 19 : 25 with her main and secondary battery guns , at ranges of 10 @,@ 600 to 11 @,@ 800 yd ( 9 @,@ 700 to 10 @,@ 800 m ) . The ship fired twenty @-@ one 30 @.@ 5 cm and thirty @-@ seven 15 cm shells in the span of five or six minutes , after which Thüringen 's gunners lost sight of Warspite , without scoring any hits . They then shifted fire to Malaya . Thüringen fired twenty main battery rounds at Malaya , also unsuccessfully , over seven minutes at a range of 14 @,@ 100 yd ( 12 @,@ 900 m ) before conforming to a 180 degree turn ordered by Scheer to disengage from the British fleet .
At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night @-@ cruising formation . Thüringen was the seventh ship , stationed toward the front of the 24 @-@ ship line . An hour later , the leading units of the German line encountered British light forces and a violent firefight at close range ensued . Sometime around 01 : 10 , the armored cruiser Black Prince stumbled into the German line . Thüringen illuminated the vessel with her spotlights and poured salvos of 30 @.@ 5 cm rounds into the ship at point @-@ blank range . The first salvo struck near Black Prince 's rear gun turret , which appears to have been blown overboard . Thüringen fired a total of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm , twenty @-@ seven 15 cm , and twenty @-@ four 8 @.@ 8 cm shells . She was joined by three other battleships , and Black Prince was soon destroyed by a huge ammunition explosion . Around a half an hour later , Thüringen spotted what appeared to be a Birkenhead @-@ class cruiser . She fired a starshell to illuminate the British cruiser and opened fire with her secondary guns . The ship was actually the destroyer Turbulent . Thüringen fired eighteen 15 cm and six 8 @.@ 8 cm shells before launching another starshell . Turbulent appeared to be capsized to starboard , though she remained afloat and was dispatched later by the cruiser Regensburg and the destroyers V71 and V73 .
Despite the ferocity of the night fighting , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . A few hours later , the fleet arrived in the Jade ; Thüringen , Helgoland , Nassau , and Westfalen took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and four undamaged III Squadron ships anchored just outside the entrance locks to Wilhelmshaven . The remaining eight dreadnoughts entered port , where those that were still in fighting condition restocked ammunition and fuel . In the course of the engagement , Thüringen had fired one @-@ hundred and seven 30 @.@ 5 cm , one @-@ hundred and fifteen 15 cm , and twenty @-@ two 8 @.@ 8 cm shells , while she and her crew emerged from the battle unscathed .
= = = = Subsequent operations = = = =
On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted to repeat the 31 May operation . The two serviceable German battlecruisers ( Moltke and Von der Tann ) , supported by three dreadnoughts , would bombard Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Thüringen , would trail behind and provide cover . British signals intelligence informed Jellicoe of the German departure later in the day , and he sent the Grand Fleet out to intercept the Germans . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 on 19 August , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
On 25 – 26 September , Thüringen and the rest of I Squadron covered an advance conducted by the second commander of the torpedo @-@ boat flotillas ( II Führer der Torpedoboote ) to the Terschelling Bank . Scheer conducted another fleet operation on 18 – 20 October in the direction of the Dogger Bank , though rudder damage prevented Thüringen from participating . For the majority of 1917 , Thüringen was assigned to guard duty in the German Bight . During Operation Albion , the amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , Thüringen and her three sisters were moved to the Danish straits to block any possible British attempt to intervene . On 28 October the four ships arrived in Putzig Wiek , and from there steamed to Arensburg on the 29th . On 2 November the operation was completed and Thüringen and her sisters began the voyage back to the North Sea . A final abortive fleet sortie took place on 23 – 24 April 1918 . Thüringen , Ostfriesland , and Nassau were formed into a special unit for Operation Schlußstein , a planned occupation of St. Petersburg . The three ships reached the Baltic on 10 August , but the operation was postponed and eventually canceled . The special unit was dissolved on 21 August and the battleships were back in Wilhelmshaven on the 23rd .
= = = Fate = = =
Thüringen and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . Stokers turned off the boilers and refused to work . The following day , the torpedo boats B110 and B112 came alongside and the U @-@ boat U @-@ 135 pointed her guns at the ship . A significant portion of the crew , 314 sailors and 124 stokers , were arrested and taken off the ship . This was not enough to stop the mutiny , which quickly spread throughout the fleet . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy " .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , was interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Thüringen and her three sisters , along with the four Nassau @-@ class battleships , were permitted to remain in Germany during the peace negotiations . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and in their absence Reuter ordered the crews to scuttle the ten battleships and five battlecruisers interned at Scapa Flow . Thüringen was decommissioned on 16 December 1918 and used as a barracks ship while she remained in Germany . She was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 and placed out of commission . The fate of the eight remaining German battleships was determined in the Treaty of Versailles , which stated that the ships were to be disarmed and surrendered to the governments of the principal Allied powers . Thüringen was surrendered to the French Navy on 29 April 1920 under the name " L " . A skeleton crew took the ship to Cherbourg for the official transfer . Thüringen was briefly used as a target ship by the French Navy before sinking off Gavres . The ship was partially broken up in situ in 1923 – 1933 , though significant portions of the ship remain off the French coast .
= Mir EO @-@ 19 =
Mir EO @-@ 19 ( Russian : Мир ЭО @-@ 19 , also known as Principal Expedition 19 ) was the nineteenth manned expedition to the space station Mir , lasting from June to September 1995 . The crew , consisting of Russian cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin , launched on June 27 , 1995 aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS @-@ 71 mission . After remaining aboard Mir for approximately 75 days , Solovyev and Budarin returned aboard the Soyuz TM @-@ 21 spacecraft on September 11 , 1995 .
EO @-@ 19 lasted just under three months and was the only complete all @-@ Russian crewed expedition to Mir in 1995 and was the first Mir expedition launched on an American Space Shuttle . The mission that launched EO @-@ 19 , STS @-@ 71 , was the first Space Shuttle docking to Mir .
= = Crew = =
Antatoly Solovyev served as a crew member on three spaceflights prior to EO @-@ 19 : Mir EP @-@ 2 , Soyuz TM @-@ 9 , and Soyuz TM @-@ 15 . This flight was his first aboard a Space Shuttle , with his three previous flights being on the Soyuz . EO @-@ 19 was the first spaceflight for Nikolai Budarin , who completed his cosmonaut training in 1991 and completed specialized training on the systems of Mir and the Soyuz @-@ TM spacecraft in 1993 .
Both spent just over 75 days in space during EO @-@ 19 and completed 1194 orbits of the Earth .
= = = Backup crew = = =
= = Mission highlights = =
= = = Crew launch and arrival = = =
The crew of Mir EO @-@ 19 launched aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on June 27 , 1995 as part of the STS @-@ 71 mission . STS @-@ 71 was the first docking of a Space Shuttle to the Mir space station and the first docking of an American and Russian spacecraft in 20 years .
STS @-@ 71 docked with Mir on June 29 and performed a crew exchange between the EO @-@ 19 and EO @-@ 18 crews aboard the space station . The crews of EO @-@ 18 , EO @-@ 19 , and STS @-@ 71 performed a ceremony inside Spacelab aboard Atlantis during which the ten crew members assembled a commemorative pewter medallion and exchanged gifts . Shortly thereafter , the crews began transferring supplies and tools to Mir from Atlantis .
On July 4 , The newly arrived crew of EO @-@ 19 undocked temporarily from the station aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 21 to observe and photograph the departure of the STS @-@ 71 and EO @-@ 18 crews aboard Atlantis . TM @-@ 21 undocked at 10 : 55 GMT , followed by STS @-@ 71 at 11 : 09 : 45 GMT . The EO @-@ 19 crew redocked aboard TM @-@ 21 at 11 : 39 GMT as Atlantis conducted a fly @-@ around of the station . Atlantis , carrying the crews of EO @-@ 18 and STS @-@ 71 , landed on July 7 after several more days in Earth orbit .
= = = Mission operations = = =
The crew of EO @-@ 19 conducted their first Extra @-@ vehicular activity , or spacewalk , on July 14 . Before the mission , the crew had trained to use special tools in order to release a stuck solar array on the exterior of the Spektr module . During the spacewalk , the pair cut a problematic restraint from the solar array . All but one section of the array deployed successfully . They then proceeded to inspect a docking mechanism in preparation for the relocation of the Kristall module . The final task of the spacewalk was to inspect a solar array on Kristall that was not tracking the Sun properly . The excursion ended after five hours and thirty @-@ four minutes outside the station .
The crew relocated the Kristall module to another docking port from the port intended for use by Progress M @-@ 28 on July 17 using its Lyappa manipulator arm . This operation was performed in preparation for the next docking of Space Shuttle Atlantis to the station on the STS @-@ 74 mission later in the year .
During the mission 's second spacewalk on July 19 , the crew were to deploy a 220 kg ( 490 lb ) Belgian @-@ French spectrometer , named MIRAS ( Mir infrared spectrometer )
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on the Spektr module . Following a malfunction in Anatoly Solovyev 's Orlan space suit minutes into the excursion , mission control directed him to remain attached to the Kvant @-@ 2 module via umbilical cable . Despite this setback , Nikolai Budarin was able to perform several tasks alone , including preparatory work for the installment of MIRAS and retrieval of an American cosmic ray detector , TREK . The crew returned to the airlock after three hours and eight minutes . Upon returning to the airlock , the crew discovered a 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) gap in the seal , which created difficulty in sealing the hatch .
July 20 saw the launch of the Progress M @-@ 28 resupply ship to the station , which docked on July 22 . The Progress @-@ M spacecraft remained docked to the station until September 4 , when it undocked from Mir filled with waste and excess equipment and intentionally burned up on reentry .
During the mission 's third and final spacewalk on July 21 , the two cosmonauts made a second attempt at installing the MIRAS spectrometer , which they completed without any major problems . The spacewalk lasted five hours and thirty @-@ five minutes .
During the later part of their mission in August , the crew focused on completing experiments and doing research in the areas of astrophysics , life sciences , and smelting . The remainder of the crew 's activities during this time consisted of unloading the newly arrived Progress cargo ship and monitoring its automated refueling of the station 's core module .
= = = End of mission and crew departure = = =
The Mir EO @-@ 20 crew consisting of cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Avdeyev , as well as ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter conducting Euromir ' 95 , launched on September 3 at 9 : 00 GMT aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 22 . The crew of EO @-@ 20 docked with the station on September 5 at 10 : 29 : 54 GMT , with hatch opening occurring at 11 : 01 : 23 .
After transferring command of Mir to EO @-@ 20 , the crew of EO @-@ 19 boarded the Soyuz TM @-@ 21 spacecraft , which arrived with the crew of Mir EO @-@ 18 in March 1995 , on September 11 and undocked from the Kvant @-@ 1 module at 3 : 30 : 44 GMT . Soyuz TM @-@ 21 , along with cosmonauts Solovyev and Budarin , subsequently landed at 6 : 52 : 40 GMT about 108 km ( 67 mi ) Northeast of Arkalyk , Kazakhstan .
= Scottish society in the early modern era =
Scottish society in the early modern era encompasses the social structure and relations that existed in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century . It roughly corresponds to the early modern era in Europe , beginning with the Renaissance and Reformation and ending with the last Jacobite risings and the beginnings of the industrial revolution .
Scotland in this period was a hierarchical society , with a complex series of ranks and orders . This was headed by the monarch and the great magnates . Below them were the lairds , who emerged as a distinct group at the top of local society was whose position was consolidated by economic and administrative change . Below the lairds in rural society were a variety of groups , often ill @-@ defined , including yeomen , who were often major landholders , and the husbandmen , who were landholders , followed by cottars and grassmen , who often had only limited rights to common land and pasture . Urban society was led by wealthy merchants , who were often burgesses . Beneath them , and often in conflict with the urban elite , were the craftsmen . Beneath these ranks , in both urban and rural society , there were a variety of groups of mobile " masterless men " , the unemployed and vagrants .
Kinship was agnatic , with descent counted only through the male line , helping to build the importance of surnames and clans . The increased power of the state and economic change eroded the power of these organisations , and this process would accelerate as the government responded to the threat of Jacobite risings by undermining the power of clan chiefs in the eighteenth century . The Reformation had a major impact on family life , changing the nature of baptism , marriage and burials , leading to a change in wider relationships , sacramental status and burial practices and placing a greater emphasis on the role of the father .
Limited demographic evidence indicates a generally expanding population , limited by short @-@ term subsistence crises , of which the most severe was probably that of the " seven ill years " of the 1690s . The urban centres of the burghs continued to grow , with the largest being Edinburgh , followed by Glasgow . Population growth and economic dislocation from the second half of the sixteenth century led to a growing problem of vagrancy , which was responded to by a series of Acts of Parliament that established what would become the " Old Poor Law " , which attempted to ensure relief for the " deserving " local poor , but punishments for the mobile unemployed and beggars . The patriarchal nature of society meant that women were directed to be subservient to their husbands and families . They remained an important part of the workforce and some were economically independent , while others lived a marginal existence . At the beginning of the period women had little or no legal status , but were increasingly criminalised after the Reformation , and were the major subjects of the witch hunts that occurred in relatively large numbers until the end of the seventeenth century .
= = Social structure = =
= = = Aristocracy = = =
Early modern Scotland was a hierarchical society , with a series of ranks and marks of status . Below the king were the great magnates , who by this period were no longer a feudal nobility , whose power was based on territorial landholding , but an honorific peerage , and land had become a commodity to be traded . They were headed by a small number of dukes ( usually descended from very close relatives of the king ) and a larger group of earls . These senior nobles formed the political classes at the beginning of the period : sometimes holding major office , holding a place on the king 's council and taking part in the major crises and rebellions of the period . They considered themselves the king 's " natural councillors " and were also the heads of a system of local patronage and loyalty . This was often formalised through bonds of manrent that set out mutual obligations and allegiances .
Under the magnates were the barons , who held increasingly nominal feudal tenures of which an important vestige was the right to hold baronial courts , which could deal with both matters of land ownership and interpersonal offences , including minor acts of violence . Also important were the local tenants @-@ in @-@ chief , who held legally held their land directly from the king and who by this period were often the major local landholders in an area . In this period , as feudal distinctions declined , the barons and tenants @-@ in @-@ chief merged to form a new identifiable group , the lairds . This group was roughly equivalent to the English gentlemen . Just as the magnates saw themselves as the king 's natural counsellors , so the lairds advised and exerted influence over the dukes and earls . The lairds were often the most important individual in a local community . They ran baronial courts , acted as sheriffs @-@ depute , sat on local assizes and were called in as private arbitrators . In the course of the sixteenth century they would acquire a role in national politics , gaining representation in Parliament and playing a major role in the Reformation crisis of 1560 . As a result of the Reformation and the creation of a Presbyterian Kirk , their position in local society was enhanced . They often gained the new status of elder and greater oversight of the behaviour of the local population through the disciplinary functions of kirk sessions .
= = = Middle ranks = = =
Below the lairds were a variety of groups , often ill @-@ defined . These included yeomen , later characterised by Walter Scott as " bonnet lairds " , often owning substantial land . The practice of feuing ( by which a tenant paid an entry sum and an annual feu duty , but could pass the land on to their heirs ) meant that the number of people holding heritable possession of lands , which had previously been controlled by the church or nobility , expanded . These and the lairds probably numbered about 10 @,@ 000 by the seventeenth century and became what the government defined as heritors , on whom the financial and legal burdens of local government increasingly fell .
Below the substantial landholders were those engaged in subsistence agriculture , who made up the majority of the working population . Those with property rights included husbandmen , lesser landholders and free tenants . Most farming was based on the lowland fermtoun or highland baile , settlements of a handful of families that held individual land rights , but jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams . Below them were the cottars , who often shared rights to common pasture , occupied small portions of land and participated in joint farming as hired labour . Farms also might have grassmen , who had rights only to grazing . Eighteenth @-@ century evidence suggests that the children of cottars and grassmen often became servants in agriculture or handicrafts . Serfdom had died out in Scotland in the fourteenth century , but was virtually restored by statute law for miners and saltworkers .
Society in the urban settlements of the burghs was headed by wealthier merchants , who often held local office as a burgess , alderman , bailies , or as a member of the burgh council . Below them were craftsmen and workers that made up the majority of the urban population . Both merchants and craftsmen often served a long apprenticeship , acquiring skills and status , before they became freemen of a burgh , and could enjoy certain rights and privileges . Major sources of trade included the export of wool , fish , coal , salt and cattle . Imports included wine , sugar and other luxury goods . Important crafts included metal working , carpentry , leather working , pottery and later brewing and wig @-@ making . There were frequent disputes between the burgesses and craftsmen over rights and political control of the burgh , occasionally bursting into violence , as occurred at Perth in the first half of the sixteenth century .
= = = The poor = = =
At the bottom of society were the " masterless men " and women ( who lacked a clear social relationship with a social superior , such as service or apprenticeship ) the unemployed and vagrants , whose numbers were swelled in times of economic downturn or hardship . Masterless women may have made up as much as 18 per cent of all households and particularly worried authorities . In rural society those that needed relief from extreme hardship tended from the lowest ranks of rural society , including cottars , labourers and servants . Most of those who took to the roads , around three quarters , were men . Most had a disability such as blindness , or claimed to have suffered a personal disaster such as fire or theft . Some were discharged soldiers and sailors , probably returning home or searching for work . Most tended to move around a restricted area , probably moving between a limited number of parishes in search of work and relief . For some this may have been tied to the agricultural calendar , and individuals may have moved in a circuit as different foodstuffs and work became available . Poor relief was more abundant in urban centres , particularly in the largest centres like Edinburgh . As a result , particularly in times of extreme hardship the poor would gravitate to the burghs . They could form a large section of society , with roughly a quarter of population of Perth in 1584 being classified as poor . The poor in urban society were a diverse group , the largest numbers women and most of those were widows . In Aberdeen in the period 1695 – 1705 three @-@ quarters of the poor who received relief were women and of those two thirds were widows . The remainder were made up of servants , casual labourers , journeymen artisans , beggars , vagrants and orphans .
= = Kinship and clans = =
Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic , derived through both males and females , in Scotland kinship was agnatic , with members of a group sharing a ( sometimes fictional ) common ancestor . Women retained their original surname at marriage and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship . In the Borders this was often reflected in
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a common surname . A shared surname has been seen as a " test of kinship " , proving large bodies of kin who could call on each other ’ s support . At the beginning of the period this may have helped intensify the idea of the feud , which was usually carried out as a form of revenge for a kinsman , and for which a large body of kin could be counted on to support rival sides , although conflict within kin groups also occurred . From the reign of James VI , systems of judicial law were enforced , and by the early eighteenth century the feud had been suppressed . In the Borders , the leadership of the heads of the great surnames was largely replaced by the authority of landholding lairds in the seventeenth century .
The combination of agnatic kinship and a feudal system of obligation has been seen as creating the highland clan system . The head of a clan was usually the eldest son of the last chief of the most powerful sept or branch . The leading families of a clan formed the fine , often seen as equivalent to lowland lairds , providing council in peace and leadership in war ; below them were the daoine usisle ( in Gaelic ) or tacksmen ( in Scots ) , who managed the clan lands and collected the rents . In the isles and along the adjacent western seaboard there were also buannachann , who acted as a military elite , defending the clan lands from raids or taking part in attacks on clan enemies . Most of the followers of the clan were tenants , who supplied labour to the clan heads and sometimes acted as soldiers . In the early modern era they usually took the clan name as their surname , turning it into a massive , if often fictive , kin group . Because the Highland Clans were not a direct threat to the Restoration government , or relations with England , the same effort was not put into suppressing their independence as had been focused on the Borders , until after the Glorious Revolution . Economic change and the imposition of royal justice had begun to undermine the clan system before the eighteenth century , but the process was accelerated after the rebellion of 1745 , with Highland dress banned , the enforced disarming of clansmen , the compulsory purchase of heritable jurisdictions , the exile of many chiefs , and the sending of ordinary clansmen to the colonies as indentured labour . All of this largely reduced clan leaders to the status of simple landholders within one generation .
= = Family = =
There was considerable concern over the safety of children in this period , prompted by high infant mortality . The abolition of godparents in the Reformation meant that baptism became a mechanism for emphasising the role and responsibilities of fathers . Wet @-@ nurses were used for young children , but in most families mothers took the primary role in bringing up children , while the Kirk emphasised the role of the father for older children . After the Reformation there was an increasing emphasis on education , resulting in the growth of a parish school system , but its effects were limited for the children of the poor and for girls . Most children left home for a period of life @-@ cycle service , in which youths left home to be domestic or agricultural servants , or to become apprentices , and which ended when they married and established independent households .
Marriages were often the subject of careful negotiation , particularly higher in society . Marriage lost its sacramental status at the Reformation , and irregular marriage , a simple public promise or mutual agreement , followed by consummation , or cohabitation , continued to be accepted as valid throughout the period . Women managed the household and sometimes worked beside their husbands , and although obedience to husbands was stressed , this may have been limited in practice . Divorce developed after the Reformation , and was available for a wider range of causes and accessed by a much larger section of society than in England . Because of high mortality rates , widowhood was a relatively common state , and some women acquired independence and status , but others were forced into a marginal existence ; remarriage was common . The elaborate funerals and complex system of prayers for the dead that dominated in late Medieval Scotland were removed at the Reformation , when simpler services were introduced . Burial inside the church was discouraged , causing some consternation among local lairds who wished to be buried with their ancestors . This led to the uniquely Scottish solution of adding a fourth aisle to " T " -plan churches , usually behind the pulpit , which were closed off and used for the burial of the families of the local laird . For the majority , however , burial had to be outside the church , and graveyards with stone markers became increasingly common from the early seventeenth century .
= = Demography = =
There are almost no reliable sources with which to track the population of Scotland before the late seventeenth century . Estimates based on English records suggest that by the end of the Middle Ages , the Black Death and subsequent recurring outbreaks of the plague , may have caused the population of Scotland to fall as low as half a million people . Price inflation , which generally reflects growing demand for food , suggests that this probably expanded in the first half of the sixteenth century . Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity , necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic . Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague , with major epidemics in the periods 1584 @-@ 8 , 1595 and 1597 – 1609 .
The population expansion probably levelled off after the famine of the 1590s , as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century . In the early seventeenth century famine was common , with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625 . The invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy , with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price rises of the century , but population probably expanded in the period of stability that followed the Restoration in 1660 . Calculations based on Hearth Tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 575 . The population may have been seriously affected by the failed harvests ( 1695 , 1696 and 1698 @-@ 9 ) known as the " seven ill years " . The result was severe famine and depopulation , particularly in the north . The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe , partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century , with only one year of dearth ( in 1674 ) , and the shortages of the 1690s were the last of their kind . The first reliable information on national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend Alexander Webster in 1755 , which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 persons .
Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population as a result of the clearances and the industrial revolution that began in the eighteenth century , these numbers must have been evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Most of the early modern population , in both the Lowlands and Highlands , was housed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings . As the population expanded , some of these settlements were sub @-@ divided to create new hamlets and more marginal land was settled , with sheilings ( clusters of huts occupied while summer pasture was being used for grazing ) , becoming permanent settlements . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that had grown up in the later Medieval period , mainly in the east and south of the country . It has been suggested that they had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many were much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 , and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the era . During the seventeenth century the number of people living in the capital grew rapidly . It also expanded beyond the city walls in suburbs at Cowgate , Bristo and Westport and by 1750 , with its suburbs , it had reached a population of 57 @,@ 000 . The only other towns above 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32 @,@ 000 , Aberdeen with around 16 @,@ 000 and Dundee with 12 @,@ 000 .
= = Poverty and vagrancy = =
In the Middle Ages Scotland had much more limited organisation for poor relief than England , lacking the religious confraternities of the major English cities . It possessed a few hospitals , bede houses and leper houses , which offered confinement rather than treatment . Because so many Scottish parishes had been impropriated for some religious foundation , perhaps as many as 87 per cent , funds were not available for local causes such as poor relief . Protestant reformers in the Book of Discipline ( 1560 ) proposed that part of the patrimony of the Catholic Church be used to support the poor , but this aim was never realised . Population growth and economic dislocation from the second half of the sixteenth century led to a growing problem of vagrancy . The government reacted with three major pieces of legislation on poverty and vagrancy in 1574 , 1579 and 1592 . The kirk became a major element of the system of poor relief , and justices of the peace were given responsibility for dealing with the issue . The 1574 poor law act was modelled on the English act passed two years earlier ; it limited relief to the deserving poor of the old , sick and infirm , imposing draconian punishments on a long list of " masterful beggars " , including jugglers , palmisters and unlicensed tutors . Parish deacons , elders or other overseers , and in the burghs bailies and provosts , were to draw up lists of deserving poor , and each would be assessed . Those not belonging to the parish were to be sent back to their place of birth and might be put in the stocks or otherwise punished , probably actually increasing the level of vagrancy . Unlike the English act , there was no attempt to provide work for the able @-@ bodied poor . In practice , the strictures on begging were often disregarded in times of extreme hardship . Poor rates were very slow to be set up in the burghs , with Edinburgh the first as a result of the outbreak of plague in 1584 . It was then gradually introduced in other cities , such as St Andrews in 1597 , Perth in 1599 , Aberdeen in 1619 , and Glasgow and Dundee in 1636 .
This legislation provided the basis of what would later be known as the " Old Poor Law " in Scotland , which remained in place until the mid @-@ nineteenth century , when , faced with the much greater problems of poverty caused by industrialisation and population growth , a more comprehensive system , known as the New Poor Law , was created . Most subsequent legislation built on its principles of provision for the local deserving poor and punishment of mobile and undeserving " sturdie beggars " . The most important later act was that of 1649 , which declared that local heritors were to be assessed by kirk session to provide the financial resources for local relief , rather than relying on voluntary contributions . By the mid @-@ seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands , but was limited in the Highlands . The system was largely able to cope with general poverty and minor crises , helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost , but was overwhelmed in the major subsistence crisis of the 1690s .
= = Women = =
Early modern Scotland was a theoretically patriarchal society , in which men had total authority over women , but how this worked is practice is difficult to discern . Marriages , particularly higher in society , were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations over the tocher ( dowry ) . Some mothers took a leading role in negotiating and finding marriages , as Lady Glenorchy did for her children in the 1560s and 1570s , or as matchmakers , finding suitable and compatible partners . Before the Reformation , the extensive marriage bars for kinship meant that most marriages necessitated a papal dispensation , which could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient . At the beginning of the period , women had a very limited legal status . The criminal courts refused to recognise them as witnesses or independent criminals , and responsibly for their actions was assumed to lie with their husbands , fathers and kin . In the post @-@ Reformation period there was a criminalisation of women , partly evident in witchcraft prosecutions from 1563 . Through the 1640s , independent commissions were set up to try women for child murder , and after pressure from the kirk a law of 1690 placed the presumption of guilt on a woman if she concealed a pregnancy and birth , and her child later died .
By the eighteenth century many poorer girls were being taught in dame schools , informally set up by a widow or spinster to teach reading , sewing and cooking . Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women . Women formed an important part of the workforce . Many unmarried women worked away from their families as farm servants , and married women worked with their husbands around the farm , taking part in all major agricultural tasks . They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest , forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin . Women also played an important part in the expanding textile industries , spinning and setting up warps for men to weave . There is evidence of single women engaging in independent economic activity , particularly for widows , who can be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading . Some were highly successful , such as Janet Flockhart , an Edinburgh Wadwife or moneylender , who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband 's suicide , and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she amassed a moveable estate of £ 22 @,@ 000 by her death in the late sixteenth century . Lower down the social scale , the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence .
= = Popular religion = =
Scottish Protestantism was focused on the Bible , which was seen as infallible and the major source of moral authority . Many Bibles were large , illustrated and highly valuable objects . In the early part of the century the Genevan translation was commonly used . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the Authorised King James Version and the first Scots version was printed in Scotland in 1633 , but the Geneva Bible continued to be employed into the seventeenth century . Bibles often became the subject of superstitions , being used in divination . Family worship was strongly encouraged by the Covenanters . Books of devotion were distributed to encourage the practice and minsters were encouraged to investigate whether this was being carried out . The seventeenth century marked the high @-@ water mark of kirk discipline . Kirk sessions were able to apply religious sanctions , such as excommunication and denial of baptism , to enforce godly behaviour and obedience . In more difficult cases of immoral behaviour they could work with the local magistrate , in a system modelled on that employed in Geneva .
Public occasions were treated with mistrust and from the later seventeenth century there were efforts by kirk sessions to stamp out activities such as well @-@ dressing , bonfires , guising , penny weddings and dancing . The Reformation had a severe impact on church music . The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship , drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs . The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis , which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James , John and Robert Wedderburn . Never adopted by the kirk , they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s . Later the Calvinism that came to dominate was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music , placing an emphasis on the Psalms . The Scottish Psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church . Whole congregations would now all sing these psalms , often using common tunes , unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns .
= = Witchtrials = =
From late Medieval Scotland there is evidence of occasional prosecutions of individuals for causing harm through witchcraft , but these may have been declining in the first half of the sixteenth century . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , similar to that passed in England one year earlier , which made witchcraft a capital crime . Despite the fact that Scotland probably had about one quarter of the population of England , it had three times the number of witchcraft prosecutions , at about 6 @,@ 000 for the entire period . James VI 's visit to Denmark , a country familiar with witch hunts , may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft . After his return to Scotland , he attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the 1563 Act . Several people , most notably Agnes Sampson , were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James ' ship . James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and , inspired by his personal involvement , in 1597 wrote the Daemonologie , a tract that opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth . James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . After 1599 , his views became more sceptical .
In the seventeenth century the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by the kirk sessions , and was often used to attack superstitious and Catholic practices in Scottish society . Most of the accused , 75 per cent , were women , with over 1 @,@ 500 executed , and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . The most intense witch hunt was in 1661 – 62 , which involved 664 named witches in four counties . From this point prosecutions began to decline , as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government , torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised . There may also have been a growing scepticism , and with relative peace and stability the economic and social tensions that contributed to accusation may have reduced . There were occasional local outbreaks such as the one in East Lothian in 1678 and Paisley in 1697 . The last recorded executions were in 1706 , and the last trial was in 1727 . The British parliament repealed the 1563 Witchcraft Act in 1736 .
= 1956 Winter Olympics =
The 1956 Winter Olympics , officially known as the VII Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les VIIes Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) ( Italian : VII Giochi olimpici invernali ) , was a winter multi @-@ sport event celebrated in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy . This celebration of the Games was held from 26 January to 5 February 1956 . Cortina , which had originally been awarded the 1944 Winter Olympics , beat out Montreal , Colorado Springs and Lake Placid for the right to host the 1956 Games . The Cortina Games were unique in that many of the venues were within walking distance of each other . The organising committee received financial support from the Italian government for infrastructure improvements , but the rest of the costs for the Games had to be privately financed . Consequently , the organising committee was the first to rely heavily on corporate sponsorship for funding .
Thirty @-@ two nations — the largest number of participating Winter Olympic countries to that point — competed in the four sports and twenty @-@ four events . The Soviet Union made its Winter Olympics debut and won more medals than any nation . Austrian Toni Sailer became the first person to sweep all three alpine skiing events in a single Olympics . The figure skating competition was held outdoors for the last time at these Games . Logistically , the only problem encountered was a lack of snow at the alpine skiing events . To remedy this , the Italian army transported large amounts of snow to ensure the courses were adequately covered .
Politics did not impact the 1956 Winter Games as at the Summer Games in Melbourne , Australia , where the Soviet response to the Hungarian Uprising and the Suez War caused many nations to boycott the Games . The Cortina Olympics were the first Winter Olympics televised to a multi @-@ national audience . Since Communist countries had superior technology , western European countries like Finland and a few isolated geographic areas of West Germany and Austria were only able to receive Communist broadcasts of the Games . This was perceived to be a significant win for the Soviets in the propaganda front of the Cold War , even though western Europe ( including most of West Germany and Austria ) was receiving the Eurovision broadcast signal .
= = Host city selection = =
Cortina d 'Ampezzo is a ski resort village situated in the Dolomite Alps in the north @-@ eastern corner of Italy . In 1956 , it had a population of 6 @,@ 500 people . Count Alberto Bonacossa , an accomplished alpine skier , figure skater and a member of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) since 1925 , spearheaded the effort to bring the Olympic Games to Cortina d 'Ampezzo . He persuaded the city council of Cortina to bid for the 1944 Games . During the 38th IOC Congress held in London in 1939 , Cortina d 'Ampezzo was awarded the 1944 Winter Olympics , but the Games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II .
In 1946 the Italian Winter Sports Federation convened in Milan and decided to support a new attempt from Cortina to host the Winter Games . A delegation , led by Count Bonacossa , presented Cortina 's bid to host the 1952 Winter Olympics at the 40th IOC Session in Stockholm , Sweden . They were backed by the city 's council and the Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI , Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano ) . A rival bid from Oslo , Norway , soundly defeated Cortina . Count Bonacossa 's and CONI prepared a third bid , this time for the 1956 Winter Games . The host city selection took place in Rome , during the 43rd IOC Session . On 28 April 1949 , Cortina d 'Ampezzo was selected with 75 % of the votes , over bids from Montreal , Colorado Springs and Lake Placid . Unfortunately , Bonacossa died on 30 January 1953 , three years before he could witness Cortina host the Games .
= = Organization = =
The 1956 Winter Olympics was organised by a committee composed of members of the Italian National Olympic Committee and the Italian government . Observers were sent to the Oslo Games in 1952 to collect information regarding the sports programme , infrastructure , and accommodation requirements . The intelligence gathered there indicated that Cortina 's facilities were not up to Olympic standards . The town did not have an ice stadium , or a speed skating rink ; the alpine ski runs , ski jump and bobsleigh run were in poor condition . Cortina was a small village , and its infrastructure would be overwhelmed by the crowds expected for the Games . To accommodate the influx of people , new roads and rail lines had to be built , and the city 's power grid and telephone lines expanded . Enhancements also had to be made to sewer and water capacity . The Italian government supplied Italian lira 460 million for infrastructure improvements . The Italian Olympic Committee was responsible for funding the rest of the costs of hosting the Games . They did this by setting aside monies from their own budget , ticket sales , and even culling funds from local football betting pools . The organising committee also took the unprecedented step of selling corporate sponsorship . For example , Fiat was designated the official car of the 1956 Winter Olympics , and Olivetti supplied typewriters for the 400 journalists attending the Games .
= = Politics = =
The Cold War began after the allied victory in World War II . Until 1952 , many of the Communist countries of Eastern Europe had participated in Worker 's Olympics or Spartakiads . The Soviet Union emerged from international isolation by eschewing the Spartakiad and participating in the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki ; they made their Winter Olympics debut at the Cortina Games . Soviet general secretary Nikita Khrushchev 's aim was to use international sports competitions , such as the Olympics , to demonstrate the superiority of Communism , strengthen political ties with other Communist countries , and project the Soviet Union as a peace @-@ loving nation actively engaged in the world . The Soviets ' participation at the Olympics raised the level of competition as they won the most medals and more gold medals than any other nation . The Cortina Games were held before the Hungarian uprising , and the Suez War , which occurred in the autumn of 1956 ; the Winter Games escaped the boycotts that plagued the Melbourne Olympics , which were celebrated in November and December of that year .
= = = Television = = =
The Cortina Games were the first Winter Olympics to be broadcast to a multi @-@ national audience . Television as a mass communication technology was expanding rapidly in the 1950s . In the midst of the Cold War , Europe was a propaganda battlefield as countries relayed television signals across the Iron Curtain . By 1956 , countries in the Soviet sphere of influence had achieved a technological advantage and were able to broadcast Communist television programmes into Finland , the eastern border regions and more isolated geographic areas of West Germany and Austria , where residents had coverage from an East German broadcast with a pro @-@ Communist point @-@ of @-@ view . Most West Germans watched the 1956 Winter Olympics via Eurovision broadcasts which were relayed
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, " Caught in the Act " . The episode became the highest @-@ rated episode of the series , tying with " The Old Wagon " and " Halloween " . The episode also ranked first in its timeslot and became the second highest @-@ rated program on Wednesday after American Idol . " Bixby 's Back " was the most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , and the ninth most @-@ watched show among all viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Bixby 's Back " received mixed reviews from critics with many critics saying it didn 't live up to its predecessor , " My Funky Valentine " .
The A.V. Club writer John Teti gave the episode a mixed review calling it " fine " . Teti wrote that he felt like the producers " was doing Valentine ’ s Day [ episode ] out of obligation " and that the writers did not have a " great idea " for this episode like " My Funky Valentine " . He ultimately gave the episode a B- . Entertainment Weekly writer Lesley Savage gave the episode a more positive review saying the cast " proved why they truly deserved the award in tonight 's Valentine 's Day themed episode . "
Rachael Maddux of New York magazine said the episode was a great sequel to " My Funky Valentine " calling it " a solid episode , start to finish " .
Meredith Blake of The Los Angeles Times said the episode was below the show 's usual quality writing that " it didn 't quite have the usual zing " . CNN writer Henry Hanks gave the episode a more positive review and praised Ty Burrell 's performance calling him the " MVP of the week " . He later went on to criticize Mitchell and Cameron 's sub @-@ plot calling it a " another sub @-@ par storyline " .
Despite the mixed reviews , many praised Ty Burrell 's performance . Teti praised both the writing and the acting in the bar scene writing that " There is a fantastic run of writing during Clive and Juliana ’ s rendezvous at the bar , as every smooth Clive Bixby utterance stumbles out of Phil ’ s mouth with just the right amount of awkwardness " . Maddux called his performance " comedic mastery " .
= Knife attack on Kevin Lau =
Kevin Lau , former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Hong Kong daily newspaper Ming Pao , was attacked in the morning of 26 February 2014 as he was getting out of his car in Lei King Wan , Hong Kong by two men who were waiting for him . Lau suffered stab wounds to his back and legs . He was rushed to hospital , where he underwent emergency surgery . The police and most commentators agree that it was a triad @-@ style attack aimed at maiming without killing .
While pro @-@ establishment figures sought to be prudent concerning any link between the attack and press freedom , local journalists and the local press saw the attack as part of an unhealthy trend in which mainland Chinese interests seek to rein in Hong Kong 's vibrant and still free press . Thousands of people , led by leading journalists , attended a rally to denounce violence and intimidation of the media . Ming Pao put up a reward of HK $ 3 million for information leading to the bringing to justice of the perpetrators .
Eleven people , some of them with connections to triads in Hong Kong , were arrested in connection with the attack . The two main suspects had fled to Guangdong , China . On 21 August 2015 , two men were sentenced in Hong Kong to 19 years imprisonment for the attack .
= = Background = =
= = = Ming Pao editorial = = =
Ming Pao is one of the most credible news outlets in Hong Kong , with a tradition of liberalism and strong record on investigative reporting . Kevin Lau Chun @-@ to ( 劉進圖 ) is a journalist with a law degree who was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Ming Pao in Hong Kong since the retirement of his predecessor , Cheung Kin @-@ bor , in 2012 . A colleague at the Chinese University , where he lectured part @-@ time , describes Lau as a " mild @-@ mannered guy , an intellectual , a lawyer , a journalist , not in any way a firebrand radical or a controversial character " . Under Lau 's leadership , Ming Pao has continued in its liberal stance , investigated the suspicious death of Li Wangyang , spoken out against government policies such as Moral and National Education ( MNE ) , and in favour of greater democratic reforms in Hong Kong – a stance seen as being unsympathetic to the Chinese central government . The journal scooped several political scandals , including the 2012 Henry Tang illegal basement controversy and a similar scandal involving CY Leung , Tang 's erstwhile opponent for election as chief executive of Hong Kong . The paper also contributed to investigative work with the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists ( ICIJ ) ; this work looked into the offshore assets of China 's leaders , including relatives of Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping , former Premier Wen Jiabao , and several members of the National People 's Congress , and led to published stories .
In January 2014 , Lau was abruptly replaced by Chong Tien Siong , a Singapore @-@ based Malaysian who , according to The Economist , is widely regarded as pro @-@ establishment . Chong had been former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Nanyang Siang Pau , and was a vocal advocate of the compulsory MNE for school children before it was shelved in 2012 amid large protests against " brainwashing " . Lau had been appointed chief operating officer of MediaNet Resources , a subsidiary of the parent organisation of the journal that publishes electronic books and teaching materials . A journalism academic said the manner in which Lau was replaced was " extremely abnormal " , and that the owners need to explain . Staff at the journal feared that this meant a curtailment of its independent tradition . His staffers staged several protests : more than 90 % of them petitioned to demanding to know the reason for Lau 's removal , and four senior writers refused to submit copy for their columns in protest . Some 300 of his former colleagues signed a petition calling for safeguards to press freedom , and several thousand people took to the streets on 23 February in support of Lau and in reaction to the apparent imposition of controls on the press by the Communist Party of China .
= = = Violence against journalists and media owners = = =
Since the 1990s , there have been a spate of unsolved attacks against journalists and media owners who are not aligned with the Chinese Government . In 1996 , journalist Leung Tin @-@ wai was stabbed ; in 1998 , broadcaster Albert Cheng was accosted by a gang when leaving his office and was stabbed . In June 2013 , Chen Ping , the publisher of iSun Affairs , a weekly magazine banned on the mainland , was beaten by two men armed with batons . Three masked men with knives threatened workers at Next Media , publisher of Apple Daily , and set thousands of copies of the paper on fire . Its proprietor , Jimmy Lai , a fervent supporter of the Pan @-@ democracy camp , had the gate of his home rammed with a stolen car ; the attacker left weapons at the scene and fled .
= = = Financial pressure = = =
Press freedom advocates point to trend of increasing self @-@ censorship by editors , or media tycoons with substantial business interests in China installing editors who are pro @-@ China . The South China Morning Post reported that AM730 , an outspoken tabloid free @-@ sheet , suffered a concerted advertising boycott from mainland Chinese companies . Beijing 's representative office frequently pressures the free media in Hong Kong to revise or remove coverage that it dislikes . Hong Kong 's ranking in Reporters Without Borders index on press freedom has slid from 18th place in 2002 to 61st in 2014 .
= = The incident = =
Lau was attacked on 26 February 2014 at approximately 10 : 20 am , as he was parking his car near a restaurant he is known to frequent for breakfast in Sai Wan Ho . An assailant armed with a meat cleaver hacked at Lau as soon as Lau got out of his car , leading to three knife wounds . The attacker climbed back onto the motorcycle driven by an accomplice and sped away . Lau managed to call the police using his telephone as the attackers raced away . He was admitted to hospital in a critical condition . Police described the brazen attack on Lau as a classic triad @-@ style hit that was intended as a " warning " rather than intent to kill . One of the chest wounds penetrated his lung . A University of Hong Kong academic who has studied crime believes the attack was planned : " The attackers obviously knew which parts of the body to attack in order to cause severe bodily harm without killing him . If they intended to kill , they would not have targeted the neck , back and legs . " Lau returned to work on 1 August 2014 .
= = Reactions = =
The day after the attack , a group of 200 people held vigil outside the government headquarters calling for safeguards . Ming Pao said it was " deeply angry that the assailants dared to conduct an attack in broad daylight " , and offered a reward of HK $ 1 million ( $ 128 @,@ 000 ) for information leading to the apprehension of the assailants . Lau 's family was reported to be under police protection . The ICIJ , which had been participating with Ming Pao on the investigations into the assets of China 's leaders , said they were not aware of any connection between their investigation and the attack . The paper 's editorial director said that he was co @-@ operating with police investigations by reviewing all the recently published stories to try and establish possible motives . Ming Po staff were said to be distraught and in shock . Ming Pao tripled its reward to HK $ 3 million within days of making the first offer . Regular South China Morning Post columnist Alex Lo summarised the fear in journalists saying : " If a respected editor could be attacked in such a blatant and ruthless manner , no one in the news @-@ gathering business is safe " .
Journalism organisations were outraged by the attack – Hong Kong Journalists Association condemned the violence , the Foreign Correspondents ' Club expressed " shock " at the incident and urged the government to ensure safety of members of the press . Many saw the attack as politically motivated , and part of an unhealthy trend in which the Communist Party seeks to reign in Hong Kong 's vibrant and still free press . Lau 's friend and fellow journalist Shirley Yam said that such a flagrant attack strongly suggests that Lau had antagonised somebody powerful in the course of his work . In a commentary in the South China Morning Post , Mike Rowse said :
Several aspects of the case stand out . The assailants clearly came to maim rather than to kill , which they could easily have done . They were hired for the purpose and targeted a particular individual . This was not a random exercise ; it was a well @-@ planned assault intended to send a message . Working back from this scenario , the pieces almost align themselves . Someone very powerful and wealthy – and evil – has been angered by something Lau has done . [ There is no ] ambiguity in Lau 's case [ that ] it is an attack on freedom of the press and the whole community needs to respond .
A spokesman for the Committee to Protect Journalists declined to link the attack to Lau 's work on China , but admitted there was " a growing chilling effect on journalists and media houses in Hong Kong , and that pressure is coming from China . " Hong Kong is known as one of the safest cities in the world , and most people agree that the attack is disturbing regardless of the motive .
Representatives of mainland China , the US and EU in Hong Kong have all expressed concern over the attack , and Hong Kong 's Chief executive CY Leung expressed his indignation and outrage . In excess of 8 @,@ 600 people dressed in black attended a rally on 2 March in defence of press freedom . Many banners bore the slogan " They can 't kill us all " . Ming Pao chief executive Tiong Kiew Chiong and the paper 's new chief editor were photographed at the rally ; some pro @-@ Beijing lawmakers were also present . Organisers claimed 13 @,@ 000 participants attended the march . In a pre @-@ recorded message to the rally , Lau urged people not to take freedom for granted . He said : " We cannot assume it will never change . It takes everyone to guard it . " The march culminated at the police headquarters in Wan Chai , where organisers delivered a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ signature petition to the Hong Kong Police .
Legislators strongly condemned the attack on Lau , and urging the police to " spare no effort to arrest the assailants , so as to expeditiously bring them to justice " . While pan @-@ democrats sought to link the attack to press freedom in the motion and amendments , pro @-@ establishment figures argued that it was " too early to conclude " that the two issues were linked . Ip Kwok @-@ him of the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong said that while he privately believed that there was a strong link between the attack and freedom of the press , lawmakers ought to be prudent as investigations are ongoing . The motion condemning the violent attack on Lau passed unanimously ; amendments urging preservation of press freedom and protection of journalists were also voted through at the end of March .
= = Arrests = =
Eleven people , some of whom have connections to the Shui Fong triad gang , were arrested in connection with the attack . The two main suspects were detained in Guangdong , China . Seven were arrested in several locations in sweeps across Hong Kong on 12 March ; Hong Kong Police received word on 9 March that the two had been tracked down by Mainland police in Dongguan . The police commissioner Andy Tsang said they suspected the attack was carried out by hired hands . On 21 August 2015 , two men were sentenced to 19 years imprisonment for the cold @-@ blooded and premeditated attack on Lau . The judge said although there lacked direct evidence that the attack , motivated by financial gain , was related to Lau 's work , journalists deserved to be adequate protection under the law .
= New Jersey Route 31 =
Route 31 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States . It runs 48 @.@ 93 mi ( 78 @.@ 75 km ) from U.S. Route 1 Business ( US 1 Bus . ) / US 206 in Trenton , Mercer County north to an intersection with US 46 in Buttzville in White Township , Warren County . Along the way , Route 31 heads through the communities of Flemington , Clinton and Washington . Most of the highway is state @-@ maintained ; however , the section within the city limits of Trenton is maintained by the city . Much of Route 31 is a two @-@ lane highway that passes through farmland , woodland , and mountainous areas . Two portions of the route — from Trenton to Pennington and from Ringoes to Clinton — consist of more development .
The highway was constructed from 1926 to 1935 . Route 31 has carried two different numbers in the past . It was known as Route 30 between 1927 and 1953 , when it was renumbered to Route 69 to avoid conflicting with US 30 in southern New Jersey . It was renumbered to Route 31 in 1967 due to sign theft that resulted from the sexual meaning of the number 69 . There were plans made in the late 1960s and early 1970s to build a freeway in the Route 31 corridor that would begin in the Trenton area and extend as far north as Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) in Port Jervis , New York ; however , it was canceled in the mid @-@ 1970s due to opposition from area residents and environmental and financial constraints . In recent years , the portion of Route 31 between Flemington and Clinton has been widened to four lanes . In addition , there was a failed project to build a bypass of Flemington that would have also eliminated the Flemington Circle .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
Route 31 heads north from US 1 Bus. and US 206 at the Trenton Battle Monument in Trenton , Mercer County on city @-@ maintained two @-@ lane undivided Pennington Road . The route passes by residences and some businesses in the northern part of Trenton , crossing County Route 653 ( CR 653 , Calhoun Street ) . Route 31 enters Ewing Township and becomes state @-@ mantainted at the point where it crosses CR 634 ( Parkway Avenue ) . The route continues north through suburban residential areas and passes to the west of The College of New Jersey campus . It crosses into Hopewell Township and briefly becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway as it interchanges with I @-@ 95 . Past this interchange , Route 31 continues north as an undivided road through a mix of residences with some businesses , meeting CR 546 and CR 640 at a traffic circle . It continues past the circle as a two @-@ lane , undivided road and bypasses Pennington to the west . The route briefly skirts into Pennington twice , where it is a divided highway as it crosses over CSX 's Trenton Subdivision . Route 31 enters Pennington again before heading back into Hopewell Township . Here , the road meets CR 640 ( North Main Street ) again , and heads north into farmland and woodland with some homes . It eventually turns to the northwest and crosses CR 518 ( Lambertville @-@ Hopewell Road ) .
= = = Hunterdon County = = =
Upon crossing CR 518 , Route 31 enters East Amwell Township , Hunterdon County and continues through rural areas . The route eventually forms the border between East Amwell Township and West Amwell Township and intersects CR 579 ( Harbourton Road ) . The two routes run concurrent to the northwest , becoming a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that crosses entirely into East Amwell Township before resuming along the border of East and West Amwell Townships . The road becomes a divided highway and crosses entirely into East Amwell Township again before it comes to an interchange with US 202 , where CR 579 continues north into Ringoes and Route 31 heads north along US 202 , a four @-@ lane , divided highway with intersections featuring jughandle ramps .
US 202 and Route 31 head to the north , coming to an intersection with Old York Road , which heads to the southwest as Route 179 and to the northeast as CR 514 . Past this intersection , the road forms the border between East Amwell Township to the west and Raritan Township to the east before crossing entirely into Raritan Township . The road continues north through farms , reaching commercial development as it approaches the Flemington area . The road widens to six lanes and crosses into Flemington . The road comes to the Flemington Circle where US 202 continues to the northeast , Route 12 heads to the west , and Route 31 continues to the north on a five @-@ lane , undivided road .
The route crosses back into Raritan Township , where it briefly becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway before reentering Flemington . Not long afterward , it heads into Raritan Township again , where it crosses CR 523 ( Walter E. Foran Boulevard ) and passes by the former site of Flemington Speedway , now a commercial development called Raritan Town Square . Route 31 passes through suburban development before turning into a four @-@ lane , divided highway with some intersections controlled by jughandles and crossing over Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line and the South Branch Raritan River into Readington Township . It continues north through a mix of farms and wooded areas with some residential areas , crossing into Clinton Township .
Route 31 comes to an interchange with I @-@ 78 and US 22 , where it turns to the northwest into a more developed setting and interchanges with Route 173 . The road runs through Clinton Town , where it crosses the South Branch Raritan River again . Back in Clinton Township , Route 31 intersects CR 513 ( Halstead Street ) , forming a concurrency with that route and running along the eastern shore of Spruce Run Reservoir . CR 513 splits from Route 31 by heading north on West Main Street and Route 31 continues north , narrowing to a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route crosses into Lebanon Township , where it heads northwest across the wooded Musconetcong Mountains . Route 31 passes through Glen Gardner , which it enters upon crossing Sprunce Run , before heading into Hampton , where it heads west through that community as a three @-@ lane road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane .
= = = Warren County = = =
Route 31 crosses the Musconetcong River into Washington Township , Warren County , where it heads north into the agricultural Musconetcong Valley . It heads into Washington Borough , where the road becomes four lanes , passing under Norfolk Southern 's Washington Secondary and crossing Route 57 ( Washington Avenue ) . Past the Route 57 intersection , Route 31 narrows to three lanes , and becomes a two @-@ lane road again as it crosses back into Washington Township at the Essex Road intersection . It heads into farmland before turning northwest and heading across Oxford Mountain , entering Mansfield Township . While crossing Oxford Mountain , Route 31 skirts along the border between Mansfield Township and Washington Township . The route enters Oxford Township , where it heads through the community of Oxford as a four @-@ lane road . Route 31 continues north through a mix of woods and agricultural areas past Oxford , crossing into White Township at the East Quarry Road intersection and coming to its terminus at US 46 .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads and construction = = =
Before the state received ownership of Route 31 , the portion of the highway from Clinton to Oxford was part of the Spruce Run Turnpike . The turnpike was chartered by the New Jersey State Assembly on February 6 , 1813 and was maintained and tolled by the Spruce Run Turnpike Company . The turnpike served as a connector along the old Hopewell Road from modern @-@ day Lambertville ( then called Georgetown ) to New Brunswick . The road also served as a highly used connector route for the Jersey and Castenoga wagon lines , which served both of the aforementioned communities . The route from Trenton to Pennington was part of the Pennington Turnpike , another privately maintained pre @-@ designation highway . The turnpike was chartered on March 17 , 1854 by the General Assembly along an alignment of the old Pennington Road . The turnpike road was to be constructed no further than 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) in breadth , and to be made out of stone , plank or gravel . The turnpike cost one cent for every carriage or sled pulled by horses or mules ( and one cent more for every animal ) , five mills for horse and rider and every dozen of pigs and sheep . It cost two cents to move a dozen cattle , mules or horses . Fines were levied as high as $ 10 ( 1854 USD
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elow , a cricket writer . Pentelow was the owner of The World of Cricket , a cricket magazine , and in 1914 MacLaren joined him in an attempt to improve its circulation . MacLaren was officially known as the editor of the publication and Pentelow his assistant , but the latter did most of the work . Pentelow was already struggling to keep the magazine going , but matters worsened after MacLaren joined . Pentelow 's debts increased and by the end of 1914 , the business folded ; although details are obscure , Down suggests that " MacLaren 's characteristic unreliability with money left Pentelow very much in the lurch . "
During the First World War , MacLaren joined the Royal Army Service Corps as a lieutenant and worked in the Manchester area recruiting men into the army . He was promoted to captain before leaving the Army on health grounds . After the war , he was employed as cricket manager for Lionel Robinson and wrote for various newspapers and cricket publications . MacLaren and his family lived for a time on Robinson 's estate when their financial situation was poor . He advised Robinson on the best way to prepare cricket pitches and to organise matches which might bring about Robinson 's greater acceptance in society . As part of this process , MacLaren arranged for the 1921 Australian touring team to play at Robinson 's cricket ground against a team selected and captained by MacLaren himself . The Australians struggled against MacLaren 's team , but went on to dominate the Test matches against England ; MacLaren insisted throughout the summer that the Australian team was not as strong as it appeared , and that younger English players should be chosen . Eastbourne Cricket Club invited him to captain a team named " An England XI " against the tourists following the conclusion of the Tests . He was dismissed by critics when he claimed that he could beat the Australian team ; prior to the game , the Australians were undefeated on the tour and had won 22 of their 36 games . MacLaren planned meticulously for the match ; he chose an all @-@ amateur team , selecting spin bowlers noted for their reliability and excellent fielders . Although bowled out for 43 in their first innings , MacLaren 's team came back strongly to win by 28 runs , the touring team 's first defeat , although his batting contribution was slight .
= = = Coach and senior figure = = =
Lancashire appointed MacLaren as coach for the 1922 season , to popular acclaim ; he also captained the Lancashire second team . Even before he began work , his poor financial situation forced him to request two advances on his salary . As a coach , MacLaren was autocratic and demanding , but encouraged the players to think for themselves . He was unpopular with some players and clashed frequently with the Lancashire committee . During the winter of 1922 – 23 , the MCC organised two cricket tours — a Test playing tour to South Africa and a tour to Australia and New Zealand intended to give experience to young , promising cricketers . MacLaren was chosen to captain the latter team on account of his experience and his success with young cricketers during his win over the Australians in 1921 . He was given a good reception by the crowds when he played and press reports praised his tactical awareness . The team was undefeated in matches in New Zealand . Against the full New Zealand team , MacLaren scored 200 not out in 264 minutes in his final first @-@ class innings ; the effort placed a strain on his knee and he was unable to play again on the tour . He ended his first @-@ class career with 22 @,@ 236 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 15 .
When the team returned to play more matches in Australia , MacLaren became involved in controversy for criticising the standards of play in New Zealand and for comments made in the press there . He also queried the first @-@ class status of Bill Ponsford 's record innings of 429 , scored against Tasmania . On the journey home , MacLaren sent a message to Lancashire asking for more money ; the committee declined to send the sum and shortly afterwards terminated his contract as coach . Lancashire told the press that MacLaren 's knee injury meant that he could not continue .
= = = Final years = = =
In the following years , MacLaren and his family struggled financially . His wife 's family sometimes sent money , but MacLaren often spent extravagantly whenever he had funds . On one occasion , when paid for writing an article , he moved out of his accommodation into an expensive hotel , and threw a dinner party for his friends . He ran up many debts — including an unpaid champagne bill at Old Trafford Cricket Ground in 1923 — and borrowed money from friends . He supplemented his wife 's income through working as a journalist and a coach . Among other business ventures , he designed a cricket bat , showed specially shot cricket films , briefly owned a hotel and attempted to start a horse bloodstock agency . He continued to play club cricket and in 1924 – 25 he managed a privately organised tour of South Africa .
Shortly before the Second World War , MacLaren 's wife inherited a large sum of money which enabled them to live in comfort . They bought an estate on which MacLaren had a house built , and the couple were able to live in the extravagant manner he had always wanted . Around this time , on a visit to America , MacLaren made a brief appearance in the Hollywood film The Four Feathers , which starred his friend , former cricketer C. Aubrey Smith . In the 1940s , his health began to fail . He was hurt in a car crash and then contracted cancer . He died on 17 November 1944 , aged 72 ; his wife died a few months later .
= = Style , technique and captaincy = =
MacLaren 's obituary in The Times stated that he was " one of the outstanding opening batsmen of all time " . As a batsman , he had a reputation for stylishness , but his technique was based on scoring runs safely . He always tried to seize the initiative in a game . Batting with his head slightly raised , he drew his bat back unusually far , which provided the power to his shots , and in particular his drives . He scored runs quickly , mainly through his ability to score from good length balls . When playing a shot , he either stepped right forward or moved far back in the batting crease and having hit the ball , he followed through with the bat , often holding his pose for effect . These qualities , and his quick footwork , made him effective on difficult batting pitches . One of his most highly regarded shots was the hook . In later years , Cardus described the shot : " To see MacLaren hook a fast ball ... from the front of his face , was in those days an experience which thrilled me like heroic poetry ; he didn 't merely hook the ball , he dismissed it from his presence . " Cardus , for whom MacLaren was a boyhood hero , wrote prolifically about him in later years ; he called one such essay on MacLaren " The Noblest Roman " , and judged him among the best of all batsmen . Gideon Haigh suggests : " If ever a cricketer was the creation of a single writer , it is MacLaren , the luminous majesty with which he is associated owed in very large degree to his youthful acolyte Neville Cardus . " MacLaren was also a highly proficient fielder , initially in the outfield but later at slip .
Critics have looked less favourably on MacLaren as a captain . When he assumed the leadership of England , the press were reporting on the tactical performance of captains for the first time . MacLaren was among the first captains to study tactics . However , judgements on his effectiveness have varied greatly . For most of his career , he was regarded as an excellent captain . Contemporaries praised his tactical awareness ; he planned minutely , and organised his fields extremely carefully to prevent batsmen scoring through blocking their favourite shots , a technique practically unheard of at the time . He liked to alter the batting order , a tactic which often divides critics , although it frequently succeeded for MacLaren . He was less successful in managing his team . Regarded as a pessimist , he openly showed disappointment at the composition of his sides , and became downcast when the course of the match was running against him . Some of those who played under him thought that his sides were unhappy ones which operated without joy and solely concentrated on winning . He encountered many difficulties over selection ; he often promoted cricketers whom he considered to show potential and consequently railed against committees which did not provide him with the players he wanted . Down suggests that MacLaren was usually correct , being more experienced and a better judge than most of those who chose the teams . Peter Wynne @-@ Thomas describes MacLaren 's approach to selection as " unorthodox " , and writes that while his ideas were sometimes successful , they failed badly at other times . Apart from his own failings , MacLaren had a reputation as an unlucky captain , both in terms of losing important players to injury and illness before vital games , and in the frequency with which he lost the toss before a match . Nor was MacLaren particularly popular ; in later years , several people for whom he had been a hero changed their opinion once they met him .
In his history of the club , Peter Wynne @-@ Thomas describes MacLaren as the dominant figure in Lancashire cricket from his debut until the First World War . Gibson accepts that MacLaren was tactically a good captain , but observes that in his 12 seasons as leader of a strong Lancashire team , he only once won the County Championship . In addition , as the appointed captain in four series against Australia , he was beaten in each one , something no other England captain has repeated . Gibson suggests that " the excuses begin to run thin , sieved through such a tale of failure . " Gibson summarises that " England under MacLaren must have been a good side to watch , save for the passionate partisans , but an uncomfortable side in which to play ... Bad captain or no , with no doubt ... MacLaren was one of the most entrancing , one of the most glamorous — though that word had not come into fashion in his day — characters of his cricketing epoch . "
= Lead poisoning =
Lead poisoning is a type of metal poisoning caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body . Like most toxic heavy metals , lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues , including the heart , bones , intestines , kidneys , and reproductive and nervous systems . The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure . Lead interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore particularly toxic to children , causing potentially permanent learning and behavior disorders including violence . Symptoms include abdominal pain , confusion , headache , anemia , irritability , and in severe cases seizures , coma , and death .
Routes of exposure to lead include contaminated air , water , soil , food , and consumer products . Occupational exposure is a common cause of lead poisoning in adults . According to estimates made by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) , more than 3 million workers in the United States are potentially exposed to lead in the workplace . One of the largest threats to children is lead paint that exists in many homes , especially older ones ; thus children in older housing with chipping paint or lead dust from moveable window frames with lead paint are at greater risk . Prevention of lead exposure can range from individual efforts ( e.g. , removing lead @-@ containing items such as piping or blinds from the home ) to nationwide policies ( e.g. , laws that ban lead in products , reduce allowable levels in water or soil , or provide for cleanup and mitigation of contaminated soil , etc . )
Elevated lead in the body can be detected by the presence of changes in blood cells visible with a microscope and dense lines in the bones of children seen on X @-@ ray , but the main tool for diagnosis is measurement of the blood lead level . When blood lead levels are recorded , the results indicate how much lead is circulating within the blood stream , not the amount stored in the body . There are two units for reporting blood lead level , either micrograms per deciliter ( µg / dl ) , or micrograms per 100 grams ( µg / 100 g ) of whole blood , which are numerically equivalent . The Centers for Disease Control ( US ) has set the standard elevated blood lead level for adults to be 10 µg / dl of the whole blood . For children the number is set much lower at 5 µg / dl of blood as of 2012 down from a previous 10 µg / dl . Children are especially prone to the health effects of lead . As a result , blood lead levels must be set lower and closely monitored if contamination is possible . The major treatments are removal of the source of lead and chelation therapy ( administration of agents that bind lead so it can be excreted ) .
Humans have been mining and using this heavy metal for thousands of years , poisoning themselves in the process . Although lead poisoning is one of the oldest known work and environmental hazards , the modern understanding of the small amount of lead necessary to cause harm did not come about until the latter half of the 20th century . No safe threshold for lead exposure has been discovered — that is , there is no known sufficiently small amount of lead that will not cause harm to the body .
= = Classification = =
Classically , " lead poisoning " or " lead intoxication " has been defined as exposure to high levels of lead typically associated with severe health effects . Poisoning is a pattern of symptoms that occur with toxic effects from mid to high levels of exposure ; toxicity is a wider spectrum of effects , including subclinical ones ( those that do not cause symptoms ) . However , professionals often use " lead poisoning " and " lead toxicity " interchangeably , and official sources do not always restrict the use of " lead poisoning " to refer only to symptomatic effects of lead .
The amount of lead in the blood and tissues , as well as the time course of exposure , determine toxicity . Lead poisoning may be acute ( from intense exposure of short duration ) or chronic ( from repeat low @-@ level exposure over a prolonged period ) , but the latter is much more common . Diagnosis and treatment of lead exposure are based on blood lead level ( the amount of lead in the blood ) , measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood ( μg / dL ) . Urine lead levels may be used as well , though less commonly . In cases of chronic exposure lead often sequesters in the highest concentrations first in the bones , then in the kidneys . If a provider is performing a provocative excretion test , or " chelation challenge " , a measurement obtained from urine rather than blood is likely to provide a more accurate representation of total lead burden to a skilled interpreter .
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization state that a blood lead level of 10 μg / dL or above is a cause for concern ; however , lead may impair development and have harmful health effects even at lower levels , and there is no known safe exposure level . Authorities such as the American Academy of Pediatrics define lead poisoning as blood lead levels higher than 10 μg / dL .
Lead forms a variety of compounds and exists in the environment in various forms . Features of poisoning differ depending on whether the agent is an organic compound ( one that contains carbon ) , or an inorganic one . Organic lead poisoning is now very rare , because countries across the world have phased out the use of organic lead compounds as gasoline additives , but such compounds are still used in industrial settings . Organic lead compounds , which cross the skin and respiratory tract easily , affect the central nervous system predominantly .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Lead poisoning can cause a variety of symptoms and signs which vary depending on the individual and the duration of lead exposure . Symptoms are nonspecific and may be subtle , and someone with elevated lead levels may have no symptoms . Symptoms usually develop over weeks to months as lead builds up in the body during a chronic exposure , but acute symptoms from brief , intense exposures also occur . Symptoms from exposure to organic lead , which is probably more toxic than inorganic lead due to its lipid solubility , occur rapidly . Poisoning by organic lead compounds has symptoms predominantly in the central nervous system , such as insomnia , delirium , cognitive deficits , tremor , hallucinations , and convulsions .
Symptoms may be different in adults and children ; the main symptoms in adults are headache , abdominal pain , memory loss , kidney failure , male reproductive problems , and weakness , pain , or tingling in the extremities .
Early symptoms of lead poisoning in adults are commonly nonspecific and include depression , loss of appetite , intermittent abdominal pain , nausea , diarrhea , constipation , and muscle pain . Other early signs in adults include malaise , fatigue , decreased libido , and problems with sleep . An unusual taste in the mouth and personality changes are also early signs .
In adults , symptoms can occur at levels above 40 μg / dL , but are more likely to occur only above 50 – 60 μg / dL . Symptoms begin to appear in children generally at around 60 μg / dL . However , the lead levels at which symptoms appear vary widely depending on unknown characteristics of each individual . At blood lead levels between 25 and 60 μg / dL , neuropsychiatric effects such as delayed reaction times , irritability , and difficulty concentrating , as well as slowed motor nerve conduction and headache can occur . Anemia may appear at blood lead levels higher than 50 μg / dL . In adults , abdominal colic , involving paroxysms of pain , may appear at blood lead levels greater than 80 μg / dL . Signs that occur in adults at blood lead levels exceeding 100 μg / dL include wrist drop and foot drop , and signs of encephalopathy ( a condition characterized by brain swelling ) , such as those that accompany increased pressure within the skull , delirium , coma , seizures , and headache . In children , signs of encephalopathy such as bizarre behavior , discoordination , and apathy occur at lead levels exceeding 70 μg / dL . For both adults and children , it is rare to be asymptomatic if blood lead levels exceed 100 μg / dL .
= = = Acute poisoning = = =
In acute poisoning , typical neurological signs are pain , muscle weakness , numbness and tingling , and , rarely , symptoms associated with inflammation of the brain . Abdominal pain , nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , and constipation are other acute symptoms . Lead 's effects on the mouth include astringency and a metallic taste . Gastrointestinal problems , such as constipation , diarrhea , poor appetite , or weight loss , are common in acute poisoning . Absorption of large amounts of lead over a short time can cause shock ( insufficient fluid in the circulatory system ) due to loss of water from the gastrointestinal tract . Hemolysis ( the rupture of red blood cells ) due to acute poisoning can cause anemia and hemoglobin in the urine . Damage to kidneys can cause changes in urination such as decreased urine output . People who survive acute poisoning often go on to display symptoms of chronic poisoning .
= = = Chronic poisoning = = =
Chronic poisoning usually presents with symptoms affecting multiple systems , but is associated with three main types of symptoms : gastrointestinal , neuromuscular , and neurological . Central nervous system and neuromuscular symptoms usually result from intense exposure , while gastrointestinal symptoms usually result from exposure over longer periods . Signs of chronic exposure include loss of short @-@ term memory or concentration , depression , nausea , abdominal pain , loss of coordination , and numbness and tingling in the extremities . Fatigue , problems with sleep , headaches , stupor , slurred speech , and anemia are also found in chronic lead poisoning . A " lead hue " of the skin with pallor and / or lividity is another feature . A blue line along the gum with bluish black edging to the teeth , known as a Burton line , is another indication of chronic lead poisoning . Children with chronic poisoning may refuse to play or may have hyperkinetic or aggressive behavior disorders . Visual disturbance may present with gradually progressing blurred vision as a result of central scotoma , caused by toxic optic neuritis .
= = = Effects on children = = =
A fetus developing in the womb of a woman who has elevated blood lead level is susceptible to lead poisoning by intrauterine exposure , and is at greater risk of being born prematurely or with a low birth weight .
Children are more at risk for lead poisoning because their smaller bodies are in a continuous state of growth and development . Lead is absorbed at a faster rate compared to adults , which causes more physical harm than to older people . Furthermore , children , especially as they are learning to crawl and walk , are constantly on the floor and therefore more prone to ingesting and inhaling dust that is contaminated with lead .
The classic signs and symptoms in children are loss of appetite , abdominal pain , vomiting , weight loss , constipation , anemia , kidney failure , irritability , lethargy , learning disabilities , and behavioral problems . Slow development of normal childhood behaviors , such as talking and use of words , and permanent intellectual disability are both commonly seen . Although less common , it is possible for fingernails to develop leukonychia striata if exposed to abnormally high lead concentrations .
= = = Complications = = =
Lead affects every one of the body 's organ systems , especially the nervous system , but also the bones and teeth , the kidneys , and the cardiovascular , immune , and reproductive systems . Hearing loss and tooth decay have been linked to lead exposure , as have cataracts . Intrauterine and neonatal lead exposure promote tooth decay . Aside from the developmental effects unique to young children , the health effects experienced by adults are similar to those in children , although the thresholds are generally higher .
= = = = Kidneys = = = =
Kidney damage occurs with exposure to high levels of lead , and evidence suggests that lower levels can damage kidneys as well . The toxic effect of lead causes nephropathy and may cause Fanconi syndrome , in which the proximal tubular function of the kidney is impaired . Long @-@ term exposure at levels lower than those that cause lead nephropathy have also been reported as nephrotoxic in patients from developed countries that had chronic kidney disease or were at risk because of hypertension or diabetes mellitus . Lead poisoning inhibits excretion of the waste product urate and causes a predisposition for gout , in which urate builds up . This condition is known as saturnine gout .
= = = = Cardiovascular system = = = =
Evidence suggests lead exposure is associated with high blood pressure , and studies have also found connections between lead exposure and coronary heart disease , heart rate variability , and death from stroke , but this evidence is more limited . People who have been exposed to higher concentrations of lead may be at a higher risk for cardiac autonomic dysfunction on days when ozone and fine particles are higher .
= = = = Reproductive system = = = =
Lead affects both the male and female reproductive systems . In men , when blood lead levels exceed 40 μg / dL , sperm count is reduced and changes occur in volume of sperm , their motility , and their morphology . A pregnant woman 's elevated blood lead level can lead to miscarriage , prematurity , low birth weight , and problems with development during childhood . Lead is able to pass through the placenta and into breast milk , and blood lead levels in mothers and infants are usually similar . A fetus may be poisoned in utero if lead from the mother 's bones is subsequently mobilized by the changes in metabolism due to pregnancy ; increased calcium intake in pregnancy may help mitigate this phenomenon .
= = = = Nervous system = = = =
Lead affects the peripheral nervous system ( especially motor nerves ) and the central nervous system . Peripheral nervous system effects are more prominent in adults and central nervous system effects are more prominent in children . Lead causes the axons of nerve cells to degenerate and lose their myelin coats .
Lead exposure in young children has been linked to learning disabilities , and children with blood lead concentrations greater than 10 μg / dL are in danger of developmental disabilities . Increased blood lead level in children has been correlated with decreases in intelligence , nonverbal reasoning , short @-@ term memory , attention , reading and arithmetic ability , fine motor skills , emotional regulation , and social engagement . The effect of lead on children 's cognitive abilities takes place at very low levels . There is apparently no lower threshold to the dose @-@ response relationship ( unlike other heavy metals such as mercury ) . Reduced academic performance has been associated with lead exposure even at blood lead levels lower than 5 μg / dL . Blood lead levels below 10 μg / dL have been reported to be associated with lower IQ and behavior problems such as aggression , in proportion with blood lead levels . Between the blood lead levels of 5 and 35 μg / dL , an IQ decrease of 2 – 4 points for each μg / dL increase is reported in children .
High blood lead levels in adults are also associated with decreases in cognitive performance and with psychiatric symptoms such as depression and anxiety . It was found in a large group of current and former inorganic lead workers in Korea that blood lead levels in the range of 20 – 50 μg / dL were correlated with neuro @-@ cognitive defects . Increases in blood lead levels from about 50 to about 100 μg / dL in adults have been found to be associated with persistent , and possibly permanent , impairment of central nervous system function .
Lead exposure in children is also correlated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anti @-@ social behaviour . Elevated lead levels in children are correlated with higher scores on aggression and delinquency measures . A correlation has also been found between prenatal and early childhood lead exposure and violent crime in adulthood . Countries with the highest air lead levels have also been found to have the highest murder rates , after adjusting for confounding factors . A May 2000 study by economic consultant Rick Nevin theorizes that lead exposure explains 65 % to 90 % of the variation in violent crime rates in the US . A 2007 paper by the same author claims to show a strong association between preschool blood lead and subsequent crime rate trends over several decades across nine countries . It is believed that the U.S. ban on lead paint in buildings in the late 1970s , as well as the phaseout of leaded gasoline in the 1970s and 1980s , partially helped contribute to the decline of violent crime in the United States since the early 1990s .
= = Exposure routes = =
Lead is a common environmental pollutant . Causes of environmental contamination include industrial use of lead , such as is found in facilities that process lead @-@ acid batteries or produce lead wire or pipes , and metal recycling and foundries . Children living near facilities that process lead , such as lead smelters , have been found to have unusually high blood lead levels . In August 2009 , parents rioted in China after lead poisoning was found in nearly 2000 children living near zinc and manganese smelters . Lead exposure can occur from contact with lead in air , household dust , soil , water , and commercial products . Leaded gasoline has also been linked to increases in lead pollution . Some research has suggested a link between leaded gasoline and crime rates .
= = = Occupational exposure = = =
In adults , occupational exposure is the main cause of lead poisoning . People can be exposed when working in facilities that produce a variety of lead @-@ containing products ; these include radiation shields , ammunition , certain surgical equipment , developing dental x @-@ ray films prior to digital x @-@ rays ( each film packet had a lead liner to prevent the radiation from going through ) , fetal monitors , plumbing , circuit boards , jet engines , and ceramic glazes . In addition , lead miners and smelters , plumbers and fitters , auto mechanics , glass manufacturers , construction workers , battery manufacturers and recyclers , firing range instructors , and plastic manufacturers are at risk for lead exposure . Other occupations that present lead exposure risks include welding , manufacture of rubber , printing , zinc and copper smelting , processing of ore , combustion of solid waste , and production of paints and pigments . Parents who are exposed to lead in the workplace can bring lead dust home on clothes or skin and expose their children .
= = = Paint = = =
Some lead compounds are colorful and are used widely in paints , and lead paint is a major route of lead exposure in children . A study conducted in 1998 – 2000 found that 38 million housing units in the US had lead @-@ based paint , down from a 1990 estimate of 64 million . Deteriorating lead paint can produce dangerous lead levels in household dust and soil . Deteriorating lead paint and lead @-@ containing household dust are the main causes of chronic lead poisoning . The lead breaks down into the dust and since children are more prone to crawling on the floor , it is easily ingested . Many young children display pica , eating things that are not food . Even a small amount of a lead @-@ containing product such as a paint chip or a sip of glaze can contain tens or hundreds of milligrams of lead . Eating chips of lead paint presents a particular hazard to children , generally producing more severe poisoning than occurs from dust . Because removing lead paint from dwellings , e.g. by sanding or torching creates lead @-@ containing dust and fumes , it is generally safer to seal the lead paint under new paint ( excepting moveable windows and doors , which create paint dust when operated ) . Alternately , special precautions must be taken if the lead paint is to be removed . In oil painting it was once common for colours such as yellow or white to be made with lead carbonate . Lead white oil colour was the main white of oil painters until superseded by compounds containing zinc or titanium in the mid @-@ 20th century . It is speculated that the painter Caravaggio and possibly Francisco Goya and Vincent Van Gogh had lead poisoning due to overexposure or carelessness when handling this colour .
= = = Soil = = =
Residual lead in soil contributes to lead exposure in urban areas . It has been thought that the more polluted an area is with various contaminants , the more likely it is to contain lead . However , this is not always the case , as there are several other reasons for lead contamination in soil . Lead content in soil may be caused by broken @-@ down lead paint , residues from lead @-@ containing gasoline , used engine oil , or pesticides used in the past , contaminated landfills , or from nearby industries such as foundries or smelters . Although leaded soil is less of a problem in countries that no longer have leaded gasoline , it remains prevalent , raising concerns about the safety of urban agriculture ; eating food grown in contaminated soil can present a lead hazard .
= = = Water = = =
Lead from the atmosphere or soil can end up in groundwater and surface water . It is also potentially in drinking water , e.g. from plumbing and fixtures that are either made of lead or have lead solder . Since acidic water breaks down lead in plumbing more readily , chemicals can be added to municipal water to increase the pH and thus reduce the corrosivity of the public water supply . Chloramines , which were adopted as a substitute for chlorine disinfectants due to fewer health concerns , increase corrositivity . In the US , 14 – 20 % of total lead exposure is attributed to drinking water . In 2004 , a team of seven reporters from The Washington Post discovered high levels of lead in the drinking water in Washington , D.C. and won an award for investigative reporting for a series of articles about this contamination . In the Flint water crisis , a switch to a more corrosive municipal water source elevated lead levels in drinking water in domestic tap water .
In Australia , collecting rainwater from roof runoff used as potable water may contain lead if there are lead contaminants on the roof or in the storage tank . The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines allow a maximum of .01 mg / L lead in water .
= = = Lead @-@ containing products = = =
Lead can be found in products such as kohl , an ancient cosmetic from the Middle East , South Asia , and parts of Africa that has many names ; and from some toys . In 2007 , millions of toys made in China were recalled from multiple countries owing to safety hazards including lead paint . Vinyl mini @-@ blinds , found especially in older housing , may contain lead . Lead is commonly incorporated into herbal remedies such as Indian Ayurvedic preparations and remedies of Chinese origin . There are also risks of elevated blood lead levels caused by folk remedies like azarcon and greta , which each contain about 95 % lead .
Ingestion of metallic lead , such as small lead fishing lures , increases blood lead levels and can be fatal . Ingestion of lead @-@ contaminated
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products is only minimally absorbed through the skin . The main sources of absorption of inorganic lead are from ingestion and inhalation . In adults , about 35 – 40 % of inhaled lead dust is deposited in the lungs , and about 95 % of that goes into the bloodstream . Of ingested inorganic lead , about 15 % is absorbed , but this percentage is higher in children , pregnant women , and people with deficiencies of calcium , zinc , or iron . Children and infants may absorb about 50 % of ingested lead , but little is known about absorption rates in children .
The main body compartments that store lead are the blood , soft tissues , and bone ; the half @-@ life of lead in these tissues is measured in weeks for blood , months for soft tissues , and years for bone . Lead in the bones , teeth , hair , and nails is bound tightly and not available to other tissues , and is generally thought not to be harmful . In adults , 94 % of absorbed lead is deposited in the bones and teeth , but children only store 70 % in this manner , a fact which may partially account for the more serious health effects on children . The estimated half @-@ life of lead in bone is 20 to 30 years , and bone can introduce lead into the bloodstream long after the initial exposure is gone . The half @-@ life of lead in the blood in men is about 40 days , but it may be longer in children and pregnant women , whose bones are undergoing remodeling , which allows the lead to be continuously re @-@ introduced into the bloodstream . Also , if lead exposure takes place over years , clearance is much slower , partly due to the re @-@ release of lead from bone . Many other tissues store lead , but those with the highest concentrations ( other than blood , bone , and teeth ) are the brain , spleen , kidneys , liver , and lungs . It is removed from the body very slowly , mainly through urine . Smaller amounts of lead are also eliminated through the feces , and very small amounts in hair , nails , and sweat .
Lead has no known physiologically relevant role in the body , and its harmful effects are myriad . Lead and other heavy metals create reactive radicals which damage cell structures including DNA and cell membranes . Lead also interferes with DNA transcription , enzymes that help in the synthesis of vitamin D , and enzymes that maintain the integrity of the cell membrane . Anemia may result when the cell membranes of red blood cells become more fragile as the result of damage to their membranes . Lead interferes with metabolism of bones and teeth and alters the permeability of blood vessels and collagen synthesis . Lead may also be harmful to the developing immune system , causing production of excessive inflammatory proteins ; this mechanism may mean that lead exposure is a risk factor for asthma in children . Lead exposure has also been associated with a decrease in activity of immune cells such as polymorphonuclear leukocytes . Lead also interferes with the normal metabolism of calcium in cells and causes it to build up within them .
= = = Enzymes = = =
The primary cause of lead 's toxicity is its interference with a variety of enzymes because it binds to sulfhydryl groups found on many enzymes . Part of lead 's toxicity results from its ability to mimic other metals that take part in biological processes , which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions , displacing them at the enzymes on which they act . Lead is able to bind to and interact with many of the same enzymes as these metals but , due to its differing chemistry , does not properly function as a cofactor , thus interfering with the enzyme 's ability to catalyze its normal reaction or reactions . Among the essential metals with which lead interacts are calcium , iron , and zinc .
One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of an essential enzyme called delta @-@ aminolevulinic acid dehydratase , or ALAD ( see image of the enzyme structure ) , which is important in the biosynthesis of heme , the cofactor found in hemoglobin . Lead also inhibits the enzyme ferrochelatase , another enzyme involved in the formation of heme . Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of protoporphyrin and Fe2 + to form heme . Lead 's interference with heme synthesis results in production of zinc protoporphyrin and the development of anemia . Another effect of lead 's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme precursors , such as aminolevulinic acid , which may be directly or indirectly harmful to neurons .
= = = Neurons = = =
The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure . Lead is able to pass through the endothelial cells at the blood brain barrier because it can substitute for calcium ions and be uptaken by Calcium @-@ ATPase pumps . Lead poisoning interferes with the normal development of a child 's brain and nervous system ; therefore children are at greater risk of lead neurotoxicity than adults are . In a child 's developing brain , lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex , neurochemical development ( including that of neurotransmitters ) , and organization of ion channels . It causes loss of neurons ' myelin sheaths , reduces numbers of neurons , interferes with neurotransmission , and decreases neuronal growth .
Lead interferes with the release of neurotransmitters , chemicals used by neurons to send signals to other cells . It interferes with the release of glutamate , a neurotransmitter important in many functions including learning , by blocking NMDA receptors . The targeting of NMDA receptors is thought to be one of the main causes for lead 's toxicity to neurons . A Johns Hopkins University report found that in addition to inhibiting the NMDA receptor , lead exposure decreased the level of expression of the gene for the receptor in part of the brain . In addition , lead has been found in animal studies to cause programmed cell death in brain cells .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis includes determining the clinical signs and the medical history , with inquiry into possible routes of exposure . Clinical toxicologists , medical specialists in the area of poisoning , may be involved in diagnosis and treatment . The main tool in diagnosing and assessing the severity of lead poisoning is laboratory analysis of the blood lead level ( BLL ) .
Blood film examination may reveal basophilic stippling of red blood cells ( dots in red blood cells visible through a microscope ) , as well as the changes normally associated with iron @-@ deficiency anemia ( microcytosis and hypochromasia ) . However , basophilic stippling is also seen in unrelated conditions , such as megaloblastic anemia caused by vitamin B12 ( colbalamin ) and folate deficiencies .
Exposure to lead also can be evaluated by measuring erythrocyte protoporphyrin ( EP ) in blood samples . EP is a part of red blood cells known to increase when the amount of lead in the blood is high , with a delay of a few weeks . Thus EP levels in conjunction with blood lead levels can suggest the time period of exposure ; if blood lead levels are high but EP is still normal , this finding suggests exposure was recent . However , the EP level alone is not sensitive enough to identify elevated blood lead levels below about 35 μg / dL . Due to this higher threshold for detection and the fact that EP levels also increase in iron deficiency , use of this method for detecting lead exposure has decreased .
Blood lead levels are an indicator mainly of recent or current lead exposure , not of total body burden . Lead in bones can be measured noninvasively by X @-@ ray fluorescence ; this may be the best measure of cumulative exposure and total body burden . However this method is not widely available and is mainly used for research rather than routine diagnosis . Another radiographic sign of elevated lead levels is the presence of radiodense lines called lead lines at the metaphysis in the long bones of growing children , especially around the knees . These lead lines , caused by increased calcification due to disrupted metabolism in the growing bones , become wider as the duration of lead exposure increases . X @-@ rays may also reveal lead @-@ containing foreign materials such as paint chips in the gastrointestinal tract .
Fecal lead content that is measured over the course of a few days may also be an accurate way to estimate the overall amount of childhood lead intake . This form of measurement may serve as a useful way to see the extent of oral lead exposure from all the diet and environmental sources of lead .
Lead poisoning shares symptoms with other conditions and may be easily missed . Conditions that present similarly and must be ruled out in diagnosing lead poisoning include carpal tunnel syndrome , Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome , renal colic , appendicitis , encephalitis in adults , and viral gastroenteritis in children . Other differential diagnoses in children include constipation , abdominal colic , iron deficiency , subdural hematoma , neoplasms of the central nervous system , emotional and behavior disorders , and intellectual disability .
= = = Reference levels = = =
The current reference range for acceptable blood lead concentrations in healthy persons without excessive exposure to environmental sources of lead is less than 5 µg / dL for children . It was less than 25 µg / dL for adults . Previous to 2012 the value for children was 10 ( µg / dl ) . The current biological exposure index ( a level that should not be exceeded ) for lead @-@ exposed workers in the U.S. is 30 µg / dL in a random blood specimen .
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( CDC / NIOSH ) reference blood lead level in adults is 10 μg / dL The U.S. national BLL geometric mean among adults was 1 @.@ 2 μg / dL in 2009 – 2010 .
Blood lead concentrations in poisoning victims have ranged from 30- > 80 µg / dL in children exposed to lead paint in older houses , 77 – 104 µg / dL in persons working with pottery glazes , 90 – 137 µg / dL in individuals consuming contaminated herbal medicines , 109 – 139 µg / dL in indoor shooting range instructors and as high as 330 µg / dL in those drinking fruit juices from glazed earthenware containers .
= = Prevention = =
In most cases , lead poisoning is preventable by avoiding exposure to lead . Prevention strategies can be divided into individual ( measures taken by a family ) , preventive medicine ( identifying and intervening with high @-@ risk individuals ) , and public health ( reducing risk on a population level ) .
Recommended steps by individuals to reduce the blood lead levels of children include increasing their frequency of hand washing and their intake of calcium and iron , discouraging them from putting their hands to their mouths , vacuuming frequently , and eliminating the presence of lead @-@ containing objects such as blinds and jewellery in the house . In houses with lead pipes or plumbing solder , these can be replaced . Less permanent but cheaper methods include running water in the morning to flush out the most contaminated water , or adjusting the water 's chemistry to prevent corrosion of pipes . Lead testing kits are commercially available for detecting the presence of lead in the household . As hot water is more likely than cold water to contain higher amounts of lead , use only cold water from the tap for drinking , cooking , and for making baby formula . Since most of the lead in household water usually comes from plumbing in the house and not from the local water supply , using cold water can avoid lead exposure . Measures such as dust control and household education do not appear to be effective in changing children 's blood levels .
Screening is an important method in preventive medicine strategies . Screening programs exist to test the blood of children at high risk for lead exposure , such as those who live near lead @-@ related industries .
Prevention measures also exist on national and municipal levels . Recommendations by health professionals for lowering childhood exposures include banning the use of lead where it is not essential and strengthening regulations that limit the amount of lead in soil , water , air , household dust , and products . Regulations exist to limit the amount of lead in paint ; for example , a 1978 law in the US restricted the lead in paint for residences , furniture , and toys to 0 @.@ 06 % or less . In October 2008 , the US Environmental Protection Agency reduced the allowable lead level by a factor of ten to 0 @.@ 15 micrograms per cubic meter of air , giving states five years to comply with the standards . The European Union 's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive limits amounts of lead and other toxic substances in electronics and electrical equipment . In some places , remediation programs exist to reduce the presence of lead when it is found to be high , for example in drinking water . As a more radical solution , entire towns located near former lead mines have been " closed " by the government , and the population resettled elsewhere , as was the case with Picher , Oklahoma in 2009 .
= = Treatment = =
The mainstays of treatment are removal from the source of lead and , for people who have significantly high blood lead levels or who have symptoms of poisoning , chelation therapy . Treatment of iron , calcium , and zinc deficiencies , which are associated with increased lead absorption , is another part of treatment for lead poisoning . When lead @-@ containing materials are present in the gastrointestinal tract ( as evidenced by abdominal X @-@ rays ) , whole bowel irrigation , cathartics , endoscopy , or even surgical removal may be used to eliminate it from the gut and prevent further exposure . Lead @-@ containing bullets and shrapnel may also present a threat of further exposure and may need to be surgically removed if they are in or near fluid @-@ filled or synovial spaces . If lead encephalopathy is present , anticonvulsants may be given to control seizures , and treatments to control swelling of the brain include corticosteroids and mannitol . Treatment of organic lead poisoning involves removing the lead compound from the skin , preventing further exposure , treating seizures , and possibly chelation therapy for people with high blood lead concentrations .
A chelating agent is a molecule with at least two negatively charged groups that allow it to form complexes with metal ions with multiple positive charges , such as lead . The chelate that is thus formed is nontoxic and can be excreted in the urine , initially at up to 50 times the normal rate . The chelating agents used for treatment of lead poisoning are edetate disodium calcium ( CaNa2EDTA ) , dimercaprol ( BAL ) , which are injected , and succimer and d @-@ penicillamine , which are administered orally . Chelation therapy is used in cases of acute lead poisoning , severe poisoning , and encephalopathy , and is considered for people with blood lead levels above 25 µg / dL . While the use of chelation for people with symptoms of lead poisoning is widely supported , use in asymptomatic people with high blood lead levels is more controversial . Chelation therapy is of limited value for cases of chronic exposure to low levels of lead . Chelation therapy is usually stopped when symptoms resolve or when blood lead levels return to premorbid levels . When lead exposure has taken place over a long period , blood lead levels may rise after chelation is stopped because lead is leached into blood from stores in the bone ; thus repeated treatments are often necessary .
People receiving dimercaprol need to be assessed for peanut allergies since the commercial formulation contains peanut oil . Calcium EDTA is also effective if administered four hours after the administration of dimercaprol . Administering dimercaprol , DMSA ( Succimer ) , or DMPS prior to calcium EDTA is necessary to prevent the redistribution of lead into the central nervous system . Dimercaprol used alone may also redistribute lead to the brain and testes . An adverse side effect of calcium EDTA is renal toxicity . Succimer ( DMSA ) is the preferred agent in mild to moderate lead poisoning cases . This may be the case in instances where children have a blood lead level > 25μg / dL . The most reported adverse side effect for succimer is gastrointestinal disturbances . It is also important to note that chelation therapy only lowers blood lead levels and may not prevent the lead @-@ induced cognitive problems associated with lower lead levels in tissue . This may be because of the inability of these agents to remove sufficient amounts of lead from tissue or inability to reverse preexisting damage . Chelating agents can have adverse effects ; for example , chelation therapy can lower the body 's levels of necessary nutrients like zinc . Chelating agents taken orally can increase the body 's absorption of lead through the intestine .
Chelation challenge , also known as provocation testing , is used to indicate an elevated and mobilizable body burden of heavy metals including lead . This testing involves collecting urine before and after administering a one @-@ off dose of chelating agent to mobilize heavy metals into the urine . Then urine is analyzed by a laboratory for levels of heavy metals ; from this analysis overall body burden is inferred . Chelation challenge mainly measures the burden of lead in soft tissues , though whether it accurately reflects long @-@ term exposure or the amount of lead stored in bone remains controversial . Although the technique has been used to determine whether chelation therapy is indicated and to diagnose heavy metal exposure , some evidence does not support these uses as blood levels after chelation are not comparable to the reference range typically used to diagnose heavy metal poisoning . The single chelation dose could also redistribute the heavy metals to more sensitive areas such as central nervous system tissue .
= = Epidemiology = =
Since lead has been used widely for centuries , the effects of exposure are worldwide . Environmental lead is ubiquitous , and everyone has some measurable blood lead level . Atmospheric lead pollution increased dramatically beginning in the 1950s as a result of the widespread use of leaded gasoline . Lead is one of the largest environmental medicine problems in terms of numbers of people exposed and the public health toll it takes . Lead exposure accounts for about 0 @.@ 2 % of all deaths and 0 @.@ 6 % of disability adjusted life years globally .
Although regulation reducing lead in products has greatly reduced exposure in the developed world since the 1970s , lead is still allowed in products in many developing countries . In all countries that have banned leaded gasoline , average blood lead levels have fallen sharply . However , some developing countries still allow leaded gasoline , which is the primary source of lead exposure in most developing countries . Beyond exposure from gasoline , the frequent use of pesticides in developing countries adds a risk of lead exposure and subsequent poisoning . Poor children in developing countries are at especially high risk for lead poisoning . Of North American children , 7 % have blood lead levels above 10 μg / dL , whereas among Central and South American children , the percentage is 33 to 34 % . About one fifth of the world 's disease burden from lead poisoning occurs in the Western Pacific , and another fifth is in Southeast Asia .
In developed countries , people with low levels of education living in poorer areas are most at risk for elevated lead . In the US , the groups most at risk for lead exposure are the impoverished , city @-@ dwellers , and immigrants . African @-@ American children and those living in old housing have also been found to be at elevated risk for high blood lead levels in the US . Low @-@ income people often live in old housing with lead paint , which may begin to peel , exposing residents to high levels of lead @-@ containing dust .
Risk factors for elevated lead exposure include alcohol consumption and smoking ( possibly because of contamination of tobacco leaves with lead @-@ containing pesticides ) . Adults with certain risk factors might be more susceptible to toxicity ; these include calcium and iron deficiencies , old age , disease of organs targeted by lead ( e.g. the brain , the kidneys ) , and possibly genetic susceptibility . Differences in vulnerability to lead @-@ induced neurological damage between males and females have also been found , but some studies have found males to be at greater risk , while others have found females to be .
In adults , blood lead levels steadily increase with increasing age . In adults of all ages , men have higher blood lead levels than women do . Children are more sensitive to elevated blood lead levels than adults are . Children may also have a higher intake of lead than adults ; they breathe faster and may be more likely to have contact with and ingest soil . Children of ages one to three tend to have the highest blood lead levels , possibly because at that age they begin to walk and explore their environment , and they use their mouths in their exploration . Blood levels usually peak at about 18 – 24 months old . In many countries including the US , household paint and dust are the major route of exposure in children .
= = = Notable cases = = =
Cases of mass lead poisoning can occur , primarily in underdeveloped countries .
15 @,@ 000 people are being relocated from Jiyuan in central Henan province to other locations after 1000 children living around China 's largest smelter plant ( owned and operated by Yuguang Gold and Lead ) were found to have excess lead in their blood . The total cost of this project is estimated to around 1 billion yuan ( $ 150 million ) . 70 % of the cost will be paid by local government and the smelter company , while the rest will be paid by the residents themselves . The government has suspended production at 32 of 35 lead plants . The affected area includes people from 10 different villages .
The Zamfara State lead poisoning epidemic occurred in Nigeria in 2010 . As of October 5 , 2010 at least 400 children have died from the effects of lead poisoning .
= = Prognosis = =
= = = Reversibility = = =
Outcome is related to the extent and duration of lead exposure . Effects of lead on the physiology of the kidneys and blood are generally reversible ; its effects on the central nervous system are not . While peripheral effects in adults often go away when lead exposure ceases , evidence suggests that most of lead 's effects on a child 's central nervous system are irreversible . Children with lead poisoning may thus have adverse health , cognitive , and behavioral effects that follow them into adulthood .
= = = Encephalopathy = = =
Lead encephalopathy is a medical emergency and causes permanent brain damage in 70 – 80 % of children affected by it , even those that receive the best treatment . The mortality rate for people who develop cerebral involvement is about 25 % , and of those who survive who had lead encephalopathy symptoms by the time chelation therapy was begun , about 40 % have permanent neurological problems such as cerebral palsy .
= = = Long @-@ term = = =
Exposure to lead may also decrease lifespan and have health effects in the long term . Death rates from a variety of causes have been found to be higher in people with elevated blood lead levels ; these include cancer , stroke , and heart disease , and general death rates from all causes . Lead is considered a possible human carcinogen based on evidence from animal studies . Evidence also suggests that age @-@ related mental decline and psychiatric symptoms are correlated with lead exposure . Cumulative exposure over a prolonged period may have a more important effect on some aspects of health than recent exposure . Some health effects , such as high blood pressure , are only significant risks when lead exposure is prolonged ( over about one year ) .
= = History = =
Lead poisoning was among the first known and most widely studied work and environmental hazards . One of the first metals to be smelted and used , lead is thought to have been discovered and first mined in Anatolia around 6500 BCE . Its density , workability , and corrosion @-@ resistance were among the metal 's attractions .
In the 2nd century BCE the Greek botanist Nicander described the colic and paralysis seen in lead @-@ poisoned people . Dioscorides , a Greek physician who lived in the 1st century CE , wrote that lead makes the mind " give way " .
Lead was used extensively in Roman aqueducts from about 500 BCE to 300 CE Julius Caesar 's engineer , Vitruvius , reported , " water is much more wholesome from earthenware pipes than from lead pipes . For it seems to be made injurious by lead , because white lead is produced by it , and this is said to be harmful to the human body . " Gout , prevalent in affluent Rome , is thought to be the result of lead , or leaded eating and drinking vessels . Sugar of lead ( lead ( II ) acetate ) was used to sweeten wine , and the gout that resulted from this was known as " saturnine " gout . It is even hypothesized that lead poisoning may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire , a hypothesis thoroughly disputed :
The great disadvantage of lead has always been that it is poisonous . This was fully recognised by the ancients , and Vitruvius specifically warns against its use . Because it was nevertheless used in profusion for carrying drinking water , the conclusion has often been drawn that the Romans must therefore have suffered from lead poisoning ; sometimes conclusions are carried even further and it is inferred that this caused infertility and other unwelcome conditions , and that lead plumbing was largely responsible for the decline and fall of Rome .
Two things make this otherwise attractive hypothesis impossible . First , the calcium carbonate deposit that formed so thickly inside the aqueduct channels also formed inside the pipes , effectively insulating the water from the lead , so that the two never touched . Second , because the Romans had so few taps and the water was constantly running , it was never inside the pipes for more than a few minutes , and certainly not long enough to become contaminated .
However , recent research supports the idea that the lead found in the water came from the supply pipes , rather than another source of contamination . It was not unknown for locals to punch holes in the pipes to draw water off , increasing the number of people exposed to the lead .
Thirty years ago , Jerome Nriagu argued in a milestone paper that Roman civilization collapsed as a result of lead poisoning . Clair Patterson , the scientist who convinced governments to ban lead from gasoline , enthusiastically endorsed this idea , which nevertheless triggered a volley of publications aimed at refuting it . Although today lead is no longer seen as the prime culprit of Rome ’ s demise , its status in the system of water distribution by lead pipes ( fistulæ ) still stands as a major public health issue . By measuring Pb isotope compositions of sediments from the Tiber River and the Trajanic Harbor , the present work shows that “ tap water ” from ancient Rome had 100 times more lead than local spring waters .
Romans also consumed lead through the consumption of defrutum , carenum , and sapa , musts made by boiling down fruit in lead cookware . Defrutum and its relatives were used in Ancient Roman cuisine and cosmetics , including as a food preservative . The use of leaden cookware , though popular , was not the general standard and copper cookware was used far more generally . There is also no indication how often sapa was added or in what quantity .
The consumption of sapa as having a role in the fall of the Roman Empire was used in a theory proposed by geochemist Jerome Nriagu to state that " lead poisoning contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire " . John Scarborough , a pharmacologist and classicist , criticized the conclusions drawn by Nriagu 's book as " so full of false evidence , miscitations , typographical errors , and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader cannot trust the basic arguments . "
After antiquity , mention of lead poisoning was absent from medical literature until the end of the Middle Ages . In 1656 the German physician Samuel Stockhausen recognized dust and fumes containing lead compounds as the cause of disease , called since ancient Roman times morbi metallici , that were known to afflict miners , smelter workers , potters , and others whose work exposed them to the metal .
The painter Caravaggio might have died of lead poisoning . Bones with high lead levels were recently found in a grave thought likely to be his . Paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts . Caravaggio is known to have exhibited violent behavior , as caused by lead poisoning .
In 17th @-@ century Germany , the physician Eberhard Gockel discovered lead @-@ contaminated wine to be the cause of an epidemic of colic . He had noticed that monks who did not drink wine were healthy , while wine drinkers developed colic , and traced the cause to sugar of lead , made by simmering litharge with vinegar . As a result , Eberhard Ludwig , Duke of Württemberg issued an edict in 1696 banning the adulteration of wines with litharge .
In the 18th century lead poisoning was fairly frequent on account of the widespread drinking of rum , which was made in stills with a lead component ( the " worm " ) . It was a significant cause of mortality amongst slaves and sailors in the colonial West Indies . Lead poisoning from rum was also noted in Boston . Benjamin Franklin suspected lead to be a risk in 1786 . Also in the 18th century , " Devonshire colic " was the name given to the symptoms suffered by people of Devon who drank cider made in presses that were lined with lead . Lead was added to cheap wine illegally in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a sweetener . The composer Beethoven , a heavy wine drinker , suffered elevated lead levels ( as later detected in his hair ) possibly due to this ; the cause of his death is controversial , but lead poisoning is a contender as a factor .
With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century , lead poisoning became common in the work setting . The introduction of lead paint for residential use in the 19th century increased childhood exposure to lead ; for millennia before this , most lead exposure had been occupational . An important step in the understanding of childhood lead poisoning occurred when toxicity in children from lead paint was recognized in Australia in 1897 . France , Belgium , and Austria banned white lead interior paints in 1909 ; the League of Nations followed suit in 1922 . However , in the United States , laws banning lead house paint were not passed until 1971 , and it was phased out and not fully banned until 1978 .
The 20th century saw an increase in worldwide lead exposure levels due to the increased widespread use of the metal . Beginning in the 1920s , lead was added to gasoline to improve its combustion ; lead from this exhaust persists today in soil and dust in buildings . Blood lead levels worldwide have been declining sharply since the 1980s , when leaded gasoline began to be phased out . In those countries that have banned lead in solder for food and drink cans and have banned leaded gasoline additives , blood lead levels have fallen sharply since the mid @-@ 1980s .
The levels found today in most people are orders of magnitude greater than those of pre @-@ industrial society . Due to reductions of lead in products and the workplace , acute lead poisoning is rare in most countries today , but low level lead exposure is still common . It was not until the second half of the 20th century that subclinical lead exposure became understood to be a problem . During the end of the 20th century , the blood lead levels deemed acceptable steadily declined . Blood lead levels once considered safe are now considered hazardous , with no known safe threshold .
In the 1980s Herbert Needleman was falsely accused of scientific misconduct by the Lead Industry Associates .
In 2002 Tommy Thompson , secretary of Health and Human Services appointed at least two persons with conflicts of interest to the CDC 's Lead Advisory Committee .
In 2014 a case by the state of California against a number of companies decided against Sherwin @-@ Williams NL Industries and ConAgra and required them to pay $ 1 @.@ 15 billion .
Studies have found a weak link between lead from leaded gasoline and crime rates .
= = Other species = =
Humans are not alone in suffering from lead 's effects ; plants and animals are also affected by lead toxicity to varying degrees depending on species . Animals experience many of the same effects of lead exposure as humans do , such as abdominal pain , peripheral neuropathy , and behavioral changes such as increased aggression . Much of what is known about human lead toxicity and its effects is derived from animal studies . Animals are used to test the effects of treatments , such as chelating agents , and to provide information on the pathophysiology of lead , such as how it is absorbed and distributed in the body .
Farm animals such as cows and horses as well as pet animals are also susceptible to the effects of lead toxicity . Sources of lead exposure in pets can be the same as those that present health threats to humans sharing the environment , such as paint and blinds , and there is sometimes lead in toys made for pets . Lead poisoning in a pet dog may indicate that children in the same household are at increased risk for elevated lead levels .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Lead , one of the leading causes of toxicity in waterfowl , has been known to cause die @-@ offs of wild bird populations . When hunters use lead shot , waterfowl such as ducks can ingest the spent pellets later and be poisoned ; predators that eat these birds are also at risk . Lead shot @-@ related waterfowl poisonings were first documented in the US in the 1880s . By 1919 , the spent lead pellets from waterfowl hunting was positively identified as the source of waterfowl deaths . Lead shot has been banned for hunting waterfowl in several countries , including the US in 1991 and Canada in 1997 . Other threats to wildlife include lead paint , sediment from lead mines and smelters , and lead weights from fishing lines . Lead in some fishing gear has been banned in several countries .
The critically endangered California condor has also been affected by lead poisoning . As scavengers , condors eat carcasses of game that have been shot but not retrieved , and with them the fragments from lead bullets ; this increases their lead levels . Among condors around the Grand Canyon , lead poisoning due to eating lead shot is the most frequently diagnosed cause of death . In an effort to protect this species , in areas designated as the California condor 's range the use of projectiles containing lead has been banned to hunt deer , feral pigs , elk , pronghorn antelope , coyotes , ground squirrels , and other non @-@ game wildlife . Also , conservation programs exist which routinely capture condors , check their blood lead levels , and treat cases of poisoning .
= Final Fantasy V =
Final Fantasy V ( ファイナルファンタジーV , Fainaru Fantajī Faibu ) is a medieval @-@ fantasy role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) in 1992 as a part of the Final Fantasy series . The game first appeared only in Japan on Nintendo 's Super Famicom ( known internationally as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ) . It has been ported with minor differences to Sony 's PlayStation and Nintendo 's
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populated hilltop in around 1700 accompanied by his nephew , his wife , and his mother , Ratompobe . Merina king Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , who reigned over Imerina from his royal compound in Antananarivo , noticed a bonfire lit by the family on the southern face of the hill 24 kilometers away . The visibility of the site from his capital led Andriamasinavalona to desire Ambohimanga as a residence for his son , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana . Andriamborona and his family agreed to shift three times to different parts of the hill , including the future site of the royal compound of Bevato , in response to consecutive requests from the king . For a short time he and the prince lived in neighboring houses at Bevato before Andriamborona and his family finally left the hill for the distant highland village of Ambatolampy , where he lived the rest of his life ; the king retrieved their bodies for burial at Ambohimanga .
In 1710 , Andriamasinavalona divided the Kingdom of Imerina into four quadrants , which were given to his four favorite sons to rule . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana received the eastern quadrant , Avaradrano , and transformed his rova at Ambohimanga into its capital . As the first king of Avaradrano ( 1710 – 1730 ) , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana also built the site 's defensive walls and its first set of seven gates . Rather than rule their respective territories peacefully as Andriamasinavalona had intended , his four sons began a series of wars to seize control of neighboring territory , causing famine and suffering among the peasant population of Imerina . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana spent much of his reign strengthening the authority of his governance at Ambohimanga and attracting residents to settle in the surrounding villages while battling his brothers to increase the land under his control . He was succeeded by his adopted son , Andriambelomasina ( 1730 – 1770 ) , who continued to rule Avaradrano from Ambohimanga in the Mahandrihono compound he built beside the original compound of Besakana . Andriambelomasina significantly expanded Ambohimanga and strengthened its defenses , enabling him to successfully repel an attack against the rova by a band of Sakalava warriors employed by his chief rival , the ruler of Antananarivo . He named as his successor his eldest son , Andrianjafy ( 1770 – 1787 ) , and designated his grandson Andrianampoinimerina to follow Andrianjafy in the order of succession . Andrianjafy , a weak and unjust ruler , maintained his capital at Ambohimanga where he built a new private compound called Nanjakana , but often resided in the nearby village of Ilafy .
Andrianampoinimerina dethroned Andrianjafy in a violent conflict that ended in 1787 . The king then used Ambohimanga as a launching point for a successful campaign to bring the twelve sacred hills of Imerina under his rule , including the hill city of Antananarivo , thereby reuniting the four quadrants of the divided Kingdom of Imerina under his sovereignty and putting an end to 77 years of civil war . To consolidate support for his rule , Andrianampoinimerina mobilized representatives of the numerous noble castes to participate in the most extensive effort yet to expand and fortify Ambohimanga . He ordered the construction of new city walls , gates and defensive trenches , as well as a rosewood palace called Mahandrihono , which he had built in the traditional style .
Following the conquest of Antananarivo in 1793 , Andrianampoinimerina shifted the political capital of Imerina from Ambohimanga to its original site at Antananarivo , while pronouncing Ambohimanga the kingdom 's spiritual capital . Important traditional rituals continued to be held at Ambohimanga , and Andrianampoinimerina regularly stayed in its Mahandrihono palace . His son , Radama I , inhabited Ambohimanga 's Nanjakana compound as a youth before relocating to Antananarivo , and visited Ambohimanga frequently after the move . Radama 's widow and successor , Ranavalona I , renovated the Mahandrihono compound and moved several buildings from the sister rova at Antananarivo to Ambohimanga . She also forbade swine at Ambohimanga due to their association with Europeans , who had propagated pork as a food source in the decade prior . Subsequent queens made their own mark on the site , including the reconstruction of Nanjakana by Rasoherina , and Ranavalona II 's addition of two large pavilions to the Mahandrihono compound that reflected a syncretism of traditional and Western architectural styles .
Throughout much of the 19th century and particularly under the reign of Queen Ranavalona I ( 1828 – 1861 ) , Ambohimanga was forbidden to visiting foreigners , contributing to its mystique as a " forbidden city " . This status remained until 1897 when the French colonial administration transferred all the relics and significant belongings of the royal family from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo to break the spirit of resistance and ethnic identity that these symbols inspired in the Malagasy people , particularly in the highlands . In the early 20th century , the area was further changed when the French removed the sacred forests remaining on the neighboring hilltops in the early 20th century . The city nonetheless retains its symbolic significance in Imerina to this day .
= = Layout = =
Ambohimanga is located in the central highlands of Madagascar , approximately 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) northeast of the capital city of Antananarivo . The hill rises steeply approximately 450 feet from the surrounding terrain on its eastern side and gradually slopes downward toward the west . The royal city of the same name , situated at the peak of the hill , has panoramic views of the surrounding hills and valleys , and is surrounded on the hill 's slopes and the valley floor by the houses of residents of Ambohimanga village . The terraced rice paddies that cover the hillsides to the north and south of the royal city were created in the 17th and 18th centuries to provide a staple food source to the inhabitants of the hill and its surrounding villages . The crest of Ambohimanga is higher than the surrounding hills and others among the traditionally designated twelve sacred hills of Imerina , symbolically indicative of the site 's political significance relative to other similar hill towns . This elevation also offered an excellent vantage point for surveying the surrounding areas for advancing enemy troops . Rising from among the surrounding valleys and terraced rice paddies , the hill is topped with a forest that was exempted from the widespread deforestation of the highlands due to its sacred nature . The UNESCO World Heritage Site encompassing the hill and the royal city at its peak extends over a surface area of 59 hectares , with a buffer zone of 425 hectares .
= = = Symbolism = = =
The layout of Ambohimanga 's three compounds and the structures within them followed a traditional design established by the earliest Merina highland settlers by the 15th century . According to custom , a rova could only be established by an andriana ( noble ) . Its foundation was built to raise the rova higher than the surrounding buildings outside its walls . Contained within the rova was at least one lapa ( royal palace or residence ) as well as the fasana ( tomb ) of one or more of the site 's founders and family members . It also enclosed a kianja ( courtyard ) marked by a vatomasina ( sacred stone ) that elevated the sovereign above the people for the delivery of kabary ( royal speeches or decrees ) . The sovereign 's lodgings typically stood in the northern part of the rova , while the spouse or spouses lived in the southern part .
At Ambohimanga , as in other rova sites , the cardinal and vertical layout of these various traditional components embodies two cosmological notions of space that coexisted in traditional Imerina . The older system governed sociopolitical order and was based on the concept of the four cardinal points radiating from a unifying center . A more recent system introduced through the astrology of seafaring Arabs governed the spiritual order and placed special significance on the northeast . The sacred eastern portions of Ambohimanga contained structures associated with the veneration of the ancestors , including the royal tombs , basins of holy water used in royal rituals , and numerous Ficus and Draceana trees , which were symbolic of royalty . The northern portion of the site is the location of a courtyard where royal judgments were handed down from atop a prominent granite boulder , in line with the Malagasy association between the northern cardinal point , masculinity , and political power . The houses of the royal wives were formerly located in the southern portion of the site , a cardinal point traditionally associated with femininity and spiritual power . These competing cosmological systems are also reflected in the placement of the city 's main gates at cardinal points , as well as the northeastern gates reserved for use by the sovereign and dedicated to their role in sacred rituals .
The orientation and placement of many structures within Ambohimanga were copied from Ambohimanga 's older twin city , the rova at Antananarivo , which likewise embodies both traditional notions of space . The placement of the city of Ambohimanga relative to Antananarivo also reflects these systems . Centrally located Antananarivo is the nation 's political capital today , and Ambohimanga to its northeast is regarded as the spiritual capital .
Between these two systems , that of the political order predominates in the layout of Ambohimanga , and the sacredness of the city was historically more explicitly associated with its role as a political rather than an astrological center . The forbidding of foreigners from the site in the 19th century , for instance , was enacted to preserve the sanctity of the social and political order , rather than the religious order . By respecting these systems of symbolism , successive rulers sought to ensure the benediction of the ancestors , strengthen the legitimacy of their rule and ensure the protection and stability of their kingdom . However , adherence to cardinal division and symbolism of space is weaker at Ambohimanga than its embodiment of the significance of vertical space and elevation as an indicator of rank . The site of each new compound within the royal city was selected less for its cardinal direction than for the extent to which it was located on higher ground than the compound that predated it .
= = = Fortifications = = =
A series of protective trenches ( hadivory ) and stone walls , typical of fortified royal cities in Imerina since the 15th century , surround the village of Ambohimanga . The trenches vary in depth to a maximum of 30 meters ( 98 ft ) . The oldest trenches at the site , called Mazavatokana , are located behind the modern @-@ day rova and appear to predate the reign of the hill 's first known king , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana ; local tradition maintains that they were dug in the early 16th century on the command of King Andrianjaka , who may have used the site as a launching point for military offensives in his war against the Vazimba . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was the first to systematically establish a network of defenses around the hilltop settlement . This first king of Ambohimanga dug trenches around his Bevato compound , which was initially only accessible through a gateway he named Ambavahadikely .
The settlement was expanded by the construction of trenches bordering a second adjoining space to the northeast with two additional access points named Ampanidinamporona and Ambavahaditsiombiomby , the latter a natural gateway formed by two boulders . This latter entrance was most likely used to access the space even before the formal establishment of a royal city there , and is therefore considered by archaeologists to be the oldest gateway at the site . After the establishment of the rova , this entrance was reserved for use by the sovereign , a reflection of the spiritual significance of the northeastern direction and its association with the ancestors , whose benediction and hasina provided the basis for the sovereign 's power and legitimacy . It was also used to bring sacrificial cattle into the compound . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana then expanded toward the west to a series of natural defenses , including stony cliffs and steep forested slopes that obviated the need to dig defensive trenches , and he constructed several additional gates that he named Ambavahadimahazaza , Andranomboahangy and Ambavahadiantandranomasina . Andrianampoinimerina expanded the trenches around the city using fanampoana labor . During his reign , a trench was dug that entirely encircles the hill , and a series of trenches was dug alongside existing ones to further protect the city against enemies . The current defensive wall was reconstructed around 1830 during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I. An estimated sixteen million egg whites were mixed with lime to produce the whitewash for the compound 's exterior and interior walls . Until French colonization in 1897 and at least as early as the reign of Radama I , foreigners and non @-@ residents were not allowed to enter the royal city without authorization from the sovereign .
The royal compound can be accessed through fourteen stone gateways in total . In addition to the inner seven gateways constructed by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana in the early 18th century , there exists an exterior wall and second set of seven gates that were built before 1794 during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina , an act that symbolically marked the completion of the king 's reunification of Imerina . The largest and principal gate is also the most well @-@ preserved and is known as Ambatomitsangana ( " standing stone " ) . Every morning and evening , a team of twenty soldiers would work together to roll into place an enormous stone disk , 40 @.@ 5 meters in diameter and 30 cm thick , weighing about 12 tons , to open or seal off the doorway . This form of gate ( vavahady in the Malagasy language ) , typical of most walled royal villages of Imerina built between 1525 and 1897 , protected the villagers from marauders.The gateway is topped by an observation post . The second main entrance , called Andakana , is situated in the western wall . Its stone disk is also intact , and the path leading to it is paved with cut stones . Both Ambatomitsangana and Andakana were considered the gateways of the living ; cadavers could not be transported through them , and passage was denied to anyone who had recently come into contact with the dead . A northern gateway called Miandrivahiny retains its well @-@ preserved stone disk and was one of two entrances used whenever it was necessary to transport corpses in or out of the site ; the second gateway for corpses was called Amboara . The stone disk at the southern Andranomatsatso gateway is also in good condition . This gateway , as well as Antsolatra and Ampitsaharana , were primarily used as lookout points . In the late 18th century Andrianampoinimerina replaced the Ambavahadiantandranomasina gate with another made of wood instead of stone and renamed it Ambavahadimasina . He and his successors shaved a small piece of wood from this lintel to light the sacred hearth fire that played a ritual role in the traditional circumcision ceremony . The red soil inside the gate and a series of wooden boards that paneled the approach to the gate were both considered sacred , and soldiers or others who anticipated a voyage away from Imerina would take handfuls of the soil and pieces of the wooden boards with them before departing in the belief that it would ensure their safe return .
Several large stones are set in the ground near gates or at points outside the walls of Ambohimanga . Rulers would stand atop these stones , each identified by distinct names , to deliver speeches to the public . To the south were the stones called Ambatomasina and Ambatomenaloha , while Ambatorangotina was situated to the northwest . The latter stone was of particular importance : here the twelve leaders of the Ambatofotsy clan first declared their rejection of Andrianjafy 's rule and their allegiance to his nephew , Andrianampoinimerina . Upon taking the throne , Andrianampoinimerina used this site to first declare new laws and decrees that would later be announced throughout the kingdom . This was also the main site at Ambohimanga for dispensing justice . After Andrianampoinimerina 's succession to the throne , he sacrificed a black zebu whose mother had died , named Lemainty ( " black one " ) , with repeated spear thrusts ; after its death , the animal was cut into pieces and buried on the site . Lemainty was thereafter regularly invoked in royal speeches and decrees to allude to the fate of those who misguidedly sought to forsake the protection of their guardian , the sovereign , and his laws .
= = = Natural features = = =
Two sanctified , stone @-@ covered springs nearby feed a stream that is believed to hold powers of purification and flows through the buffer zone surrounding the royal city . Their water was used to form the sacred lake of Amparihy , artificially created by at least the 18th century to provide water to fill two ceremonial pools constructed within the Ambohimanga compound . Oral history attributes the creation of the lake to Andrianampoinimerina . He reportedly engaged the labor of surrounding villagers to dig the lake at the site of the spring @-@ fed swamp at the base of the hill . Before initially filling the lake with water carried in baked earthen jars from the sacred sites of Alasora , Antsahatsiroa and Anosibe , the lake 's creation was sanctified by sacrificing zebu at the site ; Andrianampoinimerina is also said to have thrown pearls and silver rings into the lake to inaugurate it .
The forest at Ambohimanga benefited from customary protection and today represents the largest of the last remaining fragments of primary forest that formerly covered the highlands . It contains a representative assortment of native tree and plant species , in particular the endemic tree zahana ( phyllarthron madagascariensis ) and a variety of indigenous medicinal plants , many possessing traditional or spiritual importance . Examples include the native bush Anthocleista , traditionally believed to attract lightning and often planted in clusters beside villages ; the Dracaena plant , traditionally used for hedges and planted at sacred sites in valleys or other natural features where people would come to communicate with ancestral spirits ; and the Phyllarthron vine , which was planted in sacred thickets and harvested for its wood , which was traditionally used to fashion handles for diverse tools . The recent and growing presence of two foreign species ( golden bamboo and lantana ) threaten the integrity of the site 's ecosystem . The local management authority is currently engaged in activities to eradicate the encroaching vegetation .
= = = Villages = = =
The villages surrounding the royal city date back to at least the 16th century , when the valleys around Ambohimanga hill were first transformed into rice paddies . Following the establishment of a royal city on the hilltop , successive rulers put in place regulations to govern the development of these villages and manage the subjects inhabiting them . Under Andrianampoinimerina , quotas established a set number of houses for members of influential clans in designated neighborhoods around the hill . This king also established rules to improve sanitation , including standards of cleanliness in domestic courtyards and the quarantine of people suffering from certain illnesses . Ranavalona I specified the physical characteristics of newly constructed houses , including their size and decorative features . In 1862 Radama II gave permission to a group of Christians to negotiate with Tsimahafotsy elders to construct the village 's first church , but the Tsimahafotsy initially rejected the request . The king 's successor , Queen Rasoherina , later requested the Christians not to gather indoors for services at Ambohimanga in honor of the sanctity of the ancestors . The court was Christianized by Ranavalona II in 1869 , and a small chapel was built outside the city 's eastern gate , but a permanent church at Ambohimanga was not built until 1883 . Following a fire that occurred in 1870 during a visit of Ranavalona II to Ambohimanga , the queen decreed that houses in the village could be constructed in brick , a material previously reserved for tomb and wall construction . A series of ancestral fady ( taboos ) decreed by Andrianampoinimerina continue to apply in the village , and include prohibitions against corn , pumpkins , pigs , onions , hedgehogs and snails ; the use of reeds for cooking ; and the cutting or collecting of wood from the sacred forests on the hill .
= = Compounds = =
Each of the three compounds built within the rova by successive Merina rulers bears distinct architectural styles that reflect the dramatic changes experienced in Imerina over the reign of the 19th century Kingdom of Madagascar , which saw the arrival and rapid expansion of European influence at the royal court . The site contains a blend of traditional Merina and European styles and construction methods . The predominant architectural features and layout of the royal city follow the traditional model of rova construction that predominated in the Highlands from the 15th century . Following tradition , the homes of the living are constructed of wood and vegetation ( living materials ) , while the tombs of the dead are built in stone ( cold , inert material ) . The selection of specific wood and plant materials used in construction , each of which were imbued with distinct symbolic meaning , reflected traditional social norms and spiritual beliefs . Since 1996 , many of the buildings have undergone restoration using traditional materials and construction practices appropriate to the era in which the buildings were first erected .
= = = Bevato compound = = =
The earliest of the royal compounds at Ambohimanga , Bevato ( " many stones " , also called Fidasiana @-@ Bevato ) , was first established by Andriamborona , who built houses there for himself and his family in the late 17th century . It was inhabited by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana from 1710 to 1730 , during which time he expanded the compound on three occasions . The compound was originally surrounded by a low rock wall that was replaced under Andriambelomasina by a wooden palisade . Ranavalona I expanded the compound toward the west by relocating a small house containing the royal idol Rafantaka ; further westward expansion was completed under Ranavalona II . Under Ranavalona I and her successors , Besakana served as the residence of the sovereign 's relatives during their visits to Ambohimanga . All buildings on the compound were destroyed by the French , who constructed a school on the site ( Ecole Officiel ) , later followed by the Ambohimanga town hall ( Tranompokonolona ) , which was razed after Madagascar regained independence .
Andriamborona , the first inhabitant of the hill , built a tomb for his mother in Bevato . When the king asked him to relocate , Andriamborona agreed to move both his houses and his mother 's tomb . In acknowledgement of this consideration , the king marked the site of the tomb with a large stone and nearby he built the first royal residence at the rova as his home . The stone was thereafter considered sacred : Andrianampoinimerina was enthroned while standing atop this stone , and slaves were brought there to swear allegiance to their masters . It was used in the ritual sacrifice of volavita zebu during the Fandroana Malagasy New Year ( a festival also known as the " royal bath " ) . Sovereigns traveling on horseback would stand upon it to aid in mounting or dismounting , and after the Christianization of the court under Ranavalona II in 1869 , religious services took place here . The royal tombs were relocated to the Mahandrihono compound under Ranavalona I to expand the courtyard .
According to the Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara transcription of Merina oral histories , the first house built by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was called Bevato . It was located at the southern extreme of the compound and housed the king and his wives . Andriambelomasina built and occupied a second house , called Manatsaralehibe ( " large and great " ) . This house was highly venerated by Andrianampoinimerina : escaped convicts who managed to reach the building were pardoned , and this was the only historic house in the compound that Ranavalona I did not remove . According to a second source , the two oldest houses in the compound were called Mahitsielafanjaka ( " one who is upright rules long " ) and Manatsarakely ( " small and great " ) . These were reportedly built by either Andriamborona or Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana in the early 18th century and were occupied by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana and his 12 wives . Another account states that Manatsarakely was inhabited by Andrianjafy and later by the wives of Andrianampoinimerina ; this house and Mahitsielafanjaka were renovated under Ranavalona I using wood from the region of Sihanaka to repanel the walls .
Oral history credits Andrianampoinimerina with the construction of a second pair of houses in the compound . Beginning with his reign , Bevato became the second most important compound after Mahandrihono and enclosed four houses for royal wives and their servants . He also kept the royal idol Ifantaka here in a small house surrounded by a wooden palisade , which remained until the Christian convert Ranavalona II symbolically destroyed the royal idols in a bonfire in 1869 . After removing the historic Tsararay in the Mahandrihono compound , Andrianampoinimerina built a new house with the same name in the Bevato compound . Tsararay was the residence of his wives when they would make the journey to Ambohimanga . The Bevato compound in Antananarivo was likewise reserved for the sovereign 's wives under the reign of Andrianampoinimerina , but featured many more houses to enable each wife her own residence . When wives would travel to Ambohimanga they were obliged to share the houses , and those who preferred not to share typically stayed at the houses of villagers beyond the city walls .
Ranavalona I planted a pair of royal fig trees at the far end of the Bevato compound and stood between them when addressing the public . These were later complemented by additional fig trees planted all around the courtyard by Ranavalona II and jacarandas planted by the French during the colonial period . The figs that shade the esplanade are believed to be imbued with hasina enhanced by the bones and skulls of sacrificed zebu and special marking stones that pilgrims from across Madagascar , Mauritius , Reunion and Comoros have come to place around them . Pilgrims gather in this courtyard to celebrate the Fandroana ceremony , during which time the sovereign historically engaged in a ritual bath to wash away the sins of the nation and restore order and harmony to society . Today , pilgrims celebrate by offering sacrifices or prayers to honor , appease or commune with their ancestors .
While Bevato was the location of larger gatherings and royal festivals , royal edicts and public judgments were handed down in the sacred courtyard ( kianja ) of Ambarangotina at the base of the hill leading to the Bevato compound . From the kianja sovereigns delivered kabary to announce new laws and decrees and administer justice . The sovereign would stand atop the kianja 's vatomasina ( a large granite boulder ) , which is surrounded by a brick half @-@ wall and accessed by a set of steps .
= = = Mahandrihono compound = = =
The compound Mahandrihono ( " knows how to wait " ) is the most expansive and well @-@ preserved of the rova structures at Ambohimanga . It lies to the east of the central courtyard and sits at a higher elevation than Bevato , symbolically representing its greater political significance . It was first established by Andriambelomasina in the early 18th century during the reign of his father , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana . Andriambelomasina surrounded the compound with a stone wall and within it built three houses as residences for his children — two twin houses ( tranokambana ) set side by side named Mahandry ( " knows how to wait " ) and Tsararay ( " has a good father " ) , and a third named Manandraimanjaka ( " has a father who rules " ) — taking pains to illustrate through the names of these houses that he had no intention of usurping his father . When Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana eventually died , Andriambelomasina entombed him behind the twin houses . In Andrianampoinimerina 's time this compound corresponded with the Mahandrihono compound at the rova in Antananarivo , being reserved for the king alone with his residence positioned beside the tombs of the ancestors .
Andrianampoinimerina removed the twin houses to build his much larger Mahandrihono residence , which was decorated with silver birds and chains . He also expanded the compound and added a second enclosure of voafotsy wood ( replaced annually ) around the exterior of the stone walls . Mandraimanjaka was removed and in its place Andrianampoinimerina built a house with a small tower , which he named Manjakamiadana ( " where it is good to rule " ) , designating it as the residence for the royal sampy ( idol ) called Imanjakatsiroa and the guardians assigned to protect it . Two other idols were kept nearby : Ifantaka , kept in a house in the Bevato compound , and Kelimalaza , guarded in its house at the Ambohimanga neighborhood of Ambohimirary . Under Radama I , the stone wall was reinforced with palisades that enclosed three houses , two of which were twin houses like those that Andriambelomasina had built . Ranavalona I enlarged the compound 's courtyard and expanded Manjakamiadana . She constructed the stone walls that currently enclose the compound , as well as its two stone gateways . Ranavalona II re @-@ added palisades to the compound 's stone walls . She demolished Manjakamiadana and in its place constructed two hybrid Malagasy @-@ European pavilions using wood from the historic and spiritually significant Masoandro house , which had been removed from the royal compound of Antananarivo by Ranavalona I. French general Joseph Gallieni used these European @-@ influenced buildings as his summer residence in the early years of the French colonial period . In 2013 , Andrianampoinimerina 's original house , the reconstructed tombs , and the two royal pavilions are preserved in the compound , which also includes a watchtower , a pen for sacrificial zebu , and two pools constructed during the reign of Ranavalona I.
= = = = Mahandrihono palace = = = =
Among the buildings extant at the royal
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city during the time of King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) , only the original Mahandrihono palace remains intact . The Mahandrihono palace , which served as the home of Andrianampoinimerina before he relocated the political capital of Imerina to Antananarivo , has been preserved in its original state since construction , excepting the replacement of the original roof thatch with wooden shingles . The simple wooden structure is constructed in the traditional style of the aristocracy of Imerina : the walls are made of solid rosewood and topped by a peaked roof that is supported by 10 @-@ meter central rosewood pillar , much like the one that had originally supported the roof of the Rova Manjakamiadana of Antananarivo before it was destroyed by fire in 1995 . The roof horns ( tandrotrano ) formed at each end of the roof peak by the crossing of the gable beams were originally silver @-@ plated , and a silver eagle was affixed in the middle of the roof peak . Silver ornaments were also hung from the corners of the roof in the interior of the house . The building 's name is inscribed on a white marble plaque affixed to an exterior wall near one of the building 's two entrances . This house contains a number of items that belonged to Andrianampoinimerina , including weapons , drums , talismans and a bed raised on stilts . During Andrianampoinimerina 's time , his wives were allowed to visit this building but not allowed to sleep there overnight . The site is highly sacred : Queen Rasoherina and her successors often sat on the stepping stone at its threshold to address their audience , and many pilgrims come here to connect with the spirits of Andrianampoinimerina and his ancestors . Visitors are asked to enter the house by stepping in with their right foot and exiting backwards , according to custom , in order to show respect for the spirit of Andrianampoinimerina .
= = = = Royal pavilions = = = =
Two ornate palace buildings were built of rosewood in this compound in 1871 on the former site of the Manjakamiadana royal idol residence . The first and larger of the two , Fandriampahalemana , features a room for receiving visitors and a large salon on the ground floor , and the bedrooms of Queen Ranavalona II and her serving lady on the second floor . The original European furnishings have been preserved , and the many gifts given by foreign dignitaries to the queen are on display here . The queen 's bedroom is considered a sacred place and many visitors come on pilgrimage to pray to her spirit .
The second , smaller pavilion is known as the Tranofitaratra ( " house of glass " ) and was constructed in 1862 under the orders of Ranavalona II . The queen would gather her ministers for counsel in this building , and the large windows on all four sides of the building provided a view of the countryside below , enabling the queen to ascertain the security of her surroundings . The glass used in the construction was imported by an Englishman named Parrett in 1862 .
= = = = Royal tombs = = = =
The compound originally housed twelve royal tombs constructed in the style of Merina nobles , with a stone crypt topped by a small , windowless wooden house ( tranomasina ) indicative of aristocratic rank . The peaks of these tombs were aligned from north to south . Sovereigns originally buried in the four largest tombs , situated to the north of the others , included Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana , Andriambelomasina , Andriampoinimerina , Ranavalona I and Ranavalona II , while the wives and relatives of sovereigns were buried in the smaller tombs . According to oral histories , at its 19th @-@ century peak the Ambohimanga compound contained 12 tombs .
The tranomasina were destroyed in March 1897 by French authorities who removed the bodies of the sovereigns interred here and relocated them to the royal tombs at the Rova of Antananarivo . The rich collection of funerary objects enclosed within the tombs was also removed for display in the Manjakamiadana palace on the Antananarivo rova grounds , which the Colonial Authority transformed into an ethnological museum . This was done in an effort to desanctify the city of Ambohimanga and break the spirit of the Menalamba resistance fighters who had been rebelling against French colonization for the past year , break popular belief in the power of the royal ancestors , and relegate Malagasy sovereignty under the Merina rulers to a relic of an unenlightened past . A French garrison was housed within the royal city and military buildings were erected on top of the stone tomb foundations . A kitchen and military canteen were built on top of the tombs of Andrianampoinimerina and Andriamasinavalona . By 1904 , the military buildings were likewise demolished , leaving the stone tomb foundations intact .
The desecration of the two most sacred sites of Merina royalty represented a calculated political move intended to establish the political and cultural superiority of the French colonial power . In the popular view , the link between Ambohimanga and the ancestors ( Andrianampoinimerina in particular ) rendered the royal city an even more potent symbol and source of legitimate power than the capital of Antananarivo , which was seen as having become a locus of corrupt politics and deviance from ancestral tradition . Believing that the presence of the ancestors within the tombs sanctified the earth upon which the rova was built , Menalamba resistance fighters would come to Ambohimanga to collect handfuls of dirt from the base of the tombs to carry with them in their offensives against the French ; the French authority intended by the removal of the sovereigns ' bodies from the tombs to undermine the fighters ' confidence and solidarity . Although the tombs were desecrated and the Menalamba fighters were ultimately defeated , Ambohimanga has retained its sacred character . The royal tombs were reconstructed in 2008 by the government of Madagascar under the Ravalomanana administration . During the 1995 fire that destroyed the tombs and other structures at the Rova of Antananarivo , the lamba @-@ wrapped remains of only one sovereign — Ranavalona III — could be saved from the flames . The queen has since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .
= = = = Other features = = = =
Two large basins have been carved from the stone foundation of the compound . Both constructed under Ranavalona I , one was a pool built in honor of the wives of soldiers of the ennobled Hova Tsimahafotsy clan of Ambohimanga , while the other was built for the wives of members of the elite military corps known as " the 500 " . The pools were strictly forbidden for public bathing or drinking and contained fish from Lake Itasy and specially consecrated water . Ranavalona I and her successors Radama I and Rasoherina used the larger royal pool for ritual purification during the annual fandroana new year festival .
Sacred zebu were kept in a sunken cattle pen ( fahimasina ) to the west of the kianja courtyard before sacrifice at royal events such as circumcisions and the fandroana festival . Only the two most highly prized types of zebu were kept here : black zebu with white markings on the forehead , called volavita , and entirely reddish @-@ brown zebu , called malaza . In this way , the cattle were made to walk from the west toward the east ( the direction of the ancestors and sanctity ) before being slaughtered . Another large pen for sacrificial zebu was located to the northeast of this courtyard before being filled in by the French Colonial Authority in the late 19th century .
= = = Nanjakana compound = = =
The Nanjakana compound is the most highly elevated of the three compounds in the rova at Ambohimanga . Located to the northeast of Mahandrinoro , this compound is believed to have been first constructed by Andrianjafy in the late eighteenth century . To the north of the compound is a stone esplanade that offers a clear view of the surrounding areas where Andrianampoinimerina reportedly came to reflect on his military strategy for bringing Imerina under his control . During the 1861 funeral of Queen Ranavalona I held in the Nanjakana compound , a spark accidentally ignited a nearby barrel of gunpowder destined for use in the ceremony , causing an explosion and fire that killed a number of bystanders and destroyed three of the compound 's historic royal residences .
During the reign of Andrianampoinimerina , Nanjakana enclosed five houses that served as residences for his children . The house called Nanjakana ( " place of royalty " ) was built by Andriambelomasina and renovated by Andrianampoinimerina , who moved it into the compound and lived in it before succeeding to the throne . He renovated it for use by his son , Radama I , who slept here during visits to Ambohimanga after succeeding his father as King of Madagascar . According to oral history , a large stone near the Nanjakana house was used as a seat by Andriambelomasina and Andrianampoinimerina when reflecting on governance decisions . Andrianampoinimerina added a two @-@ story house called Manambitana ( " favored by fate " ) that was the largest of all the traditional houses at Ambohimanga . The king 's children slept on the upper floor during visits to the royal city , while the ground floor housed such royal property as palanquins and storage chests . This house was destroyed in the 1861 fire and was reconstructed under Rasoherina , who used it as a residence . After removing the historic Manandraimanjaka house from the Mahandrihono compound , Andrianampoinimerina built a new house with the same name in the Nanjakana compound . This was likewise destroyed in the 1861 fire , and was later rebuilt by Ranavalona II . Also destroyed in the fire was a house called Fohiloha ( " short " ) that Ranavalona I had relocated from the royal compound in Antananarivo to the Nanjakana compound at Ambohimanga in 1845 ; Fohiloha was later rebuilt by Rasoherina . Other buildings that Ranavalona I moved from the rova at Antananarivo to the Nanjakana compound at Ambohimanga included Kelisoa ( " beautiful little one " ) and Manantsara .
= = Conservation and management = =
A popular tourist destination , Ambohimanga received 97 @,@ 847 visitors in 2011 . Visitors to the World Heritage Site are charged a fee ( 10 @,@ 000 ariary for foreigners and 400 ariary for locals ) , which is largely used to pay for the preservation of the site . The commune of Ambohimanga Rova is a small but thriving rural village that lives on agriculture and services provided to tourists and pilgrims who visit the royal city . Multilingual tour guides can be hired at the site to provide detailed descriptions of its features and history . Photographs are permitted outdoors but prohibited inside the historic buildings . Tourism has been negatively affected at the site as a consequence of the 2009 Malagasy political crisis ; management of the site has also been hampered by political instability and reduced revenues since 2009 .
The extent of the area currently classified a World Heritage Site was under restricted access and protection during the imperial era and has been under some form of legal recognition and protection since French colonization , having been incorporated into the Colony Domains Service in 1897 and the National Inventory in 1939 . It has since benefited from legal municipal protection and two national laws ( passed in 1982 and 1983 ) protecting sites of historical and national interest . The Office of the Cultural Site of Ambohimanga ( OSCAR ) , created by the Ministry of Culture , has managed the site and its entrance fees and state subventions since 2006 , when a five @-@ year management plan was developed for implementation by the group 's 30 employees . These management and conservation activities are conducted in cooperation with the local population within the Rural Commune of Ambohimanga Rova . The Village Committee , comprising representatives of all the adjacent quarters and the local community , are also involved in the protection of the site . Conservation of Ambohimanga is further supported by a private association , Mamelomaso , which has also been active in campaigning for awareness and protection of cultural heritage and has contributed to the preservation of numerous other sites of cultural and historic significance in the highlands . In addition to helping replant the Ambohimanga woodlands , Mamelomaso has contributed to the restoration of the stones around the source of the spring , erected informational plaques around the hill , and paved a number of footpaths within the site . UNESCO contributed special financial support to restore historic structures at Ambohimanga threatened by exceptionally heavy rainfall and landslides .
Ambohimanga has been viewed by many Merina since the late 19th century as the embodiment of an ideal social order blessed by the ancestors . The significance attached to the site in Imerina increased further when its sister rova in Antananarivo was destroyed by fire in 1995 , contributing to a sense that Ambohimanga was the last remaining physical link to this sanctified past . A small intellectual elite among the Tsimahafotsy clan of Ambohimanga and the nobles ( andriana ) believe that only Ambohimanga possesses the ancestral benediction ( hasina ) to serve as the national capital and imbue national leaders with the legitimacy and wisdom needed to rightly govern the country . The descendents of the andriana have consequently been key in promoting and protecting Ambohimanga , such as by playing a significant role in successfully lobbying UNESCO to list Ambohimanga as a World Heritage Site .
Despite these measures , the conservation of Ambohimanga is challenged by human and natural factors . The rapidly growing but relatively impoverished population around Ambohimanga occasionally engages in illegal harvesting of plants and trees from the surrounding forests , threatening the integrity of the natural environment . The forests and wooden structures on the site are also susceptible to fire . Following the 1995 destruction by fire of Ambohimanga 's sister rova at Antananarivo , widely believed to have been a politically motivated arson , rumors have circulated that Ambohimanga could suffer a similar fate . Cyclone Giovanna , which passed over Madagascar in February 2012 , caused considerable damage at the site . The wooden shingles of Andrianampoinimerina 's house were torn off by the wind , exposing the historic objects inside to damage from the elements . The wooden fence surrounding the Mahandrihono compound was also badly damaged . Worst affected are the plants and trees at the site . Large swaths of endemic medicinal plants and trees in the forest were destroyed . Many of the sacred trees shading the royal city were uprooted , including sacred fig trees around the Fidasiana courtyard and inside the zebu pen . Two of the uprooted trees were of particular symbolic significance , having served as physical anchors for certain royal rituals since the 17th century . Shortly after the storm , OSCAR unveiled plans to plant a substitute fig for the uprooted one that had shaded the sacred stone in the Fidasiana courtyard . Most of the historic jacarandas planted over a century ago under French colonial rule were also destroyed . The extent of damage to the site has prompted traditionalists to demand renewed respect for the sanctity of the site by requesting adherence to traditional taboos put in place by Merina monarchs . These include banning pigs at the site , as well as the consumption of pork , tobacco , alcohol and cannabis on the grounds of the royal city .
= Battle of Caldera Bay =
The Battle of Caldera Bay , or the Sinking of the Blanco Encalada , was an engagement fought in the port of Caldera Bay during the 1891 Chilean Civil War between Balmacedist and Congressional naval forces on 23 April 1891 . It involved two Balmacedist torpedo boats , Almirante Lynch and Almirante Condell , and the Congressional armored frigate Blanco Encalada .
After both torpedoes from Almirante Condell had missed , Blanco Encalada was hit by a torpedo from Almirante Lynch and sank in minutes , with the loss of 182 men . The loss of Blanco Encalada hindered the Congressional forces , but they ultimately defeated the Balmacedist forces that August . Blanco Encalada was the first ironclad warship lost to a self @-@ propelled torpedo . The engagement prompted countries to rapidly grow both their torpedo boat and torpedo boat destroyer forces ( the latter commonly referred to as destroyers ) .
= = Background = =
In 1891 , after a series of struggles about multinational nitrate interests , Chilean President José Manuel Balmaceda refused to sign the national budget passed by the Chilean National Congress . Balmaceda then dissolved Congress . The dissolution split both the Chilean Army and Navy , with some forces remaining loyal to Congress and others to the President . An armed conflict ensued after a mutiny by the navy , which at that time was docked at Valparaíso .
Supporters of those forces loyal to Congress , including members of the dissolved parliament and their backers among multinational nitrate interests , bought weaponry from Europe and the United States . Better equipped than the forces loyal to the President , they rapidly captured Chile 's northern provinces , which had recently been conquered from Bolivia and Peru during the War of the Pacific .
Since the Congressionalists controlled all of the current ships in the Chilean Navy , the Balmacedists commandeered vessels that were nearing completion in England and France , including the torpedo boats Almirante Condell and Almirante Lynch They were built by Laird Brothers , the same firm that built the Confederate raider Alabama thirty years before . Both Almirante Lynch and Almirante Condell carried an armament of five Whitehead torpedoes , two 14 @-@ pound ( 6 @.@ 4 kg ) guns in echelon on the forecastle and one on the poop , four 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) guns and two machine guns . Their maximum speed was around 21 knots .
The two ships arrived at Valparaíso on 21 March . Both ships docked at Quintero Bay on 18 April . While at Quintero , their commanding officers , Commander Carlos E. Moraga of the Almirante Condell and Commander Juan Fuentes of the Almirante Lynch , were informed of the possibility that Blanco Encalada , a Congressionalist frigate , was going to be in Caldera Bay in five days . The two commanders consulted with one another and sent their proposal to attack Blanco Encalada to the Balmacedist government , which was approved .
Blanco Encalada arrived at Caldera Bay on 22 April , under the command of Captain Goñi , escorting several transports . The troops on these ships landed and captured the surrounding railroad and town of Copiapó . At about 01 : 20 , Goñi returned to the Blanco Encalada . Although it was known that Balmacedist torpedo boats were nearby , the Congressionalists believed that they would not attack the transports . Because of this , torpedo nets were left onshore , and watertight bulkheads which would have isolated a hull breech were left open .
= = Battle = =
At 04 : 00 on 23 April , Almirante Condell set out toward Caldera Bay about 450 miles ( 720 km ) away , with Almirante Lynch 20 yards ( 18 m ) behind her.The armed steamer Imperial traveled with the torpedo boats , taking up a position to the left of both boats . It was to wait some distance off Caldera , in order to escort the ships back home when the attack ended . Both torpedo boats entered Caldera at roughly 3 : 30 . When they were 500 yards ( 460 m ) from Blanco Encalada , both boats came under fire by rapid @-@ fire guns on board the frigate , which only had seven men stationed as guards . About 100 yards ( 91 m ) from Blanco Encalada , Almirante Condell fired her bow torpedo at the Congressional frigate . It missed and landed on the shore , unexploded . Moraga then turned the torpedo boat into the direct fire of the frigate and fired both his starboard torpedoes . The front torpedo hit , but failed to explode , and the rear torpedo passed clear under the frigate .
As all of Blanco Encalada 's guns were occupied by Almirante Condell , the crew did not notice Almirante Lynch approaching from the opposite direction of Almirante Condell . From 50 yards ( 46 m ) out , Almirante Lynch fired her bow torpedo , which missed , and then fired her forward starboard torpedo after executing a turning maneuver like Almirante Condell had done . The second torpedo struck Blanco Encalada , creating a hole roughly 7 by 15 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) . The ship sank within minutes , taking 182 men with it . Several of the men who escaped , including Captain Goñi , did so by clinging to animals in Blanco Encalada 's cargo hold , including a llama and a cow .
As she was sinking , the torpedo boats fired their 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns at the survivors , killing about forty . The torpedo boats also fired at the transport Biobio , which had been trying to rescue the surviving crew . Including Captain Goñi , 106 men survived out of the 288 aboard.The entire engagement lasted nine minutes , and Blanco Encalada sank two minutes after the torpedo hit . As Lynch and Condell left the harbor , they spotted the transport Aconcagua , which they attacked with their 14 @-@ pounder guns ( after ruling out their Gatling guns due to their potential for overkill ) . The Aconcagua surrendered after an hour and a half battle , but the torpedo ships were unable to seize her due to an approaching ship which they thought was the Chilean cruiser Esmeralda . It turned out to be the neutral HMS Warspite . The Almirante Lynch was slightly damaged in the battle , suffering hits to her steam @-@ pipe and flooding in her aft compartment , but besides that , the two torpedo boats were undamaged .
= = Aftermath and impact on torpedo use = =
The sinking of Blanco Encalada led to an attack by Almirante Condell and Almirante Lynch on her sister ship , the Almirante Cochrane , at that time moored at Iquique . Almirante Cochrane retreated before any torpedoes were fired . On 28 August , the Balmacedist army was defeated at the Battle of La Placilla . Their army lost about 1 @,@ 000 men , and three days later Congressional forces marched into Santiago , effectively ending the Chilean Civil War . The Blanco Encalada underwent some re @-@ floating attempts after the war , which were ultimately unsuccessful , and she was left in Caldera Bay until being demolished in 1954 when a new bridge was under construction . The Chilean government launched another Blanco Encalada , a cruiser , in 1894 .
The battle had a wider impact on naval weapons development because Blanco Encalada was the first ironclad warship sunk by a self @-@ propelled torpedo . News of the attack spread and as a result of the action , navies of several major powers realized the potential of torpedoes as a cheap counter to expensive pre @-@ dreadnoughts , which led to the acceleration of submarine and torpedo boat production , the addition of torpedo nets to ships for use when they were moored in port , and the addition of torpedo tubes to surface ships . During the Russo @-@ Japanese War , over 300 self @-@ propelled torpedoes were fired , in one instance finishing off the already seriously damaged Russian flagship Knyaz Suvorov at the Battle of Tsushima . Torpedo boats also sank two armored cruisers and two destroyers during the course of the war . By the start of World War I , torpedo boats and submarines were in widespread use in many navies .
= Bird collections =
Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific specimens consisting of birds and their parts . They are a research resource for ornithology , the science of birds , and for other scientific disciplines in which information about birds is useful . These collections are archives of avian diversity and serve the diverse needs of scientific researchers , artists , and educators . Collections may include a variety of preparation types emphasizing preservation of feathers , skeletons , soft tissues , or ( increasingly ) some combination thereof . Modern collections range in size from small teaching collections , such as one might find at a nature reserve visitor center or small college , to large research collections of the world ’ s major natural history museums , the largest of which contain hundreds of thousands of specimens . Bird collections function much like libraries , with specimens arranged in drawers and cabinets in taxonomic order , curated by scientists who oversee the maintenance , use , and growth of collections and make them available for study through visits or loans .
= = History of bird collections = =
= = = Origin = = =
The roots of modern bird collections are found in the 18th- and 19th @-@ century explorations of Europeans intent on documenting global plant and animal diversity . It was a fashion to collect and display natural curiosities in Victorian England . Some wealthy cabinet naturalists were able to amass large collections using networks of field collectors . These early collections were not intended for scientific study and the collectors gave importance to aesthetics rather than scientific value . It grew into a more scientific pursuit much later .
= = = Growth = = =
Early scientific bird collections included those belonging to Pallas and Naumann in Germany , Latham and Tunstall in England and Adanson in France . Collections grew in size with increasing maritime activity , exploration and colonialism . For example , Charles Darwin collected over 400 bird specimens during his travels on the Beagle , and it was many years after his return to England that his bird collections from the Galapagos inspired ( in part ) his theory of evolution through natural selection . The Paris museum had 463 bird specimens in 1793 and this grew to 3411 in 1809 ; The Berlin museum had 2000 specimens in 1813 growing to 13 @,@ 760 around 1850 . In 1753 there were 1172 bird specimens in the museum established by Sir Hans Sloane but these appear to have perished before they moved to the British Museum . Early specimens from Captan Cook 's voyages as well as those described by Latham in his General Synopsis of Birds ( 1781 – 1785 ) were also lost possibly due to poor preservation technique . The scale of collections grew to the point where they needed more space and full @-@ time curators . In the earliest days of ornithology , collecting was the dominant method of bird observation and study . This approach has diminished with the growth of the discipline . The use of mist @-@ netting and photography , blood sampling ( for DNA , immunological and other studies ) , the development of optics and the use of other new techniques for studying birds have reduced the need to collect specimens for research , yet collections continue to act as a vital shared resource for science ( particularly taxonomy ) and conservation . In an era of mass extinction , bird collections will evidence lost species .
= = Collection and preservation techniques = =
Historically , bird specimens were collected mostly using firearms . Shotguns with " dust " shot were preferred to reduce damage to the specimens . Today , specimens come from a variety of sources . Many ( perhaps most ) are salvaged from birds killed by window and communications tower strikes , domestic cats , by @-@ catch from fisheries , die @-@ offs from disease , vehicle strikes , and other accidental sources of mortality . However , the world 's bird collections have been argued to be inadequate in documenting avian diversity , from taxonomic , geographic , and temporal perspectives , with some parts of tropical regions considered under @-@ represented in particular museums . Underrepresented taxa continue to be actively collected by ornithologists , generally using either firearms or mist @-@ nets . Permitting agencies oversee these activities in most countries .
Techniques to preserve birds were attempted even from the early 16th century as shown in the writings of Conrad Gesner and Pierre Belon . Belon provided instructions on the removal of viscera and the use of salt to preserve bird specimens in his 1555 book on birds . These were further improved in the 17th century and a range of preservatives included ash ( potassium carbonate ) , salt , sulphur , alum , alcohol and various plant extracts were used . In the early days of bird collections , most specimens were mounted in unrealistic positions often with their wings raised as if they were about to take flight . These were kept in the open and the colours were prone to fading and the specimens themselves prone to damage by beetles . In Berlin , J. L. Frisch started using tightly enclosed glass jars for every mount to prevent pest damage . During this time , Comte de Reaumur at the Paris Museum had managed to find techniques to preserve specimens without loss of colour . This technique was however a secret and similar results were later achieved by pickling using salt , ground pepper and alum and drying for a month with threads holding the bird in a natural position . In modern collections , salvaged or collected birds may be preserved in a number of ways . The most traditional preparation is a study skin , in which almost all of the body inside the skin is removed and replaced with cotton so that the final result resembles a bird lying on its back with its wings folded . This stereotypic posture was developed to enable many skins to be kept together in cabinets to protect them from insect and light damage . If a complete skeleton is desired , a flat skin may be prepared : all bones , muscle , digestive and other soft tissue is carefully removed and the feathers and skin are stretched flat and dried .
A more recent preparation method pioneered by the Royal Ontario Museum removes all bones for a complete skeleton while also producing a round skin without bill or legs ( called a ROM , though if one set of wing and leg bones remain with the skin the preparation is called a shmoo in North America ) . Alternatively , the entire bird ( or any soft parts associated with preparations described above ) may be preserved in alcohol . For any of these methods , several supplemental preparations may be made . For example , a wing may be removed and preserved separately as a spread wing for better study of flight feathers ; a tissue sample may be removed and frozen for molecular analyses ; or a recording of the bird 's song before collection may be archived . Neither molecular samples nor sound recordings require a bird to be collected ( killed ) . Finally , if the bird is too rotten for the skin and feathers to be preserved , as is the case with some salvaged specimens , the skeleton alone may be preserved . Dried tissue is removed from skeletons by using dermestid beetle larvae ( genus Dermestes ) . Whereas in the past arsenic was routinely added to skins to protect them from destruction by insects , specimens prepared today are generally protected by an initial freezing period to kill insects and their eggs followed by keeping them in high @-@ quality museum cases in a climate @-@ controlled room . Each specimen has data associated with it , and the amount of data available is usually directly correlated with the specimen ’ s scientific value . Most specimens are of little value for research without accompanying information , such as the time and place the bird was found or collected . This and other important information , such as mass , sex , fat deposition , and degree of skull ossification , is written on a label along with a unique field and museum number . Modern computerized museum databases include all of this information for each specimen , as well as the types of methods used to prepare the bird . Modern collections seek to maximize the utility of each preserved individual , and this includes recording detailed information about it . Most modern specimens also include a tissue sample preserved for genetic study . Online access to collections ’ data is becoming increasingly available , and a cross @-@ institutional database covering millions of computerized bird records is in development .
= = Uses of bird collections = =
Bird collections are used for a wide variety of purposes . All biological species including those of birds are represented by a holotype , the vast majority of which are full specimens ( mostly skins ) and in modern times explicitly designated in the original description of the taxon . All other putative members of the species may be compared to the holotype to confirm their identification . Rigorous studies of avian taxonomy are based on specimens from bird collections . Taxonomic studies rely on morphological and genetic characters to determine species limits and evolutionary relationships . Museum specimens have been the preferred source for scoring these characteristics , as they allow studies to be replicated – anyone may go back and repeat the study using the same specimens to verify the conclusions .
In the case of molecular studies , the preservation of a specimen that can vouch for the source of the tissue sample used to gather genetic data has been recommended , as genetic analysis often yields surprising results that make reexamination of the original specimen crucial .
Studies on ectoparasites , usually obtained during capture , but also obtained from old museum specimens , are valuable for studies on coevolution and zoonoses . However , it has alternatively been argued that such re @-@ examination can be undertaken from archived photographs without killing the study piece .
In addition to taxonomic research , collections can provide information relevant to the study of variety of other ornithological questions , including comparative anatomy , ecology , behavior , disease , and conservation . Forensic ornithologists use collections to identify species involved in aircraft bird strikes , imported materials containing bird parts , and birds killed through various human activities , legal and illegal . In addition , collections are used by zooarchaeologists to identify bird bones at prehistoric human sites or species of origin for feathers used in human cultural artifacts . Collections also have been heavily used by artists , particularly for the production of plates for ornithological field guides . The close @-@ up observation and opportunity for manipulation provided by preserved study skins makes them , together with field observations and photography , to be an important basis for painters of field guide plates of birds . Most bird species have several unique plumages that distinguish immature from adults , males from females , and breeders from non @-@ breeders . Thus , many different specimens may be required to produce a thorough plate for identification of a given species . Accurate colour measurements using spectrometry are possible from specimens .
Bird collections have been useful for retrospective studies . Bird collections offer the potential for current and future researchers to make in @-@ depth morphological and molecular study of past avian diversity . One of the earliest and most famous examples of this was the use of egg collections from the 19th and early 20th centuries in determining that the pesticide DDT was producing eggshell @-
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year after the show was first broadcast in the UK , an accompanying book written by Angela Tilby was released . Tilby 's book , also titled Son of God , was a tie @-@ in to the documentary series , and featured an introduction from Bowen . As of 23 December 2011 , Son of God is not available on DVD in the UK , nor is it available on BBC iPlayer , the BBC 's on demand service . A VHS box set of Jesus : The Complete Story , produced by Warner Home Video , was released in the United States on 15 May 2001 . The set was rereleased on Region 1 DVD on 31 August 2004 .
= = Moses = =
Following the success of Son of God , a similar , single @-@ episode documentary was commissioned by the BBC in July 2001 . The programme , entitled Moses , documented the life of Moses is a style akin to Son of God — it reunited Bowen and Bragard , who presented and directed @-@ produced the show respectively . Like Son of God , Moses featured live @-@ action reenactments , computer @-@ generated images of the period and interviews with historians and scholars . It was first broadcast in the UK during December 2002 .
= M @-@ 63 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 63 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from M @-@ 139 at Scottdale through the cities of Benton Harbor and St. Joseph to Interstate 196 / US Highway 31 ( I @-@ 196 / US 31 ) at exit 7 just outside Hagar Shores . The trunkline runs through residential areas south of St. Joseph and through the central business districts of the twin cities . Further north , M @-@ 63 runs along the Lake Michigan shoreline .
All of M @-@ 63 's routing was part of US 33 before that highway 's truncation south of Niles in 1986 . A previous designation of M @-@ 63 was used farther north in Lake and Osceola counties from 1919 until 1961 . Since the current designation was created , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has worked on reconfiguring parts of the roadway in the early part of the 21st century . The bridge M @-@ 63 uses to cross the St. Joseph River , the Blossomland Bridge , has been identified as an historic structure using a rare design . The bridge itself dates back to the late 1940s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 63 begins at the intersection of Niles , Scottdale and Miners roads southwest of St. Joseph in Royalton Township . M @-@ 139 runs on Niles Road northwest from Berrien Springs to this point and on Scottdale Road north of the intersection . M @-@ 63 follows Miners Road west and then Niles Road northwest of the junction , parallel to the St. Joseph River through residential areas on the outskirts of the twin cities . The highway meets Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) at the latter 's exit 27 and continues through St. Joseph Township to the city of St. Joseph . In the city , after Washington Avenue , Niles Road becomes Niles Avenue and turns north . As part of its maintenance duties , the MDOT tracks traffic volumes on the state highways in a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the average traffic level for any day of a year . The roadway segment along Niles Avenue north of the Napier Avenue intersection in 2009 had the highest traffic levels along all of M @-@ 63 at 22 @,@ 263 vehicles .
At Main Street , Niles Avenue ends , and M @-@ 63 joins Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) on Main Street into and through the downtown business district . The two highways continue together running concurrently to Ship and Port streets . These two streets form a one @-@ way pair running east to carry BL I @-@ 94 to and from a separate bridge over the St. Joseph River . M @-@ 63 continues along Main Street across the river into Benton Harbor , Michigan where it follows the Lake Michigan shoreline along a short expressway segment . The trunkline exits Benton Harbor near the headquarters of the Whirlpool Corporation . North of town , the highway provides access to many lakeshore properties north of Benton Harbor at it continues northeasterly along the shoreline to the community of Lake Michigan Beach . When the highway meets Hagar Shore Road , M @-@ 63 turns east along that roadway to an interchange with I @-@ 196 / US 31 . The shoreline roadway continues northeast as A @-@ 2 ( Blue Star Highway ) while M @-@ 63 terminates at an interchange with I @-@ 196 / US 31 . This northernmost segment of the highway had the lowest AADT measurement in 2009 when calculated by MDOT at 2 @,@ 855 vehicles .
Various highways in the United States are listed as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . M @-@ 63 has been listed as a part of the NHS from its southern terminus to the northern junction with BL I @-@ 94 in St. Joseph . As the closest state highway to Lake Michigan in the area , M @-@ 63 from the southern junction with BL I @-@ 94 to its northern terminus has been used as a part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour , a tourist route that circles Lake Michigan .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
M @-@ 63 originally ran from Peacock in Lake County west through Luther to M @-@ 13 ( later US 131 ) in Osceola County on July 1 , 1919 . This highway was extended in 1930 along US 131 to Tustin and then to a terminus with M @-@ 66 in Marion . At the same time , M @-@ 37 was extended north from Baldwin to meet M @-@ 63 east of Peacock . This eastern extension was truncated in 1932 when it was redesignated as part of M @-@ 61 . A short connector roadway , M @-@ 179 , was designated in 1935 between M @-@ 63 and US 131 , forming a small triangle of highways . The western end was shortened in 1939 so that M @-@ 63 ended at M @-@ 37 instead of continuing west to Peacock . The M @-@ 179 designation was decommissioned in 1959 or 1960 , removing that short highway from the state trunkline highway system . M @-@ 63 was decommissioned in 1961 when the roadway was transferred back to local control .
= = = Current designation = = =
The current designation of M @-@ 63 was created in 1986 . Before the designation , US 33 ran north into Michigan south of Niles . From there it followed US 31 north to Scottdale and ran alone to St. Joseph and Benton Harbor . When US 33 was truncated back to Niles , M @-@ 63 was commissioned in its place along the route it now follows .
The expressway portion of M @-@ 63 is a relic of a now revised plan of a freeway corridor through the St. Joseph – Benton Harbor area . The highway was significantly reconfigured in 2000 – 2002 , with the overpass over the industrial access road to Whirlpool 's warehouse in Benton Harbor and a rail line removed and rebuilt in late 2000 through early 2001 , and one of the two grade @-@ separated interchanges , at Klock Road , demolished and downgraded to an at @-@ grade intersection in 2002 . Today , there are only two overpasses over smaller roads existing on this stretch of expressway .
= = = Blossomland Bridge = = =
The Blossomland Bridge over the St. Joseph River is eligible to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The span is a Scherzer rolling @-@ lift bascule , a type of moveable bridge . The bridge was built as part of a 1940s plan to relocate US 31 through St. Joseph and Benton Harbor . Those plans were delayed by World War II . The bridge was completed in late 1948 using the rare design prepared by a firm from Chicago that specialized in bascule bridges . The state paid a total of $ 1 @.@ 3 million for what was called " the largest bridge ever built under the auspices of the State Highway Department " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Berrien County .
= 11th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 11th Battalion was an Australian Army battalion that was among the first infantry units raised during World War I for the First Australian Imperial Force . It was the first battalion recruited in Western Australia , and following a brief training period in Perth , the battalion sailed to Egypt where it undertook four months of intensive training . In April 1915 it took part in the invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula , landing at Anzac Cove . In August 1915 the battalion was in action in the Battle of Lone Pine . Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli , the battalion returned to Egypt where it was split to help form the 51st Battalion . In March 1916 , the battalion was deployed to the Western Front in France and Belgium where it took part in trench warfare until the end of the war in November 1918 .
The battalion was disbanded in 1919 , but since 1921 has been re @-@ activated and merged several times as a reserve unit , initially as the 11th Battalion ( City of Perth Regiment ) , which fought a brief campaign against the Japanese on New Britain during World War II . Other units that have maintained the traditions of the original 11th Battalion include the 11th / 44th Battalion ( City of Perth Regiment ) , ' A ' ( City of Perth ) Company , 1st Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment and the current 11th / 28th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
= = World War I = =
= = = Formation = = =
The 11th Battalion was formed on 17 August 1914 , less than two weeks after the declaration of war on 4 August , and was among the first infantry units raised during World War I for the all @-@ volunteer First Australian Imperial Force . Along with the 9th , 10th and 12th Battalions , it formed Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan 's 3rd Brigade , which was assigned to the 1st Division . The first battalion raised in Western Australia , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Lyon @-@ Johnston , the 11th concentrated at Blackboy Hill , Western Australia . Drawing personnel from around the state with the majority coming from Perth and the goldfields , recruits came from all elements of society , with the majority being former labourers and agricultural workers or miners . Seventy @-@ three percent of original enlistments were Australian born , with the remaining recruits being mainly English @-@ born with smaller numbers coming from other parts of the British Isles . By 24 September it had reached its authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 officers and other ranks . On formation , the battalion consisted of eight rifle companies , designated ' A ' to ' H ' , and a headquarters company with signals , transport , medical and machine @-@ gun sections .
The majority of the battalion 's non @-@ commissioned officers were long @-@ serving Citizens Forces soldiers or Regular personnel . Some had previously fought in South Africa during the Boer War and others had previously served in the British Army . Rudimentary training was undertaken at Bellvue , Western Australia , and at the end of October it sailed from Fremantle on the SS Ascanius and SS Medic . Originally bound for the United Kingdom , where they were to complete training , after stopovers in the Cocos Islands and Colombo , their orders were changed due to concerns about overcrowding in training camps in the United Kingdom and at the start of December , the battalion arrived at Mena Camp in Cairo , Egypt . There , the battalion 's eight companies were reorganised into the four that existed under the British Army establishment and further training was undertaken . The battalion remained in Egypt until early March 1915 when it sailed on SS Suffolk and SS Nizam from Alexandria to the island of Lemnos in the Aegean sea , in preparation for the Landing at Anzac Cove .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
= = = = Landing at Anzac Cove = = = =
On 24 April 1915 , the battalion disembarked from Suffolk and boarded HMS London , which was bound for Gallipoli in the Dardanelles . At 4 : 30 on the morning of 25 April , ' A ' and ' C ' Companies of the battalion landed at Anzac Cove around Ari Burnu Knoll , a mile south of Fisherman 's Hut , on the left flank of the first wave . Under heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire , the battalion stormed the cliffs , driving the Turks back . However , the battalion became disorganised during the landing and mixed with other units . Small sections of the battalion were engaged in firefights all along the Australian front . Major Edmund Drake @-@ Brockman , one of the battalion 's senior officers , tried to sort the scattered men into their battalions : 9th on the right , 10th in the middle and 11th on the left . Meanwhile , the second half of the battalion landed further north of the first wave , directly under heavy machine @-@ gun fire from Turks fully prepared and alerted by the first wave .
Over the next few days , the battalion dug in on the first and second ridges under heavy fire from the Turks . Casualties were heavy , but a defensive line was established . On the 30th , the battalion was withdrawn and moved into reserve on the beach . The next day , it reoccupied its section of the front . At this stage , the battalion was 450 @-@ strong . By 1 May , 30 officers and 940 other ranks from the battalion had landed .
= = = = Raid on Gaba Tepe = = = =
On 4 May 1915 , a party of 100 men from the battalion , led by Captain Raymond Leane and a detail of engineers , launched an unsuccessful attack on a Turkish fort at Gaba Tepe , which was being used to observe artillery fire onto Australian positions around Anzac Cove . The Turks opened heavy fire on the party which was forced to withdraw . The Australians lost four killed , including an officer , and 19 others were wounded . The raid was the AIF 's first of the war . At this point , the battalion estimated that it had suffered 38 killed , 200 wounded and 197 missing . On 15 May , the battalion received 244 reinforcements , bringing its total strength to 23 officers and 723 other ranks .
In the early morning on 19 May , Turkish forces launched an attack against the left flank of the Australian lines , which developed into a major battle along the whole Australian front . The attack was repulsed with heavy losses . The 11th Battalion suffered nine killed and eight wounded , mainly from shrapnel . One Turkish officer and five soldiers surrendered . On 21 May , a truce was declared and a burial party from the 12th Battalion was sent out . However , it was fired at by the Turks and as a result burial parties were discontinued . A similar truce was declared on 24 May . A line was drawn halfway between the two lines and each side sent out parties to bury the dead and collect equipment .
= = = = Lone Pine = = = =
On 27 July 1915 , after two weeks in reserve , the battalion relieved the 12th Battalion at Tasmanian Post , on the right on the Australian front line . On 31 July , a party of around 200 men led by Leane were ordered to capture a section of Turkish trenches in front of the battalion 's position . After engineers detonated three mines prepared near Turkish communications trenches , the storming party captured the Turkish trench following a bayonet charge , with the loss of one officer and 36 other ranks killed . Seventy @-@ three other members of the battalion were wounded during the attack , including Leane , who was mentioned in dispatches . Turkish casualties were estimated by the battalion to be 60 killed .
On 6 August , the battalion held off a fierce Turkish counterattack on the trench , which became known as " Leane 's Trench " during the Battle of Lone Pine . Heavy casualties were sustained on both sides . The battalion suffered 41 killed , 94 wounded and 19 missing . By the end of the month , the 11th Battalion 's strength , despite having received six batches of reinforcements , had fallen to just over 500 men , approximately half its authorised strength . The following month , command of the battalion passed to Leane when Lyon @-@ Johnston took over as brigade commander . As the health of the men deteriorated , the battalion 's strength fell further to just over 300 . The arrival of winter in October brought heavy rain and even harsher conditions .
= = = = Withdrawal = = = =
In November , the battalion supported the 5th Light Horse around " Chatham Post " until it was withdrawn , with the 9th Battalion , from Anzac Cove . The withdrawal had been planned for the 14th , but due to bad weather this was delayed until the night of the 16 / 17 November 1915 . From Anzac Cove , it sailed to Lemnos where it recuperated at Sampi Camp , following seven months in the trenches . The battalion 's war diary records particularly bad weather on Lemnos during this period , noting " Mudros seems a most unsuitable place to send troops for a rest " . During this rest period , the battalion reported its first and only case of diphtheria , following which the whole brigade was quarantined . On 17 December , the battalion 's last casualty of the campaign , a soldier named Private Hayes , died from meningitis . The battalion lost a total of 353 men killed during the campaign .
= = = Western Front = = =
In early 1916 , the battalion sailed to Alexandria on the Empress of Britain . From Alexandria , it travelled by train to bivouac at Tall al Kabir . At this time , the battalion received 367 reinforcements from Australia before undertaking defensive duties around Gebel Habieta , guarding the Suez Canal . In February , the AIF was re @-@ organised and expanded . This saw the veteran battalions split to provide cadres for new battalions and as a part of this process , the 15th Battalion provided personnel to the 51st Battalion , by transferring the even numbered sections to the new battalion . At this time , the battalion received four Lewis Guns for organic direct fire support .
On 30 March 1916 , as the AIF 's infantry divisions were transferred to Europe , the battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard the HMT Corsican . It arrived at Marseilles , France , on 5 April and then moved by train to Flêtre where it was billeted until the 19th when it moved to Sailly , where it commemorated Anzac Day on 25 April . In mid @-@ May , after a period of acclimatisation and training to prepare them for the European battlefield , the 11th Battalion moved up to the front line around Petillon in the Fleurbaix sector , with a strength of 27 officers and 929 other ranks . A further draft of reinforcements , totalling 69 men all ranks , arrived on 25 May , and on 30 May the battalion had its first experience of combat on the Western Front . Late that evening , German artillery bombarded the Allied line around the Cordonnerie salient , before infantry launched a raid on the 11th Battalion 's trenches . In the fighting that followed the 11th Battalion lost four men captured , 37 killed and 70 wounded .
= = = = Pozières and Mouquet Farm = = = =
Throughout June , the 11th Battalion was placed in support of the front as it was brought back up to strength . At this time , the battalion 's organic fire support was increased by the addition of two extra Lewis Guns . The following month , they moved to the Somme and were committed to the fighting around Pozières . After arriving at Albert on 19 July amidst a gas attack , the battalion spent the next couple of days preparing to attack , working to improve trenches and cache stores , during which they were subjected to heavy artillery bombardment . The attack was put in just before midnight on 23 July and was a costly success . Amidst heavy casualties , the 11th Battalion took the forward German trenches and amidst the confusion of the fighting advanced beyond their limit of exploitation , entering Pozières and moving beyond where they became embroiled in close quarters fighting . After capturing five artillery pieces , the battalion 's officers and non @-@ commissioned officers eventually managed to regain control of the advance and the battalion was brought back into a defensive line along their first objective . At dawn , patrols from the battalion entered the village again and cleared out the cellars beneath the battered remains of the village 's buildings , capturing over 40 prisoners .
During the night of 24 / 25 July , the Australians attacked again , but after establishing a new defensive line , the 11th was forced to withdraw after suffering heavily from both friendly and enemy shelling . In the morning of 25 July , further casualties were sustained by German artillery . German infantry then launched a counterattack on the battalion 's right , but the Australians managed to hold their ground . They remained in the line throughout the day , before the 19th Battalion arrived as part of the 5th Brigade 's relief of the 3rd Brigade . Having lost 19 officers and 512 other ranks killed , wounded or missing , the battalion had suffered the most of all the 3rd Brigade 's battalions and was moved back to Berteaucourt to be rebuilt .
After re @-@ organising , in mid @-@ August the 11th Battalion moved to La Boisselle where they were placed into brigade reserve . Just before dawn on 21 August , about 200 men from the 11th took part in an attack around Mouquet Farm ; casualties amounted to 20 killed and 40 wounded and afterwards the battalion was moved to Belgium . The 11th Battalion spent the remainder of 1916 in the Ypres sector , in Flanders , but was moved back to the Somme at the end of the year as the worst winter in 40 years descended on the front .
= = = = Louverval = = = =
In early 1917 , the Germans fell back towards the Hindenburg Line in an effort to shorten their lines and move into prepared positions . As the Allies pursued the withdrawing Germans , in late February the 11th Battalion captured Le Barque , conducting mopping @-@ up operations before advancing to Thilloy where they fought a minor engagement before being relieved by the 3rd Battalion , having lost 12 killed and 30 wounded during the fighting and a further 10 men killed and 13 wounded by artillery . Sickness also took a heavy toll during this time due to the bad weather . In March , Lieutenant Colonel Rupert Rafferty took over as commanding officer and the following month , as the Allied line was pushed further forward towards the Hindenburg Line , the 11th Battalion played a supporting role during the 3rd Brigade 's attack around Boursies , before occupying the front around the village of Louverval . On 15 April 1917 , during the Battle of Lagnicourt , Lieutenant Charles Pope , of ' A ' Company , was in command of an important picket post on the right of the battalion 's positions outside Louverval , with orders to " hold the position at all costs " . The Germans attacked the position with overwhelming numbers and surrounded the post . Having used up their ammunition , the remainder of the post charged with fixed bayonets into the surrounding German positions . Pope 's body was later found with those of his men , having killed 80 Germans . Pope was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross , Australia 's highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy .
= = = = Bullecourt and the Third
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overall after an asthma attack , and Evans was the only individual medallist in the corresponding individual event . Mark Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer . Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia had won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport , and were yet to win one in Moscow , so the public were still awaiting their first victory since Munich in 1972 . Coming into the Olympics , Australia were ranked seventh out of the 13 competing countries .
Australia 's prospects improved after the morning heats in which Sweden was disqualified . Evans took the opportunity to attempt to regain the psychological ascendancy from Goodhew , confronting him privately and stating that " we will win it " . Evans felt that his posturing had shaken Goodhew . Tonelli , the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his team @-@ mates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome as the Quietly Confident Quartet , and they exhibited a quiet confidence as they lined up for the race .
Kerry led off in a faster time than he had clocked in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57 @.@ 87 s , leaving Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s to put Australia in second place , almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark . Evans had out @-@ split Goodhew by 0 @.@ 8 s and Miskarov by 0 @.@ 5 s . Tonelli then swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than he had ever done before . Tonelli began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre of the lead by the end of his leg . Brooks then performed a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart . He had drawn level by the halfway mark and made a superior turn to take the lead . The Soviet freestyler pulled level at the 25 m mark before Brooks again sprinted away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . Brooks had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his teammates . The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first @-@ ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . The team then made a celebratory dive into the pool and were interviewed at the poolside . Evans said that the relay " was unbelievable , but it was all so logical . I was so deliriously happy that I couldn 't stop talking . "
Upon returning to Australia , Evans and Brooks were raucously received in their hometown of Perth . They were denied a civic reception by the Lord Mayor of the City of Perth , who supported an Olympic boycott over Afghanistan , but the Lord Mayor of Fremantle instead hosted a reception . Evans received congratulations from Prime Minister Fraser . In 2000 , Evans quipped that " We 're the Vietnam vets of the Olympic movement " . In the same year , Evans and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow .
= = US college career = =
A few weeks before the Olympics , Evans had signed a deal with the University of Arizona and he went there to study and swim after the Olympics . Evans was to spend five years in Arizona studying for a BA in business . He regarded his American experience as a crucial component of his development : " I got a good education , but above all I learned about myself " . The American laissez faire attitude — which revolved around the individual 's self @-@ determination — sat well with Evans ' outlook on life . He often clashed with Arizona swimming coach Dick Jochums , who was regarded as a hard taskmaster . The pair clashed over the training regime ; Jochums insisted that Evans increase his mileage , something that the student strongly resisted . Evans was an All @-@ American for four years , but he struggled in the short @-@ course pools used in the college system . Short @-@ course pools — which are only half the length — place more emphasis on a swimmer 's turning ability , which was the Australian 's weakness . Despite his ranking as third in the world at the Olympics , which are swum in long @-@ course pools , Evans was ranked only fifth in the college system .
The Australian Swimming Union ( ASU ) did not recognise times that had been recorded in short @-@ course pools in the United States , so Evans was forced to return for the Australian Championships to qualify for the 1982 Commonwealth Games held in Brisbane . Despite winning neither of the breaststroke events , Evans successfully earned selection and lined up at the Commonwealth Games in the 100 m and 200 m breaststroke and the 4 × 100 m medley relay . In his favoured 100 m event , Evans won bronze , having been led home by Adrian Moorhouse of England and Canada 's Victor Davis . In the 200 m event , Evans came fourth , almost four seconds behind the victorious Davis . He then combined with David Orbell , Jon Sieben and Brooks to win the medley relay in a Commonwealth Games record time . Canada reached the wall far ahead of Australia , but were disqualified for a premature changeover .
= = International farewell = =
After the games , Evans returned to the United States to continue his studies and collegiate swimming career . Before the 1984 Olympics , Evans travelled to Hong Kong to train with Haller , who was coaching the British colony 's swimming team . Evans revitalised himself under his favourite coach and returned to his old style of sprinting . However , he twisted his ankle later in Perth and missed some training time . He won the Australian 100 m breaststroke championship to qualify for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , and returned to Arizona to continue training . His Olympic campaign was placed in jeopardy when the ASU threatened to remove Evans from the team for skipping their training camp in Australia . The threat was withdrawn after Evans ' father confronted the ASU and pointed out that his son was training , although in a different location . Before the Games , Evans joined the Australians for their final training camp at Stanford University in California . Evans arrived in Los Angeles with the same program as in Moscow ; he entered both breaststroke events and the medley relay . Evans started brightly to win his heat of the 100 m breaststroke in an Olympic record time of 1 m 2 @.@ 87 s . His new mark did not last long — John Moffet broke it in a later heat to relegate Evans to the second @-@ fastest qualifying time .
Nevertheless , their opponents were able to lift and the final saw Steve Lundquist of the United States set a new world record of 1 m 1 @.@ 65 s ; Evans took bronze , 0 @.@ 98 s behind silver medallist Davis . Evans was unable to maintain the pace that he had set in the heats , clocking a time 0 @.@ 10 s slower . In the 200 m , Evans came second in his heat but was not fast enough to make the final , swimming 1 @.@ 47 s slower than the slowest qualifier to finish 17th . The final event for Evans was the 4 × 100 m medley relay . Evans was joined by Kerry , while Glenn Buchanan and Mark Stockwell swum the butterfly and freestyle respectively . The Americans were overwhelming favourites , boasting the gold medallists in three of the respective individual events . The hosts easily won the gold by almost four seconds ; Evans and the Australians were third , relegated from the silver medal by just 0 @.@ 02 s by the Canadian team , having been in the bronze medal position at every change . Evans recorded the second @-@ fastest breaststroke split , slower than Lundquist , but quicker than the rest , including Davis .
After the Olympics , Evans returned to Arizona and resumed his studies . In 1985 , he represented Australia at the World University Games in Kobe , Japan . The following year , he attempted to qualify for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh after only ten days training . He made the qualifying time , but was omitted . Evans later stated that he felt his admission of having only trained for ten days had lowered his standing in the eyes of the selectors . As a result of being overlooked , Evans retired from competitive swimming .
= = Later life = =
In early 1986 , Evans won preselection for the Liberal Party in the electoral district of Perth . He contested the seat in the state election , but lost despite a four percent swing against the Australian Labor Party . Evans then travelled around the world studying international market systems , before working in fund management and international investment . He said of his swimming career : " It 's not that serious . It 's only a race . There 's a lot more to be happy and proud for and proud of . "
= Bruce Dickinson =
Paul Bruce Dickinson ( born 7 August 1958 ) , known professionally as Bruce Dickinson , is an English singer , songwriter , musician , airline pilot , author and broadcaster . He is best known as the lead singer of the heavy metal band Iron Maiden and is renowned for his wide @-@ ranging operatic vocal style and energetic stage presence .
Born in Worksop , Nottinghamshire , Dickinson began his career in music fronting small pub bands in the 1970s while attending school in Sheffield and university in London . In 1979 , he joined the new wave of British heavy metal band Samson , with whom he gained some popularity under the stage name " Bruce Bruce " and performed on two studio records . He left Samson in 1981 to join Iron Maiden , replacing Paul Di 'Anno , and debuted on their 1982 album The Number of the Beast . During his first tenure in the band , they issued a series of US and UK platinum and gold albums in the 1980s .
Dickinson quit Iron Maiden in 1993 ( being replaced by Blaze Bayley ) in order to pursue his solo career , which saw him experiment with a wide variety of heavy metal and rock styles . He rejoined the band in 1999 , along with guitarist Adrian Smith , with whom he has released five subsequent studio albums . Since his return to Iron Maiden , he issued one further solo record in 2005 , Tyranny of Souls . His younger cousin , Rob Dickinson , is the former lead singer of British alternative rock band Catherine Wheel , while his son , Austin , fronted the metalcore band Rise to Remain .
Outside his career in music , Dickinson is well known for his wide variety of other pursuits . Most notably , he undertook a career as a commercial pilot for Astraeus Airlines , which led to a number of media @-@ reported ventures such as captaining Iron Maiden 's converted charter aeroplane , Ed Force One , during their world tours . Following Astraeus ' closure , he created his own aircraft maintenance and pilot training company in 2012 , Cardiff Aviation . Dickinson presented his own radio show on BBC Radio 6 Music from 2002 – 2010 , and has also hosted television documentaries , authored novels and film scripts , created a successful beer with Robinsons Brewery and competed at fencing internationally .
= = Early life = =
Paul Bruce Dickinson was born in Worksop , Nottinghamshire . His mother , Sonia , worked part @-@ time in a shoe shop , and his father , Bruce , was a mechanic in the army . Dickinson 's birth hurried the young couple , then just teenagers , into marriage . Initially , he was brought up by his grandparents ; his grandfather was a coal @-@ face worker at the local colliery and his grandmother was a housewife . This is referred to in his song " Born In ' 58 " from the album Tattooed Millionaire .
Dickinson started school at Manton Primary in Worksop while his parents moved away to Sheffield . Soon afterwards , when he was six , he was also despatched to Sheffield , where he attended a primary school in Manor Top . After six months , his parents decided to move him to a small private school called Sharrow Vale Junior . Due to constant moving , Dickinson states that this period of his life taught him to be self @-@ reliant as he was unable to make close friends . Dickinson has a younger sister , professional showjumper Helena Stormanns , who was born in 1963 . He tried to isolate himself from her as much as he could when he was young , supposedly out of spite because she , unlike him , was a planned pregnancy and birth .
Dickinson 's first musical experience was dancing in his grandparents ' front room to Chubby Checker 's " The Twist " , when he still lived with them in Worksop . The first record Dickinson recalls owning was The Beatles single " She Loves You " , which he managed to persuade his grandfather to buy him , which made him more interested in music . He tried to play an acoustic guitar belonging to his father , but it blistered his fingers .
By the time he moved to Sheffield , Dickinson 's parents were earning a good living from buying property , refurbishing it and then selling it for a profit . As a result , much of Dickinson 's childhood was spent living on a building site , until his parents bought a boarding house and a bankrupt garage where his father began selling second @-@ hand cars . The income from their business success gave them the opportunity to give Dickinson — then 13 years old — a boarding school education and they chose Oundle , a public school in Northamptonshire . Dickinson was not opposed to moving away from home because he had not built " any real attachment " to his parents , having been raised by his grandparents in Worksop until he was six .
At Oundle , Dickinson was picked on and routinely bullied by the older boys of Sidney House , the boarding house that he belonged to , which he described as " like systematic torture " and meant that he became an outsider . His interests at Oundle were often military ; he co @-@ founded the school wargames society with Mike Jordan , and he rose to a position of some power in the school 's cadet force , with which he was allowed to handle live ammunition , which he used to create explosions as booby @-@ traps .
Oundle was where Dickinson became attracted to hard rock , after hearing Deep Purple 's " Child In Time " being played in another student 's room . As a result , the first album he ever bought was Deep Purple 's In Rock , which created his interest in rock music . After In Rock , he went on to buy Black Sabbath 's debut , Jethro Tull 's Aqualung and Tarkus by Emerson , Lake & Palmer . Every term , a band would play at the school , the first of these which Dickinson saw was called Wild Turkey , featuring former Jethro Tull bassist Glenn Cornick . After that , he saw Van der Graaf Generator and Arthur Brown .
Dickinson initially wanted to play the drums , later obtaining a pair of bongo drums from the music room for practice . He remembers playing " Let It Be " with his friend Mike Jordan , during which Dickinson discovered his singing voice while encouraging Jordan to sing the high @-@ notes . Shortly afterwards Dickinson was expelled from Oundle for participating in a prank in which he urinated in the headmaster 's dinner .
Returning home to Sheffield in 1976 , Dickinson enrolled at King Edward VII School , at which he joined his first band . He had overheard two other pupils talking about their band and that they needed a singer and so volunteered immediately . They rehearsed in the garage of the drummer 's father , and the band were impressed by Dickinson 's singing , encouraging him to buy his first microphone . Their first gig took place at the Broadfield Tavern in Sheffield . Originally called " Paradox " , the band changed their name on Dickinson 's suggestion to " Styx " , unaware of the American act with the same name . They made local newspaper headlines when a steel worker was awoken by their performance and tried to smash the band 's drum kit . Soon afterwards the band split up .
= = University = =
After leaving school with A @-@ levels in English , History and Economics , Dickinson confessed , " I didn 't really know what I wanted to do . " The first thing he did was join the Territorial Army for six months . Although he enjoyed his time in the TA , Dickinson realised that it was not a career choice , and so he applied for a place to read history at Queen Mary College , in London 's East End . His parents wanted him in the army , but he told them that he wanted to get a degree first , which acted as his " cover story " , and immediately began playing in bands .
At university , Dickinson got involved in the Entertainments Committee : " one day you 'd be a roadie for The Jam , the next you 'd be putting up the Stonehenge backdrop for Hawkwind or whatever . " In 1977 , Dickinson met Paul " Noddy " White , a multi @-@ instrumentalist who owned a PA and other equipment , with whom Dickinson , along with drummer Steve Jones , would form a band together called Speed . According to Dickinson , the band was called Speed because of the way in which they played , rather than a reference to drug @-@ taking . In Speed , Dickinson began writing his own material after White taught him how to play three chords on the guitar .
Although Speed would play several gigs at the Green Man pub in Plumstead , the band did not last long , but it encouraged Dickinson to continue to work towards being a musician . Dickinson spotted an advertisement in Melody Maker with the caption " Singer wanted for recording project " and replied immediately . He recorded a demo tape and sent it with a note which read : " By the way , if you think the singing 's crap , there 's some John Cleese stuff recorded on the other side you might find amusing . " They liked what they heard and invited Dickinson down to the studio to make " Dracula " , the first song he would ever record , with a band called " Shots " , formed by two brothers , Phil and Doug Siviter . The song would later appear on the second disc of The Best of Bruce Dickinson compilation . The brothers were impressed with Dickinson 's vocal abilities and asked him to join their group .
Dickinson played pubs with Shots on a regular basis to small audiences . One particular night , Dickinson suddenly stopped in the middle of a song and started interviewing a man in the audience , heckling for not paying enough attention . He got such a good response he started doing it every night until it became a regular routine used to catch the audience 's attention . Dickinson states that this experience taught him how to be a frontman .
The next step in Dickinson 's career was taken in a pub called the Prince of Wales in Gravesend , Kent , where Shots were playing regularly , when Barry Graham ( " Thunderstick " ) and Paul Samson paid a visit . Impressed with his stage @-@ act , they talked with Dickinson afterwards and invited him to be their new singer . Dickinson agreed to join their band , Samson , but only once he 'd finished taking his History finals two weeks later . Until that point , he had been neglecting his University education . As a result , the University had tried to kick him out for failing his Second Year exams and not paying his accommodation fees , but was saved because of his role as Entertainments Officer . After writing 6 months worth of essays in the space of two weeks and some last minute cramming for his exams , Dickinson achieved a 2 : 2 .
On 19 July 2011 , Dickinson was presented with an honorary music doctorate from his alma mater , in honour of his contribution to the music industry .
= = Samson : 1979 – 1981 = =
After meeting Paul Samson and Barry Purkis at the Prince of Wales , and while still undertaking his final university exams , Dickinson joined Samson onstage at Bishop 's Stortford to perform one of their songs , " Rock Me Baby " , cementing his role as their new lead vocalist .
The band had already released their debut album , Survivors , in 1979 on an independent label , two months before Dickinson joined . Immediately following the completion of his University work , he met up with the band at Greenwich 's Wood Wharf studios to learn the Survivors album . Although the tracks did not suit his vocal style , the band soon wrote the majority of the following Head On album in their earliest rehearsal sessions , some of which were immediately incorporated into their live set .
It was during these early rehearsals that the nickname " Bruce Bruce " came about , derived from Monty Python 's " Bruces sketch " . The name became very tiresome as the band 's management continually wrote dud cheques , made payable to " Bruce Bruce " , as a joke . Dickinson later commented that he did not like it but considered it " a sort of stage name " and accepted it .
Dickinson was dismayed to learn that not all rock performers were " great artists " ; he felt that some , such as Samson , were only interested in women , drugs and alcohol , which he was unable to relate to . Although he had smoked joints before , Dickinson discovered that it was impossible to communicate with other band members if he was sober , deciding that it was " the price that had to be paid " .
While fronting the band , Dickinson also came across Iron Maiden for the first time , who were supporting Samson at the Music Machine in 1980 . As Dickinson recalls ; " I was watching them , and they were good , really fucking good , and at that moment , I remember thinking , ' I wanna fucking sing for that band . In fact , I 'm going to sing for that band ! I know I 'm going to sing for that band ! ' ... I just thought , ' This is really me . Not Samson . ' "
Dickinson remained in the band for another year , recording two studio albums with them — Head On and Shock Tactics . However , Samson soon ran into difficulties with their record label , Gem , who went out of business and failed to finance their European tour in support of Iron Maiden . The band were turned over to RCA , which began neglecting the group , and so they promptly fired their management team and the resulting injunction meant that their equipment was reclaimed and they could not be paid for their concert performances . The band 's last gig was at Reading Festival , after which Dickinson was approached by Iron Maiden 's manager , Rod Smallwood , who asked him to audition to be their new lead vocalist .
= = Iron Maiden = =
= = = Beginnings and success : 1981 – 1985 = = =
Dickinson went to audition for Iron Maiden at a rehearsal room in Hackney in September 1981 and immediately discovered that this was a much more professional operation than he was used to with Samson . In the practice rooms , the band played through " Prowler " , " Sanctuary " , " Running Free " and " Remember Tomorrow " , before asking Dickinson to sing the same songs again in a recording studio , and he was immediately inducted into the group .
Iron Maiden had a strict and organised routine that suited the band 's writing style , which Dickinson described as a " time table " . After a few gigs , they began writing new material for their third album , The Number of the Beast , released in 1982 . In the wake of Samson 's contractual problems , Dickinson could not legally be credited on any of the record 's songs , having to make , what he called , a " moral contribution " , later revealing that he had contributed limited creative input to " The Prisoner " , " Children of the Damned " and " Run to the Hills " . The album was a major success , topping the UK charts , and earning platinum status in the UK and the US . Following the release , the band embarked on a supporting tour around the globe .
On the following albums , 1983 's Piece of Mind and 1984 's Powerslave , Steve Harris 's song @-@ writing monopoly was pushed aside in favour of other members ' ideas , with Dickinson contributing to a number of tracks , including the singles " Flight of Icarus " and " 2 Minutes to Midnight " . Throughout the World Slavery Tour , as part of the new theatrical elements incorporated into the band 's stage @-@ show , Dickinson wore a feathered mask during " Powerslave " . This was the band 's longest tour to date , during which Dickinson considered going home mid @-@ tour , due to the high number of shows . Iron Maiden 's management were continually adding dates , until Dickinson demanded that they stop or he would leave the group .
= = = Growing tensions and departure : 19
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,@ 000 ( $ 182 @,@ 223 ) for tax evasion after failing to declare more than € 6 @,@ 000 of luxury clothing he bought on a trip to Dubai .
He supports the Munich street @-@ football league Bunt kickt gut , which is considered a pioneer project of organized street @-@ football and a Germany and Europa @-@ wide model of intercultural understanding , education values and prevention ; the Sepp @-@ Herberger foundation , which promotes football in schools , clubs , and prisons ; and the Justin Rockola Association , whose goal is the protection of young people against violence , alcohol and drugs .
He received his coaching license in 2010 . After having studied business at the University of Hagen and Privatuniversität Schloss Seeburg Kahn holds a Master of Business Administration degree .
= = = Relationships = = =
In 1999 , Kahn married Simone , with whom he has two children : Katharina @-@ Maria ( born 28 December 1998 ) and David ( born 7 March 2003 ) . The couple separated in 2003 and Kahn thereafter had a highly publicized relationship with Verena Kerth from 2003 to 2008 . Kahn and Simone briefly reconciled in 2009 , before divorcing the same year .
On 8 July 2011 Kahn married his girlfriend Svenja in Munich . The couple has a son , Julian ( born 1 February 2011 ) .
= = Reputation = =
Regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all @-@ time , in addition to his goalkeeping technique , distribution , and shot @-@ stopping abilities , Kahn is widely admired for the stamina , mental strength , and composure he showed to overcome the stresses and pressures of his career . His profile on the Bayern Munich website lists his attributes as " impatient , disciplined , ambitious " .
Due to his performances during the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea , Kahn gained popularity in Asia . He was depicted in several television commercials , including one for the Shinkin bank . In 2008 , his wax figure in the Berlin branch of the Madame Tussaud museum was inaugurated . Kahn is the subject of the song Olli Kahn by the German pop group Die Prinzen .
Due to the formidable presence , commanding influence , and aggressive playing style that he showed in goal during his professional career , Kahn 's epithet is " The Titan " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
1 Includes German Super Cup
= = = International = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Karlsruher SC II
Oberliga Baden @-@ Württemberg : 1989 – 90
Verbandsliga Nordbaden : 1988 – 89
Bayern Munich
Source :
Bundesliga ( 8 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2007 – 08
DFB @-@ Pokal ( 6 ) : 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2007 – 08
DFB @-@ Ligapokal ( 6 ) : 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2004 , 2007
UEFA Champions League : 2000 – 01
UEFA Cup : 1995 – 96
Intercontinental Cup : 2001
= = = International = = =
Source :
UEFA European Championship : 1996
FIFA Confederations Cup Third Place : 2005
FIFA World Cup Second Place : 2002
FIFA World Cup Third Place : 2006
= = = Individual = = =
Source :
Best Bundesliga Keeper : 1994 , 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
IFFHS World 's Best Goalkeeper : 1999 , 2001 , 2002
Best European Goalkeeper : 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
UEFA Club Football Awards – Best Goalkeeper : 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
ESM Team of the Year : 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01
UEFA Champions League Final Man of the Match : 2001
German Footballer of the Year : 2000 , 2001
Ballon d 'Or – Third place : 2001 , 2002
UEFA Fair @-@ Play Award : 2001
FIFA World Cup Golden Ball : 2002
FIFA World Cup Yashin Award : 2002
FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 2002
FIFA World Player of the Year – Silver award : 2002
FIFA 100
= Halloween ( franchise ) =
Halloween is an American horror franchise that consists of ten films , novels , comic books , merchandise , and a video game . The franchise predominately focuses on the fictional character of Michael Myers who was committed to a sanitarium as a child for the murder of his older sister , Judith Myers . Fifteen years later , he escapes to stalk and kill the people of Haddonfield , Illinois while being chased by his former psychiatrist Dr. Sam Loomis . Michael 's killings occur on the holiday of Halloween , on which all of the films primarily take place . The films collectively grossed over $ 366 million at the box @-@ office worldwide .
The original Halloween , released in 1978 , was written by John Carpenter and Debra Hill , and directed by Carpenter . The sequels have had various writers and directors attached to them . Michael Myers is the antagonist in all of the films except Halloween III : Season of the Witch , the story of which has no direct connection to any other film in the series . Carpenter , who had a hand in writing the first sequel , has not had any direct involvement with the rest of the films . The film series is ranked fourth at the United States box office — in adjusted 2008 dollars — when compared to other American horror franchises . The first Halloween film is credited with beginning a long line of slasher films inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho . The franchise began when the first novel appeared less than a year after the release of the first film , and seven sequels have since followed . In 2007 , director Rob Zombie produced a remake of the 1978 film . A direct sequel to the 2007 remake was released two years later .
= = Films = =
= = = Overview = = =
The original Halloween ( 1978 ) , written and directed by John Carpenter , tells the story of Michael Myers as he stalks and kills teenage babysitters on Halloween night . The film begins with six @-@ year @-@ old Michael ( Will Sandin ) killing his teenage sister Judith ( Sandy Johnson ) on Halloween 1963 in the fictional town of Haddonfield , Illinois . He is subsequently hospitalized at Smith 's Grove Sanitarium . Fifteen years later , Michael ( Nick Castle and Tony Moran ) escapes and returns to his hometown where he stalks Laurie Strode ( Jamie Lee Curtis ) and her friends as they babysit . The film ends with Michael being shot six times by his psychiatrist , Dr. Sam Loomis ( Donald Pleasence ) . Halloween II ( 1981 ) picks up where the events of Halloween left off . Michael 's body is missing from the front lawn , where he fell when Loomis shot him . Michael follows Laurie to the local hospital , killing everyone who gets between him and Laurie . The story reveals that Laurie is actually Michael 's sister : she was given up for adoption as an infant . Michael corners Loomis and Laurie in an operating room , where Loomis causes an explosion as Laurie escapes . Michael , engulfed in flames , stumbles out of the room toward Laurie before finally falling dead .
Michael Myers does not appear in Halloween III : Season of the Witch ( 1982 ) . This installment follows the story of Dr. Challis ( Tom Atkins ) as he tries to solve the mysterious murder of a patient in his hospital . He , along with the patient 's daughter Ellie ( Stacey Nelkin ) , travels to the small town of Santa Mira , California . The pair discover that Silver Shamrock Novelties , a company run by Conal Cochran ( Dan O 'Herlihy ) , is attempting to use the mystic powers of the Stonehenge rocks to resurrect the ancient aspects of the Celtic festival , Samhain , which Cochran connects to witchcraft . Cochran is using his Silver Shamrock Halloween masks to achieve his goal , which will be achieved when all the children wearing his masks watch the Silver Shamrock commercial airing Halloween night . Challis contacts the television stations and convinces all but one of the station managers to remove the commercial . The film ends with Challis screaming for the final station to turn off the commercial .
Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers ( 1988 ) , as the title suggests , features the return of Michael Myers ( George P. Wilbur ) to the film series . The film reveals that Michael survived the fire in Halloween II but has been in a coma since that night . While being transferred back to Smith 's Grove , Michael comes out of his coma and overhears that Laurie Strode , who died in a car accident , has a daughter , Jamie Lloyd ( Danielle Harris ) . Michael escapes the transport and heads to Haddonfield in search of Jamie . Fellow survivor Dr. Loomis also goes to Haddonfield after learning that Michael has escaped transfer . Eventually , the police track Michael down and shoot him several times before he falls down a mine shaft . Picking up directly where the previous film ends , Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers ( 1989 ) has Michael ( Don Shanks ) surviving the gunshots , and the fall down the mine ; he stumbles upon a hermit who bandages him up . One year later , and showing signs of a metaphysical connection to Jamie , Michael tracks Jamie to a local child mental health clinic . Using Jamie as bait , Loomis manages to capture Michael . The film ends with Michael being taken into police custody , only to be broken out of jail by a mysterious stranger , all dressed in black . Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers ( 1995 ) picks up the story approximately six years after the events of The Revenge of Michael Myers . The mysterious stranger who broke Michael out of jail kidnaps Jamie Lloyd ( J. C. Brandy ) in an effort to obtain her illegitimate child . Jamie escapes with her newborn , with Michael ( George P. Wilbur ) in pursuit . Michael kills Jamie and continues searching for her baby ; the infant is found by Tommy Doyle ( Paul Stephen Rudd ) — the young boy who was babysat by Laurie Strode in the first film — who brings it home for safety . It is revealed that Michael is driven by the Curse of Thorn , which forces a person to kill their entire family in order to save all of civilization . The mysterious stranger is revealed to be Dr. Loomis ’ s colleague , Dr. Wynn ( Mitchell Ryan ) , who is part of a group of people who protect the chosen individual so that they may complete their task . With the help of Kara Strode ( Marianne Hagan ) , Laurie ’ s adoptive cousin , Tommy keeps the infant from Michael , who slaughters Wynn and his followers . Michael is finally subdued by Tommy , who injects him with large quantities of tranquilizers inside the Smith ’ s Grove Sanitarium . The film ends with Loomis walking back into the sanitarium to find Michael .
The events that transpire between Halloween 4 and Halloween 6 are effectively ignored in 1998 ’ s Halloween H20 : 20 Years Later . This film opens twenty years after the events of the second film . Laurie Strode ( Jamie Lee Curtis ) has faked her own death so that she could go into hiding from her brother Michael . Now working as the head mistress of a private school under the name Keri Tate , Laurie continues to live in fear of her brother ’ s return . Her own son , John ( Josh Hartnett ) , attends school where she teaches . Laurie ’ s fear becomes reality when Michael ( Chris Durand ) shows up at the school and begins killing John ’ s friends and eventually he and Laurie come face @-@ to @-@ face . Laurie manages to get John and his girlfriend ( Michelle Williams ) to safety , but decides to return to the school to face Michael once and for all . Laurie succeeds in stopping Michael , but not satisfied until she knows that he is truly dead , Laurie steals his body and decapitates Michael . Halloween : Resurrection ( 2002 ) picks up three years after H20 , and reveals that Michael swapped clothes with a paramedic — crushing the paramedic ’ s larynx so that he could not talk — and that was who Laurie killed . Unable to deal with killing an innocent man , and the fact that Michael was still out there , Laurie is committed to a mental institution . Michael ( Brad Loree ) shows up at the institution , but Laurie captures him . Her fear of making the same mistake twice gets the better of her , and when she attempts to remove Michael ’ s mask he surprises and kills her . Michael travels back to his family home in Haddonfield , but finds a group of college students filming an Internet reality show . Michael proceeds to kill everyone , until he is finally electrocuted by the only surviving student , Sara Moyer ( Bianca Kajlich ) , and the show ’ s creator Freddie Harris ( Busta Rhymes ) .
A remake of the original Halloween was released in 2007 . This film focuses on the events that led Michael Myers ( Daeg Faerch ) to kill his family . It also identifies Laurie as Michael ’ s sister early on , which was something not done in the original 1978 film . On Halloween , Michael murders a school bully , his older sister and her boyfriend , as well as his mother ’ s boyfriend . Committed to Smith ’ s Grove Sanitarium , Michael closes himself off from everyone . Seventeen years later , Michael ( Tyler Mane ) escapes and heads to Haddonfield to find his younger sister , with his psychiatrist Dr. Loomis ( Malcolm McDowell ) in pursuit . Michael finds his sister living with the Strode family , and going by the name Laurie . After killing all of her friends and family , Michael kidnaps Laurie and attempts to explain to her that he is her brother through the use of a picture that he has kept of himself and her as an infant . Unable to understand , Laurie fights back ; eventually , Laurie uses Loomis 's gun to shoot Michael in the head . In 2009 , a sequel to the remake , titled Halloween II , picks up right where the latter leaves off and then jumps ahead one year . Here , Michael ( Mane ) is presumed dead , but resurfaces after a vision of his deceased mother Deborah ( Sheri Moon Zombie ) informs him that he must track Laurie ( Scout Taylor @-@ Compton ) down so that they can " come home " together . In the film , Michael and Laurie have a mental link , with the two sharing visions of their mother .
= = = Development = = =
After viewing John Carpenter 's film Assault on Precinct 13 ( 1976 ) at the Milan Film Festival , independent film producer Irwin Yablans and financier Moustapha Akkad sought out Carpenter to direct for them a film about a psychotic killer stalking babysitters . Carpenter and Debra Hill began drafting a story titled The Babysitter Murders , but the title was changed at Yablans ' request , suggesting the setting be changed to Halloween night and naming it Halloween instead . Moustapha Akkad fronted the $ 300 @,@ 000 for the film 's budget , even though he was worried about the tight schedule , low budget , and Carpenter 's limited experience as a filmmaker . He finally decided to finance the film after Carpenter relayed the entire film to Akkad , " in a suspenseful way , almost frame for frame " , and opted not to take any fees for directing the film . The low budget forced wardrobe and props to be crafted from items on hand or that could be purchased inexpensively ; this included the trademark mask worn by Michael Myers throughout the film . Production designer , art director , location scout and co @-@ editor Tommy Lee Wallace created Michael 's mask from a William Shatner Halloween mask , purchased for $ 1 @.@ 98 . The limited budget also dictated the filming location and time schedule . Halloween was filmed in 21 days in the spring of 1978 primarily in South Pasadena , California . An abandoned house owned by a church stood in as the Myers house . Two homes on Orange Grove Avenue in Hollywood were used for the film 's climax .
Following the success of Halloween , Yablans and Akkad began working on Halloween II . There was initial discussion about filming Halloween II in 3 @-@ D , but the idea never came to fruition . After Halloween II was released , Carpenter and Hill were approached about creating a third Halloween film , but they were reluctant to pledge commitment . The pair agreed to participate in the new project only if it was not a direct sequel to Halloween II , which meant no Michael Myers . Most of the filming for Halloween III took place on location in the small coastal town of Loleta in Humboldt County , California . Familiar Foods , a milk bottling plant in Loleta , served as the Silver Shamrock Novelties factory , but all special effects involving fire , smoke , and explosions were filmed at Post Studios .
After Halloween III was released , Michael Myers was brought back into the franchise with 1988 's The Return of Michael Myers , where he has stayed for the remainder of the series . Four more sequels would follow , between 1988 and 2002 , before the series would take a break for five years . On June 4 , 2006 , Dimension announced that Rob Zombie , director of House of 1000 Corpses and The Devil 's Rejects , would be creating the next installment in the Halloween franchise . Bob Weinstein approached Rob Zombie about making the film , and Zombie , who was a fan of the original Halloween and friend of John Carpenter , jumped at the chance to make a Halloween film for Dimension Films . Before Dimension went public with the news , Zombie felt obligated to inform John Carpenter , out of respect , of the plans to remake his film . Carpenter 's request was for Zombie to " make it his own [ film ] " . Zombie 's film would combine the elements of prequel and remake with the original concept , with considerable original content in the new film . Zombie also wanted to reinvent the character , as he felt Michael , along with Freddy Krueger , Jason Voorhees , and Pinhead , had become too familiar to audiences , and as a result , less scary . Zombie delved deeper into Michael Myers 's mythology . Michael 's mask was even given its own story to provide an explanation as to why he wears it , instead of having the character simply steal a random mask from a hardware store , as in the original film . Zombie wanted to bring Michael closer to what a psychopath really is , and wanted the mask to be a way for Michael to hide .
In 2008 , a sequel to the 2007 remake was announced , with French filmmakers Alexandre Bustillo and Julien Muary in negotiations to direct . Instead , Zombie was resigned to write and direct the sequel , with the film taking place directly after the end of his remake . In an interview , Zombie expressed how the exhaustion of creating the first Halloween made him not want to come back for a sequel , but after a year of cooling down he was more open to the idea . The writer / director explains that with the sequel , he was no longer bound by a sense of needing to retain any " John Carpenter @-@ ness " , as he could now do " whatever [ he ] wants to do " . Instead of focusing on Michael , Zombie chose to look more at the psychological consequences on Laurie after the events of the remake . As Zombie explains , after Michael murdered her friends and family , Laurie became a " wreck " , who continually sinks lower as the film moves forward .
= = = Music = = =
John Carpenter composed the music to the first three films . For Halloween , Carpenter chose to use a piano melody played in a 5 / 4 time rhythm instead of a symphonic soundtrack . Critic James Berardinelli calls the score " relatively simple and unsophisticated " , but admits that " Halloween 's music is one of its strongest assets . " Carpenter stated in an interview , " I can play just about any keyboard , but I can 't read or write a note . " In the end credits , Carpenter bills himself as the " Bowling Green Orchestra " for performing the film 's score , but he did receive assistance from composer Dan Wyman , a music professor at San Jose State University .
The score for Halloween II is a variation of John Carpenter 's compositions from the first film , particularly the main theme 's familiar piano melody played . The score was performed on a synthesizer organ rather than the piano used for Halloween . One reviewer for the BBC described the revised score as having " a more Gothic feel " . The reviewer asserted that it " doesn ’ t sound quite as good as the original piece " , but " it still remains a classic piece of music " .
Music remained an important element in establishing the atmosphere of Halloween III . Just as in Halloween and Halloween II , there was no symphonic score . Much of the music was composed to solicit " false startles " from the audience . The soundtrack was composed by John Carpenter and Alan Howarth , who had also worked on the score for Halloween II . The score of Halloween III differed greatly from the familiar main theme of the original and its first sequel . Carpenter replaced the familiar piano melody with a slower , electronic theme played on a synthesizer with beeping tonalities . Howarth explains how he and Carpenter composed the music for the third film :
The music style of John Carpenter and myself has further evolved in this film soundtrack by working exclusively with synthesizers to produce our music . This has led to a certain procedural routine . The film is first transferred to a time coded video tape and synchronized to a 24 track master audio recorder ; then while watching the film we compose the music to these visual images . The entire process goes quite rapidly and has ' instant gratification ' , allowing us to evaluate the score in synch to the picture . This is quite an invaluable asset .
= = = Box office = = =
The Halloween franchise , when compared to the other top @-@ grossing American horror franchises — A Nightmare on Elm Street , Child 's Play , Friday the 13th , the Hannibal Lecter series , Psycho , Saw , Scream , and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre — and adjusting for the 2011 inflation , is the fourth highest grossing horror franchise in the United States at approximately $ 557 @.@ 5 million . This list is topped by Friday the 13th at $ 687 @.@ 1 million , followed by the Nightmare on Elm Street series with $ 592 @.@ 8 million . The Hannibal Lecter film series closely follows in third with $ 588 @.@ 7 million . Following Halloween is the Saw series with $ 457 @.@ 4 million , Scream with $ 442 @.@ 9 million , Psycho with $ 376 @.@ 3 million , The Texas Chainsaw Massacre with $ 304 @.@ 6 million , and the Child 's Play film series rounding out the list with approximately $ 203 million .
= = = Future = = =
On June 21 , 2011 , it was announced that a new Halloween film , at the time titled Halloween 3D , would be released on October 26 , 2012 . At the time of the announcement , there was no director or writer attached to the project . Originally , Patrick Lussier and Todd Farmer were labeled as writers but dropped out due to their occupancy on the Hellraiser reboot . There was no confirmation if a new script had been written or if any cast or crew members from previous films in the series would be involved . The film was dropped from the release schedule on March 7 , 2012 , as no work had progressed on the film .
In February 2015 , it was announced that Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan will be writing a new Halloween film along with Malek Akkad and Matt Stein producing . On June 15 , 2015 , it was announced that The Weinstein Company was moving ahead with another Halloween sequel , tentatively titled Halloween Returns with Dunstan directing . The film will be a standalone film set to reintroduce audiences to Michael Myers years after his initial rampage . It will pit a new group of Haddonfield youngsters against Myers . The now 18 @-@ year @-@ old child of one of Myers ’ victims plays a central role along with the child of a cop whose long been obsessed with Myers ' case , even putting it before his own daughter . Myers is now on death row and the two kids with their own personal vendettas against the killer sneak in to watch his execution . But when things go awry and Myers escapes , the pair , along with their friends , find themselves in the firing line .
On October 22 , 2015 , producer Malek Akkad expressed his wishes to postpone production for the new " Halloween " film and insists that the next iteration and the extra time will result in a better film . Malek said of Halloween Returns : " Although , I have to say , and this is somewhat new news , but unfortunately things happen in Hollywood where you have issues with studios and different variables . We 've had to take a step back and now we ’ re trying to re @-@ figure this beast that is the new Halloween . So there is a bit of a delay , But this new Halloween isn 't going to be quite what has been announced and what people are expecting , so we 're making some changes there as well . "
In December 2015 , It was announced that Dimension Films no longer had the rights to the Halloween franchise . The cancellation of the planned film Halloween Returns was confirmed at the same time .
On May 23 , 2016 it was announced that Miramax and Blumhouse Productions were developing a new Halloween film which they will co @-@ finance . John Carpenter is set to produce the project and act as creative consultant . John Carpenter stated , " Thirty @-@ eight years after the original Halloween , I 'm going to help to try to make the 10th sequel the scariest of them all . "
= = = Documentary = = =
25 Years of Terror is a DVD released on July 25 , 2006 featuring a documentary on the Halloween films , narrated by P. J. Soles and featuring interviews from many of the cast members as well as filmmakers of the Halloween films and a lot of footage from the series as well . It has panel discussions with members from the casts and crews of most of the Halloween films , plus other celebrities and filmmakers such as Rob Zombie and Clive Barker as well as film critics . All of the panel discussions took place at a 25 @-@ year Anniversary convention in Pasadena , California ( one of the filming locations of the original Halloween ) in October 2003 . It also has extended versions of interviews featured in the documentary , and much more . In 2010 , The Biography Channel produced a television special titled Halloween : The Inside Story , which premiered on October 28 , 2010 .
= = Literature = =
= = = Novels = = =
When the original Halloween was released in 1978 , a novelization of the movie followed just a year later . Written by Curtis Richards , the book follows the events of the film , but expands on the festival of Samhain and Michael 's time at Smith 's Grove Sanitarium . Halloween II , Halloween III : Season of the Witch , and Halloween 4 each received novelizations as well . Jack Martin would write Halloween II , which was released alongside its film counterpart . Martin included an additional victim of Michael 's in this novel . Halloween IV , released in October 1988 and written by Nicholas Grabowsky , also followed the events of the film in which it was adapted from . As of August 2010 , no further films have been novelized .
Over a four @-@ month period , Berkley Books published three young adult novels written by Kelly O 'Rourke ; the novels are original stories created by O 'Rourke , with no direct continuity with the films . The first , released on October 1 , 1997 , titled The Scream Factory , follows a group of friends who set up a haunted house attraction in the basement of Haddonfield City Hall , only to be stalked and killed by Michael Myers while they are there . The Old Myers Place is the second novel , released December 1 , 1997 , and focuses on Mary White , who moves into the Myers house with her family . Michael returns home and begins stalking and attacking Mary and her friends . O 'Rourke 's final novel , The Mad House , was released on February 1 , 1998 . The Mad House features a young girl , Christine Ray , who joins a documentary film crew that travels to haunted locations ; they are currently headed to Smith Grove Mental Hospital , where they are confronted by Michael .
= = = Comic books = = =
The first Halloween comic was published by Brian Pulido 's Chaos ! Comics . Simply titled Halloween , it was intended to be a one @-@ issue special , but eventually two sequels spawned : Halloween II : The Blackest Eyes and Halloween III : The Devil 's Eyes . All of the stories were written by Phil Nutman , with Daniel Farrands — writer for Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers — assisting on the first issue ; David Brewer and Justiniano worked on the illustrations . Tommy Doyle is the main protagonist in each of the issues , focusing on his attempts to kill Michael Myers . The first issue includes back story on Michael 's childhood , while the third picks up after the events of the film Halloween H20 . These comics were based on Daniel Farrand 's concept for Halloween 8 ; he had been approached by the producers to pitch a follow @-@ up to Halloween H20 . His idea was to have Tommy Doyle incarcerated at Smith 's Grove for Michael Myers ' crimes , only to escape and reunite with Lindsay Wallace . Together , they study the journals of Dr. Loomis and find out more about Michael 's childhood . The movie would have explored Michael 's time at Smith 's Grove and relationship with Dr. Loomis , before returning to Tommy and Lindsay , who are attacked by the adult Michael Myers . Upon defeating him and removing his mask , they discover Laurie Strode , who has taken over her brother 's mantle . Farrand 's logic was that , since Jamie Lee Curtis was contracted to cameo in Halloween 8 , they should make that cameo as significant and surprising as possible . Although the studio did not follow up on his pitch , Farrands was able to tell his story in comic book form .
One Good Scare was released in 2003 ; it was written by Stefan Hutchinson and illustrated by Peter Fielding . The main character in this comic is Lindsey Wallace , the young girl who first saw Michael Myers alongside Tommy Doyle in the original 1978 film . Hutchinson wanted to bring the character back to his roots , and away from the " lumbering Jason @-@ clone " the film sequels had made him . One Good Scare came about because Hutchinson wanted to produce a comic book to celebrate the series ' twenty @-@ fifth anniversary ; it was to be sold as a collectible at a Halloween convention in South Pasadena . Due to the positive reception to One Good Scare , Hutchinson hoped to use the comic as a " demo " for getting a distribution deal , but was unable due to rights issues .
While waiting to acquire the rights to publish more Halloween comics , Stefan Hutchinson worked on the documentary Halloween : 25 Years of Terror with Malek Akkad . Together , they developed ideas for possible Halloween stories that would be " connected into a larger tale , so the idea was that it would use the serial aspect of comic books to create different storylines than would be possible in the films . " On July 25 , 2006 , as an insert inside the
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DVD release of 25 Years of Terror , Hutchinson released Halloween : Autopsis . Written by Hutchinson , and artwork by Marcus Smith and Nick Dismas , the story is about a photographer assigned to take pictures of Michael Myers . As the photographer , Carter , follows Dr. Loomis he begins to take on Loomis 's obsession himself , until finally meeting Michael Myers in person , which results in his death .
Rob Zombie 's reboot of the film series ensured that any Halloween comics would not be contradicted by upcoming films , allowing Hutchinson creative freedom . Malek Akkad was approached by Devil 's Due Publishing with the possibility of producing a line of Halloween comics , and he and Hutchinson worked to make them a reality . Hutchinson was convinced by the strong support of One Good Scare that the comic books would have an audience . In 2008 , Stefan Hutchinson released the first issue of his new comic book , Halloween : Nightdance . This is a four issue mini @-@ series , and it does not contain any characters — other than Michael — from the films . The four issues are titled , " A Shape in the Void " , " The Silent Clown " , " A Rainbow in One Color " , and " When the Stars Came Crashing Down " . The first issue , " A Shape in the Void " , takes place on October 31 , 2000 , so that it falls between Halloween H20 and Halloween Resurrection . Issue one follows Michael as he stalks Lisa , an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old girl with insecurities and " a chronic fear of darkness " . Hutchinson explains that Nightdance was an attempt to escape the dense continuity of the film series and recreate the tone of the 1978 film . Michael becomes inexplicably fixated on Lisa , just as he did with Laurie in the original Halloween , before the sequels established that a sibling bond was actually his motivation for stalking her . The aim was to once again establish Michael Myers as a " credible and dangerous force " .
August 2008 saw the release of Devil 's Due 's Halloween : 30 Years of Terror to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the Halloween franchise . This comic book one @-@ shot is a collection of short stories inspired by John Carpenter 's original . " Trick or Treat " features the MacKenzies , unseen characters from the first film who Tommy and Lindsey run to for help . " P.O.V. " shows a murder from the point of view of both Michael and his victim , " Visiting Hours " sees Laurie Strode reflecting on how her life could have been had her brother never found her in 1978 , while " Tommy and the Boogeyman " reveals that Tommy Doyle grew up to write comic books featuring Michael Myers . In the final story , " Repetition Compulsion " , Dr. Loomis tries to predict where Michael will strike next on Halloween , 1989 . Writer Hutchinson explains that H30 came about because , unlike previous decades , there was no Halloween film coming out in 2008 to acknowledge the occasion .
Devil 's Due released three @-@ issue mini @-@ series Halloween : The First Death of Laurie Strode in late 2008 . Written by Hutchinson with artwork from Jeff Zornow , the story bridges the gap between Halloween II and Halloween H20 by focusing on Laurie Strode in the aftermath of the 1978 murders . Hutchinson explains that Laurie is " trying to get better and trying to repair , but where do you even start after going through such horror ? How do you even try to resume normality when you don 't know what that is anymore ? " Although Michael appears in the series , it is not clear whether he is real or if the traumatised Laurie is seeing things . Hutchinson is not a fan of the revelation that Laurie and Michael are siblings and took steps to address that problem in the story . He wanted to avoid the " bloodline plot of the middle sequels " , which he felt demystified the character of the Shape , and approach the story so that " it becomes almost incidental that she 's his sister " . Hutchinson believed that Laurie Strode 's evolution into Keri Tate was fertile ground for a storyline ; he says , " it 's not the faking of the death that 's interesting at all , but it ’ s the fall that leads to that happening . The faked death is just simple mechanics and can be covered in a sentence , but the state of mind and events leading to that are full of rich character and dramatic potential . "
= = = Online stories = = =
All of Stefan Hutchinson 's Halloween comic books take place in the Halloween H20 timeline , which retconned Halloween 4 – 6 from continuity . Hutchinson comments that , while the retcon was unpopular with " a lot of fans " for ignoring previous movies , he preferred the " simplicity of this storyline , over the needlessly convoluted mythology that the last two films had created " . However , he admits that one of the downsides of the H20 timeline is that fans do not know exactly what happened to Dr. Sam Loomis after Halloween II . To remedy this , Hutchinson pitched Halloween : Sam as a way of paying tribute to the character . Written by Hutchinson and featuring illustrations from Autopsis 's Marcus Smith , Sam is a prose short story available exclusively for download at the website HalloweenComics.com. It explores the life of Dr. Loomis , including his backstory and relationship with Elizabeth Worthington , a journalist he met during World War II . In 1995 , Michael Myers visits the ailing Dr. Loomis in hospital , and murders Elizabeth in front of him . Loomis attempts to stop him , but dies of a coronary failure .
= = Merchandise = =
In 1983 , Wizard Video , who had also released a video game version of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre , released a Halloween game for the Atari 2600 . In the game , the player was a babysitter who had to protect her children from Michael Myers , who had managed to get inside the house . Although the game was called Halloween , and featured the film 's theatrical poster as its cover art as well as the movie 's main music theme , the game itself never refers to any characters , including the killer , by their names in the film .
The Halloween franchise has also seen profitability through various merchandise like toys , dolls , statues , model kits , bobbleheads , snow globes , movie posters , masks , T @-@ shirts , hats , and more . Michael Myers has made appearances in the form of dolls and toys from McFarlane Toys , Sideshow Collectibles , and NECA . Even Dr. Loomis has been immortalized in plastic alongside Michael Myers in a two @-@ figure set produced by NECA .
The Michael Myers mask has been reproduced over the years by Don Post , the mask company responsible for the creation of the masks from several of the Halloween films ( the Silver Shamrock novelty factory seen in Halloween III was actually shot on location in one of Don Post 's factories ) . While Don Post reproductions of the Michael Myers mask are still commonly found in costume stores every Halloween , the license to produce Michael Myers masks has since been given to Cinema Secrets , the company commissioned with the creation of the Michael Myers mask for Halloween : Resurrection . As of 2012 , Universal Pictures has granted license to Trick or Treat Studios to produce two versions of the Michael Myers mask from Halloween II , one " clean " version and one with the famous " blood tears " .
The Halloween series also lives on in DVD form . Many versions of the original Halloween ( often including special extras like free merchandise or additional footage missing from previous DVD releases of the film ) as well as several of its sequels have been published by Anchor Bay Entertainment , Universal Studios , and Dimension Films . On October 2 , 2007 , the original Halloween was released on Blu @-@ ray for the first time by Anchor Bay Home Entertainment . In December 2007 there were reports that the Producer 's Cut of Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers might get a DVD release in the future .
Following the first Blu @-@ ray release of the original Halloween , all other films in the series were subsequently released to Blu @-@ ray , as well . Home video distributors Anchor Bay Entertainment and Scream Factory released Halloween : The Complete Collection to Blu @-@ ray on September 23 , 2014 . This box set brings together all ten Halloween films released to date . Two versions of The Complete Collection were released : a standard 10 @-@ disc set featuring the first eight original films of the series and Rob Zombie 's 2007 and 2009 remakes , and a " Limited Edition " 15 @-@ disc set , containing the ten films on ten discs , and five extra discs featuring the television versions of Halloween and Halloween II , the never @-@ before released Halloween 6 : The Producer 's Cut , a bonus disc to Rob Zombie 's Halloween , and a bonus disc containing all @-@ new special features from all ten films . The box set won the 2015 Saturn Award for Best DVD / BD Collection Release .
= M @-@ 222 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 222 is the current designation of a state trunkline highway in Allegan County of the US state of Michigan . It runs between the city of Allegan , where it connects with M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 , and the US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) freeway near Martin . The highway runs along a series of streets in Allegan and through rural farm fields and woods between the two communities along 116th Avenue . The roadway was a state highway back in 1919 when the system was initially signed . It was assigned as part of M @-@ 89 and M @-@ 40 before being given its own number , M @-@ 118 . That designation was applied to the highway until 1988 when that was retired in favor of the current M @-@ 222 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 222 begins at an intersection with M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 in the town of Allegan at the corner of Cutler and Cedar streets . From there , the trunkline runs northward on Cedar Street for a block before turning eastward on Monroe Street . Then the highway proceeds through residential areas along Monroe and turns onto Grand Street to cross over the Kalamazoo River . M @-@ 222 intersects A @-@ 37 ( Main Street ) and runs next to Padgham Field before exiting town . From there , the highway continues on due eastward as 116th Avenue through rural areas and agricultural fields . Further east , the fields are taken over by forested area and residential subdivisions in places near Watson . The trunkline jogs to the south to bisect Wetheral Lake . M @-@ 222 ends north of US 131 Motorsports Park near exit 55 on US 131 east of Martin .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 222 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 9 @,@ 147 vehicles used the highway daily in Allegan between M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 and A @-@ 37 and 5 @,@ 470 vehicles did so each day between near the eastern terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 222 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , the highway between Allegan and Martin was part of M @-@ 89 . In 1926 , when M @-@ 40 was extended from Allegan to Martin , M @-@ 89 was rerouted out of Allegan to the southeast along its present @-@ day alignment to terminate at US 131 in Plainwell .
In 1929 , the routing from Allegan to Martin was removed and renumbered M @-@ 118 , and M @-@ 40 was extended to the north out of Allegan along M @-@ 89 and its modern routing to a new terminus in Holland ending at US 31 . By the middle of 1960 , the US 131 was opened as far south as Martin ; the section of M @-@ 118 between the new
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performed " I Care " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . Jim Farber of Daily News wrote that " she delivered it with equal parts defiance and need " . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer concluded , " The set list tipped too heavily at times towards bombastic balladry like ' I Care ' and ' I Miss You ' " Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line praised the performance of " I Care " during the show writing that she " matched her guitar player ’ s solo note for note during a scalding version of ' I Care . ' " In 2013 , " I Care " was part of the set list of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour where Beyoncé performed it seated on a bar stool wearing a black fedora . The Observer 's Kitty Empire felt that the set " dip [ ped ] " with the performance of " I Care " before adding that " [ the song is ] reminding you that there is filler , even on Beyoncé albums "
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending July 2 , 2011 , " I Care " debuted at number 35 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 15 @,@ 816 digital downloads .
= = Release history = =
= The Boat Race 1896 =
The 53rd Boat Race took place on 28 March 1896 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former rower Frank Willan , Oxford won by two @-@ fifths of a length in a time of 20 minutes 1 second , taking the overall record in the event to 30 – 22 in their favour . It was their seventh consecutive victory and the narrowest winning margin since 1877 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 29 victories to Cambridge 's 22 .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races , R. C. Lehmann , the former president of the Cambridge Union Society and captain of the 1st Trinity Boat Club ( although he had rowed in the trials eights for Cambridge , he was never selected for the Blue boat ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . Cambridge were coached by Stanley Muttlebury who had rowed for Cambridge five times between the 1886 and 1890 races . The umpire for the race for the eighth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 5 lb ( 79 @.@ 0 kg ) , 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Five of the Cambridge crew had rowed in the previous year 's race : boat club president Theodore Byram Hope , Herbert Aylward Game , Richard Yerburgh Bonsey , Thomas Jones Gibb Duncanson and Adam Searle Bell . The Oxford crew contained three former Blues , including Walter Erskine Crum who was making his third consecutive appearance in the event . Six of the Oxford crew and two Cantabrigians were educated at Eton College .
= = Race = =
Cambridge , the pre @-@ race favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Starting at 1 : 03 p.m. , the race was conducted in strong westerly winds and rain showers . Cambridge started the faster of the crews and outrated Oxford by two strokes per minute , and by Craven Steps ( approximately 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) ) along the course ) they held a one @-@ third length lead . With the bend in the river in their favour , Oxford drew level by the Mile Post , but by Harrods Furniture Depository Cambridge were ahead , holding a three @-@ quarter length advantage by Hammersmith Bridge . Into the rough water past the bridge , Oxford struggled and the Light Blues were clear at The Doves pub . By Chiswick Steps they had extended the lead to one and a half lengths .
Despite being behind for most of the race , the Oxford stroke Harcourt Gilbey Gold maintained his crew 's pace and rhythm and along Corney Reach ( around 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) into the race ) they were overlapping the Light Blue boat . Encountering a challenging combination of wind and tide , Cambridge began to struggle by the brewery at Mortlake , and the Dark Blues took advantage , overtaking Cambridge and passed the finishing post two @-@ fifths of a length ahead in a time of 20 minutes 1 second . It was their seventh consecutive victory and the narrowest margin of victory since the 1877 race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater described the race as " one of the most stubbornly contested that has ever been rowed " .
= Mount Tambora =
Mount Tambora ( or Tamboro ) is an active stratovolcano which is a peninsula of and the highest peak on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia . Sumbawa is flanked both to the north and south by oceanic crust , and Tambora was formed by the active subduction zone beneath it . This raised Mount Tambora as high as 4 @,@ 300 m ( 14 @,@ 100 ft ) , making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago in the 18th century . After a large magma chamber inside the mountain filled over the course of several decades , volcanic activity reached a historic climax in the eruption of 10 April 1815 . This eruption had a volcanic explosivity index ( VEI ) of 7 , the only unambiguously confirmed VEI @-@ 7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI @-@ 7 . )
With an estimated ejecta volume of 160 km3 ( 38 cu mi ) , Tambora 's 1815 outburst is the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history . The explosion was heard on Sumatra , more than 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) away . Heavy volcanic ash falls were observed as far away as Borneo , Sulawesi , Java , and the Maluku Islands . Most of the deaths from the eruption were from starvation and disease , as the eruptive fallout ruined agricultural productivity in the local region . The death toll was at least 71 @,@ 000 people , of whom 11 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 were killed directly by the eruption ; the oft @-@ cited figure of 92 @,@ 000 people killed is believed to be an overestimate .
The eruption caused global climate anomalies that included the phenomenon known as " volcanic winter " : 1816 became known as the " Year Without a Summer " because of the effect on North American and European weather . Crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere , resulting in the worst famine of the 19th century .
During an excavation in 2004 , a team of archaeologists discovered cultural remains buried by the 1815 eruption . They were kept intact beneath the 3 @-@ metre @-@ deep pyroclastic deposits . At the site , dubbed the " Pompeii of the East " , the artifacts were preserved in the positions they had occupied in 1815 .
= = Geographical setting = =
Mount Tambora is on Sumbawa Island , part of the Lesser Sunda Islands . It is a segment of the Sunda Arc , a string of volcanic islands that forms the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago . Tambora forms the Sanggar peninsula on Sumbawa . At the north of the peninsula is the Flores Sea , and at the south is Saleh Bay , 86 km ( 53 mi ) long and 36 km ( 22 mi ) wide . At the mouth of Saleh Bay is a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare islet called Moyo ( Indonesian : Pulau Moyo ) which has a guest shelter or luxurious resort where celebrities such as Princess Diana once stayed .
Besides its interest for seismologists and volcanologists , who monitor the mountain 's activity , Mount Tambora is an area of scientific studies for archaeologists and biologists . It also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities . The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima . Three concentrations of villages are around the mountain slope . At the east is Sanggar village , to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages , and to the west is Calabai village .
Three ascent routes are used to reach the caldera . The first route starts from Doro Mboha village south of the mountain , and follows a paved road through a cashew plantation until it reaches 1 @,@ 150 m ( 3 @,@ 770 ft ) above sea level . The end of this route is the southern part of the caldera at 1 @,@ 950 m ( 6 @,@ 400 ft ) , reachable by a hiking track . This location is usually used as a base camp to monitor the volcanic activity , because it takes only one hour to reach the caldera . The second route is southwest of the mountain , starting from Doro Peti village ; the Tambora volcanic monitoring station is in Doro Peti . The third route starts from Pancasila village northwest of the mountain , and passes through a coffee plantation . Using the third route , the caldera is accessible only by foot . The highest point of Tambora is on a hill near the western rim of the caldera .
In August 2011 , the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increasing activity was reported in the caldera , including earthquakes and smoke emissions .
= = Geological history = =
= = = Formation = = =
Tambora is 340 km ( 210 mi ) north of the Java Trench system and 180 – 190 km ( 110 – 120 mi ) above the upper surface of the active north @-@ dipping subduction zone . Sumbawa island is flanked to both the north and south by the oceanic crust . The convergence rate is 7 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) per year . Tambora is estimated to have formed around 57 @,@ 000 years ago . Depositing its strata has drained off a large magma chamber inside the mountain . The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay , collapsing into the caldera of the drained magma chamber , first appeared as a sea basin , about 25 @,@ 000 years ago .
According to a geological survey before the 1815 eruption , Tambora had the shape of a typical stratovolcano , with a high symmetrical volcanic cone soaring up to 4 @,@ 300 m ( 14 @,@ 100 ft ) above the sea level , and a single central vent . The diameter at the base is 60 km ( 37 mi ) . The central vent emitted lava frequently , which cascaded down a steep slope .
Since the 1815 eruption , the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of lava and pyroclastic materials . The 1 to 4m thick lava flows constitute about 40 % of the layers ' thickness . Thick scoria beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows . Within the upper section , the lava is interbedded with scoria , tuffs , and pyroclastic flows and falls . At least 20 subsidiary or parasitic cones are known . Some of them have names : Tahe , 844 m ( 2 @,@ 769 ft ) ; Molo , 602 m ( 1 @,@ 975 ft ) ; Kadiendinae ; Kubah , 1 @,@ 648 m ( 5 @,@ 407 ft ) ; and Doro Api Toi . Most of these parasitic cones have produced basaltic lavas .
= = = Eruptive history = = =
Radiocarbon dating has established the dates of three of Mount Tambora 's eruptions before the 1815 eruption . The magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown . The estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years , 3050 BC and 740 AD ± 150 years . They were all explosive central vent eruptions with similar characteristics , but the 740 AD eruption had no pyroclastic flows .
In 1812 , Mount Tambora entered a period of high activity , with its climactic eruption being the catastrophic explosive event of April 1815 .
Mount Tambora is still active . Minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries . The last eruption was recorded in 1967 . However , it was a very small , non @-@ explosive eruption ( VEI = 0 ) .
There were reports of a similarly small eruption in 2011 .
= = 1815 eruption = =
The 1815 VEI @-@ 7 eruption had a total tephra ejecta volume of 160 km3 ( 38 cu mi ) . It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a caldera collapse , causing tsunamis and extensive land and property damage . It had a long @-@ term effect on global climate . This activity ceased on 15 July 1815 . Follow @-@ up activity was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption ( VEI
= 2 ) with flames and rumbling aftershocks , and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption sequence . Around 1880 ± 30 years , Tambora went into eruption again , but only inside the caldera . Small lava flows and lava dome extrusions were formed . This eruption ( VEI =
2 ) created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera . This was the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years along with the Hatepe eruption of Lake Taupo at around 180 AD and the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu around 1000 .
= = Archaeological work = =
Archaeological evidence indicates that the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora wiped out a culture on Sumbawa .
= = Ecosystem = =
A scientific team led by a Swiss botanist , Heinrich Zollinger , arrived on Sumbawa in 1847 . Zollinger 's mission was to study the eruption scene and its effects on the local ecosystem . He was the first person to climb to the summit after the eruption . It was still covered by smoke . As Zollinger climbed up , his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder @-@ like sulphur . Some vegetation had reestablished itself and he saw a few trees on the lower slope . A Casuarina forest was noted at 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 550 m ( 7 @,@ 220 – 8 @,@ 370 ft ) . Several Imperata cylindrica grasslands were also found .
Resettlement of the mountain began in 1907 . A coffee plantation was started in the 1930s on the northwestern slope of the mountain , in the village of Pekat . A dense rain forest , dominated by the pioneering tree Duabanga moluccana , had grown at an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 800 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 9 @,@ 200 ft ) . It covers an area up to 80 @,@ 000 ha ( 200 @,@ 000 acres ) . The rain forest was explored by a Dutch team , led by Koster and de Voogd , in 1933 . From their accounts , they started their journey in a " fairly barren , dry and hot country " , and then they entered " a mighty jungle " with " huge majestic forest giants " . At 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) , they entered a montane forest . Above 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) , they found Dodonaea viscosa dominated by Casuarina trees . On the summit , they found sparse Anaphalis viscida and Wahlenbergia .
In 1896 , 56 species of birds were found , including the crested white @-@ eye . Twelve further species were found in 1981 . Several other zoological surveys followed , and found other bird species on the mountain , resulting in over 90 bird species discovered on Mount Tambora . Yellow @-@ crested cockatoos , Zoothera thrushes , hill mynas , green junglefowl and rainbow lorikeets are hunted for the cagebird trade by the local people . Orange @-@ footed scrubfowl are hunted for food . This bird exploitation has resulted in a decline in the bird population . The yellow @-@ crested cockatoo is nearing extirpation on Sumbawa island .
Since 1972 , a commercial logging company has been operating in the area . The logging company holds a timber @-@ cutting concession for an area of 20 @,@ 000 ha ( 49 @,@ 000 acres ) , or 25 % of the total area . Another part of the rain forest is used as a hunting ground . In between the hunting ground and the logging area , there is a designated wildlife reserve where deer , water buffalos , wild pigs , bats , flying foxes , and various species of reptiles and birds can be found .
In 2015 the conservation area protecting the mountain 's ecosystem has been upgraded to the status of national park .
= = = Exploration of the caldera floor = = =
= = = = Georesearch Volcanedo Germany = = = =
An ecosystem has developed in the caldera formed by the 1815 eruption . This ecosystem has been largely uninfluenced by human beings because of its isolation .
In October 2013 , a German research team ( Georesearch Volcanedo Germany , GRV ) carried out the first lengthy expedition into this 1300m deep caldera . The GRV team and a team of native helpers climbed down the inner southern wall under extreme conditions . They climbed down from 2430m to 1340m altitude to reach the caldera floor . A German geoscientist in the team was the first woman to conquer the almost impassable inner southern wall of this volcano . The team stayed within the Tambora caldera for nine days , researching the caldera floor . Very few people had reached the caldera floor before this , as descending the steep walls is difficult and dangerous , subject to earthquakes , landslides and rockfalls . Moreover , only relatively short stays on the caldera floor had been possible due to logistical problems , so that extensive studies had been impossible .
The investigation program of Georesearch Volcanedo on the caldera floor included researching the visible effects of the smaller eruptions which had taken place on the caldera floor since 1815 , temperature measurements ( air , soil , gases ) , gas measurements , studies of flora and fauna , and measurement of weather data . Especially striking was the relatively high activity of Doro Api Toi ( Gunung Api Kecil means " small volcano " ) in the southern part of the caldera and the gases escaping under high pressure and loud noises on the lower north @-@ east wall .
In July 2014 , the same research team from Georesearch Volcanedo Germany carried out a further expedition into the Tambora caldera and set a new record , spending over 12 days continuing and expanding on their research of the previous year . The results of these two expeditions are to be published .
= = = = Heinrich Zollinger = = = =
The Swiss teacher and botanist Heinrich Zollinger was the first climber to reach the eastern rim of the Tambora caldera after the eruption of 1815 . He made his ascent in 1847 with the help of a native team .
In August 2015 , 200 years after the big eruption , the team of Georesearch Volcanedo Germany ( GRV ) and a team of native helpers followed the route used by Zollinger and explored this area for the first time since 1847 . Even though there were no geographic coordinates of Zollinger 's ascent , the GRV team followed Zollinger 's descriptions and his historical @-@ drawn map .
The ascent of Mount Tambora from the east coast of the Sanggar peninsula up to the eastern rim was a particular challenge in both 2015 and 1847 . The lengthy distance to be travelled on foot , the difficult terrain , the high daily temperatures , the usual water shortage in this region in August and the high demand of drinking water during such an expedition required a detailed logistical preparation .
= = Monitoring Tambora = =
Indonesia 's population has been increasing rapidly since the 1815 eruption . As of 2006 , the population of Indonesia has reached 222 million people , of which 130 million are concentrated on Java . A contemporary volcanic eruption as large as Tambora 's 1815 eruption would cause catastrophic devastation with likely many more fatalities . Therefore , volcanic activity in Indonesia is continuously monitored , including that of Mount Tambora .
Seismic activity in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Vulcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation , Indonesia . The monitoring post for Mount Tambora is located at Doro Peti village . They focus on seismic and tectonic activities by using a seismograph . Since the 1880 eruption , there has been no significant increase in seismic activity . However , monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera , especially around the parasitic cone Doro Api Toi .
The directorate has defined a hazard mitigation map for Mount Tambora . Two zones are declared : the dangerous zone and the cautious zone . The dangerous zone is an area that will be directly affected by an eruption : pyroclastic flow , lava flow and other pyroclastic falls . This area , including the caldera and its surroundings , covers up to 58 @.@ 7 km2 ( 22 @.@ 7 sq mi ) . Habitation of the dangerous zone is prohibited . The cautious zone includes areas that might be indirectly affected by an eruption : lahar flows and other pumice stones . The size of the cautious area is 185 km2 ( 71 sq mi ) , and includes Pasanggrahan , Doro Peti , Rao , Labuan Kenanga , Gubu Ponda , Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages . The river Guwu at the southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone .
= United States v. Approximately 64 @,@ 695 Pounds of Shark Fins =
United States v. Approximately 64 @,@ 695 Pounds of Shark Fins ( 520 F.3d 976 ) is a 2008 decision of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concerning civil forfeiture in admiralty law . Judge Stephen Reinhardt wrote for a three @-@ judge panel that ordered that the shark fins be returned to their owners , reversing a decision by the Southern District of California . The government did not appeal the case further .
The case began in 2002 when a Coast Guard crew working from a Navy ship stopped and searched the King Diamond II , a U.S.-flagged , Hong Kong @-@ based vessel in international waters off the coast of Guatemala . On board the ship they found shark fins , equivalent to 32 @.@ 3 tons ( 29 @.@ 3 tonnes ) but without any corresponding shark carcasses . The Coast Guard , upon further investigation , found documentary evidence that the KD II had arranged to meet fishing vessels at predetermined locations and buy various quantities of fins . These activities were believed to violate the Shark Finning Prohibition Act of 2000 ( SFPA ) . The fins were thus seized and the ship escorted to San Diego , the nearest American port .
Federal agencies filed charges against the KD II 's owner , operator and captain . They further sought forfeiture of the fins under in rem jurisdiction , resulting in the unusual case title . Judge Barry Ted Moskowitz granted the order in 2005 . The boat 's owners appealed to the Ninth Circuit , which reversed Moskowitz three years later . It held that the seizure was illegal for three reasons : the KD II 's activities did not meet the definition of a fishing vessel under the Magnuson – Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act . Since it did not , under the SFPA , the fins could not have been lawfully seized on the high seas . In 2011 , President Barack Obama signed the Shark Conservation Act into law , which closed these loopholes .
= = Background = =
China 's late 20th century economic reforms produced a middle class that increased demand for traditional luxury items like shark fins . Chinese traditional medicine ascribes various restorative and healing effects to the fins , and the soup is considered a delicacy , costing as much as US $ 100 per bowl . The Chinese demand for fins led fishing crews to both take them from sharks in their bycatch and start fishing for sharks directly .
Shark populations began declining . Since they are predators near the top of the marine food chain , an umbrella species , playing an important role in maintaining ocean ecosystems , this could have serious adverse environmental consequences for marine fisheries . Campaigns began in many nations to prohibit or greatly curtail finning in both territorial and international waters and work toward international agreements on the practice . In the U.S. , President Bill Clinton signed the Shark Finning Prohibition Act ( SFPA ) into law in 2000 shortly before leaving office . It amended the Magnuson – Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act , the primary statute regulating fisheries in the U.S. ' s Exclusive Economic Zone up to 200 nautical miles offshore , to prohibit finning in U.S. territorial waters by any vessels , and the possession of fins by a U.S.-flagged vessel in international waters or the landing of any fins at a U.S. port without corresponding carcasses amounting to at least 20 times the weight of the fins . The National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) was charged with promulgating and implementing regulations to enforce the act .
During Congressional debate on the SFPA , Eni Faleomavaega , non @-@ voting Delegate to the House of Representatives from American Samoa , had expressed concerns about the lack of language barring vessels from engaging in transshipment of fins , such as purchasing those taken by other vessels on the high seas . To stop this , he introduced an amendment to the bill banning the possession of the fins without the carcasses by fishing vessels , as defined in the Magnuson – Stevens Act , and the landing of same by any vessel . Congress assumed that this language would be sufficient to accomplish its intended purpose .
= = Underlying dispute = =
On August 13 , 2002 , the U.S. Navy destroyer USS Fife was in international waters southeast of Acapulco , Mexico , when it observed the King Diamond II , an 84 @-@ foot ( 26 m ) U.S.-flagged vessel owned by Tran and Yu , Inc , a shipping company in Hong Kong , its home port . The Fife 's crew asked more questions over the radio . It learned that the KD II , having sailed out of Honolulu some time ago , was on its way from Honolulu to Guatemala .
A Coast Guard detachment aboard the Fife confirmed that it was properly flying the U.S. flag . The Coast Guard was suspicious since the ship was low in the water , suggesting it was carrying heavy cargo , yet there were no cranes or other equipment that a legitimate fishing vessel would be expected to have . Instead there were several large shipping containers . Via radio , they asked the Joint Interagency Task Force West , a consortium of various federal law enforcement agencies , for permission to investigate further , since smugglers and drug traffickers were known to use that route .
After receiving permission to do so , the Coast Guard boarded the KD II . The stench of decaying flesh quickly led them to a large quantity of shark fins . They were in bundles on the deck , the shipping container and filling most of the 40 @-@ ton ( 36 @-@ tonne ) hold , where the ammonia odor was so strong that the Coast Guardsman who found them had to breathe through his mouth since it burned his nose . Since no corresponding carcasses could be found , the task force told the boarding party that this indicated a likely violation of the SFPA , and to consider the ship a crime scene as the fins were contraband .
Two days later , the Coast Guard cutter Chase took over , escorting the KD II to San Diego . Along the way the investigation continued . The Coast Guard reported that the four @-@ man crew was cooperative with the investigation , largely sitting back and watching television in the lounge . Since they claimed not to have finned the sharks themselves , they believed they had not done anything wrong . Ship 's records revealed that the KD II had met fishing vessels , primarily Korean longline fishing boats , at prearranged locations on the high seas near the Fiji and Solomon Islands and bought fins from them for a total of $ 250 @,@ 000 . On an earlier voyage that summer , the ship had made $ 6 million from shark fins obtained the same way . Korean @-@ language records from a broker on board indicated an ongoing operation , giving the names of other ships involved . The refrigeration unit on board had broken before the ship had left Honolulu , and the fins were out on deck in an attempt to dry them out and reduce the odor .
In San Diego the fins were unloaded and weighed . It took a crew of eight seven hours to unload all the fins , most of which had been tied into 2 @-@ by @-@ 3 @-@ foot ( 60 by 90 cm ) bundles weighing roughly 100 pounds ( 40 kg ) each . They were put on trucks to be secured in a cold @-@ storage facility as evidence pending the outcome of any legal proceedings . At 32 @.@ 3 tons ( 29 @.@ 3 tonnes ) , the total was more than twice the anticipated amount , making it the largest seizure of shark fins ever . It was estimated that the fins represented a total of 30 @,@ 000 sharks taken .
= = Litigation = =
In early 2003 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Fisheries Office for Law Enforcement finished its investigation and charged Tran and Yu ; Tai Loong Hong Marine Products Ltd . , of Hong Kong , for whom the fins had been bought ; and Chien Tan Nguyen , captain of the KD II , with 26 counts of violating the SFPA . They were assessed fines of $ 620 @,@ 000 , the highest civil penalty ever levied for a violation of the act .
Tai Loong believed that the government had exceeded its statutory authority by confiscating the fins . It argued that before Judge Barry Ted Moskowitz , a federal district judge for the Southern District of California , who granted an injunction against NOAA prohibiting it from selling the fins itself . The company and the agency then agreed that , in return for the former putting up a $ 775 @,@ 000 bond , that it would take possession of the shark fins , although they remained in cold storage pending the outcome of the case . Tai Loong presold the fins for an amount almost equal to the fine against it . NOAA then initiated a civil forfeiture action with the bond substituting for the fins .
= = = District court = = =
In 2004 the government went before Moskowitz seeking summary judgement . The case turned on whether the KD II was a fishing vessel under the SFPA . Early in 2005 he issued his ruling , holding that while it was not directly engaged in fishing it was nevertheless engaging in activities supporting fishing and thus also subject to the SFPA . He did not grant the forfeiture as NOAA had not moved for it yet .
The SFPA deferred to the Magnuson – Stevens Act for its definition of a fishing vessel . According to that statute , a fishing vessel was one that either engaged in fishing , or " aiding or assisting one or more vessels at sea in the performance of any activity relating to fishing , including , but not limited to , preparation , supply , storage , refrigeration , transportation , or processing . " Moskowitz rejected NOAA 's argument that the KD II was engaged in fishing and therefore a fishing vessel because , under its previous ownership , it had been equipped with longline equipment and held a federal permit . That had lapsed shortly after Tran and Yu bought the ship and was no longer valid , so neither was the argument based on paper . " Whether the KD II is in fact a fishing vessel under [ the first definition ] depends on its configuration and how it was outfitted at the time of the seizure , " he wrote . Since there was nothing in the record about that , he declined to decide the question on that grounds .
There was more to consider when Moskowitz turned to the support aspect . " Simply put
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benefited from making the sale in the first place . Nevertheless , wherever the purchase is made , the purchaser is doing no more than making a purchase that it desires to make for its own business reasons . As a result , while the district court 's assumption that the seller would benefit from the location of particular sales appears reasonable , it is irrelevant .
While the court recognized Congress 's intent to curtail and eventually eliminate shark finning by passing the SFPA , " the broad purpose of the Act provides no help to the government with regard to the issue on appeal , " Reinhardt wrote . He turned finally to the regulations , where he pointed out that Moskowitz had applied the language from the preamble too broadly . " [ I ] n context , [ it ] suggests the opposite . " Instead of being a case of a vessel with shark fins bound for an American port , the case was instead covered by the regulations on possession , since the KD II was bound for a foreign port , and those provisions were specific to fishing vessels . " Where an agency includes language in one section of the regulation and omits it in another , it is reasonable to presume that the agency acted intentionally in forgoing the language , " he wrote , paraphrasing parallel Supreme Court precedent regarding Congressional intent . "
" Taken together , " Reinhardt concluded , " the regulations and the preamble may be reasonably read to provide notice that vessels that engage in at @-@ sea transfers of fins , are prohibited from landing shark fins in a U.S. port , but they do not provide notice that such vessels are prohibited from possessing fins for the purpose of making a delivery to a foreign port . " He also noted that the preamble had language stating it was not the NMFS 's intent to interfere with international trade . " Under the circumstances , a reasonable person would not have fair notice that the activities of the KD II would render it a fishing vessel under [ the statute ] . As a result , we hold that the district court 's application of the possession prohibition of the SFPA to the KD II as a fishing vessel ... violated due process . "
= = Shark Conservation Act = =
Within a month of the decision , Madeleine Bordallo , Delegate from Guam , introduced the Shark Conservation Act in the U.S. House to close the loophole created by the decision . It eliminated the fins @-@ to @-@ carcass ratio entirely and replaced it with language forbidding any U.S.-flagged vessel , not just a fishing vessel , from carrying shark fins not naturally attached to the corresponding carcass , mirroring a law already adopted by Hawaii . In his later report on the bill , Rep. Nick Rahall , the committee chair , said that Congress had believed in 2000 the language of Magnuson – Stevens was sufficient to prevent transshipment . The new legislation 's primary purpose , he stated explicitly , was to close the loophole the decision opened .
The bill was referred to the Natural Resources Committee , which then referred it to its Subcommittee on Fisheries , Wildlife and Oceans , chaired by Bordallo . Hearings were held a week later , at which Shelley Clarke , a researcher at Imperial College London who studies the shark @-@ fin trade , observed that transshipment operations such as the KD II 's were common and would likely continue as the competition in Hong Kong , the industry 's traditional center , grew more intense . While the transshipment ban was an effective response to the decision , she suggested that shipments of containerized fins be allowed if they had been separated from their carcasses after landing .
In the report , Rahall did not directly criticize the court , but Don Young of Alaska , the committee 's ranking member , did . In a section for additional views at the end of the report , he called the Ninth Circuit 's decision " mistaken . " The KD II 's action " was clearly a violation of the Act , but the court ruled otherwise , " he wrote . " The court was clearly wrong in their decision and I am glad that we are overriding the court decision in this case . "
In June the subcommittee met to mark up the bill . Bordallo 's amendment tightening the language prohibiting vessel transport of fins was passed by voice vote . A week later the full committee , after adding an amendment by Faleomavaega requiring that fins be attached to the carcasses , sent the bill to the full House . In July it was passed by voice vote and referred to the Senate , where it was sponsored by John Kerry of Massachusetts . It was read twice and referred to the Committee on Commerce , Science and Transportation . No further action was taken before the 110th Congress adjourned , and the bill died .
Bordallo reintroduced it , as amended , at the beginning of the next Congress . It gained 30 cosponsors , bypassed the committee stage and was passed by voice vote in March 2009 . Kerry reintroduced it in the Senate a month later ; it eventually gained 33 cosponsors there . The Senate Subcommittee on Oceans , Atmosphere , Fisheries and Coast Guard held hearings on the bill in June .
The Senate report , by Jay Rockefeller of West Virginia , reiterated that " The bill would clarify in statute what was already popularly understood to be the scope of application of the SFPA " prior to the case , but did not otherwise make any commentary regarding it . A group of shark attack survivors visited senators ' offices to lobby for the bill in July . It was passed near the end of the year and signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4 , 2011 .
= Acid Tongue =
Acid Tongue is the second studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Jenny Lewis , released in September 2008 ( see 2008 in music ) through Warner Bros. and Rough Trade Records . Inspired by jam sessions , the album was recorded in January 2008 in Van Nuys , California with the intent of capturing a more live feeling than 2006 's Rabbit Fur Coat . Lewis worked with a number of guest musicians and wrote the album with boyfriend Johnathan Rice . Lewis , Rice , Jason Lader , and Dave Scher produced the album . Acid Tongue features musical styles ranging from indie rock to alternative country and Americana .
Acid Tongue was released to generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics , receiving praise for Lewis ' lyrics and vocals . However , some reviewers criticized the numerous collaborations and felt the sound overwhelmed Lewis . The album charted at number twenty @-@ two in the United States and number fifty @-@ five in the United Kingdom .
= = Influences and recording = =
Lewis first began work on Acid Tongue after writing the title track on her Rabbit Fur Coat tour . She attempted to work out an arrangement for Rilo Kiley 's Under the Blacklight . It didn 't work , so Lewis recorded it for a second solo album .
According to the Los Angeles Times , Lewis was inspired by house parties at Jonathan Wilson 's Laurel Canyon home . " We 'd go to these jams in the canyon . They 're fantastic . Jonathan invites older session musicians from the real Laurel Canyon era , and younger people who are just starting their bands who happen to live in the canyon , and we all get together and sing Grateful Dead covers and J. J. Cale songs . " Lewis herself has said that it " rocks a little harder , " in contrast to Rabbit Fur Coat 's folk rock influences . Lewis also used Rilo Kiley 's Under the Blacklight , which was notably polished compared to the band 's earlier work , " as a reference point to go in the complete opposite direction " . She explained that every song she writes is " a response to the thing that I 've written before " . " It 's even as simple as , ' OK , I 've written a ballad , now I want to push myself to write something that 's up tempo . ' If I 'm writing about myself , well , that subject can be tiresome , so then I focus on character @-@ driven songs . So I 'm always doing this back @-@ and @-@ forth just to keep myself interested . "
The album was recorded in just three weeks at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California . The album was co @-@ produced by Lewis 's boyfriend Johnathan Rice , former Beachwood Sparks and All Night Radio member Dave Scher , and Under the Blacklight producer Jason Lader . Lewis attempted to record as many of the songs live as possible . " We did it in the studio for my 32nd birthday , " according to Lewis , " and we had a great time , collaborating with a bunch of friends . It was definitely a lot less focused than Rabbit Fur Coat . With that record I had a very specific vision , [ ... ] but with this record it was really more about the vibe , the songs and the collaborations " . A source quoted by Entertainment Weekly said that the album " all sounds super natural , nice , and simple . Like it doesn 't belong in any decade . It 's just timeless . " The album was inspired by a variety of musical styles , including alternative country , Americana , indie rock , and soul .
Talking to Nashville Scene , Lewis said that the songs " weren 't written off @-@ the @-@ cuff , but they were definitely recorded , not carelessly , but with a real effort to capture a live feeling , particularly with the vocals " . Lewis continued , " To me , it 's a big step in a different direction ... and to be able to sink into the vocal take while the band was playing was a very liberating experience for me . " Lewis told The A.V. Club , " We played them on the road 100 times , so we knew that we could walk into the studio and record them the same way . [ ... ] It wasn 't really a studio record , but more of a live record in some ways . It was about getting the band together and creating an atmosphere that lent itself to good chemistry between the band members and trying to capture as much of the record live as we could . " As " a child of digital generation " , Lewis had generally worked with Pro Tools , but wanted to capture the " not @-@ perfect sound " of some of her favorite records .
The musicians were split into two separate bands . The Band A setup ( Jason Boesel , Davey Faragher , Johnathan Rice , and Blake Mills ) would generally play the more rock and roll songs , while Band B would play the ballads .
= = Composition = =
The album 's title track was described by Lewis as her " thinly veiled way of getting out of writing a strictly ' confessional ' song , " Lewis told Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune . " I may be a liar , or I may not be one . " The song also referenced a childhood experience of Lewis ' , in which she experienced LSD at the age of 14 .
" The Next Messiah " , a nine @-@ minute " ode to Barbra Streisand and the devil , " was " tracked completely live , with all the transitions , and it 's the most exciting thing I 've ever been involved with in the studio . I wish the rest of the record had been more like that . " The song is " actually three different songs that Johnathan Rice and myself wrote together , " according to Lewis . " I happen to be a Barbra Streisand fan , and Barbra Streisand fancies a medley , so we discussed stringing the three songs together . "
The album features a duet with Elvis Costello , " Carpetbaggers " . The song was written by Lewis ' boyfriend , Johnathan Rice , to be performed on the Rabbit Fur Coat tour , because they were lacking uptempo songs . Lewis wanted to " make it less country and a little more pop . So I emailed Elvis . He mentioned he had two new songs and would we be open to recording them . " These songs became part of Costello 's Momofuku .
She & Him 's Zooey Deschanel provides backing vocals on a number of songs , while her bandmate M. Ward plays " a moody guitar part " on " Pretty Bird " . Ward said that Acid Tongue is " the greatest record Jenny has ever made . " There are a number of other collaborations on Acid Tongue ; fellow Rilo Kiley member Jason Boesel , Davey Faragher of Costello 's band The Imposters , Benji Hughes , Ana and Paz Lenchantin , Chris Robinson of The Black Crowes , and Jonathan Wilson all make contributions . The album features production credits from Lewis ' boyfriend Johnathan Rice , Farmer Dave Scher , and Rilo Kiley producer Jason Lader .
Lewis 's sister Leslie Lewis provides backing vocals on two tracks , while her father Eddie Gordon plays the bass harp and harmonica . " He was ill last year , so we started speaking to one another , " Lewis told The Independent . " There were no hard feelings . He just wasn 't around . Every couple of years I 'd get a postcard from the road – a picture of him standing next to a giant ice @-@ sculpture of a crab , in Alaska . He was a very mysterious character . But I thought this was the right time to bring him in . " " The Next Messiah " was influenced by her father . " When someone isn 't around you create what you imagine your father might be – ' a race @-@ car driver , a four @-@ leaf clover ' , " Lewis explained . Lewis has said that a lot of her inspiration , for both Acid Tongue and previous work , comes from her parents . Lewis also told The Independent , " I just don 't know them very well . And I 'm still trying to understand what happened [ with the divorce ] and why . It 's this blank slate , I can 't even remember what happened . But for some reason , these two people are so incredibly strange and funny and beautiful and messed up , that I want to keep writing about them ... and maybe figure out who I am in the process . "
= = Release = =
Entertainment Weekly announced that Lewis had been working on the album in February 2008 . Prior to Acid Tongue 's release , Lewis allowed listeners to hear the title track by calling the toll @-@ free telephone number 1 @-@ 888 @-@ 717 @-@ ACID . The song was later replaced by a recording announcing two " secret " performances in September , including a password and website to obtain tickets . Additionally , several videos were put up on Lewis ' official YouTube page . The videos show Lewis ( or band mates ) at home being visited by Ben Gibbard , of Death Cab for Cutie and The Postal Service , who has arrived with balloons to listen to the new album . Ben is told that the album isn 't out yet , but Lewis agrees to let him hear " just one song " . This is followed by a recording of the title track " Acid Tongue . "
On September 9 , the entire album was made available in streaming format on Lewis ' official MySpace page . Though not technically downloadable , it was quickly accessed through other means and made available through file sharing . The album was released in both CD and LP formats in a number of territories throughout late September . Select independent record stores also gave away a 7 " single of " The Next Messiah " , split between the two sides of the record . Lewis toured in support of the album 's release , including an appearance at the Austin City Limits Festival and opening for Conor Oberst .
= = Critical reception = =
Acid Tongue has received generally favorable reviews , scoring a 75 % on review aggregator Metacritic . Creative Loafing said that while Rabbit Fur Coat " glided through an Appalachian dream world " , Lewis " stomps her boots while exploring similar terrain " on Acid Tongue . The review continued that while the album " includes plenty of quirky meditations on lost love that recall her previous adventures , [ ... ] well @-@ placed jolts give Acid Tongue greater balance , a component that 's lacking on Rabbit Fur Coat . " According to The Sunday Times , " the results are magnificent , [ ... ] but occasionally they are a shaky misstep . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim De
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2004 , a test was done in the tunnel to insure that the requirements would be met , as low @-@ frequency sound is difficult to predict . Measurements after the opening of the tunnel showed background noise of 30 dBA , that no @-@ one was subject to 32 dBA or higher , and that it was nearly impossible to measure the passing of trains .
Among the major concerns was leaks ; during the construction on the Romerike Tunnel , there was a one @-@ year delay and severe cost overruns due to improper leak handling methods . Therefore , one of the main focuses in the Skaugum Tunnel project was to avoid similar leaks . The contract specified a maximum leakage of 4 liters ( 0 @.@ 88 imp gal ; 1 @.@ 1 U.S. gal ) per minute per 100 meters ( 330 ft ) . The contractor attempted to achieve this by extending the time used for pre @-@ injection of concrete . However , there was still water dripping into the tunnel , which caused several types of damage . Some places the water dripped onto the track , causing rust ; other places water dripped onto electrical equipment . There was also issues with water running down the walls and collecting in the cable conduit , and the water with limestone dripping on the ballast and mixing the ballast with limestone . By 2011 , the emergency lighting system had to be replaced because of the high humidity . The National Rail Administration has stated that savings made to the specifications in the water and frost methods have caused higher maintenance costs because the small leaks which are present do a lot of harm . In addition , areas with leaks suffer from icing . This has been part of a national trend where older tunnels are nearly maintenance @-@ free , while newer tunnels have incurred high maintenance costs .
= Piedmont Park =
Piedmont Park is an urban park in Atlanta , Georgia , located about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northeast of Downtown , between the Midtown and Virginia Highland neighborhoods . Originally the land was owned by Dr. Benjamin Walker , who used it as his out @-@ of @-@ town gentleman 's farm and residence . He sold the land in 1887 to the Gentlemen 's Driving Club ( later renamed the Piedmont Driving Club ) , who wanted to establish an exclusive club and racing ground for horse enthusiasts . The Driving Club entered an agreement with the Piedmont Exposition Company , headed by prominent Atlantan Charles A. Collier , to use the land for fairs and expositions and later gave the park its name .
The park was originally designed by Joseph Forsyth Johnson to host the first of two major expositions held in the park in the late 19th century . The Piedmont Exposition opened in October 1887 to great fanfare . The event was a success and set the stage for the Cotton States and International Exposition which was held in the park seven years later in 1895 . Both exhibitions showcased the prosperity of the region that had occurred during and after the Reconstruction period . In the early 20th century , a redesign plan called the Olmsted plan , was begun by the sons of New York Central Park architect , Frederick Law Olmsted . The effort led to the addition of scenic paths in the park and the joining of the park with the Ansley park system .
Over the years , the park has also served as an athletic center for the city . Atlanta 's first professional baseball team , the Atlanta Crackers , played in the park from 1902 to 1904 . Several important intercollegiate rivalries were also forged in the park including the University of Georgia vs. Georgia Tech baseball rivalry and Georgia versus Auburn football which has been called the " Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry " .
Throughout the 20th century , many improvements have been made in the park , including the addition of covered picnic areas , tennis facilities , the Lake Clara Meer dock and visitors center , and two playgrounds . In 2008 , a ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held for a 53 @-@ acre ( 210 @,@ 000 m2 ) extension to the park . On April 12 , 2011 , Mayor Kasim Reed cut the ribbon to open the first phase of a major expansion into the northern third of the park . Additional areas at the far north of the park ( near Ansley Mall ) are to be developed next .
= = History = =
= = = Opening = = =
Atlanta was a rapidly growing city in the years before Piedmont Park . From 1860 to 1890 , the population jumped from 9 @,@ 554 to 65 @,@ 533 residents . Those years saw the opening of many education institutions such as Morehouse College ( 1867 ) , Clark College ( 1869 ) , Spelman College ( 1881 ) , Morris Brown College ( 1882 ) , Georgia School of Technology ( now known as the Georgia Institute of Technology ) ( 1885 ) , and Agnes Scott College ( 1890 ) . John B. Gordon , a distinguished Confederate general , was Governor of Georgia .
The area soon to be known as Piedmont Park was owned by Benjamin Walker , who purchased the 189 acres ( 0 @.@ 76 km2 ) in the 1830s from a man who had won the land in the land lottery . Walker farmed the land until , in 1887 , he sold the land to the Gentlemen 's Driving Club , known today as the Piedmont Driving Club , who planned " to form exclusive club and racing ground for horse enthusiasts " . The driving club entered into an agreement with the Piedmont Exposition Company to use the grounds around the track as exposition space . Charles A. Collier , a prominent Atlanta businessman and former lawyer , was president of the company . Soon after , a main building , grandstands , and club house were built for the track .
= = = The 1887 Piedmont Exposition = = =
The first exposition ever held in Piedmont Park , the Piedmont Exposition of 1887 , opened on October 10 . The main building constructed for the Exposition was 570 feet ( 170 m ) long , 126 feet ( 38 m ) wide , and two stories high . The first day opened with 20 @,@ 000 visitors . Samuel J. Randall opened the Exposition with a speech on the success of the resurrected post @-@ civil war south . When his speech concluded , General Pierce M. B. Young and his men fired cannons to signal the opening of the events .
Exhibitors showed off a variety of items including works of art , local raw materials like manganese marble , and wood work . Many prominent figures of the day were in attendance to see the displays . Governor David B. Hill of New York spoke at the event as well as President Grover Cleveland who attended with his wife , Frances Folsom . Over 50 @,@ 000 people were in attendance for Cleveland 's speech . When the exposition was over , civic leaders said that it had successfully expanded Atlanta 's reputation as a place to visit and to conduct business .
The Exposition was also a chance for Atlanta to prove that it was ready to host a world 's fair . The Executive Committee of the Fair was invited to attend the event under the bidding of Charles Reynolds , Secretary of the Piedmont Exposition Company .
= = = The " Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry " = = =
Five years later , Piedmont Park was the location of the second football game and the beginning of the " Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry " between Auburn University ( then named Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama ) and the University of Georgia . The game was arranged by former Johns Hopkins classmates , Dr. Charles Herty of Georgia and Dr. George Petrie of Auburn . Auburn won the game 10 – 0 . It was rumored afterward that Georgia 's mascot , a goat ( it wasn 't until 1921 that Georgia officially became the Bulldogs ) , was the main course at a barbecue held by Georgia fans after the game .
= = = Cotton States and International Exposition ( 1895 ) = = =
In 1894 , the Piedmont Exposition Company offered to sell the land to the city of Atlanta for $ 165 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 , but Mayor John B. Goodwin refused . Thus , The park remained in private hands and outside the city limits for another ten years .
The Cotton States and International Exposition which opened for 100 days beginning on September 18 , 1895 and ending December 31 , 1895 , attracted visitors from the U.S. and 13 countries . Over $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was spent on the transformation of Piedmont Park . The government allocated $ 250 @,@ 000 for the construction of a government building and many states and countries such as Argentina also had their own buildings . Also constructed for the fair were the Tropical gardens , now known as the Atlanta Botanical Garden , and Lake Clara Meer which was originally a pond but was expanded to 11 @.@ 5 acres ( 47 @,@ 000 m2 ) for the event . Today , the stone balustrades scattered around the park are the only part of the enormous main building . The park remains largely as Joseph Forsyth Johnson designed it for the exposition although some changes were made during the Olmsted planning phase . However , most of the buildings that were constructed for the exposition were made of local Georgia granite and the buildings were dismantled after the event so that the granite could be sold to absolve the debt that the city incurred to hold the fair .
Booker T. Washington delivered his famous Atlanta Exposition Speech at the Expo , which is " widely regarded as one of the most significant speeches in American history . " In his speech , Washington pushed for progress but not integration , a point that angered many other black leaders such as W. E. B. Du Bois .
Attractions included Buffalo Bill 's Wild West Show , the Liberty Bell , and the first public demonstration of C. Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat 's motion picture projection device which they called the Phantoscope . John Philip Sousa 's " King Cotton " march was created for the expo and was performed at the ceremony , and was conducted by the composer himself .
After the Exposition , the park continued to be extremely popular and was a magnet for growth in the area . State fairs and holiday celebrations were held at the park . Street car lines to the park increased . It was a generally prosperous time .
= = = The beginnings of Atlanta baseball = = =
In March 1898 , the baseball fields were finally completed . On April 16 , 1898 , the first baseball game between Georgia and Georgia Tech , then known as the Georgia School of Technology , was played . From 1902 until 1904 , the Atlanta Crackers , the city 's original professional baseball team played ball on the fields of Piedmont Park before moving to a stadium on Ponce de Leon Avenue .
= = = The Olmsted plan = = =
The year 1904 for was a watershed time for the park . The preceding year , the prominent Atlantan George Washington Collier died . Collier had owned 202 acres ( 0 @.@ 82 km2 ) of land to the west and north of the park that was sold for $ 300 @,@ 000 to developers . The city bought the park for $ 98 @,@ 000 in 1904 , incorporating Piedmont Park into Atlanta 's city limits . Mayor Evan Howell agreed to purchase the park , but only if it included those developed areas adjacent to the park which would add approximately $ 35 @,@ 000 to $ 40 @,@ 000 in tax revenues annually .
The main developer of Collier 's land was Edwin Ansley , who created the Ansley Park subdivision under the guidelines set by the Olmsteds . The result was curvy streets surrounding " mini @-@ parks " comprising a total of 25 acres ( 100 @,@ 000 m2 ) . In 1912 , these parks were deeded to the city .
In 1909 , the sons of Frederick Law Olmsted , landscape architect for Central Park in New York , Carey and Frederick , Jr. were asked to design the park 's master plan while they were at work on Grant Park . The city agreed to pay $ 1 @,@ 800 for the plan , but Olmsted was concerned that Atlanta might not have enough money for the necessary improvements .
In 1910 , the brothers submitted a plan for the park that was to include a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) scenic path and driveways that would link Piedmont Park to the streets of Ansley Park . Joining the parks was a success and thereafter , the parks were known as Twin Parks . Although never fully implemented , the Olmsted plan had a great effect on the development in the surrounding area .
= = = 20th @-@ century growth and development = = =
The park 's first bathhouse was opened in 1911 . Swimming in the lake was allowed until 1973 , when the city opened a pool in the park .
On January 29 , 1913 , Calvin Shelverton applied for a building permit to construct the Piedmont Park Apartments . The apartments were designed by Leila Ross Wilburn and were decidedly middle @-@ class unlike some of the other developments in the area . The apartments remained middle @-@ class up until about 1960 , and residents included such prominent Atlantans as accounting company president T. C. Dunlap and lawyer J. B. Stewart . In 1913 , seven clay courts were built where the 1895 Cotton States and International Exposition 's Manufacturers and Liberal Arts Building once was . Eight more courts were added in 1914 to accommodate the overwhelming demand .
Notable additions and buildings include the bandstand , built in 1915 ; a picnic shelter constructed by the WPA in 1936 ; the Noguchi " Playscapes " , completed in 1976 under the aegis of the
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High Museum and a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts and designed by world @-@ renowned artist and sculptor Isamu Noguchi , noteworthy as the only public work by Noguchi in the U.S. In 2002 , the dog park was opened .
The Noguchi " Playscapes " underwent restoration in 2005 under Eddie Granderson , public arts manager of the City of Atlanta . Jablonski Berkowitz Conservation Inc. was selected to do the restoration and assessments began in September of that year . The company was charged with bringing the playground up to safety codes and restoring the original paint .
= = = 2008 drought = = =
In January 2008 , city officials announced that the Peachtree Road Race , Atlanta Pride Festival , the Atlanta Jazz Festival , and the Dogwood Festival would not be held in the park due to extreme drought . Some festivals which don 't make use of green space were still allowed in the park . The Atlanta Arts Festival ran from September 12 – 14 , 2008 , and utilized only paved areas . Other festivals were temporarily moved to alternate venues , such as Centennial Olympic Park . The drought in Atlanta ended by late 2009 . In 2010 , several events returned to Piedmont Park , including the Dogwood Festival , the Jazz Festival , and Screen on the Green .
= = = 2011 expansion = = =
Approximately 50 acres ( 20 ha ) in the northwest portion of the 187 @-@ acre ( 76 ha ) park had remained woodlands into the 21st century . In 2007 , a park expansion plan called for a new parking deck as well as " open green space , bicycle and walking trails , formal and community gardens , an interactive water feature , children 's playgrounds , a skate park , athletic fields , and woodlands " . The project was expected to cost $ 72 million .
On April 23 , 2008 , a ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held at the Bathhouse for the 53 @-@ acre ( 21 ha ) expansion of the Park . The pool and bathhouse are part of a huge Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) renovation that cost around $ 7 @.@ 8 million and was completed in early summer 2009 . The renovation features accessibility , a warming kitchen , WiFi , a pool with beach entry , bubblers , current channel , vortex , fountains , separate splash pad , lap lanes , landscaped deck environment , and concessions . A new area featuring a Bocce ball court and green space with an arbor opened in May 2010 .
On April 12 , 2011 , Mayor Kasim Reed cut the ribbon to open the first phase of a major expansion into the northern third of the park . Areas opened include two oval @-@ shaped plazas ( " The Greensward " and " The Promenade " , which contains the interactive Legacy Fountain ) , the Lower Meadow , the Six Springs Wetlands , and a vastly expanded dog park .
= = = 2013 expansion = = =
Construction began in early 2013 on areas at the far north of the park , including The Northwoods , Piedmont Commons , and Piedmont Gardens . New park entrances are to be added at the eastern end of Westminster Dr. ( off Piedmont Ave . ) , the northern end of Dutch Valley Pl . , and at 1514 Monroe just south of Piedmont Ave . , on the site of Agnes & Muriel 's restaurant . Map There are already dirt trails that follow Clear Creek and the BeltLine northwards connecting the 2011 and 2013 expansion areas and providing pedestrian access to the Ansley Mall area north of the park , and to the BeltLine trail going further north .
= = Piedmont Park Conservancy = =
The Piedmont Park Conservancy is a 501 ( c ) 3 non @-@ profit organization that is in charge of park improvements and 90 percent of the Park 's daily maintenance care and security . The Conservancy was founded in 1989 to revitalize the rapidly deteriorating park . Since then , it has raised and invested $ 23 million in private funds making the park , once again , the most visited green space in Atlanta .
= = Activities and facilities = =
= = = Outdoor activities = = =
The park hosts several miles of paved paths suitable for walking , running , biking , and inline skating . Skate Escape across from the park at the 12th Street entrance rents both bikes and skates . On weekend afternoons , skateboarders and inline skaters often share the open , paved area inside the 12th Street entrance .
Piedmont Park has picnic shelters located just to the East of the north soccer field . There are also various picnic tables and benches throughout the park . Many visitors choose to picnic on the expansive lawns as well . The first grill in Piedmont Park was erected for the 1895 Cotton States Exposition where the administrative offices now sit . There are 22 grills throughout the park . No portable grills are allowed .
The Noguchi " Playscape " is located near the 12th Street Gate . The geometrically shaped , modernist playground includes a soaring swing set , slide , sand pit , climbing dome and more made of bright and exciting colors . Also in the park is a new playground known as Mayor 's Grove . It was designed as a Boundless Playgrounds and features a high level of accessibility and interactive play .
= = = Sports = = =
Piedmont Park is a popular place for organized sports . The Sharon E. Lester Tennis Center at Piedmont Park is a fully staffed , public facility with 12 lighted hard courts , offering leagues , lessons , and supplies .
The Active Oval has two softball fields , two soccer fields , and two beach volleyball courts , all ringed by a dirt running path . Kickball leagues also use the softball fields .
The park 's swimming center , once closed for renovations , re @-@ opened in summer of 2009 .
= = = Fishing and the lake = = =
The lake is located in the south east part of the park . Fishing is permitted in the lake , which is stocked with large mouth bass , crappie , bream , and catfish . A 2002 renovation of the lake added a new bridge connecting the two bodies of water and three fishing piers located around the lake .
Clara Meer Dock is located at the west corner of the lake . Just above the Dock sits the historic Visitor Center building . Clara Meer Dock forms an amphitheater @-@ like space nestled into the western end of the lake . Clara Meer Dock is often used for wedding ceremonies . Rental of the dock also includes the Visitor 's Center . The Visitor 's Center features a barrel ceiling with a painted mural called " A Day at the Park " by Ralph Gilbert . The center seats 40 persons inside and over 200 more on the adjoining lawn and dock . The Dock seats up to 120 for ceremony , or up to 100 for table dining or possible dance floor area .
Mayor 's Grove is the newer of the two playgrounds in Piedmont Park . It was designed as a Boundless playground and features a high level of accessibility and interactive play .
= = = Dogs = = =
With the exception of some festival weekends and special events , dogs are permitted in Piedmont Park , on leashes 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) or shorter for safety reasons . Owners must clean up after their dogs , and the park has a half @-@ dozen plastic bag dispensing stations to facilitate this . Several of the park 's water fountains also have a ground @-@ level basin for dogs to use .
Just north of the Park Road entrance bridge are two fenced @-@ in Dog Parks where friendly dogs ( and their owners ) can cavort with each other off @-@ leash . Brand new , vastly expanded parks for small and large dogs were opened in Apr 2011 .
The Leash @-@ free Alliance of Piedmont Park ( LAPP ) is a volunteer group that works with the Conservancy on dog park improvements , fundraising efforts , and clean up projects .
= = = Special events = = =
Piedmont Park is a central focal point of Atlanta 's Midtown community . The park is home to various annual celebrations and events , including Atlanta Pride Festival , the Atlanta Jazz Festival , the Atlanta Dogwood Festival , Music Midtown , and Festival Peachtree Latino . A summer series of classic films , Screen on the Green , is also aired in the park for local residents .
On the weekend and holidays , the park comes alive with music , intramural sports , and fun festivities . In 2004 , Georgia Shakespeare Festival added an annual series of free performances entitled " Shake on the Lake " with Lake Clara Meer as a backdrop . A centennial celebration was held for the park in June 2004 . In 2007 , the Allman Brothers Band and Dave Matthews Band played a concert with proceeds benefiting the planned expansion to the park . Dave Matthews Band 's performance was later released as a live DVD as well as their eighth live album , Live at Piedmont Park . Sir Paul McCartney performed in Piedmont Park to benefit the conservancy on August 15 , 2009 . The Eagles performed at the park on October 16 , 2010 , also as a benefit for the conservancy . In 2011 , Music Midtown returned from its five @-@ year hiatus , hosting headliners Coldplay and The Black Keys in Piedmont Park .
= = Park schedule = =
The park is open from 6 : 00 AM to 11 : 00 PM every day .
= Invasion of Tulagi ( May 1942 ) =
The invasion of Tulagi , on 3 – 4 May 1942 , was part of Operation Mo , the Empire of Japan 's strategy in the South Pacific and South West Pacific Area in 1942 . The plan called for Imperial Japanese Navy troops to capture Tulagi and nearby islands in the Solomon Islands Protectorate . The occupation of Tulagi by the Japanese was intended to cover the flank of and provide reconnaissance support for Japanese forces that were advancing on Port Moresby in New Guinea , provide greater defensive depth for the major Japanese base at Rabaul , and serve as a base for Japanese forces to threaten and interdict the supply and communication routes between the United States and Australia and New Zealand .
Without the means to effectively resist the Japanese offensive in the Solomons , the British Resident Commissioner of the Solomon Islands protectorate and the few Australian troops assigned to defend Tulagi evacuated the island just before the Japanese forces arrived on 3 May . The next day , however , a U.S. aircraft carrier task force en route to resist the Japanese forces advancing on Port Moresby ( later taking part in the Battle of the Coral Sea ) struck the Japanese Tulagi landing force in an air attack , destroying or damaging several of the Japanese ships and aircraft involved in the landing operation . Nevertheless , the Japanese troops successfully occupied Tulagi and began the construction of a small naval base .
Over the next several months , the Japanese established a naval refueling , communications , and seaplane reconnaissance base on Tulagi and the nearby islets of Gavutu and Tanambogo , and in July 1942 began to build a large airfield on nearby Guadalcanal . The Japanese activities on Tulagi and Guadalcanal were observed by Allied reconnaissance aircraft , as well as by Australian coastwatcher personnel stationed in the area . Because these activities threatened the Allied supply and communication lines in the South Pacific , Allied forces counter @-@ attacked with landings of their own on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942 , initiating the critical Guadalcanal campaign and a series of combined arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces that , along with the New Guinea campaign , decided the course of the war in the South Pacific .
= = Background = =
On 7 December 1941 , the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . The attack crippled most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's battleships and started a formal state of war between the two nations . In launching this war , Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet , seize possessions rich in natural resources , and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far @-@ flung empire . Soon after , other nations — including the United Kingdom , Australia , and New Zealand — joined the U.S. as Allies in the war against Japan . In the words of the Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet " Secret Order Number One " , dated 1 November 1941 , the goals of the initial Japanese campaigns in the impending war were to , " ( eject ) British and American strength from the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines , ( and ) to establish a policy of autonomous self @-@ sufficiency and economic independence . " To support these goals , during the first few months of 1942 Japanese forces also attacked and took control of the Philippines , Thailand , Malaya , Singapore , the Netherlands East Indies , Wake Island , New Britain , the Gilbert Islands , and Guam .
Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue — commander of the Japanese 4th Fleet ( also called the " South Seas Force " ) consisting of most of the naval units in the South Pacific area — advocated the seizing of Lae , Salamaua , and Port Moresby in New Guinea and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands . Inoue believed that the capture and control of these locations would provide greater security for the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain . Japan 's Naval General Staff endorsed Inoue 's argument and began planning further operations , using these locations as supporting bases , to seize Nauru , Ocean Island , New Caledonia , Fiji , and Samoa and thereby cut the supply lines between Australia and the U.S. , with the goal of reducing or eliminating Australia as a threat to Japanese positions in the South Pacific .
The Imperial Japanese Army supported the idea of taking Port Moresby and in April 1942 , with the Japanese Navy , developed a plan for the attack that was titled " Operation Mo " . The plan also included the seizure of Tulagi , a small island in the southern Solomon Islands , where a seaplane base would be set up for potential air operations against Allied territories and forces in the South Pacific . Although Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto — commander of the Combined Fleet — was concurrently planning an operation that he hoped would lure the U.S. Pacific Fleet into a decisive showdown in the central Pacific , he detached some of his large warships to support the Mo operation and placed Inoue in charge of the naval portion of the operation .
A large force consisting of two heavy aircraft carriers , one light aircraft carrier , a seaplane carrier , nine cruisers , and 13 destroyers — split into several elements — was to guard the Japanese Port Moresby invasion convoy as well as to engage any Allied naval warships that approached to contest the invasion . The Tulagi invasion force , consisting of the destroyers Kikuzuki and Yūzuki , minelayer / transports Okinoshima , and Kōei Maru , auxiliary minesweepers Wa # 1 , Wa # 2 , and transports Hagoromo Maru , Noshiro Maru # 2 , Tama Maru , and Azumasan Maru , subchasers Toshi Maru # 3 and Tama Maru # 8 and commanded by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima ( flag on Okinoshima ) , departed from Rabaul on 30 April and headed towards the Solomon Islands . Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō provided air cover for the Tulagi invasion with his Covering Group of one light carrier ( Shōhō ) , four cruisers , and one destroyer located just west of the central Solomons . A separate Cover Force ( sometimes referred to as the Tulagi Support Group ) — commanded by Rear Admiral Kuninori Marumo and consisting of two light cruisers , the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru , and three gunboats — joined the Covering Group in supporting the Tulagi invasion . Once Tulagi was secured on 3 or 4 May , the Covering Group and Cover Force were to reposition to help cover the Port Moresby invasion .
At the time , Tulagi was the capital of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate , which included all of the islands of the Solomons except Bougainville and Buka . William Sydney Marchant , the British Resident Commissioner of the Solomons and commander of the local defense forces — described by historian Walter Lord as a " bewildered elderly Englishman " — directed the evacuation of most of the white civilian residents to Australia in February 1942 . Marchant was evacuated to Malaita the following month .
The only Allied military forces at Tulagi were 24 commandos from the Australian Army 's 2 / 1st Independent Company , under Captain A. L. Goode , and about 25 personnel from 11 Squadron RAAF , under F / O R. B. Peagam , operating a seaplane base on nearby Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo with four PBY Catalina maritime patrol aircraft . Three Allied coastwatchers were also located nearby , on Guadalcanal island . The task of the coastwatchers was to report on any enemy movements , or suspicious activity , that they observed in the vicinity of their stations . In the belief that it might prevent them being executed for espionage , all of the coastwatchers were commissioned as Royal Australian Naval Volunteer Reserve officers , and they were directed by Lieutenant Commander Eric Feldt , who was located at Townsville in Australia .
Throughout most of April , the Japanese conducted " desultory " bombing raids on Tulagi with aircraft based at Rabaul or nearby that caused little , if any , damage . The coastwatchers on Guadalcanal were usually able to radio advance warning to the Australian troops on Tulagi of the approaching Japanese aircraft , but the troops did not have large enough weaponry — three Vickers machine guns and one Bren light machine gun — to seriously challenge the Japanese bombers . On 25 April , Tulagi was bombed by eight Japanese aircraft . Similar raids occurred daily over the next week , with one raid on 1 May heavily damaging one of the Catalinas at Gavutu . The remaining Catalinas successfully evacuated that same day .
Allied intelligence personnel had deciphered much of the Japanese Mo plans through radio intercepts at the Allied Fleet Radio Units ( radio intelligence centers ) in Melbourne , Australia and Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Based on this intelligence , on 22 April , U.S. Admiral Chester Nimitz — stationed at Pearl Harbor — directed Allied forces towards the Coral Sea area to interdict the Japanese Mo operation . On 27 April , the U.S. aircraft carrier USS Yorktown 's Task Force 17 ( TF 17 ) , under the command of Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher , sortied from Tonga and was joined by the U.S. carrier USS Lexington 's TF 11 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) northwest of New Caledonia on 1 May . That same day , Fletcher detached TF 11 to refuel , expecting to rejoin with Lexington and her escorts on 4 May at a predetermined location in the Coral Sea .
= = Landings and air attacks = =
On 2 May , coastwatcher Jack Read on Bougainville reported that a large force of Japanese ships , believed to be part of the Japanese Tulagi invasion force , had departed from the Buka area . Later that day , coastwatcher D. G. Kennedy on New Georgia island sighted and reported a large Japanese force of ships heading towards the southern Solomons . Soon after , Goode and Peagam — anticipating that the Japanese would attack with overwhelming numbers — ordered the execution of a pre @-@ planned evacuation operation and began the destruction and demolition of their equipment and facilities on Tulagi and Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo . The RAAF personnel and commandos embarked on two small ships early in the morning on 3 May to begin the trip to Vila , New Hebrides , just as Shima 's ships entered Savo sound to begin their landings on Tulagi . The ship with the RAAF personnel spent the day with coastwatcher and protectorate district officer Martin Clemens at Aola on Guadalcanal and departed that night .
Supporting the Japanese landings were seaplanes from Kamikawa Maru , temporarily based at Thousand Ships Bay at Santa Isabel Island . About 400 Japanese naval troops — mainly from the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force — disembarked from the transport ship on barges and immediately began construction of facilities on Tulagi and Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo . Aircraft from Shōhō covered the landings until early afternoon , when Gotō 's force turned toward Bougainville to refuel in preparation to support the landings at Port Moresby . Once the Japanese troops were ashore , six seaplanes landed in Tulagi harbor as part of the establishment of the planned seaplane base there .
At 17 : 00 on 3 May , Fletcher was notified that the Japanese Tulagi invasion force had been sighted the day before approaching the southern Solomons . Unable to communicate with the Lexington task force because of the need to maintain radio silence , Yorktown 's task force proceeded independently toward Guadalcanal in order to be in position to launch airstrikes against the Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning .
At 07 : 01 on 4 May , Yorktown launched a first strike consisting of 12 TBD Devastator torpedo bombers and 28 SBD Dauntless dive bombers from a position about 160 km ( 86 nmi ; 99 mi ) south of Guadalcanal . The aircraft began their attacks on Shima 's ships anchored near Tulagi at 08 : 50 , taking the Japanese ships by surprise and at anchor . Okinoshima and the two destroyers were positioned to provide a protective barrier for Azumasan Maru and Kōei Maru which were busy unloading troops and materiel . The three minesweepers had just got underway to support the Port Moresby invasion and were still near Tulagi . Although the U.S. pilots from the first strike claimed many bomb and torpedo hits on the anchored ships , they actually only hit Okinoshima , causing minor damage , and Kikuzuki , causing major damage . Kikuzuki — with the assistance of one of the subchasers — was beached on Gavutu in an attempt to keep her from sinking . During this time , all of the other ships weighed anchor and attempted to escape from the harbor . One U.S. dive bomber destroyed a Japanese Mitsubishi F1M2 " Pete " floatplane that attempted to take off during the attack .
Yorktown 's second strike — utilizing the same aircraft — returned to Tulagi and began their attack at 12 : 10 on the Japanese ships , many of which were now at full steam and attempting to put distance between themselves and Tulagi harbor . The second strike hit and sank the minesweepers # 1 and # 2 and severely damaged Tama Maru northeast of Savo Island . Another Japanese seaplane was shot down by a U.S. dive bomber during the second strike . After four F4F @-@ 3 / 3A Wildcat fighters from Yorktown joined the strike , the fighters shot down two more Japanese floatplanes over Florida Island . The four U.S. fighters then strafed Yūzuki , killing her captain and nine others of her crew , and causing moderate damage to the ship . Two or three other Japanese floatplanes were damaged in Tulagi harbor and their crews were killed .
A third , smaller strike from Yorktown arrived at 15 : 30 and caused moderate damage to Azumasan Maru and Okinoshima . One of the TBDs in the third strike became lost , ran out of fuel , and ditched in the ocean about 60 km ( 32 nmi ; 37 mi ) south of Guadalcanal . Two of the Wildcats from the second strike also ran out of fuel and crash landed on the southern coast of Guadalcanal . Fletcher sent the destroyers USS Hammann and Perkins to rescue the aircrews from the three aircraft . Hammann was able to recover both fighter pilots , but Perkins was unable to locate the TBD 's crew . Both destroyers returned to Yorktown 's task force late that evening as the task force turned away from Guadalcanal toward the southeast in order to refuel and rendezvous with Lexington the next day .
= = Aftermath = =
On 5 May , Kikuzuki slid off of the shore of Gavutu and sank in Tulagi harbor , a total loss ( 09 ° 07 ′ S 160 ° 12 ′ E ) . Tama Maru foundered two days later . The other surviving , damaged Japanese ships were able to reach Rabaul and Kavieng for repairs . Hagoromo Maru and Noshiro Maru # 2 joined the Port Moresby Invasion Group . On 10 May , as Okinoshima participated in the first Japanese attempt to take Ocean ( Banaba ) and Nauru Islands , titled Operation RY , she was sunk by the submarine USS S @-@ 42 off New Ireland ( 05 ° 06 ′ S 153 ° 48 ′ E ) . A total of 87 Japanese naval personnel died in the 4 May air attacks on Tulagi , and 36 of the landing troops were seriously injured .
The lost Yorktown TBD aircrew reached Guadalcanal after drifting in the ocean for three days . A Roman Catholic missionary took them to Martin Clemens who arranged for a boat to take them to San Cristobal . From San Cristobal , another boat took them to the New Hebrides and from there they eventually rejoined U.S. forces .
After striking Tulagi , Yorktown rejoined with Lexington , and the two carriers engaged the rest of the Japanese forces involved in the Mo operation from 6 – 8 May in the Battle of the Coral Sea . In the battle , Lexington was sunk and Yorktown was damaged . The Japanese suffered Shōhō sunk , a fleet carrier heavily damaged , and heavy losses to their carrier aircraft and aircrews . Fearing more damaging attacks from Allied land @-@ based aircraft or warships and unable because of their aircraft losses to provide adequate air cover for their naval surface forces , the Japanese turned back from their planned assault on Port Moresby with the intention of trying again later . The next Japanese seaborne attempt to take Port Moresby , however , never happened , mainly because of their navy 's defeat in June at the Battle of Midway . Instead , the Japanese decided to try to take Port Moresby in an ultimately unsuccessful overland attack along the Kokoda Track . The failure to take Port Moresby in May 1942 would have significant and far @-@ reaching strategic implications , many of which involved the small Japanese naval base at Tulagi .
Despite the damaging air attacks to their ships and landing forces , the Japanese proceeded with the construction of the naval seaplane base at Tulagi and Gavutu , receiving more shipments of troops and construction workers over the next several months . The base was soon operational with aircraft from the Yokohama Air Group which conducted air reconnaissance patrols throughout the surrounding area beginning on 6 May . On 27 May , the Japanese inspected the Lunga Point area on Guadalcanal as a possible location to build a large airfield . On 13 June , the Naval General Staff approved the construction of an airfield at that location and on 19 June , Admiral Inoue toured the site in anticipation of the airfield construction effort . The next day , Japanese troops began clearing the area of brush , and on 6 July , a 12 @-@ ship convoy delivered 2 @,@ 000 Korean and Japanese construction workers plus 500 Japanese naval combat troops to conduct the airfield construction effort in earnest . The coastwatchers on Guadalcanal and Allied air reconnaissance observed the Japanese airfield construction efforts . Allied Catalinas and B @-@ 17s based at Port Moresby , Efate , Noumea , and Espiritu Santo frequently bombed the Japanese bases on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Gavutu over the next several months , but without causing significant damage . Several Japanese float fighters and one Allied bomber were destroyed in aerial combat during the missions .
The Allies were greatly concerned about the Japanese airfield construction effort on Guadalcanal because , when completed , the aircraft operating from the airfield would be a significant threat to Allied operations between Australia , New Zealand , and the U.S. The two strategic victories for the Allies in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway provided an opportunity to take the initiative and launch an offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific . An Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral Ernest King , Commander in Chief , United States Fleet . He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to use them as starting points for a campaign . His goal was to neutralize or capture the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign , with the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines . U.S. Admiral Chester Nimitz — Allied commander @-@ in chief for Pacific forces — created the South Pacific theater — with U.S. Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley in command — to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons .
The failure of the Japanese to take Port Moresby and their defeat at Midway had the effect of leaving their base at Tulagi without effective protection from other Japanese bases . Tulagi was four hours flying time from Rabaul , the nearest large Japanese base . On 7 August 1942 , 11 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines landed on Guadalcanal and 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines landed on Tulagi and nearby islands . The Japanese troops on Tulagi and nearby islands were outnumbered and killed almost to the last man in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo while the U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal captured the airfield at Lunga Point without significant resistance . Thus began the Guadalcanal campaign that resulted in a series of large , combined @-@ arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces over the next six months which — along with the New Guinea campaign — would decide the fate of Japanese efforts to secure the southern frontier of their empire in the Pacific .
= Jessie Bond =
Jessie Bond ( 10 January 1853 – 17 June 1942 ) was an English singer and actress best known for creating the mezzo @
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for two years . In 1990 he won a talent contest for his college ; later that year at the time of his graduation , he played Frank @-@ N @-@ Furter to great success in the college 's production of The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Around the same time , he began appearing in drag shows at a notorious Reykjavík nightclub . After the club closed , he became a radio jockey on independent radio station FM 90 @,@ 9 . He also appeared in a film , Svo á jörðu sem á himni ( As in Heaven , 1992 ) .
= = Professional career = =
In the summer of 1993 , Paul Oscar left Iceland for New York City , where he met fellow Icelanders Jóhann Jóhannsson and Sigurjón Kjartansson who were then on tour with heavy metal band HAM . Paul Oscar became their groupie , and about the same time released his first album , Stuð ( Groove ) . In October 1993 , Paul Oscar started singing with a band called Milljónamæringarnir ( The Millionaires ) , which released the albums Milljón á mann ( A Million for Each , 1994 ) , Allur pakkinn ( The Whole Lot , 1999 ) and Þetta er nú meiri vitleysan ( This is Completely Foolish , 2001 ) .
The year 1995 saw Paul Oscar make his début as a solo artiste . In that year he formed his own recording company , Paul Oscar Productions ( P.O.P. ) and released an album of ballads entitled Palli which he personally arranged , performed and produced . It was the best @-@ selling Icelandic album of 1995 . This was followed by his album Seif in 1996 .
Paul Oscar was Iceland 's entrant in the annual Eurovision Song Contest in 1997 . He performed the song " Minn hinsti dans " ( " My Final Dance " ) , which he co @-@ wrote , backed by four women dressed in latex playing suggestively on a sofa behind him . Although the song only reached 20th place in a field of 25 , the daring presentation attracted wide attention , especially amongst gay audiences , and made him known internationally . In 1998 he was invited to appear in A Song for Eurotrash , a one @-@ off special of the British Channel 4 TV series Eurotrash that was based on the Eurovision Song Contest . He also presented a musical feature Popp i Reykjavík ( Pop in Reykjavík ) .
Paul Oscar worked with easy @-@ listening group Casino on their album Stereo ( 1998 ) . He followed this with three albums : the English @-@ language album Deep Inside ( 1999 ) ; and two collaborations with harpist Monika Abendroth , Ef ég sofna ekki ( If I Won 't Sleep Tonight , 2001 ) and Ljósin heima ( The Lights at Home , 2003 ) ( his sister Sigrún Hjálmtýsdóttir ( Diddú ) also appeared on the latter album ) . His musical range spans traditional Icelandic songs , ballads , love songs in the style of Burt Bacharach , disco , house and techno .
At home in Reykjavík , Paul Oscar performs regularly as a disc jockey in clubs and appears on radio and TV shows . He was a judge in the third season of Idol stjörnuleit ( Idol Starsearch , 2005 ) , Iceland 's version of the UK reality TV series Pop Idol ; and in The X Factor ( 2006 ) , also modelled on the UK 's The X Factor . In 2002 he appeared as Dr. Love in the teenage movie Gemsar ( Made in Iceland ) .
He has a reputation for being brash , even rude , when it comes to discussing gay concerns , especially gay sex . Matthías Matthíasson , Director of Samtökin ' 78 , Iceland 's gay and lesbian rights group , has commented : " He says things I could never say . But he is an exquisite addition to the gay voice in Iceland . " As a gay activist , Paul Oscar helped to organize a Gay Pride Festival in Reykjavík in 2005 .
Paul Oscar has said he realizes that " as a working place Iceland will be too small for me . Actually , it already is . But I am an Icelander . I will always keep a home here . My roots are so valuable to me . I wouldn 't change them for a sack of gold . "
= = Personal life = =
Regarding his personal life , Paul Oscar has said : " I have a lot of work still to do . I have had three relationships that , from the outside , looked picture perfect , I suppose . But they were actually quite rotten and false , abusive to me . What I am doing now is learning to fall in love with myself . "
Paul Oscar 's father Hjálmtýr E. Hjálmtýsson ( 5 July 1933 – 12 September 2002 ) , with whom he had a difficult relationship , had roles in the Icelandic comedies Með allt á hreinu ( On Top , 1982 ) , Löggulíf ( A Policeman 's Life , 1985 ) , and Karlakórinn Hekla ( The Men 's Choir , 1992 ) . His older sister , Sigrún Hjálmtýsdóttir ( Diddú ) , is an opera singer .
= = Selected discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Stuð ( Groove , 1993 )
Palli ( 1995 )
Seif ( 1996 )
Deep Inside ( 1999 )
Ef ég sofna ekki ( If I Won 't Sleep Tonight , 2001 ) ( in collaboration with harpist Monika Abendroth )
Ljósin heima ( The Lights at Home , 2003 ) ( with Monika Abendroth and Sigrún Hjálmtýsdóttir ( Diddú ) )
Allt fyrir ástina ( All in the Name of Love , 2007 )
Silfursafnið ( The Silver Collection , 2008 )
Páll Óskar - Box ( 6 plötur fyrir 1 ) ( compilation , six albums in one , 2014 )
= = = Singles = = =
" Minn hinsti dans " ( My Final Dance , 1997 ) ( Iceland 's Eurovision Song Contest 1997 entry ) [ 1 ]
" Allt fyrir ástina " ( All in the Name of Love , 2007 )
" International " ( 2007 )
" Betra Lif " ( 2007 )
" Er þetta ást ? " ( 2008 )
" Þú komst við hjartað í mér " ( 2008 )
" Sama hvar þú ert " ( 2008 )
" La Dolce Vita " ( 2011 )
" Ég er eins og ég er " ( 2011 )
" Ást sem endist " ( 2015 )
= Golondrina point =
Golondrina points ( formerly Plainview Golondrina ) are lanceolate spear or dart projectile points , of medium size , dated to the transitional Paleo @-@ Indian Period , between 9000 – 7000 BP . Golondrina points were attached on split @-@ stem hafts and may have served to bring down medium @-@ sized animals such as deer , as well as functioning as butchering knives . Distribution is widespread throughout most of Texas , and points have also been discovered in Arkansas and Mexico . The concentration of Golondrina specimens is highest across the South Texas Plains , where the point is the most prevalent of Paleo @-@ Indian types and defines a distinctive cultural pattern for the region . The Golondrina point is so named for its flared basal corners ( " ears " ) , which resemble a swallow 's ( golondrina in Spanish ) split tail . Classification of Golondrina can be difficult because of its similarity to other types , particularly the Plainview point , to which it was originally thought to be related .
= = Classification = =
Classification of the Golondrina point was made by Texas Historical Commission archeologist LeRoy Johnson Jr. in 1964 , after the discovery of a collection of unrecognized projectile points at the Devil 's Mouth site in the Amistad Reservoir , Texas . Initially believed to be related to the Plainview point classification , the new type was termed " Plainview Golondrina " by Johnson , who used a genus @-@ species approach for the naming . This classification method sought to describe the relationship between the two types , placing Plainview as the genus , and Golondrina as the species , to highlight key similarities and differences . But by 1977 , the genus @-@ species classification approach had been discarded , and the name Golondrina alone was being used to represent the Devil 's Mouth specimens . Subsequent research and technological analysis determined this type to be separate and distinct from the Plainsview point , and the name was shortened to simply " Golondrina " by Thomas C. Kelly in 1982 . The type takes its name from a pronounced flaring of the basal corners ( stem ) , which recall the split tail of a swallow ( golondrina in Spanish ) . The Golondrina is considered to be a Plano point .
= = Description = =
The Golondrina point is medium @-@ sized and lanceolate @-@ shaped with a lenticular cross @-@ section that exhibits convex sides . The type displays a distinctive auriculate ( " eared " ) stem with basal corners that flare outward . The blade edges are slightly serrated with a recurved outline — wide at the bottom , then narrowing before becoming wide and then thin again at the distal end , a so @-@ called " fish shaped profile " . The flaking style is generally random , with no attention given to alignment of flake scars . However , collateral flaking — where parallel flakes have been removed equally , resulting in a median ridge on the blade edges — has also been observed in some specimens . The basal edge of the Golondrina presents concave with a deep basal notch that varies from a flattened , inverted , v @-@ shape to recurved . The Golondrina point can range in length from 32 – 61 mm , with a width ranging from 23 – 32 mm and a thickness from 6 – 8 mm . The width of the base ranges from 22 – 29 mm with a typical basal concavity of 4 mm or more . The Golondrina is unfluted , without a longitudinal channel flake .
The point has an expanding hafting area where the width , upward from the stem , increases in size . Analysis suggests that Golondrina points were attached on split @-@ stem hafts either with or without foreshafts . They may have served a dual function as projectile points as well as butchering knives . By nature of a split @-@ stem haft style , Golondrina points would not need to be deeply set , resulting in a largely exposed cutting edge . The hafting area , as well as the side and basal edges are usually ground dull .
Edwards chert , Alibates agate , and Tecovas jasper were the major materials utilized by Paleo @-@ Indians in the Southern Plains for the manufacture of flaked stone implements . Chert was the most important stone for tool making throughout pre @-@ historic central Texas and there were many available sites where it was acquired and knapped .
= = Age and cultural affiliations = =
Most Golondrina points have been dated to the Transitional Paleo @-@ Indian Period , between 9000 – 7000 BP , with excavation of stratified sites along with radiocarbon dating providing a definitive age . The first dating of Golondrina points was made after excavations of area C in the Devil 's Mouth site which revealed Paleo @-@ Indian projectile points that were radiocarbon assayed to 8700 BP . Later excavations in 1976 , at the nearby Baker Cave in Texas , revealed a large hearth in the Golondrina stratum containing a wide variety of small game and plant remains left by early hunter gathers . This archaeological assemblage was termed Golondrina Complex , and the materials were attributed to the post @-@ Pleistocene period . At the same site , Golondrina materials stratified near the base of a rock @-@ shelter deposit were radiocarbon dated at 9000 BP
Projectile points featuring more Archaic characteristics , including early barbed and early stemmed , share an overlapping chronology with Golondrina .
= = Distribution = =
Golondrina points are widespread across much of central , southern , and western Texas , with distribution extending northward along the Balcones Escarpment . They are particularly prevalent across the South Texas Plains , so much so as to be said to represent the first unique cultural pattern in the area . Most Golondrina specimens from the South Texas Plains are not excavated but rather found on the site 's surface . They often appear as part of mixed collections with artifacts of later periods . Several sites have also been found in Arkansas as well as in the Lower Pecos Canyonlands and the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León .
= = Comparison with other projectile points = =
The Golondrina can be difficult to type because of its similarity to other point classifications . In particular the distinction between Golondrina and Plainview is not yet completely resolved .
= = = Plainview = = =
Past hypotheses have suggested mistakenly that the Golondrina was a descendant or variant of the Plainview type . Although the two points exhibit similarities , particularly in terms of shape , they are now recognized as separate types . Identification is made from a lack of an auriculated , fishtail base on the Plainview and a deeper basal concavity on the Golondrina . Plainview points may have served to bring down large bison , while Golondrina points may have been used for killing smaller game such as deer , as well as doubling as a butchering knife . Compared to the split @-@ stem hafting style of the Golondrina point without a deep setting , the shape of the Plainview points would necessitate them being set relatively deeply into a socketed haft that once bound would leave less of the cutting edge exposed . Stratigraphic evidence from the St. Mary 's Hall site in southern , central Texas implies that Golondrina may have superseded Plainview on the southern Plains .
= = = Others = = =
The Simpson and Suwannee points , found in Florida and the Southeastern United States , are similar to the Golondrina in shape and age . The Dalton point , found in the central United States , shares a similar outline and basal corner auriculation with Golondrina , which may imply that they are part of a series . Identification is made by examination of the blade edges — Golondrina exhibits much less serration . The Meserve type has also been known to cause confusion , as it is considered a resharpened variant of the Plainview and Golondrina types .
= Kylie Minogue =
Kylie Ann Minogue , OBE ( / ˈkaɪli mᵻˈnoʊɡ / ; born 28 May 1968 ) , often known simply as Kylie , is an Australian singer , songwriter , and actress . She achieved recognition starring in the Australian soap opera Neighbours , where she played tomboy mechanic Charlene Robinson . Appearing in the series for two years , Minogue 's character married Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) in an episode viewed by nearly 20 million people in the United Kingdom making it one of the most watched Australian TV episodes ever . Since then , Minogue has been a recording artist and has achieved commercial success and critical acclaim in the entertainment industry . Minogue has been recognised with several honorific nicknames including " Princess of Pop " and " Goddess of Pop " . She is recognised as the highest @-@ selling Australian artist of all time by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
Born and raised in Melbourne , Australia , Minogue has for many years worked and lived in London . She signed to PWL in 1987 and released her first studio album Kylie the next year . In 1992 , she left PWL and signed with Deconstruction Records and where she created her self @-@ titled studio album and Impossible Princess , both of which received positive reviews from critics . Returning to more mainstream dance @-@ oriented music , Minogue signed to Parlophone and released " Spinning Around " . Her 2001 single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " became one of the most successful singles during the 2000s , selling over ten million units . It is recognised as her " signature song " and was named " ... the catchiest song ever " by Yahoo ! Music . Her album Fever ( 2001 ) was a hit in many countries , including the United States . Throughout her career , Minogue has released many successful singles , including " The Loco @-@ Motion " , " Especially for You " , " Hand on Your Heart " , " Better the Devil You Know " , " Confide in Me " , " Spinning Around " , " Slow " , " 2 Hearts " and " All The Lovers " .
In 2005 , while Minogue was on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour , she was diagnosed with breast cancer . After treatment , she resumed the tour under the title Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour , which critics viewed as a " triumph " . Minogue resumed work as an actress and appeared in the films Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) , Jack & Diane , and Holy Motors (
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oban format by Shueisha on January 18 , 2013 , and it lasted twelve volumes , the last of which was published on June 18 , 2013 . Volumes 11 and 12 of the bunkoban edition included the two one @-@ shots that preceded its serialization . Outside Japan , it has been licensed in some countries such as in France by Glénat , in Hong Kong by Culturecom , in Italy and Spain by Planeta DeAgostini , in South Korea by Seoul Media Group , and in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing .
= = Anime adaptation = =
The production of an anime series was announced in 33rd issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump released on July 14 , 2007 . The Neuro : Supernatural Detective anime adaptation was directed by Hiroshi Kōjina and co @-@ produced by Madhouse , Nippon Television ( NTV ) , Shueisha , D.N. Dream Partners and VAP . The series , consisting of 25 television episodes , originally aired from October 2 , 2007 to March 25 , 2008 on NTV in Japan ; it was later broadcast by four NTV 's affiliated stations . VAP distributed the anime in DVD format ; nine volumes were released between December 21 , 2007 , and August 27 , 2008 , and a DVD box set was released on September 30 , 2008 . The series was acquired by Viz Media , which renamed it Neuro : Supernatural Detective and streamed it from February 18 , 2011 , to July 1 , 2011 on its website VizAnime.com , and on Hulu . An official soundtrack composed by Tomoki Hasegawa was released in December 21 , 2007 by VAP .
= = Related media = =
Two audio dramas were released on November 6 , 2006 , and April 25 , 2007 , by Shueisha . A light novel titled Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro : Sekai no Hate ni wa Chō ga Mau was written by Akira Higashiyama and published by Shueisha on July 20 , 2007 . On November 21 , 2007 , Data House released a book written by the Neuro Study Group titled Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro no Himitsu . On March 6 , 2008 , Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro : Kanzen Shinri Kaiseki @-@ sho written by Kōichi Mizuide was released by Kazan . In Japan , action figures , bags , chawan , T @-@ shirts , mouse pads , fridge magnets , and other products were sold as merchandise for the series .
= = = Video games = = =
A Nintendo DS game titled Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro : Neuro to Yako no Bishoku Sanmai Suiritsuki Gourmet and Mystery was produced by Audio and released by Marvelous Entertainment on June 12 , 2008 . Majin Tantei Nougami Neuro : Battle Da Yo ! Hannin Shūgō ! , a PlayStation 2 game , was also released in August 28 , 2008 . Neuro Nōgami appeared in the Nintendo DS game Jump Ultimate Stars as a battle character , using Yako for some of his attacks . Akane , X and Sasazuka appeared as help characters . Neuro appears as a support character in the crossover fighting game J @-@ Stars Victory VS .
= = Reception = =
The manga has sold 4 @.@ 4 million units in Japan as of April 2009 ; individual volumes frequently appeared on the lists of best @-@ selling manga there . Fans of the manga series responded negatively to its anime adaptation , criticizing the alterations made to the characterizations and stories . Japanese website New Akiba , hosted a petition intended to show fans ' dissatisfaction and to ask Madhouse and Nippon Television to be more faithful to the original work . Viz Media 's representative Amy Mar said the show is of low priority since it has not been among the most @-@ watched on VizAnime .
Manga Sanctuary praised the protagonist for being original and unique . It criticized the fact that the reader does not have access to some facts that could help to solve the mysteries . The reviewer said it is unfortunate because the readers feels passive , which is not desirable in a crime series . However , Manga News said that this impassivity is good because it is what differentiates Neuro from Case Closed . Its design , setting , the " interesting and well @-@ constructed characters " , and the development of the relationship between Neuro and Yako which were also praised by the reviewer , who said the series is " completely apart in the world of manga , Neuro is a genre unto itself which is between several styles and therefore appeal to a wider audience . " Animeland 's critic also compared it to Case Closed , but said its black humor , cruel and deadpan laughs were " quite caustic . "
Anime News Network 's Carlo Santos said that the series walks " the line between serious sleuth drama and supernatural spell @-@ fest " , " balancing all that with the occasional joke " . He said the graphic violence is the best part of the series , praised the Madhouse animation and described it as " Case Closed with spirit powers " . Serdar Yegulalp from About.com said it has " [ a ] n interesting concept " , is " competent enough " , and " has a few fun twists " , but that apart from the supernatural elements it does not bring anything that has not already been done in Case Closed . Writing for Mania.com , Chris Beveridge said the anime operates principally around the two main characters ; he said that it is " more interesting to watch how Neuro and Yako operate , to understand methods and personalities , more than the actual event . And that weakens the episode because it never feels like we 're really drawn into the mystery itself . " Beveridge added it " has some good production values " , but criticized Neuro 's appearance , " which is bordering on comical " as it makes it difficult for the series " to go a darker route " .
= Croton Dam ( Michigan ) =
Croton Dam ( or Croton Hydroelectric Plant ) is an earth @-@ filled embankment dam and powerplant complex on the Muskegon River in Croton Township , Newaygo County , Michigan . It was built in 1907 under the direction of William D. Fargo by the Grand Rapids - Muskegon Power Company , a predecessor of Consumers Energy . The 40 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 12 m ) dam impounds 7 @.@ 2 billion U.S. gallons ( 6 billion imp. gal / 27 billion L ) of water in its 1 @,@ 209 @-@ acre ( 489 ha ) reservoir and is capable of producing 8 @,@ 850 kilowatts at peak outflow . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 .
= = History = =
The history of the Croton dam is intertwined with the history of William A. Foote ( 1854 – 1915 ) and James B. Foote ( 1867 @-@ 1924 ) , brothers from Adrian , Michigan , with a burgeoning electric power empire , along with William G. Fargo , a Jackson @-@ based civil engineer who designed similar hydroelectric plants throughout the Midwest .
William A. Foote was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old grist mill operator in Adrian , Michigan , in 1884 when , in what was then a common occurrence , he provided space and shaft power from his mill wheel to Thomson - Houston , a local electric utility startup , to light 12 streetlights . Fascinated by the potential , within a year he enlisted his then 17 @-@ year @-@ old brother James and moved to Jackson , Michigan , and in 1886 they jointly founded Jackson Electric Light Works ( a predecessor company to Consumers Energy ) , which began by lighting downtown Jackson electrically . The Foote brothers set up similar city specific companies in Battle Creek and Adrian within a few years . In many cases dams already built for grist mills , sawmills and the like were refit for electric generators , but in some cases , new dams were constructed . As the familiarity with the technology , and the technology itself , improved , the scope of projects became more ambitious .
= = = Predecessor projects = = =
The Foote brothers ' first projects in Jackson , Battle Creek and Adrian , like most pre @-@ 1900 electric power projects , were created for street lighting , with some limited residential and business lighting . Since transmission of electricity over long distances was not well understood , they were situated near the cities they served . But the demand for power was growing , driven by among other things , the advent of the streetcar and increased industrial use of electricity , outstripping the capacity of smaller rivers and existing dams . So larger rivers were sought . In 1898 the Foote brothers , working with engineering partner Fargo , constructed the Trowbridge Dam across the Kalamazoo River in order to supply the city of Kalamazoo . The dam was located near Allegan , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) away from the city , an unheard of distance at the time , and was the first major hydroelectric project in Western Michigan . Initially beset by power loss during transmission and other problems , the Trowbridge dam successfully provided power to a larger area than previous dams , after the Foote brothers advanced the state of the art in insulators and electric transmission equipment .
= = = Damming the Muskegon = = =
Grand Rapids was a large power market to which the Footes next turned their attention . Fargo advised the Foote brothers about possible hydropower locations on the Muskegon River , which has the second largest outflow of an inland ( non Great Lakes connecting ) river of Michigan after the Grand River ( which has a larger basin and the largest outflow of Michigan 's inland rivers ) . Unlike the Grand , the Muskegon is not navigable , so dams would not cause difficulty with river traffic . Through a subsidiary of their holding company , Commonwealth Power , the Grand Rapids – Muskegon Power Company , in 1904 they commissioned the construction of Rogers Dam and Croton Dam on the Muskegon , as well as Webber Dam on the Grand River . Rogers , upstream of the Croton , was finished first , in 1906 , but Croton , located where the Little Muskegon joins from the east , was a more ambitious project . One third of the village of Croton would be submerged by the impoundment lake as it began filling in August 1907 . Wlliam D. Fargo was dispatched to oversee construction and served as the Chief Engineer .
= = = Construction = = =
Fargo developed new methods for construction of earth embankment dams on foundations of soft soils , which made use of hydraulic sluicing . The dam was built during the summer , between 25 June and 3 September 1907 . The powerhouse and spillway sections of the dam were completed first , and used conventional contemporary engineering designs .
Fargo then built a pumping plant employing seven electric powered rotary pumps , to move river water up a 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) pipeline to a bluff about 110 feet ( 34 m ) above the Muskegon River . A diameter reduction to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) increased the pressure to about 80 PSI , and the water was fed into nozzles via flexible rubber hoses . The high pressure streams of water carried away a soil water mix into iron troughs which routed the material about 800 feet ( 240 m ) at a slight downgrade back to the dam site . As the material was deposited it was layered , and the water allowed to drain off , compacting it . During this phase , the river was allowed to run through the powerhouse raceways and out the spillway .
The Croton Dam is one of the earliest examples of the use of this technique east of the Mississippi River . The chief advantage of the hydraulic sluicing method was its cost . The total cost of constructing the 370 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 110 m ) embankment , which contained 104 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 80 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material , was only $ 7 @,@ 076 , or about 7 cents per cubic yard of material moved . Fargo also used this method to construct a fill of 20 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m3 ) for a highway bridge crossing the Muskegon River immediately downstream from the dam . The fill Fargo built for the highway bridge approach cost roughly the same .
The Croton powerhouse has two adjoining asymmetrically connected buildings : the generator building on the west and the turbine building to the east arranged in an L shape . About 3 @,@ 000 oak timber pilings support a concrete foundation , with the perimeter walls supported on sheet steel pilings , which also prevent water from undercutting the foundation . The two buildings are about 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height , with Warren trusses supporting the roofs , and extend about 150 by 80 feet ( 46 by 24 m ) .
Two reinforced concrete retaining walls extend 40 feet ( 12 m ) upstream from the northeast and northwest corners of the generator building , forming a triangle and serve as an anchor for a floating trash boom which keeps refuse out of the turbine pits . A similar triangle is formed by two reinforced concrete retaining walls extending 50 feet ( 15 m ) downriver from the south side of the generator building . A concrete retaining wall extends an additional 140 feet ( 43 m ) south from the tip of this triangle .
When the generator building first went into operation , it housed two Westinghouse horizontal generators originally rated at 6 @,@ 600 volts , operating at 225 rpm and producing 3 phase 60 cycle AC . They were driven by turbines . The voltage was stepped up to 100 @,@ 000 volts using three delta @-@ connected oil @-@ cooled transformers of 3 @,@ 000 kilowatt capacity . These were regulated with oil switches , and the transformers and switch gear were housed in the south end of the generator building .
The Croton Dam and hydro plant were completed in 1907 , and a grand opening was held on September 7 , 1907 in the village ( named after Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson , New York ) . Contemporary accounts report that " Grand Rapids Mayor George Ellis and a large contingent of city and business officials journeyed north to the village of Croton on a special train . After touring the big dam , they adjourned to a nearby field for a fine dinner , followed by cigars and a friendly baseball game . "
In order to achieve efficient power transmission over 50 miles ( 80 km ) to Grand Rapids , a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ volt high voltage line was built , then the highest @-@ voltage transmission line in the world . Dr. Charles Steinmetz , the " wizard " of General Electric , visited the site and conducted tests on the transmission lines in 1908 . The line voltage was increased to 110 @,@ 000 volts in early 1909 .
= = = Modifications = = =
A significant revamping and expansion of generating capacity was carried out in 1915 . Additional turbines and generators were added , blurring the distinction between the buildings . The generator building got pairs of Allis @-@ Chalmers quadriplex horizontal turbines to drive the Westinghouse horizontal generators . Each pair of turbines is rated at 4 @,@ 000 horsepower when operated at 225 RPM with a hydraulic head of 39 feet ( 12 m ) . The operating voltage of the two original Westinghouse horizontal generators was raised to 7 @,@ 500 volts , with a corresponding increase in the line voltage from 110 @,@ 000 to 115 @,@ 000 volts .
The turbine building was modified to take more equipment , resulting in a rearrangement of the walls to enlarge it and addition of a gable to it , similar in appearance to that on the generator building . It has a much higher floor than the generator building and received a pair of vertical turbine / generator sets .
The transformers and switching equipment were removed from the generator building in 1930 , when a separate switchyard / substation went into service to the west of the spillway . Shortly thereafter , in 1931 , Croton and Rogers dams were joined by the Hardy Dam , situated between them . The Hardy was the last major hydroelectric project constructed in Michigan by Consumers Energy . Once completed , the 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) -high dam would later impound 7 @.@ 2 billion U.S. gallons ( 6 billion imp. gal / 27 billion L ) of water in its 1 @,@ 209 @-@ acre ( 489 ha ) reservoir and is capable of producing 8850 kilowatts at peak outflow .
= = = Legacy = = =
A historical marker sign was placed at the Croton Dam , after its completion . It read :
The Grand Rapids - Muskegon Power Company ( a predecessor to today 's Consumers Energy Company ) built the Croton Hydroelectric Plant in 1906 - 1907 . The plant and its 110 @,@ 000 @-@ volt transmission line ( the highest voltage in use at that time ) attracted international attention . Curious spectators rode excursion trains to the site , were they received a tour of the dam and powerhouse , as well as a grand dinner . When the plant went into full service in September 1907 it represented the latest advances in electric power generation and transmission . Engineers from Russia , England , France , Italy , Japan , and India came to tour the plant when it opened . The facility is listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
The Croton Hydroelectric Plant was listed with the Michigan State Register and was awarded a Michigan Historical Marker ( site S0684 ) . The marker was replaced with a new one in 2005 . The site was then listed with the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as structure ID # 79001165 .
= = Impact and controversy = =
While Croton advanced the state of the art in hydroelectric engineering , it also submerged significant sections of scenic and fast @-@ flowing stretches of the Muskegon and Little Muskegon rivers . Some conservationists believe that Croton Dam and the other dams on the Muskegon divide the 219 @-@ mile ( 352 km ) long river into shorter , ecologically dysfunctional units . It blocks passage of fish from one river section to the next . It allegedly causes potentially harmful changes in water temperature and oxygen levels in a stretch of the river downstream of the dam , according to company data .
The dam was threatened by rainfall during the flood of September 1986 . The Croton and Hardy nearly failed during the peak of the flood , caused by a storm that dumped 14 inches ( 36 cm ) of rain on West Michigan in 48 hours . Consumers Energy officials stated that " had the Hardy Dam failed , the Croton Dam would have been washed away and every community from Croton to Muskegon would have been submerged under several feet of water " .
Subsequently , in 1989 , Michigan state fisheries director John Robertson characterized hydroelectric dams as " concrete and steel monsters " and suggested 11 Consumers Energy dams be removed from the Muskegon , Manistee and AuSable rivers . Local officials then gathered petition signatures from 14 @,@ 000 people who supported keeping the dams . The federal government has relicensed the dams through 2034 , but has required operating changes reducing their harmful effects on the Muskegon River .
= = Current status = =
The Croton Dam and hydroelectric plant is owned and operated by Consumers Energy , an electric power company headquartered in Jackson , Michigan . Croton generated 44 million kilowatt hours of electricity in 2006 , which would satisfy the annual electric consumption of about 6 @,@ 000 residential customers .
The three dams , Rogers , Hardy , and Croton ( all owned and operated by Consumers Energy ) , are operated in different modes but in concert give a net run of river effect on water flow . The Rogers itself has little or no impoundment and runs in run of river mode , passing through as much water as it receives . The Croton and Hardy work in concert . The Hardy , which has a larger capacity reservoir , larger turbines , and is upstream of the Croton , runs in full peaking mode , meaning that the river flow is impounded and used to generate electricity during peak demand periods . This causes wide fluctuations in water flows and reservoir levels , typically with low outflow during the night when power demand is lowest . Full peaking was once very common but because of the outflow fluctuations , is now less common . However , with the Croton immediately downstream , and with no river segment ( the Croton impoundment stretches back to the Hardy outlet ) , it can be run in re @-@ regulation mode , allowing a natural flow rate to exit . The Croton reservoir level fluctuates inversely with the Hardy , rising during the day and lowering at night . Since the Hardy reservoir is so large , its reservoir level fluctuates about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) in total , while the Croton reservoir fluctuates about 9 inches ( 23 cm ) . During the winter and spring runoff , the Hardy is allowed to fluctuate much more . It can be drawn down up to 12 feet ( 4 m ) to meet winter power demand but is required to return to normal levels by the end of April each spring .
Together , the three dams ( Rogers , Hardy and Croton ) can generate about 45 @,@ 500 kilowatts , with about 30 @,@ 000 of that from the Hardy .
= Malta @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Malta @-@ class aircraft carrier was a British large aircraft carrier design of World War II . Four ships were ordered in 1943 for the Royal Navy , but changing tactical concepts , based on American experience in the Pacific War , caused repeated changes to the design , which was not completed before the end of the war . All four ships were cancelled in 1945 before they were laid down .
= = Background = =
In July 1942 the Royal Navy formed the Future Building Committee , chaired by the Deputy First Sea Lord , to examine the fleet 's requirements for the rest of the war . Tasked with anticipating the Navy 's readiness and requirements for January 1944 , the committee realised that a major expansion of naval aviation was required , which meant that more aircraft carriers would be needed . Many factors combined to drive up the size of these new carriers , notably the increasing size and speed of aircraft and the desire to increase the numbers of aircraft aboard fleet carriers . Another important consideration was the change in carrier tactics from the earlier doctrine of more attacks with smaller numbers of aircraft to the use of large , single airstrikes .
Sir Stanley V. Goodall , Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , proposed a variety of designs , both open and closed hangar . On 8 October 1943 , the Board of Admiralty selected a closed @-@ hangar design with an armoured flight deck and five propeller shafts . Reports of American operations in the Pacific convinced the Board to reconsider hangar design ; American experience had shown that the ability to fly off all of a carrier 's aircraft in a single airstrike was vital . That required a well @-@ ventilated , open @-@ hangar design , which would reduce the time required to launch the aircraft by allowing them to begin the typical 15 @-@ minute engine warm @-@ up while still in the hangar . On 15 May 1944 , the Board reversed itself and ordered the DNC to produce an open @-@ hangar design with deck @-@ edge lifts . An unarmoured flight deck was agreed upon in June by the Controller of the Navy and the Fifth Sea Lord .
The new design , 900 feet ( 274 @.@ 3 m ) long at the waterline and known as Design X , was submitted to the Board on 10 August , although it was not approved . In October , concerns arose over the size of Design X in that it might have problems manoeuvering in constricted harbours , and the DNC was asked for two smaller designs : X1 , 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) shorter , and Y , 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) shorter . Design Y was too short for efficient operations with the larger aircraft the committee anticipated , and the First Sea Lord selected X1 . It was submitted to the Board on 12 April 1945 and fully worked out in anticipation of approval that never came . The Board minutes for 31 August noted that further consideration of the design had been postponed .
= = Description = =
Had the X1 design received final approval , the Malta class would have been about the same size as the American Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers at 897 feet ( 273 @.@ 4 m ) in length overall and 850 feet ( 259 @.@ 1 m ) at the waterline . The beam would have been 115 feet 6 inches ( 35 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline and they would have had a draught of 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) at deep load . The ships would have displaced 46 @,@ 890 long tons ( 47 @,@ 640 t ) at standard load and 57 @,@ 700 long tons ( 58 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . Their metacentric heights were estimated to be 8 @.@ 42 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) at standard load and 12 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . Their complement was expected to consist of 3 @,@ 520 officers and enlisted men .
The 888 @-@ foot ( 270 @.@ 7 m ) flight deck had a maximum width of 121 feet 9 inches ( 37 @.@ 1 m ) . Because the unarmoured flight deck required an expansion joint about amidships , the Maltas ' island could not be a single structure and was split into two , each section with its own funnel . This allowed turbulence around the islands to be reduced and provided more space for radars and fire @-@ control directors . The carriers would have been fitted with 16 arrestor cables that were designed to stop landing aircraft up to 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) in weight , at speeds of up to 75 knots ( 139 km / h ; 86 mph ) . They would have been backed up by three crash barricades to prevent landing aircraft from crashing into aircraft parked on the ship 's bow . Positioned on the forward part of the flight deck , two newly designed hydraulic aircraft catapults were intended to launch fully laden aircraft at 130 knots ( 240 km / h ; 150 mph ) . The ships were designed with four 30 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) lifts ( two on the centreline ( 45 by 46 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) , and two on the portside deck edge ( 54 by 36 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 0 m ) ) to facilitate the rapid movement of aircraft between the flight deck and the hangar . This was 440 feet ( 134 @.@ 1 m ) long , with a maximum width of 90 feet ( 27 @.@ 4 m ) , and 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) high to accommodate American aircraft designed for that height . In case of fire the hangar was intended to be divided by four sliding steel doors . Between the hangar spaces and the deck park , the Malta class would have been capable of accommodating between 80 and 108 aircraft . For these aircraft , the ships would have been provided with 190 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 860 @,@ 000 l ; 230 @,@ 000 US gal ) of aviation gasoline .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships would have used four Parsons double @-@ reduction geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The boilers were distributed between four boiler compartments , but all four turbines were in a single compartment , well aft . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 200 @,@ 000 shp ( 150 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give them a maximum speed of 33 @.@ 25 knots ( 61 @.@ 58 km / h ; 38 @.@ 26 mph ) . The Malta class was designed to carry a maximum of 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of fuel oil and diesel fuel ( for the emergency generators ) ; this was intended to give the ships a range of 7 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 100 km ; 8 @,@ 200 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) or 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) at 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main armament was intended to be sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight powered RP 41 Mk VII twin @-@ gun turrets , four on each side of the hull . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) at an elevation of + 45 ° and a ceiling of 41 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . The light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament would have consisted of 55 40 mm Bofors AA guns in eight sextuple stabilised , powered RP 50 Mk VI mounts and seven single mounts of an unknown type . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) and a ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 feet ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) .
= = = Electronics = = =
An August 1944 study anticipated that the ships would carry four early warning radars , including height @-@ finders , four surface search radars and eight gunnery / fire @-@ control radars . Historian David Hobbs wrote that they would mount Type 960 early warning , Type 982 intercept , Type 983 height @-@ finding and Type 293M target indication radars . In addition a number of gunnery radars would also be needed .
= = = Protection = = =
The four inches ( 102 mm ) hangar @-@ deck armour of Design X1 was a reduction from the six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) called for in the original X configuration . The waterline armour belt was also four inches thick , but only covered the central portion of the ship to form the armoured citadel . The belt was closed by three @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) transverse bulkheads fore and aft . One and a half inches ( 38 mm ) of armour extended 40 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) forward and 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) aft of the belt to protect the waterline against splinter damage .
The underwater defense system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments , backed by an inclined holding bulkhead that was four inches thick at the top and tapered to a thickness of two inches ( 51 mm ) at the bottom , and was estimated to resist a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ pound ( 540 kg ) explosive charge . An earlier version , however , had been estimated to be able to resist a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) charge , but failed against a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) charge in a full @-@ scale test .
The magazines for the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and the steering gear both lay outside the armoured citadel and had their own armour . The magazines had four @-@ inch roofs and sides , with three @-@ inch ends while the steering gear also had a four @-@ inch roof , but only three @-@ inch sides and ends .
= = Ordering and cancellation = =
Well before the design was finalised , four ships were ordered in July 1943 . Africa was originally ordered as an unnamed Audacious @-@ class carrier , but the order was modified to a Malta @-@ class ship on 12 July 1943 . Malta , New Zealand and Gibraltar were all ordered three days later . New Zealand was originally ordered from Cammell Laird , but the contract was transferred to
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the plate early in the season , causing manager Larry Bowa to drop him in the lineup . Throughout the season , he sought to maintain the focus that he admitted to having lost the previous season , and he eventually rebounded to post a " respectable " stat line – a .263 batting average with eight home runs and 62 RBIs , although he stole what at the time was a career @-@ low 20 bases . Among his season highlights were a game @-@ winning RBI against John Smoltz in June , and stealing his 100th career base in September , both of which occurred in games against the Atlanta Braves .
On January 15 , Rollins signed a US $ 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 contract with the Phillies to avoid salary arbitration . According to one biography of Rollins ,
" In 2004 , Jimmy finally became the player the Phillies had been waiting for . He batted .289 with a .455 slugging percentage , scored 119 runs , led the league in triples , cut down considerably on his strikeouts , batted well from both sides of the plate , and hit well in the clutch . The workouts with Gwynn had helped , but it was joining morning sessions with ( Bobby ) Abreu that enabled him to sting the ball with authority and consistency . "
Overall , he achieved another " quadruple – double " ( home runs , stolen bases , doubles , and triples in double figures in a single season ) , his first career grand slam , and posted career highs in a plethora of offensive categories including batting average , slugging percentage , RBIs , and hits .
= = = = 2005 – 2007 = = = =
Under new manager Charlie Manuel , whose offensive strategy predominantly revolved around hitting lots of home runs , Rollins struggled to post a strong batting average early in the Phillies ' 2005 season , as he too tried to hit home runs . Nevertheless , he was again selected to the NL All @-@ Star team . His offensive strategy changed in early August , when he began a hitting streak that spanned the season 's final 36 games ; during the streak , he hit .379 . It was the longest hitting streak in Phillies ' history , surpassing Ed Delahanty , whose streak lasted 31 games . Throughout the streak , Rollins aspired to maintain a team @-@ first mentality , and noted that he would trade the streak for a playoff berth : " If we lose and I keep the streak , what does that mean ? The season is automatically over . The playoffs is everything . That 's what we all want . " Ultimately , the Phillies missed the playoffs by one game . Overall , Rollins compiled his fourth career quadruple @-@ double , tying Jonny Damon for most among active players , and posted a .290 batting average with 12 home runs , 54 RBIs , and 41 stolen bases .
The 2006 Phillies season began with much hype surrounding Rollins , and whether he could extend his hitting streak to pass Joe DiMaggio 's record 56 games . He extended the streak two games into the season , but it ended on April 6 when he failed to get a hit in a game against the St. Louis Cardinals . He struggled during the first half of the season , posting a batting average of just .259 , but rebounded during the second half , ultimately posting strong cumulative numbers once again . He became the third player in Phillies ' history to score at least 100 runs in three consecutive seasons ( Chuck Klein and Bobby Abreu ) , and led all NL shortstops in RBIs , runs scored , extra @-@ base hits , and total bases . He was just short , however , of another quadruple @-@ double . Cumulatively , he hit .277 with 25 home runs and 83 RBIs ( at the time , the latter two were career @-@ highs ) . Once again , the Phillies barely missed the playoffs .
Before spring training , Rollins announced that the Phillies were the " Team to Beat " in the National League East :
The Mets had a chance to win the World Series last year . Last year is over . I think we are the team to beat in the NL East , finally . But , that 's only on paper . "
It became a sports media sensation , especially given that the New York Mets had won the division in 2006 with relative ease . The claim was widely reported , often without the second part of the quote ( " only on paper " ) . USA Today columnist Hal Bodley opined , " The Phillies have needed someone to light a fire , especially in April . Rollins ' bold , if not arrogant , prediction might just do that . " During the first half of the season , it appeared Rollins had spoken prematurely , as the Mets jumped out to an early divisional lead . On June 28 , Rollins had a four @-@ hit game against the Cincinnati Reds , including a game @-@ tying triple . The triple was Rollins ' 10th , which gave him his fifth career " quadruple – double " .
In August , the Mets ' lead began to dissipate , as the Phillies combined several solid series ; Rollins was a key component of their success . Rollins was named the National League Player of the Week for August 27 to September 2 , 2007 . On September 25 against the Atlanta Braves , Rollins hit the home run that completed his 30 – 30 season . On the last day of the 2007 season , Rollins became the seventh player to collect at least 20 doubles , 20 triples , and 20 home runs in one season when he hit his 20th triple of the year in a 6 – 1 win over the Washington Nationals that clinched the National League East division championship for the Phillies , which confirmed Rollins ' preseason assertion of the Phillies preeminence . The club advanced to the playoffs for the first time since their 1993 World Series loss ; however , they were swept by the Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series .
Rollins was named the National League 's Most Valuable Player . He also received the NLBM Oscar Charleston Legacy Award ( NL MVP ) , and won the first of three consecutive Gold Glove Awards , becoming the first Phillies shortstop to win a Gold Glove since Larry Bowa in 1978 . He was the first player in MLB history to record 200 hits , 20 triples , 30 home runs , and 30 stolen bases in a season .
= = = = 2008 – 2011 = = = =
Unlike in spring training 2007 , Rollins " made no guarantees heading into the next season , but that didn 't mean the Phillies weren 't confident " entering their 2008 season , despite the Mets ' acquisition of Johan Santana and a " 2007 Rollins @-@ esque " guarantee of winning the division from Carlos Beltrán . After beginning the season by hitting a home run on opening day , Rollins landed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career in early April , suffering an ankle sprain . He returned in May , and had a " productive " summer , ultimately posting a career @-@ high 47 stolen bases , notwithstanding his batting average dropping to .277 , and his home run and RBI totals dropping to 11 and 59 respectively . In the postseason , Rollins was a focal point of the team , which ultimately won the 2008 World Series ; in the division series ( NLDS ) , he hit a leadoff home run in game four , and in the championship series ( NLCS ) , he hit a leadoff home run in game five , and despite struggles early in the World Series , he eventually contributed with strong situational hitting , helping the Phillies win the series in five games . At the conclusion of the season , Rollins was honored with a Fielding Bible Award for defensive excellence as the top MLB shortstop during the year .
Rollins began 2009 by participating in the 2009 World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) as a member of Team USA ; he hit .417 and was named to the all @-@ tournament team . After setting a career high in stolen bases in 2008 , he did not steal one in the season 's first 17 games , his longest drought to begin a season since 2004 . On May 21 , he reached the 1500 @-@ hit milestone in a game against the Cincinnati Reds . As of the end of June , however , he was hitting just .205 ( he went 28 consecutive at @-@ bats without a hit from the end of June until July 2 ) , and was benched for four games by Charlie Manuel in an effort to encourage him to regain the shorter , lower half @-@ driven swing that he used in his 2007 MVP campaign . He did improve in the second half of the season , batting .288 from July 3 to the end of the year . Overall , he compiled an NL @-@ leading 672 at @-@ bats , finished fourth in doubles ( 43 ) and stolen bases ( 31 ) , and tenth in runs ( 100 ) ; in addition , he had a .250 batting average , 21 home runs ( five of which were leadoff , the most in his career ) , and 77 RBIs , also winning the National League Gold Glove award for shortstops . In the postseason , he helped the Phillies reach the 2009 World Series by hitting a walk @-@ off double in game four of the NLCS . The Phillies failed to repeat as champions , however . They lost to the New York Yankees .
Rollins ' 2010 season was marked by injuries ; he missed a total of 74 games , playing in only 88 , the lowest total of his major league career . While warming up in the outfield prior to the Phillies ' game on April 12 , he strained his right calf , and eventually was placed on the disabled list . He spent April 13 – May 16 , and May 22 – June 21 on the DL with that injury ; Wilson Valdez served as his backup . When he returned , he hit his first career walk @-@ off home run on June 23 , powering the Phillies to a 7 – 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians . On July 3 , he hit his 150th career home run in a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates , and on October 1 , he hit his third career grand slam in a game against the Atlanta Braves . Overall , he hit .243 with eight home runs and 41 RBIs . He maintained his strong defense despite poor offense , but after his third consecutive mediocre offensive season , some questioned whether his MVP campaign in 2007 was a fluke .
2011 was a contract year for Rollins , and his performance concurrently rebounded , insofar as he improved his batting average , and home run and RBI totals . He made his 11th consecutive opening day start , and , for the first time in several seasons , he was healthy at the beginning of the season , starting the season 's first 49 games . Nevertheless , it took him 54 plate appearances to record his first RBI , the longest drought of his career . On July 20 , for the second time in his career , he had a multi @-@ home run game in which one home run came batting right @-@ handed and the other left @-@ handed , the first Phillies player to do it multiple times . His season was not entirely devoid of injuries ; on August 22 , a right groin strain landed him on the DL , causing him to miss 18 games . He returned in time for the playoffs , and set several Phillies records in the 2011 NLDS , including hits ( 9 ) , doubles ( 4 ) , and multi @-@ hit games ( 4 ) . Despite the records , the Phillies lost the series to the St. Louis Cardinals . Overall , he posted a .268 batting average with 16 home runs and 63 RBIs . At the season 's conclusion , Rollins was selected as the shortstop on the MLB Insiders Club Magazine All @-@ Postseason Team . On December 17 , 2011 , Rollins signed a three @-@ year , $ 33 million deal with a vesting option for a fourth year , worth another $ 11 million . The option vested when he reached 1 @,@ 100 plate appearances in 2013 @-@ 14 .
= = = = 2012 – 2014 = = = =
In 2012 , Rollins epitomized the Phillies ' general " averageness " by posting a .250 batting average with 23 home runs and 68 RBIs . He hit poorly in the beginning of the season , and did not hit a home run until his 136th at bat of the season , the second @-@ longest it had ever taken him to hit a home run at the beginning of a season . He missed three games from May 21 – 23 for the birth of his first daughter . On July 31 , he hit his fourth career inside @-@ the @-@ park home run , which led active players . His hitting improved over the latter half of the season , and in September , he hit eight home runs . He missed the final three games of the season with a calf strain . During the season , he joined Craig Biggio , Barry Larkin , and Paul Molitor as the only players in MLB history to record 2000 hits , 350 stolen bases , and 150 home runs as a member of one team . It was his fourth career season during which he hit at least 20 home runs and stole 30 bases , which trailed only Bobby and Barry Bonds .
Prior to the 2013 season , Rollins played for Team USA in the 2013 World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) , and was the only player from Team USA to make the event 's all @-@ star team ; it was his second WBC , and second placement on the all @-@ star team . He was back to the Phillies in time for opening day , and made his 13th consecutive start on opening day . Overall , he tied for fifth in the NL in games ( 160 ) , and led the team with 600 at @-@ bats , 151 hits , 36 doubles , and 59 walks . He achieved several career milestones during the season , including his 800th RBI ( April 22 ) , his 433 double ( breaking Ed Delahanty 's record on May 15 ) , and his 45th career leadoff home run ( fourth most in MLB history ; hit on July 20 ) . Despite the achievements , overall , the season was a decline from previous years ; his isolated power ( ISO ) was among the worst in the major leagues , he attempted to steal the fewest amount of bases in his career , and his defense " tanked " according to fielding metrics . He " struggled mightily " , and ultimately posted a .252 batting average with six home runs and 39 RBIs. which " could be the beginning of his decline as an effective Major League hitter " .
Rollins attracted media attention in the offseason prior to 2014 when he supposedly expressed disinclination or lack of motivation after commenting " who cares " in regards to spring training ; Buster Olney penned a column suggesting that there was a sentiment within the Phillies ' organization that he should be traded ( the rumors were dispelled by Rollins and Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. as ridiculous ) . He opened the season by hitting a grand slam against the Texas Rangers , which was also his 200th career home run . After two games , Rollins left the team on paternity leave to be with his wife as the couple had their second child . On April 12 , he hit a walk @-@ off home run against the Miami Marlins . On June 14 , Rollins singled to right field for his 2,235th hit to surpass Mike Schmidt as the Phillies ' all @-@ time leader in hits . The game paused as Schmidt and the remainder of the Phillies congratulated Rollins at first base . Following the season , Rollins became the first ever co @-@ winner of the Roberto Clemente Award when he and recently retired Chicago White Sox captain Paul Konerko being announced as the awards ' recipients .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
On December 19 , 2014 , Rollins was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers in exchange for minor league pitchers Tom Windle and Zach Eflin . Rollins waived his no @-@ trade clause in order for the trade to be accomplished and he stated that he was expecting to take on a leadership position with his new team .
Rollins played his first game with the Dodgers during opening day against the San Diego Padres on April 6 , 2015 , hitting a 3 @-@ run homer off of Shawn Kelley , giving the Dodgers a 6 @-@ 3 victory over the Padres . He struggled offensively with the Dodgers , hitting a career low .224 with 13 homers and 41 RBI . He also stole eight bases . In September , he lost his starting job to rookie Corey Seager . On the final day of the season , in a meaningless game , manager Don Mattingly let Rollins manage the club for the game .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
On February 22 , 2016 , Rollins signed a minor league contract with the Chicago White Sox that included an invitation to major league spring training . He competed with Tyler Saladino for a starting role at shortstop . At the end of spring training , the team announced that Rollins would serve as their Opening Day shortstop .
Rollins batted .221 in 41 games for the White Sox . On June 10 , he was designated for assignment so the White Sox could promote Tim Anderson from the minor leagues .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Offense = = =
Growing up , Rollins admired Rickey Henderson , one of the best leadoff hitters in MLB history , and especially early in his career , sought to emulate Henderson at the plate . This contributed to his propensity to swing early in the count , and chase high pitches , seeking to hit home runs rather than get on base , the stereotypical role of a leadoff hitter . Consequently , he struggled to make contact with the ball , striking out too much , and rarely walking . To help alleviate those predominantly negative tendencies , he worked with Tony Gwynn , Sr. prior to the 2003 season to work on using the whole field , and hit more ground balls than pop @-@ ups . Overall , he " always had a hard time accepting that he is vertically challenged at 5 @-@ foot @-@ 8 " , which contributed to his inclination to strive to hit for power rather than contact , and to seek to pull the ball rather than use the whole field . The Phillies all @-@ time leader in hits , he also is second in Phillies history in stolen bases .
= = = Defense = = =
A " supreme defensive shortstop " , Rollins has won four Gold Glove Awards , and only Omar Vizquel has a better fielding percentage among shortstops who have played at least 10 seasons . Rollins attributes some of his defensive prowess to experience , noting that he has played in MLB for a long enough time to know most hitters ' tendencies and to learn how to read swings , both of which help him appropriately position himself to get to as many balls as possible . In their 2011 season preview , Lindy 's Sports commented that Rollins is an upper @-@ echelon shortstop " with soft hands , excellent agility and plus range left and right " , going on to praise his strong throwing arm , especially from the hole .
= = Personal life = =
Rollins resides in Woolwich Township , New Jersey , and is married to Johari Smith . They were married on January 23 , 2010 in the Cayman Islands . On May 21 , 2012 , Johari gave birth to the couple 's first daughter , Camryn Drew Rollins .
An active philanthropist , Rollins and his wife Johari have participated in several charitable endeavors including the creation of The Johari & Jimmy Rollins Center for Animal Rehabilitation , which is located in Woolwich Township , New Jersey and provides several medical rehabilitation services for animals , and an annual BaseBOWL charity bowling tournament to benefit the Arthritis Foundation . Rollins is also active politically , and campaigned for Barack Obama in the 2008 Presidential Election . His second daughter , Logan Aliya , was born in early April 2014 .
Rollins is an investor for esports team NRG Esports .
= Washington State Route 21 =
State Route 21 ( SR 21 ) is a 191 @.@ 34 @-@ mile ( 307 @.@ 93 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Washington that traverses four counties : Franklin , Adams , Lincoln and Ferry . The highway extends from an intersection with SR 260 in Kahlotus north through Lind , Odessa , Keller , Republic and Curlew before becoming Highway 41 ( BC 41 ) at the Canada – US border in Danville . SR 21 is concurrent with U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) in Wilbur and SR 20 in Republic and has two diamond interchanges : at US 395 in Lind and Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) south of Odessa . Between Lincoln and Ferry counties , the roadway crosses Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake on the Keller Ferry , operated fare free by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) and the Department of Highways ( DoH ) since 1930 .
Since 1899 , at least one segment of the current highway has been in the state highway system . In 1899 , the Marble Mount Road was established and later numbered State Road 4 in 1905 and renamed to the Sans Poil @-@ Loomis Road in 1907 . In 1915 , a branch to the Canada – US border was added to the highway , but was removed in 1923 . In 1937 , the Primary state highways were established and State Road 4 became Primary State Highway 4 ( PSH 4 ) , while the former Canadian branch became Secondary State Highway 4A ( SSH 4A ) . Another highway , extending from Lind to Wilbur , became SSH 4B . In 1964 , PSH 4 was split into SR 20 and SR 21 while SSH 2A and SSH 2B also became SR 21 . In 1983 , a road between Lind and Kahlotus became part of SR 21 .
The Keller Ferry , which travels across the Columbia River at Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake to connect the two segments of SR 21 , was originally a cable ferry operated in the early 1890s . J.C. Keller , founder of Keller , purchased the ferry in 1899 and traded ownership to Lincoln and Ferry counties in 1925 . In 1929 , the two counties unveiled a new eight @-@ car cable ferry , named the Keller of Seattle , which served the two counties until 1930 , when the predecessor of the current WSDOT , the DoH , purchased the ferry , but still operated Keller of Seattle until replacing it with the L.A. McLeod in 1939 . In 1944 , the Ann of Wilbur tugboat and Sanpoil barge acted as a ferry before a new replacement , the Martha S. was launched in 1948 . The Martha S. has been in continual operation since 1948 and WSDOT planned to replace the ferry in the near future , but funding came $ 5 @.@ 5 million US $ short . The ferry was suspended in early October 2009 after a leak was found in the hull of the Martha S.
= = Route description = =
SR 21 originates at an intersection with SR 260 , about 0 @.@ 28 miles ( 0 @.@ 45 km ) east of the northern terminus of SR 263 ; both intersections are in the city of Kahlotus , which is located in a narrow valley near several coulees in Franklin County . After leaving Kahlotus as the Lind – Kahlotus Road , the highway turns northeast and later west as it passes over the Sand Hills Coulee four times . Curving due north , the roadway leaves Franklin County to enter Adams County . Passing farmland in the flat landscape , SR 21 intersects SR 26 and continues through an unnamed coulee to intersect Smart Road . Smart Road was the former alignment of SR 21 prior to the U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) interchange being built . SR 21 intersects US 395 in a diamond interchange east of Downtown Lind . From the interchange , the highway travels west and intersects Smart Road again before crossing over the Centennial Trail and entering Downtown Lind . In Downtown , the roadway is named Second , I and First Streets and serves as the main connector to other areas . After turning north to leave Lind , the road encounters the John Wayne Pioneer Trail and more plains before intersecting the pre @-@ interstate alignment of Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and interchanging with I @-@ 90 at exit 206 , another diamond interchange . North of the interchange , SR 21 travels through more plains and a coulee to leave Adams County and enter Lincoln County .
In Lincoln County , the highway travels through farmland to encounter Odessa as Division Street , intersecting SR 28 . The roadway turns northwest at Pacific Lake and reverts northwards into farmland . After temporarily turning east into more farmland , the road enters Wilbur , named Bruce Avenue . In Wilbur , SR 21 turns west , concurrent with US 2 , for 0 @.@ 65 miles ( 1 @.@ 05 km ) before branching off north to intersect SR 174 and leave Wilbur towards dense forests . North of Wilbur , the roadway approaches Speigle Canyon and makes several turns before exiting the canyon and nearing Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake ; at 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 323 @.@ 75 km2 ) , the lake is the largest in Washington . Paralleling the lake , the road then uses the Keller Ferry , a 80 @-@ foot ( 24 @.@ 38 m ) long boat used as a fare @-@ free ferry across Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake , part of the Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area , operated by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) and its previous counterparts since 1930 .
The ferry travels across the Lincoln County line to enter Ferry County , named after Elisha P. Ferry , the first Washington governor , southwest of Keller in the Colville Indian Reservation . Traveling northeast , between the Sanpoil River and the southern end of the Okanagan Highlands , SR 21 passes Keller and continues inland into the Columbia Mountains on the banks of the river . The river forms a canyon that the highway passes through and eventually both the river and road leave the Colville Indian Reservation . Shortly after leaving the reservation , the roadway enters Republic and becomes concurrent with SR 20 for 2 @.@ 56 miles ( 4 @.@ 12 km ) before exiting the concurrency and Republic . Between Republic and the Canada – US border , an estimated daily average of 1 @,@ 600 motorists used this segment of SR 21 , making this section the busiest . The daily average has declined since 2006 and 2007 , when a daily average of 1 @,@ 700 motorists utilized the segment . Northeast of Republic , the highway passes Curlew Lake , the 123 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 50 km2 ) Curlew Lake State Park and the communities of Malo and Curlew . After passing through more dense forests , the roadway enters Danville , where SR 2
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chronic exposure to mercury vapor even at low concentrations in the range 0 @.@ 7 – 42 μg / m3 . A study has shown that acute exposure ( 4 – 8 hours ) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1 @.@ 1 to 44 mg / m3 resulted in chest pain , dyspnea , cough , hemoptysis , impairment of pulmonary function , and evidence of interstitial pneumonitis . Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central nervous system effects , including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium , hallucinations , and suicidal tendency . Occupational exposure has resulted in broad @-@ ranging functional disturbance , including erethism , irritability , excitability , excessive shyness , and insomnia . With continuing exposure , a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent muscular spasms . Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids , lips , and tongue . Long @-@ term , low @-@ level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism , including fatigue , irritability , loss of memory , vivid dreams and depression .
= = = Treatment = = =
Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited . Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N @-@ acetyl @-@ D , L @-@ penicillamine ( NAP ) , British Anti @-@ Lewisite ( BAL ) , 2 @,@ 3 @-@ dimercapto @-@ 1 @-@ propanesulfonic acid ( DMPS ) , and dimercaptosuccinic acid ( DMSA ) . In one small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury , patients were treated with DMSA and NAP . Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total estimated body mercury . DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP .
= = = Fish = = =
Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies , often in the form of methylmercury , a highly toxic organic compound of mercury . Species of fish that are high on the food chain , such as shark , swordfish , king mackerel , bluefin tuna , albacore tuna , and tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others . As mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble , they primarily accumulate in the viscera , although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue . When this fish is consumed by a predator , the mercury level is accumulated . Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury , fish @-@ tissue concentrations increase over time . Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the species they consume . This process is called biomagnification . Mercury poisoning happened this way in Minamata , Japan , now called Minamata disease .
= = Regulations = =
= = = International = = =
140 countries agreed in the Minamata Convention on Mercury by the United Nations Environment Program ( UNEP ) to prevent emissions . The convention was signed on the 10th of October 2013 .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and managing mercury contamination . Several laws give the EPA this authority , including the Clean Air Act , the Clean Water Act , the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act , and the Safe Drinking Water Act . Additionally , the Mercury @-@ Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act , passed in 1996 , phases out the use of mercury in batteries , and provides for the efficient and cost @-@ effective disposal of many types of used batteries . North America contributed approximately 11 % of the total global anthropogenic mercury emissions in 1995 .
The United States Clean Air Act , passed in 1990 , put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent . Thus , industries that release high concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies ( MACT ) . In March 2005 , the EPA promulgated a regulation that added power plants to the list of sources that should be controlled and instituted a national cap and trade system . States were given until November 2006 to impose stricter controls , but after a legal challenge from several states , the regulations were struck down by a federal appeals court on 8 February 2008 . The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living near coal @-@ fired power plants , given the negative effects documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998 . However newer data published in 2015 showed that after introduction of the stricter controls mercury declined sharply , indicating that the Clean Air Act had its intended impact .
The EPA announced new rules for coal @-@ fired power plants on 22 December 2011 . Cement kilns that burn hazardous waste are held to a looser standard than are standard hazardous waste incinerators in the United States , and as a result are a disproportionate source of mercury pollution .
= = = European Union = = =
In the European Union , the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment ( see RoHS ) bans mercury from certain electrical and electronic products , and limits the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000 ppm . There are restrictions for mercury concentration in packaging ( the limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury , lead , hexavalent chromium and cadmium ) and batteries ( the limit is 5 ppm ) . In July 2007 , the European Union also banned mercury in non @-@ electrical measuring devices , such as thermometers and barometers . The ban applies to new devices only , and contains exemptions for the health care sector and a two @-@ year grace period for manufacturers of barometers .
= = = Norway = = =
Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import / export of mercury products , effective 1 January 2008 . In 2002 , several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution , with an excess of 1 µg / g of mercury in their sediment . In 2008 , Norway ’ s Minister of Environment Development Erik Solheim said : “ Mercury is among the most dangerous environmental toxins . Satisfactory alternatives to Hg in products are available , and it is therefore fitting to induce a ban . ”
= = = Sweden = = =
Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in 2009 .
= = = Denmark = = =
In 2008 , Denmark also banned dental mercury amalgam , except for molar masticating surface fillings in permanent ( adult ) teeth .
= The Homer They Fall =
" The Homer They Fall " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 10 , 1996 . After Homer Simpson realizes he has a bizarre medical condition that renders him unable to be knocked out , he decides to embark on a career as a boxer with Moe Szyslak as his manager . It was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Mark Kirkland . The episode guest stars Michael Buffer as himself and Paul Winfield as Lucius Sweet .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons visit a high @-@ tech gadget store and Bart buys a gimmicky utility belt from Comic Book Guy for $ 4 . He shows off its features to his classmates until he is beaten up by Dolph , Jimbo and Kearney , who steal the belt . In response , Homer decides to talk with the bullies ' fathers at Moe 's Tavern , but he is also beaten ; however , they are unnerved when they cannot even knock Homer down , and are then chased away by a shotgun @-@ wielding Moe .
Moe is impressed by Homer 's ability to absorb severe punishment and suggests he take up boxing , with Moe – a former boxer himself – as his trainer and manager . Marge is annoyed by the idea , but a medical test diagnoses Homer with a rare genetic abnormality effectively rendering him near @-@ invulnerable to knockout punches . However , while training , it is discovered that Homer is a weak puncher , and is extremely out of shape . Moe strategizes that Homer should stand still in the ring and let his opponents exhaust themselves trying to knock him out , and then knock them down with a tap . Marge insists that Homer get a physical by a competent doctor , hoping he won 't pass the requirements for a boxing license . However , Homer easily passes the state requirement to box , wrestle or " be shot out of a cannon " , as the state Springfield is in had apparently been founded by circus freaks .
Homer does well in his first fights , mainly because he 's competing in Springfields " hobo fight " circuit , against opponents almost as out of shape as he is . At every match , he follows Moe 's advice and starts to gain widespread attention , eventually becoming the top ranked fighter in the Springfield Hobo Boxing Association . Moe 's former boxing manager , Lucius Sweet visits Moe and announces that the current Heavyweight Champion , Drederick Tatum is being released from prison and is ready for a comeback fight , and Sweet wants Tatum to fight Homer . Tatum has become infamous for scoring one @-@ punch knockouts in his opening move , resulting in matches to which last only a few seconds . Lucius hopes that due to Homer 's fame as a human punching bag , he will at least be able to endure a few rounds before being bludgeoned unconscious . Moe , despite knowing full well that Tatum is far too strong for a fighter of Homer 's ability , still wants to take his last shot at the big time and promises Sweet that Homer will last three rounds with Tatum .
Tatum is paroled and the media begins hyping the fight . The odds against Homer are 1000 – 1 and everybody believes that Homer will lose . Even Homer himself visualizes that the only way he could win is if a heart defect fells Tatum before entering the ring . Marge makes Moe promise her that the moment Homer is in any danger , he will throw in the towel . But after Marge leaves , Moe throws away the towel in a garbage can .
The fight starts and it is soon obvious that Homer cannot withstand Tatum 's fearsome barrage and is in danger of being knocked out within six seconds . Homer decides to fight back , but misses completely . Moe , seeing Homer get destroyed , flees . As Tatum readies himself to deliver the final blow , Moe flies in using the Fan Man 's paramotor and carries Homer away , saving him . Outside the arena , Marge thanks Moe for saving Homer and Tatum shows respect for the love Moe showed for Homer . Sweet declares that Moe will always be a loser , but still gives him a check for $ 100 @,@ 000 . Moe starts up the Fanman 's paramotor and flies off into the night , during the credits he is seen helping people around the world with the paramotor .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jonathan Collier , who is a huge boxing fan . Knowing that the people on the internet would " give them grief " , the writers went to a lot of effort to explain how Homer would be able to challenge for the Heavyweight Title . A lot of the scenes involving Homer fighting hobos were pitched by John Swartzwelder . Lucius Sweet is a parody of Don King , voiced by Paul Winfield who had previously played King in HBO 's 1995 biopic Tyson . In the script , Sweet was described as " A Don King type who looks and sounds exactly like Don King . " The similarity is even pointed out by Homer with the line " He is exactly as rich and as famous as Don King – and he looks just like him , too ! " King was asked to guest star , but turned the part down . Drederick Tatum is a parody of Mike Tyson . The name came from George Meyer , who went to high school with a boy named Drederick Timmins , which Meyer thought was a cool name . Tatum 's having done time in prison is a reference to the fact that , at the time of the episode 's production , Tyson had just recently been released from prison after serving three years for rape . Homer is named " The Southern Dandy " as a reference to the old @-@ time boxers and wrestlers who had similar nicknames .
In preparation for this episode , Mark Kirkland watched several boxing films and is satisfied with how it turned out . Whenever designing rooms , Kirkland tries to show a bare lightbulb because he feels that it makes things more depressing . In the scene in Moe 's office , there is a brief shot of a poster advertising " Szyslak Vs . Oakley " and " Kirkland Vs . Silverman , " referring to then @-@ executive producer Bill Oakley and Simpsons directors Mark Kirkland and David Silverman . The scene where Tatum is walking to the ring surrounded by shady characters , one of whom appears to be cross @-@ eyed , is based on a real life photo of Tyson .
Jimbo 's , Dolph 's , and Kearney 's fathers make their first and only appearances in the history of the show .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with a parody of Bonanza . The montage of Homer fighting various hobos was based on a similar montage in Raging Bull . The music is " The Flower Duet " from the opera " Lakmé " by Léo Delibes . During the montage , there is a brief parody of the George Bellows painting " Dempsey and Firpo " . The " Fan Man " is based on James Miller , a fan famous for parachuting into arenas during big events . Homer 's walk @-@ out music is " Why Can 't We Be Friends ? " by War and Tatum 's is " Time 4 Sum Aksion " by Redman . The song heard over the end credits is a rendition of Barbra Streisand 's " People , " sung by Sally Stevens .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Homer They Fall " finished 29th in ratings for the week of November 4 – 10 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
In response to " Barting Over " , which is about skateboarding , Raju Mudhar of the Toronto Star listed what he thought were " excellent " Simpsons episodes and scenes also related to sports . He included " The Homer They Fall , " writing that Drederick Tatum is " a thinly veiled Mike Tyson parody who 's made cameos over the years . " Similarly , in 2004 ESPN.com released a list of the Top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking the entire episode at # 2 , saying " Greatest sports introduction ever : In the Tatum fight , Homer is introduced as the Brick Hithouse ( and is also known as the Southern Dandy ) , and his walk @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ring music is ' Why Can 't We Be Friends ? ' " Drederick Tatum was placed at the eighteenth spot on the list . Conversely , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " the dullest , one @-@ joke episode of the entire series . "
= John Hemmingham =
John Hemmingham ( born 26 February 1963 ) is an association football supporter and football administrator from Sheffield , England . He is best known as the leader and trumpet player of the Pukka Pies England Band . Hemmingham first started playing music at football in 1993 with Sheffield Wednesday fans . In 1996 , he was invited to play at England national football team matches . He has since played at other sporting events including the Olympics and boxing matches .
Hemmingham also works in football administration . He started in 2001 as the chief executive of The Owls Trust until a dispute with the Sheffield Wednesday chairman caused him to resign in 2004 . Hemmingham then went on to work at other football clubs , including Leeds United and Mansfield Town before taking a position at Sheffield Wednesday after his relations improved with them . He also married in 2007 .
= = Band = =
= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =
Hemmingham started playing music at football matches in 1993 when he took a bugle to a Sheffield Wednesday match away at Everton 's Goodison Park and played the fanfare to Aida . The action was noticed by local newspapers and after a phone call to Hemmingham from Sheffield Wednesday manager , Trevor Francis , Sheffield Wednesday then hired Hemmingham and group of Sheffield Wednesday supporters to form an official club band which became known as the " Kop Band " . Although the band became popular , Hemmingham and the Kop Band have been banned from Steel City derby rivals Sheffield United 's stadium , Bramall Lane a number of times . In 2002 , they were banned from Bramall Lane because Sheffield United were concerned that playing music might lead to " unsafe crowd movement " and " unacceptable structural movement " by Sheffield United 's safety officer . In 2007 , they were also banned because it was claimed by Sheffield United officials that playing music might cause structural damage to the stands to which , Hemmingham led criticism of it calling the ban " laughable " .
= = = England = = =
In 1996 , Hemmingham , along with the Kop Band , were invited by the head of The Football Association , David Davies to form a supporters band for the England national team in time for UEFA Euro 96 . Hemmingham accepted and the Kop Band became known as the England Supporters Band . Since then , Hemmingham claims he has not missed an England game . As well as being viewed as the leader of the band , Hemmingham is also the managing director of them .
After being offered a recording deal by Virgin Group chairman , Richard Branson , Hemmingham and the band released The Great Escape theme tune as singles for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2000 . The England Supporters band then started received backing from commercial sponsors . In 2002 , the band was sponsored by British newspaper , The Sun who paid for the band to fly to Japan for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . In 2006 , the band were sponsored by Leicester @-@ based company Pukka Pies , becoming known as the Pukka Pies England Band .
In 2010 publishers , Peakpublish announced they had signed a deal with Hemmingham for him to write two books about the formation of the England Supporters Band and his experiences with them . The books were called The Story of the England Supporters ' Band and Playing for England .
= = = Other sports = = =
Hemmingham has also led the England Band to other sporting events . In 2008 , Hemmingham took the band to Beijing , China during the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics to support Team GB however they were not permitted to enter the Beijing National Stadium with their instruments and instead played on the streets of Beijing . In 2012 , during the London 2012 Summer Olympics it was announced that the England Band would be supporting both the Great Britain men 's national field hockey team and the Great Britain women 's national field hockey team during their matches at the Olympics . Hemmingham has also taken the band to Las Vegas , United States as well as the City of Manchester Stadium to support Manchester boxer , Ricky Hatton . They have also attended Rugby sevens matches to support the England national team .
= = Football administration = =
Hemmingham first started in football administration as the chief executive of an independent supporters group called The Owls Trust , which he helped establish , in 2001 . The Owls Trust was disliked by many Sheffield Wednesday fans and by Sheffield Wednesday chairman Dave Allen as it was perceived that it was a vehicle leading towards a takeover by Ken Bates , then chairman of Sheffield Wednesday 's rivals Leeds United , as The Owls Trust controlled a large amount of shares and Hemmingham had publicly stated support for Bates .
After an attempted boardroom coup by The Owls Trust to remove Allen from the chairmanship in an extraordinary general meeting in October 2004 , in 2005 , The Owls Trust were evicted from their offices at Hillsborough Stadium , Hemmingham was banned from executive areas of the stadium and The Kop Band was asked to reduce its numbers by Allen . Hemmingham 's ban was then later extended to a full stadium ban from Hillsborough . As a result of this , after securing an area for matchday parking , Hemmingham resigned to take a full @-@ time position at Bates ' Leeds United as head of customer services and membership . This led to Hemmingham receiving death threats from Sheffield Wednesday fans .
In January 2008 , Hemmingham left Leeds United and in August , he was appointed as the chief executive of non @-@ league side , Mansfield Town where he oversaw the expansion of the capacity of their Field Mill stadium . However in January 2009 , he left his position after three months . Also in January , his relations with Sheffield Wednesday improved after Allen was no longer chairman and the new directors at the club , Lee Strafford and Nick Parker elected to remove Hemmingham 's ban from Hillsborough . In 2011 , Hemmingham rejoined Sheffield Wednesday as the Commercial Manager of Sheffield Wednesday Ladies .
= = Personal life = =
Hemmingham has been married since 2007 .
= 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane =
The 1821 Norfolk and Long Island Hurricane was one of four known tropical cyclones that have made landfall in New York City . Another , even more intense hurricane in pre @-@ Columbian times ( sometime between 1278 and 1438 ) left evidence that was detected in southern New Jersey by paleotempestological research . The third was the 1893 New York hurricane , and the fourth was Hurricane Irene in 2011 .
The first of three recorded tropical cyclones recorded in the 1821 Atlantic hurricane season , the storm that would eventually strike New York was first observed off the southeast United States coast on September 1 , with winds estimated in excess of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . It moved ashore near Wilmington , North Carolina , and passed near Norfolk , Virginia before moving through the Delmarva Peninsula and New Jersey just inland . On September 3 , the hurricane struck approximately near Jamaica Bay , which later became part of New York City , and on September 4 it was observed over New England . This was just 6 years after the destructive Great September Gale of 1815 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical cyclone was first observed on September 1 off the southeast coast of the United States . Initially , it was believed to be the same storm that struck Guadeloupe on the same day , though subsequent research indicated there were two separate storms . The hurricane tracked by the Bahamas while tracking generally northward , and it attained major hurricane status over the western Atlantic Ocean . As it approached the United States coastline , the hurricane was very intense , with winds estimated at over 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and potentially as strong as 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , or a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Late on September 2 , the hurricane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina and later turned to the northeast to cross the Pamlico Sound .
The hurricane accelerated northeastward , and passed over the Hampton Roads area early on September 3 . After crossing the Chesapeake Bay , the cyclone traversed the Delmarva Peninsula near the Atlantic coastline , and at around 1500 UTC the eye passed directly over Cape Henlopen , Delaware ; a thirty @-@ minute period of calm was reported . It continued across the Delaware Bay and later passed over Cape May , New Jersey , where a fifteen @-@ minute calm was reported . Modern researchers estimate it was a Category 3 or Category 4 hurricane upon striking New Jersey , one of the few hurricanes to hit the state . Moving ashore at very low tide , it paralleled the state 's coastline just inland , and after exiting into Lower New York Bay the hurricane made landfall on New York City at around 1930 UTC on September 3 ; this makes it the only major hurricane to directly hit the city . A minimal hurricane in 1893 also made landfall on what later became part of New York City . One modern researcher estimates the hurricane was moving at a forward speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and upon moving ashore had a pressure of 965 mbar . The hurricane continued northeastward through New England , and after entering Massachusetts on September 4 its exact path was unknown ; one researcher estimated the cyclone tracked northeastward until losing its identity over southeastern Maine , while another assessed the storm as passing far to the west of Maine .
Based on the arrangement of effects in New England , meteorologist William C. Redfield deduced that the wind field and center of tropical cyclones are circular ; previously the winds were believed to be in a straight line .
= = Impact = =
In North Carolina , a powerful storm surge flooded large portions of Portsmouth Island ; residents estimated the island would have been completely under water had the worst of the storm lasted for two more hours . Strong winds occurred across eastern North Carolina , resulting in at least 76 destroyed houses . Numerous people were killed in Currituck .
The strongest winds of the hurricane lasted for about an hour in southeastern Virginia , after which the storm rapidly abated . Several houses were completely destroyed , with many others receiving moderate to severe damage . The winds destroyed most of the roof of the courthouse , and uprooted trees across the region ; fallen tree limbs damaged a stone bridge in Norfolk . The hurricane produced a strong storm surge along the Virginia coastline , which reached 10 feet ( 3 m ) at Pungoteague on the Delmarva Peninsula . The storm surge , which reached several hundred yards inland , destroyed two bridges and flooded many warehouses along the Elizabeth River . Rough waves grounded the USS Guerriere and the USS Congress , and also destroyed several schooners and brigs . Along the eastern shore , the storm surge flooded barrier islands along the Atlantic coastline , causing severe crop damage and downing many trees . Several houses were destroyed , and at Pungoteague the impact of the hurricane was described as " unexampled destruction " ; five people drowned in Chincoteague . Considered one of the most violent hurricanes on record in the Mid @-@ Atlantic , the hurricane caused $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage in Virginia ( 1821 USD , $ 3 @.@ 1 million 2007 USD ) .
Gale force winds affected the Delmarva Peninsula ; on Poplar Island in Talbot County , Maryland , winds peaked at 1600 UTC on September 3 . The strongest winds were confined to the Atlantic coastline , with outer rainbands producing heavy rainfall in Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , Maryland . Fierce winds were observed in Cape Henlopen , Delaware , with the strongest gales occurring after the eye passed over the area .
Upon making landfall on Cape May , New Jersey , the cyclone produced a 5 foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge on the Delaware Bay side of the city . Lasting for several hours , the hurricane force winds were described as " [ blowing ] with great violence " , causing widespread devastation across the region . In Little Egg Harbor , its passage caused damage to the port . Strong winds reached as far inland as Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where winds of over 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) downed trees and chimneys ; in the city , precipitation accrued to 3 @.@ 92 inches ( 99 @.@ 6 mm ) . Further to the north , the hurricane destroyed a windmill at Bergen Point , New Jersey . Though the hurricane struck at low tide , it produced a storm surge of over 29 feet ( 9 m ) along several portions of the New Jersey coastline , causing significant overwash .
The hurricane produced a storm surge of 13 feet ( 4 m ) in only one hour at Battery Park , a record only broken 191 years later by Hurricane Sandy . Manhattan Island was completely flooded to Canal Street ; one hurricane researcher remarked that the storm surge flooding would have been much worse , had the hurricane not struck at low tide . However , few deaths were reported in the city , since the flooding affected neighborhoods much less populated than today . The hurricane brought light rainfall as it passed New York City , though strong winds left severe damage across the city . High tides occurred along the Hudson River . Strong waves and winds blew many ships ashore along Long Island . One ship sank , killing 17 people . Along Long Island , the winds destroyed several buildings and left crops destroyed .
In New England , the hurricane produced widespread gale force winds , with damage greatest in Connecticut . The Black Rock Harbor Light in Black Rock , Connecticut , was destroyed on September 21 . Elsewhere in the state , the winds damaged or destroyed churches , houses and small buildings . Moderate crop damage to fruit was reported as well . Strong winds extended into eastern Massachusetts , though little damage was reported in the Boston area .
= 1998 – 99 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 1998 – 99 season was the 101st season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club , managed by Arsène Wenger , entered the campaign as Premier League and FA Cup double winners . They ended this campaign as league runners @-@ up , a point behind Manchester United , who secured the title on the final day of the season . United also eliminated Arsenal in a FA Cup semi @-@ final replay ; Ryan Giggs scored an extra time winner in the 109th minute . Arsenal competed in Europe 's premier club competition – the UEFA Champions League – for the first time since its rebrand in 1992 , but failed to progress past the group stage .
In the transfer window , Arsenal purchased several players , including Swedish midfielder Fredrik Ljungberg and Argentine Nelson Vivas . Ian Wright – the club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer , left in the summer to play for West Ham United . Striker Nwankwo Kanu joined Arsenal in January 1999 .
Arsenal made an indifferent start to their league campaign with four consecutive draws from their first five matches . After defeat to Aston Villa in December 1998 , the team embarked on a 19 match unbeaten run to steadily climb up the league table . A 6 @-@ 1 win against Middlesbrough in April 1999 moved Arsenal to the top of the table for the first time in the season and victory against Tottenham Hotspur put the team three points clear as main challenger United drew with Liverpool . Both Arsenal and Manchester United went into the final two games of the league season on the same number of points , but the latter 's defeat to Leeds United all but ended their chances of retaining the title .
30 different players represented Arsenal in five competitions and there were 14 different goalscorers . Arsenal 's top goalscorer was Nicolas Anelka , who scored 19 goals in 45 appearances .
= = Background = =
In the 1997 – 98 season , Arsenal participated in the Premier League . The club made several new purchases , notably midfielders Emmanuel Petit and Marc Overmars from AS Monaco and Ajax respectively . Ian Wright scored his 179th and 180th goals for Arsenal against Bolton Wanderers in September 1997 and in the process broke Cliff Bastin 's goalscoring record at the club . A run of three defeats in four matches , starting away at Derby County in November , concluded with a 3 – 1 loss at home to Blackburn Rovers and left the team in sixth place . Although they were 12 points behind league leaders Manchester United by the end of February , a winning streak of nine matches ensured Arsenal won the championship , with a 4 – 0 win over Everton in May 1998 . At Wembley Stadium , Arsenal beat Newcastle United 2 – 0 in the 1998 FA Cup Final to win the competition and complete a domestic double .
Manager Arsène Wenger was awarded the Carling Manager of the Year award and striker Dennis Bergkamp was given the accolade of PFA Players ' Player of the Year by his fellow peers and FWA Footballer of the Year by football writers , in recognition of Arsenal 's achievements .
= = = Transfers = = =
David Platt retired from career football at the end of the 1997 – 98 season . Wright left the club to join West Ham United on a two @-@ year contract in July 1998 . Wenger intended to replace him either striker Patrick Kluivert or winger Thierry Henry , but wages and interest from other clubs proved to be a stumbling block . Defender Nelson Vivas was purchased on a £ 1 @.@ 6 million deal to provide cover for Lee Dixon and Nigel Winterburn . Swedish midfielder Fredrik Ljungberg joined the club on an undisclosed fee in September 1998 , after reported interest from Chelsea . Wenger made the decision to sign him after his performance for the Sweden national football team against England ; " I have been aware of Ljungberg for some time but after watching him against England I decided to move for him very quickly . " In January 1999 , Arsenal completed the signing of striker Nwankwo Kanu .
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the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" Mademoiselle Nobs " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Echoes , Part 2 " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
= = = 1974 theatrical version = = =
Featured on VHS , CED Selectavision and Laserdisc releases .
" Intro Song "
" Echoes , Part 1 " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" On the Run " ( studio footage ) ( from The Dark Side of the Moon , 1973 )
" Careful with That Axe , Eugene " ( from Point Me At The Sky , B @-@ side , 1968 )
" A Saucerful of Secrets " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" Us and Them " ( studio footage ) ( from The Dark Side of the Moon , 1973 )
" One of These Days " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" Brain Damage " ( studio footage ) ( from The Dark Side of the Moon , 1973 )
" Mademoiselle Nobs " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Echoes , Part 2 " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
= = = 2003 director 's cut = = =
" Echoes , Part 1 " / " On the Run " ( studio footage ) ( uncredited ) ( from Meddle / The Dark Side of the Moon , 1971 / 1973 )
" Careful with That Axe , Eugene " ( from Point Me At The Sky , B @-@ side , 1968 )
" A Saucerful of Secrets " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" Us and Them " ( studio footage ) ( from The Dark Side of the Moon , 1973 )
" One of These Days " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Mademoiselle Nobs " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Brain Damage " ( studio footage ) ( from The Dark Side of the Moon , 1973 )
" Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" Echoes , Part 2 " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
Also Known as :
Echoes : Pink Floyd ( US )
Pink Floyd in Pompeii ( Belgium )
= = Credits = =
Pink Floyd
David Gilmour : lead guitar , slide guitar , harmonica on " Mademoiselle Nobs " , vocals on " Echoes " , " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " and " A Saucerful of Secrets " , additional vocals on " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun "
Roger Waters : bass guitar , rhythm guitar on " Mademoiselle Nobs " , gong , cymbals , vocals on " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " and " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun "
Richard Wright : Hammond organ , Farfisa Compact Duo organ , piano , vocals on " Echoes "
Nick Mason : drums , percussion , vocal phrase on " One of These Days "
Based on an idea and Directed by Adrian Maben
Cinematography : Willy Kurant , Gabor Pogany
Camera : Claude Agostini , Jaques Boumendil , Henri Czap , Gérard Hameline
Sound : Charles Rauchet , Peter Watts
Script : Marie @-@ Noel Zurstrassen
Road Managers : Chris Adamson , Robert Richardson , Brian Scott
Production Directors : Marc Laurore , Leonardo Pescarolo , Hans Thorner
Editor : José Pinheiro
Assistant Editor : Marie @-@ Claire Perret
Mixer : Paul Berthault
Special Effects : Michel Francois , Michel Y Gouf
Post Production : Auditel , Eclair , Europasonor
Special thanks to : Professor Carputi ( University of Naples ) , Haroun Tazieff , Soprintendenza alle Antichità della Provincia di Napoli
Associate Producers : Michele Arnaud , Reiner Moritz
Executive Producer : Steve O 'Rourke
= = Legacy = =
The hip hop group the Beastie Boys made a music video for their song " Gratitude " that appears to be a homage to the film . Shot by David Perez in New Zealand , in addition to copying its directorial style of slow horizontal tracking shots , overhead shots of the drums , close up shots of the bass and multiple shots of guitar filling the screen , the video shows a number of speaker cabinets that the group managed to purchase , still labelled " Pink Floyd , London " . The video ends with a message that reads , " This video is dedicated to the memory of all the people who died at Pompeii . " The Beastie Boys claimed in interviews that the song and the video came about due to their desire to progress from being a straightforward hip hop group and add vintage instruments to their repertoire .
The rock band Korn filmed a similar show , Korn Live : The Encounter , in June 2010 to promote their ninth studio album , Korn III : Remember Who You Are . The show took place in a crop circle in Bakersfield , California , and had no audience beyond the crew workers .
Radiohead were noted for being fans of the film and regularly watched it when on tour . According to bassist Colin Greenwood , his brother Jonny made the whole band watch the film , saying " now this is how we should do videos , " Colin , however was critical of the direction , which he described as " Dave Gilmour sitting on his arse playing guitar and Roger Waters with long greasy hair , sandals and dusty flares , staggers over and picks up this big beater and whacks this gong . Ridiculous . "
= Disaster Transport =
Disaster Transport ( formerly Avalanche Run ) was an enclosed steel bobsled roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was notable as being the only indoor roller coaster at Cedar Point and the only bobsled roller coaster in the midwest at its debut . The name of the ride stems from " Dispatch Master Transport " . The origin of the name could still be seen in the ride 's logo in its later years . Before the ride was enclosed , the supports and outer sides of the track were painted blue .
= = History = =
Disaster Transport originally opened on May 11 , 1985 as Avalanche Run and was entirely outdoors . It was built next to the beach , on the former spot of Jumbo Jet and later , WildCat . Many other rides also had to be relocated . The original ride cost $ 3 @.@ 4 million : $ 1 @.@ 9 million to manufacture and $ 1 @.@ 5 million to install .
= = = Renovation = = =
In 1990 , ITEC Productions , Inc. was chosen to renovate the ride , completely enclosing it in a show building . The renovation included the addition of a space @-@ themed queue and ride along with special effect lighting and sound . The special effects and construction cost approximately $ 4 million . On the outside of the building , " 12 E " was written , which had caused numerous rumors as to its meanings . On August 3 , 2005 , it was revealed that it stood for the 12th ride designed by the ITEC employee , Eric .
Not long after the initial changes to the ride in 1990 , the special effects were not maintained and began to deteriorate . Most of the effects at its closure , were not active , or had been covered up . Blacklight reactant paint lined the walls , mostly in the form of handprints or outlines of scenes . These gave a 3 @-@ D appearance when the rider wore special glasses purchased at the beginning of the queue .
= = = Closure = = =
On July 13 , 2012 , Cedar Point announced that Disaster Transport would close on July 29 , 2012 . It was the second roller coaster at Cedar Point to close in 2012 . A charity auction was held for the final riders , benefiting the Give Kids the World charity foundation . The last ride was given at 11 : 53 PM on July 29 , with the lights turned on . The ride started demolition on August 6 , using about 380 trucks to transport scrap materials . A portion of track , two cars and the main entrance sign will be donated to the National Roller Coaster Museum . Less than a month later on August 29 at around 9 : 30 AM , the last section of Disaster Transport was demolished . The 12E part of the building was the last section left standing .
= = Ride experience = =
Disaster Transport was a bobsled roller coaster , meaning the wheels were not attached to a track as on a conventional roller coaster . The cars — resembling bobsleds — operated within a steel trough , on which they were allowed to operate freely . This allowed the ride to swing from side to side when turning sharp corners , as an actual bobsled would . Guests would enter 10 passenger bobsleds , secured by a lap bar . After leaving the " launch area " , the bobsled traveled up the 63 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 19 m ) lift hill at a 15 @-@ degree @-@ angle , which featured red and blue blinking lights on the sides . After reaching the top of the lift hill , it curved to the right , dropping 50 feet ( 15 m ) at a 27 @-@ degree @-@ angle and reaching a top speed of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . After that , it curved to the left into a mid course brake run . After the mid course brake run , the bobsled turned left followed by several banked turns and curves and two more brake runs . One cycle of the ride lasted about 2 minutes and 32 seconds .
= = = Theme = = =
After the ride was renovated in 1990 , a new space theme was given . The story of the ride was the passengers had been to deliver cargo from a suborbital factory to a station in Alaska . Large screen projections , simulated lasers , mist , and recordings were added to the ride . In the queue , guests would go through three rooms including Rocket Recovery , Mission Control and Repair Bay . The original entrance to the ride was located next to Troika . During HalloWeekends , the park would change the entrance of Disaster Transport to under the lift hill , leaving the one next to Troika to be used for the Halloween Haunt . For the 2009 season , the entrance was permanently changed to under the lift hill . When the entrance was changed , the Rocket Recovery and Mission Control rooms were closed , leaving the Repair Bay the only room guests walked through .
= = Building = =
The building was also used as a storage facility for the park . During HalloWeekends , much of the original queue area was used to house a haunt attraction . It was first used in 1997 for the haunt , Cedar Point Cemetery . In 2000 , it was transformed into the Egyptian themed , Pharaoh 's Secret haunted house . In 2009 , it was transformed into Happy Jack 's Toy Factory , a haunted toy factory .
The ride , though indoors , would close in any type of rain . Because of leaks in the structure , water pooled in the trough , warranting a shutdown . Typically , the ride would remain shut down after a period of rain as the crew would have to cycle several trains through the circuit in order for it to dry . Although the ride was enclosed , the storage track remained outdoors with a large door that opened when the storage track was needed .
= Simple Kind of Life =
" Simple Kind of Life " is a pop rock ballad written by Gwen Stefani for No Doubt 's fourth album Return of Saturn ( 2000 ) . The song contrasts Stefani 's desire to settle down and start a family with her commitment to the band . It received positive reviews from music critics , who noted the song 's somber melody and raw lyrics .
" Simple Kind of Life " was released as the album 's second single in June 2000 ( see 2000 in music , also " New " is a single from a soundtrack ) . It became the most successful American single from Return of Saturn , but had little international success . The accompanying music video illustrates the song 's themes of marriage and family .
= = Background and writing = =
Singer Gwen Stefani wrote and composed the track during a last minute recording session . Stefani had been writing with bassist Tony Kanal that day , and she wrote the song late at night during what she referred to as " a PMS moment " . Following " Suspension Without Suspense " , " Simple Kind of Life " became the second song that Stefani wrote by herself . The song was recorded , with no rehearsals , the following Monday . Adrian Young 's drum parts were mixed through low fidelity filters to get the feel of a lo @-@ fi power ballad .
The lyrics of " Simple Kind of Life " also discuss Stefani 's relationship with Gavin Rossdale . She describes wanting to settle down , get married , and have children . In the final verse , she even dreams about how her life would be if there were a mistake in her birth control and she became pregnant . However , she contrasts this with her commitment to music and No Doubt . Stefani describes her relationship as unhealthy because of this disparity , comparing herself to " a sick domestic abuser looking for a fight . " She ultimately decides that settling down is just a fantasy for her since her freedom and independence is more important for her .
= = Music and structure = =
" Simple Kind of Life " is a pop rock song composed in the key of C major . It is written in common time and moves at a moderate tempo of 116 beats per minute . Stefani 's vocal range in the song covers nearly an octave and a half , from G3 to C5 .
The song opens with a four @-@ measure introduction , which introduces the Dm9 @-@ Cmaj7 modal chord progression used for the song 's three verses . Following each verse is the chorus , where the harmony switches to a Cmaj7 @-@ Em7 @-@ F @-@ B ♭ progression . A bridge entirely in D minor precedes the third verse . After the third chorus comes a coda , which closes the song as Stefani repeats the phrase " a simple kind of life " ad libitum while the song fades , as the song confirms its dreamy major tonality in a series of Cmaj7 and Fmaj7 chords .
= = Critical reception = =
" Simple Kind of Life " received positive reviews from music critics . Rolling Stone described the song as being " at once grand , fragile and very , very sad " and commented that " it 's clear this woman whom many desire but few regard as a serious artist has penned a song that can sit on the same shelf with the likes of Elliott Smith and Aimee Mann . " Entertainment Weekly characterized the song as " manicured power pop " with a melody " buttery to the point of melting " . It later included the song in a list of No Doubt 's top five songs , referring to it as " musically understated ( layered guitar strumming and a melancholy melody ) , but lyrically devastating . " Slant Magazine found the song 's melodic structure odd , but was pleased by how it " unabashedly delivers double @-@ takes " . " Simple Kind of Life " was listed at number twenty @-@ eight on the 2000 Pazz & Jop list , a survey of several hundred music critics conducted by Robert Christgau .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Simple Kind of Life " was the most commercially successful single from Return of Saturn . Peaking at number 38 , it became the album 's only single to enter the Billboard Hot 100 . The song fared somewhat better in mainstream music , reaching number 32 on the Top 40 Mainstream and number 35 on the Top 40 Tracks . It had the most success with modern rock and adult contemporary stations , peaking at number 14 on the Modern Rock Tracks and number 18 on the Adult Top 40 . The single was a commercial failure outside of the U.S. It debuted at the bottom of the Dutch Mega Single Top 100 in mid @-@ June 2000 . It climbed up two positions the next week but exited the chart after its third week .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Sophie Muller . It opens with a scene of Stefani and Kanal holding each other . During the chorus , she runs to a church while wearing a wedding dress designed after a fashion show by John Galliano , while her bandmates run after her . During the next verse , Stefani and guitarist Tom Dumont sit on a couch , and Stefani gets up on the table while Dumont plays an acoustic guitar . Stefani has a nightmare during the second chorus , in which she is in an endless hall full of wedding cakes , attempting to stop her bandmates from destroying them . There is then a dream sequence in which Stefani is backlit in front of a circle of stars . She sits with Young for the third verse , during which point in time a light in the shape of a birth control pills flashes , with one missing pill . This coincides with her line " Sometime I wished / For a mistake , " referencing her desire to get pregnant . In the video , Young quickly stands up and leaves after her line " You seem like you 'd be a good dad " to play with Dumont and Kanal . The band walks through a cemetery , and Stefani finds a baby . Her bandmates extend their arms to hold the baby , but Stefani hands the baby off to a woman and enters her trailer to remove her makeup .
Muller was staying with Stefani when the song was written , so Stefani stated that " it was obvious that she would be the one to do the video " when Stefani played Muller the song after writing it . Muller designed the video around the song 's lyrics because she felt that " there are very few [ songs ] that reveal as much in their lyrics " . The scenes were storyboarded so that Muller could give the band a chance to act out the scenes more . She set the band members up with props and filmed after giving loose
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suggestions . Muller originally intended for the dream sequence to show Stefani over a sea of orange juice but changed the scene based on Stefani 's performance .
The music video was unsuccessful on video chart programs . It debuted at number seven on MTV 's Total Request Live on April 24 , 2000 . The video made two more appearances later that week but was unable to reach a higher position and dropped out of the countdown . It was unable to chart on MuchMusic 's Countdown .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= Move Like This =
Move Like This is the seventh , and , to date , final studio album by American rock band The Cars , released on May 10 , 2011 . The album is their first since 1987 's Door to Door and features all of the original band members except for bassist and vocalist Benjamin Orr , who died of pancreatic cancer in 2000 . The album reached the top ten of the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart ; a single from the album , " Sad Song " , reached number 33 on the Billboard Rock Songs chart . Following the release of the album , the band launched an eleven @-@ city tour of North America .
= = Background = =
Move Like This is the first reunion of The Cars to feature original lead singer , songwriter , rhythm guitarist , and co @-@ producer Ric Ocasek since their 1988 split . In 1997 , Ocasek told a journalist that the band would never reunite : " I 'm saying never and you can count on that . " A partial reunion of the band occurred in 2005 when keyboardist Greg Hawkes and lead guitarist Elliot Easton toured with singer Todd Rundgren , drummer Prairie Prince and bassist Kasim Sulton as " The New Cars " ; neither Ocasek nor Cars drummer David Robinson participated , and the Rundgren lineup split following two years of touring .
According to Paste magazine , Ocasek said that he was " amazed at how we clicked when we got back together . " Exclaim ! has noted that The Cars ' Facebook page featured a picture of producer Jacknife Lee , " which suggests that he will be producing the new album . " According to Rolling Stone , Lee produced five of the songs from the album ; The Cars themselves produced the others .
The Cars did not add a new bassist to the lineup to replace Orr ; instead , the album 's bass parts were programmed or performed by Hawkes and Lee , with Hawkes playing a bass once owned by Orr . While Ocasek and Orr split vocal duties on past albums , Ocasek sings lead on all the tracks from Move Like This . In a Rolling Stone interview , Ocasek said , " I was aware that on half of the new songs , Ben would have done better than I did . But we never wanted anybody from the outside . " Orr was given special thanks in the liner notes : " Ben , your spirit was with us on this one . "
According to Billboard , the album was recorded in engineer Paul Orofino 's studio in Millbrook , New York . Additional recording sessions were held in Los Angeles . The title of the album comes from a line in the song " Too Late " ; one of the working titles for the album was Sharp Subtle Flavor . Ocasek decided to title the album Move Like This as a reference to the band 's reputation for not moving around very much onstage .
= = Release and reception = =
In October 2010 , the band released a one @-@ minute clip of " Sad Song " and a 73 @-@ second sample of another track from the album , " Blue Tip " , on their Facebook page ; a snippet from a third track , " Free " , was later posted on the band 's page . FMQB described " Free " as a " return to the classic Cars sound that fans know and love . "
On February 17 , 2011 , the band posted the full video for " Blue Tip " on their Facebook page . The first single , released in March , was the track " Sad Song " . Exclaim ! magazine comments that " [ d ] espite the title and lyrics , it doesn 't sound particularly sad , as it contains a cheery beat and a catchy mix of synths and guitars . "
Move Like This was released on May 10 , 2011 , and debuted at # 7 on the Billboard 200 albums chart . The album received generally positive reviews from critics : in a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Rolling Stone praised the " skillful restraint " of the band and Lee 's production work , describing the album as " taut , sleek , seamless , [ and ] efficient " . The A.V. Club awarded the album a " B " rating , praising the " catchy " " Blue Tip " and " Sad Song " , and noting the latter song 's similarity to " My Best Friend 's Girl " from the band 's 1978 debut . Allmusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine rated the album four out of five stars , describing the album as " as bright , infectious , and tuneful as the Cars at their prime . " Spin , however , granted the album a 5 out of 10 rating , criticizing the " clunkiness " of Ocasek 's lyrics . NPR 's Elizabeth Nelson called Move Like This a " fine new album " and singled out " Blue Tip " as " an incandescent pop gem " with a " brilliant " musical structure and " an absolutely relentless sing @-@ along chorus " .
= = North American tour = =
In April 2011 , the band announced a North American tour to support the album . The eleven @-@ city tour began May 10 in Seattle and concluded May 26 at the House of Blues in Boston . The performances and set lists were met with mixed reviews : Hollywood Reporter reviewer Erik Pedersen found Move Like This to be a " surprisingly good " album but described the May 12 Hollywood Palladium show as " icy " and unenthusiastic . San Jose Mercury News reviewer Jim Harrington described the band 's performance at Oakland 's Fox Theater as " incredibly flat and dispassionate " , but praised the band 's " solid " musicianship .
Songs performed on the tour include Move Like This tracks " Blue Tip " , " Keep on Knocking " , " Sad Song " , " Free " , " Drag on Forever " and " Hits Me " , as well as material from the band 's 1970s and 1980s albums . On the tour , Orr 's bass parts were performed by Hawkes on keyboard and bass ; the vocals on songs originally sung by Orr ( " Just What I Needed " , " Let 's Go " and " Moving in Stereo " ) were performed by Ocasek .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ric Ocasek , except where noted .
= = = Best Buy edition = = =
This enhanced CD also has videos for " Sad Song " and " Blue Tip " . " Rocket USA " is a cover of a 1977 song by the American band Suicide , from their self @-@ titled debut .
= = = iTunes edition = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Tulip mania =
Tulip mania or tulipomania ( Dutch names include : tulpenmanie , tulpomanie , tulpenwoede , tulpengekte and bollengekte ) was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for bulbs of the recently introduced tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then suddenly collapsed .
At the peak of tulip mania , in March 1637 , some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled craftsman . It is generally considered the first recorded speculative bubble ( or economic bubble ) , although some researchers have noted that the Kipper- und Wipperzeit episode in 1619 – 22 , a Europe @-@ wide chain of debasement of the metal content of coins to fund warfare , featured mania @-@ like similarities to a bubble . The term " tulip mania " is now often used metaphorically to refer to any large economic bubble when asset prices deviate from intrinsic values .
The 1637 event was popularized in 1841 by the book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds , written by British journalist Charles Mackay . According to Mackay , at one point 12 acres ( 5 ha ) of land were offered for a Semper Augustus bulb . Mackay claims that many such investors were ruined by the fall in prices , and Dutch commerce suffered a severe shock . Although Mackay 's book is a classic , his account is contested . Many modern scholars feel that the mania was not as extraordinary as Mackay described and argue that not enough price data are available to prove that a tulip bulb bubble actually occurred .
Research is difficult because of the limited economic data from the 1630s — much of which come from biased and very speculative sources . Some modern economists have proposed rational explanations , rather than a speculative mania , for the rise and fall in prices . For example , other flowers , such as the hyacinth , also had high initial prices at the time of their introduction , which immediately fell . The high asset prices may also have been driven by expectations of a parliamentary decree that contracts could be voided for a small cost — thus lowering the risk to buyers .
= = History = =
The introduction of the tulip to Europe is usually attributed to Ogier de Busbecq , the ambassador of Ferdinand I , Holy Roman Emperor to the Sultan of Turkey , who sent the first tulip bulbs and seeds to Vienna in 1554 from the Ottoman Empire . Tulip bulbs were soon distributed from Vienna to Augsburg , Antwerp and Amsterdam . Its popularity and cultivation in the United Provinces ( now the Netherlands ) is generally thought to have started in earnest around 1593 after the Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius had taken up a post at the University of Leiden and established the hortus academicus . He planted his collection of tulip bulbs and found they were able to tolerate the harsher conditions of the Low Countries ; shortly thereafter the tulip began to grow in popularity .
The tulip was different from every other flower known to Europe at that time , with a saturated intense petal color that no other plant had . The appearance of the nonpareil tulip as a status symbol at this time coincides with the rise of newly independent Holland 's trade fortunes . No longer the Spanish Netherlands , its economic resources could now be channeled into commerce and the country embarked on its Golden Age . Amsterdam merchants were at the center of the lucrative East Indies trade , where one voyage could yield profits of 400 % . The new merchant class displayed and validated its success , primarily by setting up grand estates surrounded by flower gardens , and the plant that had pride of place was the sensational tulip .
As a result , tulips rapidly became a coveted luxury item , and a profusion of varieties followed . They were classified in groups : the single @-@ hued tulips of red , yellow , or white were known as Couleren ; the multicolored Rosen ( white streaks on a red or pink background ) ; Violetten ( white streaks on a purple or lilac background ) ; and the rarest of all , the Bizarden ( Bizarres ) , ( yellow or white streaks on a red , brown or purple background ) . The multicolor effects of intricate lines and flame @-@ like streaks on the petals were vivid and spectacular and made the bulbs that produced these even more exotic @-@ looking plants highly sought @-@ after . It is now known that this effect is due to the bulbs being infected with a type of tulip @-@ specific mosaic virus , known as the " Tulip breaking virus " , so called because it " breaks " the one petal color into two or more .
The biology of the tulip was itself a contributor to the supply @-@ squeeze that fueled the speculation , in that it is grown from a bulb that cannot be produced quickly . Normally it takes 7 – 12 years to grow a flowering bulb from seed ; bulbs can produce both seeds and two or three bud clones , or offsets , annually , but the " mother bulb " lasts only a few years . Properly cultivated , the " daughter offsets " will become flowering bulbs after one to three years . Before the demand for the " broken " tulips , virus @-@ free bulbs producing ordinary single @-@ color varieties were sold by the pound . Once affected by the virus , the " broken " exotics were an extremely limited commodity because the sought @-@ after " breaking pattern " can only be reproduced through offsets , not seeds , as only the bulb is affected by the mosaic virus . Unfortunately , the virus that produced the sought @-@ after effects also acted adversely on the bulb , weakening it and retarding propagation of offsets , so cultivating the most appealing varieties now took even longer . Taking this into account , quite probably from the time the speculation started until its collapse , the number of rare bulbs that changed hands so feverishly never increased beyond the original number .
The beautiful effects of the virus made the flamboyant and extravagant plants highly coveted , and because they were rare and desirable , they were expensive . Given that , it is not surprising growers named their new varieties with exalted titles . Many early forms were prefixed Admirael ( " admiral " ) , often combined with the growers ' names : Admirael van der Eijck for example , was perhaps the most highly regarded of about fifty so named . Generael ( " general " ) was another prefix used for around thirty varieties . Later varieties were given even more extravagant names , derived from Alexander the Great or Scipio , or even " Admiral of Admirals " and " General of Generals " . However , naming could be haphazard and varieties highly variable in quality . Most of these varieties have now died out , though virus @-@ free variegated @-@ bred tulips continue in the trade .
In the Northern Hemisphere , tulips bloom in April and May for about one week . During the plant 's dormant phase from ( Northern Hemisphere ) June to September , bulbs can be uprooted and moved about , so actual purchases ( in the spot market ) occurred during these months . During the rest of the year , florists , or tulip traders , signed contracts before a notary to buy tulips at the end of the season ( effectively futures contracts ) . Thus the Dutch , who developed many of the techniques of modern finance , created a market for tulip bulbs , which were durable goods . Short selling was banned by an edict of 1610 , which was reiterated or strengthened in 1621 and 1630 , and again in 1636 . Short sellers were not prosecuted under these edicts , but their contracts were deemed unenforceable .
As the flowers grew in popularity , professional growers paid higher and higher prices for bulbs with the virus , and prices rose steadily . By 1634 , in part as a result of demand from the French , speculators began to enter the market . The contract price of rare bulbs continued to rise throughout 1636 , but by November , the price of common , " unbroken " bulbs also began to increase , so that soon any tulip bulb could fetch hundreds of guilders . That year the Dutch created a type of formal futures market where contracts to buy bulbs at the end of the season were bought and sold . Traders met in " colleges " at taverns and buyers were required to pay a 2 @.@ 5 % " wine money " fee , up to a maximum of three guilders per trade . Neither party paid an initial margin nor a mark @-@ to @-@ market margin , and all contracts were with the individual counter @-@ parties rather than with the Exchange . The Dutch described tulip contract trading as windhandel ( literally " wind trade " ) , because no bulbs were actually changing hands . The entire business was accomplished on the margins of Dutch economic life , not in the Exchange itself .
By 1636 the tulip bulb became the fourth leading export product of the Netherlands , after gin , herrings and cheese . The price of tulips skyrocketed because of speculation in tulip futures among people who never saw the bulbs . Many men made and lost fortunes overnight .
Tulip mania reached its peak during the winter of 1636 – 37 , when some bulbs were reportedly changing hands ten times in a day . No deliveries were ever made to fulfil any of these contracts , because in February 1637 , tulip bulb contract prices collapsed abruptly and the trade of tulips ground to a halt . The collapse began in Haarlem , when , for the first time , buyers apparently refused to show up at a routine bulb auction . This may have been because Haarlem was then at the height of an outbreak of bubonic plague . While the existence of the plague may have helped create a culture of fatalistic risk @-@ taking that allowed the speculation to skyrocket in the first place , this outbreak might also have helped to burst the bubble .
= = Available price data = =
The lack of consistently recorded price data from the 1630s makes the extent of the tulip mania difficult to estimate . The bulk of available data comes from anti @-@ speculative pamphlets by " Gaergoedt and Warmondt " ( GW ) written just after the bubble . Economist Peter Garber collected data on the sales of 161 bulbs of 39 varieties between 1633 and 1637 , with 53 being recorded by GW . Ninety @-@ eight sales were recorded for the last date of the bubble , 5 February 1637 , at wildly varying prices . The sales were made using several market mechanisms : futures trading at the colleges , spot sales by growers , notarized futures sales by growers , and estate sales . " To a great extent , the available price data are a blend of apples and oranges " , according to Garber .
= = Mackay 's Madness of Crowds = =
The modern discussion of tulip mania began with the book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds , published in 1841 by the Scottish journalist Charles Mackay ; he proposed that crowds of people often behave irrationally , and tulip mania was , along with the South Sea Bubble and the Mississippi Company scheme , one of his primary examples . His account was largely sourced from a 1797 work by Johann Beckmann titled A History of Inventions , Discoveries , and Origins . In fact , Beckmann 's account , and thus Mackay 's by derivation , was primarily sourced to three anonymous pamphlets published in 1637 with an anti @-@ speculative agenda . Mackay 's vivid book was popular among generations of economists and stock market participants . His popular but flawed description of tulip mania as a speculative bubble remains prominent , even though since the 1980s economists have debunked many aspects of his account .
According to Mackay , the growing popularity of tulips in the early 17th century caught the attention of the entire nation ; " the population , even to its lowest dregs , embarked in the tulip trade " . By 1635 , a sale of 40 bulbs for 100 @,@ 000 florins ( also known as Dutch guilders ) was recorded . By way of comparison , a ton of butter cost around 100 florins , a skilled laborer might earn 150 florins a year , and " eight fat swine " cost 240 florins . ( According to the International Institute of Social History , one florin had the purchasing power of € 10 @.@ 28 in 2002 . )
By 1636 tulips were traded on the exchanges of numerous Dutch towns and cities . This encouraged trading in tulips by all members of society ; Mackay recounted people selling or trading their other possessions in order to speculate in the tulip market , such as an offer of 12 acres ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) of
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doing a Led Zeppelin III on acoustic tracks like ' Corduroy ' and turning in a Tom Waits @-@ like weird attack on ' Bugs ' " .
Three singles were released from Vitalogy . The lead single " Spin the Black Circle " ( backed with B @-@ side " Tremor Christ " , also from the album ) , was the band 's first to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching number 18 . At the 1996 Grammy Awards , " Spin the Black Circle " won the band its first Grammy Award , receiving the award for Best Hard Rock Performance . Neither of the album 's other commercially released singles , " Not for You " and " Immortality " , charted on the Hot 100 , but both placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . Album tracks " Better Man " and " Corduroy " also charted . " Better Man " was the most successful song from Vitalogy on the rock charts , spending a total of eight weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock charts and reaching number two on the Modern Rock charts . At the 1996 Grammy Awards , Vitalogy received nominations for Album of the Year and Best Rock Album . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 492 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The album was listed at number 485 on the magazine 's revised list in 2012 . In May 2014 , Loudwire placed Vitalogy at number ten on its " 10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994 " list . In July 2014 Guitar World placed the album on its " Superunknown : 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994 " list .
In 2011 Pearl Jam released a remastered Vitalogy , along with Vs . , in three formats : an Expanded Version , a three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition and a Limited Edition Collector 's Boxed Set . The Expanded Version will feature three bonus tracks : the previously unreleased guitar / organ @-@ only mix of " Better Man " ; a previously unreleased alternate take of " Corduroy " from the Vitalogy session ( recorded by Brendan O 'Brien ) ; and a previously unreleased demo version of " Nothingman " , taken from the original DAT ( recorded at John and Stu 's in Seattle on October 14 , 1993 , featuring Richard Stuverud on drums ) . The three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition will feature both the Legacy Versions of Vitalogy and Vs. with their bonus tracks and a copy of Live at the Orpheum Theater , Boston , April 12 , 1994 .
= = Packaging = =
The original title for the album was Life . The first single , " Spin the Black Circle " , was released before the album was released , and on the back of the single it states " From the Epic album Life . " The album title Vitalogy comes from an early twentieth @-@ century medical book on which the cover art and liner notes are based . Vitalogy literally means " the study of life . "
Vedder found the medical book at a garage sale . Ament stated , " Ed brought in that book , and we said man that would make a great album cover . " He explained that from Vs. onwards the band tried to take different approaches to packaging its records . Ament said , " We tried really hard , to make it like a book , kind of tipped it so it opened horizontally , which pissed off record stores : they had to put it in sideways . " The packaging cost an extra 50 cents per copy . Problems arose when the band discovered that later versions of the book were still under copyright . The band had to confer with their lawyers in order to work out a final version utilizing the material they wanted to include with the album .
The booklet contains outdated discussions of health and well @-@ being . Other notes in the booklet , dealing with life and death reflections , seem to be more personal , like a message typed on one of the last pages , supposedly referring to the loss of a loved one ( " I waited all day. you waited all day .. but you left before sunset ... and I just wanted to tell you the moment was beautiful . Just wanted to dance to bad music ... drive bad cars ... watch bad TV ... should have stayed for the sunset ... if not for me . " ) . The booklet also displays some poems or original sayings not belonging to the songs ' lyrics , but to be interpreted as a commentary to the songs and , again , as a reflection on how life should or shouldn 't be lived . An example is the poem typed on the " Aye Davanita " page . The song 's subtitle is " The song without words " , as it is an instrumental track . But the page displays a sort of poem about the wasted life of a young girl . Another episode of " intruder words " is on the " Not for You " lyrics page . After the second refrain , instead of the actual lyrics , the typed words give a hint about the Sisyphus myth ( " Yeah , you call me Sisyphus love . Yeah , I move the rock . I just don 't want to talk about moving the rock . Anything that distracts me from moving the rock " ) . The lyrics to " Whipping " are written on a copy of a petition to Bill Clinton against " pro @-@ life " killings of abortion doctors . An X @-@ ray of Vedder 's teeth was pictured instead of lyrics on the page for " Corduroy " .
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Asia , Oceania , and the United States in 1995 . The band was joined by new drummer Jack Irons . The short tour of the United States focused on the Midwest and the West Coast . The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its tour of the United States , refusing to play in Ticketmaster 's venue areas , but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined it in refusing to play at Ticketmaster venues . The band chose to use alternate ticketing companies for the shows .
The tour of the United States faced various troubles . Ament said that the band and its crew had to " [ build ] shows from the ground up , a venue everywhere we went . " In June 1995 , the band was scheduled to play at San Francisco , California 's Golden Gate Park in front of 50 @,@ 000 people . Before the concert Vedder was forced to stay at a hospital after suffering from the effects of food poisoning . Vedder left the hospital to play the show , however he was not able to finish and ended up performing just seven out of twenty @-@ one songs with the band . Neil Young filled in for Vedder for the rest of the show that day . Vedder said , " That whole [ Golden Gate Park ] thing was a blur based on some bad food . It was really , really bad . Looking back at it , it doesn 't seem as intense as it was , but it was horrible . I just felt not human and looking back I should have got through that show somehow , and I think the fact that Neil [ Young ] was there made me feel like I could get off the hook in some way and I did go out for a few songs . " Because of Vedder 's health the band was forced to cancel the remaining dates of its tour of the United States . Some dates were reinstated while the rest were rescheduled for the fall . About canceling the dates , Vedder said , " I think we all agreed that it had gotten insane , that it was no longer about the music . " Ament later said , " We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour . Had to prove we could tour on our own , and it pretty much killed us , killed our career . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder . All music is credited to Pearl Jam with the exceptions as ( * ) . Actual music composers listed below .
Reissue bonus tracks
All lyrics written by Vedder .
= = Outtakes = =
" Hard to Imagine " , a song previously rejected from Vs . , was also recorded during the Vitalogy sessions . This version found its way on to the soundtrack for the 1998 film , Chicago Cab . " Hard to Imagine " is also included on the 2003 rarities compilation , Lost Dogs , however that version is the one from the Vs. sessions . According to Gossard , " Hard to Imagine " was cut from Vitalogy because it didn 't fit with the other songs the band was writing at the time . " Out of My Mind " , which is featured as a B @-@ side on the " Not for You " single , was premiered on the band 's 1994 spring tour of the United States and was played twice . According to Vedder , the song was just a live improv .
= = Chart history = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Personnel = =
= Heat ( perfume ) =
Heat is a perfume endorsed by Beyoncé . It was created by her alongside Claude Dir and Olivier Gillotin of the company Givaudan . The product , which was released on February 3 , 2010 , uses the tagline " catch the fever " . The release was promoted with a cover version of " Fever " recorded by Beyoncé and a limited edition extended play ( EP ) also titled Heat . She also appeared at Macy 's Herald Square to launch the perfume and on The Today Show where she discussed about Heat .
The fragrance 's commercial , directed by director Jake Nava and released in December 2009 , spawned controversy for its sexually explicit imagery , and was only allowed nighttime broadcast in the United Kingdom . Macy 's sold US $ 3 million worth of Heat between early February and early March 2010 . It received mixed reviews from critics , and it was nominated at several fragrance award ceremonies .
Heat was followed by five additional releases : Heat Ultimate Elixir meant to capture a more private side of the entertainer , Heat Rush intended as a daytime fragrance , Midnight Heat , a night fragrance , Heat The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour , a limited product dedicated to the tour of that name and Heat Wild Orchid , a floral update of the original . Each scent was followed with its own Eau De Parfum release and multiple gift sets . In 2013 , in addition to becoming the best @-@ selling celebrity @-@ branded fragrance line , the perfumes went on to become the third best @-@ selling fragrance worldwide with $ 400 million earned at retail globally .
= = Conception = =
= = = Development = = =
In December 2009 , Beyoncé announced that she would release her first fragrance , titled Heat , the following year . Prior to releasing the fragrance , she had collaborated with Tommy Hilfiger on his perfume True Star in 2004 and Giorgio Armani 's Diamonds for which she also appeared in several promotional campaigns . Beyoncé created the fragrance in 2009 with the testing of its smell done by Coty , Inc .. Beyoncé presented Heat to her fans during backstage meetings on her I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 @-@ 10 ) . It was released in the United States on February 3 , 2010 . According to Beyoncé 's official parfum website , Heat is a " captivating fragrance that unleashes a spirited fire within . " It was also described as " a unique expression of a woman 's powerful sensuality : sexy , elegant yet feminine with an air of mystery " , summing up that the fragrance reflects " a self @-@ assured woman , who is not afraid to desire and to be desired . " Beyoncés ' official perfume website also described Heat as an " alluring [ and ] modern fragrance ... [ which ] embodies a compelling spirit " .
In a behind the scenes video , Beyoncé revealed the reason behind naming the fragrance Heat . According to her , it was because the scent comes off as " infectious " , further elaborating : " It 's like something you can 't get enough of . It 's hot , it 's sexy , it definitely makes you feel like you caught the fever . " She additionally stated that her favorite fragrance notes are red vanilla orchid , due to its " sexy " and " spicy " smell , and honeysuckle , due to its " sensual " and " sweet " smell . She concluded : " It was a lot of work but I was really really happy and I think it 's something I 'll be proud of 20 years from now . " During an interview with Teen Vogue , Beyoncé stated that she loved the perfume because it featured notes of orchid , her favorite flower . She further said that it was suitable for her alter ego Sasha Fierce as it was " fiery " .
= = = Packaging and scent = = =
Heat is packaged in a red triangular bottle . The top of the bottle is edged with a gold band and the words " Beyoncé " and " Heat " and the cap is etched with the letter B. The scent has been described as floral , fruity and woody , and it was marketed as both " feminine and irresistible " by the entertainer 's official perfume website . The fragrance is described as having top notes of vanilla , magnolia , neroli and peach ; middle notes of almond macaroon , honeysuckle and musk ; and base notes with " a warm and sexy dry @-@ down " of giant sequoia milkwood , tonka bean and amber . Reviewers particularly identified tonka bean , neroli and almond , along with woody and floral notes . Following the release of Heat , Beyoncé described its bottle design , scent and inspiration in depth , as follows :
A lot of my performances have had fire involved , so we thought ' Heat . ' Also , red is one of my favorite colors , as is gold . So then we thought of making the bottle look like it 's on fire . I love antique bottles — my mother had a collection of them when I was growing up . I wanted something with an antique yet modern feeling . Even with my wardrobe , I always try to find things that have a little bit of something vintage , yet still timeless and classic . The bottle , I felt , was a great mixture of the two ... Everything , from the bottle design to the name and the ideas for the commercials – that 's me . When I commit to something , I do it 100 percent , and I 've never had [ creative control over a fragrance ] until this project . I learned a lot of great things from the past — but I always asked myself , ' If I could have my own scent , what would it be ? ' I wasn 't worried about deadlines . It could have taken me three , four , however many years — this was my first fragrance , and I wanted to make sure that it was something I would love forever .
Products
100 ml / 3 @.@ 4 oz
50 ml / 1 @.@ 7 oz
30 ml / 1 @.@ 0 oz
15 ml / 0 @.@ 5 oz
Body Lotion 200 ml / 6 @.@ 7 oz
Shower Gel 200 ml / 6 @.@ 7 oz
Sparkling Body Mist 125 ml / 4 @.@ 2 oz
= = Promotion = =
In November 2009 , the print advertising for Heat was shot by Michael Thompson , who described Beyoncé as " sultry " on the poster . The image shows her in a seductive pose and wearing a red satin dressing gown under the tagline " Catch the fever " . Thompson revealed in a behind the scenes look at the shoot for the fragrance , that he wanted to capture Beyoncé " in her true essence " , where she " generates heat " and is just " sensual and fun and full of energy . " A writer of Rap @-@ Up praised her look , saying that she was " burning up " the print . The advertisement was published in fashion , beauty and lifestyle magazines in February 2010 . On February 3 , 2010 , Beyoncé launched the scent at Macy 's Herald Square in New York City , where she posed for photos and signed autographs for fans . Heat was released in 2 @,@ 000 department and specialty store doors in the United States . The collection was also released in Canada and Latin America in February 2010 with additional global distribution in Europe , Asia and Australia in August 2010 . On February 9 , 2010 , Beyoncé appeared on The Today Show where she talked about Heat . From January 15 , 2011 to February 15 , 2011 , Seventeen magazine gave away 10 @,@ 000 free samples of Heat . A sample of the fragrance was given for each copy of the February 2011 issue of the magazine bought . A sample of Heat was distributed alongside each copy of Beyoncé 's live album , I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) and her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . Industry sources estimated that Coty Beauty spent a total of $ 20 million on advertising and promotion of the perfume the first year after its release .
= = = Commercial = = =
The television commercial for Heat was directed by Jake Nava , who previously directed Beyoncé 's videos for her singles " Crazy In Love " , " Baby Boy " , " Beautiful Liar " , " If I Were a Boy " , and " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . Trey Laird was the executive creative director , while Hans Dorsinville was the creative director of the video . Laird stated that the main theme of the commercial was that Beyoncé should appear " sexy and a little bit dangerous " , but in a " sophisticated and elegant way " . Released on television channels in December 2009 , the commercial is set to Beyoncé 's cover version of " Fever " ( 2010 ) playing in the background . It features her in the same red satin kimono that she has worn on the print advertisement . The dress has been described as " revealing " . Beyoncé is seen sweating profusely in a steamy bathroom while in one of the scenes , she is seen seemingly enjoying herself in a bath .
Nava praised Beyoncé 's acting in the commercial , stating : " She 's so scorchingly hot that even when she touches the floor with her dangerous high @-@ heels , she kind of sets her world on fire . " In an interview with Women 's Wear Daily , Beyoncé described the sexual tone of the video stating : " ' It 's called Heat , so we wanted the ads to be really steamy and dewy . My sexiest moments are when I 'm just getting out of the tub or the shower and I 'm clean , so I wanted to incorporate that in the ads . The dress was this liquid @-@ y satin . The song Fever I did years ago and always loved it . [ For the commercial ] I got to sing it a bit more whispery , more natural . " " Fever " was re @-@ recorded by Beyoncé on two different occasions . Knowles first recorded her version of " Fever " on September 9 , 2003 for her film The Fighting Temptations . Before the release of Heat , she recorded " Fever " again for the fragrance 's television commercial . After the launch of Heat , the latter version of the song was officially released as a promotional single to the US iTunes Store through Columbia Records on February 8 , 2010 , to promote the fragrance . It was made available digitally in the United Kingdom the following day .
The commercial for the fragrance found controversy in the United Kingdom with UK 's Advertising Standards Authority . It was banned from the country 's daytime TV rotation due to its " sexy imagery " and was only shown after 7 : 30 in the afternoon . The U.K. ' s Advertising Standards Authority commented on the ban decision , stating " We considered that Beyoncé 's body movements and the camera 's prolonged focus on shots of her dress slipping away to partially expose her breasts created a sexually provocative ad that was unsuitable to be seen by young children . " Coty , Inc . , the world 's largest fragrance company , replied to the ban , stating that they do not think there is anything too explicit about the TV spot . Coty continued that the commercial was " intended to reflect the singer Beyoncé 's personal ' sexy chic ' style , " and while Beyoncé 's cleavage is exposed at certain parts of the commercial , Coty stated that it is not " overtly graphic or explicitly sexual and at no point was Beyoncé naked . " Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly defended Beyoncé , saying that " [ the advertisement ] is sexy . It 's suggestive and sultry . But it 's certainly not X @-@ rated . " Beyoncé 's mother and collaborator Tina Knowles called the commercial 's ban " very good " , as people purposely went to watch the video which further increased sales . Beyoncé herself also responded jokingly to the ban , saying , " Where 's the wind coming from ? It started out only [ to stay cool ] , and then it kind of created this effect with my hair ... You can only imagine , the show is two and a half hours . It 's really , really warm onstage . "
= = Reception = =
Amy Odell of New York magazine gave Heat 's scent a negative review . She criticized the fragrance 's packaging as being very similar to that of K @-@ Y Jelly . She stated : " Once on the skin , the scent transformed in a matter of just a few minutes from something floral @-@ y and vaguely acceptable to an offensive mix of car fumes and that vanilla body spray Victoria 's Secret used to sell to 12 @-@ year @-@ olds " , then adding that the perfume 's logo and gold swirls " sway too similar to that of KY Jelly 's " , before concluding that " calling to mind sex is kind of Beyoncé 's thing , which is why this fragrance could just be a smashing success . " Holly Siegel of The New York Times complimented the fragrance 's scent of " floral @-@ fruity @-@ woody blend and
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premiere was held on 12 June 1985 at the Odeon Leicester Square Cinema in London . The film was first broadcast on British television on 31 January 1990 . It achieved a box office collection of US $ 152 @.@ 4 million worldwide with $ 50 @.@ 3 million in the United States alone . On its opening weekend in the US it earned $ 10 @.@ 6 million . Although its box office reception was excellent , the film 's critical response was mostly negative . Rotten Tomatoes currently gives A View to a Kill a 36 % " Rotten " rating , which is the lowest rating for the Eon @-@ produced Bond films on the website .
One of the most common criticisms was that Roger Moore was 57 at the time of filming – and had visibly aged in the two years that had passed since Octopussy . The Washington Post critic said " Moore isn 't just long in the tooth – he 's got tusks , and what looks like an eye job has given him the pie @-@ eyed blankness of a zombie . He 's not believable anymore in the action sequences , even less so in the romantic scenes – it 's like watching women fall all over Gabby Hayes . " Sean Connery declared that " Bond should be played by an actor 35 , 33 years old . I 'm too old . Roger 's too old , too ! " In a December 2007 interview , Roger Moore remarked , " I was only about four hundred years too old for the part . "
Moore also stated that , at the time , A View to a Kill was his least favourite Bond film , and mentioned that he was mortified to find out that he was older than his female co @-@ star 's mother . He was quoted saying " I was horrified on the last Bond I did . Whole slews of sequences where Christopher Walken was machine @-@ gunning hundreds of people . I said ' That wasn 't Bond , those weren 't Bond films . ' It stopped being what they were all about . You didn 't dwell on the blood and the brains spewing all over the place " .
Pauline Kael of The New Yorker said " The James Bond series has had its bummers , but nothing before in the class of A View to a Kill . You go to a Bond picture expecting some style or , at least , some flash , some lift ; you don 't expect the dumb police @-@ car crashes you get here . You do see some ingenious daredevil feats , but they 're crowded together and , the way they 're set up , they don 't give you the irresponsible , giddy tingle you 're hoping for . " Kael also singled out the dispirited direction and the hopeless script . " Director John Glen stages the slaughter scenes so apathetically that the picture itself seems dissociated . ( I don 't think I 've ever seen another movie in which race horses were mistreated and the director failed to work up any indignation . If Glen has any emotions about what he puts on the screen , he keeps them to himself . ) "
Lawrence O 'Toole of Maclean 's believed it was one of the series ' best entries . " Of all the modern formulas in the movie industry , the James Bond series is among the most pleasurable and durable . Lavish with their budgets , the producers also bring a great deal of craft , wit and a sense of fun to the films . Agent 007 is like an old friend whom an audience meets for drinks every two years or so ; he regales them with tall tales , winking all the time . The 14th and newest Bond epic , A View to a Kill , is an especially satisfying encounter . Opening with a breathtaking ski chase in Siberia , A View to a Kill is the fastest Bond picture yet . Its pace has the precision of a Swiss watch and the momentum of a greyhound on the track . There is a spectacular chase up and down the Eiffel Tower and through Paris streets , which Bond finishes in a severed car on just two wheels . But none of the action prepares the viewer for the heart @-@ stopping climax with Zorin 's dirigible tangled in the cables on top of San Francisco 's Golden Gate Bridge . " And although O 'Toole believed that Moore was showing his age in the role , " there are plenty of tunes left in his violin . James Bond is still a virtuoso , with a licence to thrill . "
Brian J. Arthurs of The Beach Reporter said it was the worst film of the Bond series . C. Pea of the Time Out Film Guide said , " Grace Jones is badly wasted . " Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the worst Bond film , while IGN picked as the fourth worst , and Entertainment Weekly as the fifth worst .
Bond historian John Brosnan believed A View to a Kill was Moore 's best Bond entry . He said Moore looked in better shape than the previous Bond film , Octopussy . Brosnan especially admired the dirigible finale .
Danny Peary had mixed feelings about A View to a Kill but was generally complimentary : " Despite what reviewers automatically reported , [ Moore ] looks trimmer and more energetic than in some of the previous efforts ... I wish Bond had a few more of his famous gadgets on hand , but his actions scenes are exciting and some of the stunt work is spectacular . Walken 's the first Bond villain who is not so much an evil person as a crazed neurotic . I find him more memorable than some of the more recent Bond foes ... Unfortunately , the filmmakers – who ruined villain Jaws by making him a nice guy in Moonraker – make the mistake of switching Mayday at the end from Bond 's nemesis to his accomplice , depriving us of a slam @-@ bang fight to the finish between the two ( I suppose gentleman Bond isn 't allowed to kill women , even a monster like Mayday ) ... [ The film ] lacks the flamboyance of earlier Bond films , and has a terrible slapstick chase sequence in San Francisco , but overall it 's fast @-@ paced , fairly enjoyable , and a worthy entry in the series . " .
Also among the more positive reviews was Movie Freaks 365 's Kyle Bell : " Good ol ' Roger gave it his best . ... Whether you can get past the absurdity of the storyline , you can 't really deny that it has stunning stunt work and lots of action . It 's an entertaining movie that could have been better . "
Roberts was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award as Worst Actress , but she lost the trophy to Linda Blair for her performance in Night Patrol , Savage Island and Savage Streets .
= = Appearances in other media = =
This film was adapted into two video games in 1985 . The first , titled A View to a Kill , was published by Domark . It was available for the ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC , Commodore 64 , Oric 1 and Oric Atmos , and MSX . The second , titled James Bond 007 : A View to a Kill was a text @-@ based video game for DOS and Apple II computers . It was developed by Angelsoft , Inc. and published by Mindscape Inc .
The film was loosely adapted into a series of four Find Your Fate adventure game books , Win , Place , or Die , Strike it Deadly , Programmed for Danger , and Barracuda Run , which were released in 1985 .
May Day was a playable multiplayer character in the 1997 and 2000 video games GoldenEye 007 and The World Is Not Enough , for the Nintendo 64 and both N64 and PlayStation respectively . In the 2002 game Nightfire , May Day and Max Zorin also appears as bots . Other references include Nikolai Diavolo , a character in the 2004 game James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , claiming Zorin to be his mentor and friend . In GoldenEye : Rogue Agent , a multiplayer level is the summit of the Golden Gate Bridge , including the Zorin blimp , which would fire on players when activated . Players are also able to climb the suspension cables ( similar to the events of the film ) .
= Hurricane Dean =
Hurricane Dean was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the most intense North Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005 , tying for seventh overall . Additionally , it made the third most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall . A Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that formed on August 13 , 2007 , Dean took a west @-@ northwest path from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean . It strengthened into a major hurricane , reaching Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale before passing just south of Jamaica on August 20 . The storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 as a powerful Category 5 storm . It crossed the peninsula and emerged into the Bay of Campeche weakened , but still a hurricane . It strengthened briefly before making a second landfall near Tecolutla in the Mexican state of Veracruz on August 22 . Dean drifted to the northwest , weakening into a remnant low which dissipated uneventfully over the southwestern United States .
The hurricane 's intense winds , waves , rains and storm surge were responsible for at least 45 deaths across ten countries and caused estimated damages of US $ 1 @.@ 66 billion . First impacting the islands of the Lesser Antilles , Dean 's path through the Caribbean devastated agricultural crops , particularly those of Martinique and Jamaica . Upon reaching Mexico , Hurricane Dean was a Category 5 storm , but it missed major population centers and its exceptional Category 5 strength landfall caused no deaths and less damage than in the Caribbean islands it passed as a Category 2 storm .
Through the affected regions , clean up and repair took months to complete . Donations solicited by international aid organizations joined national funds in clearing roads , rebuilding houses , and replanting destroyed crops . In Jamaica , where the damage was worst , banana production did not return to pre @-@ storm levels for over a year . Mexico 's tourist industry , too , took almost a year to rebuild its damaged cruise ship infrastructure .
Dean was the first hurricane to make landfall in the Atlantic basin at Category 5 intensity since Hurricane Andrew on August 24 , 1992 . Dean 's Category 5 landfall was in a sparsely populated area and thus far less damaging than Andrew 's , even though Dean was much larger , but its long swath of damage resulted in its name retirement from the World Meteorological Organization 's Atlantic hurricane naming lists .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 11 , 2007 , a tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa , and , encountering favorable conditions , quickly developed into Tropical Depression Four about 520 miles ( 835 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde on August 13 . The depression moved briskly westward , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean at 1500 UTC on August 14 . The storm 's intensity continued to build although dry air and cooler air inflow from the north were slowing structural development . Ragged bands formed on August 15 and the formation of a partial eyewall was observed later that day .
Intensification continued and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Dean at 5 am EDT ( 0900 UTC ) August 16 . The deep @-@ layered ridge to the north continued to steer the system west , towards the Caribbean Sea . The storm quickly strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm 's development slowed slightly but a reconnaissance aircraft discovered a closed eyewall on August 17 as the storm passed through the Lesser Antilles . Data from the aircraft indicated that Hurricane Dean had strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane and its trailing bands were still over the Lesser Antilles . During the evening of August 17 , Dean strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane and continued to steadily grow in both size and intensity through the night . On August 18 the presence of a double eyewall was noted , indicating an eyewall replacement cycle and causing short term fluctuations in intensity . These fluctuations did not affect the storm 's well defined satellite presentation . Operationally , Dean was thought to have only been a Category 4 on the 18th , but post @-@ storm analysis shows that Dean had become a 165 miles per hour ( 265 km / h ) Category 5 that day . Dean weakened very slightly on the morning of August 19 as it finished the eyewall replacement cycle and began to interact with the island of Jamaica
Hurricane Dean passed south of Jamaica on the evening of August 19 and began to intensify again that night . Its eyewall replacement cycle was thought to be completed . A concentric eyewall was briefly observed again on the morning of August 20 , but did not last long . The hurricane , still tracking west @-@ northwest under the influence of a strengthening deep @-@ layered high pressure system to the north , moved over waters with extremely high heat content and began to strengthen once again . The eyewall became even better defined during the day , and , at 8 : 35 pm AST on August 20 ( 0035 August 21 , UTC ) , Dean restrengthened to a Category 5 hurricane , the highest rating on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . It made landfall as a Category 5 storm in Quintana Roo 's Costa Maya region , 40 mi ( 65 km ) northeast of the border between Mexico and Belize , and weakened on its way over land , reemerging on the western side of Yucatán as a Category 1 storm . Dean regained strength as it crossed the Gulf of Mexico , and made its second landfall as a Category 2 storm on August 22 , at around 11 : 30 CDT , near Tecolutla , Veracruz , to the south of Tuxpan , where after it moved westward , losing strength and disintegrating over central Mexico . A small remnant circulation reached the Pacific Ocean , eventually moving northwestward around an anticyclone , roughly parallel to the Mexican coast and finally back inland over the southwestern United States , where it completely dissipated on August 27 .
= = Preparations = =
Hurricane Dean 's smooth and well @-@ predicted track gave unusually advance warning to all of the nations in its path and allowed them time to prepare for the storm 's impact . Because of the advance warning and Dean 's extraordinary strength , the nations of Central America and the Caribbean set up hundreds of shelters , readied thousands of disaster recovery experts , evacuated hundreds of thousands of vulnerable residents , and prepared millions of dollars of emergency supplies .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
As Hurricane Dean approached the Lesser Antilles the local meteorological services issued watches and warnings , advising residents to prepare for the storm . Hurricane warnings were issued for St. Lucia , Dominica , Martinique and Guadeloupe and its dependencies . Hurricane watches were issued for Saba and St. Eustatius . Tropical storm warnings were issued for Barbados , Antigua , Barbuda , St. Kitts , Nevis , and St. Maarten St. Vincent and the Grenadines , the U.S. Virgin Islands , and the British Virgin Islands . Tropical storm watches were issued for Sint Maarten , St. Vincent , Grenada and its dependencies , Montserrat , and Anguilla .
Local authorities closed airports , set up shelters , and readied emergency service personnel . Authorities in Martinique canceled a memorial to the victims of West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 and began to set up shelters . In Dominica , tourists were evacuated to concrete shelters and the vast majority of foreign medical students from the Ross University School of Medicine evacuated the island . The government of Dominica also canceled leave for emergency service personnel and evacuated Princess Margret Hospital , fearing that its roof might be vulnerable to the storm 's winds . Martinique 's main airport and both of St. Lucia 's commercial airports closed when the last airplanes landed on the night of August 16 and the storm 's outer rainbands began to sweep over the island .
In anticipation of Dean 's significant damage , several emergency response groups gathered funds and readied personnel . On August 14 the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency ( CDERA ) placed its Regional Response Mechanism on standby and contacted the National Disaster Coordinators of all member states in the Lesser Antilles . On August 15 the U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) dispatched teams to Barbados , Dominica , and St. Kitts in advance of the hurricane to provide damage assessment should the hurricane affect those islands . The Eastern Caribbean Donor Group convened a meeting on August 16 under the Chair of the Resident Representative United Nations Development Programme Barbados in anticipation that member states would require international assistance .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
Hurricane warnings were issued for all of Jamaica , for Haiti from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince to the Dominican border , and for the Dominican Republic from Barahona to the Haitian border . Tropical Storm warnings were issued for the rest of Hispaniola and for coastal Cuba between Camagüey and Guantánamo . Hundreds of thousands were evacuated from vulnerable low @-@ lying and coastal areas and disaster management programs were activated throughout the Greater Antilles .
Jamaica , which was forecast to bear the brunt of Hurricane Dean , underwent the most extensive preparations . The Jamaican government executed long @-@ standing evacuation plans , including converting the country 's national arena into a shelter and relocating inmates from two maximum security prisons . Political parties in the island suspended their campaigning for the August 27 national elections , to allow residents to prepare for the storm . Curfews were put in place for parts of the island , while off @-@ duty essential personnel were called back to work . More than 1 @,@ 000 schools and churches were converted to emergency shelters , but residents only occupied 47 of them before the storm 's arrival . Evidently the country 's high crime rate led islanders to fear for their belongings should they abandon their homes . UNICEF prepared 4 emergency health kits and 1 @,@ 000 water containers and Copa Airlines agreed to fly the supplies to Jamaica on its scheduled August 22 flight , if possible . The World Food Program prepared food stocks in nearby Haiti , ready to move them to Jamaica if they were needed . The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination ( UNDAC ) team tried to reach Jamaica , but only one member arrived before all incoming flights were canceled . The United States confirmed that it would offer aid if it was needed , and the North @-@ West Caribbean Donor Group met to decide what actions would need to be taken .
The island of Hispaniola was also predicted to be heavily affected by the storm . Workers from World Vision supplied food , clean water , medicines and emergency generators in the southern provinces of the Dominican Republic , and in the southern departments of Haiti where hurricane warnings had been issued . In low @-@ lying areas , 1 @,@ 580 residents of the Dominican Republic and more than 1 @,@ 000 Haitians were evacuated as the storm approached . Small craft were advised to stay in port , while Haiti 's Toussaint Louverture International Airport was closed .
The Cayman Islands were expected to suffer badly if Hurricane Dean passed too close , and mandatory evacuations were instigated for the low @-@ lying Little Cayman . Tourists were forbidden from entering the island and extra flights were added to evacuate those that were already there . Schools and civic centers were converted to shelters on Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac , and , despite the mandatory evacuation , one shelter was opened on Little Cayman for the residents who remained there . Expecting catastrophic damage , two Royal Navy ships of the Atlantic Patrol Task ( North ) , HMS Portland and RFA Wave Ruler , followed 150 mi ( 240 km ) behind the storm in order to arrive at Cayman as soon after the hurricane as possible .
Cuba and Puerto Rico , neither of which were expected to experience the worst of Dean 's strength , prepared more modestly . Cuba 's Civil Defense evacuated 350 @,@ 000 people from the coastal provinces . The government in Havana suspended all tourist programs ahead of the storm . Soldiers and emergency officials were prepared to convert schools and other government buildings into temporary shelters , but stood down when it became evident that they would not needed . The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) deployed a five @-@ member team to Puerto Rico ahead of Hurricane Dean . They were equipped with satellite communication systems to provide video @-@ teleconferencing and help make real @-@ time assessments of any damage .
= = = Mexico = = =
With Hurricane Dean 's path predicted well in advance of the storm , the Government of Mexico was able to make ample preparations . On August 17 , a state of emergency was declared for the state of Quintana Roo where Dean was expected to make landfall . On August 18 authorities began evacuating tourists and those residents living in the most vulnerable parts of Quintana Roo . The state government set up storm shelters in schools and other public buildings . With emergency supplies at the ready , the state of Yucatán , Quintana Roo 's neighbour to the northwest , declared a green alert . On August 19 a hurricane watch was issued on the Yucatán Peninsula from Chetumal to San Felipe and residents made their last @-@ minute preparations .
= = = Belize = = =
A hurricane warning was issued for the coastal locations north of Belize City with the forecast of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds . The government instituted a dusk @-@ to @-@ dawn curfew from Belize City to the Mexican border . On August 16 and 17 , Prime Minister Said Musa chaired two meetings of Belize 's National Emergency Management Organization ( NEMO ) . He instructed the newly created Coastguard to evacuate popular tourist sites Caye Caulker and Ambergris Caye by boat and plane . Authorities also evacuated Belize City 's three hospitals , moving high @-@ risk patients inland to the capital Belmopan . The mayor urged residents to leave Belize City and to make use of shelters in the capital .
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination team dispatched two members to Belize City and the rest of the team traveled to Belmopan . Government supplies were stored in Orange Walk , Corozal ready for post @-@ storm relief . Essential equipment from the Red Cross and the Pan American Health Organization was stored in the elevated UNICEF building and the Belize City UN building was converted to a crisis center .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
Oil futures spiked on August 15 as analysts considered the impact of Hurricane Dean on refining capacity if it were to move into the Caribbean as predicted . Transocean evacuated 11 nonessential workers late on August 15 from an oil rig located about 160 mi ( 260 km ) southeast of New Orleans . The company left about 125 personnel on board the structure . A day later , Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 275 ancillary staff , following an evacuation of 188 due to Tropical Storm Erin .
On August 18 , 2007 , 10 @,@ 300 barrels ( 1 @,@ 640 m3 ) of oil and 11 million cubic feet ( 310 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of natural gas were shut @-@ in per day , accounting for 0 @.@ 8 % of crude production in the Gulf of Mexico . By 11 : 30 am CST ( 1630 UTC ) , two rigs and one platform evacuated personnel .
Pemex , the state @-@ owned Mexican oil company , made preparations to shut down oil production on August 19 ahead of Dean . It evacuated 13 @,@ 360 workers from more than 140 oil platforms , using 55 boats and 29 helicopters . As the storm continued to intensify , the number of evacuated Pemex workers increased to 18 @,@ 000 on August 20 , and all 407 wells and drilling operations were abandoned . This reduced the worldwide production of oil and natural gas by 2 @.@ 65 million barrels ( 421 @,@ 000 m3 ) and 2 @.@ 6 billion cubic feet ( 74 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day , respectively .
= = = Other regions = = =
Throughout the Caribbean Sea , about a dozen cruise ships altered their routes to avoid Hurricane Dean . Honduras was put on a state of preventative alert for 48 hours , particularly the departments to the north of the country ; the Bay Islands were on a state of red alert . There were places ready to accommodate 10 @,@ 000 people for 15 days if necessary .
In the United States , the Louisiana Governor 's Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness activated its Crisis Action Team on August 16 to monitor the storm and coordinate preparation . Governor of Louisiana Kathleen Blanco declared a state of emergency early on the evening of August 17 , asking for a presidential emergency declaration to give Louisiana access to federal funds prior to any landfall . Texas Governor Rick Perry declared Dean to be an imminent threat to the state , and thus initiated a full @-@ scale hurricane preparedness effort on August 17 when the storm was at least five days away . Prior to the storm , Texas suffered severe flooding from several June – July storms , and Tropical Storm Erin left the ground still saturated . Governor Perry feared that more rainfall from Dean would cause additional flash flooding , and had 250 Texas Parks and Wildlife Department crews on standby with boats to assist in potential evacuations . He was willing to deploy up to 10 @,@ 000 Texas Military Forces soldiers , and did deploy several elements of the Texas State Guard who set up emergency shelters . The Texas fuel industry began surging fuel loads to coastal counties to ensure adequate fuel in the event of the hurricane causing a disruption to the fuel distribution system . In anticipation of evacuations , the Texas Department of Transportation began working on extra evacuation lanes and contraflow . NASA cut short the STS @-@ 118 mission as a precaution , in case Dean approached Mission Control at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston . To that effect , mission managers cut the mission 's final spacewalk short by two hours , allowing them to land a day earlier than originally planned .
= = Impact = =
Fifteen countries felt the effects of Hurricane Dean as its path through the Caribbean Sea claimed 42 lives . The hurricane first brushed the Lesser Antilles on August 17 , 2007 , and as it passed through the interior of the Caribbean its outer rain bands swept over the Greater Antilles . It passed Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane , and strengthened to a Category 5 storm as it made landfall on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 . A second landfall on August 22 was less devastating .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Hurricane Dean entered the Caribbean as a Category 2 hurricane through the Saint Lucia Channel on August 17 . It moved briskly between the Lesser Antillean islands of St. Lucia and Martinique , with its storm surge and rain bands reaching every island in the chain . Damage was most severe in Martinique where total damage was estimated at € 400 million and three indirect deaths , while nearby Guadaloupe suffered € 400 million of damage . In St. Lucia , damage was mostly caused by the high seas and was estimated at US $ 18 million .
Martinique experienced 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds with gusts to 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . The torrential rainfall , which reached 332 mm ( 13 @.@ 07 in ) caused flooding throughout the island , with the town of Rivière @-@ Pilote flooding completely . The majority of Martinique 's population were left without electricity , water , telephone , or food , and 600 Martiniquans were left homeless . The storm destroyed Martinique 's entire banana crop , and 70 % of the island 's sugar cane plantations . The damage to these two agricultural sectors accounted for the majority of the island 's € 400 million damage .
On the evening of August 16 , 12 hours before the storm arrived in St. Lucia , power outages began in some of the island 's neighborhoods . The night saw heavy rains , 1 @.@ 58 in ( 40 mm ) at St. Lucia 's Hewanorra International Airport , and intense thunderstorms and by morning hurricane force winds peaked at 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . The winds uprooted trees , downed electricity poles , disabled bridges , triggered landslides , and damaged several roofs . Saint Lucia 's capital , Castries , was flooded by the storm surge which left boulders and fishing boats on the streets . One person drowned in Sarrot after being swept away by a rain @-@ swollen river while trying to recover a cow . Hurricane Dean damaged the roofs of two of the island 's hospitals , but no one was injured . Several other buildings were damaged , mostly on the island 's northern coast which was most exposed to the hurricane . The Ministry of Education reported that 11 schools had sustained a combined total of EC $ 300 @,@ 000 of damage , and nationwide damage to housing and buildings totaled EC $ 800 @,@ 000 . The Ministry of Communications , Works , Transport , and Public Utilities reported that most of the country 's major infrastructure remained functional , and no long @-@ term disruptions occurred .
The hardest hit area of Saint Lucia was its agricultural sector . 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) of banana farms in Mabouya Valley , Roseau Valley , and Marc Marc were severely damaged with many of the plantations waterlogged or outright destroyed . An average of 75 % of the crops were lost , with fields in the Northern Farms losing up to 80 % and in the Roseau Valley losing up to 85 % . The cost to the agriculture industry was $ 13 @.@ 2 million , bringing Hurricane Dean 's total cost on the island to $ 17 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 4 million in 2007 ) or 0 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's GDP .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
The storm passed to the south of most of the Greater Antilles , though its outer rain bands crossed many of the islands , and delivered hurricane force winds to Jamaica . Puerto Rico , Cuba , and the Cayman Islands were mostly spared , though Hurricane Dean passed 50 to 60 mi ( 80 to 95 km ) south of Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane . In Jamaica the rain caused flooding on the eastern side of the island and landslides on the northeast end . At least two direct deaths were confirmed . Over 1 @,@ 500 roofs were lost , primarily to the hurricane force winds , and 1 @,@ 582 of the 3 @,@ 127 damaged homes were uninhabitable . Landslides and fallen trees blocked hundreds of roads , particularly in the rural northeast region . As in the Lesser Antilles , Jamaica suffered severe damage to its agricultural sector . Forty percent of the sugarcane crop , 80 to 100 % of the banana crop , 75 % of the coffee trees under three years old , and 20 % of the top layer of the cocoa crop were lost . Hurricane Dean affected 248 roads , including 186 that were blocked : 10 were blocked in the Kingston metropolitan region , 14 sections were blocked in St. Andrew , 43 roads were blocked in St. Catherine , eight roads were blocked in the Western Region ( Saint James , Hanover , Westmoreland , and Trelawny ) , and 110 roads were blocked in the Northeast region .
Haiti and the Dominican Republic , which share the island of Hispaniola , were spared much of the hurricane 's force , as it passed 170 mi ( 270 km ) to their south . However , 15 people were killed among the island 's two nations . Heavy rain flooded the streets of Santo Domingo and rough surf pounded the coast . Rain also caused landslides in Haiti , destroying several hundred homes and forcing 5 @,@ 154 people into temporary shelters , and compromising the temperamental water system in the town of Bainet .
Cuba , Puerto Rico , and the Cayman Islands experienced high surf and heavy rains , though despite a power outage in Grand Cayman , no significant damage was reported . There , 2000 people weathered the storm in temporary shelters . The hurricane 's outer bands swept over Cuba between August 19 and August 21 , bringing heavy rain and high seas , yet sparing the island from damaging winds . Rain from Hurricane Dean flooded several roads throughout Puerto Rico , and there was heavy surf along the island 's coast , but no deaths or injuries were reported .
= = = Mexico = = =
The hurricane strengthened right up until it made landfall near Majahual on the Quintana Roo coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 , 2007 as a Category 5 hurricane . Wind gusts of 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) were reported . The state 's tourist cities of Cancún and Cozumel were spared the worst of the storm , but it wreaked havoc in the state capital Chetumal , 40 mi ( 65 km ) south of landfall , causing significant flooding . The town of Majahual , which had a population of 200 , was totally destroyed by the storm . Storm surge and high winds severely damaged or destroyed hundreds of buildings and had the strength to crumple steel girders . The waves tore away portions of the concrete docks at Costa Maya 's popular cruise port and the harbor was closed to cruise ships for almost a year . Despite the storm 's tremendous intensity , not a single death was attributed to its initial landfall , owing mostly to the government 's thorough preparations and forecasters ' ample warning .
Following the second landfall on the Veracruz coast , two rivers in the mountains of the state of Hidalgo overflowed , and rain fell as far west as the Pacific coast . Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera said there was " a tremendous amount of damage " . Petroleum production was not severely damaged and quickly returned to normal .
Rainfall amounts of 4 to 8 in ( 100 to 200 mm ) fell across the states of Jalisco and Nayarit . This rainfall caused one fatality in Jalisco after a mudslide fell on 10 houses , killing one of the occupants . Five people were killed in Puebla by landslides , and one more was crushed after a wall on his house collapsed . One person in Veracruz was electrocuted after touching a power line while doing roof repairs . In Michoacán , a man was struck by lightning under a tree in the outer bands of the storm , and two people died in Hidalgo when the roof collapsed in their house . Hurricane Dean killed 12 people in Mexico but remarkably no one was killed by its first ( and catastrophically powerful ) landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Between the two landfalls damages , focused mainly in the agricultural sector , totaled Mex $ 2 @.@ 05 billion ( US $ 160 million ) .
= = = Belize = = =
The town of Corozal on Belize 's northern border experienced the worst conditions in the country . Trees were downed throughout the town , and minor flooding was reported . Eight thousand were displaced to shelters , though all returned home in less than two days . Throughout the entire country , the Belizean Ministry of Health reported no storm @-@ related fatalities and only a few minor injuries .
Belize 's agricultural sector received significant damage . Its sugar cane fields and papaya crops suffered extensive damage . The Belizian Government 's National Emergency Management Organization estimated Dean 's damage to the papaya industry at BZ $ 30 million and to the sugar industry at 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) worth BZ $ 3 @.@ 6 million . Belize Sugar Industries Ltd. reported that the country 's sugar crop that year was the worst on record , producing 980 @,@ 000 lb ( 445 @,@ 000 kg ) of sub @-@ standard cane , compared to 1 @.@ 2 million lb ( 545 @,@ 000 kg ) of high quality cane the year before . More than 1000 people were out of work as a result of the damage to the papaya and sugar cane plantations . The government attempted to improve the next crop season in 2008 by providing fertilizers to the farmers whose land had been damaged by Dean the year before . Prime Minister Said Musa estimated that the hurricane 's total cost amounted to US $ 10 million .
= = = Other regions = = =
No land effects were reported in Nicaragua but a four @-@ year @-@ old girl drowned on a boat that sank amidst high winds and waves at the mouth of the Kukra River .
While the hurricane itself never approached the United States , heavy surf and rip currents were reported on the beaches of Florida . One person drowned and at least 35 people had to be rescued from the turbulent waters at Siesta Key caused by Hurricane Dean . Rough seas produced by Dean caused minor flooding in Da
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an art book series for the game titled Little Busters ! Card Mission ArtWorks on April 29 , 2014 . A Blu @-@ ray Disc game , produced by VisualArt 's and titled Nishizono Mio Misshitsu Satsujin Jiken ? ( 西園美魚密室殺人事件 ? , Mio Nishizono 's Locked @-@ Room Murder Case ? ) , was released on the first BD / DVD compilation volume for the Little Busters ! Refrain anime series on January 29 , 2014 .
= Rinaldo ( opera ) =
Rinaldo ( HWV 7 ) is an opera by George Frideric Handel , composed in 1711 , and was the first Italian language opera written specifically for the London stage . The libretto was prepared by Giacomo Rossi from a scenario provided by Aaron Hill , and the work was first performed at the Queen 's Theatre in London 's Haymarket on 24 February 1711 . The story of love , war and redemption , set at the time of the First Crusade , is loosely based on Torquato Tasso 's epic poem Gerusalemme liberata ( " Jerusalem Delivered " ) , and its staging involved many original and vivid effects . It was a great success with the public , despite negative reactions from literary critics hostile to the contemporary trend towards Italian entertainment in English theatres .
Handel composed Rinaldo quickly , borrowing and adaptating music from operas and other works that he had composed during a long stay in Italy in the years 1706 – 10 , during which he established a considerable reputation . In the years following the premiere , he made numerous amendments to the score . With its spectacular vocal and orchestral passages , Rinaldo is regarded by critics as one of Handel 's greatest operas . Of its individual numbers , the soprano aria " Lascia ch 'io pianga " has become a particular favourite , and is a popular concert piece .
Handel went on to dominate opera in England for several decades . Rinaldo was revived in London regularly up to 1717 , and was a revised version in 1731 ; of all Handel 's operas , Rinaldo was the most frequently performed during his lifetime . After 1731 , however , the opera was not staged for more than 200 years . Renewed interest in baroque opera during the 20th century led to the first modern professional production in Handel 's birthplace , Halle , Germany , in 1954 . The opera was mounted sporadically over the following thirty years ; after a successful run at New York 's Metropolitan Opera in 1984 , performances and recordings of the work have become more frequent worldwide . The opera 's tercentenary in 2011 brought a modernized production at the Glyndebourne Festival .
= = Background = =
Handel began to compose operas in Hamburg , where he spent the years 1703 – 06 ; his principal influences were Johann Mattheson and Reinhard Keiser . At that time , German opera as a genre was still not clearly defined ; in Hamburg the term Singspiel ( " song @-@ play " ) rather than opera described music dramas that combined elements of French and Italian opera , often with passages of spoken German dialogue . The music was , in the words of historian Donald Jay Grout , " tinged with the serious , heavy formality of Lutheran Germany " . The first of Handel 's early works in the German style was Almira , a considerable success when it was premiered on 8 January 1705 . Over the next three years Handel composed three more operas in the German style , but all of these are now lost . However , fragments of the music from these works have been identified in later operas .
In autumn 1706 Handel went to Italy . He stayed for long periods in Florence , Rome , Naples and Venice , making frequent visits to the opera houses and concert halls . He obtained introductions to leading musicians , among them Arcangelo Corelli , Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti , and Agostino Steffani , and met numerous singers and performers . From these acquaintances Handel learned the essential characteristics of Italian music , in particular ( according to Dean and Knapp ) " fluency in the treatment of Italian verse , accurate declamation and flexible harmonic rhythm in recitative , ... drawing the necessary distinction between vocal and instrumental material and , above all , the release of [ his ] wonderful melodic gift " . Handel 's first Italian opera , Rodrigo , showed an incomplete grasp of Italian style , with much of Keiser 's Hamburg influence still evident ; it was not a success when premiered in Florence , in late November or early December 1707 . He followed this by a lengthy visit to Rome , where opera performances were then forbidden by papal decree , and honed his skills through the composition of cantatas and oratorios . In Rome , Handel met Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani , a diplomat and spare @-@ time librettist ; the result of this meeting was a collaboration which produced Handel 's second Italian opera , Agrippina . After this work 's triumphant premiere at the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice , on 26 December 1709 , Handel became , says biographer P. H. Lang , " world famous and the idol of a spoiled and knowledgeable audience " .
This sudden recognition led to eager competition for Handel 's services . Among those most keen to employ him was Prince Georg Ludwig , the Elector of Hanover and future King George I of Great Britain . In June 1710 Handel accepted the appointment of Kapellmeister to Georg 's Hanover court , under terms that gave him considerable scope to pursue his own interests . On the basis of this freedom , in late 1710 Handel left Hanover for London , possibly in response to an earlier invitation from members of the English nobility . By 1711 , informed London audiences had become familiar with the nature of Italian opera through the numerous pastiches and adaptations that had been staged . The former Royal Academy of Music Principal , Curtis Price , writes that the popularity of these pieces was the result of a deliberate strategy aimed at the suppression of English opera . Handel 's music was relatively unknown in England , though his reputation from Agrippina was considerable elsewhere . A short " Italian Dialogue " he had written in honour of Queen Anne 's birthday was well received when performed at St James 's Palace on 6 February 1711 .
In London , by means which are not documented , Handel secured a commission to write an Italian opera for the Queen 's Theatre in the Haymarket ( it became the " King 's Theatre " after King George I 's accession in 1714 ) . This theatre , designed and built by Sir John Vanbrugh , had become London 's main opera house ; its manager , Aaron Hill , intended to mount the first Italian opera written specifically for London and had engaged an all @-@ Italian company for the 1710 – 11 opera season . Hill employed an Italian poet and language teacher , Giacomo Rossi , to write a libretto based on a scenario that Hill prepared himself . As his subject Hill chose Gerusalemme liberata , an epic of the First Crusade by the 16th @-@ century Italian poet Torquato Tasso ; the opera was called Rinaldo , after its main protagonist . Hill was determined to exploit to the full the opportunities for lavish spectacle afforded by the theatre 's machinery ; his aim , according to Dean and Knapp , was " to combine the virtuosity of Italian singing with the extravagance of the 17th century masque " .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
Place : in and around the city of Jerusalem during the First Crusade
Time : 1099
Act 1
The Crusader army under Goffredo is laying siege to Jerusalem , where the Saracen king Argante is confined with his troops . With Goffredo are his brother Eustazio , his daughter Almirena , and the knight Rinaldo . As Goffredo sings of the coming victory , Rinaldo declares his love for Almirena , and Goffredo confirms that she will be Rinaldo 's bride when Jerusalem falls . Almirena urges Rinaldo to fight boldly and assure victory . As she departs , a herald announces the approach of Argante from the city . Eustazio surmises that the king fears defeat ; this seems to be confirmed when Argante , after a grandiose entrance , requests a three @-@ day truce to which Goffredo graciously assents . After Goffredo leaves , Argante ponders his love for Armida , the Queen of Damascus who is also a powerful sorceress , and considers the help her powers might bring him . As he muses , Armida arrives from the sky in a fiery chariot . She has divined that the Saracens ' only chance of victory lies in vanquishing Rinaldo , and has the power , she claims , to achieve this .
The scene changes to a garden , with fountains and birds , where Rinaldo and Almirena are celebrating their love . They are interrupted as Armida appears , and wrests Almirena from Rinaldo 's embrace . Rinaldo draws his sword to defend his lover , but a black cloud descends to envelop Armida and Almirena , and they are borne away . Rinaldo mourns the loss of his loved one . When Goffredo and Eustazio arrive they comfort Rinaldo , and propose they visit a Christian magician who may have the power to save Almirena . Rinaldo , left alone , prays for strength .
Act 2
A sea shore . As Goffredo , Eustazio and Rinaldo near the magician 's lair , a beautiful woman calls from her boat , promising Rinaldo that she can take him to Almirena . Two mermaids sing of love 's delights , and urge Rinaldo to go in the boat . He hesitates , unsure what to do , and his companions attempt to restrain him . Angry at the abduction of his loved one , Rinaldo enters the boat , which immediately sails off . Goffredo and Eustazio are shocked at Rinaldo 's impulsiveness and believe that he has deserted their cause .
In Armida 's palace garden , Almirena mourns her captivity . Argante joins her and , overcome by her beauty , confesses that he now loves her . He promises
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character in Menander 's play Aspis .
= = Other city @-@ states = =
Evidence for other ancient city states is more scattered and fragmentary .
= = = Sparta = = =
In ancient Sparta , women had extensive rights , including the right to inherit property and to manage their own and their spouse 's property . The comparable term to epikleros in Sparta was patrouchoi , occasionally rendered as patrouchos . In Sparta the law of epikleros only applied to unmarried girls , and the Spartan kings were responsible for finding spouses for epikleroi who had not been betrothed before their father 's death . Herodotus , in his list of Spartan royal prerogatives , said : " The kings are the sole judges of these cases only : concerning an unmarried heiress , to whom it pertains to have [ her ] , if her father has not bethrothed her " , but the exact meaning of this statement is debated . Some historians have interpreted this to mean that the kings had the right to give the heiress to anyone they chose , but others have suggested that the kings merely had the right to bestow the heiress on the nearest male relative , or to arbitrate between competing claims . Another suggestion is that the king 's choice was restricted to citizens who had no land . The name given to these heiresses in Sparta was patroiouchoi , which literally translates as " holders of the patrimony . " They inherited the land themselves , and retained the right to dispose of their inherited property . There were no restrictions on who they might marry .
By the 4th century BCE Aristotle records that there were no restrictions on whom an heiress might marry . If she was not married during her father 's lifetime or by directions in her father 's will , her nearest next @-@ of @-@ kin was allowed to marry her wherever he chose .
= = = Gortyn = = =
In Gortyn , epikleroi were also called patroiokos , and they were more generously treated than in Athens . The term patroiokos can be literally translated as " having the father 's property " , and was a description of the condition of the heiress . She was considered a patroiouchoi if she had no father or brother by her father living . The relative who had the right to marry her was called a epiballon , and the list of who were eligible for that status was also limited to just her paternal uncles and the sons of those uncles . If there were no candidates fitting those conditions , the patroiouchoi was free to marry as she chose . If she wished , a patroiouchos could free herself from the obligation to marry her nearest relative by paying him part of her inheritance . If her nearest relative did not wish to marry her , she was free to find a spouse in her tribe , or if none was willing , then she could marry whomever she wished . Gortyn may owe the liberality of its heiress laws to the fact that it was one of the few city @-@ states known to have allowed daughters to inherit even if they had brothers ; daughters in Gortyn received half the share of a son . To prevent the abuse of the system , there was a time limit on the right of the closest epiballon to marry her , and if the limit expired , the right passed to the next nearest epiballon until the patroiouchoi was either married or ran out of possible epiballontes . There was a limit , however , that a man could only marry one heiress . Unlike in Athens , the heiress owned her inheritance and her son did not inherit until she died . Her son was also eligible to inherit from his father .
= = = Others = = =
Rhegium owed its laws on epikleroi to Androdamas of Rhegium , a law @-@ giver whose views on this subject were especially esteemed , according to Aristotle . In the city @-@ state of Charondas ' laws , an epikleros had to be given a dowry if her nearest kin did not wish to marry her . During the time of Alexander the Great , Tegean law deals with the inheritance of returning exiles , limiting them to inheriting only their paternal estate or an estate of their mother if she had become an epikleros while in exile . The city @-@ states of Naupactus and Thermus allowed women to inherit property , but whether or not the daughters were considered epikleroi is unknown from the surviving fragments of the laws from those cities .
= = Plato = =
Plato , in his Laws , set forth rules that governed not the ideal state , which he described in The Republic , but what he felt might be obtainable in the real world . Included amongst them were some dealing with inheritance and heiresses . In general outline , they conformed to Athenian practice , with the daughter of a man who died without male heirs becoming an epikleros . Plato gave rules governing who the husband of the epikleros might be , and said that the inherited plot might not be divided or added to another plot . The main departure from Athenian law came if there was no direct heir , and the inheritance go to collateral relations . In that case , Plato assigned the inheritance not to one person , but to a pair , one male and one female , and ordered that they must marry and provide an heir to the estate , much like the epikleros .
= = Later history = =
In 318 BCE , Cassander appointed Demetrius Phalereus to govern the city @-@ state of Athens . Demetrius issued a set of laws that are known from later literary works . Although knowledge of these laws is fragmentary , it does not appear that Demetrius legislated anything on the subject of epikleroi . This is in striking contrast to Solon 's legislation , which was concerned with the internal affairs of the family and its external manifestations in public life . By the 4th century BCE , the practice of the epiklerate was falling into disuse , and it disappeared during the Hellenistic Period , although it continued to appear in New Comedy and scattered inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE , if dated correctly , refer to occasional epikleroi . One method that developed to avoid the epiklerate was through the adoption of a son by the father of a possible epikleros .
= = Noted epikleroi = =
= = = In mythology = = =
In the tales of heroic Greece , royal succession often passed from father @-@ in @-@ law to son @-@ in @-@ law , and some historians have seen in this an early example of the epikleros pattern . Some examples include Pelops , Bellerophon , Melampus , Peleus , Telamon , and Diomedes . Not all such heroic era royal successions followed the epikleros pattern however , as in the case of Menelaus , who married Helen of Troy and succeeded Helen 's father Tyndareus , even though Tyndareus had living sons , Kastor and Polydeukes . Another example is Arete of Phaeacia in the Odyssey , who was an heiress married to her father 's brother Alcinous .
= = = Historical examples = = =
Aristotle related that the revolt of Mytilene against Athens in 428 BCE originated in a dispute over epikleroi . The Sacred War of 356 – 346 BCE , between Thebes and Phocis , was also started by a disagreement over epikleroi . It is likely that Agariste , the daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon who married Megacles of Athens , was an epikleros . Likewise , the widow of the Spartan king Agis IV , Agiatis , was forced to marry Cleomenes , the son of the man who had executed Agis , King Leonidas II . Plutarch stated that the reason Leonidas married Agiatis to Kleomenes was that Agiatis was a patrouchos from her father , Gylippos . Another Spartan example may have been Gorgo , the only daughter of King Cleomenes I , who was married to Cleomenes ' brother Leonidas I.
Kallisto , the granddaughter of the Athenian orator Lykourgos was an epikleros after the deaths of her grandfather , paternal uncles Habron and Lykourgos , and father Lykophron . She was married and had a son , whom her father adopted and renamed Lykophron . After her father 's adoption of her son , Kallisto 's husband , son and father all died , leaving her father 's household in danger of extinction . Her second marriage , however , produced a son who continued the household . Demosthenes ' mother Cleoboule was the epikleros of Gylon .
Other possible epikleroi include the daughters of Polyeuctus , who managed to remain married to their spouses even after becoming epikleroi . Meidylides ' daughter was an heiress , and her father tried to marry her to her anchisteia , but the prospective husband refused the match and the daughter was married to a non @-@ relative instead .
= = = Literary examples = = =
In literature , Antigone , the daughter of Oedipus , would be considered an epikleros , and her uncle Creon would have been responsible for her marriage as well as that of her sister Ismene . The marriage of an epikleros also is part of the plot for Menander 's play Aspis . In Euripides ' play Ion , Erechtheus 's daughter Creusa is an epikleros whose status allows her son Ion to become a citizen of Athens . Alexis , Antiphanes , Diodorus , Diphilus , Euetes , and Heniokhos all wrote comedies titled Epikleros , although none is extant . Three more comedies were titled Epidikazmenos , or " the man to whom an estate is adjudged " - these were by Diphilus , Philemon and Apollodorus of Carystus . Two Latin comedies survive which were based on Greek plays dealing with heiresses : the Phormio , which is based on Apollodorus ' Epidikazmenos ; and the Adelphoe , which is based on Menander 's play Adelphoi .
A speech of Andocides indirectly concerns epikleroi , as the orator claimed that the real origin of the dispute between himself and his cousin Leagros was over which of them would claim an heiress that both were related to . Demosthenes ' speech Against Macartatus includes a description of Sositheos ' claiming of the epikleros Phulomakhe .
= Jake Seamer =
John Wemyss " Jake " Seamer ( 23 June 1913 – 16 April 2006 ) was an amateur cricketer who played for Oxford University and Somerset either side of the Second World War . A bespectacled cricketer , Seamer was a right @-@ handed batsman who played with a defensive streak to his game which was rarely seen among amateur batsmen of his time . He was described as a leg break googly bowler , but in truth he rarely bowled at all , and claimed just four first @-@ class wickets .
Seamer played the best of his cricket while at Oxford University . All four of his first @-@ class centuries were made for the university side , and his average for Oxford was 35 @.@ 30 , significantly higher than his career average of 20 @.@ 35 . He made his highest score against Free Foresters in his second year , during which he accrued 858 runs , more than double he managed in any other season . On completion of his studies at Oxford , Seamer joined the Sudan Political Service , which limited his first @-@ class cricket appearances to periods of leave . He was named as one of three amateurs to captain Somerset in 1948 , leading the team during June and July . That season was his last for Somerset , and he made only one further first @-@ class appearance . He became a district commissioner in the Sudan , and after leaving the service , he taught at Marlborough College and was twice mayor of Marlborough .
= = Early life = =
Jake Seamer was born in Shapwick , Somerset on 23 June 1913 . The son of a vicar , Seamer had two secret career wishes in his youth ; he wanted to be either an actor or , failing that , a county cricketer . He attended Marlborough College in Wiltshire , and played for the school 's cricket team from 1930 to 1932 . In the winter terms , Marlborough also ran rugby union and hockey teams – rugby in the term before Christmas and hockey in the term between Christmas and Easter . Seamer was a member of the rugby team in 1930 and 1931 first as a wing forward , then as a prop forward . He also played hockey for the Marlborough first team . As a cricketer , his performances for his school led to his selection for " Lord 's Schools " in match against " The Rest " at Lord 's Cricket Ground , in which he scored 33 runs in the first innings and 3 runs in the second , remaining not out on both occasions . Following that match he also appeared for a representative Public Schools side against the Army at Lord 's , but his batting was less successful , failing to reach double figures in either innings .
During the summer between graduating from Marlborough College and going up to Oxford University , Seamer made his county cricket debut , playing three matches for Somerset County Cricket Club . In his first match for Somerset , played against Derbyshire , he played as a specialist batsman at number eight in the batting order . He came in to bat when Somerset had lost six wickets for the addition of 88 runs , and together with his captain , Reggie Ingle , helped Somerset to recover . The pair put on a partnership of 104 runs , and Seamer scored 70 runs in his debut innings . In both his other matches for the county that season , Seamer batted as part of the top order , and though he reached double figures in each of his innings , he did not achieve another half @-@ century .
= = University years = =
= = = University cricket = = =
Following his graduation from Marlborough College , Seamer attended Brasenose College , Oxford . Seamer played just one first @-@ class match for the university in his first year , appearing against Worcestershire at The Parks . He scored 33 before being run out in his only innings , and also bowled six overs , though without claiming a wicket . He appeared eleven times for Somerset that year , but despite regular scores of 20 or more , he did not score a half @-@ century , and averaged 13 @.@ 06 runs .
In his second year at Oxford , Seamer played as part of a strong batting line @-@ up for the university : Fredrick de Saram passed 1 @,@ 000 runs for the side , while Mandy Mitchell @-@ Innes fell just two runs short of the landmark . Seamer , despite scoring over three hundred runs less than either , finished second in the batting averages for the year with 51 @.@ 76 . He scored three centuries for the university , passing one hundred runs against the Free Foresters , the Minor Counties and the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . His score of 194 , made against the Free Foresters was the highest first @-@ class total of Seamer 's career , and the three centuries he scored during 1934 were remarkable for the fact that he only scored one other first @-@ class century during his career . Seamer earned his cricketing Blue in 1934 , appearing in the University match against Cambridge University . He was dismissed for a duck in the first innings , but batted with resolve in the second . He remained at the crease with the tail for over two hours , eventually being not out on 24 , to help Oxford force a draw . Seamer found batting more difficult in the County Championship : in thirteen innings for Somerset in 1934 , he passed 50 once , against Kent , and averaged 16 @.@ 81 , significantly lower than his total for Oxford .
Seamer scored the last of his four first @-@ class centuries in 1935 , his third year at Oxford and his fourth of ten seasons of first @-@ class cricket . The hundred , like all his previous ones , was scored for the university ; he reached 113 runs in the second innings of a defeat to Surrey . Seamer struggled for runs in his other matches for the university that year , and in the contest against Cambridge , he scored four and three in a game which Cambridge won easily . In nine innings for Somerset that season , he never scored more than 17 runs and averaged 7 @.@ 11 .
Seamer graduated in 1935 , but returned to Oxford for a further year to study Arabic . In his final year of cricket at Oxford , he only appeared in three matches : he was not required to bat in either innings against the Free Foresters , and only batted once against Leicestershire , scoring 5 runs . Out of form and not required for the university team , he went off to play for Somerset in the match against Cambridge University and scored 68 . He followed that with a further game for Somerset in which he was not successful and travelled with the Somerset side for the next match against Glamorgan at Llanelli , but Mitchell @-@ Innes , as Oxford captain , called him up as cover for the injured Roger Kimpton ; on the morning of the match , The Times reported that Kimpton was likely to play and Seamer would be stood down . In the event , Kimpton failed his fitness test and Seamer 's final match for the university team was the University match against Cambridge , and as in the previous year , Oxford suffered a heavy defeat . Seamer scored 11 runs in the first innings , and then when Oxford were asked to follow on , he batted tenaciously to reach 43 runs , which forced Cambridge to bat again . Requiring 17 runs to win , Cambridge chased the total down in 5 @.@ 4 overs with eight wickets to spare . In total , Seamer played 21 matches for Oxford , scoring 1 @,@ 059 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 30 .
= = = Hockey at Oxford = = =
While Seamer won three Blues for cricket , he was even more successful as a field hockey player , appearing in the University hockey match four times . In his first year at the university , he was a late call @-@ up to the team for the big match when the regular right wing @-@ half , M. Martin Harvey , was ill . For the 1933 – 34 season , when he was secretary of the hockey club , he moved to right @-@ back and won a second Blue . For the 1934 / 35 season , Seamer was captain of hockey at Oxford . The university match in February 1935 , in which Seamer again played at right @-@ back , was a goal @-@ less draw in which defences proved too strong for the forwards on either side . Seamer 's reappearance in Oxford for his Arabic course after graduation meant that he was available for the university hockey team in the 1935 / 36 season as well : the 1936 university match , due to be played at Beckenham on 15 February , had to be postponed because of dense fog on the day . The match was played a week later on a pitch that was , according to the report in The Times , pretty much waterlogged , and Seamer and his fellow back Leeming were credited with enabling Oxford to emerge with a 1 – 1 draw : Seamer set up the attack that led to the Oxford goal and overall " Oxford owed much to their backs , J. W. Seamer and J. A. Leeming , whose defence , although becoming a trifle wild in the second half , was the saving of the side " .
= = County cricket = =
On the completion of his extra year learning Arabic at Oxford , Seamer joined the Sudan Political Service . He continued to play cricket for Somerset during his periods of leave , but it dramatically reduced his availability for the county . During his time at Oxford , Seamer had become good friends with Mitchell @-@ Innes ; the pair both attended the same college , and played together for both the university and Somerset . When Mitchell @-@ Innes graduated from Oxford the year after Seamer , he joined his friend in the Sudan , where the pair often organised cricket matches , despite the extreme heat . Seamer 's duties prevented him from playing for Somerset at all during 1937 , but he appeared eight times the following year through May and early June . His average that season was the highest he achieved after leaving university , recording 20 @.@ 78 from his 14 innings , though his highest score was 47 runs , scored against Derbyshire . In 1939 , the last season of first @-@ class county cricket in England before the Second World War , Seamer played seven times for Somerset . However , unlike his appearances the previous year , in which he had generally batted as part of the top order , Seamer predominantly appeared in the middle order for the county in 1939 , and his highest score was 28 .
After the conclusion of the war , county cricket resumed in 1946 , during which year Seamer played two matches with little success . He did not appear in first @-@ class cricket in 1947 , but was named as one of three captains of Somerset in 1948 . Jack Meyer had reluctantly captained the side in 1947 , but stepped down at the end of the season : he was having problems with his sight , and required daily painkillers for lumbago . There was no obvious replacement for Meyer ; like many counties Somerset would not consider having a professional captain , and finding an amateur with the time and money to lead the side was proving troublesome . So , with no single candidate suitable , the Somerset committee announced that the club would be captained first by Mitchell @-@ Innes during his leave from the Sudan , then Seamer during his own leave . Once both of these had returned to their duties , George Woodhouse would take over . In his history of Somerset County Cricket Club , Peter Roebuck describes the situation as a " remarkable state of affairs " , while David Foot suggests that the true number of captains was closer to seven . During his time as captain , Seamer carried an old train board saying " To Tonbridge " in his cricket bag , claiming that it brought good luck to the team . In the eleven matches that Somerset played under his captaincy though , only one resulted in a victory . Seamer claimed that some of his best friends at the club were among the professionals , who he praised for their team spirit , despite the strained leadership changes . His friendship with the professionals was in contrast to the attitudes of both the club 's committee , and its captain for the previous season . Meyer had been unpopular with the professionals due to his attitude to the game , and the manner in which he utilised them , while the club 's committee felt that the professional players deserved little recognition when successful , claiming that this was what they were paid for . Seamer 's batting was no longer strong enough to support his inclusion in the team , and he played low in the middle order . He failed to reach double figures in any of his first seven innings that season , but recorded a half @-@ century against Kent in his final match for Somerset , his first since 1936 in first @-@ class cricket .
Seamer did not appear again for Somerset after his period as captain in 1948 . In total for the county , he scored 1 @,@ 405 runs at an average of 15 @.@ 61 . He made his final first @-@ class appearance the following season , appearing for the Free Foresters against Oxford University . He later made three Minor Counties Championship appearances for Wiltshire in 1956 , though without much success .
= = Later life = =
Seamer married Letice Dorothy Lee , and had two children , Katherine Judith and Mary . By 1948 Seamer had risen to be the district commissioner for Khartoum North . When he left the Sudan Political Service in 1950 , he returned to England and took up a teaching position at his old school , Marlborough College . In addition to teaching Latin , English and history , he became a housemaster , before his retirement in 1973 . He served as mayor of Marlborough twice , and as a justice of the peace , and was awarded Freedom of the City in 2001 . He died , following an illness on 16 April 2006 , aged 92 .
= = Personality and style = =
A personable man , Seamer was a popular captain of Somerset . He had some quirks to his personality , and Roebuck goes as far as describing him as an eccentric . During his childhood he would often cycle from his home in Shapwick to Taunton , a distance of over 15 miles , to watch Somerset play cricket . When he began playing for the county , prior to starting at Oxford University , a number of his childhood heroes were still in the side . In one match , Seamer had been dismissed , and passed one of these heroes , Jack White coming to the wicket . White asked what kind of bowler Jim Cornford was , as he had not seen him play before . Seamer , unsure , bluffed and stated that he bowled outswingers . Shortly afterwards , White returned to the dressing room , irate , and declared " the fellow bowls bloody inswingers . " Bespectacled , Seamer dressed smartly and was proud of his Somerset heritage , often putting on a broad accent when he was in London .
Unlike most amateurs of the time , Seamer prioritised defensive play when batting ; he watched the ball and minimised the risks , valuing his own wicket . This careful style was exemplified by his innings in the University match of 1934 , when he helped Oxford salvage a draw by batting for two hours with the tail , during which time he scored 24 runs . Despite his circumspect batting technique , Seamer enjoyed his cricket , and in a more relaxed setting he once scored a century before lunch : playing in the Sudan , the match started at seven in the morning to avoid the worst of the heat . Before their opponent 's innings , Seamer and his team @-@ mates got them drunk to improve their chances of a win .
= Savoy Truffle =
" Savoy Truffle " is a song by the English rock group the Beatles from their 1968 album The Beatles ( also known as " the White Album " ) . The song was written by George Harrison and inspired by his friend Eric Clapton 's fondness for chocolate . The lyrics list the various flavours offered in Mackintosh 's Good News chocolates and serve as a warning to Clapton about the detrimental effect that his gorging would have on his teeth . Along with Clapton 's guest appearance on the White Album track " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and Harrison reciprocating on Cream 's " Badge " , it is one of several songs that mark the start of a long @-@ lasting friendship between the two musicians .
The Beatles recorded " Savoy Truffle " in October 1968 , towards the end of the five @-@ month sessions for the album . An upbeat rock track in the soul genre , the song reflects Harrison 's return to the guitar as his main musical instrument after two years of studying the Indian sitar . The recording includes a Chris Thomas @-@ arranged horn section , and introduced the horn @-@ heavy sound that became a feature of Harrison 's music as a solo artist . Through the lyrics ' reference to " Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da " , the song is also an example of the Beatles ' use of self @-@ quotation in their later work .
On release , " Savoy Truffle " was viewed by many commentators as a sign of Harrison 's growing maturity as a songwriter . Among more recent assessments , Ian MacDonald cited it as an example of the lesser material found on The Beatles , while Daryl Easlea of BBC Music describes it as one of the " doodles that delight " and " a fine counterweight " to " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . Ella Fitzgerald , Terry Manning and They Might Be Giants have also recorded the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison wrote " Savoy Truffle " in September 1968 , by which point the Beatles had been working on their self @-@ titled double album ( often known as " the White Album " ) for over three months . While this period was one of disharmony within the group , he was increasingly spending time with Eric Clapton , leading to occasional musical collaborations between the two guitarists and a lifelong friendship . Having contributed to Harrison 's solo album Wonderwall Music , Clapton was invited to play on his White Album track " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , marking a rare appearance by another rock musician on a Beatles recording as Harrison sought to diffuse tensions within the band .
Harrison wrote " Savoy Truffle " as a tribute to Clapton 's chocolate addiction . He derived the title and much of the lyrics from a box of Mackintosh 's Good News chocolates , which Clapton began eating during one of his visits to Harrison 's home . Many of the confectionery names used in the song are authentic ; others , such as cherry cream , coconut fudge and pineapple heart , were Harrison 's invention , based on the flavours listed inside the lid of the box . For the lyrics to the second of the song 's middle eight sections , Harrison received assistance from Derek Taylor , the press officer for the Beatles ' new record label , Apple Records . In keeping with the theme of Harrison 's composition , Taylor drew inspiration from the title of the American counterculture film You Are What You Eat , which was itself titled after a fashionable macrobiotic slogan .
Musicologist Walter Everett suggests that " Savoy Truffle " might have been an attempt to rewrite the Byrds ' " less innocent " 1968 track " Artificial Energy " , which warns of the dangers of amphetamines . The song also reflects Harrison 's rediscovery of his passion for rhythm and blues . Coinciding with this , he had returned to the guitar as his main instrument in 1968 , after two years of studying the sitar under the guidance of Indian classical musician Ravi Shankar .
= = Composition = =
" Savoy Truffle " is primarily in the key of E minor , although the melody continually shifts to the parallel , major equivalent , in addition to anchoring briefly in G major . Musicologist Alan Pollack identifies the composition 's harmonic style as one that " makes you feel constantly on the move , on the threshold of some new breakthrough " , and he adds : " There are other Beatles ' songs that exploit this triumvirate of keys ( i.e. a parallel Major / minor pair and the relative Major ) , but never quite with such audacity . " Throughout , the metre is 4 / 4 , delivered in an assertive , driving tempo . The song 's main musical style is soul music , while its melody and mood partly recall " Sour Milk Sea " , which Harrison wrote earlier in 1968 .
In the opening verse , Harrison lists a variety of chocolate flavours and employs wordplay to incorporate the Mackintosh brand name in his closing phrase , " yes , you know it 's ' good news ' " . The refrain throughout the song , " But you 'll have to have them all pulled out after the savoy truffle " , refers to the deterioration of one 's teeth after eating too many sweets , echoing the warning that Clapton had recently received from his dentist .
Over the second middle eight , Harrison adapted Taylor 's suggestion to read " You know that what you eat you are " . In the same section , a subsequent line names the track " Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da " , a Paul McCartney composition that would also appear on The Beatles . In this way , " Savoy Truffle " continued a tradition initiated by John Lennon in 1967 , particularly in his lyrics to " I Am the Walrus " , whereby the Beatles deliberately quoted from their previous songs .
Since " Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da " was not a song that McCartney 's bandmates enjoyed recording , the motive behind Harrison 's appropriation of the title has invited speculation . Author Jeffrey Roessner considers it significant that Harrison mispronounces the title ; in addition , he contends that the full statement – " We all know Ob @-@ la @-@ di @-@ bla @-@ da / But can you show me where you are ? " – serves as an example of Harrison , like Lennon , mocking those listeners who obsessively scanned the Beatles ' lyrics for " clues " . Music journalist Robert Fontenot interprets the lines as an expression of distaste for " Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da " , since Harrison and Lennon were openly critical of McCartney 's composition .
= = Recording = =
The Beatles taped the basic track for " Savoy Truffle " at Trident Studios in London on 3 October 1968 , the day after Harrison had recorded his and Clapton 's song " Badge " for Cream 's forthcoming album . With Lennon absent , the line @-@ up on this rhythm track was Harrison on electric guitar , McCartney on bass , and Ringo Starr on drums . Overdubs took place on 5 October , again at Trident , and then on 11 and 14 October , at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios . Chris Thomas , as assistant to the Beatles ' producer , George Martin , played electric piano on the song .
During the 11 October session , six saxophonists ( three baritone and three tenor ) performed brass overdubs , arranged by Thomas . These horn players were all veterans of the British jazz scene and included Art Ellefson and Ronnie Ross . Ken Scott , the Beatles ' recording engineer , recalls that Harrison thought the saxophones sounded " too clean ... too nice " and so asked that they be treated with heavy distortion . Scott also cites Harrison 's curt dismissal of Martin 's objections , that the song sounded too " toppy " , as evidence of the Beatles ' growing independence during the making of the White Album – a project in which Martin played a mainly peripheral role . In author Nicholas Schaffner 's description , the song 's " beefy horns " became " a trademark " of Harrison 's work following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 .
The 14 October date marked the final recording session for The Beatles . With Starr away in Sardinia , the overdubs consisted of another lead guitar part by Harrison , and organ , tambourine and bongos . While author Ian MacDonald lists Thomas as the organ player on the track , other writers credit Harrison . In his description of the finished recording , Jonathan
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, Glicken found no trace . He attempted to enlist a fourth helicopter crew to aid his search , but they declined , fearing dangerous conditions . In his distraught state , Glicken refused to accept Johnston 's death , and had to be comforted by Swanson before calming down .
In mid @-@ 1980 , after the May eruption , USGS Survey scientists decided to establish the David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory ( CVO ) in Vancouver , intending to closely monitor volcanoes in Oregon , Washington , and Idaho . Glicken returned to St. Helens to analyze the remains of the volcano 's lateral blast . However , as other CVO employees had already commenced their research at the mountain , Glicken 's offer to help USGS on his own was declined by senior scientists . Instead , he found work with newly appointed Survey employee Barry Voight , a specialist in landslides . Under Voight 's guidance , Glicken absorbed himself in his work , motivated to earn a job at the Survey , and to relieve some of his anguish over Johnston 's death . Glicken and a team of geologists mapped the debris field left over from St. Helens 's structural collapse , which consisted of roughly a quarter of the mass of the volcano . Through extensive , meticulous analysis , the team traced the origins and the means of movement of each piece of debris , ranging from blocks 100 yards ( 91 m ) in width to mere fragments .
With his group , Glicken compiled a landmark study in the field of volcanic landslides , establishing the principle that tall volcanoes have a tendency to collapse . The study garnered praise for its unique conclusions and attention to detail , inspiring volcanologists to identify similar deposit mounds at volcanoes around the world . After the findings from his dissertation were published in several shorter articles throughout the 1980s , Glicken earned recognition as the first geologist to explain the creation of hummock fields near tall volcanoes .
= = = Research after St. Helens and death = = =
In the years following the eruption , despite earning rapid fame and opportunities to research internationally in Japan , New Zealand , and Guadeloupe , Glicken still failed to obtain a job at USGS . Senior employees at the Survey found his behavioral oddities unsettling . Activity at Mount St. Helens diminished , prompting USGS to reduce CVO 's budget and contemplate closing the station . He continued helping the Survey until 1989 , also serving as an assistant researcher at the University of California at Santa Barbara .
From 1989 to 1991 , Glicken continued his volcanological studies in Japan as a postdoctoral fellow at the Earthquake Research Institute of the University of Tokyo , supported by grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation . Later , while a research professor and translator at Tokyo Metropolitan University , Glicken became involved with research at Mount Unzen . The volcano had recently resumed eruptive activity in November 1990 , after being dormant for 198 years . In the months after its first activity , it erupted sporadically , and the government evacuated its vicinity near the end of May 1991 . On June 2 , 1991 , Glicken visited the mountain with Katia and Maurice Krafft . The three entered a danger zone near the base of the volcano the following day , assuming that any potentially hazardous pyroclastic flows would follow a turn in the landscape and safely bypass them . Later that day , a lava dome collapsed , sending a large flow down the valley at 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . The current reached the turn before separating into two parts , and the upper , hotter part swiftly overcame the volcanologists ' post , killing them upon impact . In total , 41 or 42 people died in the incident , including press members who had been watching the volcanologists . The volcano burned down 390 houses , and the remains of the flow extended 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) in length . Glicken 's remains were found four days later , and were cremated according to his parents ' wishes . To date , Glicken and Johnston are the only American volcanologists known to have been killed by a volcanic eruption .
= = = Posthumous report = = =
At the time of his death , Glicken had been seeking to publish his doctoral dissertation in one piece , having earlier published elements as shorter articles . He had already defined the criteria for debris avalanches on the slopes of volcanoes , and authored several publications on the subject ; Swanson named him one of the foremost experts in the field . After the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , research in the niche grew as more studies identified debris at well @-@ known volcanoes . His work on flows at Mount St. Helens is considered the most complete in the field to date . It was later published in 1996 as a single report by his acquaintances Carol Ostengren , John Costa , Dan Dzurisin , and Jon Major , among others , at the United States Geological Survey . In his preface to Glicken 's publication , Major comments that " the Mount St. Helens deposit will never be mapped in such detail again . "
Glicken 's report is titled " Rockslide @-@ debris Avalanche of May 18 , 1980 , Mount St. Helens Volcano , Washington " . It comprises his extensive laboratory and field work , supplemented by photographs of the eruption , writings that describe St. Helens before the eruption , and references to previous publications , including Voight 's work . In the report , Glicken constructed a map of the landslide deposit at a scale of 1 : 24000 , followed by a lithogic map describing rock varieties at a scale of 1 : 12000 . The report also provides a conclusion for the movement of each slide block , using photographs and other data to estimate the velocity of each landslide , describing the composition of each , and recounting the interactions between blocks .
= = Tributes and legacy = =
Despite their appreciation of his work , many of Glicken 's associates considered him eccentric and highly disorganized . Chatty , noted for being extremely sensitive , and often considered a " nut " by his peers , Glicken also paid meticulous attention to detail . One of his friends writes , " Harry was a character his whole life . ... Everyone who knew him was amazed he was such a good scientist . " Regarding Glicken 's driving habits , the same acquaintance describes him as " a cartoon character " who " would drive at full speed down the road , talking about whatever was important to him , and ... come to a four @-@ way stoplight and he 'd sail through it , never knowing he 'd just gone through " .
Glicken 's father said in 1991 that his son died pursuing his passion , and that he was " totally absorbed " with volcanology . United States Geological Survey co @-@ worker Don Peterson adds that Glicken was keen in his enthusiastic approach to observation , and praises his accomplishments throughout his career and as a graduate student . Speaking about Glicken 's personal passion for his field , his mentor and professor Richard V. Fisher writes , " What happened at St. Helens is something that troubled [ Glicken ] deeply for a very long time , and , in a way , I think it made him even more dedicated than he was before . " Associate Robin Holcomb remarks that " Harry was very enthusiastic , very bright , and very ambitious , ambitious to do something worthwhile on volcanoes . " Many studies have utilized Glicken 's criteria for volcanic landslide recognition , and many subsequent papers on avalanches have acknowledged or referenced Glicken 's 1996 report . Reflecting on Glicken 's body of work , USGS employee Don Swanson names him as " a world leader in studies of volcanic debris avalanches " .
Glicken was closely connected to the University of California , Santa Barbara , where he earned his doctorate and conducted research . To remember his association with the university , each year the Department of Earth Science awards an outstanding graduate geology student the " Harry Glicken Memorial Graduate Fellowship " , established by the Harry Glicken Fund , which aims to support students " who will pursue research relating to the understanding of volcanic processes " .
= = Selected publications = =
Most of Glicken 's published work centers around the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . He also coauthored works with other volcanologists that focused on debris avalanches . Colleague Jon Major writes that " The full scope of Harry 's work ... has never been published . "
" The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens , Washington . USGS Professional Paper No. 1250 " . United States Geological Survey . 1981 : pgs . 347 – 377 .
" The effects of ground water , slope stability , and seismic hazards on the stability of the South Fork Castle Creek blockage in the Mount St. Helens area , Washington . USGS Professional Paper No. 1345 " . United States Geological Survey . 1981 .
" The effects of ground water , slope stability , and seismic hazard on the stability of the South Fork Castle Creek blockage in the Mount St. Helens area , Washington . USGS Open File No. 84 – 624 " . United States Geological Survey . 1984 .
" Geology and ground @-@ water hydrology of Spirit Lake blockage , Mount St. Helens , Washington , with implications for lake retention . USGS Bulletin No. 1789 " . United States Geological Survey . 1989 .
" Rockslide @-@ debris avalanche of May 18 , 1980 , Mount St. Helens Volcano , Washington . USGS Open File No. 96 @-@ 677 " . United States Geological Survey . 1996 .
= Progressive rock =
Progressive rock ( first known as progressive pop , later prog rock , prog , and sometimes art rock ) is a rock music subgenre that originated in the United Kingdom and United States throughout the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1960s . It developed from psychedelic rock , and began as an attempt to give greater artistic weight and credibility to rock music . Songs were replaced by musical suites that often stretched to 20 or 40 minutes in length and contained symphonic influences , extended musical themes , fantasy @-@ like ambience and lyrics , and complex orchestrations .
The style was an outgrowth of retrospectively termed " proto @-@ prog " bands who abandoned the short pop single in favor of instrumentation and compositional techniques more frequently associated with jazz or classical music as part of an effort to give rock music the same level of musical sophistication and critical respect . It saw a high level of popularity throughout the 1970s , especially in the middle of the decade , but faded soon after . Conventional wisdom holds that the rise of punk rock caused this , although in reality a number of factors contributed to the decline . Music critics , who often labeled the concepts as " pretentious " and the sounds as " pompous " and " overblown , " tended to be hostile toward the genre or to completely ignore it . Some bands achieved commercial success well into the 1980s , albeit with changed lineups and more compact song structures .
Most of the prominent bands from the genre 's 1970s heyday fall into the " symphonic prog " category , in which classical orchestrations and compositional techniques are melded with rock music . Other subgenres exist , including the more accessible neo @-@ progressive rock of the 1980s , the jazz @-@ influenced Canterbury sound of the 1960s and 1970s , and the more political and experimental Rock in Opposition movement of the late 1970s and onward . Progressive rock has influenced genres such as krautrock and post @-@ punk , and it has fused with other forms of rock music to create subgenres , such as progressive metal . A revival , often known as new prog , occurred at the turn of the 21st century and has since enjoyed a cult following .
= = Characteristics = =
Progressive rock originally referred to progressive pop or " classical rock " in which a band performed together with an orchestra , but the term 's use broadened over time to include Miles Davis @-@ style jazz fusion , some metal and folk rock styles , and experimental German bands . It does not refer to a single style but to an approach that combines elements of diverse styles . Jerry Ewing , editor of Prog Magazine , explains that " Prog is not just a sound , it 's a mindset , " and Dream Theater guitarist John Petrucci points out that it is defined by its very lack of stylistic boundaries . The advent of the concept album and the genre 's roots in psychedelia led albums and performances to be viewed as combined presentations of music , lyrics , and visuals .
Bands abandoned the short pop single in favor of instrumentation and compositional techniques more frequently associated with jazz or classical music as part of an effort to give rock music the same level of musical sophistication and critical respect . Progressive rock abandons the danceable beat that defines earlier rock styles and is more likely than other types of popular music to experiment with compositional structure , instrumentation , harmony and rhythm , and lyrical content . It may demand more effort on the part of the listener than other types of music .
Musicians in progressive rock typically display a high degree of instrumental skill , although this is not always the case . Virtuoso instrumental skills are so closely associated with progressive rock that authors such as Bill Martin consider it as a defining element and exclude bands such as Pink Floyd from consideration . It is not uncommon for musicians to have received a higher @-@ than @-@ average level of formal training . Players from the genre frequently appear in readers ' polls of publications that cater to musicians .
= = = Musical aspects = = =
= = = = Form = = = =
Progressive rock songs often avoid common popular music song structures of verse / chorus form , and their extended lengths allow complex themes that cannot be fully developed within the span of a three @-@ minute single . Musical forms are blurred through the use of extended sections and of musical interludes that bridge separate sections together , which results in classical @-@ style suites . These large @-@ scale compositions are similar to medleys , but there is typically more thematic unity between the sections . Transitions between electric and acoustic sections provide dynamic contrast . Extended instrumental passages often mix composed , classical @-@ style sections with group improvisation . These sections emphasize group virtuosity rather than individual skill , and they are a break from other pop forms in which a single , dominant singer or soloist is accompanied by a band .
These extended pieces are usually considered to be the result of experimentation with classical music forms , although an alternative viewpoint holds that they are explorations of the complexities possible within the popular music format . Many bands did , however , use compositional techniques borrowed from classical music . Elements of classical music are sometimes borrowed for the cultural significance they carry .
= = = = Instrumentation = = = =
= = = = = Traditional = = = = =
Early progressive rock groups expanded the timbral palette of the then @-@ traditional rock instrumentation of guitar , keyboard , bass guitar , and drums by adding instruments more typical of folk music , jazz or music in the classical tradition . A number of bands , especially at the genre 's onset , recorded albums in which they performed together with a full orchestra .
Progressive rock bands often use instruments in ways different from their traditional roles . The role of the bass may be expanded from its traditional rhythm section function into that of a lead instrument . Bassists often play contrapuntal lines that are more independent and melodic than conventional bass lines , which emphasize the chord root . This is often accompanied by the use of an instrument such as a Rickenbacker bass , whose sound contains an unusually large amount of treble frequencies . Some bassists use the Chapman Stick , which is operated with both hands on the fretboard and allows polyrhythmic and chordal playing . Treble may be emphasized by the choice of strings , by playing with a pick , and by use of the instrument 's higher registers . Drum kits are frequently expanded with orchestral percussion such as timpani and gongs . Acoustic guitar becomes more prominent and often appears as interludes played in the classical style of Andrés Segovia . Piano is played in a style derived from the classical piano repertoire rather than from the blues or boogie @-@ woogie styles previously in use . Guitar may be dispensed with altogether , and traditional rhythm guitar is almost never used , as chordal backgrounds are typically played on a keyboard instrument such as the Hammond organ .
= = = = = Electronic = = = = =
In the 1960s , it was impractical to work together with an orchestra on a regular basis . As a substitute , the Mellotron is a keyboard instrument that contains tape @-@ recordings of individual notes of various instruments and voices , and plays back their sounds as the keyboard is pressed . Its sounds included woodwinds , choirs , brass and , perhaps most famously , strings . The technology available meant that its sounds were not exact reproductions of the instruments , but instead had a haunting quality that many bands prized .
The Hammond organ is another instrument closely associated with progressive rock . It is a versatile instrument that can function like a pipe organ , can be played through a guitar amplifier for a distorted tone , is capable of sustained notes and rapid melodic runs , and can make percussive sounds . The ability to adjust its timbre while a note is held and its capabilities of vibrato and , when a rotating Leslie speaker is used , tremolo , make it a very expressive lead instrument . The use of organs and choirs reflects the background in Anglican church music shared by many of the genre 's founders . Various other electronic and electro @-@ mechanical keyboard instruments were in common use .
The birth of progressive rock roughly coincided with the commercial availability of synthesizers . Early modular synthesizers were large instruments that used patch cords to route the signal flow . Programming the instruments meant placing the patch cords to connect the individual modules . The Minimoog , a smaller , simplified synthesizer that needed no patch cords , began production in 1971 and provided keyboardists with a more @-@ easily programmed instrument that could imitate other instruments , could create new sounds of its own , and was highly portable and affordable . Progressive rock was the genre in which the synthesizer first became established as a common part of popular music . Synthesizers could be used to play the rapid , virtuosic lines that changed the perception of keyboard instruments .
The reliance on the use of multiple keyboard sounds meant that some keyboardists appeared onstage surrounded by ten or more keyboards . Modern digital synthesizers and samplers have reduced the need for huge keyboard stacks , as they typically allow sounds to be layered or for one keyboard to trigger another 's sounds through a MIDI connection . They also provide a reliable alternative to instruments such as Mellotrons , whose delicate mechanical apparatus is prone to breakdowns , and are much more portable than bulky instruments such as the Hammond organ . Digital synthesizers are also suitable chordal instruments , unlike early analog synthesizers such as the Minimoog , Moog Taurus and ARP Odyssey , which could play only one note at a time and so were mainly suitable for drones , basslines and lead playing .
The concept of the studio as an instrument led certain audio effects units to become identified with progressive rock . Progressive rock guitarists showed a distinct preference for Hiwatt amplifiers . Advancements in recording technology were key in enabling the production of progressive rock albums . As multitrack recording with as many as 64 separate tracks became available , bands took advantage of the additional tracks and created increasingly dense arrangements .
= = = = Rhythm , melody and harmony = = = =
There is a tendency towards greater freedom of rhythm than exists in other forms of rock music . Progressive rock artists are more likely to explore complex time signatures such as 5 / 8 and 7 / 8 . Tempo , key and time signature changes are common within progressive rock compositions . Complex time signatures are sometimes used to create a polyrhythmic effect . Progressive rock often discards the blues inflections and pentatonic scale @-@ based melodies of mainstream rock in favor of modal melodies . Compositions draw inspiration from a wide range of genres including classical , jazz , folk music and world music . Melodies are more likely to comprise longer , developing passages than short , catchy ones .
Chords are typically standard triads , although many keyboardists would alter these triads by playing a nonchord tone in the bass . Chord changes are typically based on modes , as is typical of rock music , and deviate significantly from the tonality of music from the classical era . Unexpected chord changes in the style of impressionist composers like Claude Debussy are common .
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
Progressive rock lyrics tend to avoid common rock and pop subjects such as love and dancing . Bands also avoid such youth @-@ oriented themes as violence , nihilism , rebellion , and the macabre . Sex is not a common subject . Themes found in classical literature , fantasy and folklore occur frequently , and intellectual topics such as psychological theories may be addressed . Romantic poetry and J. R. R. Tolkien are frequent sources of inspiration .
Medievalism and science fiction themes are common and often appear as metaphors for spiritual transformation and the quest for an ideal society . Many early lyrics express utopian themes that reflect the genre 's origins in psychedelic rock and address the subject of spiritual transformation . Spiritual and religious themes are common . Monty Python and Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band @-@ influenced humour appears in some progressive rock lyrics . This is especially pronounced in the more eccentric , Dadaistic approach adopted by some of the Canterbury bands . Several groups valued lyrics so strongly as to employ a lyricist as a full @-@ time band member .
Social commentary is frequently present . Many progressive rock bands were strongly rooted in British folk music , and this resulted in a tendency toward pastoralism in the lyrics . As social and economic problems increased in Britain within the 1970s , many artists gravitated away from pastoralism and ecology at varying degrees , with temporary to near @-@ permanent shifts towards modernism , contemporary political satire , and realism . Awareness of nature sometimes combined with social criticism to produce lyrics that expressed concern over the ecology . Ecological themes were sometimes carried out to an extent that even genre fans found embarrassing , and they were frequently satirized by Frank Zappa as naive .
= = = = Concept albums = = = =
The late 1960s and early 1970s saw a general trend among rock and pop artists toward albums in which many or all of the songs shared a common theme . This tendency was especially pronounced in progressive rock . Experimentation with expanded musical forms contributed to this , as songs that were more or less thematically related were often combined into suites made up of several movements .
These extended pieces carry on in the Romantic @-@ era tradition of program music , which is intended to tell a story , and they often are inspired by works of literature . Story arcs are sometimes spread out over several albums . The advent of multi @-@ part suites that occupy an entire LP side roughly coincided with the rise of FM radio and its practice of playing albums , or album sides , in their entirety . Some bands stretched the format beyond their audiences ' capacity to tolerate .
= = = Visual aspects = = =
= = = = Stage presentation = = = =
Some bands had elaborate stage presentations . Some acts indulged in pure showmanship . Progressive rock visual styles sometimes extended to the stage sets . This enthusiasm for showmanship was not shared by all progressive rock bands .
= = = = Album art = = = =
Album covers prior to the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band usually consisted of a photograph of the group , but the trend toward concept albums was accompanied by a move toward artwork that depicted the album 's concept . This artwork often contains science fiction and fantasy motifs executed in a surrealist style .
A number of artists became closely associated with the genre . Artwork was sometimes commissioned from artists who were famous in their own right . This combination of music and artwork is intended to function as a total work of art , which is a further use of concepts borrowed from high culture . The practice of connecting an album 's artwork to its concept still exists , but its effectiveness is limited by the smaller display area used by compact discs and mobile devices .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
When it emerged , progressive rock music was called progressive pop . Upon release , the Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds ( 1966 ) was called " the most progressive pop album ever " by British newspapers . Later , some would retroactively characterize the term as a milder form of progressive rock . Bob Dylan 's poetry , the Mothers of Invention 's album Freak Out ! ( 1966 ) , and the Beatles ' album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , have all been mentioned as important in progressive rock 's development . The productions of Phil Spector were key influences , as they introduced the possibility of using the recording studio to create music that otherwise could never be achieved . The same is said for Pet Sounds , which itself influenced Sgt. Pepper 's .
Bob Dylan introduced a literary element to rock through his fascination with the Surrealists and the French Symbolists and his immersion in the New York City art scene of the early 1960s . The trend of bands with names drawn from literature , such as the Doors , Steppenwolf and the Ides of March , were a further sign of rock music aligning itself with high culture . Literary concepts such as Nietzsche and the Apollonian and Dionysian dichotomy were referenced by Doors singer Jim Morrison . Dylan also led the way in blending rock with folk music styles . This was followed by folk rock groups such as the Byrds , who based their initial sound on the work of Brian Wilson . In turn , the Byrds ' vocal harmonies inspired those of Yes , and British electric folk bands such Fairport Convention , who emphasized instrumental virtuosity . Some of these artists , such as the Incredible String Band and Shirley and Dolly Collins , would prove influential through their use of instruments borrowed from world music and early music .
= = = = Pet Sounds and Sgt. Pepper 's = = = =
Pet Sounds and Sgt. Pepper 's , with their lyrical unity , extended structure , complexity , eclecticism , experimentalism , and influences derived from classical music forms , is largely viewed as beginnings in the progressive rock genre and as turning points wherein rock , which previously had been considered dance music , became music that was made for listening
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to Saumarez until Caesar was paid off at Portsmouth on 23 July 1802 . Saumarez then requested Downman to serve as his flag @-@ captain aboard the 50 @-@ gun HMS Diomede on the Guernsey station , where he spent the next 14 months . In November 1805 he took command of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Diadem , flying the broad pennant of Commodore Sir Home Popham . He was supported the operations under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir David Baird to capture the Cape Colony , and landed in Table Bay at the head of a party of marines and two howitzers . He was sent home with the despatches announcing the capture of the colony , after which he was sent out to the Rio de la Plata , where he resumed command of his old ship , Diomede . Downman supported the British assaults , and was present at the capture of Montevideo . After this he returned home , carrying General William Beresford . Diomede was paid off in September 1807 , and Downman went ashore .
= = = Prison ships and Princess Charlotte = = =
Downman 's next appointment was to superintend the prison ships moored at Portsmouth , a task he carried out until January 1811 , when he was given another seagoing command , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Princess Carolina and attached to the fleet in the North Sea . He took part in the destruction of the 40 @-@ gun French frigate Amazone off Cape Barfleur , conveyed a fleet of East Indiamen to Madeira and carried out cruises in the North Sea . In November 1813 he landed marines at Scheveningen in support of the Prince of Orange , and went on to visit Spitsbergen . Princess Carolina was paid off in 1814 and Downman spent the next ten years with no active service .
= = Later years , family and legacy = =
Downman briefly returned to active service in 1824 , taking command of the 74 @-@ gun HMS Windsor Castle . He commanded her until being promoted to flag rank in May 1825 . He was advanced to vice @-@ admiral in 1837 and a full admiral in 1847 . From 1851 he received a service pension of £ 150 a year . On 4 January 1858 , he died at his seat in Hambledon , Hampshire .
Downman married Dorothea Palmer , the youngest daughter of Peter Palmer of Portsmouth on 23 June 1803 . The couple had a son , the Reverend Hugh Downman , and two daughters , Dorothea Frances and Caroline . Caroline married Edward Hale and had two sons , Henry George Hale who joined the navy , and William Godfrey Hale , who joined the army . Henry Hale distinguished himself in the Baltic campaign during the Crimean War and was twice mentioned in despatches by Vice @-@ Admiral Richard Saunders Dundas . Lieutenant @-@ General T. Downman , superintendent at Woolwich , was a first @-@ cousin of Admiral Hugh Downman .
Politically Downman was an ardent supporter of Whig Charles James Fox and opposed the Melvilles , Henry and his son Robert , who were for a number of years powerful at the Admiralty . Downman attributed this political interest as being the cause of his period of unemployment after having reached flag @-@ rank . He was described as a " strict disciplinarian , but an accomplished gentleman ; well @-@ read ... [ and ] temperate ... " Whilst serving in the Mediterranean he was apparently especially disliked by Emma Hamilton , with Downman 's obituary noting that " from this fact some slight judgement of his character may be formed . "
= Clifton Hall , Cumbria =
Clifton Hall was a fortified manor house in the Clifton , Cumbria , England . Dating from around 1400 , it was constructed by either Elianor Engaine or her son @-@ in @-@ law William Wybergh , and was held by the Wybergh family until the 19th century . Initially taking the form of an " H " -plan design built around a central hall , around 1500 a three @-@ story stone pele tower was added , providing both additional security and acting as a status symbol for the family . At the start of the 17th century a new stone hall was added to the south of the tower .
The Wyberghs were able to retain Clifton Hall , despite the challenges of the English Civil War , but the house was caught up in the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 . In the early 19th century most of Clifton Hall was pulled down to make way for a new farmhouse , and only the pele tower survived . In the 21st century the tower is in the care of English Heritage and operates as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =
Clifton Hall was originally built around 1400 in the village of Clifton , south of Penrith , Cumbria , by either Elianor Engaine or her son @-@ in @-@ law William Wybergh . The Engaines had held the manor of Clifton since at least the 12th century , providing military service to the regional feudal lords in exchange for the land , and may have built an earlier manor house on a different site , possibly close to the village church of St Cuthbert . Clifton Hall was initially constructed around an " H " -plan , with a central hall bracketed by two cross @-@ wings , one wing containing the family 's living accommodation , the other the kitchen and the other service rooms . This style was popular at this time across Cumbria , and indeed England more generally .
William Wybergh and his descendants owned and lived in Clifton Hall until the 19th century . Around 1500 , the three @-@ storey tower that survives today was built onto the western end of the range , replacing the existing buildings there . " H " -plan houses with towers were common during this period , but the towers were often added on subsequently ; the tower was probably constructed by Elianor 's grandson , another William Wybergh . The tower was probably built in response to the security situation along the troubled Anglo @-@ Scottish border at the time , but it would also have made a social statement about the status and wealth of the Wybergh family , and would have provided additional accommodation . A timber building was then built early in the 15th century to the south of the tower , probably to provide further chambers .
= = = 17th – 18th centuries = = =
At the start of the 17th century , possibly around 1600 , a new hall was built in stone to replace the older timber @-@ framed one ; it was positioned to the south , replacing the earlier 15th @-@ century extension . The new hall was slightly anachronistic , having only one floor , unlike most new halls from this period which had two storeys . The old hall was then probably adapted for use as a service area .
After this investment , the Wybergh family 's fortunes began to deteriorate . When the English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , Thomas Wybergh was a Royalist supporter and found himself on the losing side in the war . He was fined by Parliament as a Royalist " delinquent " in 1652 , and mortgaged the surrounding manor to Sir John Lowther for £ 846 , but not the hall itself or the lands immediately to the north . The mortgage led to a prolonged legal dispute , and in 1706 John 's grandson successfully claimed the mortgaged estates , in exchange for giving the Wybergh 's £ 400 .
Further work was done on the property in the early 18th century , providing an additional service room and bedrooms . The Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 impacted on the hall , which was close to the Scottish border . In 1715 , William Wybergh , the owner , was abducted by Scottish soldiers , and in 1745 , shortly before the Clifton Moor Skirmish , it was occupied and looted by the rebel forces .
= = = 19th – 21st centuries = = =
By the early 19th century , the medieval structure of the property had become quite limiting for the owners . The buildings on either side of the tower were then pulled down to allow for the construction of Hall Farm , including a more modern farm house ; only the tower survived to become an ancillary farm building . In 1973 the Lonsdale Estate , who owned Hall Farm , placed the tower into the guardianship of the Department of the Environment , who decided to open it to the public . An archaeological excavation of the site took place between 1977 and 1979 , making it one of only a handful of such sites in Cumbria to have been investigated in this way . In the 21st century the tower is in the care of English Heritage as a tourist attraction , and is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
The only surviving part of Clifton Hall is the early 16th @-@ century tower wing of the hall , often referred to as a pele tower . Despite this label , its construction date is relatively late compared to similar fortifications , and it is less robustly designed than equivalent towers in the region .
The tower measures 33 ft ( 10 m ) by 26 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , with red sandstone walls around 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick and 37 ft ( 11 m ) high . The ground floor was originally the parlour , with a carved wooden ceiling and a fireplace , with doors leading externally and into the hall . Originally , the stairs did not reach down to the ground floor . The first floor formed the principal chamber in the tower , accessed from stairs in the hall ; it had a fireplace , a garderobe and its walls would have been plastered and painted , with wood panelling . Stairs led up to the second floor , again equipped with a fireplace and wood panelling , and up onto the roof .
Few of the original windows survive in the tower , but those that remain are larger than in some of the other older peles , suggesting it may have been built with defence less in mind than in some earlier pele towers . The originals have mainly been replaced by 17th- and 18th @-@ century versions . The original roof would have resembled that at nearby Yanwath Hall , but was replaced at a later date with the current hipped @-@ roof design , probably during the late 16th or 17th centuries . The current roof was further restored in 1979 .
= Barn swallow =
The barn swallow ( Hirundo rustica ) is the most widespread species of swallow in the world . It is a distinctive passerine bird with blue upperparts , a long , deeply forked tail and curved , pointed wings . It is found in Europe , Asia , Africa and the Americas . In Anglophone Europe it is just called the swallow ; in Northern Europe it is the only common species called a " swallow " rather than a " martin " .
There are six subspecies of barn swallow , which breed across the Northern Hemisphere . Four are strongly migratory , and their wintering grounds cover much of the Southern Hemisphere as far south as central Argentina , the Cape Province of South Africa , and northern Australia . Its huge range means that the barn swallow is not endangered , although there may be local population declines due to specific threats .
The barn swallow is a bird of open country that normally uses man @-@ made structures to breed and consequently has spread with human expansion . It builds a cup nest from mud pellets in barns or similar structures and feeds on insects caught in flight . This species lives in close association with humans , and its insect @-@ eating habits mean that it is tolerated by man ; this acceptance was reinforced in the past by superstitions regarding the bird and its nest . There are frequent cultural references to the barn swallow in literary and religious works due to both its living in close proximity to humans and its annual migration . The barn swallow is the national bird of Austria and Estonia .
= = Description = =
The adult male barn swallow of the nominate subspecies H. r. rustica is 17 – 19 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) long including 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 2 @.@ 76 in ) of elongated outer tail feathers . It has a wingspan of 32 – 34 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 6 in ) and weighs 16 – 22 g ( 0 @.@ 56 – 0 @.@ 78 oz ) . It has steel blue upperparts and a rufous forehead , chin and throat , which are separated from the off @-@ white underparts by a broad dark blue breast band . The outer tail feathers are elongated , giving the distinctive deeply forked " swallow tail " . There is a line of white spots across the outer end of the upper tail . The female is similar in appearance to the male , but the tail streamers are shorter , the blue of the upperparts and breast band is less glossy , and the underparts paler . The juvenile is browner and has a paler rufous face and whiter underparts . It also lacks the long tail streamers of the adult .
The song of the barn swallow is a cheerful warble , often ending with su @-@ seer with the second note higher than the first but falling in pitch . Calls include witt or witt @-@ witt and a loud splee @-@ plink when excited ( or trying to chase intruders away from the nest ) . The alarm calls include a sharp siflitt for predators like cats and a flitt @-@ flitt for birds of prey like the hobby . This species is fairly quiet on the wintering grounds .
The distinctive combination of a red face and blue breast band render the adult barn swallow easy to distinguish from the African Hirundo species and from the welcome swallow ( Hirundo neoxena ) with which its range overlaps in Australasia . In Africa the short tail streamers of the juvenile barn swallow invite confusion with juvenile red @-@ chested swallow ( Hirundo lucida ) , but the latter has a narrower breast band and more white in the tail .
= = Taxonomy = =
The barn swallow was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Hirundo rustica , characterised as H. rectricibus , exceptis duabus intermediis , macula alba notatîs . Hirundo is the Latin word for " swallow " ; rusticus means " of the country " . This species is the only one of that genus to have a range extending into the Americas , with the majority of Hirundo species being native to Africa . This genus of blue @-@ backed swallows is sometimes called the " barn swallows " .
The Oxford English Dictionary dates the English common name " barn swallow " to 1851 , though an earlier instance of the collocation in an English @-@ language context is in Gilbert White 's popular book The Natural History of Selborne , originally published in 1789 :
The swallow , though called the chimney @-@ swallow , by no means builds altogether in chimnies [ sic ] , but often within barns and out @-@ houses against the rafters ... In Sweden she builds in barns , and is called ladusvala , the barn @-@ swallow .
This suggests that the English name may be a calque on the Swedish term .
There are few taxonomic problems within the genus , but the red @-@ chested swallow — a resident of West Africa , the Congo basin and Ethiopia — was formerly treated as a subspecies of barn swallow . The red @-@ chested swallow is slightly smaller than its migratory relative , has a narrower blue breast @-@ band , and the adult has shorter tail streamers . In flight , it looks paler underneath than barn swallow .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Six subspecies of barn swallow are generally recognized . In eastern Asia , a number of additional or alternative forms have been proposed , including saturata by Robert Ridgway in 1883 , kamtschatica by Benedykt Dybowski in 1883 , ambigua by Erwin Stresemann and mandschurica by Wilhelm Meise in 1934 . Given the uncertainties over the validity of these forms , this article follows the treatment of Turner and Rose .
H. r. rustica , the nominate European subspecies , breeds in Europe and Asia , as far north as the Arctic Circle , south to North Africa , the Middle East and Sikkim , and east to the Yenisei River . It migrates on a broad front to winter in Africa , Arabia , and the Indian subcontinent . The barn swallows wintering in southern Africa are from across Eurasia to at least 91 ° E , and have been recorded as covering up to 11 @,@ 660 km ( 7 @,@ 250 mi ) on their annual migration .
H. r. transitiva was described by Ernst Hartert in 1910 . It breeds in the Middle East from southern Turkey to Israel and is partially resident , though some birds winter in East Africa . It has orange red underparts and a broken breast band .
H. r. savignii , the resident Egyptian subspecies , was described by James Stephens in 1817 and named for French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny . It resembles transitiva , which also has orange @-@ red underparts , but savignii has a complete broad breast band and deeper red hue to the underparts .
H. r. gutturalis , described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1786 , has whitish underparts and a broken breast band . Breast chestnut and lower underparts more pink @-@ buff . The populations that breed in the central and eastern Himalayas have been included in this subspecies , although the primary breeding range is Japan and Korea . The east Asian breeders winter across tropical Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and New Guinea . Increasing numbers are wintering in Australia . It hybridises with H. r. tytleri in the Amur River area . It is thought that the two eastern Asia forms were once geographically separate , but the nest sites provided by expanding human habitation allowed the ranges to overlap . H. r. gutturalis is a vagrant to Alaska and Washington , but is easily distinguished from the North American breeding subspecies , H. r. erythrogaster , by the latter 's reddish underparts .
H. r. tytleri , first described by Thomas Jerdon in 1864 , and named for British soldier , natural
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his first two goals in his third , a 7 – 2 victory over the Edmonton Oilers .
Four players were chosen to represent the Flames at the 40th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game in Edmonton . Mike Vernon was the winning goaltender in the Campbell Conference 's 9 – 5 victory , while forwards Joe Mullen and Joe Nieuwendyk , and defenceman Gary Suter also played in the Game .
Co @-@ captain Lanny McDonald , a veteran of 16 NHL seasons , reached two of the league 's most important milestones late in the season . He scored a goal against Bob Essensa of the Winnipeg Jets on March 7 to score the 1,000th point of his NHL career . Two weeks later , on March 21 , McDonald scored his 500th goal against Mark Fitzpatrick in a 4 – 1 victory over the New York Islanders in Calgary .
On the same night that McDonald scored his 500th , Joe Nieuwendyk scored his 50th goal of the season , becoming the third player in NHL history after Mike Bossy and Wayne Gretzky to reach the 50 @-@ goal mark in his first two seasons . Nieuwendyk scored his 100th career goal in just his 144th game . He reached the milestone in the third fewest games in league history , behind Mike Bossy ( 129 games ) and Maurice Richard ( 134 games ) .
Joe Mullen also topped 50 goals for the Flames . He finished seventh in league scoring with 110 points , and broke Jimmy Carson 's NHL record for most points in a season by an American @-@ born player .
The Flames made NHL history when they successfully completed a deal with the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation that allowed 25 @-@ year @-@ old forward Sergei Pryakhin to become the first Soviet player permitted by his native federation to play in the NHL . Pryakhin made his debut on March 31 in a game against the Winnipeg Jets .
The Flames finished the season with 54 wins , a franchise record , and became the fifth team in NHL history to win 50 games in a season after the Montreal Canadiens , Boston Bruins , Philadelphia Flyers and Edmonton Oilers . Calgary was nearly unbeatable on home ice , winning 34 of 40 games , and losing just four . They won their second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy as the top regular season team in the NHL .
The Flames finished first in the League in penalty @-@ killing percentage , with 82 @.@ 93 % .
= = = Season standings = = =
Note : GP
= Games played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , Pts
= Points , GF =
Goals for , GA = Goals against
Note : Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold .
= = Schedule and results = =
= = Playoffs = =
Though they finished 43 points behind the Flames in the regular season , the Vancouver Canucks proved a significant challenge in the Smythe Division semifinal . Calgary produced an uninspired effort in the opening game that resulted in a 4 – 3 loss as former Flame Paul Reinhart scored the winner for Vancouver in overtime . The Flames rebounded with 5 – 2 and 4 – 0 victories , but the Canucks continued to battle . Vancouver won the fourth game and after losing the fifth , staved off elimination with a 6 – 3 victory in game six , setting up a seventh and deciding game .
The seventh game went to overtime , tied 3 – 3 , and the extra period was dominated by fast offensive rushes as both teams sought to end the series . Both goaltenders were forced to make spectacular saves , highlighted by Mike Vernon 's glove save to stop Vancouver 's Stan Smyl on a breakaway . That save was a defining moment of Vernon 's career , and has since been called " the save that won the Cup " . With less than a minute remaining in the first overtime period , Jim Peplinski fired a wide @-@ angle shot towards the Vancouver goal that deflected off Joel Otto 's skate and into the net , winning the game and series for the Flames .
Calgary faced Wayne Gretzky and the Los Angeles Kings in the Smythe Division final . The Flames won the series in four straight , holding the highest scoring team in the league to 11 goals for the series . The Smythe final was most remembered for a controversial goal the Flames scored in the second game at Calgary . Vernon was knocked down in his crease by the Kings ' Bernie Nicholls , and believing the goaltender was injured , Flames ' trainer Bearcat Murray jumped onto the ice to tend to the fallen player as the Flames rushed the puck into the Los Angeles zone . Al MacInnis scored on the play as the Kings vehemently protested the goal should have been disallowed because Murray was on the ice . The goal stood and ended up the winning goal in an 8 – 3 victory .
The Chicago Blackhawks were the Flames ' opponents in the Campbell Conference final . The Flames won the series with relative ease , dropping only a 4 – 2 decision in the second game en route to a five @-@ game series victory . Calgary won their second Clarence S. Campbell Bowl in franchise history as conference champions , and advanced to the Stanley Cup championship to face the Montreal Canadiens in a rematch of the 1986 final .
The final opened in Calgary where the Flames emerged with a 3 – 2 win on the strength of two Al MacInnis goals before Montreal evened the series with a 4 – 2 victory in game two . The third game , in Montreal , went to overtime with the score tied 3 – 3 . Late in the second extra period , Calgary 's Mark Hunter was penalized for boarding , allowing Montreal to win the game at 38 : 08 of overtime . The penalty call was controversial , and members of the press spent the following days arguing the legitimacy of the call .
The Flames entered the pivotal fourth game believing it was key to maintaining their chances of winning the title . Colin Patterson referred to it as being a " do @-@ or @-@ you 're @-@ gonna @-@ die game " . Calgary emerged with a 4 – 2 victory to even the series at two wins apiece heading back home for game five . The Flames rushed out to a 3 – 1 first period lead in the fifth game , and though Montreal scored in the second period to close within one goal , Vernon prevented Montreal from tying the game , and the Flames took a 3 – 2 series lead .
For the sixth game , coach Terry Crisp added 36 @-@ year @-@ old Lanny McDonald to the lineup after sitting him out the previous three games . The veteran forward was the sentimental favourite to win the Cup , and Crisp wanted to give him the opportunity to win the title on the ice . The move paid dividends as after serving a penalty in the second period , McDonald stepped out of the penalty box and joined the rush where he took a pass from Joe Nieuwendyk and shot it over Montreal goaltender Patrick Roy to give the Flames a 2 – 1 lead . Doug Gilmour added two third period goals , including the eventual winner , as the Flames won the Stanley Cup by a 4 – 2 score . In doing so , they became the only team to ever defeat the Canadiens on Montreal Forum ice to win the championship .
Al MacInnis was named the Conn Smythe Trophy winner as the most valuable player of the playoffs , and with 31 points became the first defenceman to lead the league in post @-@ season scoring . He finished with a 17 @-@ game scoring streak , the longest by a defenceman in NHL history .
Lanny McDonald announced his retirement on August 28 , 1989 , ending his career with the Stanley Cup championship . The Flames named him their Vice President in charge of corporate and community affairs . Three years later , McDonald was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Hakan Loob also ended his NHL career as a champion ; he had announced during the season that he intended to return to his home in Sweden at the end of the year .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : Pos
= Position ; GP =
Games played in ; G
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts
= Points ; PIM =
Penalty minutes ; + / -
= Plus / minus ; PPG =
Power @-@ play goals ; SHG
= Short @-@ handed goals ; GWG =
Game @-@ winning goals
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Calgary . Statistics reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : Min , TOI
= Minutes played ; W =
Wins ; L
= Losses ; T , T / OT =
Ties ; OTL
= Overtime losses ; GA =
Goals @-@ against ; GAA
= Goals @-@ against average ; SO =
Shutouts ; SA
= Shots against ; SV =
Shots saved ; SV % = Save percentage ;
= = Awards and honours = =
Joe Mullen had the best season of his NHL career , recording personal bests in goals ( 51 ) , assists ( 59 ) and points ( 110 ) , and led all players in the playoffs with 16 goals . As a result , Mullen won numerous post @-@ season awards . He won the Emery Edge Award for leading the league in plus @-@ minus at + 51 , and captured the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the league 's most gentlemanly player , earning only 16 penalties in minutes during the regular season . The Flames named him their winner of the Molson Cup for having the most three star selections on the team during the season , and he was named to the First All @-@ Star Team at centre by the league . Mike Vernon was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team at goal , and Al MacInnis on defence . In addition to winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs , MacInnis was named a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league 's top defenceman for the first time . Vernon was named a finalist for the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender .
Eight members of the team have subsequently gained induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Five players – Lanny McDonald ( 1991 ) , Joe Mullen ( 2000 ) , Al MacInnis ( 2007 ) , Joe Nieuwendyk ( 2011 ) and Doug Gilmour ( 2011 ) – were joined by General Manager Cliff Fletcher ( 2004 ) and two owners : Harley Hotchkiss ( 2006 ) and Doc Seaman ( 2011 ) .
= = Transactions = =
General Manager Cliff Fletcher made two trades in the days leading to the start of training camp . Mike Bullard , who scored 103 points for the Flames the season previous , feared that the team was set to trade him , but admitted that he was still shocked when Calgary sent him to the St. Louis Blues along with Craig Coxe and a prospect on September 5 , 1988 . In return , the Flames received four players led by Doug Gilmour and Mark Hunter . The Flames then sent oft @-@ injured defenceman Paul Reinhart to the Vancouver Canucks with Steve Bozek in exchange for a draft pick the following day . Calgary made the second deal to alleviate a glut of veteran players and to give young defencemen Brian Glynn and Dana Murzyn greater responsibility .
The Flames made one deal at the trade deadline , sending Shane Churla and Perry Berezan to the Minnesota North Stars for rugged winger Brian MacLellan and a draft pick . Calgary made the deal anticipating that MacLellan 's size would help the team compete with some of their larger opponents within the Smythe Division , and benefit the Flames ' power play .
= = = Trades = = =
= = = Subtractions = = =
= = Draft picks = =
The Flames entered the 1988 NHL Entry Draft with the 21st overall pick by virtue of finishing with the best record in the NHL the year previous . They hoped to make a trade to acquire a pick in the top ten as the team coveted Martin Gelinas and Teemu Selanne . When Los Angeles selected Gelinas seventh overall , the Flames tried to pry the eighth pick from Chicago , but balked at the Blackhawks ' demands . Chicago wanted Perry Berezan , another roster player and Calgary 's first round selection in return . The Flames retained their original pick , and selected goaltender Jason Muzzatti as their first pick . In total , the Flames made 12 selections .
Of note for the Flames was their 12th round pick , Sergei Pryakhin . The Soviet Ice Hockey Federation was expected to provide a list of players it would be willing to release to play in North America ahead of the draft , but that expectation failed to materialize . Several Soviet players were drafted regardless , including Pryakhin . General Manager Cliff Fletcher noted that Pryakhin had been dropped from the Soviet national team , and figured that decision could make him eligible to join the Flames . Fletcher was able to complete negotiations with Soviet officials for the player , and Pryakhin became the first Soviet player permitted to play in the NHL , making his debut in Calgary on March 31 , 1989 .
= Forgotten Realms =
Forgotten Realms is a campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game . Commonly referred to by players and game designers alike as " The Realms " , it was created by game designer Ed Greenwood around 1967 as a setting for his childhood stories . Several years later , Greenwood brought the setting to the D & D game as a series of magazine articles , and the first Realms game products were released in 1987 . Role @-@ playing game products have been produced for the setting ever since , as have various licensed products including sword and sorcery novels , role @-@ playing video game adaptations ( including the first massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game to use graphics ) , and comic books . The Forgotten Realms is one of the most popular D & D settings , largely due to the success of novels by authors such as R. A. Salvatore and numerous role @-@ playing video games , including Pool of Radiance ( 1988 ) , Baldur 's Gate ( 1998 ) , Icewind Dale ( 2000 ) and Neverwinter Nights ( 2002 ) .
Forgotten Realms is the name of a fantasy world setting , described as a world of strange lands , dangerous creatures , and mighty deities , where magic and supernatural phenomena are quite real . The premise is that , long ago , the Earth and the world of the Forgotten Realms were more closely connected . As time passed , the inhabitants of planet Earth have mostly forgotten about the existence of that other world – hence the term Forgotten Realms . On the original Forgotten Realms logo , which was used until 2000 , small runic letters read " Herein lie the lost lands " , an allusion to the connection between the two worlds .
= = The world = =
The focus of the Forgotten Realms setting is the continent of Faerûn , part of the fictional world of Abeir @-@ Toril , usually called simply Toril , an Earth @-@ like planet with many real @-@ world influences . Unlike Earth , the lands of the Forgotten Realms are not all ruled by the human race : the planet Toril is shared by humans , dwarves , elves , goblins , orcs , and other peoples and creatures . Technologically , the world of the Forgotten Realms is not nearly as advanced as that of Earth ; in this respect , it resembles the pre @-@ industrial Earth of the 13th or 14th century . However , the presence of magic provides an additional element of power to the societies . There are several nation states and many independent cities , with loose alliances being formed for defense or conquest . Trade is performed by ship or horse @-@ drawn vehicle , and manufacturing is based upon cottage industry .
= = = Geography = = =
Toril consists of several large continents , including Faerûn , the western part of a continent that was roughly modeled after the Eurasian continent on Earth . Faerûn was first detailed in the original Forgotten Realms Campaign Set , published in 1987 by TSR . The other continents include Kara @-@ Tur , Zakhara , Maztica , and other yet unspecified landmasses . Kara @-@ Tur , roughly corresponding to ancient East Asia , was later the focus of its own source book Kara @-@ Tur : The Eastern Realms , published in 1988 . There is also a vast subterranean world called the Underdark beneath the surface .
Various products detailing specific areas of Faerûn , such as the 2nd edition FR13 Anauroch ( 1991 ) , FR15 Gold and Glory ( 1992 ) , FR16 The Shining South ( 1993 ) , and FRS1 The Dalelands ( 1993 ) , have been released , and through these much of the continent has been heavily detailed and documented , creating a highly developed setting .
In early editions of the setting , The Realms shared a unified cosmology with various other campaign settings called the Great Wheel . In this way each of the Dungeons & Dragons campaign settings were linked together to form one interwoven world connected by various planes of existence . With the release of the 2001 Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting , the setting was given its own distinct and separate cosmological arrangement , with unique planes not explicitly connected to those of the other settings .
= = = Religion = = =
Religion plays a large part in the Forgotten Realms , with deities and their followers being an integral part of the world . They do not have a passive role , but in fact interact directly in mortal affairs , answer prayers , and have their own personal agendas . All deities must have worshipers to survive , and all mortals must worship a patron deity to secure a good afterlife . A huge number of diverse deities exist within several polytheistic pantheons ; a large number of supplements have documented many of them , some in more detail than others .
Much of the history of The Realms detailed in novels and source books concerns the actions of various deities and The Chosen ( mortal representatives with a portion of their deities ' power ) such as Elminster , Fzoul Chembryl , Midnight ( who later became the new embodiment of the goddess of magic , Mystra ) , and the Seven Sisters . Above all other deities is Ao , the Overlord . Ao does not sanction worshipers and distances himself from mortals . He is single @-@ handedly responsible for the Time of Troubles , or Godswar , as seen in The Avatar Trilogy .
= = = Characters = = =
The setting is the home of several iconic characters popularized by authors , including Elminster the wizard , who has appeared in several series of novels created by Greenwood himself , and Drizzt Do 'Urden , the highly popular Drow , or dark elf , ranger created by R. A. Salvatore .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Ed Greenwood began writing stories about the Forgotten Realms as a child , starting around 1967 ; they were his " dream space for swords and sorcery stories " . Greenwood came up with the Forgotten Realms name from the notion of a multiverse of parallel worlds ; Earth is one such world , and the Realms another . In Greenwood 's original conception , the fantastic legends of Earth derive from a fantasy world , the way to which has been lost . Greenwood discovered the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1975 , and became a serious role @-@ playing enthusiast with the first AD & D game releases in 1978 . The setting became the home of Greenwood 's personal campaign . Greenwood began a Realms campaign in the city of Waterdeep , then started another group known as the Knights of Myth Drannor in Shadowdale . Greenwood felt that his players ' thirst for detail made the Realms what it is : " They want it to seem real , and work on ‘ honest jobs ’ and personal activities , until the whole thing grows into far more than a casual campaign . Roleplaying always governs over rules , and the adventures seem to develop themselves . " Greenwood has stated that his own version of the Forgotten Realms , as run in his personal campaign , is much darker than published versions .
Beginning with the periodical 's 30th issue in 1979 , Greenwood published a series of short articles that detailed the setting in The Dragon magazine , the first of which was about a monster known as the curst . Greenwood wrote voluminous entries to Dragon magazine , using the Realms as a setting for his descriptions of magic items , monsters , and spells . In 1986 , the American game publishing company TSR began looking for a new campaign setting for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game , and assigned Jeff Grubb to find out more about the setting used by Greenwood as portrayed in his articles in Dragon . According to Greenwood , Grubb asked him " Do you just make this stuff up as you go , or do you really have a huge campaign world ? " ; Greenwood answered " yes " to both questions . TSR felt that the Forgotten Realms would be a more open @-@ ended setting than the epic Dragonlance setting , and chose the Realms as a ready @-@ made campaign setting upon deciding to publish AD & D 2nd Edition . Greenwood agreed to work on the project , and began working to get the Forgotten Realms officially published . Greenwood sent TSR a few dozen cardboard boxes stuffed with pencil notes and maps , and sold all rights to the Realms for a token fee . Greenwood noted that TSR altered his original conception of the Realms being a place that we could travel to from our world , " Concerns over possible lawsuits ( kids getting hurt while trying to ' find a gate ' ) led TSR to de @-@ emphasize this meaning " .
= = = Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 1st edition = = =
Although the Realms were yet to be an official campaign world , the module H1 : Bloodstone Pass , released in 1985 by TSR , is now considered to be a part of the Forgotten Realms , although it wasn 't until module H3 The Bloodstone Wars was released that Forgotten Realms became the official setting for the module series . The first official Forgotten Realms product was Douglas Niles 's Darkwalker on Moonshae , the first book in The Moonshae Trilogy , which predates the Forgotten Realms Campaign Set by one month .
The Campaign Set ( often referred to as the " Grey Box " ) was later released in 1987 as a boxed set of two source books ( Cyclopedia of the Realms and DM 's Sourcebook of the Realms ) and four large maps , designed by Greenwood in collaboration with author Jeff Grubb . The set introduced the campaign setting and explained how to use it , and reserved space on the map for SSI 's Gold Box computer role @-@ playing games set in the Forgotten Realms .
The Forgotten Realms became an instant hit . The compilation module Desert of Desolation was reworked to fit into the Forgotten Realms . The module N5 : Under Illefarn bears the Forgotten Realms logo on the cover , as do the two modules released in 1988 , H4 : The Throne of Bloodstone and I14 : Swords of the Iron Legion .
The Crystal Shard was released in 1988 , and was the first novel to feature the successful character Drizzt Do 'Urden , who has since appeared in more than seventeen subsequent novels , many of which have appeared on the New York Times Best Seller list . In 1988 , the first in a line of Forgotten Realms role @-@ playing video games , Pool of Radiance , was released by Strategic Simulations , Inc . The game was popular , winning the Origins Award for " Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 " . In 1992 , the game was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System .
Several supplements to the original boxed set were released under the first edition rules , including FR1 Waterdeep and the North and FR2 Moonshae in 1987 , and FR3 Empires of the Sands , FR4 The Magister , FR5 The Savage Frontier , FR6 Dreams of the Red Wizards , and REF5 Lords of Darkness in 1988 . Also in 1988 came the City System boxed set , containing several maps of the city of Waterdeep . Ruins of Adventure , a module based on the computer game Pool of Radiance , was released in 1988 .
The boxed set Kara @-@ Tur : The Eastern Realms was released in 1988 , giving details of the lands of Kara @-@ Tur which had previously appeared in the 1986 book Oriental Adventures , and were now officially placed in the Forgotten Realms world . The same year , the module OA5 : Mad Monkey vs. the Dragon Claw was released for the Kara @-@ Tur setting as a Forgotten Realms product .
In 1989 , DC Comics began publishing a series of Forgotten Realms comics written by Jeff Grubb . Each issue contained twenty @-@ six pages , illustrated primarily by Rags Morales and Dave Simons . Twenty @-@ five issues were published in total , with the last being released in 1991 . A fifty @-@ six page annual Forgotten Realms Comic Annual # 1 : Waterdhavian Nights , illustrated by various artists , was released in 1990 .
= = = Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition = = =
An eponymous module , based on the role @-@ playing video game Curse of the Azure Bonds , was released in 1989 , as was the The Avatar Trilogy series of novels , consisting of Shadowdale , Tantras , and Waterdeep that detailed the storyline which became known as the " Time of Troubles " . A series of module adaptations for these novels ( Shadowdale , Tantras , and Waterdeep ) were released in the same year , along with the Hall of Heroes accessory , detailing many of the major characters appearing in Forgotten Realms novels published up through that time . In early 1990 , the hardcover Forgotten Realms Adventures by Jeff Grubb and Ed Greenwood was released , which introduced the Realms setting to the second edition of the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game and detailed how the Time of Troubles had changed the setting . The RPGA used the Forgotten Realms city of Ravens Bluff as the setting for their first living campaign . Official RPGA support for this product line included the Living City modules series . A number of sub @-@ settings of the Forgotten Realms were briefly supported in the early 1990s . Three more modules were produced for the Kara @-@ Tur setting . The Horde : Barbarian Campaign Setting , released in 1990 , detailed The Hordelands , which also featured a series of three modules . The Maztica Campaign Set , released in 1991 , detailed the continent of Maztica .
The original gray boxed set received a revision in 1993 to update it to the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rules system , with the release of a new Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting boxed set , containing three books ( A Grand Tour of the Realms , Running the Realms , and Shadowdale ) and various " monster supplements " , with a new graphic look . Additional material for the setting was released steadily throughout the 1990s . Forgotten Realms novels , such as the Legacy of the Drow series , the first three books of The Elminster Series , and numerous anthologies were also released throughout the 1990s , which led to the setting being hailed as one of the most successful shared fantasy universes of the 19
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